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= E.V.O. : Search for Eden =
E.V.O. : Search for Eden , originally released in Japan as 46 Okunen Monogatari : Harukanaru Eden e ( 46億年物語 はるかなるエデンへ , " 4 @.@ 6 Billion Year Story : To Distant Eden " ) , is a side @-@ scrolling action video game developed by Almanic Corporation and published by Enix for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Released in 1992 for Japanese audiences , the game was later translated and released in North America in 1993 . Combining traditional platforming mechanics with experience and leveling mechanics originating from role playing games , E.V.O. involves the player navigating a creature through a number of side @-@ scrolling levels while undergoing bodily evolution to cope with ever @-@ changing environments . The game is heavily based on Almanic 's original title , 46 Okunen Monogatari : The Shinka Ron , released exclusively in Japan for the PC @-@ 9801 home computer in 1990 .
Spanning a period of over a billion years , the game 's story involves Gaia , daughter of the sun and mystical embodiment of the Earth , guiding the player through five distinct geological periods of the planet 's history . Beginning the game as a fish , the player must travel across the planet defeating enemies and gaining the strength to evolve into more powerful and complex organisms before eventually earning a chance to enter the paradise realm of Eden , becoming Gaia 's immortal partner . Crystals with the ability to influence evolution are laden throughout the player 's quest , with the mystery of their origin becoming a secondary factor to the main story .
= = Gameplay = =
E.V.O. is a side @-@ scrolling platformer action game where players must navigate a creature of their own design across a number of environments resembling Earth 's past . The game is divided into five distinct geological periods : the Cambrian Period and the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era ( " The World Before Land " ) from 500 million years ago to 450 million years ago , then the Carboniferous period ( " Early Creatures of Land " ) , the Mesozoic Era ( " Age of Dinosaurs " ) , the late Neogene period ( " Ice Age " ) , and finally the early Quaternary period ( " Early Man " ) . Each period has its own map screen , which is divided into various levels . While each era takes historical liberties with both its inhabitants and time frames , the player 's choices for evolution are dependent on the current era of play , ranging from aquatic bodies during the Age of Fish to mammalian physiology during the Age of Man . During the first two eras you are forced to gain a new body to progress , but once you reach the Age of Dinosaurs , a side quest will give you the option to remain as a reptile , or become a bird , gaining the ability of flight . As you enter the Ice Age as a bird or reptile , you are immediately given the option to become a mammal . You can finish the game as a reptile , bird , or mammal and the outcome is still the same , only the interaction dialogue is affected by your choices .
As the player progresses through each level , other organisms are encountered who must be confronted by biting , ramming them with horns , or jumping on them until they are defeated . Defeated enemies leave behind meat which the player can consume to grant them " evolution points " used towards upgrading specific body parts . The body of the character controlled by the player is divided into eight sections which can be upgraded by spending evolution points , making them stronger as well as changing their appearance . New abilities such as tail swings , greater jumping ability and increased movement speed can also be obtained through evolution .
During gameplay , the player will also encounter crystals that either display hints and tips , grant large amounts of Evolution Points or transform their character into a unique body for a limited time . As the player takes damage from enemy creatures , one may restore health at any time by either consuming the meat of their foes , eating nearby plant life , or by undergoing selective evolution . At the end of each level , the player must face a stronger boss character in order to progress , requiring much more effort to defeat than a typical foe . There is no game over mechanism , if the player 's character loses all their health points the player is revived by Gaia and sent back to the game 's map screen with a deduction of roughly half of their Evolution Points . The game utilizes a built @-@ in battery backup save system for storing game data . The player may record progress directly to the cartridge to be continued at another time , and store up to fifty previously created creatures using the game 's built @-@ in " Book of Life " feature . Creatures stored in this index have the option to be recalled at any time when the player encounters special crystals during the quest .
= = Story = =
E.V.O. tells a mythical saga of life 's evolution on Earth , with a subtext of a creation myth and polytheistic evolution . The player takes the role of one of many billions of lifeforms created by Gaia , the nurturing and benevolent daughter of Sol , the Sun . Among the creatures known as life , there is a competition to evolve , and the best lifeform will eventually be granted the privilege of entering the Garden of Eden and becoming the husband and partner of Gaia . As the game progresses , it soon becomes apparent some mysterious external force is interfering with evolution on Earth in a destructive manner . Strange crystals not native to Gaia appear across the planet , and creatures that eat the crystals are transformed into monstrously powerful beings that dominate all other lifeforms , overconsume resources and disrupt the flow of evolution . In each Age the player character is tasked with confronting the species transformed by the crystals and defeating them so that the evolution of life can continue as intended .
In the final Age , the Age of Eden , the player learns a mysterious entity is controlling the world 's other lifeforms and sending them against the player . This entity turns out to be Bolbox , a lifeform that has evolved into a freakish and evil advanced being by consuming the crystals , believing itself to be the first human , but in reality is a gigantic single @-@ celled organism . In the game 's final battle , the player and Bolbox fight to determine who will gain entry into Eden and become Gaia 's partner . Bolbox is defeated , and the player joins Gaia in Eden and is granted the gift of intelligence . It is also revealed the crystals were introduced to Earth by an advanced civilization on Mars , who misguidedly wished to help Earth by speeding its evolution with the crystals . Upon realizing the dangers the crystals create , the Martians decide to leave Earth alone and observe until it becomes advanced enough for them to interact with .
= = Development = =
E.V.O. was developed by Almanic Corporation in early 1992 under the Japanese title 46 Okunen Monogatari ~ Harukanaru Eden e ~ ( literally , " 4 @.@ 6 Billion Year Story : To Distant Eden " ) and was headed by project director Takashi Yoneda , who had designed Quintet 's Actraiser three years prior . The title was largely based on the company 's earlier successful role @-@ playing game 46 Okunen Monogatari ~ The Shinka Ron ~ ( literally , " 4 @.@ 6 Billion Year Story : The Theory of Evolution " ) , released for the NEC PC @-@ 9801 home computer in 1990 , and carries over much of the game 's theme , designs and story . Although the design staff had opted to give a fantastic rather than scientific representation of evolutionary theories and planet development , the crew was assisted by teachers from local schools to provide information on geology and biology to the programmers . While some of the game 's designers were similar to that of the original PC @-@ 9801 title , much of the staff for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System version was made up of a younger , less experienced crew , which Yoneda stated made things " interesting " during development .
The North American version was translated and marketed by Enix America Corporation . While originally planned for a March 1993 release , the game was beset by last @-@ minute delays for several months until the following June . The company would later hold a promotional contest where players could send in photographs of their favorite customized creatures for a chance to win a free Enix game .
= = = Music = = =
The music for E.V.O. was originally composed by Koichi Sugiyama for 46 Okunen Monogatari ~ The Shinka Ron ~ . Motoaki Takenouchi , a former student of Sugiyama 's , adapted the music for E.V.O .. In late 1992 , select pieces from the game were performed by the Tokyo City Philharmonic Orchestra during their second annual Game Music Concert series in Tokyo , Japan . Two of these pieces , " Great Hymn of Nature , Earth " and " Sorrow " were made available on the Orchestra Game Music Concert 2 album the following November . In December of the same year , an official soundtrack for E.V.O. was released exclusively in Japan by Apollon Records . Rather than featuring the same instrumentation present in the game , the 46 Okunen Monogatari Symphonic Synth Suite soundtrack was composed of music also re @-@ recorded and arranged by Takenouchi .
= = Reception = =
The game received mild but generally positive reviews during its initial release in North America . GamePro magazine praised the game 's originality and overall design but found fault with the visual presentation of the title , stating " although this game has an interesting concept , the sluggish game play and average graphics may make you return to the caves . " The publication also found the background music lacking , stating the game 's compositions ranged from " soothing " to " annoying " . Nintendo Power called attention to the game 's ingenuity and theme , remarking that " [ t ] he idea of this game is great and the weird creatures you can evolve can be both bizarre and hilarious . " However , the magazine felt the game 's representation of the concept of evolution was too fanciful , also stating the process of obtaining power @-@ up items being " tedious " . Nintendo Power would later give the game an honorable mention during its " Top Titles of 1993 " awards segment as one of the most innovative games of the year .
Allgame was even less positive about the game , giving it two stars out of five . They praised the challenge that the bosses presented , and the quantity of creatures the player could evolve into , but noted that the game was " marred by mediocre graphics and sluggish gameplay . " Although not officially released in Europe , the game was covered in an import review by Super Play in late 1993 and although they found the game 's strategy components to be " top @-@ notch " , the rest of the game was regarded as " very mediocre " , garnering only a 47 % average score .
More contemporary reviews of the game were largely positive . In his 2001 collector 's guide Video Game Bible , author Andy Slaven called the game " wildly underrated ( and highly original ) " . In February 2007 , IGN ranked E.V.O. second in its list of the greatest " Prehistoric Games " of all time , stating " [ n ] o other title before or since has so effectively captured the essence of evolutionary theory in videogame form . " The website additionally likened the title to the then @-@ upcoming and highly anticipated Spore by Maxis Games , calling E.V.O. the " original success story " in life @-@ simulation gaming and the standard for which it would be judged .
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= Vanilla Ice =
Robert Matthew Van Winkle ( born October 31 , 1967 ) , known by his stage name , Vanilla Ice , is an American rapper , actor and television host . Born in South Dallas , and raised in Texas and South Florida , Ice released his debut album , Hooked , in 1989 on Ichiban Records , before signing a contract with SBK Records , a record label of the EMI Group which released a reformatted version of the album under the title To the Extreme . Ice 's 1990 single " Ice Ice Baby " was the first hip hop single to top the Billboard charts .
Although Vanilla Ice was successful , he later regretted his business arrangements with SBK , which had paid him to adopt a more commercial appearance to appeal to a mass audience and published fabricated biographical information without his knowledge . After surviving a suicide attempt , Ice was inspired to change his musical style and lifestyle . While his later , less mainstream albums failed to chart or receive much radio airplay , Ice has had a loyal underground following . In 2009 , Ice began hosting The Vanilla Ice Project on DIY Network . His latest album WTF – Wisdom , Tenacity & Focus was released in August 2011 . Ice is currently signed to Psychopathic Records .
= = Early life and education = =
Robert Matthew Van Winkle was born in Dallas , Texas , on October 31 , 1967 . Van Winkle has never known his biological father ; he was given the family name of the man his mother was married to at the time of his birth . When Van Winkle was four , his mother divorced . Afterward , he grew up moving between Dallas and Miami , where his new stepfather worked at a car dealership . Hip hop had an impact on Van Winkle at an early age , saying " It 's a very big passion of mine because I love poetry . I was just heavily influenced by that whole movement and it 's molded me into who I am today . " Between the ages of 13 and 14 , Van Winkle practiced breakdancing , which led to his friends nicknaming him " Vanilla " , as he was the only one in the group that was not African American . Although he disliked the nickname , it stuck . Shortly afterward , Van Winkle started battle rapping at parties and because of his rhymes , his friends started calling him " MC Vanilla . " However , when he became a member of a breakdance troupe , Van Winkle 's stage name was " Vanilla Ice " combining his nickname " Vanilla " with one of his breakdance moves ; " The Ice " . When Ice 's stepfather was offered a better job in Carrollton , Texas , he moved back to Texas with his mother . He attended R. L. Turner High School for a short time before dropping out . When Ice was not learning to ride motorbikes , he was dancing as a street performer with his breakdancing group , now called The Vanilla Ice Posse . Ice wrote " Ice Ice Baby " at the age of 16 , basing its lyrics on a weekend he had with friend and disc jockey D @-@ Shay in South Florida . The lyrics describe Ice and Shay on a drug run that ends in a drive @-@ by shooting while praising Ice 's rhyming skills .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career ( 1985 – 1989 ) = = =
In 1985 , he was focusing all of his energy on motocross , winning three championships . After breaking his ankle during a race , Ice was not interested in racing professionally for some time , using his spare time to perfect his dance moves and creating his own while his ankle was healing . Ice used his beatboxing and breakdancing skills as a street performer with his friends at local malls during this time . One evening he visited City Lights , a South Dallas night club , where he was dared to go on stage by his friend Squirrel during an Open Mic . He won the crowd over and was asked by City Lights manager John Bush if he wanted to perform regularly , which he accepted . Ice would be joined on stage with his disc jockey D @-@ Shay and Zero as well as Earthquake , the local disc jockey at City Lights . The Vanilla Ice Posse or The V.I.P. would also perform with Ice on stage . As a performer for City Lights , Ice opened up for N.W.A , Public Enemy , The D.O.C. , Tone Lōc , 2 Live Crew , Paula Abdul , Sinbad and MC Hammer .
In January 1987 , Ice was stabbed five times during a scuffle outside of City Lights . After spending ten days at the hospital , Ice signed a contract with the owner of City Lights , Tommy Quon and his management company , Ultrax . Two years later , Ice would open for EPMD , Ice @-@ T , Stetsasonic , and Sir Mix @-@ A @-@ Lot on the Stop the Violence Tour . Quon saw commercial potential in Ice 's rapping and dancing skills . Buying studio time with Quon 's earnings from City Lights , they recorded songs that had been perfected on stage by Ice and his acquaintances with various producers , including Khayree . The two year production was distributed by an independent record company called Ichiban Records in 1989 . " Play That Funky Music " was released as the album 's first single , with " Ice Ice Baby " appearing as the B @-@ side . Tommy Quon personally sent out the single to various radio stations around the US , but the single was seldom played and when it was , it did not get the reaction Quon was hoping for . When disc jockey Darrell Jaye in Georgia played " Ice Ice Baby " instead of the single 's A @-@ side , the song gained a quick fanbase and other radio stations followed suit . Quon financed $ 8 @,@ 000 for the production of a music video for " Ice Ice Baby " , which received heavy airplay by The Box , increasing public interest in the song .
Following the success of " Ice Ice Baby " , record producer Suge Knight and two bodyguards arrived at The Palm in West Hollywood , where Ice was eating . After shoving Ice 's bodyguards aside , Knight and his own bodyguards sat down in front of Ice , staring at him before finally asking " How you doin ' ? " Similar incidents were repeated on several occasions . Eventually , Knight showed up at Ice 's hotel suite on the fifteenth floor of the Bel Age Hotel , accompanied by a member of the Oakland Raiders . According to Ice , Knight took him out on the balcony by himself , and implied that he would throw him off the balcony unless he signed the publishing rights to the song over to Knight ; Knight used Ice 's money to help fund Death Row Records .
= = = Mainstream success ( 1990 – 1993 ) = = =
On the basis of Ice 's good looks and dance moves , Public Enemy tried to convince their producer , Hank Shocklee , to sign Ice to Def Jam , but Ice later signed a contract with SBK Records in 1990 . SBK remixed and re @-@ recorded Hooked under the title To the Extreme . The reissue contained new artwork and music . According to Ice , SBK paid him to adopt a more commercial , conventional appearance . This led Ice to later regret his business agreements with SBK .
To the Extreme became the fastest selling hip hop album of all time , spending sixteen weeks at # 1 on the Billboard 200 and selling eleven million copies . SBK Record executive Monte Lipman stated that he received calls from radio stations reporting over 200 phone calls requesting Ice Ice Baby . SBK wanted Ice on the road as soon as possible . MC Hammer , an old acquaintance from his club days , had Ice on as an opening act on his tour . Reviews of To the Extreme were mixed . Entertainment Weekly reviewer Mim Udovitch gave the album a B , citing " Ice Ice Baby " , " Play That Funky Music " , " Dancin ' " and " It 's a Party " as the album 's highlights . Robert Christgau gave the album a C − rating , writing that Ice 's " suave sexism , fashionably male supremacist rather than dangerously obscene , is no worse than his suave beats " . Criticizing the technique and style of Vanilla Ice , Allrovi reviewer Steve Huey wrote :
Ice 's mic technique is actually stronger and more nimble than MC Hammer 's , and he really tries earnestly to show off the skills he does have . Unfortunately , even if he can keep a mid @-@ tempo pace , his flow is rhythmically stiff , and his voice has an odd timbre ; plus , he never seems sure of the proper accent to adopt . He 's able to overcome those flaws somewhat in isolated moments , but they become all too apparent over the course of an entire album .
In late 1990 , Ice began an eight @-@ month relationship with Madonna , and appeared in photographs for her book , Sex . In the height of Ice 's popularity , SBK licensed a 12 " doll which was made by THQ . In January 1991 , he was the musical guest on Saturday Night Live . Ice branched out into the film industry with an appearance in the film Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II : The Secret of the Ooze , which he later called " one of the coolest experiences " of his career . Ice was very secretive about his personal life , with the intention of protecting his family . When a Dallas Morning News reporter asked Ice what his mother 's profession was , he replied " None of your fucking business " . In an attempt to rectify this , his former label wrote a fake biography in his name and tried to pass it off as his official life story without his knowledge . While on tour in 1991 , Ice found out that SBK had instigated the publication of the biography which detailed false biographical information , including claims that he had attended school with Luther Campbell and exaggerating his living conditions in Miami , which Ice later had to debunk by himself .
Ice 's second major release was the live album Extremely Live , released in March 1991 . The album was a live recording during Vanilla Ice 's performance in Miami during his To The Extreme tour . Premiering new songs like Rollin ' in My 5 @.@ 0 , Road To My Riches and Satisfaction , the album peaked at # 30 on the Billboard 200 , but it received mainly negative reviews , with Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne calling it " one of the most ridiculous albums ever released " , comparing it to The Best of Marcel Marceau , an album which consisted of two sides of silence opened by brief applause . According to Browne , Extremely Live " affords you the chance to hear inane stage patter [ ... ] and unaccompanied drumming , during which , one assumes , Ice and his posse are onstage dancing . " Monte Lipman later stated that SBK only released the live disc to make more money from Ice 's fame . In April 1991 , Ice began to film the SBK produced Cool as Ice , in which he played a leading role .
Cool as Ice opened on October 18 , 1991 in 393 theaters in the United States , grossing $ 638 @,@ 000 , ranking at # 14 among the week 's new releases . Reviews of the film were negative . Film website Rotten Tomatoes , which compiles reviews from a wide range of critics , gives the film a score of 8 % . Ice received a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst New Star . SBK stated that they overexposed Ice and Ice decided to stop taking their business advice as well as distancing himself from the image that SBK was trying to create for him . In late 1991 , Ice appeared in the Circus of the Stars and Sideshow , driving his motorcycle through a wall of fire . While his fame in the United States had severely dropped , Ice continued touring in 1992 , playing in South America , Europe , Australia and Asia , premiering new songs like " Get Loose " , " The Wrath " , " Now & Forever " , " Where the Dogs At ? ( All Night Long ) " , " Minutes of Power " and " Iceman Party " . After a performance in Acapulco , the city honored Ice with a medal that represented " all the respect and admiration to [ Ice 's ] music and to [ him ] as an artist from the Mexican people " . Ice also served as a spokesperson for Nike and Coca @-@ Cola throughout 1991 and 1992 . In 1993 , Ice toured Eastern @-@ Europe again and premiered songs off his upcoming album in St. Petersburg , Russia in front of President Boris Yeltsin .
= = = Mind Blowin , music break and drug abuse ( 1994 – 1996 ) = = =
After almost non @-@ stop touring for the previous three years , Ice took a break from music in 1993 and began competing in jet skiing ( becoming the 6th best jet ski racer in the world and obtaining sponsorship from Kawasaki ) as well as resuming Motocross racing . Ice was interested in responding to his critics by having his next album surpass his earlier and popular work . In 1992 , Ice started writing response songs aimed at 3rd Bass and Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch . Together with his disc jockey Zero , the new album started production yet again , scrapping a lot of finished songs and re @-@ doing others .
By 1994 , Ice received less publicity and became removed from the public spotlight . After becoming more interested with the Rastafari movement , Ice became a vegetarian , grew dreadlocks and talked more openly about smoking cannabis . On March 22 , 1994 , Ice released his second studio album , Mind Blowin ' . Reviews were unfavorable . Entertainment Weekly reviewer James Bernard called the album " more clunky than funky " . Rolling Stone reviewer Danyel Smith praised the song " Get Loose " as " snappy " , writing that although the lyrics are " inane " , " the song is a thumping party , one of the few places where Ice loosens up . He sounds solid at the beginning of ' The Wrath ' as well [ ... ] In ' Now and Forever , ' a wet dream kind of song , Ice goes back to goofy lyrics . " Allrovi reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that " There isn 't a single moment that establishes a distinct musical identity , and the whole thing is rather embarrassing . " Primus bassist Les Claypool stated in response to Ice 's cannabis @-@ oriented lyrics : " That 's all fine and dandy and cute , but it could be misconstrued and manipulated by the wrong people . " When asked about the drug oriented sound years later , Vanilla Ice said " A lot of the record is drug oriented because I was doing a lot of drugs at the time " . Shortly afterward , SBK went bankrupt .
At around this time , Ice began using ecstasy , cocaine and heroin . During periods of heavy drug use , Ice received many tattoos from artist acquaintances . According to Ice , he " was in [ his ] binge days . [ He ] didn 't even realize how many [ he ] was getting " . Ice attempted suicide with a heroin overdose on July 4 , 1994 but was revived by his friends . After being revived , Ice decided that it was time to change his lifestyle . As a symbol of his attempt to begin anew , he got a tattoo of a leaf on his stomach . After expanding his Mind Blowin ’ tour overseas in 1995 , Ice sold his estate in California and took a break from music , rather focusing on motocrossing and jet skiing in Florida . By the summer Ice was the world 's No. 6 @-@ ranked sit @-@ down Jet Ski racer , competing nearly every weekend and earning a Kawasaki sponsorship . He met future wife Laura Giaritta a year after his suicide attempt at a Fourth of July party in 1995 .
Uncertain about his future career , Ice studied real estate and started working on the side renovating and selling houses . In late 1995 , Ice set up a recording studio in Miami and joined a grunge band , Pickin Scabz . The name was set to reflect Ice 's career and how he was healing from his suicide attempt and that he was now " picking up the pieces " . Ice expressed an interest in performing hip hop @-@ influenced rock music , but found that the band was unable to produce the sound he was looking for . In 1996 , longtime associate and friend Monte Lipman signed Ice as an artist for Universal Republic Records . He did guest vocals with no stage name for the song " Boom " by Bloodhound Gang on their CD One Fierce Beer Coaster . Later that year , Ice opened up a Miami @-@ based Extreme sport store that focused mostly on water sports and surfing , which he and girlfriend Laura named after his first mainstream album , ' 2 The Xtreme ' .
= = = 1997 – 2001 = = =
Ice later developed a friendship with producer Ross Robinson , who had become known for producing music by Deftones , Korn , Limp Bizkit and Sepultura . Robinson and Ice shared an interest in motocross racing . Monte Lipman hoped that Robinson would produce a new Vanilla Ice album . According to Robinson , others had attempted to discourage him from working with Ice , saying it might hurt his reputation . Rather than being dissuaded , their fear encouraged Robinson who agreed to work with Ice . In an interview , Robinson stated " It 's the most punk @-@ rock thing you could do . " Despite not being happy with his old image , Winkle stated that he never had a problem with his older music . Ice decided against changing his stage name to something else , as he felt no need to run from his past , despite being uneasy with some of it and started performing again , booking a hundred shows a year .
Ice 's third studio album , Hard to Swallow , featured a darker sound and lyrics than Ice 's previous work as well as various mixtures of different styles of hip hop and hard rock which caught the media 's attention . Ice attracted a whole new audience when he started touring again , some who were even unfamiliar with his more mainstream sound . Despite getting its own audience and going Gold , reviews of the album were generally negative . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote " The most earnest new song , Scars , condemns an abusive father . The sentiments would sound more genuine if Korn hadn 't gotten there first . " Richard Torres of Rolling Stone gave the album two out of five stars , writing that while " nothing , however , can redeem Ice 's wack boasting , " the album " isn 't half @-@ bad . " In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide , Rob Kemp gave the album three out of five stars , writing that it contained Ice 's " most convincing music " . A lot of executives at SonyBMG were predicting that the album would do better than ' To The Extreme ' . In promotion of Hard to Swallow , Ice toured with a seven @-@ piece live band which included bassist Scott Shriner . The band opened with rock @-@ oriented material from Hard to Swallow and concluded with older hip hop songs . The setlist also included " Power " , based upon Led Zeppelin 's " Immigrant Song " . Ice said that writing the songs and performing them were like therapy , as he had tried to hide his anger when making his older songs but Robinson was the first producer who told him to use it to create .
Vanilla Ice was a member of the softball team The Hip Hop Stars alongside Dr. Dre , Snoop Dogg and Method Man in a 1999 game shown on MTV Rock N ' Jock . Later in 1999 , MTV asked Vanilla Ice to join their cast to " retire " the music video for " Ice Ice Baby " on the MTV special 25 Lame , in which Ice himself was asked to destroy the video 's master tape . When Ice was given a baseball bat , he ended up destroying not only the film but the show 's entire set as well . In 2001 , DJ ReAnimator remixed " Ice Ice Baby " with Vanilla Ice re @-@ doing his vocals for the track . Ice Ice Baby 2001 was released as a single and music video for the European market spawning a wave of new overseas interest in Vanilla Ice .
Having attracted a following outside of his former mainstream audience , Ice began recording independently , despite still being signed at Universal . During a recording session , Ice met the all @-@ female American hard rock band from Southern California , Betty Blowtorch . The late Bianca Halstead bonded with Ice and asked if he wanted to contribute a rap interlude to their track Size Queen . On Ice 's collaboration with the band , lead vocalist and bassist Halstead was quoted saying " I asked him if he could rap over [ the track ] and he said he can rap over anything . And he could ! " Per his stepfather 's request , Ice started working with his former manager Tommy Quon again , while hoping to re @-@ create some of the magic that they worked hard on in the early 90 's , Ice denied any interest in trying to become big again and that his only passion was music , not fame .
In May 2000 , Ice wrestled in a match promoted by Juggalo Championship Wrestling , then known as Juggalo Championshit Wrestling , filling in for Insane Clown Posse member Shaggy 2 Dope , who had been injured during a match . MTV News reported that Insane Clown Posse would make an appearance on Ice 's next album , tentatively titled Bomb Tha System . In October 2000 , Ice announced that his next album would be titled Skabz , and that Chuck D was confirmed to appear on the album . It was initially planned as a double album featuring a disc containing rock @-@ oriented material and a disc of hip hop songs . In July 2001 , Ice performed at the second Gathering of the Juggalos . On October 23 , 2001 , Skabz and Bomb Tha System were released as a together as Bi @-@ Polar . The album also featured La the Darkman , Perla , Insane Poetry and Bob Kakaha . Bradley Torreano of Allrovi disliked the album , criticizing it as " wildly uneven and at times hilariously bad " , but also stating " Vanilla Ice is still better than a lot of the rap @-@ metal bands that erupted in 2000 / 2001 . " and the rap beats on Bomb Tha System " are surprisingly solid " . In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide , Rob Kemp gave the album one out of five stars , calling the album " utterly listless " . According to a Sony BMG executive , sales of Bi @-@ Polar were " not bad ... for Vanilla Ice . That 's pretty respectable . Seriously . "
= = = Independent releases ( 2002 – 2009 ) = = =
With Quon back as manager , Ice was scheduled to appear in various reality TV programs . Ice , still an entertainer at heart , felt that the experience would be good for him . In 2002 he appeared on Celebrity Boxing , fighting Todd Bridges under the name ' Bi @-@ Polar ' . In 2003 , he appeared in five episodes of Hollywood Squares , eight episodes on ' The Farm ' and three episodes of Celebrity Bull Riding Challenge as well as a cameo in The New Guy in 2002 . Around this time , Vanilla Ice also returned to the world of motocross . He auditioned for the 2002 X Games in the freestyle division and placed seventh at the 2003 Suzuki Crossover challenge , according to Sports Illustrated . He told the magazine that the track " is where I 'm happiest . "
In 2003 , Ice contributed vocals to " Off the Chain " by 7x70 , a side project of Iron Maiden drummer Nicko McBrain and Anthrax guitarist Dan Spitz . A demo of the song was leaked in June . In 2003 , Ultrax reissued Bomb Tha System ( the second part of " Bi @-@ Polar " ) under the title Hot Sex , which was a single from the original album .
From January to February 2004 , Ice appeared on the reality television series The Surreal Life . Although much of the series was staged , Ice found the experience to be therapeutic , stating that a comment made by Tammy Faye Messner during filming ; " We are who we are because of who we were " helped him accept his past .
On August 2 , 2005 , Ice released his fifth studio album , Platinum Underground . Ice stated that the title of the album reflected the fact that he could maintain a fanbase without mainstream airplay . Allrovi reviewer Rob Theakston panned the album , writing that it " has more bad spots in it than most " . Ice made a song titled Ninja Rap 2 which was set to be a hardcore remix . Aside the name , the song has very little connection to Ice 's original 1991 single , but rather talks about his appreciation to his fans , his love to perform at clubs and playing at the Gathering of the Juggalos with Insane Clown Posse . Ninja Rap 2 was the first song to be released from Platinum Underground and was available to download for free off of Ice 's official website .
In 2007 , Ice returned to a spin @-@ off of The Surreal Life titled The Surreal Life : Fame Games where he again trashed the set after being voted off . In September 2008 , Ice signed a contract with Cleopatra Records , recording the cover album Vanilla Ice Is Back ! at the label 's request . The album was released on November 4 , 2008 , and contained covers of songs by Public Enemy , House of Pain , Bob Marley , and Cypress Hill . IGN reviewer Spence D. called the album " an embarrassing endeavor that sounds like it should have stayed locked inside Ice 's studio ( or at the very least leaked on YouTube and passed off as a piss take ) . " On February 27 , 2009 , Ice performed as part of a joint performance with MC Hammer in Orem , Utah called " Hammer Pants And Ice " , which featured twenty four dancers and a full choir .
= = = Recent endeavors ( 2010 – present ) = = =
In August 2009 , Ice announced on his official Twitter account that he had signed a contract with StandBy Records ; however , Ice later left the label . Ice was a special musical guest at the 2010 National Television Awards in January , performing with Jedward for their remix and debut single " Under Pressure ( Ice Ice Baby ) " . Ice also recorded his verse for their album Planet Jedward and appeared in the music video . Vanilla Ice was a part of The Back2Kool concert tour with Turbo B and MC Hammer , playing worldwide in late 2010 . Ice reunited with his former DJ ; Floyd ' Earthquake ' Brown for the shows overseas . In early 2011 , Vanilla Ice appeared on the sixth season of the UK show Dancing on Ice as well as various ice skating tours surrounding the show .
In 2009 , Ice started filming a reality television series called The Vanilla Ice Project which premiered on DIY Network on October 14 , 2010 . The season is focused on renovating a house in Palm Beach , Florida with each episode dedicated to a different room in the house . In 2011 , Ice published a book on the subject , Vanilla Ice Project – Real Estate Guide on how to succeed in real estate . The book was made available as a free digital download on his real estate website . The second season aired January 2012 while the third season started airing January 2013 .
In June 2011 , Ice filmed a role in the film That 's My Boy ( released in 2012 ) . In the film , Ice portrayed an exaggerated version of himself , called Uncle Vanny . He also worked with Andy Samberg in the movie and while shooting , Ice collaborated both with Samberg and Sandler musically . In August , Ice performed at the 2011 Gathering of the Juggalos , where it was officially announced that he had signed with Psychopathic Records . His sixth studio album , WTF , was released on August 19 through Radium Records . While the record featured an array of different styles , like other recent Vanilla Ice albums , it also featured Ice 's return to Electronica , with songs like " Turn It Up " , " Rock Star Party " , " Nightmare Disco " and " Cadillac Ninjas " . On the new record and its numerous musical genres , Ice was quoted saying " It 's like techno hip @-@ hop . European . I live a lot in Europe , and when I 'm over there I get way into the techno stuff and I get into new music . So I thought I 'd make a record of it . I did the thing and it was a lot of fun " .
In December 2011 , Ice played Captain Hook in the Chatham , Kent Central Theatre pantomime production of Peter Pan , a role that previously belonged to Henry Winkler . He also turned on the Christmas lights for Rochester , Kent in Rochester Castle , as part of the promotion for the panto . On May 12 , 2012 , Vanilla Ice helped in the launch of the Mr. Freeze Reverse Blast roller coaster at Six Flags over Texas in Arlington with a free concert for valid daily park ticket or 2012 Season Pass holders . In mid 2013 , Vanilla Ice joined the New Kids on the Block tour alongside Boyz II Men .
On September 15 , 2013 , Vanilla Ice performed at the halftime show of a Houston Texans game . Houston went on to lose the remaining fourteen games of the season , leading some players to blame Vanilla Ice for the losing streak .
In the Western comedy film The Ridiculous Six , released in 2015 , Ice portrayed Mark Twain .
= = Personal life = =
Vanilla Ice dated Madonna for eight months in 1990 . Ice married Laura Giaritta in 1997 ; they have two daughters , Dusti Rain ( born 1998 ) and KeeLee Breeze ( born 2000 ) . Ice describes himself as a " Juggalo " , a fan of Psychopathic Records hip hop groups , and was a vegetarian for a short time .
= = = Legal issues = = =
In August 8 , 1988 , Ice was arrested in South Dallas for illegal drag racing .
On June 3 , 1991 , he was arrested in Los Angeles on firearm charges after threatening a homeless man , James N. Gregory , with a pistol . Gregory had approached Ice 's car outside of a supermarket and attempted to sell him a silver chain . Ice and his bodyguard were charged with three weapons offenses . Ice pleaded no contest .
In January 2001 , Ice was arrested by police in Davie , Florida for assaulting his wife , Laura . According to the criminal complaint , Ice and his wife argued as they drove on Interstate 595 . Ice admitted to pulling hair from her head to prevent her from jumping out of the truck 's window . He pleaded guilty to charges of disorderly conduct four months later and was sentenced to probation and ordered to attend family therapy sessions .
Ice 's pet wallaroo , Bucky , and pet goat , Pancho , escaped from his Port St. Lucie , Florida home in November 2004 . After wandering around local streets for over a week , the animals were caught and returned to Ice . He paid a $ 220 fine for expired pet tags and an undisclosed fine for the escape of the animals .
Ice appeared in West Palm Beach court on September 2007 to be arraigned for driving with an expired license . In the months leading up to the court hearing , Ice had been pulled over for doing 74 in a 45 @-@ mph zone , violating high @-@ occupancy vehicle lane restrictions and having illegally tinted car windows .
On April 10 , 2008 , Ice was arrested in Palm Beach County on a battery charge for allegedly kicking and hitting his wife . He was released the following day after she declared that her husband had only pushed her . In court , the couple 's neighbor , Frank Morales , stated that it was merely a verbal argument . Ice was ordered by a Florida court to stay away from his wife following his arrest , and to communicate with his children only if Morales accompanied him . The judge told Ice that he could only contact his wife via telephone . On April 29 , 2008 , Ice 's lawyers , Bradford Cohen and Joseph LoRusso , were able to get the case dropped after providing the state attorney with evidence that conflicted with what was originally reported .
In February 2015 , Ice was arrested and charged with burglary residence and grand theft after he allegedly stole furniture , a pool heater , bicycles and other items from a Florida home he believed to be vacant . He later accepted a plea deal which would result in the charges being dropped following his completion of 100 hours of community service and payment of restitution to the estate of the homeowner .
= = Style and influences = =
As of the late 2000s , Ice 's live performances feature a mix of newer , rock and techno @-@ influenced material and old @-@ school hip hop . Ice performs with a live drummer and DJ , and sometimes sprays his audience with bottled water . Ice 's performances often feature an inflatable grim reaper balloon , a dancer in a clown mask , and confetti thrown into the audience . Describing his performances , Ice stated " It 's high energy , stage diving , pyrotechnics , girls showing their breasts . It 's crazy party atmosphere . "
Ice stated that his musical style was influenced by underground music , rather than mainstream music , and that his influences included hip hop and funk artists such as Funkadelic , Rick James , Roger Troutman , Egyptian Lover and Parliament . Ice is a big fan of 50 's and 60 's reggae and Bob Marley 's work and has also stated that he enjoys Rage Against the Machine , Slipknot , and System of a Down .
Ice sometimes plays bass , drums and keyboards on studio recordings . Vanilla Ice referred to his mainstream music as " above @-@ ground " rather than underground , as he tried to make danceable beats and removed expletives so that the songs could reach a wider audience . A lot of his early hits had Ice boasting sexual conquests , in 1991 , Ice was quoted " I rap about what I know . Girls and stuff . That 's what is going through my head . "
When asked about his darker sound in 2002 , Ice replied ; " Music is about reflection and I ’ m just reflecting my life and everything it ’ s been and there ’ s no way I ’ m going to be able to stress what I want and mean over a break beat , you know , it ’ s too emotional and it ’ s too intense , so you have to have the intensity of the band , it ’ s like a symphony , you know , you have to build on the intense parts , and so it just wasn ’ t going to happen , to come extreme over some hip hop record , so to exorcise my demons I had to have the band . "
= = Legacy = =
Along with Beastie Boys , 3rd Bass , and House of Pain , Ice was one of the earliest white rappers to attain major success . Chuck D has credited Ice as a regional breakthrough , stating " He broke through in the mid @-@ South , in a Southern area in Texas , in something that was kind of indigenous to that hip @-@ hop culture down there . He just doesn ’ t get credit for it . " In 1991 , 3rd Bass released a single called " Pop Goes the Weasel " , and in the lyrics comparing Ice unfavorably to Elvis Presley . The song 's music video featured Henry Rollins as Ice , who is depicted as being assaulted by 3rd Bass . Ice responded to " Pop Goes the Weasel " with his 1992 song " The Wrath " . Del tha Funkee Homosapien referred to Ice in the lyrics of " Pissin ' on Your Steps " , which appeared on his 1991 debut album I Wish My Brother George Was Here . Similar to ' Pop Goes the Weasel ' , the song negatively makes a connection between Ice and Elvis , while saying Ice alongside MC Hammer are mocking hip hop by being commercial . Vanilla Ice answered back to most of his critics in the song Hit ' em Hard .
Vanilla Ice appears as a video game character in Championship Motocross released in 2001 on PlayStation 2 . The hairstylist character in Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas is also molded after Vanilla Ice . Former Ultimate Fighting Championship light heavyweight champion Chuck ' The Iceman ' Lidell used Ice 's song Too Cold for his entrance to the ring . In 2007 , Nike released Vanilla Ice shoes for their Fallen Heroes pack . Rapper G @-@ Child , best known for her appearance on ego trip 's The ( White ) Rapper Show , has credited Ice as being a major influence on her work . After meeting Ice in 2000 , G @-@ Child performed freestyle raps at six of Ice 's performances , and opened for him four times . The late rapper Ol ' Dirty Bastard appeared on stage with Vanilla Ice during the 2004 Gathering of the Juggalos and expressed interest in working on a song together after stating that he was Ice 's " greatest fan " . In March 2009 , Ice participated in a Virgin Mobile advertising campaign titled " Right Music Wrongs " , apologizing for his 1990s image . As part of the campaign , Ice was placed on " trial " , and was voted innocent by users of the campaign website . He also appeared in a commercial for the South African light beer Castle Lite . In 2010 , Vanilla Ice was featured on the debut single of the Irish duo Jedward , a mashup of " Under Pressure " and " Ice Ice Baby " . " Under Pressure ( Ice Ice Baby ) " was released in the United Kingdom on January 31 , 2010 via download and as a physical single on February 15 , 2010 . In 2010 , Serbian musicians Slađa Delibašić and Shwarz released the single and music video Dizel Power . The music video and song feature various references to Vanilla Ice , including the performers dancing next to a graffiti mural of Ice . The video has reached two million views on YouTube .
After signing with Psychopathic Records , Violent J mentioned that Insane Clown Posse were longtime fans of Ice 's work ; “ We were bumping him way before " Ice Ice Baby " blew up . We were bumping him when he had his first record out on Ichiban . Shaggy had the vinyl and we used to bump that shit up in his room . It felt like two summers before that shit blew up . ” " Thanda Thanda Pani " ( Cold Cold Water ) by Baba Sehgal was inspired heavily by Vanilla Ice 's music and style . Rapper Riff Raff has mentioned in interviews that Vanilla Ice was one of his biggest influence .
Eminem has often name @-@ dropped Vanilla Ice in his songs . Starting during taped freestyles he did with rapper Proof in 1992 where they performed against each other portraying Ice and MC Hammer , respectively . In his first single " Just Don 't Give a Fuck " , Eminem mentions Ice alongside Everlast , boasting in a playful manner that he 's a better rapper . In " Role Model " , Eminem says he ripped out Vanilla Ice 's dreadlocks . Ice responded to in a magazine interview with Vibe saying that Eminem " raps like a girl " . While Vanilla Ice and Eminem neither look at their responses as an actual beef , Eminem did reply to the quote in his song " Marshall Mathers " which also featured a verbal attack on the Insane Clown Posse . Eminem mentioned Ice again in the song " Purple Pills " in 2001 , which caused Vanilla Ice 's only response in song . On his album Bi @-@ Polar , Ice mentions Eminem in a positive light ( " Hip Hop Rules " ) and in a negative light ( " Exhale " ) , however , Ice stated that he has no bad feelings towards Eminem . In a 2002 interview , Vanilla Ice stated that he thought Eminem 's references were flattering , going on to say " I give him credit , I think he ’ s talented , I think he ’ s a killer rapper , you know I don ’ t compare myself to him because he ’ s another white rapper , I don 't compare myself to any other rapper period , I don ’ t colorize hip hop , it ’ s stupid , but for people who are doing that are just looking through the eyes of a racial standpoint , and it really shouldn ’ t be looked at that way , you ’ re looking at two musicians that are in a broad brand of hip hop , so you don ’ t need to compare us two . Following me , any white rapper is going to have to hear ' oh , you think you ’ re Vanilla Ice ? ' , so I am sure he ’ s heard that . " In April 2009 , Ice appeared in the music video for Eminem 's song " We Made You " . In the 2011 single " Fast Lane " , Eminem raps about riding in his car while listening to " Ice Ice Baby " .
= = Band members = =
Current
DJ Dirty Chopstix – turntables
Kool Keith – drums
Krazy Klown – dancer and background vocals
Maniac – dancer
Former
Earthquake ( 1987 – 2014 ) – turntables and background vocals
DJ Don 't Play ( 1985 – 2009 ) – turntables and background vocals
Zero ( 1985 – 2014 ) – turntables and background vocals
D @-@ Shay ( 1985 – 1991 ) – turntables and drums
Clint Barlow – drums ( 2004 @-@ 2011 )
Tha Hit Man ( 1997 – 2005 ) – drums
Boom ( 1990 – 1995 ) – drums
Bobzilla ( 2000 – 2004 ) – bass
Doug Ardito ( 1998 – 2001 ) – bass
Scott G. Shriner ( 1997 – 1999 ) – bass
2Hype / Rod @-@ J ( 1991 – 2004 ) – Hype Man and background vocals
Chill ( 1992 – 1994 ) – Hype Man and background vocals
Hi @-@ Tec ( 1985 – 1995 ) – dancer and background vocals
Koko ( 1985 – 2010 ) – dancer and background vocals
Squirrel ( 1985 – 1995 ) – dancer and background vocals
Twist ( 1987 – 1993 ) – dancer and background vocals
E @-@ Rock ( 1987 – 1991 ) – dancer and background vocals
Juice ( 1989 – 1991 ) – dancer and background vocals
Ste ~ bo ( 1990 – 1992 ) – dancer and background vocals
= = Discography = =
Hooked ( 1989 )
To the Extreme ( 1990 )
Extremely Live ( 1991 )
Mind Blowin ' ( 1994 )
Hard to Swallow ( 1998 )
Bi @-@ Polar ( 2001 )
Platinum Underground ( 2005 )
Vanilla Ice Is Back ! ( 2008 )
W.T.F. ( Wisdom , Tenacity and Focus ) ( 2011 )
Ice ( TBA )
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
American Music Awards
Grammy Awards
People 's Choice Awards
The Factual Entertainment Awards
Golden Raspberry Awards
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= Mamilla =
Mamilla ( Hebrew : ממילא ) is a neighbourhood of Jerusalem that was established in the late 19th century outside the Old City , west of the Jaffa Gate . Until 1948 it was a mixed Jewish @-@ Arab business district . Between 1948 and 1967 , it was located along the armistice line between the Israeli and Jordanian @-@ held sector of the city , and many buildings were destroyed by Jordanian shelling . The Israeli government approved an urban renewal project for Mamilla , apportioning land for residential and commercial zones , including hotels and office space . The Mamilla Mall opened in 2007 .
= = Geography = =
The neighbourhood of Mamilla is located within the northwest extension of the Hinnom Valley , which extends from the southwest corner of the Old City along the city 's western wall . The neighbourhood is bounded by the Jaffa Gate and Jaffa Road to the east and north , the downtown and Rehavia neighbourhood above it to the west , and Yemin Moshe 's upward slope along its southwestern edge . Its total area is 120 dunam ( 0 @.@ 12 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 05 sq mi ) ) .
= = History = =
= = = Ottoman era = = =
In the late 19th century , the area around the Old City walls was barren and undeveloped . It was only notable for the junction of paths that would become Jaffa Road and the highway to Jaffa , with the road to Hebron outside the Jaffa Gate . Among its first structures was the Hospice Saint Vincent de Paul , part of the emerging French Compound . The early building developed as an extension of the adjacent souk along the city walls at the Jaffa Gate as a quarter for merchants and artisans . It became home for commerce and residences that could not find room within the overcrowded Old City , and several of Jerusalem 's prominent modern businesses , like Hotel Fast , were first built here . In 1908 , the Ottoman authorities erected a clock tower above Jaffa Gate . The British removed it a decade later .
= = = British Mandate era = = =
The British arrival in Jerusalem heralded a rational philosophy of infrastructure planning and development . It respected cultural and historic heritage and attempted to preserve such elements within the blossoming construction of the modern city . The city walls were identified as such an element , so British workers acted to clear away the stalls on their perimeter and maintain an open area between the walls and the rest of the New City in the interest of an aesthetically pleasing visual basin . By the same token , planners demolished the Ottoman clock tower to preserve a historic skyline .
Following the approval of the 1947 UN Partition Plan , an Arab mob ransacked and burned much of the district and stabbed some of its Jewish residents in the course of the 1947 Jerusalem riots , one of the events leading to the area 's decades @-@ long stagnation .
= = = Jordanian era = = =
As the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War commenced , the neighbourhood 's location between Israeli and Jordanian forces made it a combat zone , leading to the flight of both Jewish and Arab residents . On May 22 , 1948 the US Consul , Thomas C. Wasson , was assassinated shortly after leaving the French Consulate in the Mamilla district . After the signing of the 1949 Armistice Agreements and division of Jerusalem , the western three @-@ quarters of Mamilla were held by Israel and the eastern quarter became a no man 's land of barbed @-@ wire and concrete barricades between Israeli and Jordanian lines . The active and hostile border subjected Mamilla to Jordanian sniper and guerilla attacks , and even stones thrown by Arab Legionnaires from the Old City walls above . The neighbourhood was one of several border areas in the city to experience a sharp decline , and subsequently became home to families of new immigrants with many children and of weak financial abilities , as well as dirty light industry like auto repair . In Mamilla in this period , the residents were primarily Kurdish immigrants and their Israeli children .
= = = Reunification and urban renewal plans = = =
After the Six @-@ Day War , Jerusalem 's municipal borders were expanded to include the Old City and beyond . Barricades that had lined the border were torn down . Many buildings on Mamilla 's eastern end were in shambles from the fighting and lack of maintenance . Several historic buildings were condemned . One was the Stern House , which housed Zionist leader Theodor Herzl on his 1898 visit . However , popular outcry brought Supreme Court involvement which led to the temporary dismantling and reassembly nearby of this historical landmark .
The 1970s saw numerous proposals for rehabilitating the neighbourhood , and it was defined as a zone of high @-@ priority for reconstruction efforts . The administration responsible for preservation and construction in the Old City took Mamilla under its jurisdiction as well , both because of its proximity and its possession of many of the same considerations that the British weighed when regulating its development . A 1972 master @-@ plan for revitalising the city centre transferred 100 of the 120 dunams ( 0 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 04 sq mi ) ) to Karta , the municipal firm led by architects Gilbert Weil and Moshe Safdie charged with the project , and called for the destruction of almost every building save the French Hospice St. Vincent de Paul . The plan called for a subterranean street system , over @-@ ground buildings for offices and stores , a pedestrian promenade , parking for 1 @,@ 000 cars , and a bus terminal .
This plan evoked massive criticism throughout the city government , although mayor Teddy Kollek lent full political backing to the plan . When deputy mayor Meron Benvenisti commissioned a more conservative plan under architect David Kroyanker based on facadism , the mayor immediately filed it away without any discussion . Karta evicted 700 families , communal institutions , and businesses , placing them in the then @-@ developing neighbourhoods of Baka and Neve Yaakov , and moved the industry to Talpiot , the seed of its current industrial zone . The evictions cost the Israeli government over $ 60 million and were only completed in 1988 , when Mamilla ceased to exist as a neighbourhood and instead became a " compound " slated for future construction .
The evicted residents were mostly Jewish immigrants from Arab states whose weak financial status left them vulnerable to Kollek 's plan . The following steep increase in real @-@ estate values of formerly depressed areas like Mamilla near the former armistice line and the Old City was perceived by evicted Mizrahi Jews as an injustice . This became a key issue in 1970s Israeli social upheaval and the founding of the Black Panthers movement in Israel .
After 16 years of controversy , during which the half @-@ constructed Mamilla project remained an eyesore in the heart of the city , a revised plan drawn up by architect Moshe Safdie incorporating elements of Kroyanker 's conservative design moved forward in 1986 . The new plan called for the compound to be divided into four areas : an open @-@ air mall with mixed @-@ use 3 @-@ 6 storey buildings and a multi @-@ storey car park , terraced residential housing , and two hotels along its border with the downtown . The British Ladbroke Group plc , which controls the Hilton Hotels Corporation , won the bid to build the project 's main hotel ( originally Hilton Jerusalem and now David Citadel Hotel ) and its housing , which it built as a luxury gated community named David 's Village ( Hebrew : כּֽפָר דָּוִד , Kfar David ) .
Numerous disputes between Karta and Ladbroke led the British firm to exit the project , and its shares were assumed by Alfred Akirov 's Alrov company . However , further objections from many sources — including religious groups opposed to an entertainment area so close to the Old City and possible operation on the Jewish Sabbath — kept construction at a crawl . Both Alrov and Karta accused each other of breach of contract and sued . After years of frozen construction and drawn @-@ out mediation , the Jerusalem district court found parts of both parties ' complaints to be justified and ordered 100 million NIS paid to Alrov by Karta , which allowed construction to resume .
May 28 , 2007 saw the opening of phase one of the shopping mall and part of the 600 @-@ meter promenade . The completion of the remainder of the promenade , the Stern House rebuilding , and the other construction , including the 207 @-@ room five @-@ star second hotel , is scheduled to be completed in the spring of 2008 .
Like several other luxury neighbourhoods in the city , apartments in the David 's Village development are mostly owned by foreigners who visit for only a few days or weeks a year . Critics contend that this makes it a ghost town in the city centre .
Mamilla is also the location of the projected Simon Wiesenthal Center 's Center for Human Dignity , a controversial project because its construction would require building on part of an old Muslim cemetery .
= = = Mamilla Mall = = =
The $ 150 million , pedestrian @-@ only Mamilla shopping mall has been touted as a luxury destination in the style of Los Angeles ' Rodeo Drive or The Grove . Its commercial space is leased at $ 40 to $ 80 per square metre to 140 businesses , including international names like Rolex , MAC , H. Stern , Nike , Polo Ralph Lauren , Nautica , bebe , and Tommy Hilfiger , as well as local chains like Castro , Ronen Chen , Steimatzky Books , and Cafe Rimon . The mall is also slated to house an IMAX theatre . The first Gap store in Israel opened in Mamilla Mall in August 2009 .
= = = Teddy Fountain = = =
The Teddy Fountain opened on the valley slope in 2013 .
= = Notable residents = =
Uri Malmilian ( born 1957 ) , football ( soccer ) player and manager
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= Effects of tropical cyclones =
The main effects of tropical cyclones include heavy rain , strong wind , large storm surges at landfall , and tornadoes . The destruction from a tropical cyclone depends mainly on its intensity , its size , and its location . Tropical cyclones act to remove forest canopy as well as change the landscape near coastal areas , by moving and reshaping sand dunes and causing extensive erosion along the coast . Even well inland , heavy rainfall can lead to mudslides and landslides in mountainous areas . Their effects can be sensed over time by studying the concentration of the Oxygen @-@ 18 isotope within caves within the vicinity of cyclones ' paths being very hazardous to people 's life .
After the cyclone has passed , devastation often continues . Standing water can cause the spread of disease , and transportation or communication infrastructure may have been destroyed , hampering clean @-@ up and rescue efforts . Nearly two million people have died globally due to tropical cyclones . Despite their devastating effects , tropical cyclones are also beneficial , by potentially bringing rain to dry areas and moving heat from the tropics poleward . Out at sea , ships take advantage of their known characteristics by navigating through their weaker , western half .
When a cyclone hits it causes PST hazards . PST is an acronym standing for Primary , Secondary and Tertiary . A primary hazard involves destructive winds , debris and storm surge . Secondary hazard is flooding , fires and of course fresh water flooding . Finally Tertiary hazards involves food prices that go majorly up and other long term hazards like water poisoning .
= = At sea = =
A mature tropical cyclone can release heat at a rate upwards of 6x1014 watts . Tropical cyclones on the open sea cause large waves , heavy rain , and high winds , disrupting international shipping and , at times , causing shipwrecks . Generally , after its passage , a tropical cyclone stirs up ocean water , lowering sea surface temperatures behind it . This cool wake can cause the region to be less favorable for a subsequent tropical cyclone . On rare occasions , tropical cyclones may actually do the opposite . 2005 's Hurricane Dennis blew warm water behind it , contributing to the unprecedented intensity of Hurricane Emily , which followed it closely . Hurricanes help to maintain the global heat balance by moving warm , moist tropical air to the mid @-@ latitudes and polar regions . Were it not for the movement of heat poleward ( through other means as well as hurricanes ) , the tropical regions would be unbearably hot .
= = = North American colonization = = =
Shipwrecks are common with the passage of strong tropical cyclones . Such shipwrecks can change the course of history , as well as influence art and literature . A hurricane led to a victory of the Spanish over the French for control of Fort Caroline , and ultimately the Atlantic coast of North America , in 1565 . The Sea Venture was wrecked near Bermuda in 1609 which led to the colonization of Bermuda and provided the inspiration for Shakespeare 's The Tempest .
= = = Shipping = = =
Mariners have a way to safely navigate around tropical cyclones . They split tropical cyclones in two , based on their direction of motion , and maneuver to avoid the right segment of the cyclone in the Northern Hemisphere ( the left in the Southern Hemisphere ) . Sailors term the right side the dangerous semicircle since the heaviest rain and strongest winds and seas were located in this half of the storm , as the cyclone 's translation speed and its rotational wind are additive . The other half of the tropical cyclone is called the navigable semicircle since weather conditions are lessened ( subtractive ) in this portion of the storm ( but are still potentially quite hazardous ) . The rules of thumb for ship travel when a tropical cyclone is in their vicinity are to avoid them if at all possible and do not cross their forecast path ( crossing the T ) . Those traveling through the dangerous semicircle are advised to keep to the true wind on the starboard bow and make as much headway as possible . Ships moving through the navigable semicircle are advised to keep the true wind on the starboard quarter while making as much headway as possible .
= = Upon landfall = =
The most significant effects of a tropical cyclone occur when they cross coastlines , making landfall .
= = = Strong winds = = =
Strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles , buildings , bridges , personal property and other outside objects , turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles . In the United States , major hurricanes comprise just 21 % of all land falling tropical cyclones , but account for 83 % of all damage . Tropical cyclones often knock out power to tens or hundreds of thousands of people , preventing vital communication and hampering rescue efforts . Tropical cyclones often destroy key bridges , overpasses , and roads , complicating efforts to transport food , clean water , and medicine to the areas that need it . Furthermore , the damage caused by tropical cyclones to buildings and dwellings can result in economic damage to a region , and to a diaspora of the population of the region .
= = = Storm surge = = =
The storm surge , or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone , is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones , historically resulting in 90 % of tropical cyclone deaths . The relatively quick surge in sea level can move miles / kilometers inland , flooding homes and cutting off escape routes . The storm surges and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human @-@ made structures , but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries , which are typically important fish breeding locales .
= = = Heavy rainfall = = =
The thunderstorm activity in a tropical cyclone produces intense rainfall , potentially resulting in flooding , mudslides , and landslides . Inland areas are particularly vulnerable to freshwater flooding , due to residents not preparing adequately . Heavy inland rainfall eventually flows into coastal estuaries , damaging marine life in coastal estuaries . The wet environment in the aftermath of a tropical cyclone , combined with the destruction of sanitation facilities and a warm tropical climate , can induce epidemics of disease which claim lives long after the storm passes . Infections of cuts and bruises can be greatly amplified by wading in sewage @-@ polluted water . Large areas of standing water caused by flooding also contribute to mosquito @-@ borne illnesses . Furthermore , crowded evacuees in shelters increase the risk of disease propagation .
Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property , they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they affect and bring much @-@ needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions . Hurricanes in the eastern north Pacific often supply moisture to the Southwestern United States and parts of Mexico . Japan receives over half of its rainfall from typhoons . Hurricane Camille averted drought conditions and ended water deficits along much of its path , though it also killed 259 people and caused $ 9 @.@ 14 billion ( 2005 USD ) in damage .
On the other hand , the occurrence of tropical cyclones can cause tremendous variability in rainfall over the areas they affect : indeed cyclones are the primary cause of the most extreme rainfall variability in the world , observed in places such as Onslow and Port Hedland in subtropical Australia where the annual rainfall can range from practically nothing with no cyclones to over 1 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 39 in ) if cyclones are abundant .
= = = Tornadoes = = =
The broad rotation of a land falling tropical cyclone often spawns tornadoes , particularly in their right front quadrant . While these tornadoes are normally not as strong as their non @-@ tropical counterparts , heavy damage or loss of life can still occur . Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices , which persist until landfall .
= = Deaths = =
During the last two centuries , tropical cyclones have been responsible for the deaths of about 1 @.@ 9 million people worldwide . It is estimated that 10 @,@ 000 people per year perish due to tropical cyclones . The deadliest tropical cyclone was the 1970 Bhola cyclone , which had a death toll of anywhere from 300 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 lives .
= = = United States = = =
Before Hurricane Katrina , the average death rate for tropical cyclones in the United States was decreasing . The main cause of storm @-@ related fatalities was shifting away from storm surge and towards freshwater flooding . However , the median death rate per storm had increased through 1979 , with a lull during the 1980 @-@ 1995 period . This was due to greater numbers of people moving to the coastal margins and into harm 's way . Despite advances in warning strategies and reduction in track forecast error , this increase in fatalities is expected to continue for as long as people migrate towards the shore .
= = Reconstruction and repopulation = =
While tropical cyclones may well seriously damage settlement , total destruction encourages rebuilding . For example , the destruction wrought by Hurricane Camille on the Gulf coast spurred redevelopment , greatly increasing local property values . Research indicates that the typical hurricane strike raises real house prices for a number of years , with a maximum effect of between 3 percent to 4 percent three years after occurrence . However , disaster response officials point out that redevelopment encourages more people to live in clearly dangerous areas subject to future deadly storms . Hurricane Katrina is the most obvious example , as it devastated the region that had been revitalized after Hurricane Camille . Many former residents and businesses do relocate to inland areas away from the threat of future hurricanes as well .
In isolated areas with small populations , tropical cyclones may cause enough casualties to contribute to the founder 's effect as survivors repopulate their place . For example , around 1775 , a typhoon hit Pingelap Atoll , and in combination with a subsequent famine , reduced the island 's population to a low level . Several generations after the disaster , as many as 10 % of Pingelapese have a genetic form of color @-@ blindness called achromatopsia . This is due to one of the survivors of the depopulation brought on by the typhoon having a mutated gene , which the population bottleneck caused to be at a higher @-@ than @-@ usual level in succeeding generations .
= = Effects on natural resources = =
= = = Geomorphology = = =
Tropical cyclones reshape the geology near the coast by eroding sand from the beach as well as offshore , rearranging coral , and changing dune configuration onshore . Their rain water gets absorbed into stalagmites within caves , creating a record of past tropical cyclone impacts .
= = = = Coastal ridges = = = =
Waves and storm surges accompanying tropical cyclones erode undersea sands , erode shell deposits , break off corals from near shore reefs in their paths , and carry all this detritus landwards in a rolling wave of material that is deposited onshore , above highest astronomical tide as a ridge of sand , shell and coral . For example , each severe tropical cyclone ( i.e. Category 4 @-@ 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale ) crossing northeast Australia 's tropical coastline since the last significant change in sea levels ( about 5000 years ago ) has ' emplaced ' such ridges within the coastal landscape forming , in some places , series of ridges and a geomorphological record of highest magnitude cyclones hitting the coast over 3000 – 5000 years .
Eyewitness accounts verify ridges of this kind are formed by severe tropical cyclones and two clear examples cited are the 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) long , 35 metres ( 115 ft ) wide , 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high coral shingle ridge deposited on Funafuti Atoll ( Central South Pacific ) by Cyclone Bebe in October 1972 , and the large coral shingle ridge deposited on Jaluit Atoll ( Marshall Islands ) by Typhoon Ophelia in January 1958 . In tropical northeast Australia , an intense tropical cyclone hit in March 1918 ( crossing over the town of Innisfail ) , at which time there were eyewitness accounts of a 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) to 5 @.@ 1 metres ( 17 ft ) high ridge of pumice being deposited by that cyclone 's surge as it crossed the coast . ) .
= = = = Limestone cave stalagmites = = = =
When tropical cyclones cross land , thin layers of calcium carbonate of unusually ' light ' Oxygen isotope ( Oxygen @-@ 18 ) composition are deposited onto stalagmites in limestone caves up to 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) from the cyclone 's path .
As the cloud tops of tropical cyclones are high and cold , and their air is humid - their rainwater is ' lighter ' . In other words , the rainfall contains significantly higher quantities of unevaporated Oxygen @-@ 18 than other tropical rainfall . The isotopically lighter rainwater soaks into the ground , percolates down into caves , and , within a couple of weeks , Oxygen @-@ 18 transfers from the water into calcium carbonate , before being deposited in thin layers or ' rings ' within stalagmites . A succession of such events created within stalagmites maintain a record of cyclones tracking within a 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) radius of caves going back centuries , millennia , or even millions of years .
At Actun Tunichil Muknal cave in central Belize , researchers drilling stalagmites with a computer- controlled dental drill accurately identified and verified evidence of isotopically light rainfall for 11 tropical cyclones occurring over a 23 year period ( 1978 – 2001 ) .
At the Chillagoe limestone caves in northeast Australia ( 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) inland from Cairns ) researchers identified and matched evidence of isotopically light rainfall with 100 years of cyclone records , and from this have created a record of tropical cyclones from 2004 back to 1200 A.D. ( an 800 year record ) .
= = = Landscapes = = =
Severe tropical cyclones defoliate tropical forest canopy trees , remove vines and epiphytes from the trees , break tree crown stems , and cause tree falls . The degree of damage they do along their paths , at a landscape level ( i.e. > 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) ) , can be catastrophic yet variable and patchy . Trees break at 42 m / s , regardless of size and type . Stripping trees and scattering forest debris also provides fuel for wildfires , such as a blaze that lasted three months in 1989 and burned 460 square miles ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) of forest that had been stripped by Hurricane Gilbert .
Wind velocity gradients or horizontal wind shear ( size of cyclone , the intensity of cyclone , proximity to the cyclone , and local scale cyclonic convection effects ) .
Degree of exposure ( windward exposure , leeward acceleration , or local topographic sheltering / shading ) ; and
Ecosystem species composition and forest structure
Assessments of cyclone damage done to tropical rainforest landscapes in northeast Australia , have produced the following typology for describing and ' mapping ' the variable impacts they have along their paths , as follows :
Severe and extensive closest to the centre of cyclone : impact appears to be multidirectional and is evidenced by crowns of most trees having been broken , smashed or windthrown
Severe and localised closer to the cyclone centre than its edge : direction of the destructive winds is clearly identifiable , and severe canopy disruption is limited to the windward aspect of these forested areas
Moderate canopy disturbance closer to cyclone edge than its centre : most of the tree stems are still standing , with only some treefalls , and most of the damage is the defoliation of the canopy and branch breakage ;
Slight canopy disturbance closest to cyclone edge : occasional stem fall or branch breakage , with most of the damage consisting of loss of foliage on the forest edges only , subsequently followed by leaf damage and heavy leaf litter falls .
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= Dawn of Mana =
Dawn of Mana , originally released in Japan as Seiken Densetsu 4 , is a 2006 action @-@ adventure game for the PlayStation 2 . It was developed and published by Square Enix . It is the eighth game of the Mana series and the third entry in the World of Mana subseries , following the release of Children of Mana nine months prior and Friends of Mana two months prior . Set in a high fantasy universe , Dawn of Mana follows a young hero , Keldric , as he journeys to close a portal to a land of darkness that has been opened in the base of the Tree of Mana and is corrupting the world .
While it contains some small role @-@ playing elements , Dawn of Mana diverges from the prior two @-@ dimensional action role @-@ playing game titles of the series to focus directly on action @-@ adventure gameplay in a full 3D world . Incorporating the Havok physics engine , the gameplay focuses on the player grabbing and throwing objects and monsters in order to startle enemies before attacking them with a sword and magic . Keldric grows more powerful as the player journeys through an area , only to reset to his base abilities with each new zone unless difficult extra challenges are met . Unlike many of its predecessors , the game does not feature any cooperative multiplayer component .
Dawn of Mana was designed , directed , and produced by series creator Koichi Ishii . The script was written by Ryo Akagi , based on a story created by Masato Kato , and the music was composed by an group led by Kenji Ito . The game was a moderate commercial success : it sold 229 @,@ 000 copies in its first ten days of release in Japan , and over 410 @,@ 000 copies worldwide by the end of 2008 . While critics praised the graphics and music as beautiful and lush , they found the leveling system annoying , the combat controls difficult and frustrating , and the story trite .
= = Gameplay = =
Unlike previous games in the Mana series , Dawn of Mana takes place in a full three @-@ dimensional world , in which the player characters navigate the terrain and fight off hostile creatures . The player controls the main character , Keldric , and is followed for almost all of the game by a fairy spirit , Faye . Unlike previous games in the series , Dawn is an action @-@ adventure game , rather than an action role @-@ playing game ; as such , gameplay is focused on movement and attacking enemies , rather than leveling @-@ up character statistics . Keldric is able to run , roll , and jump through the game world . Keldric has access to a vine @-@ like plant attached to his arm , which can be used at any time as either a sword , a whip , or a slingshot . The sword can be used to hit enemies and objects , the whip can grab and throw enemies and objects , and the slingshot can throw collectible pebbles as projectiles . Faye can cast magic spells , selectable by the player .
The combat system in Dawn of Mana is called the Mono system , based around the Havok physic engine . Almost all objects in the game , including enemies , are moveable , allowing Keldric to throw objects at enemies , or even throw other monsters . Keldric can either throw objects in the direction he is facing , or can target a specific enemy or object to aim at them . When something is thrown near an enemy , they Panic , resulting in a counter over their head that counts down to zero to end the Panic . While panicked , enemies take more damage from attacks and spells . Defeating enemies when they are panicked gives the player two types of medals , which can either boost the player 's health and attack damage , or mana and magic damage . Throwing multiple objects can Panic enemies more ; when the Panic meter is greater than 99 the player can receive better medals . Defeating enemies also grants experience points , which raise Keldric and Faye 's level up to a maximum of four , granting higher health , mana , and damage , and granting new spells and attacks . In addition to being throwable , many objects in the game are also destructible .
The game is divided into eight chapters and a prologue ; at the end of each chapter , the player is graded on their performance , and all of their statistics and medals are reset . The only items which carry over between chapters are emblems , which are given to the player for achieving high scores in a chapter or defeating hidden monsters . High scores are achieved by defeating more enemies , and defeating enemies with high Panic meters . In addition to the main game is a challenge arena , accessible through the main menu , where Keldric can fight timed battles against powerful foes . Keldric can fight alongside AI @-@ controlled pets in these challenges , found in eggs throughout the game . The challenge arena also contains a shop , which contains emblems , eggs , and bonuses like extra music or higher game difficulties , which can be bought with money dropped by enemies throughout the game .
= = Plot = =
Dawn of Mana opens on the fictional island of Illusia , a place where the giant Mana Tree lies dormant . Much of the story takes place on Fa 'Diel , a continent composed of the five nations of Jadd , Topple , Ishe , Wendell , and Lorimar . At the start of the game Ritzia , a Maiden in charge of tending to the Tree , and Keldric , her knight and the player @-@ controlled character , have left their village to find Ritzia 's missing pet . While they are out , Illusia is attacked by King Stroud of Lorimar . The pair rush to the Tree of Mana , thinking that Stroud intends to attack the legendary beast that lies sleeping underneath its roots . While searching for the beast , Keldric finds a seed of the Tree , which attaches to his arm and can transform into a slingshot , a whip , or a sword . They also find Faye , a spirit child , who can cast magic and joins them . When they reach the center of the labyrinth of roots , Stroud 's men catch up to them ; they had been searching for Ritzia , not the beast . Stroud intends to open a portal to Mavolia , a land of darkness sealed away for centuries , and believes Ritzia is part of the key as a Maiden had been a part of opening the portal before . Stroud leaves with Ritzia to find the rest of the key , and Keldric and Faye chase after them .
Keldric and Faye , with the help of the great beast , Flammie , force the Lorimarian army to leave the village . They chase after Stroud , catching up to him at the coast . There they free Ritzia , only to be attacked by Stroud , wielding the other part of the key — the Sword of Mana . Keldric is thrown off of Stroud 's airship , and the Lorimarians invade Illusia again . Stroud opens the portal , and a wave of dark energy is released , transforming the Tree , turning the people of Illusia into monsters called Grimlies , and releasing dark monsters from Mavolia . Keldric and Faye flee , and head for Fa 'Diel .
A year of wandering later , the dark energy has begun to affect other countries in Fa 'Diel . Keldric discovers in Jadd that Ritzia plans to release the Mavolian energy to cover the whole world . He and Faye journey back to Illusia , only to discover Ritzia seemingly possessed and saying that it is their destiny to rule the world . After she runs away , Keldric meets a masked stranger who tells him that he was the one to close the portal centuries ago , sealing up the Maiden who had opened it , Anise , inside . He also reveals that Stroud is Keldric 's older brother . When Keldric and Faye reach the portal , they find Stroud and Ritzia fighting . Stroud is trying to prevent Ritzia , possessed by Anise , from destroying the world , but is being mutated by the dark energy . Keldric defeats the mutated Stroud , and then fights Ritzia . Realizing that the only way to close the portal is to defeat Anise , he is forced to kill Ritzia along with her . The spirits of Ritzia and Faye then merge with the Tree of Mana , the portal is sealed , and Illusia is restored .
= = Development = =
In 2003 , Square Enix began a drive to begin developing " polymorphic content " , a marketing and sales strategy to " [ provide ] well @-@ known properties on several platforms , allowing exposure of the products to as wide an audience as possible " . The first of these was the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , and Square Enix intended to have campaigns for other series whereby multiple games in different genres would be developed simultaneously . In early 2005 , Square Enix announced a " World of Mana " project , the application of this " polymorphic content " idea to the Mana franchise , which would include several games across different genres and platforms . These games , as with the rest of the series , would not be direct sequels or prequels to one another , even if appearing so at first glance , but would instead share thematic connections . The third release in this project and the eighth release in the Mana series was announced in September 2005 as Seiken Densetsu 4 , the first 3D game in the series , though no other details were given in favor of promoting the first game , Children of Mana .
Dawn of Mana was designed , directed , and produced by series creator Koichi Ishii . The script was written by Ryo Akagi , based on a story created by Masato Kato . The main objective of the development team was to convert the entire Mana world into a 3D environment , rather than just starting from scratch graphically and adding new elements to the gameplay . Ishii had previously wanted to make the 1999 PlayStation game Legend of Mana a 3D game , but the console had been unable to handle his vision of the player interacting with natural shaped objects in a full 3D world . He wanted to create a Mana title that could explore " the feeling of touch " in a game . After seeing the Havok physics engine in a demo of Half @-@ Life 2 at E3 in 2004 , Ishii decided to use the system in Dawn to give players a visual link between environments , objects , and characters . He hoped the physics engine and 3D graphics would allow him " to create a world where players utilize a variety of actions to alter the world and the objects contained within " . Although Ishii has said that the games in the series are only thematically connected , he has also asserted in an interview that Dawn is set ten years before Children of Mana , which depicts the aftermath of the " cataclysm " of Dawn .
= = = Music = = =
The score for Dawn of Mana was composed by Kenji Ito , while Tsuyoshi Sekito and Masayoshi Soken contributed numerous tracks and Grammy Award @-@ winning musician and film composer Ryuichi Sakamoto wrote the theme song , " Dawn of Mana " . Tracks originally composed for earlier games in the series by Ito , Hiroki Kikuta , and Yoko Shimomura were also arranged for Dawn of Mana by the main three composers . Sekito focused on the game 's boss themes , while Soken worked on other battle music . Ito had previously composed the music for the first game in the Mana series , Final Fantasy Adventure ( 1991 ) , as well as its 2003 remake Sword of Mana , and for the 2006 Children of Mana . This was the first soundtrack in the Mana series to feature work by Sekito , Soken , or Sakamoto , though Sekito and Soken had worked for Square Enix previously on other titles . The music of the game covers a range of styles , including rock , classical , and orchestral . Sakamoto drew inspiration for the theme song from the image of the Mana tree shown at the title screen of the game . The album Seiken Densetsu 4 Original Soundtrack -Sanctuary- collects 106 tracks from Children of Mana on four discs and is nearly four and a half hours in length . It was published by Square Enix on January 24 , 2007 . A promotional album , Breath of Mana , was released along with preorders of the game in Japan on December 21 , 2006 . The thirteen @-@ minute disc contains five orchestral and piano songs , all composed by Ito , three of which did not appear on the full soundtrack album .
= = Reception = =
Dawn of Mana sold over 229 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of 2006 , ten days after release , and was the top @-@ selling PlayStation 2 title in Japan during its release week . As of November 2008 it had sold over 340 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . The game sold 70 @,@ 000 copies in North America by November 2007 .
Upon its release , Dawn of Mana received generally poor reviews over a wide range , with numerical scores that range from 30 to 80 out of 100 . Reviewers praised Dawn of Mana 's graphics and character design ; GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd called it colorful and " pretty " , and praised the particle effects , while a reviewer for GameTrailers noted the " gorgeous in @-@ game cinematics " . Gabe Graziani of GameSpy also called out the cinematics in his review , calling them " beautifully rendered and animated " and the highlight of the game . IGN 's Jeff Haynes liked the scale and variety of the 3D environments and called out the character models as worthy of praise . Andrew Fitch of 1UP.com , however , described the level design as " chaotic " despite the " charming , candy @-@ coated graphics " . Joe Juba and Matt Miller of Game Informer said that the environments are " pretty bland " , but praised the rest of the graphics heavily . Michael Beckett of RPGamer said that " Dawn of Mana 's visual style is highly impressive " and especially praised the character design and color palette . The music was also praised ; VanOrd called it " the highlight of the sound design " and the GameTrailers reviewer claimed that Dawn of Mana had a " lush soundtrack filling every moment of the game " . Beckett also praised the music , and noted the callbacks in the largely orchestral score to previous games in the Mana series .
The gameplay was heavily criticized by reviewers such as Fitch of 1UP.com , who disliked both the way the character abilities reset with every new area and the " inane " and " mundane " system for collecting emblems , criticisms echoed by GameSpot 's VanOrd . The GameTrailers review added that the way the character 's levels and abilities reset in each area " zaps the sense of accomplishment from the game as a whole " . Haynes of IGN also found issues with the targeting system for attacking enemies at range , finding it ineffective , and also criticized the leveling system and the game 's map . Graziani of GameSpy felt the targeting system was one of the worst parts of Dawn of Mana , along with the camera system — a complaint also raised by Haynes . Both Fitch and VanOrd focused their criticisms of the controls on the Havok physics engine , which they felt was poorly utilized and left the player feeling out of control — unable to aim when throwing objects or easily control the character during the game 's jumping sections . Juba of Game Informer felt that the physics engine left the controls " laughably uncooperative " .
The game 's story was also not seen as a highlight ; Graziani called it " trite " and " fan service " , while Fitch deemed it " a bit of a Neverending Story rip @-@ off " , though a charming one . Beckett of RPGamer called it " a somewhat trite tale of boy chases girl " and noted " a general lack of closure to the story " . Juba of Game Informer , however , deemed it an " interesting plot " . Both the GameTrailers review and VanOrd praised the " charm " of the characters , though VanOrd noted that they were making up for an unoriginal plot . Overall , several reviewers felt that Dawn of Mana was a divergence from the rest of the series that did not add as much as it took away ; even the notably high @-@ scoring Japanese Famitsu review felt that the change in gameplay would confuse fans and other players .
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= Brandon Graham =
Brandon Lee Graham ( born April 3 , 1988 ) is an American football defensive end for the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He was drafted by the Eagles in the first round of the 2010 NFL Draft with the thirteenth selection in the draft and the first from the Big Ten Conference . He played college football at Michigan .
Graham was the 2009 Big Ten Conference co @-@ MVP as recognized by the Chicago Tribune Silver Football award . He was the 2009 FBS tackles ( TFLs ) for a loss ( per game ) champion after finishing second in 2008 by .01 TFL per game . He was the 2008 & 2009 Big Ten Conference TFL ( total ) champion .
After completing his career as defensive end for the 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team , he had a total of 29 @.@ 5 career sacks and 56 career TFLs for the Michigan Wolverines football team . In 2008 , he led the Big Ten Conference in TFLs ( 20 in 11 games ) . In 2009 , he posted 26 TFLs and 10 @.@ 5 sacks in 12 games . As a member of the 2008 Michigan Wolverines football team he earned Second @-@ team 2008 Big Ten All @-@ conference recognition from both the coaches and the media . He was a finalist for the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football Hendricks Award . He was a First @-@ team 2009 All @-@ Big Ten selection by the coaches and media . He was named to several First @-@ team and Second @-@ team 2009 All @-@ America lists by various publications . Graham was also named MVP of the 2010 Senior Bowl .
In high school , he was a highly decorated and highly rated linebacker who served as captain for the 2006 U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl . He was listed on numerous All @-@ American lists and was a finalists for some of the highest individual honors a high school football player can earn .
= = Early years = =
As a youth , Graham played football for the Police Athletic League Detroit Giants for seven years until joining the eighth grade team . Born and raised in Detroit , Graham attended Crockett Vocational Tech , a school that began participating in Michigan High School Athletic Association ( MHSAA ) football competitions in 1996 and that did not have a proper locker room for its football team before moving in his senior season . Since the football field had no lights , parents had to shine their car lights on the field for late practices . At Crockett , Graham. who had been playing competitive football since age seven , was expected to make an immediate impact upon joining the football team 's starting lineup as a sophomore , and at the end of the season he was recognized as an honorable mention lineman 2003 All @-@ Detroit selection by The Detroit News .
As a junior , Graham served as linebacker , offensive guard , placekicker and punter for his team , and he led his team to the MHSAA state championships , while becoming one of three juniors named to the 2004 First @-@ team All @-@ Detroit team with one source listing him as a placekicker and the other as a linebacker on the team . Crockett won Detroit Public School League Division 1 championship game at Ford Field and entered the Division 5 MHSAA semifinals with a 12 – 0 record , but Crockett lost 9 – 0 to defending state champion Lumen Christi Catholic High School . In addition to recording 91 tackles ( 20 for a loss ) , he maintained a 3 @.@ 8 grade point average . In one game , he posted twelve tackles , four sacks , four forced fumbles , two blocked punts and scored on a 78 @-@ yard fake punt . He was selected for the Associated Press first @-@ team Class B all @-@ state team as a linebacker .
In high school , Rivals.com ranked Graham as the top class of 2006 high school football prospect in the state of Michigan , the number two inside linebacker prospect and the overall fifteenth best prospect in the nation . Scout.com listed him as the number three linebacker in the nation and described him as the number one overall prospect in the midwest . Scout also described him as " arguably the best inside linebacker in the nation " . ESPNU ranked him as the number two inside linebacker and number thirty @-@ one prospect in the nation . Recruiting analyst Tom Lemming , listed Graham as the best linebacker in the country for USA Today . The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution listed him at 15th among their national top 25 prospects .
Entering his senior season , he was the overwhelming selection as the best high school football player in the state of Michigan according The Detroit News . He had run a 4 @.@ 43 @-@ second 40 @-@ yard dash at the Nike Summer football camp . As a senior , he intended to also play tight end and fullback . One Detroit News preseason analysts listed him at linebacker , tight end and offensive guard . During the season , after missing four weeks to a knee injury , Graham was chosen as one of 78 players to participate in the January 7 , 2006 U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl at the Alamodome . He was also named as a finalist for both the Parade All @-@ America High School player of the year ( The high school equivalent of the Heisman Trophy ) and the Walter Payton Trophy . He was elected captain of the East team at the U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl and recorded four tackles as well as a blocked field goal in the game that also featured two of his Michigan teammates : ( Justin Boren and Stevie Brown ) . There were only 16 finalists for the Parade award , including future Michigan teammate Stephen Schilling and future Heisman @-@ winner Tim Tebow . Graham led his team to a rematch against Lumen Christi , which they lost 35 – 21 in the MHSAA Division 5 district championship game . In Graham 's three years at Crockett , they went undefeated in the regular season and as a senior he was again selected to the All @-@ Detroit first @-@ team as a linebacker . Graham was also selected as to the Associated Press Class B All @-@ State football team as its player of the year . The Detroit News selected him to the All @-@ Class state Dream Team . He was also selected as the All @-@ class statewide best linebacker as part of the inaugural class of The Michigan Prep Football Great 8 awarded by the Mid @-@ Michigan Touchdown Club for being best at his position in the state . By his senior year , he had a 3 @.@ 2 grade point average .
Since Graham was the first Michigan athlete to play in the U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl , he was not aware that he was violating Michigan state rules by participating in an out @-@ of @-@ state all @-@ star game . He had to surrender his high school athletic eligibility for the winter and spring seasons . During his time away from athletics , he overate and added 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) . Although he had been recruited as a linebacker , with the additional weight he was moved to defensive end . As he lost the excess weight he began to realize that he could excel at a lighter weight .
For his athletic excellence , Graham received many honors . Among the recognition he received are Parade Magazine All @-@ American , EA Sports All @-@ American , USA Today All @-@ USA High School All @-@ America first team ( No. 14 player in the nation by USA Today ) , Michigan Gatorade Player of the Year , first player from the state of Michigan to play in the U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl , 2005 Detroit News No. 1 Blue Chip prospect , and No. 2 on the Detroit Free Press Best of the Midwest rankings . Additionally , he was recognized as one of ten top prep athletes in Michigan in 2005 @-@ 2006 , including men and women from all sports , as a 2006 McDonald 's @-@ Powerade Tomorrow 's Winners honoree at the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame dinner .
= = College career = =
= = = Lloyd Carr era = = =
Graham arrived at Michigan measuring 295 pounds ( 134 kg ) and 6 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) . Graham was initially listed as a linebacker at Michigan , but before the 2006 NCAA Division I FBS football season started for the 2006 Michigan Wolverines football team he switched to defensive end . Graham was ( along with Greg Matthews , Carlos Brown , Brandon Minor and Stevie Brown ) one of five true freshmen to play in the season opening game . Graham was the backup for 2006 Lombardi Award and 2006 Ted Hendricks Award winner LaMarr Woodley . Graham also performed as a reserve defensive tackle during the season . Graham made his first tackle for Michigan on October 28 against Northwestern and recorded his first sack and forced fumble on November 11 against Indiana .
As the 2007 Michigan Wolverines football team prepared for the 2007 NCAA Division I FBS football season , Graham got some unusual news off the field when he found out that he had been given a perfect 99 rating in the NCAA 2008 EA Sports even though his star teammates Chad Henne , Jake Long and Mike Hart had not . Also , off the field , Graham was issued a ticket playing loud music in a vehicle on July 24 and missed the September 18 court date after pleading not guilty . This caused a judge to issue an arrest warrant for failing to appear in court on a disorderly conduct charge . The charges were dropped under the belief that he had been misidentified . At the start of training camp , he weighed 262 pounds ( 119 kg ) and was the projected starter at defensive end . Although projected to as the starter , Graham played sparingly in the opening game loss to two @-@ time defending FCS champions Appalachian State Mountaineers on September 1 . Head coach Lloyd Carr noted his disfavor with Graham at the start of the season : " Brandon , he needs to get focused , " Carr said , " and do the things that he 's capable of doing . " He was disappointed in Graham 's efforts in practice . In the third game , on September 15 against Notre Dame Graham recorded 3 @.@ 5 sacks in the rivalry game to help lead Michigan to its first win of the season . The following week he had 1 @.@ 5 sacks , a forced fumble and a fumble recovery in a victory against Penn State . Over the course of the season , he started six games at defensive end . He led the team in sacks with 8 @.@ 5 and was second in forced fumbles with 3 . He ranked seventh in the Big Ten for both statistics . He was a mid @-@ season Ted Hendricks Award watch list candidate .
= = = Rich Rodriguez era = = =
Graham , who had been troubled by conditioning issues the prior season arrived at spring practice in very good shape , which pleased newly arrived head coach Rich Rodriguez , who was welcomed by a defensive line composed entirely of returning starters , including Graham . Graham began the 2008 NCAA Division I FBS football season as a Hendricks award watch list candidate for the 2008 Michigan Wolverines football team . However , the team began the season unranked in the Associated Press poll for the first time in 23 years . On September 27 Graham had 3 sacks and 2 forced fumbles against the Wisconsin Badgers , and he was named Big Ten Conference Defensive Player of the Week . Prior to the October 25 Paul Bunyan Trophy game against Michigan State , Graham guaranteed a victory . Although the team lost 35 – 21 , Graham again recorded three sacks . Graham finished the season with 10 sacks . He led the Big Ten with 20 tackles for a loss ( TFL ) and 1 @.@ 82 TFLs per game and was second with 0 @.@ 91 sacks / game . He ranked second nationally in tackles for loss and tied for eleventh in sacks . After the season , he was recognized as a 2008 Second @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection by both the coaches and the media . Graham was selected as the team Most Valuable Player .
Graham began the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season as a watch lists candidate for the Bednarik Award , Hendricks Award , Lombardi Award , Lott Trophy , and Nagurski Trophy for the 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team . He was also selected by ESPN as the 10th best player in the Big Ten Conference before the season started . He concluded the season as the Chicago Tribune Silver Football recipient as the Big Ten co @-@ MVP ( with Daryll Clark ) . He was the seventh defensive player to earn the award and second in the last 25 years as well as the first co @-@ recipient . Graham was the first player from a losing team in eight years and only the second player to win who was not either Big Ten offensive or defensive player of the year . He posted 26 TFLs in 12 games , which led the nation with 2 @.@ 17 average tackles for a loss per game ( ahead of conference rival O 'Brien Schofield who was second with 1 @.@ 884 ) . His total of 10 @.@ 5 sacks ranked fourth in the Big Ten Conference . Four times during the season , he recorded multiple sack games and he had three solo TFLs in four games . He ended his career at Michigan with 9 TFLs ( 8 solo and 2 assists ) in his final two games , including a career @-@ high 5 solo TFLs against Ohio State in the 2009 rivalry game , which was the final game of his career . Graham was one of seven finalists for the Hendricks Award . At the conclusion of the season he was a 2009 First @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten selection by the coaches and media . He was a First @-@ team 2009 College Football All @-@ America Team selection by ESPN , Rivals.com and Scout.com , and he was a Second @-@ team All @-@ American defensive line selection by the Walter Camp Football Foundation , Associated Press , Sports Illustrated , College Football News and The Sporting News . He was an honorable mention All @-@ American by Pro Football Weekly ( which had no second team ) . Graham was again selected as the team MVP , which made him the school 's first defensive player to be two @-@ time MVP . As of December 2009 , Graham was the only Big Ten player on Mel Kiper 's " Big Board " Top 25 . Brandon Graham earned MVP honors at the January 30 , 2010 Senior Bowl with five tackles , two sacks , one forced fumble .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
At the NFL Combine , Graham ranked 8th among defensive linemen with a 4 @.@ 72 40 @-@ yard dash and 10th in the bench press with 31 .
= = = Philadelphia Eagles = = =
Graham was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles 13th overall after trading up in the 2010 NFL Draft . Graham decided to wear number 54 for the Eagles immediately after the draft , but changed his mind and chose number 55 . Graham shares the same sports agent ( Joel Segal ) as former teammate Michael Vick . He was the first Big Ten Conference player selected in the 2010 NFL Draft . He agreed to terms on a five @-@ year contract on July 29 , 2010 . Graham recorded his first NFL sack against the Detroit Lions in a week 2 win on September 19 , 2010 . After suffering a torn anterior cruciate ligament ( ACL ) in a week 14 game against the Dallas Cowboys , Graham was placed on the injured reserve list on December 14 . He underwent microfracture surgery on his right knee on December 21 . Graham was placed on the active / physically unable to perform list on July 28 , 2011 , before the start of training camp . He was removed him from the physically unable to perform list so he could return to practice on October 24 and activated on November 5 , 2011 . In 2013 , Graham moved from defensive end to linebacker . Many people had predicted he would become a linebacker at the pro level back when he was still in college . After coming close to signing with the New York Giants , in 2015 Graham signed a 4 @-@ year $ 26 million contract with $ 14 million guaranteed with the Eagles to remain with the team .
= = = NFL stats = = =
= = Personal = =
Graham is married to Carlyne Graham .
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= Hurricane Fefa =
Hurricane Fefa was a major Pacific hurricane of the 1991 Pacific hurricane season that despite causing minimal effects its name was removed from the list of tropical cyclone names . The sixth tropical storm , fourth hurricane , and second major hurricane of the season , the storm developed from a tropical wave on July 29 about 975 miles ( 1 @,@ 575 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cabo San Lucas . It moved west @-@ northwestward , and under generally favorable conditions it strengthened to attain peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) on August 2 . Fefa turned to the west towards Hawaii , and slowly weakened until dissipating near the island of Hawaii .
The hurricane produced rough surf , moderate wind gusts , and locally heavy rainfall during its passage over Hawaii . No damages or deaths were reported . Two people were injured in the island of Hawaii due to lightning strikes from the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave exited the coast of Africa on July 17 . It tracked across the unfavorable Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without development , and after crossing Central America , it entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on July 25 . The cloud pattern and convection began to become better organized on July 28 , and shortly thereafter a mid @-@ level circulation developed . It continued to organize , and subsequent to the development of a low @-@ level circulation it formed into Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E while located about 975 miles ( 1 @,@ 575 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cabo San Lucas on July 29 . Operationally , tropical cyclone advisories were not initiated until visible satellite images confirmed the low @-@ level circulation twelve hours after the depression formed .
Located over warm waters with fair upper level outflow , the depression quickly intensified and attained tropical storm status twelve hours after forming . Upon strengthening into a tropical storm , Fefa developed a curved cloud band over the southern and eastern portion of the center . The storm slowly strengthened as it tracked west @-@ northwestward , a motion due to the presence of a high @-@ pressure ridge to its north . Fefa initially strengthened slowly ; on the day after it became a tropical storm the center was located on the western edge of the deep convection . On July 31 , convection began increasing over the center , and it is estimated it intensified into a hurricane later that day while located about 710 miles ( 1 @,@ 145 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California .
Initially , Fefa was forecast to intensify slightly after reaching hurricane status to reach peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . However , it quickly intensified after a large , ragged eye developed early on August 1 . On August 2 , the eye organized further , and Fefa strengthened to attain a peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) while located about 940 miles ( 1 @,@ 510 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Based on higher Dvorak numbers , the hurricane could have peaked with winds stronger than 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . Fefa encountered cooler waters shortly after peaking in intensity , and subsequently began to weaken . The hurricane gradually weakened as it turned more to the west , a change in motion due to building high pressures to its north , and on August 3 the winds of Fefa dropped to 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) due to cooler water and dry air .
As Fefa turned more to the west , it paralleled the cooler waters , allowing the eye to remain distinct as the hurricane remained well @-@ organized . Despite moving over marginally warm sea surface temperatures and becoming involved with the Stratocumulus cloud field to its north , the hurricane restrengthened on August 4 to reach a secondary peak intensity of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) while located about 1 @,@ 265 miles ( 2 @,@ 070 km ) east @-@ southeast of Hilo , Hawai 'i . After maintaining 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) winds for about 18 hours , Fefa weakened slightly due to increasing wind shear from a cold @-@ core trough as it entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center area of responsibility . As the shear increased , the cyclone weakened more rapidly , and on August 6 it weakened to a tropical storm while located about 650 miles ( 1 @,@ 060 km ) east of the island of Hawaii . Initially , forecasters predicted Fefa to turn to the northwest to the north of the Hawaiian Islands . However , the storm continued moving almost due westward as it steadily weakened . Aircraft reconnaissance flew into Fefa three times as it neared Hawaii . Late on August 7 , Fefa weakened to a tropical depression a short distance of the island of Hawaii , and early on August 8 the depression began dissipating and degenerated into a tropical wave after moving onshore . The remnants tracked west @-@ northwestward and passed south of the Hawaiian Islands until dissipating on August 9 to the northwest of Kauai .
= = Impact = =
The prolonged westward track of Hurricane Fefa produced swells of up to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) in height . The swells hit eastward facing beaches along the island of Hawaii . The swells washed debris and sea water onto coastal roads near Punaluu Black Sand Beach , resulting in the roads being closed following the storm . Southwestern Maui experienced rough surf , as well . Despite being a weak tropical depression and a tropical wave while moving through the Hawaiian Islands , Fefa produced locally strong wind gusts of up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) in the islands of Hawaii and Maui .
Prior to moving across the island of Hawaii , strong thunderstorms developed in the northeastern portion of the remnant circulation of Fefa . The thunderstorms developed further as they moved over the slopes of Mauna Kea and Kohala . The thunderstorms produced heavy rainfall in areas , resulting in flash flooding in Kohala and Hamakua . Hurricane Fefa resulted in no known deaths . Lightning from the storm caused two injuries . A man in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was hurt when lightning struck where he was walking . A man in Hilo was burnt when lightning moved through telephone wires . The storm resulted in no reported damage .
The name Fefa was removed after this storm and replaced with Felicia in the 1997 season . The reason for the name retirement is unknown , as the storm itself caused little damage . Possible reasons listed for the removal of the name are pronunciation ambiguity , a socially unacceptable meaning in another language , or because the storm name represented a significant human disaster .
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= You Must Love Me =
" You Must Love Me " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Madonna . It was written by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice , for the 1996 film adaptation of the musical , Evita , based on the life of Argentinian leader Eva Perón . The song was released on October 27 , 1996 , by Warner Bros. as the lead single from the film 's soundtrack . After years of not working together due to their individual projects , Webber and Rice collaborated on creating a new track for the film , with the hopes of obtaining an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song . According to Webber , the song 's main inspiration was to showcase Perón 's emotional state at the time as well as her relationship with husband Juan Perón .
Madonna , who starred in the titular role of the film , had tried to change the lyrics of the track to create a sympathetic portrayal of Perón , but was unsuccessful . She also undertook vocal lessons to record the songs for the film . " You Must Love Me " features instrumentation from cello and piano which accompanies Madonna 's vocals . The song garnered positive response from music critics , many of them highlighting Madonna 's enhanced singing ability . It went on to win the Golden Globe and the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1997 .
Commercially , " You Must Love Me " became a top @-@ ten hit in some countries including Finland , Italy and the United Kingdom , while reaching the top @-@ twenty in the United States . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 physical units . A music video , directed by Alan Parker , was released as promotion for the single . Madonna has performed the song at the 69th Academy Awards and on her 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour .
= = Background and development = =
In 1996 , Madonna starred in the film Evita , playing the role of Eva Perón , the Spiritual Leader of the Nation of Argentina . For a long time , Madonna had desired to play Perón and even wrote a letter to director Alan Parker , explaining how she would be perfect for the part . After securing the role , she underwent vocal training with coach Joan Layder since Evita required the actors to sing their own parts . Layder noted that the singer " had to use her voice in a way she 's never used it before . Evita is real musical theater — its operatic , in a sense . Madonna developed an upper register that she didn 't know she had . "
" You Must Love Me " was written by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice , who had reunited for Evita after a ten @-@ year creative separation due to their individual projects . It was written specifically for the film , so that it would contain new material and be eligible for an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song . Madonna noted it as her favorite song from the film , recalling that the idea for " You Must Love Me " grew when Parker re @-@ arranged the ending of the film from the original play , with the hopes of reuniting Rice and Webber to create new music . According to Webber , the main inspiration behind the song was to showcase Perón 's emotional state at the time as well as her relationship with husband Juan Perón ; " [ Eva ] is dying and she knows she 's dying . One reason she is saying , ' You must love me ' , is out of desperation . She 's also saying , ' You must love me because you must have always loved me ' , so it 's a little word play , I guess , which Tim Rice has written " . It was released as the soundtrack 's first official single on October 27 , 1996 . Since its release , the song has been included in several productions of the play , including the 2006 London production and the 2012 Broadway revival .
= = Recording and composition = =
Recording sessions for the film 's songs and soundtrack began on September 1995 , and took place at the CTS Studios in London with Madonna accompanied by co @-@ actors Antonio Banderas and Jonathan Pryce . However , trouble arose as Madonna was not completely comfortable with laying down a " guide vocal " simultaneously with an 84 piece orchestra inside the studio . She was used to singing over a pre @-@ recorded track and not have musicians listen to her . Also , unlike her previous soundtrack releases , she had little to no control over the project ; " I 'm used to writing my own songs and I go into a studio , choose the musicians and say what sounds good or doesn 't [ ... ] To work on forty @-@ six songs with everyone involved and not have a big say was a big adjustment " , she recalled . An emergency meeting was held between Parker , Webber and Madonna where it was decided that the singer would record her part in a more contemporary studio while the orchestration would take place somewhere else . She also had alternate days off from the recording .
" You Must Love Me " starts with the sound of orchestra and piano , as Madonna sings the opening verses . She continues singing the lyrics , which talk about Perón 's discovery that her husband Juan had actually loved her all along and not merely seen her as a political prop . When presented to Madonna , her reaction to the lyrics was negative since she wanted to have a sympathetic portrayal of Perón , rather than the " shrewd manipulator " like character that Parker had in mind . She was also concerned about her own image , and was successful in getting many of the portions in the script altered . However , Rice declined to change the song , but rewrote it five to six times . He recalled , " I remember taking the lyrics to Madonna and she was trying to change them ... The scene can be interpreted in different ways , but my lyrics were kept , thank God ! "
Other instrumentation for the song includes cello , which was played by a live orchestra . As the song moves towards the chorus , the piano sounds stop and the cello plays with Madonna belting out the lyrics : " Deep in my heart , I 'm concealing , Things that I 'm longing to say , Scared to confess what I 'm feeling , Frightened you 'll slip away " , when the piano and the orchestra sounds come back again . It proceeds in the same way and gradually fades out . " You Must Love Me " is set in common time , with a moderate tempo of 92 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B ♭ major , with Madonna 's vocals spanning from G3 to B ♭ 4 . The song has a basic sequence of B ♭ – E ♭ / B ♭ – F ♭ / B ♭ – B ♭ in the beginning and changes to B ♭ – F ♭ when Madonna sings the opening verse " Where do we go from here ? " .
= = Critical response = =
" You Must Love Me " received generally positive reviews from critics . J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , wrote : " Who can deny that her voice has remarkable and unmistakable presence when heard during ' You Must Love Me ' ? " . Lucy O 'Brien , author of Madonna : Like an Icon , appreciated the song 's addition to the soundtrack and found " pathos " in Madonna 's vocals . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic felt that " Even with the faults , Evita has its merits , including the written @-@ for @-@ film ballad ' You Must Love Me ' " . Peter Keough , from the Boston Phoenix , wrote that " [ ' You Must Love Me ' ] is an aching farewell that dispels the illusion of a romance @-@ of @-@ convenience to reveal the inescapable love and tragedy beneath " . Teresa Huang from The Tech , said it was " a beautiful addition to an already powerful score " .
Larry Flick , from Billboard , called it " a momentous musical event [ ... ] a bittersweet and quietly theatrical ballad [ written ] specifically for Madonna " . Kathleen Guerdo , also from Billboard , said that " [ Madonna ] delivers what is by far one of the strongest vocal performances of her career , comfortably scaling to the song 's demanding soprano heights while infusing it with delicate , heart @-@ rending emotion . This bodes well for the creative potency of the rest of the soundtrack " . Matthew Jacobs from The Huffington Post , placed it at number 61 of his list " The Definitive Ranking Of Madonna Singles " . He explained that " [ t ] he vocal training Madonna endured for the movie pays off in this soprano serenade " , but also noted that it " doesn 't do much outside of the film " . Spin 's Annie Zaleski noted that " [ Madonna 's ] performances on the Evita soundtrack demonstrated her astronomical growth as a vocalist " , citing " her fragile @-@ sounding pleas on the Oscar @-@ winning ' You Must Love Me ' " as an example .
On her review of Evita , Janet Maslin from The New York Times commented that " Mr. Lloyd Webber and Mr. Rice have contributed a lilting new song , ' You Must Love Me ' , that 's as suitable for weddings as it is for running South American countries " . Entertainment Weekly 's David Browne gave the song a rating of B and opined that " [ ' You Must Love Me ' ] is no ' Live to Tell ' or ' Take a Bow ' . But this simple , elegantly arranged showpiece from Evita is clearly intended to promote both the film and her new adult , matriarchal image " . J. D. Considine , from The Baltimore Sun , said it was one of the " big songs " from the soundtrack . Peter Travers from Rolling Stone , hailed it " sympathy @-@ begging " . The song won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song at the 54th ceremony , which took place on January 19 , 1997 . Two months later , it was awarded the Academy Award for Best Original Song .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " You Must Love Me " was serviced to radio on October 9 , 1996 . It was met with a positive response , garnering 118 plays the first week , and debuting at number 55 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart . The CD single was released on October 29 , following public demands about the song ; " Rainbow High " from the film was added as its B @-@ side . It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 22 the week of November 14 , 1996 , ultimately peaking at number 18 after two weeks . It ranked at number 99 on the year end chart for 1997 . According to Billboard , " You Must Love Me " was Madonna 's fourth highest debuting single of her career , following " You 'll See " ( number 8 in 1995 ) , " Erotica " ( number 13 in 1992 ) and " Rescue Me " ( number 15 in 1990 ) . It was also the highest charting Webber @-@ Rice collaboration since Helen Reddy 's rendition of " I Don 't Know How to Love Him " , which reached number 13 in 1971 . It eventually received a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on October 22 , 1998 , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , the song debuted at number 36 on the RPM Top Singles chart , and reached a peak of number 11 on the week of December 16 , 1996 . It was present for a total of 14 weeks on the chart .
In the United Kingdom , the song reached a peak of number 10 on the UK Singles Chart the week of November 2 , 1996 , and was present on the top 100 for a total of 9 weeks . According to the Official Charts Company , the song had sold 90 @,@ 428 copies by August 2008 in there . In Australia , " You Must Love Me " peaked at number 11 on the ARIA Singles Chart the week of November 10 , 1996 , staying on this position for one week and a total of 9 weeks on the chart . In Italy , it reached the fourth position of the FIMI Singles Chart . On the year @-@ end Italian charts , it was ranked at number 39 . " You Must Love Me " reached a peak of number 4 in Finland , and also reached a peak of number 21 on the Irish Singles Chart , where it remained for 2 weeks . In Germany , it became one of Madonna 's lowest charting singles , peaking at number 78 .
= = Promotion and cover version = =
The music video for " You Must Love Me " was directed by Parker and features the singer performing the song inside a small room ; interspersed with footage and scenes from Evita . As Madonna was eight months pregnant with her daughter Lourdes Maria , her stomach remained hidden behind a piano . The music video was included as a bonus feature on the 15th Anniversary Edition blu @-@ ray of the film , released on June 19 , 2012 . On March 24 , 1997 , Madonna performed the song at the 69th Academy Awards dressed in a full @-@ length , strapless Christian Dior gown . According to choreographer Otis Sallid , they wanted to portray the singer in a restrained manner , hence the accompaniment in the stage was just a spotlight on her and a piano to her left . Writing for The Philadelphia Inquirer , movie critic Carrie Rickey felt Madonna " gave a restrained performance of the number " .
Madonna did not perform the song again until her Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2008 – 09 ) . She appeared on stage wearing a black Givenchy dress , with pink colored ribbons around her neck and black stockings on her legs and performed an acoustic , guitar @-@ driven version of the song sitting on a stool . She was backed by 4 musicians who were dressed in gypsy clothes . As she performed the song , scenes from Evita played on the backdrop screens . The performance received positive feedback from critics with Ricardo Baca , from The Denver Post , writing that " her courageous , late @-@ set take on ' You Must Love Me ' — from the filmed version of the Broadway musical Evita — was spot @-@ on and gorgeous with its string accompaniment " . On the Buenos Aires stop of the tour , after performing " You Must Love Me " , Madonna also sang " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " from the film . The performances of both songs in the city were recorded in the live CD @-@ DVD titled , Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2010 ) . Singer Brooke White covered the song on the seventh season of American Idol . She marked Idol history that night when , after forgetting the lyrics to the song , she stopped after the first verse to start over from the beginning .
= = Track listing and formats = =
US CD / Cassette / 7 " Single
" You Must Love Me " ( Single Version ) – 3 : 09
" Rainbow High " – 2 : 27
UK CD Single
" You Must Love Me " ( Single Version ) – 3 : 09
" Rainbow High " – 2 : 27
" You Must Love Me / I 'd Be Surprisingly Good For You " ( Orchestral Version ) – 4 : 27
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – vocals , mixing
Tim Rice – writer
Andrew Lloyd Webber – writer , producer
Alan Parker – producer
Nigel Wright – producer , mixing
David Reitzas – mixing
John Mauceri – conductor
David Caddick and Mike Dixon – additional conductors
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Shortwave listening =
Shortwave listening , or SWLing , is the hobby of listening to shortwave radio broadcasts located on frequencies between 1700 kHz and 30 MHz . Listeners range from casual users seeking international news and entertainment programming , to hobbyists immersed in the technical aspects of radio reception and collecting official confirmations ( QSL cards ) that document their reception of distant broadcasts ( DXing ) . In some developing countries , shortwave listening enables remote communities to obtain regional programming traditionally provided by local medium wave AM broadcasters . One 2002 estimate placed the number of shortwave listeners worldwide in the hundreds of millions .
The practice of long @-@ distance radio listening began in the 1920s when shortwave broadcasters were first established in the US and Europe . Audiences discovered that international programming was available on the shortwave bands of many consumer radio receivers , and a number of magazines and listener clubs catering to the practice arose as a result . Shortwave listening was especially popular during times of international conflict such as World War II , the Korean War and the Persian Gulf War .
Listeners use inexpensive portable " world band " radio receivers to access the shortwave bands , and some advanced hobbyists employ specialized communications receivers featuring digital technology designed for optimum reception of shortwave signals , along with outdoor antennas to enhance performance .
With the advent of the internet , many international broadcasters have scaled back or terminated their shortwave transmissions in favor of web @-@ based program distribution , while others are moving from traditional analog to digital broadcasting modes in order to allow more efficient delivery of shortwave programming . The number of organized shortwave listening clubs has diminished along with printed magazines devoted to the hobby ; however , many enthusiasts continue to exchange information and news on the web .
= = History = =
The practice of listening to distant stations in the medium wave AM broadcast band was carried over to the shortwave bands . Frank Conrad , an early pioneer of medium wave broadcasting with KDKA in Pittsburgh , instituted some of the first shortwave broadcasts around 1921 . Stations affiliated with General Electric and Crosley followed shortly after .
United States shortwave broadcasters began transmitting popular radio programs in an attempt to attract foreign audiences . During the 1930s , new shortwave receivers appeared on the market as well as popular shortwave magazines and clubs . Shortwave stations often offered unique QSL cards for DXers .
In Europe , shortwave broadcasts from Britain and the Netherlands such as Philips Radio 's PCJJ began around 1927 . Germany , Italy , the Soviet Union , Britain , and many other countries soon followed , and some classic shortwave broadcasters got their start . The BBC began on shortwave as the " BBC Empire Service " in 1932 . Its broadcasts were aimed principally at English speakers . Radio Moscow was broadcasting on shortwave in English , French , German , Italian and Arabic by 1939 . The Voice of America ( or VOA ) began broadcasting in 1942 after its entry into World War II using the Yankee Doodle musical theme .
While technically minded shortwave listening hobbyists dwindled during the war years due in part to the demands of military service , casual listeners seeking war news from foreign broadcasters increased . Shortwave receiver manufacturers contributed to war production . Zenith launched the multi @-@ band Trans @-@ Oceanic series of radios in 1942 . In some other countries , during the war , listening to foreign stations was a criminal offense . Established in 1939 , 35 @-@ kilowatt Chinese shortwave station XGOY broadcast programming aimed at listening @-@ restricted Japan . The station was often bombed by the Japanese .
CBS began a shortwave listening program in September 1939 , on an experimental basis , at the National Lawn Tennis Championships at West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills , New York . Engineers installed equipment at the CBS booth when the location was found to have good reception , and monitors relayed European shortwave news to CBS headquarters in New York between tennis matches . Throughout World War II , CBS captured Allied and enemy shortwave communications from more than 60 international stations via secretly located receivers . Translations of intercepted broadcasts were teletyped to all New York newspapers , Associated Press , United Press International and International News Service , and in turn disseminated to newspapers and radio stations throughout the United States . Major headline news frequently resulted , since big stories often broke first on radio .
Shortwave listeners notified families of prisoners of war when studio announcers at stations in Axis powers countries , such as Germany and Japan , read prisoner @-@ written messages . Allied monitors notified families , but many shortwave listeners were often first to report the broadcasts . Listeners in other countries also monitored POW messages . Americans were actively discouraged from listening to these reports , however , since broadcasting the names of a few American prisoners was regarded as a propaganda trick to build up the listening audience for Axis radio programs . In May 1943 Jack Gerber , director of the CBS listening post , told journalist William L. Shirer that the International Red Cross was the only reliable source of information on prisoners , and expressed concern at receiving six or seven letters a week requesting transcripts of German broadcasts in which service members may have been mentioned :
The only reason the Nazis put on prisoner broadcasts is to get people justifiably anxious about relatives reported missing at the front to listen to their propaganda . Although many of the messages undoubtedly are true , they represent but a small fraction of our prisoners and we have no assurance that many of them are not faked from papers picked up on the battlefield . What concerns some of us is the consequences of listening to Nazi broadcasts unless you are a well @-@ trained listener ( and often , even if you are ) . Nazi arguments often sound plausible . A person may listen to them with all the skepticism in the world , knowing that every word is a lie . But if the content is sufficiently sensational ( and it often is ) the source may be forgotten in time , and out pops the Nazi lie , all unsuspecting .
New Zealand shortwave listeners reported POW voices broadcast over Radio Peking during the Korean War .
In the 1950s and 60s , shortwave DX columns in US magazines such as Popular Electronics ′ " Tuning the Short Wave Bands " and Electronics Illustrated ′ s " The Listener " became news sources for serious radio listeners . Popular Electronics ′ " WPE Monitor Registration " program , begun in 1959 , even offered callsign @-@ like identifiers to hobbyists . A number of specialty radio clubs such as the Newark News Radio Club also arose during these decades and provided hobbyists with an exchange of DX news and information . When Popular Electronics and similar magazines expanded coverage of new electronics topics in the 1970s , this led to the cancellation of several long @-@ time shortwave listening columns .
Beginning with Sweden Calling DXers on Radio Sweden in 1948 ( there was a slightly earlier short @-@ lived program from Radio Australia ) , many shortwave radio stations began programs providing news . Some of the other prominent DX programs were Radio Netherlands ' DX Jukebox ( which became Media Network ) , the SWL Digest on Radio Canada International , and the Swiss Shortwave Merry @-@ go @-@ round on Swiss Radio International .
An example of notable shortwave programming was the Happy Station Show , popularly called the “ world ’ s longest @-@ running shortwave radio program ” . The show originated on Philips Radio 's PCJJ shortwave station in 1928 , continuing until 1940 . After World War II Radio Netherlands broadcast the show from 1946 until it terminated in 1995 . Producer and presenter Keith Perron “ resurrected ” Happy Station on March 12 , 2009 . Although no longer associated with Radio Netherlands , the new effort proclaims itself as “ transmitted globally via shortwave , podcasting and Internet streaming radio ” .
During the Persian Gulf War in the 1990s , many Americans tuned into foreign news broadcasts on shortwave . Some electronics retailers even reported a " run " on portable shortwave receivers due to the increased interest at the time .
= = Practices = =
Listening to shortwave broadcast stations for news and information programming is common , but for many shortwave listeners ( abbreviated as " SWLs " ) , the goal is to receive as many stations from as many countries as possible , also known as DXing . " DXers " routinely test the limits of their antenna systems , radios and radio propagation knowledge . Specialized interests of shortwave listeners may include listening for shortwave utility , or " ute " , transmissions such as shipping , sailing , naval , aviation , or military signals , listening for intelligence signals ( numbers stations ) , or tuning in amateur radio stations .
Listeners often obtain QSL cards ( which confirm contact ) from ham operators , broadcasters or utility stations as trophies of the hobby . Traditionally , listeners would send letters to the station with reception reports and requests for schedules . Many stations now accept E @-@ mails or provide reception report forms on their Web sites . Reception reports give valuable information about propagation and interference to a station 's engineers .
There have been several publications dedicated to providing information to shortwave listeners , including the magazines Popular Communications ( now a " digital supplement " to CQ Amateur Radio magazine ) , Monitoring Times ( now defunct ) , and The Spectrum Monitor , a digital @-@ only publication , in the United States , and the annual publications Passport to World Band Radio ( now defunct ) and the World Radio TV Handbook ( WRTH ) . In addition , stations can provide broadcast schedules through the mail or E @-@ mail . There are also shortwave radio programs dedicated to shortwave listening and DXing , such as the U.S.-based World of Radio and DXing With Cumbre , but recently these programs have been curtailed or dropped by many international broadcasters . As of 2007 , Radio Habana Cuba still hosts a program called DXers Unlimited .
There are estimated to be millions of shortwave listeners . In 2002 , according to the National Association Of Shortwave Broadcasters , for estimated numbers of households with at least one shortwave set in working order , Asia led with a large majority , followed by Europe , Sub Saharan Africa , and the former Soviet Union , respectively . The total estimated number of households worldwide with at least one shortwave set in working order was said to be 600 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . SWLs are varied , with no common age or occupation . David Letterman is an admitted fan of the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) .
Some developing countries use shortwave as a means of receiving local and regional programming . China and Russia retransmits some domestic channels on shortwave that target listeners in far off provinces . Shortwave listening is also used as an educational tool in classrooms . Poor sound reproduction , unreliable signal quality , and inflexibility of access are seen as disadvantages .
Some humanitarian organizations like Ears to Our World distribute portable , self @-@ powered shortwave radios to less developed parts of the globe , enabling people in remote , impoverished parts of the world to get educational programming , local and international news , emergency information and music . Recently , the group was involved in sending radios to Haiti so victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake could stay abreast of local disaster recovery efforts .
= = Equipment = =
= = = Shortwave radio receivers = = =
Radios for shortwave reception generally have higher performance than those intended for the local AM or FM broadcast band , since dependable reception of shortwave signals requires a radio with increased sensitivity , selectivity , and stability . Modern shortwave radio receivers are relatively inexpensive and easily accessible , and many hobbyists use portable " world band " receivers and built @-@ in telescopic antennas .
Serious hobbyists may use expensive communications receivers and outdoor antenna located away from electrical noise sources , such as a dipole made from wire and insulators .
Features typical of modern solid state communications receivers :
500 kHz to 30 MHz frequency coverage
Superheterodyne type - double , triple or quad conversion
Multiple RF and IF stages
A crystal controlled IF stage
BFO product detector for SSB and CW reception
Signal strength meter
RF gain control ; AVC / AGC adjustments
Antenna tuner
Bandwidth filters
BFO tuning ; audio limiters or attenuators .
Frequency display dials - analog or digital .
Older vacuum tube @-@ based communications receivers are affectionately known as boatanchors for their large size and weight . Such receivers include the Collins R @-@ 390 and R @-@ 390A , the RCA AR @-@ 88 , the Racal RA @-@ 17L and the Marconi Elettra . However , even modern solid @-@ state receivers can be very large and heavy , such as the Plessey PR2250 , the Redifon R551 or the Rohde & Schwarz EK070 .
A feature coming into wide use in modern shortwave receivers is DSP technology , short for digital signal processing . DSP is the use of digital means to process signals , and a primary benefit in shortwave receivers is the ability to tailor the bandwidth of the receiver to current reception conditions and to the type of signal being listened to . A typical analog @-@ only receiver may have a limited number of fixed bandwidths , or only one , but a DSP receiver may have 40 or more individually selectable filters .
Another important trend in modern shortwave listening is the use of " PC radios " , or radios that are designed to be controlled by a standard personal computer . These radios as the name suggests are controlled by specialized PC software using a serial port connected to the radio . A PC radio may not have a front @-@ panel at all , and may be designed exclusively for computer control , which reduces cost . In pure software defined radios , all filtering , modulation and signal manipulation is done in software , usually by a PC soundcard or by a dedicated piece of DSP hardware .
= = Future of shortwave listening = =
The rise of the internet influenced many broadcasters to cease their shortwave transmissions in favor of broadcasting over the world wide web . When BBC World Service discontinued service to Europe , North America , Australasia , and the Caribbean , it generated many protests and activist groups such as the Coalition to Save the BBC World Service . In the US , the shifting of resources from shortwave to Internet and television by the Broadcasting Board of Governors , which oversees U.S. international broadcasting , has also resulted in reduced broadcasting hours in the English language . Although most of the prominent broadcasters continue to scale back their analog shortwave transmissions or completely terminate them , shortwave is still very common and active in developing regions such as parts of Africa .
Some international broadcasters have turned to a digital mode of broadcasting called Digital Radio Mondiale for their shortwave outlets . One reason is that digital shortwave broadcasts using DRM can cover the same geographic region with much less transmitter power — roughly one @-@ fifth the power — than traditional AM mode broadcasts , significantly reducing the electricity cost of operating a station . A traditional AM ( analog ) international shortwave station can have a power rating of 50 kilowatts to as much as one million watts per transmitter , with typical power levels in the 50 – 500 kilowatt range . Endorsed by the ITU , it has been approved as an international standard for digital broadcasts on the HF ( shortwave ) bands . A DRM broadcast rivals FM mono quality and can also send graphic images and web pages via a separate information channel .
Shortwave listening also remains popular with some expatriates who tune in shortwave transmissions from their homeland . Additionally , a number of remotely controlled shortwave receivers located around the world are available to users on the web . While radio hobbyists report that the number of shortwave listening clubs has diminished and printed magazines devoted to the hobby are few , enthusiasts such as Glenn Hauser and others continue to populate web sites , and originate podcasts dedicated to the pursuit .
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= Fred Shero =
Frederick Alexander " The Fog " Shero ( October 23 , 1925 – November 24 , 1990 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player , coach , and general manager . He played for the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . However , he spent most of his playing career in the minor leagues . Following his playing career , he went into coaching , spending 13 years coaching in the minor leagues before making it to the NHL . As an NHL head coach , Shero won the Stanley Cup twice with the Philadelphia Flyers ( 1974 and 1975 ) and reached the Stanley Cup Finals three times in Philadelphia ( 1974 , 1975 , and 1976 ) . He also had four consecutive seasons of having a 0 @.@ 700 or better winning percentage and remains the Flyers all @-@ time leader in coaching victories . Shero controversially left the Flyers following the 1977 – 78 season to become the head coach of the New York Rangers , whom he led to the Stanley Cup Finals in his first season . He resigned from the Rangers after coaching for less than three seasons . Shero had a unique style of coaching that led to several innovations that are still used today . He was the first coach to hire a full @-@ time assistant coach , employ systems , have his players use in season strength training , study film , and he was one of the first coaches to utilize a morning skate . In 2013 Shero was recognized for his contributions when he was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame as a builder .
He was known for his enigmatic and introverted personality often appearing or disappearing from a room unnoticed , or being completely lost in thought . He often left philosophical sayings on a chalkboard as a way of provoking thought or as a motivational tool . Prior to game six of the 1974 Stanley Cup Finals , Shero wrote his now famous quote " Win today and we walk together forever " – a statement that continues to be quoted to this day . His son , Ray Shero , also pursued a career in hockey and was the general manager of the Pittsburgh Penguins from 2006 – 2014 and is the current ( as of May 2015 ) general manager of the New Jersey Devils . .
= = Playing career = =
As a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Shero was signed by the New York Rangers to a professional contract . He spent the first year of his contract in the minors splitting time between the New York Rovers and the Brooklyn Crescents in the Eastern Amateur Hockey League . The following season Shero served in the Royal Canadian Navy during World War II , although he continued to play hockey for the Navy as a member of HMCS Chippawa . Upon returning to the Rangers organization , Shero continued to play in the minors for another two seasons before reaching National Hockey League ( NHL ) . On October 16 , 1947 , he made his NHL debut at the Montreal Forum against the defending Stanley Cup Champion Montreal Canadiens in the 1947 – 48 season opener . However , he only played 19 games with the Rangers that year while splitting time with the St. Paul Saints in the United States Hockey League . It was during this time that he would first garner the nickname " The Fog " . Although more often associated with his loner personality and propensity for being lost in thought , the nickname actually began during a 1948 game in St. Paul , Minnesota . High humidity on indoor ice surfaces can result in fog . One night in St. Paul the fog was so thick that Shero was the only player who claimed to be able to see the puck thus earning him the name " Freddy the Fog " .
The 1948 – 49 season saw Shero become a regular in the Rangers line up as well as his first NHL post @-@ season action . The following season Shero set career highs in games played , assists , and points , while the Rangers qualified for the post @-@ season in the fourth and final position . Despite being the lowest seeded team , the Rangers made it to the Stanley Cup Finals by upseting the Montreal Canadiens in the first round . In the Finals the Rangers met up with the Detroit Red Wings , and on April 23 , 1950 , the Rangers lost game seven in double overtime . It was the last NHL game Shero ever played . On May 14 , 1951 , the Rangers traded Shero to the American Hockey League 's ( AHL ) Cleveland Barons . Upon his return to the minors Shero enjoyed team success as a player winning back @-@ to @-@ back Calder Cups with the Barons in 1953 and 1954 . Shero was also named an AHL Second Team All @-@ Star in 1954 . However , he only played one more season with the Barons before moving to the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) with the Winnipeg Warriors for the 1955 – 56 season . Shero captained the Warriors to the WHL championship , in his first season with the club . He played with the Warriors again during the 1956 – 57 season , but moved to the Quebec Hockey League ( QHL ) where he played for the Shawinigan Cataractes in 1957 – 58 . During the 1957 – 58 QHL season Shero first began coaching . He served as a player / assistant coach for the Cataracts and helped them capture the QHL championship . He retired from playing in 1958 .
= = Coaching career = =
After retiring as a player , Shero continued to coach and began a 13 @-@ year coaching career in the minor leagues . During his time in the minors , Shero proved to be a winning coach accumulating six first @-@ place finishes , five second @-@ place finishes and twice finishing third in various leagues . He also coached the St. Paul Saints to the IHL championship , The Turner Cup , in 1960 and 1961 . In 1964 , he coached the St. Paul Rangers to the CPHL championship finals . The following season Shero began his AHL coaching career with the Buffalo Bisons whom he led to a Calder Cup Championship in 1970 , while winning the Louis A. R. Pieri Memorial Award as AHL coach of the year . For the 1970 – 71 season Shero again changed teams this time coaching in the Central Hockey League with the Omaha Knights , winning the league Championship . Although in the Rangers farm system for several years and winning at various levels , Shero was never seriously considered to replace Emile Francis as head coach , due to Shero 's perceived alcohol problem and a belief that he was an ineffective communicator .
= = = Philadelphia Flyers ( 1971 – 1978 ) = = =
In 1971 the Philadelphia Flyers were looking for a new coach , and general manager Keith Allen suggested Shero to owner Ed Snider . When asked if he knew Shero , Allen admitted to only knowing him by reputation . He knew Shero always had a winning record , plus he had a " gut feeling " he was the right man for the job . Snider agreed to bring in Shero because he trusted Allen 's judgment . Thus Shero became the third coach in Flyers history ; he had high hopes for the Season predicting that the Flyers would finish no worse than second in the West Division . The 1971 – 72 season was disappointing for Shero as the Flyers finished in 5th place in the West with a 26 – 38 – 14 record . The Flyers 66 points were actually a decrease of 7 points in the standings and they missed the playoffs for the second time in three years . Shero 's " Fog " nickname was also re @-@ established during the year following a game at the Omni Coliseum in Atlanta when he left the arena through a door with no re @-@ entry and became locked outside prior to the post @-@ game press conference . At the press conference no one knew where Shero was and reporters unsuccessfully searched the arena for him .
In the off @-@ season Shero decided that the team would be more successful if he coached them like he had coached his minor league teams . Upon being elevated to the NHL , he had decided not to employ systems like he did in the minors , stating that he had too much respect for NHL players . However , he decided that since he had the same kind of players on the Flyers as he did in the minors , he would use the same systems , becoming the first coach to employ systems .
In 1972 – 73 Shero hired Mike Nykoluk as an assistant coach on a one @-@ year tryout basis . Although assistant coaches are common today , Nykoluk was the first full @-@ time assistant coach in the league , and the decision to hire him led to rumors that Shero must not be much of a coach if he needed help . However , with the additional help Shero guided the Flyers to their first winning season in franchise history , and Nykoluk stayed on as assistant throughout Shero 's tenure . Prior to a game during the 72 – 73 season Shero wrote a quote about commitment on the dressing room blackboard , and the team won the game . From then on Shero wrote inspirational quotes prior to games . After finishing second in the West Division they faced off with the Minnesota North Stars whom they defeated 4 @-@ 2 winning the first playoff series in Flyers history . In the second round the Flyers matched up with the Montreal Canadiens , who defeated Philadelphia 4 @-@ 1 .
= = = = Stanley Cup years = = = =
The following season Shero led the Flyers to a 50 – 16 – 12 record , first place in the Western Division . The 112 point total also placed the Flyers just one point behind the Boston Bruins for first overall in the NHL . It also marked the first time in franchise history that the Flyers posted a winning percentage over 0 @.@ 700 . The division title and high winning percentage accompanied by a 27 @-@ point increase from the previous season led to Shero winning the inaugural Jack Adams Award for coach of the year . In the 1974 playoffs the Flyers ' first round match @-@ up was against the Atlanta Flames . Following a game three win in which the Flyers went up 3 @-@ 0 , Shero was involved in an infamous incident . Known for taking late night walks and stopping at local bars and pubs for a drink , Shero decided to go for one of those walks following the game three victory . Though no one knows for sure what happened , Shero was allegedly mugged . Shero didn 't divulge any information about what really happened but police responded to a disturbance call at 2 a.m. outside the Flyers hotel . Shero was found with a broken thumb and cuts and bruises to his face . Flyers ' management sent him home to recuperate and assistant coach Nykoluk coached the team in the series winning game . In the Semi @-@ final round the Flyers were considered underdogs to the New York Rangers . However , the Flyers had home ice advantage . In the seven game series the home team won every game , giving the Flyers a 4 @-@ 3 series win . It marked the first time an expansion team defeated an Original Six team in a playoff series . The Flyers advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals where they played the Boston Bruins . Prior to game one Shero devised an unconventional game plan . The Flyers were to dump the puck to Bobby Orr 's side of the rink . Orr was considered to be one of the league 's best players , and the plan was to make him skate hard back to get the puck . In addition the team was to be physically hard on him . Any player who had the opportunity was to check , bump or put a stick on Orr , in an attempt to wear him down . Bobby Clarke later recalled that the strategy did work although it did take some time . Clarke stated that Orr was the best player on the ice in game five , but in game six Orr wasn 't the factor he had been in other games . Going into game six , the Flyers had a chance to win the Stanley Cup . Prior to the game Shero wrote his famous quote " Win today , and we walk together forever " on the dressing room blackboard for inspiration to the players . The quote is still used today . The Flyers went on to win game six and the series , thus becoming the first expansion team to win the Stanley Cup . Following the series Flyers ' goaltender Bernie Parent was named Conn Smythe as playoff MVP . During the official presentation Parent was given a new car , which he promptly gave to Shero .
In the 1974 – 75 season Shero led the Flyers to a 51 – 18 – 11 record . They won the newly formed Patrick Division , were first in the new Campbell Conference , and first overall in the NHL . In their opening series the Flyers swept the Toronto Maple Leafs , setting up a semi @-@ final match @-@ up against the New York Islanders . After taking a 3 – 0 series led , the Flyers lost three straight to set up a deciding seventh game . Before game seven , Shero wrote a quote by Dag Hammarskjöld – " Only he deserves power who every day justifies it . " on the blackboard . Though Shero never admitted it , the quote was believed to be directed at centre Rick MacLeish who had underperformed in the series . MacLeish responded and in game seven he registered a hat @-@ trick as the Flyers won the game 4 – 1 . The win set up a Stanley Cup Finals match @-@ up with Buffalo . Shero and the coaching staff again devised a game plan . This time it was to stop Buffalo 's French Connection line . The first part of the plan was to keep Sabre 's centre Gilbert Perreault out of the middle of the rink and to take away his passing options . The Flyers ' centres were instructed to play close to Perreault and be physical against him , to the point where it bordered on a penalty . The second part involved wearing down the French connection . Shero made numerous line changes to keep fresh players out against the Sabre 's trio . A perfect example of this part of the strategy was in game one . The French Connection took a 97 @-@ second shift and the Flyers made three line changes during that time . Shero 's strategy worked , and the Flyers won their second consecutive Stanley Cup .
In 1975 – 76 Shero guided the Flyers to a 51 – 13 – 16 record highlighted by a 36 – 2 – 2 home ice record . Again they won the Patrick division and finished first overall in the Campbell Conference . The season saw the club set franchise records in points and winning percentage . The season also witnessed an exhibition game , that would become one of the most famous games in Flyers history . In 1976 the Soviet Red Army team toured North America and played four games against NHL clubs . On January 11 , 1976 , the Russians matched up against the Flyers at the Spectrum in Philadelphia . Entering the game the Red Army team was unbeaten , defeating both Boston and the Rangers and registering a tie against the Canadiens . Shero had studied the Soviet style of play , even traveling to the Soviet Union during different off @-@ seasons . Shero even implemented some of the Russian style into his own system , altering it slightly . With his knowledge of the Russian system , Shero devised a game plan . The Russian system involved making several passes often to where a player had just moved from . Shero instructed the Flyers ' players not to chase the puck , but rather hold their positions . While in the offensive zone the Flyer forwards were to hold the puck as much as possible to avoid counter @-@ attacks . The Flyers won the game by a final of 4 – 1 and outshot the Red Army 49 – 13 . The victory led some to see the Flyers as the best team in the world . Following the playoffs that distinction would not last . Bernie Parent had suffered a back injury that limited him to eleven regular season games ; he was able to return for the first @-@ round series win versus Toronto . But the pain became too much for Parent to continue to play in subsequent series , and Shero was forced to use his back @-@ up goaltender , Wayne Stephenson . The Flyers were also without second @-@ line centre MacLeish , resulting in a depletion of scoring depth . Despite these setbacks Shero led Philadelphia past Boston in the semi @-@ finals and back to the Stanley Cup Finals . However , the Flyers fell short of winning three straight cups , losing to Montreal in four consecutive games .
In the 1976 – 77 season the Flyers ' win total slipped from 51 to 48 , but they still managed a 0 @.@ 700 winning percentage . This marked the fourth consecutive year of having a 0 @.@ 700 or better win percentage – once again winning their division and finishing first in the Campbell Conference . In the post season the Flyers again reached the semi @-@ finals , but lost to the Bruins in four straight games . The following season the Flyers ' record fell to 45 – 20 – 15 finishing second to the Islanders in both the division and the Conference . Shero again led the Flyers to the semi @-@ finals , where they lost to the Bruins once more . At the end of the season Shero , who had one more year left on his contract , submitted a letter of resignation stating that the Flyers needed a change whether they realized it or not . Flyers management had previously heard rumors about Shero wanting to leave Philadelphia and re @-@ join the Rangers organization , and refused to accept his letter of resignation . Shero then signed a $ 250 @,@ 000 , five @-@ year contract with the Rangers to be their new Head Coach and General Manager , believing he no longer had a contractual agreement to the Flyers . A few weeks after signing Shero , the Rangers gave the Flyers their first @-@ round pick in the 1978 draft ( Ken Linseman ) and cash as compensation , allowing the Rangers to avoid tampering charges .
= = = New York Rangers ( 1978 – 1980 ) and beyond = = =
In his first season with the Rangers , Shero led them to a 40 – 29 – 11 record – an increase of ten wins over the previous season . The Rangers excelled during the playoffs that year , defeating the Los Angeles Kings in their first round match @-@ up , then knocking off Shero 's former club Philadelphia . In the semi @-@ finals the Rangers upset their cross town rival Islanders to reach the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time since 1972 . The Rangers matched up against the Montreal Canadiens in the Finals . After upsetting Montreal in game one of the finals , Phil Esposito asked Shero to get the team out of town prior to game two , two nights later . Shero decided against such a move and several Rangers ' players were rumored to have " partied hard " following the win . The Rangers took a 2 – 0 lead in game two before losing the game and eventually the series , 4 – 1 . In the 1979 – 80 season the Rangers record dipped to 38 – 32 – 10 , good for fourth place in the Campbell conference . In the playoffs the Rangers defeated the Flames in round one , but lost a playoff rematch to the Flyers , 4 – 1 , in round two . After the season Shero was honored with the Lester Patrick Trophy for his contributions to the growth of hockey in the United States , an award he shared with the " Miracle on Ice " 1980 U.S. Olympic ice hockey Team . The next season the Rangers suffered injuries to key players resulting in a 4 – 13 – 3 start . Shero decided to step down from both his positions and was replaced by Craig Patrick .
In 1982 , Shero failed in an attempt to become the Detroit Red Wings head coach . A year later he was diagnosed with stomach cancer . He underwent surgery but remained healthy enough to start his new position as color analyst for the New Jersey Devils radio broadcasts . In 1987 Shero decided he wanted to experience coaching in Europe and spent one season coaching Tilburg Trappers in the Netherlands . With his health declining Shero returned to the Flyers ' organization as a special assistant in 1989 . The reunion was to help him with his medical costs , but it was also something that was very important to Shero on a personal level , as it was a return to the organization he had the most success with . On March 22 , 1990 , Shero was elected into the Flyers ' Hall of Fame . Eight months later on November , 24 Shero died at Cooper Hospital in Camden , New Jersey . He was 65 .
His passing did not diminish his popularity in Philadelphia and in a 1999 Philadelphia Daily News poll , he was selected as the city 's greatest professional coach / manager , beating out other notable coaches such as : Connie Mack of MLB Philadelphia Athletics , Dick Vermeil , and Greasy Neale of the NFL Philadelphia Eagles . In 2010 there was a push to get him elected into the Hockey Hall of Fame , which included an online petition at Flyershistory.net. Shero was eventually elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame as a builder in 2013 . He remains the winningest coach in Flyers history with 308 wins , plus 48 more in playoff competition .
= = Coaching style = =
Shero 's introverted , enigmatic personality had an effect on the way in which he coached players . Shero often communicated with his players by way of notes left in their lockers . When he did talk to them , he was known for never yelling . He believed that when coaches yell they do it for their own sake . He always defended his player whether it was in the press or even against management . He always tried to make sure his players were focused during the game . He often asked them how much time was left in the period to force them to pay attention . He had a unique take on practice as well . If the team was winning then he worked the team hard . If they were losing then there would be a low key practice . He believed that he could get more out of players when they were winning . He often had drills designed to let the players have fun , stating that " Hockey is a child 's game played by men . Since it 's a child 's game it ought to be fun " . To have fun the Flyers occasionally had 12 @-@ on @-@ 12 games with the winning team earning a small monetary reward . He sometimes had the players perform drills that lacked purpose which the team performed until a player questioned the validity of the drill . At that point Shero stopped the drill and praised the player for being alert . Shero was notoriously bad with names . On one occasion it led to him trading for the wrong player . While GM of the Rangers Shero traded for Cam Connor believing it was Colin Campbell . Upon his arrival Conner had to explain that he was a winger and not a defenceman .
Often credited with using fighting and intimidation as a tactic , Shero never coached players to fight . He valued team toughness and insisted that players take the body and follow through with their checks . When it came to fighting Shero was quoted as saying " I swear I have never told a player to attack another player . In fact , I have told my players if they ever hear me saying something like this , they can break a stick over my skull . I ask only that they play aggressively . " In an interview in the HBO documentary Broad Street Bullies Shero states that he had a team that liked fighting so he let them fight . Demonstrating his personal coaching philosophy that " You have to learn to win with what you got or you don 't win at all . "
Shero was an innovator , aside from being the first coach to employ systems , and known as one of the first Western coaches to study Soviet influences , he was the first coach to study film . His son Ray even recalls his father breaking down games from radio broadcasts . He was also the first to have his players use in season strength training , with the use of an Apollo machine , a precursor to Nautilus equipment . As well as one of the first coaches to adopt the morning skate . He was one of the first coaches to have a game plan specifically designed on how to attack opposing teams , although not all of them worked to plan . Bernie Parent recalls a game against Montreal in which Shero decided to out skate the highly skilled Canadiens . After the first period , during which the Flyers ' goaltender faced 21 shots , he jokingly summed it up by saying , " the Zamboni didn 't even need to resurface the other end of the ice . " Yet it illustrates Shero 's understanding that he didn 't know everything about coaching and his pursuit to learn more .
= = Personal life = =
Shero was the son of Russian immigrants who moved to Winnipeg to avoid religious persecution . He was often bullied for being the son of an immigrant and went out of his way to avoid some of other children in his neighborhood . Shero credited his childhood experiences as a reason why he tended to be a loner . As a child Shero took up boxing and at age 13 he became a Canadian Bantamweight champion . His success gave him a chance to become a professional boxer , but he decided to play hockey instead . When he signed his first professional contract with the Rangers , his father cautioned him that " hockey players are looking for work when they are 30 . " When he left Winnipeg 's Isaac Newton High School to go off to New York to play for the Rovers , he continued his education in his new surroundings .
In 1957 , Shero was introduced to his future wife , Mariette , by his teammate Eddie Johnston in Shawinigan Falls , Quebec . Mariette was the sister of a woman Johnston was dating , at the time . Johnston recalled that Shero told him that he was going to marry Mariette after their first date , which he did shortly thereafter . Fred and Mariette had two sons , Rejean ( Ray ) and Jean @-@ Paul . Ray Shero also pursued a career in hockey and is the current general manager of the New Jersey Devils .
Fascinated by the law , Shero contemplated retiring from coaching to attend law school following the Flyers Stanley Cup victory , believing he had nothing left to prove in hockey . Although he remained in coaching he did take a correspondence course in law . Known to spend time at his local library , Shero enjoyed the works of William Shakespeare and Charles Dickens , and prided himself for being " the very first New York Ranger ever to hold a New York Public Library card . " Among other interests was playing the violin .
= = Awards and achievements = =
EAHL First All @-@ Star Team ( 1947 )
Calder Cup ( AHL ) Championships ( 1953 , 1954 , and 1970 )
AHL Second All @-@ Star Team ( 1954 )
WHL Championship ( 1956 )
Turner Cup ( IHL ) Championships ( 1960 , 1961 )
Louis A. R. Pieri Memorial Award for AHL Coach of the Year ( 1970 )
CHL championship ( 1971 )
Stanley Cup championships ( 1974 and 1975 )
Jack Adams Award for NHL coach of the year ( 1974 )
Lester Patrick Trophy winner ( 1980 )
Inducted to the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame in 1985
Inducted to the Flyers Hall of Fame in 1990
Inducted to the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum in 1999
Inducted to the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame in 2008
Inducted to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2013
= = = NHL coaching record = = =
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= Typhoon Dan ( 1989 ) =
Typhoon Dan , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Saling , was the third of a series of tropical cyclones that impacted the Philippines and Vietnam in October 1989 . The storm developed on October 6 , and tracked generally westward throughout its course . After crossing Luzon , the typhoon emerged into the South China Sea and reached its peak intensity , with sustained 10 @-@ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , 1 @-@ minute winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , and a minimum barometric pressure of 960 millibars . The storm moved ashore in central Vietnam and dissipated after moving inland . The storm caused extensive damage throughout its course . In the Philippines , Dan left hundreds of thousands homeless and killed 58 people . Power outages were extensive in the Manila region . In Vietnam , the storm 's high winds and heavy rains caused extensive damage and loss of life . More than 500 @,@ 000 structures were damaged or destroyed and at least 43 people were killed across the country .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 6 , 1989 , a tropical disturbance formed in the monsoon trough near the island of Chuuk . An advisory by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) assessed the system as having a " poor " chance to develop due to strong wind shear in the region . A day later , the potential of development was adjusted to " fair " . On October 8 , the wind shear relented and a well @-@ defined band persisted near the storm 's center of circulation . As a result , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued . That same day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the storm as a tropical depression . At 1200 UTC , the JTWC issued their first warning on Tropical Depression 29W . At the time , it was centered about 70 mi ( 110 km ) northeast of Yap .
About 18 hours later , the depression was upgraded to a tropical storm and given the name Dan . The cyclone moved westward at 17 to 23 mph ( 27 to 37 km / h ) , and convection continued to mature . Outflow was good across most of the system , except the northwestern corner where it was restricted by interaction with a nearby typhoon . Due to the cyclone 's proximity to the Philippines , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm , assigning it with the local name Saling . The JMA upgraded it to a tropical storm on October 9 ; both agencies recognized it as a typhoon the next day after an eye became visible and outflow improved in the northwestern quadrant . Dan made landfall on the southeastern coast of Luzon in the Philippines , and its center tracked just south of the Ninoy Aquino International Airport .
Dan crossed over the island and emerged into the South China Sea , having lost its eye feature and weakened back into a tropical storm . Convection soon redeveloped as the storm moved northwestward through warm waters . The JTWC reports that Dan reattained typhoon status at 0000 UTC on October 12 , although it according to the JMA it did so 24 hours earlier . The typhoon continued to intensify , and the JTWC estimates that it reached its peak intensity at 0600 UTC , with 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . The JMA indicates that Dan peaked slightly afterward , with 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure reading of 960 millibars .
The storm passed about 70 mi ( 110 km ) south of Hainan Island and weakened somewhat . Increased wind shear further deteriorated the system as it approached the coast of Vietnam . The storm moved inland at around 1200 UTC on October 13 , at which point the JMA downgraded it to a severe tropical storm and the JTWC issued their final advisory on the disturbance . The circulation ultimately dissipated over the mountainous terrain and its remnants continued to move westward into Laos .
= = Impact = =
Although it was relatively weak , the storm caused severe damage . In the Philippines , 58 fatalities from the cyclone were reported , with an additional 121 injuries . In total , 682 @,@ 699 people , or 135 @,@ 245 families , were affected by the typhoon , and 49 @,@ 972 houses sustained damage . Monetary storm damage is placed at $ 59 @.@ 2 million . The storm triggered flooding and landslides , while high winds , estimated up to 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) brought down trees and powerlines . The second typhoon to strike the country within a week , Dan forced schools and government offices to close . Approximately 250 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , and dozens of fishermen went missing offshore . In the Manila area , near @-@ total power loss was reported . President Corazon Aquino issued a " state of calamity " there and in surrounding areas . In the wake of the storm , the nation 's military provided $ 300 @,@ 000 worth of food for residents in evacuation centers . The Department of Social Welfare and Development also provided $ 371 @,@ 000 worth of emergency relief assistance to 2 @,@ 700 families displaced by the storm . Despite the scale of damage from Dan and other typhoons in the region , no request for international assistance was made by the Philippine Government . As the storm progressed westward , it buffeted Hainan Island with gale @-@ force winds and exacerbated damage caused by Typhoons Angela and Brian . Collectively , the three storms were responsible for 63 fatalities on the island , most of which were attributed to Brian .
Damage in Vietnam was also extensive . The high winds , reportedly blowing at 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , ripped roofs off houses . Large storm tides along the coast pushed flood waters ashore . At least 43 people were killed and another 466 were injured by the storm throughout Vietnam . The most severe damage took place in Hà Tĩnh Province where 34 fatalities took place . In the province alone , 43 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and another 500 @,@ 000 were damaged . Extensive flooding across the province submerged 330 @,@ 000 acres ( 130 @,@ 000 ha ) of crops and killed thousands of cattle . In Hải Hưng Province , two people were killed and approximately 60 percent of the homes were damaged or destroyed . Another seven people perished in Thái Bình Province due to strong winds .
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= Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe =
Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe is a crossover fighting video game between Mortal Kombat and the DC Comics fictional universe , developed by Midway Games and Warner Bros. Games . The game was released on November 16 , 2008 and contains characters from both franchises . Its story was written by comic writers Jimmy Palmiotti and Justin Gray . Despite being a crossover , the game is considered to be the eighth installment in the main Mortal Kombat series , as confirmed by the naming of the tenth entry by this count : Mortal Kombat X.
The game takes place after Raiden , Earthrealm 's god of thunder , and Superman , protector of Earth , repel invasions from both their worlds . An attack by both Raiden and Superman simultaneously in their separate universes causes the merging of the Mortal Kombat and DC villains , Shao Kahn and Darkseid , resulting in the creation of Dark Kahn , whose mere existence causes the two universes to begin merging ; if allowed to continue , it would result in the destruction of both . Characters from both universes begin to fluctuate in power , becoming stronger or weaker .
Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe was developed using Epic Games ' Unreal Engine 3 and is available for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 platforms . It is the first Mortal Kombat title developed solely for seventh generation video game consoles . Most reviewers agreed that Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe was entertaining and made good use of its DC Universe license , but the game 's lack of unlockable features as opposed to past installments of Mortal Kombat and toned @-@ down finishing moves garnered some criticism .
= = Gameplay = =
The game features a story mode , playable from two different perspectives . The perspectives consist of one segment from the DC Universe side , and one from the Mortal Kombat side , each split up into various chapters . Depending on which side players choose , the characters from one universe see those from the opposite universe as the invaders of their own . Ed Boon , creative director of Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe and co @-@ creator of the Mortal Kombat franchise , did confirm that the player would have the ability to play as all the characters in the story mode at one point during development , but the story mode ultimately lacked story arcs for a few characters . Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe also contains a mode called " Kombo Challenge " . Its aspect is individual to the Versus and Story modes , where players must perform ten precreated combos of increasing difficulty .
Intertwined within fight matches , which are played in a 3D fighter style , are new gameplay modes , such as " Free @-@ Fall Kombat " or " Falling Kombat , " which are activated automatically after throwing the opponent to a lower level in the arena . The players can fight in the air during the fall in a quasi @-@ mini @-@ game , with one player having to hit certain buttons to be above the other during the fall and land on the other player when the fall ends . " Klose Kombat " is a mode the players can enter during a fight , causing the characters to lock with each other and the perspective to change to a close @-@ up shot of the two , to make for an interval of close @-@ quarters fighting . A " Test Your Might " mini @-@ game is also worked into the gameplay ; while fighting in certain areas , the player can smash the opponent through a series of walls and engage in a tug @-@ of @-@ war with the damage meter at the top of the screen . The player on the offense presses buttons to increase damage given , while the player on the defense presses buttons to decrease damage taken .
Another in @-@ fight feature called " Rage mode " is introduced in Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe . The Rage mode is governed by a rage meter placed below the player 's health meter that fills progressively every time the player receives damage or attacks . Once the meter is completely filled , Rage mode can be activated and lasts for several seconds . Rage mode enables the player to break the opponent 's guard on the second hit , prevents the attacker from experiencing hit stun , knockdown or pop @-@ up , and increases the damage of an attacker 's moves . During fights , characters show permanent signs of damage , such as bruises , scrapes , bleeding , and broken or torn clothing . All of the characters except Darkseid , Shao Kahn , and Dark Kahn have finishing moves ; the Mortal Kombat characters and the DC villains can execute Fatalities , while the DC heroes can execute moves called " heroic brutalities , " which function in the same manner but do not kill opponents , in order to stay in tone with the heroes who have an established reputation of never taking a life .
= = Plot = =
After Shao Kahn 's invasion of Earthrealm is halted by Raiden 's forces of light , Raiden blasts and sends Kahn through a portal . At exactly the same time on Earth , Superman stops Darkseid 's Apokoliptian invasion by blasting Darkseid with his heat vision as he enters a boom tube . These acts do not destroy either of them , but merge them into Dark Kahn , and causes the DC and Mortal Kombat universes to merge . As this happens , the characters ' abilities fluctuate , causing violent " rage " outbreaks that are actually the feelings of Dark Kahn being infused in the characters from afar . Because of this , certain characters gain either strength or vulnerability . This allows for such things as the possibility of Superman being defeated due to his vulnerability to magic , and giving the Joker the ability to fight skilled martial artists such as his nemesis Batman and Deathstroke . With each world thinking that the other is responsible for the merger , they fight each other until only one fighter from each side remains : Raiden and Superman . In the final battle , the two fight while Dark Kahn feeds on their rage . Both realizing that the other is not working with Dark Kahn , they overcome their rage for each other and defeat their fused enemy , restoring the two worlds to their normal separation . While everyone else has been sent to their original universe , Darkseid and Shao Kahn have been switched and are both rendered powerless . In the end , they both face eternal imprisonment in the other 's universe ; Darkseid is restrained in the Netherealm , while Shao Kahn is trapped in the Phantom Zone .
= = = Characters = = =
= = Development = =
Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe was Midway Games 's last project before filing for bankruptcy and selling the rights to Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment the following year in 2009 . In February 2007 , Midway Games announced they were planning a new game in the Mortal Kombat franchise , inspired by seeing a showcase of Gears of War . " Mortal Kombat 8 " would have been " dark , gritty , serious " and a " back to basics reboot " of the series . Eventually , during the planning process , a deal with DC Comics was made and this project was cancelled , thus leading to the development of a different game . An announcement in April 2008 confirmed the game as a crossover , and a trailer was released . The only notable aspect that remained from the original project was the use of the Unreal Engine 3 , also used in Gears of War .
Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe was co @-@ published by Midway Games and Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment and was the final Mortal Kombat title to be developed under the Midway label prior to its purchase by Warner Bros. Interactive . Midway used AutoDesk software to develop Mortal Kombat vs DC Universe , according to Maurice Patel , entertainment industry manager at AutoDesk , and Illuminate Labs products for lighting .
The use of a DC license in Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe imposed some restrictions on the characteristic violence in Mortal Kombat games . Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe was thus restricted to a " Teen " rating . Therefore , various Fatalities such as Sub @-@ Zero 's " Spine Rip " were replaced due to their violent nature . In order to keep that rating , two of the Fatalities in Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe were censored in North America . In the United Kingdom version of Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , both the Joker and Deathstroke 's first Fatality depict them each finishing their opponent with a gunshot to the head , both shown uncut from a distance . The North American version has the camera quickly pan toward the victor before the shot is fired , thereby cutting the victim out of the shot completely . Additionally , one of Kitana 's Fatalities which involved impaling the opponent in the head and the torso with her fanblades was modified so that both fanblades impaled her opponent 's chest instead .
According to interviews , the characters were chosen for their popularity , and for parallels between them from both universes . Boon has said that some of the characters ' abilities , especially those from the DC Universe , had been toned down to make them balanced within Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe . For example , Boon specifically mentioned that Superman became vulnerable because of magic . Boon revealed that two new characters were developed as downloadable content , Quan Chi from Mortal Kombat and Harley Quinn from DC comics but had been discarded . He had also hinted earlier at the prospect of Kung Lao and Doomsday being downloadable characters .
= = Release = =
For the release of the Kollector 's Edition of Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , a new cover was created by Alex Ross . Also included in the Kollector 's Edition is a 16 @-@ page comic book prequel , Beginnings , which was illustrated by Mortal Kombat co @-@ creator John Tobias .
Downloadable content ( DLC ) had been confirmed by Major Nelson , but was canceled due to Midway 's financial issues . Ed Boon had stated that they would have been updating Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe periodically with new content all the way up to the release of the next installment of the Mortal Kombat series : " I 'd like to have [ DLC ] as soon as possible . I think that might be a great Christmas gift to reinvigorate the game " . Ed Boon said on his Twitter account that the plan for DLC had been scrapped , which occurred because , as clarified by 1UP , Midway had filed for bankruptcy and was purchased by Warner Bros. Interactive after the suggestion of downloadable content .
= = Reception = =
Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Adam Sessler of X @-@ Play stated : " Whether it 's a decade @-@ late answer to the Marvel vs. Capcom team up games or an off @-@ the @-@ cuff boardroom joke gone wildly too far , Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe is destined to make just about anyone 's shortlist of bizarre video game team @-@ ups . Still , sometimes two disparate things can merge to create a unique synergy that makes the melding work , however unlikely it may have seemed at the outset . " In GamePro , Sid Shuman called it " surprisingly enjoyable . " Wired.com 's preview stated that the concept of the game was " nose @-@ pokingly ludicrous " , noting that Superman 's powers could be used to easily defeat a character with the comment , " from Sub @-@ Zero to Well @-@ Done in eight seconds flat . " ABC News praised the game 's story because it did " a great job of giving players a cohesive , if far @-@ fetched , story line that 's fun if not engaging , " as well as " comic book @-@ like " dialogue . Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe 's Kombo Challenge mode was criticized as a thin and frustrating mode with combos that required very precise timing . The modes of Klose Kombat and Free @-@ fall Kombat were praised as concepts but were criticized in their execution as they appeared to slow the gameplay down and took the player out of the fast gameplay experience . Critics noted that the change in the amount of gore was disappointing to longtime fans of the series who were used to the " insane amounts of gore . "
The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry approved of Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe because of its departure from the earlier M @-@ rated games of the series praising its " simpler play , familiar graphics and adjustable gore content " but still not recommending it for younger players . In 2008 , GamePro , ranked it as the 15th best fighting game out of 18 .
Midway Games announced that as of January 26 , 2009 , Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe had shipped 1 @.@ 8 million copies since its release in mid November 2008 , not including the sales of the Kollector 's Edition . The chief operating officer of GameStop stated that the Kollector 's Edition of Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe made up 55 % of the game 's total sales at GameStop locations in its first week . In their 10 @-@ K filing , Midway Games revealed the title had sold over 1 @.@ 9 million units , making it one of the company 's most successful titles since 2002 . According to Wired.com , Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe also " holds the distinction of being the most pre @-@ ordered MK game of all time . " In a ranking by Rentrak , the Xbox 360 version of Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe was the sixth most rented game of 2009 .
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= The Boat Race 1874 =
The 31st Boat Race took place on the 28 March 1874 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by former Oxford rower Joseph William Chitty , Cambridge won by three and a half lengths in their fifth consecutive victory .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by three lengths in the previous year 's race , while Oxford led overall with sixteen wins to Cambridge 's fourteen .
Cambridge were coached by John Graham Chambers ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1862 and 1863 races , and was non @-@ rowing boat club president for the 1865 race ) , William Henry Lowe ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1868 , 1870 and 1871 races ) and John Goldie ( the Cambridge boat club president and rower for the 1869 , 1870 and 1871 races ) . Oxford 's coach was S. D. Darbishire ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in 1868 , 1869 and 1870 ) .
Cambridge opted not to use the boat built for them by Harry Clasper specifically for the race , in favour of one constructed by Waites which had been used by 1st Trinity Boat Club . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 10 @.@ 625 lb ( 74 @.@ 5 kg ) , 1 @.@ 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 7 kg ) more than their opponents . Oxford saw the return of two former Blues in William Edward Sherwood and A. W. Nicholson ( who was rowing in his third Boat Race ) . Cambridge 's crew included five Blues , with James Brooks Close and Charles Stokes Read returning for a third time .
The Light Blue crew included Australian George Francis Armytage , the only non @-@ British participant in the race , who had been educated at Geelong Grammar School . Author and former Oxford rower G. C. Drinkwater described the Oxford crew as " something of a disappointment " while declaring that Cambridge were " a very fine crew " .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex side of the river , handing the Surrey station to Oxford . The race started at 11.14am and was " rowed on an exceptionally sluggish tide " . Cambridge made a good start and held a half @-@ length lead at Hammersmith Bridge . As the bend of the river began to give advantage to the Surrey side , Oxford drew back into contention and the crews were level at the bottom of Chiswick Reach . The position of moored barges provided a good course and smooth water for the Dark Blues who took a half @-@ length lead .
Despite this , fatigue began to set in to the Oxford crew and Cambridge came back into contention . With a steady rhythm , the Light Blues were level at the Bathing Place of Athens and held a clear water advantage by The Bull 's Head pub . A length ahead by Barnes Bridge , Cambridge pulled further ahead to win by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 22 minutes 35 seconds . It was Cambridge 's fifth consecutive victory and took the overall record to 16 – 15 in favour of Oxford .
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= HMS Gallant ( H59 ) =
HMS Gallant ( H59 ) was a G @-@ class destroyer , built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Gallant was transferred from the Mediterranean Fleet shortly after the beginning of World War II to the British Isles , to escort shipping in local waters . She was slightly damaged by German aircraft during the evacuation of Allied troops from Dunkirk at the end of May 1940 . Following repairs , Gallant was transferred to Gibraltar and served with Force H for several months . In November , the ship was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet , where she escorted several convoys . She struck a mine in January 1941 and was towed to Malta for repairs . These were proved extensive and Gallant was further damaged by near @-@ misses during an air raid in April 1942 , before they were completed . The additional damage made the ship uneconomical to repair so she was scuttled as a blockship in 1943 . Her wreck was broken up in 1953 .
= = Description = =
Gallant displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Gallant carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but it increased to 146 in wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft defence Gallant had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One rail and two depth charge throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Service = =
Gallant was laid down by Alexander Stephen and Sons in Glasgow , Scotland on 15 September 1934 , launched on 26 September 1935 and completed on 25 February 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 252 @,@ 920 . She was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . Gallant patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the edicts of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . She pulled off a Spanish merchantman that had grounded between Almeria and Málaga on 20 December 1936 . The ship was attacked by a Spanish Nationalist aircraft off Cape San Antonio on 6 April 1937 , but was not damaged . The next month she returned to Great Britain for an overhaul at Sheerness between 31 May and 21 July 1937 .
When World War II began in September 1939 , Gallant was in the Mediterranean , but she and her entire flotilla were transferred to the Western Approaches Command at Plymouth in October . After a boiler cleaning , the ship was reassigned at the end of the month to the Nore Command in Harwich for patrol and escort duties . On 2 February 1940 Gallant and her sister ship , Griffin , rescued the crew from the oil tanker British Councillor which was sinking after it had struck a mine . Gallant took over escorting Convoy HN 12 after the destroyer Duchess was sunk on 18 February and she rescued 12 survivors from the Swedish ship Santos near Duncansby Head a week later . On 20 March 1940 she escorted the armed merchant cruisers Cilicia and Carinthia after they collided . The ship was refitted at Southampton between 28 March and 30 April and rejoined her flotilla at Harwich the next day . During the evening of 9 / 10 May , Gallant and the destroyer Bulldog rescued most of the crew of the destroyer Kelly after the latter ship was torpedoed by a German E @-@ boat in the North Sea .
While Gallant was participating in the Dunkirk evacuation , a near miss by a bomb on 29 May knocked out her steering and caused minor damage to her hull and electrical systems . She was repaired at Hull and encountered a German mine @-@ laying sortie on the evening of 5 / 6 June off Lowestoft when in company with the destroyer Walpole . Later in June the ship was refitted in Chatham Dockyard with a 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) ) anti @-@ aircraft gun that replaced the rear torpedo tube mount .
After her refit Gallant was transferred to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla of the North Atlantic Command , arriving at Gibraltar on 30 July . On her voyage south the ship escorted the aircraft carrier Argus which was loaded with a dozen Hawker Hurricane fighters . During Operation Hurry , Gallant , and three other destroyers , escorted Argus to a position south @-@ west of Sardinia so the carrier could fly off her Hurricanes to Malta on 2 August . After her return to Gibraltar the ship was transferred to Force H. On 20 October , Gallant , her sister Griffin and the destroyer Hotspur sank the Italian submarine Lafolè east of Gibraltar . The ship escorted the battleship Barham and the cruisers Berwick and Glasgow during Operation Coat in early November as they joined the Mediterranean Fleet . Gallant herself was transferred to the 14th Destroyer Flotilla at Malta on 10 November . She participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November during Operation Collar .
On 10 January 1941 , during Operation Excess , the Italian torpedo boats Circe and Vega attempted an attack on the Allied convoy off Pantellaria . Right after the engagement , in which Vega was sunk , Gallant struck a mine that detonated her forward magazine , because the Italian action pushed the British convoy too much south of their pre @-@ established route . The explosion blew the bow off the ship , killing 65 and injuring 15 more of her crew . Her sister Griffin rescued most of the survivors and the destroyer HMS Mohawk towed her stern @-@ first to Malta . The ship was slowly repaired and in October 1941 it was estimated that they would be completed in June 1942 . However , on 5 April 1942 , she was extensively damaged by bomb splinters by an air raid on Valletta and had to be beached at Pinto 's Wharf to prevent her from sinking . She was judged to be a constructive total loss and any usable equipment was stripped from her hulk . Gallant was expended as a blockship at St Paul 's Island in September 1943 , with the wreck being broken up in 1953 .
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= Bal maiden =
A bal maiden , from the Cornish language bal , a mine , and the English " maiden " , a young or unmarried woman , was a female manual labourer working in the mining industries of Cornwall and western Devon , at the south @-@ western extremity of Great Britain . The term has been in use since at least the early 18th century . At least 55 @,@ 000 women and girls worked as bal maidens , and the actual number is likely to have been much higher .
While women worked in coal mines elsewhere in Britain , either on the surface or underground , bal maidens worked only on the surface . It is likely that Cornish women had worked in metal mining since antiquity , but the first records of female mine workers date from the 13th century . After the Black Death in the 14th century , mining declined , and no records of female workers have been found from then until the late 17th century . Industrial improvements , the end of Crown control of metal mines , and rising demand for raw materials caused a boom in Cornish mining in the late 17th and early 18th centuries . Increasing numbers of women and girls were recruited to the mines from about 1720 , processing ore sent up by the male miners underground . The discovery of cheaper sources of copper in North Wales in the 1770s triggered a crash in the copper price , and many mines closed .
As the Industrial Revolution began in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , the Welsh metal mines declined and mining in Cornwall and Devon became viable once more . Women and girls were recruited in large numbers for work in ore processing . Women and children accounted for up to half the workers in the area 's copper mines . Although machinery was capable of performing much of the work done by bal maidens , the industry grew so quickly that the number of women and girls working grew steadily even though their numbers fell as a proportion of the workforce to 15 – 20 % by 1850 . At the peak of the Cornish mining boom , in around 1860 , at least 6000 bal maidens were working at the region 's mines ; the actual number is likely to have been much higher . While it was not unusual for girls to become bal maidens at the age of six and to work into old age , they generally began at around age 10 or 11 and left work once they married .
From the 1860s Cornish mines faced competition from cheap metal imports , and legislation introduced in the 1870s limited the use of child labour . The Cornish mining system went into terminal decline , leading to a collapse of the local economy and mass emigration both overseas and to other parts of the United Kingdom . In 1891 the number of bal maidens had fallen to half its peak , and by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 very few remained in employment . In 1921 Dolcoath mine , the last employer of bal maidens , ceased operations , bringing the tradition to an end . Other than women recruited for ore processing at Geevor as a result of labour shortages during the Second World War , and a very limited number of female workers after the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 banned the practice of recruiting only male mineworkers , women never again performed manual labour in Cornish mines . The last surviving bal maiden died in 1968 , and with the closure of South Crofty tin mine in 1998 , Cornish metals mining came to an end .
= = Background = =
For at least 3 @,@ 000 years from antiquity until the late 20th century mining of tin and copper played a significant part in the economy of Cornwall . Cornwall , the northern part of Iberia and the Ore Mountains ( the modern border between the Czech Republic and Germany ) are the only places in Europe in which major tin deposits are found near the surface . As tin is an essential ingredient of bronze , Cornwall was of great economic significance in Bronze Age Europe despite its relative isolation . Mining by the Roman Empire led to the Iberian mines becoming depleted by the 3rd century AD , leaving Cornwall and neighbouring Devon the most significant sources of tin in Europe . While it appears from surviving evidence that after the decline of the Bronze Age civilisations copper production ceased in Cornwall , it seems that the tin mines were in continuous operation throughout the Roman period and the Middle Ages .
The primitive early mines of Cornwall and Devon probably were operated by local extended families , with the men , women and children all working . Men and boys probably worked both above the surface and below ground , and women and girls worked only above ground ; there is no archaeological evidence for women and children working underground in Bronze Age Britain , although some mines from the period contain tunnels so small that only children or very short adults could have worked in them .
At some point between the death of Cnut the Great in 1035 and the death of Edward the Confessor in early 1066 , the independent Kingdom of Cornwall was annexed by the neighbouring Kingdom of Wessex , a part of the Kingdom of England . In late 1066 Cornwall , along with the rest of the lands under the control of the English king , was conquered by the Normans and came under the control of William the Conqueror . By the late 12th century the metal mines were brought under the control of the Crown ; operation of the tin mines was devolved to the Lord Warden of the Stannaries , and mining of other metals was directly controlled by the Crown as Mines Royal .
= = = Female mine workers in the Middle Ages = = =
Although women and girls probably worked in mining since antiquity , the earliest known written references to female manual labourers in mining are in the 13th and 14th century records of the royal lead and silver mines at Bere Alston , on the border between Devon and Cornwall . ( The mines were bordered on three sides by a loop of the River Tamar , since 936 the traditional boundary between Devon and Cornwall . The mines themselves were on the Devon side of the border at Bere Alston itself , but the surface @-@ level smelters were on the Cornish side at Calstock as there was a readier supply of timber for use in the furnaces . ) Although the mining itself was carried out by men , female workers were employed to sort ore for crushing , to prepare the bone ash used as a flux during the smelting process , and for general manual labour . An adult woman was paid up to one penny per day , and young girls between 1 ⁄ 2 and 2 ⁄ 3 of a penny . Miners and other skilled labourers at Bere Alston were recruited from throughout England and Wales , and from the evidence of surnames in the records it appears that many of the female labourers were the wives and daughters of these incomers rather than locally recruited women .
During and after the Black Death the area 's population collapsed . Those miners who had survived the pandemic left mining to work in farming , in which wages had doubled owing to the severe labour shortage , and the mines of Bere Alston were abandoned .
Although women and girls were almost certainly employed at the lead and silver mine at Bere Alston , and also a few records have so far been of female workers at tin works on Bodmin Moor and around Redruth and Marazion in the 14th century . It does not appear that significant numbers of female labourers worked in Cornwall 's mining industry until the early 18th century , as no records have yet been discovered for this period .
= = Mechanisation and the 18th century copper boom = =
In 1678 Clement Clerke introduced the coal @-@ powered reverberatory furnace , greatly increasing the quantity of metal extractable from ore . The Mines Royal Act 1689 ended Crown ownership of Cornwall 's mines , allowing private investors and local families to begin mining operations . At the same time , the Nine Years ' War ( 1688 – 97 ) and the War of the Spanish Succession ( 1701 – 14 ) caused high demand for metals . As a consequence the Midlands , with easy river and canal access to the coal mines of Wales and northern England and to the metal mines of Cornwall , became a major centre for metallurgy . Ore was shipped from Cornwall up the River Severn to smelters in Gloucestershire where it was refined and sold on to the factories surrounding Birmingham . Financiers and entrepreneurs began investing in and reorganising the mines of Cornwall . With a shortage of manual labour in rural and lightly @-@ populated Cornwall , and with a prevalent belief that women and children were best suited to ore separation ( which required dexterity and good observation skills but little in the way of physical strength ) , the large @-@ scale recruitment of women and girls to the mines began . It is around this time that the term " bal maiden " appears to have come into common usage , derived from the Old Cornish bal ( mine ) . A significant proportion of Cornwall 's young women quickly became involved in mining ; by 1736 the vicar of Ludgvan was complaining that he was unable to hire servants as the young women of the town were " employed about copper " .
In around 1720 , two key innovations revolutionised the Cornish mining industry . The whim , a horse @-@ powered mechanism for lifting ore to the surface , made mining in deep shafts practical , and the horse @-@ powered pump allowed mining beneath the water table .
= = = Role of 18th century bal maidens = = =
With the need for expensive machinery and horses and for large numbers of workers at each mine , the traditional operation of mines by extended families or by individual entrepreneurs became impractical , and the new deep @-@ level mines came under the ownership of groups of investors and of mining companies . A group of people known as a " tribute team " ( often a single extended family ) would bid for the right to work a specified portion of the mine ; the men and older boys would dig in the appointed section , and the women , girls and young boys would dress the ore sent up by the men . In later years the practice of bal maidens dressing only the ore sent up by the men of their tribute team was abandoned , and they would instead be paid a flat wage by the mine owner to dress any ore sent up , and the tribute team which had sent up the ore would be billed for the work done . Typical work for a bal maiden in this period was picking ore from rubble , breaking and separating the ore , and carrying ore and metal . Generally girls under 12 would sort the ore , older girls would separate the ore , and grown women would carry out the heavy manual labour of breaking rocks with hammers and of transporting ore between various pieces of apparatus . As the bal maidens of the smaller tribute teams often did not have the time to dress all the ore sent up , or it was not financially worthwhile to pay for the poorer quality ore to be processed , large quantities of poor quality ore were discarded unprocessed in waste heaps . On those occasions when improved extraction techniques or rises in the price of metals made it worthwhile to process this discarded ore , sometimes separate tribute teams would bid for the right to dress and process this rubble . As the practice of using tribute teams declined in the early 19th century , the mine owners themselves would hire bal maidens to dress this waste ore .
Records from the Pool Adit copper mine at Trevenson ( the most successful of the early copper mines ) show in 1729 , 25 bal maidens and three males worked as ' pickers ' sorting high quality from poor quality ore , earning a flat rate of 4d per day and typically working 20 days per month . ( Records do not show the ages of the pickers at Pool Adit , but the male pickers are likely to have been boys too young for heavy labour . ) In 1730 Pool Adit employed 30 female and four male pickers , and by 1731 the figures had risen to 55 female and five male , typically working 22 to 26 days per month . The number of bal maidens employed in the industry rose dramatically , and by the early 1770s Dolcoath , by then the most significant of the Cornish copper mines , employed around 220 bal maidens on the copper dressing floors alone .
It appears that during the 18th century copper boom , it was customary throughout the Cornish mining industry to use bal maidens purely as casual labour . There are no records of bal maidens being contracted to a particular mine or paid a piece @-@ rate for the amount of work done . Instead , mine accounts invariably show them being paid a fixed daily rate and employed only as and when they were needed . When poor weather conditions made surface @-@ level work impossible , water shortages meant water @-@ powered machinery could not operate , or accidents in the mines caused a temporary closure , the bal maidens would be suspended .
In the 1770s and 1780s the discovery of copper at Parys Mountain in Anglesey which could be cheaply extracted by opencast mining led to a crash in the copper price , and expensive deep mining began to become unviable . As the copper boom came to an end , the mines began to close . In 1788 mining ceased at Dolcoath itself , although some bal maidens continued to be employed picking through the large quantities of ore which had already been brought to the surface .
= = Industrialisation and the 19th century copper boom = =
At the end of the 18th century the copper mining industry of North Wales centred around Parys Mountain declined , and the depression in the British copper market ended . As the price rose , the Cornish mines began to reopen . By this time , the Industrial Revolution had begun , bringing with it new attitudes towards organisation and efficiency . While the mine managers of the 18th century generally treated bal maidens as useful only for breaking and sorting ore , the managers of these new mines sought to use all their employees as efficiently as possible .
While 18th century metal mines had worked on the principle of adult men digging the ore and women and children picking and cobbing the ore ready for smelting , in the new large @-@ scale mines of the early 19th century working practices changed . The strenuous underground work was still carried out by male workers , as was breaking large rocks with heavy hammers ( ' ragging ' ) . In copper mines , very young girls , and sick and injured older women , carried out the simple work of picking . Girls in their late teens forced the broken ore through a broad mesh to sort the ore ( ' riddling ' ) , and used hammers to break the large chunks of ore left by the riddling process into smaller chunks . Girls in their mid @-@ teens cobbed the resulting chunks , separating the valuable ore from waste rock . Grown women would carry out the heavy manual labour of breaking rocks with hammers ( ' spalling ' ) , of crushing sorted ore to small grains ready for smelting ( ' bucking ' ) and of transporting ore between various pieces of apparatus . An experienced bal maiden working as a spaller would produce approximately one ton ( 2240 lb ; 1016 kg ) of broken ore per day , depending on the type of stone . In the tin mines , in which ore could be crushed far more finely than copper before smelting , cobbing and bucking did not take place . Instead , the chunks of spalled ore were mechanically stamped to fine grains , and washed into a series of collecting pits to separate the coarse ' rough ' from the fine ' slimes ' . The resulting rough and slimes were separated out on large wooden frames ( ' buddling ' and ' framing ' respectively ) , to extract the tin ore from the surrounding dust and grit .
Following the introduction of the mechanical ore crusher in 1804 the tasks traditionally carried out by bal maidens began to be mechanised . Despite this , the rapid growth of the mines in comparison to the slow spread of mechanisation meant the number of bal maidens appears to have risen steadily , although statistics for the number of women employed in the mines in the early days of industrialisation are incomplete and a few are contradictory .
= = = Total numbers = = =
Because records from the period are incomplete and inconsistent in format , the total number of bal maidens working in this period is unclear . Estimates for the total number employed at the end of the 18th century range from 1 @,@ 200 to 5 @,@ 000 , with women and children constituting up to half the total number of people working in copper mining and a lower proportion in the less labour @-@ intensive tin mining . Mayers ( 2008 ) estimates that at a minimum 55 @,@ 000 women and girls in total worked as bal maidens between 1720 and 1921 , based on an estimate of each working an average of 10 years , with the number peaking in the early 1860s at at least 7 @,@ 000 . The actual figures are likely to have been considerably higher ; not all mines recorded male and female workers separately , and after 1872 there may have been deliberate under @-@ reporting of the number of children working , owing to legal restrictions on their employment . These estimates do not include female workers performing non @-@ manual administrative work at the mines , nor those in related industries such as slate and china clay quarrying .
Although the proportion of bal maidens in the workforce fell steadily , the mining boom of the first half of the 19th century took the total number to between 4 @,@ 000 and 14 @,@ 400 by the 1840s . The 1841 Census ( the first full census of England ) shows 3 @,@ 250 women working in the mines , but the mine returns of the same year show over 5 @,@ 000 women in the tin , lead and copper mines of Cornwall and West Devon . Increased mechanisation of the ore dressing process and public concerns over subjecting women and children to the harsh working conditions of the mines meant that the proportion of bal maidens in the workforce continued to fall , and it is generally accepted that by 1850 between 15 and 20 % of mine workers were female . By the 1861 census , coinciding with the peak of the Cornish mining industry , a minimum of 6 @,@ 000 women were working in mining in Cornwall , at least 2 @,@ 500 of whom worked within a five @-@ mile radius of Camborne . Although employed primarily in copper and tin mines , bal maidens also worked in lead , zinc , manganese , iron , antimony , wolfram , and uranium mines , and in slate and china clay quarries .
= = = Typical work = = =
Women typically began working at the mines at around the age of 10 or 11 , although there are some cases of girls starting work at as young as six , and in areas such as Camborne with a high demand for workers it was not unusual for girls to start work at age seven or eight . ( Charles Foster Barham 's enquiry of 1841 found an average age for starting work of 12 . ) Until the 1870s Cornwall was largely unaffected by legislation which limited child labour in mines elsewhere in the United Kingdom , and the typical ages of bal maidens remained virtually unchanged between the 1841 census and the 1871 census . Women would typically remain at the mine until they married ; while this generally meant that they stopped working at between the ages of 19 and 24 , it was not unusual for unmarried women and widows to continue working into their 60s and 70s ; and a 93 @-@ year @-@ old bal maiden was recorded in the 1891 census . A typical working day would last from 7 @.@ 00 am to 5 @.@ 00 pm in summer and from dawn to dusk in winter , ( ore dressing by candle @-@ light was not cost effective ) with a lunch break of either half an hour or an hour at noon . Lunch typically consisted of pasties , hoggans ( hard pasties made with unleavened barley flour and filled with pork , potato or dried fruit ) or fish eaten cold or warmed in ovens attached to the mine 's furnaces , along with mugwort or pennyroyal tea , and it was not usual even for workers who lived near their workplace to go home for meals . Although still not paid on a piece @-@ rate basis , each bal maiden would be expected to meet a daily quota to earn her pay ; some mines operated on the basis that once the quota had been met the bal maidens were allowed to go home , meaning the working day could finish up to two hours early . Although at a few tin mines at which water @-@ powered machinery was in continuous operation bal maidens would work seven days a week , in the vast majority of the industry they were not expected to work on Sundays . As well as the religious holidays observed in the rest of the United Kingdom , Cornish miners also celebrated St Piran 's Day ( 5 March ) and Chewidden Thursday ( the Thursday before Christmas ) , purportedly the day on which St Piran rediscovered tin @-@ smelting . Other than religious holidays and parish feast days , Cornish miners had no holidays until labour reforms in the early 20th century .
Typical pay in the 1840s and 1850s would be 4d per day for younger girls , rising to 8d – 1s per day for full @-@ grown women engaged in skilled bucking work . ( Wages varied by region owing to differing levels of supply and demand for workers ; in Kea and Wendron the average wage for women and girls was as high as 18s in 1841 . ) As they were employed as casual labour , bal maidens were not tied to any particular mine , and it was not unusual for them to transfer to other mines offering better pay or conditions . Some mines may have paid a monthly loyalty bonus in an effort to retain their workers . The workers could be fined for bad language , failure to work hard enough , absenteeism and other misdemeanours . As their pay was dependent on the profitability of the mine , it was not unusual early in the 19th century for bal maidens to work for long periods ( in at least one case , a laundry woman , 11 months ) without pay , and to receive their pay in arrears once the mine returned to profit . While some younger bal maidens would attend school before starting work and , in 1841 , around a quarter of bal maidens attended Sunday schools , illiteracy was rife . When Charles Foster Barham 's reported to the 1842 Royal Commission into the Employment of Children at the Mines he found that less than half of bal maidens he interviewed were able to read to any extent . Some mines subsidised basic education for the children of their employees . Mining families generally valued education so highly that they would often try to send at least one child to school , but any education children did receive tended to be curtailed once they became old enough to work in the mines .
Unlike the coal mines of Wales and northern England , the Cornish mines generally did not provide housing for their workers , largely owing to the casual nature of work under the tribute team system . Bal maidens would typically travel to the mines from their family homes , some families building homes near the mine . ( Until the Inclosure Acts of the late 18th and early 19th centuries , anyone moving to an area had the right to build a house on common land , provided they could build it overnight . ) They would generally remain living with their families until marriage . ( Much of early 19th century Cornwall retained the old custom of ' keeping company ' , by which a couple would not be formally married until the woman became pregnant , and the woman would continue to work and to live with her family until that time . ) While some lived at or near the mine at which they worked , mine workers typically walked three to four miles ( five to seven km ) to and from work each day . The miners ' cottages were generally crowded and squalid , sometimes with ten or more people living in each small cottage , while the abstraction of the region 's water supplies for use in the mines led to serious problems with sanitation and the provision of fresh water .
During the European food crisis of the 1840s , food prices rose sharply to around three times the pre @-@ crisis prices , and the relatively low @-@ paid bal maidens of Devon Great Consols demanded increased pay to cover food costs . While the mine owners initially met their demands , once the food price stabilised the pay rate was then reduced to previous levels causing around 200 bal maidens and boys to walkout . On their return to work the next day all the striking workers were summarily dismissed and either replaced with new workers , or re @-@ hired at an even lower pay rate than before . Bal maidens went on strike on at least six other occasions in the 19th century , but Cornwall 's high unemployment meant the strikes were generally unsuccessful as workers could easily be replaced .
= = = Working conditions = = =
From the 1840s onwards more mines provided crude shelters to protect surface workers from the worst of the weather , but at many others work at surface @-@ level took place in the open air . Workers were generally expected to remain at their posts except in the most extreme weather conditions . Bal maidens wore gooks , a specialised bonnet which covered the shoulders and extended over the face to protect from rain , bright sunlight , flying debris and loud noise . In the winter the gook was made of felt , and in summer of cotton . Working in close proximity to heavy industrial machinery , they wore shorter dresses or skirts than the ankle @-@ length clothing typical of the period , and their exposed lower legs were wrapped in protective coverings . Their arms were sometimes protected by hessian sleeves worn over their clothes . Some bal maidens working in cobbing and bucking wore rubber tubing on the fingers of one hand as protection from their hammer . While working bal maidens wore a waist @-@ length hessian apron ( ' towser ' ) over their clothes , and those who could afford it would have a white herden ( flax and hemp ) apron for wearing to and from work . These working clothes were accessorised with flowers , bows , ribbons , jewellery and other decoration . Until the end of the 19th century the working clothing of a bal maiden changed very little .
Although less dangerous than work below ground , some bal maidens suffered poor health . Tuberculosis and bronchitis were endemic in the mining communities , and would exacerbated by constant exposure to high levels of mineral dust . Constant work with damp ore might have led to rheumatic problems . The extraction of arsenic from the tin and copper ores sometimes led to exposure to arsenic fumes . Constant bending , lifting , and carrying often led to muscular strains . The need to hold chunks of ore with one hand while hammering them with the other led to some bal maidens suffering permanent damage to their left hands . The noise generated by industrial machinery , particularly after the introduction of the steam engine , could cause hearing difficulties , with some groups of bal maidens developing private sign languages . Noxious fumes , notably arsenic , lead and antimony could cause digestive problems , bowel disorders and amenorrhoea and other disruptions of the reproductive system . Barley hoggans also caused digestive problems .
While some of the larger mines provided separate eating areas for bal maidens , others obliged male and female workers to eat together , a cause of consternation among some observers concerned that exposure to the " coarse joking " and " rude behaviour " of men had a negative effect on the " modesty and delicacy " expected of women . Other contemporary concerns were that heavy protective clothing led them to be unfeminine , that working in the constant view of men caused the bal maidens to have an unhealthy interest in their own appearance and attractiveness , that spending long hours at work meant that they did not have time to learn the skills to be good housewives . ( Barham 's 1841 investigations found no evidence to the claim that bal maidens grew up to be poor housewives , concluding that " they are for the most part tender mothers and industrious wives [ and ] the laborious occupations to which they have been inured make household duties appear comparatively light " . ) Other contemporary observers noted that bal maidens were generally good natured and well behaved , and often devoutly religious , but it is well @-@ documented that bal maidens typically took great pride in their own appearance and clothing . Many contemporary observers commented on the high fashion of the clothing worn by bal maidens on Sundays and holidays ; although the disposable income of a bal maiden was low , they would sometimes form " dress clubs " to buy fashionable clothing which they would take turns wearing .
Despite the hardships and relatively low pay , Barham 's 1841 investigation into the Cornish mining industry found that bal maidens generally enjoyed their work , and that those who had been in other jobs tended to prefer work at the mines . Mining had shorter hours than domestic service and was less affected by seasonal variations than farm working , the other two jobs employing significant numbers of women , and it was far easier for workers to live at home and travel to work each day , rather than lodging in their master 's house or on a remote farm . Outdoor work was considered healthier than work in enclosed and smoky mines and factories , and it was sometimes believed that women who had worked as bal maidens from a young age were healthier than they would otherwise have been . From the 1780s onwards Cornwall suffered severe unemployment and poverty , and there were always large numbers of women and girls volunteering for work at the mines . The practice of giving preference to the wives , widows and children of dead or invalid miners allowed families to remain in their local area and to avoid destitution following the loss of the family 's main breadwinner ; work as a bal maiden also provided an opportunity for girls and young women to escape workhouses and gain financial independence . ( As well as the benefits to the community of giving work to the families of invalid or dead miners , recruitment from within mining families benefited the mine owners also . The wives and children of miners could be expected to understand mining terminology and techniques , and would generally have been regular visitors to the mines delivering food to their husbands and thus be familiar with the mine 's layout . )
= = Decline = =
In around 1865 , faced with increased competition from overseas mines and with the most productive copper mines becoming exhausted , the Cornish mining industry went into terminal decline . By 1880 the level of Cornish copper production was at around a quarter of its 1860 level . As production fell , the numbers of employees in the mines fell with it . Much of the copper industry collapsed , causing a movement within Cornwall from the copper to the tin mining . While some bal maidens continued to work at the mines , many worked in tin streaming in the rivers and streams flowing from the tin mining areas . In those copper mines which survived , investment in new machinery virtually ceased , so employment of some bal maidens continued . The tin industry , which was still economically successful , began to invest in new machinery to replace manual ore dressing , drastically reducing the number of female workers . By 1870 the number of bal maidens in work had fallen by around 50 % .
At the same time as the Cornish mining industry went into decline , public opposition to the use of female and child labour in mines was rising . The Metalliferous Mines Regulation Act 1872 brought the mines of Cornwall under the provisions of the Mines Act 1842 , which had previously applied only to coal mines , limiting the use of child labour in the mines and thus increasing costs . The Act prohibited women from working underground , which the bal maidens did not do , but it also forbade any child under ten from working in any mine , even on the surface . The passing of the Factory and Workshop Act 1878 drastically limited the use of female and child labour . The employment of children under 10 was banned outright , the maximum working hours for children aged 10 – 14 were drastically restricted , and women were banned from working over 56 hours per week . The sudden loss of cheap child labourers made the already weakened mining industries of Cornwall and West Devon even less profitable , and more than half the mines in the area went out of business in the following decade . Some bal maidens continued to work in surviving mines and in tin @-@ streaming , but instability in the metal markets made what remained of the mining industries increasingly unviable . In the 1880s William Ewart Gladstone 's Liberal government tried to ban female labour from mines altogether ; although the Bill was defeated , the number of bal maidens continued to fall . At the 1891 census the number of working bal maidens had fallen to around half its 1850s – 60s peak . By 1895 only 23 mines remained operational compared to 307 in 1873 , and in 1901 Devon Great Consols , the last significant copper mine in Devon and Cornwall , closed . Electrification and the introduction of Frue Vanners at the surviving mines replaced most of the jobs still done by women , and by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 very few bal maidens remained in employment . With wartime shortages of raw materials and many younger men in the armed forces , some bal maidens were temporarily rehired to dress potash ore at a re @-@ opened mine at St Austell , and to re @-@ dress the existing spoil heaps of defunct mines for wolfram and arsenic .
= = = Emigration and economic collapse = = =
As the metal mining industry on which it depended declined , and prices for staple goods rose sharply resulting from fluctuations in food prices and of the American Civil War , the economy of Cornwall collapsed . Large numbers of Cornish families emigrated to mining districts in other countries and other parts of the United Kingdom ; in some former mining districts as much as 3 ⁄ 4 of the young people moved out in the 20 years following the closure of the local mines . Between 1861 and 1900 at least 35 % of Cornish women aged 15 – 24 moved to other parts of the UK , and over 26 % left the country altogether . Although the male emigrants generally found work in mines in their new places of settlement , or put their mining skills to use digging tunnels for the rapidly growing railway networks , the jobs traditionally done by bal maidens , where they still existed , were usually done by locally recruited men or boys , and the tradition of female Cornish mine labour died out in emigrant families .
While a few former bal maidens found alternative employment at local factories , and large numbers emigrated , the unemployment situation in Cornwall remained bad . As early as the 1860s , charitable schemes had begun for training former bal maidens as domestic servants , and as the textile industry of the North of England boomed a concerted effort was made to recruit Cornish women to work in the mills . Large numbers of women took up these offers ; the 1891 census showed 17 @,@ 757 Cornish women living in Devon ( the majority working in domestic service ) , 10 @,@ 005 in London and the surrounding suburbs of Middlesex , and 4 @,@ 439 in Lancashire . In addition , the towns growing around the newly discovered mines of South Australia suffered a serious gender imbalance and made concerted efforts to recruit Cornish women .
By the end of the First World War most of the more complicated tasks in the remaining mines had been mechanised , and those bal maidens who remained in work were restricted to simple manual labour of physically moving ore , spalling and overseeing the buddling frames . A successful 1919 Workers ' Union campaign for a minimum 30s per week wage in the industry virtually doubled the wages of the few remaining bal maidens in Cornwall . Those at Dolcoath were made redundant within weeks of this increase . Dolcoath , the last mine in Cornwall to employ traditional bal maidens , closed in 1921 , bringing the centuries @-@ old tradition to an end . ( The end of the use of bal maidens did not mean the end of female workers in those mines that survived ; women continued to work in administrative roles until the final collapse of the Cornish mining industry in the late 20th century . )
= = = After the closures = = =
During the Second World War Britain suffered severe shortages of raw materials . While consideration was given to reopening the closed mines , this was not deemed viable and instead the few remaining mines increased their production . As many male workers were away on military service , some women were briefly employed in tin @-@ picking at Geevor , and in ore @-@ dressing at the Great Rock iron mine on Dartmoor , during and after the war until around 1952 . Other than a very limited number of female workers after the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 ended the policy of recruiting only men for underground work in the few surviving mines , the Geevor pickers were the last female manual labourers in the Cornish mining industry .
Minnie Andrews ( born in Camborne in 1874 ) , who had begun work as a racker at the age of nine , was believed to have been the last surviving former bal maiden ( other than the Geevor pickers ) , when she died in March 1968 . In 1998 South Crofty , Europe 's last operational tin mine , closed , bringing metal mining in Cornwall to an end .
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= Wear My Kiss =
" Wear My Kiss " is a song by English girl group Sugababes , released as the third and final single from their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 ( 2010 ) . It also serves as the final official single from the band before they disbanded in 2011 . It was written by Fernando Garibay , Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , and The Jackie Boyz , and produced by Garibay . The song 's development began while the Sugababes travelled to the United States during April 2009 , in which they collaborated with various high @-@ profile producers . The song was re @-@ recorded to feature the vocals of Jade Ewen following the departure of Keisha Buchanan in September 2009 . " Wear My Kiss " is an uptempo pop song that references the items which compose a man 's outfit .
Many critics praised the song as radio @-@ friendly and catchy , although some regarded it as uninspiring and average . The single reached the top ten on the charts in the UK , Ireland and Scotland , and also charted in Croatia , the Czech Republic and Slovakia . Its music video was directed by Martin Weisz in December 2009 . The green screen effect was used to produce the video 's scenes , which include clones of the group 's members . Critics commended the video for its futuristic concept . The Sugababes performed " Wear My Kiss " at the Fight Cervical Cancer in Style fundraising event , on Eurovision – Your Country Needs You , and at Chester Rocks in 2011 .
= = Development and composition = =
The Sugababes travelled Los Angeles and New York City in April 2009 to work on their seventh studio album Sweet 7 ( 2010 ) . They signed a record deal with Jay Z 's record label Roc Nation , which resulted in collaborations with high @-@ profile producers including Stargate and RedOne . " Wear My Kiss " was written by Fernando Garibay , Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , Carlos Battey and Steven Battey , the latter two collectively known by their stage name The Jackie Boyz . Garibay produced the song , recorded the Sugababes ' vocals , provided the track 's instrumentation , and completed its programming and arrangement . The Jackie Boyz provide background vocals for the song . Dave Pensado mixed " Wear My Kiss " at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , California ; AJ Nunez was the assistant . Additional vocal production was provided by Mike Stevens and Marcus Byrne , while additional vocal mixing was completed by Jeremy Wheatley at TwentyOne Studios , London , with assistance from Richard Edgeler . " Wear My Kiss " was recorded and tracked at F2 Studios in Hollywood , California .
" Wear My Kiss " is an uptempo pop song . David Balls of Digital Spy described it " a fuzzed @-@ up pop thumper " . The song is composed of " thick " beats , " sexy " verses and " raunchy " lyrics . The chorus features a chanted ' da @-@ da @-@ da ' hook , which according to Al Fox of BBC Music is evocative of the group 's 2003 single " Hole in the Head " . Andy Gill of The Independent noted that the song sees the Sugababes " effectively subjugated to the status of accessories " ; lyrically , the singers compare themselves to a tie , watch and shoes of a man 's outfit . During the pre @-@ hook , group member Heidi Range sings , " I " m just a pretty little thing / That 'll make you wanna sing / Make you wanna buy a ring " . " Wear My Kiss " is reminiscent of songs performed by British girl group Girls Aloud and American recording artist Lady Gaga .
= = Release = =
In September 2009 , speculation arose that group member Amelle Berrabah had left the Sugababes following reports of tension with band member Keisha Buchanan . However , it was announced on 21 September 2009 that Buchanan , the sole original member of the group , had officially left the Sugababes . Buchanan clarified the departure on her official Twitter account , writing : " I 'm sad to say that I am no longer a part of the Sugababes ... Although it was not my choice to leave , it 's time to enter a new chapter in my life ... Sometimes a breakdown in communication and lack of trust can result in many different things . " Buchanan was replaced by former Eurovision contestant Jade Ewen . As a result of the line @-@ up change , " Wear My Kiss " was re @-@ recorded for the inclusion of vocals from new member Ewen and the removal of vocals from Buchanan .
In October 2009 , it was reported that " Wear My Kiss " would be released as the third single from Sweet 7 on 8 February 2010 . The song was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 21 February 2010 as a digital download , and as a CD single the following day . During an interview with David Balls of Digital Spy , group member Heidi Range explained the reason for the song 's release as the album 's third single , saying : " It 's had a really good response from radio and our fans on the website . It 's also quite appropriate as it comes out around Valentine 's Day – there 's a lot of kissing going on then ! " " Wear My Kiss " was remixed by the British music production team 7th Heaven .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Wear My Kiss " received mixed reviews from critics . BBC Music 's Al Fox described it as " a glimmer of brilliance " amongst the album 's other tracks . Alice Wyllie of The Scotsman and David Balls of Digital Spy called the song radio @-@ friendly , while the latter described it as " more comfortably more Sugababes @-@ sounding " than the group 's previous two singles , " Get Sexy " and " About a Girl " . Balls praised the hook as one that " lodges in your brain like shrapnel " . A writer from Daily Record shared a similar opinion , writing : " The big chanted hook won 't go away once it 's in your head " . Andy Gill of The Independent regarded " Wear My Kiss " as one of the album 's better tracks and noted that it practices " a craven form of extreme self @-@ objectification " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian noted that while the album was significantly Americanised , " Wear My Kiss " had " escaped with some quirky Britishness intact " . Khaleej Times wrote that the song proves the Sugababes are " feisty and seductive as ever " and elaborated , " the cut @-@ glass industrialism of the backing track belies the dedication of the trio to the permanent touchpoints of pop music " .
Johnny Dee of Virgin Media named it one of Sweet 7 's standout tracks but in contrary felt that " trimmed of their former member 's vocals could be by absolutely anyone " . Gavin Martin of Daily Mirror called the song a " sweaty but uninspired thumper " , while Daily Mail writer Danny McElhinney considered it average . A critic from The Visitor regarded " Wear My Kiss " as " limp " in comparison to the group 's older material which he described as " feisty , sassy pop " . Fraser McAlpine from BBC Music gave the song a two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five star rating , and criticised the lack of cohesiveness between the group 's vocals , as well as the formulaic nature of the song .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Wear My Kiss " debuted and peaked at number seven on the UK Singles Chart for the issue dated 6 March 2010 , with sales of 38 @,@ 209 . It became the group 's third consecutive top ten single and eighteenth top ten single overall . Sweet 7 also became the first Sugababes album since Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) to produce three top ten singles . The song debuted and peaked at number nine on the Irish Singles Chart , becoming the Sugababes ' ninth top ten single in Ireland . " Wear My Kiss " debuted at number four on the Scottish Singles Chart for the issue dated 6 March 2010 . The song debuted and peaked at number 47 on the Czech Singles Chart , where it charted for eight weeks . It was less successful on the Slovakian Singles Chart and peaked at number 73 . " Wear My Kiss " reached at number 26 on the Croatian Airplay Radio Chart . The song 's commercial performance throughout Europe allowed it to appear on the European Hot 100 Singles chart , where it peaked at number 27 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Wear My Kiss " was directed by Martin Weisz during December 2009 . Weisz also directed the music video for the group 's previous single " About a Girl " . The video for " Wear My Kiss " was expected to premiere in early January 2010 , although a preview was released on 11 January 2010 instead . The video was released on the iTunes Store on 12 March 2010 . The green screen was used to produce it , in which the Sugababes stood in front of a projection of their computer @-@ generated images . All three members wore similar blue , pink and red dresses . It primarily focuses on Sugababes dancing in front of a crowd of clones of themselves . Ewen discussed the experiences while filming the music video with First News , saying :
It 's so cool ! On the day we were filming it we just couldn 't picture what it was going to be like . We were literally in a room and had to imagine that there ’ s going to be clones of you – a sea of Sugababes and you 're just like : “ Oh how are they going to do this ? ” When you see it back it 's really amazing .
The music video begins with Amelle Berrabah singing the first verse , in which objects appear in the background in reference to the lyrics , including a gold tie and silver watch . When Range sings the lines " make you wanna buy a ring " a diamond appears in the background . During the chorus , clones of members of the band appear as they are dancing . During Ewen 's verse , her reference to shoes prompts a pair of green high heels to emerge in the background . The group begins dancing together in the chorus while clones of them appear again . The video ends with Sugababes dancing while making hand gesture to represent a " kiss " . Ann Lee of Metro described the video as " futuristic " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy praised the video as an " absolute cracker " .
= = Live performances = =
The Sugababes promoted " Wear My Kiss " on 26 January 2010 with three appearances on television . The following day , the trio performed it at the Fight Cervical Cancer in Style concert . A writer from Belfast Telegraph described their performance as " highly energetic " . Fight Cervical Cancer in Style , a charity fundraising event , was held at Koko in London by Jo 's Trust to raise awareness about the prevalence of cervical cancer among women . Berrabah spoke about the importance of this health issue on stage :
We are so passionate about this cause and would urge girls to reduce their risks of cervical cancer – we had no idea how to prevent cervical cancer and actually we always thought it was genetic but through taking part in this campaign , we now realise it is sexually transmitted . By leading a healthy lifestyle , going for regular smears and having a vaccination you can help to reduce the risks hugely .
The band performed " Wear My Kiss " during a gig in March 2010 at the Supperclub , London . A journalist from Daily Star wrote , " In her super @-@ mini sequin dress , giraffe @-@ legged Jade Ewen naturally slots in , just like newest single ' Wear My Kiss ' does to the Sugababes ' back catalogue " . They performed the song on BBC 's Eurovision – Your Country Needs You on 12 March 2010 . The song was performed immediately prior to the winner of the show being announced . The Sugababes performed " Wear My Kiss " at Chester Rocks on 2 July 2011 as part of a set list , which included their number one singles " Freak like Me " , " Hole in the Head " and " Push the Button " .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded and tracked at F2 Studios , Hollywood , California
Personnel
Songwriting – Fernando Garibay , Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , Carlos Battey , Steven Battey
Production – Fernando Garibay
Vocal recording – Fernando Garibay
Instrumentation – Fernando Garibay
Programming – Fernando Garibay
Arrangement – Fernando Garibay
Background vocals – Carlos Battey , Steven Battey
Mixing – Dave Pensado at Larrabee Sound Studios , North Hollywood , California
Mixing ( assistant ) – AJ Nunez
Additional vocal production – Mike Stevens and Marcus Byrne
Additional vocal mixing – Jeremy Wheatley at TwentyOne Studios , London , England
Assistant – Richard Edgeler
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Sweet 7 , Island Records .
= = Charts = =
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= Waterstones =
Waterstones , formerly Waterstone 's , is a British book retailer that operates 275 stores and employs around 3 @,@ 500 staff in the UK and Europe as of February 2014 . Established in 1982 by Tim Waterstone , after whom the company was named , the bookseller expanded rapidly until being sold in 1993 to W H Smith . Bought again in 1998 by Waterstone , EMI & Advent International , the company was taken under the umbrella of HMV Group , which later merged the Dillons and Ottakar 's brands into the company .
Following several poor sets of results for the group , HMV put the chain up for sale . In May 2011 , it was announced that A & NN Capital Fund Management , owned by Russian billionaire Alexander Mamut , had bought the chain and appointed James Daunt as managing director .
As well as the Waterstones brand , the company owns the London bookseller Hatchards , and Irish shop Hodges Figgis . An average sized Waterstones store sells a range of approximately 30 @,@ 000 individual books , as well as stationery and eBook readers . The bookseller has concession agreements with Costa Coffee , Paperchase and Starbucks in some stores and since 2012 , has introduced its own Café W brand . On May 23 , 2016 , Waterstones announced it had sold its ebook business to Rakuten Kobo Inc . , and as of June 14 , 2016 , users must access their ebooks via Kobo 's ebook site .
= = History and developments = =
= = = Formation & WHSmith : 1982 – 1998 = = =
The chain was founded by Tim Waterstone after he was fired by WHSmith . Waterstone had failed to establish WHSmith in the United States . Taking the £ 6000 redundancy payout , he set up his first store in Old Brompton Road , Kensington with the ambition of creating a ' different breed of bookshop ' , using techniques he had seen in the United States . He used literary authors in front of store displays and employed highly literate staff .
The model proved successful and the chain set about expanding its store portfolio . By 1989 however , WHSmith had taken a controlling stake in the chain . WHSmith took over full control in 1993 for £ 9 million . Under WHSmith , Waterstones pursued international expansion , opening its first US store in Boston in 1991 , as well as further domestic expansion – opening its 100th UK store in a former chapel in Reading .
The chain was part of the eventual dismantling of the Net Book Agreement , when in 1991 , following a promotion by then rivals Dillons , the company decided to pursue its own discounting promotion on selected titles . By 1997 , the agreement had collapsed and been declared illegal .
= = = HMV Group : 1998 – 2011 = = =
Following an attempt by Tim Waterstone in 1997 to buy the entire WHSmith group , WHSmith sold the Waterstones chain for £ 300 million to HMV Media plc ( now HMV Group ) – a joint venture between EMI and Advent International . This included high street brands HMV and rival Dillons , creating an international entertainment retailer . Waterstone was appointed chairman of the group but stood down in 2001 , citing " concerns for the way the company was being run " . He was replaced by Alan Giles . A year later , all Dillons stores were rebranded as Waterstones , with some sold to rival Ottakar 's making the brand defunct . The chain had also begun pulling out of its US overseas venture .
Waterstones launched the Waterstones Books Quarterly magazine in 2001 , containing book reviews and author interviews . In the same year the booksellers ' online operation : Waterstones.co.uk was franchised to Amazon.com , with the company expressing a desire " to concentrate on its high street and campus stores " . The move resulted in the loss of 50 jobs . In 2003 , Waterstones announced it was supporting Dyslexia Action as its chosen charity , helping to raise awareness and understanding for dyslexia .
In 2006 Giles stepped down from his position and was replaced by Gerry Johnson as managing director of Waterstones and Simon Fox as group CEO . In April 2006 following two bids by Permira for the group , Tim Waterstone attempted to buy back the company from HMV for £ 256 million , but later withdrew his offer specifying the conditions set by HMV were " too punitive " to accept . A strategic review in September saw Waterstones pull out of its franchise agreement with Amazon to re @-@ launch its online business , Waterstones.com , independently . The chain also began to pilot a loyalty programme in South West England and Wales . The scheme was successful , launching nationally as The Waterstones Card across its entire store portfolio .
Waterstones piloted a brand refresh exercise in selected stores , beginning with Manchester 's Arndale Centre in 2007 . On 19 November 2007 , the chain closed its first branch on Old Brompton Road . Following a consultation , the company 's supply chain was overhauled in 2008 with the implementation of a 150 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 14 @,@ 000 m2 ) warehouse and distribution centre , located in Burton @-@ upon @-@ Trent . Existing direct @-@ to @-@ store deliveries from suppliers were replaced by a centralised warehouse capable of receiving merchandise and sorting an estimated 70 million books per year and 200 staff were made redundant by the process . In September 2008 , Waterstones began selling the Sony Reader in an agreement which saw the booksellers ' branches and Sony Centre stores stock the reader exclusively for two weeks after its release . Waterstones.com began to supply eBooks in the .epub format . In November 2009 , Waterstones moved into second @-@ hand bookselling in a partnership with Alibris setting up an online reselling tool called Waterstones Marketplace , part of Waterstones.com.
In January 2010 , HMV Group announced that Waterstones like @-@ for @-@ like sales over the Christmas period were down 8 @.@ 5 per cent on the previous year . This culminated in the resignation of managing director Gerry Johnson with immediate effect . He was replaced by development director Dominic Myers , who was managing director of the British academic bookselling chain Blackwells until 2005 . Myers joined HMV in 2006 to oversee the integration of Ottakar 's into the chain . In response to the decline in sales , he implemented a three @-@ year plan in which branches were tailored to their local market alongside a " rejuvenation " of the company brand and an increase in range . As part of these changes , Waterstones implemented new branding in May 2010 , developed by agency VentureThree . The company also moved to support the Rainbow Trust , which provides support to children with life @-@ threatening and terminal illnesses and their families , in the same year .
After an announcement that profits would be at the lower end of analysts ' forecasts due to falling sales and a share price fall of 20 % , HMV Group indicated its intention to close a number of Waterstones branches in January 2011 . These stores closures , including two in Dublin , Republic of Ireland and nine others across the United Kingdom occurred in February 2011 . Further branch closures in Luton , Dorking , Lancaster University , Harrods , Gateshead and Norwich Arcade were completed by the end of 2011 .
= = = Alexander Mamut & James Daunt : 2011 – present = = =
In May 2011 HMV Group announced the sale of Waterstones to A & NN Capital Fund Management , a fund controlled by Russian businessman Alexander Mamut for £ 53 million . The takeover was welcomed by publishers as " a step forward to re @-@ establishing a proper physical presence " . On 29 June 2011 , the sale of Waterstones was completed and approved by the vast majority of shareholders at an emergency general meeting . Mamut appointed James Daunt , founder of Daunt Books , as managing director and a Board of Directors was announced in October 2011 including Miranda Curtis as Chairman . In September 2011 , the bookseller announced that it intended to drop its 3 @-@ for @-@ 2 deal on books after a decade in place . The offer was replaced with a ' bespoke offer ' , based on branches choosing their own pricing structures from available discounts .
In January 2012 , the company announced that it would be moving away from the branding developed in 2010 by agency VentureThree , and reverting to its original logo . This involved the removal of the apostrophe from its name , saying it would be " a more versatile and practical spelling " . This decision received media coverage , in which the company was subject to criticism . John Richards , of the Apostrophe Protection Society , said that the change was " just plain wrong " and " grammatically incorrect " while the move sparked outrage on Twitter , involving debate on whether the move was grammatically incorrect or not . James Daunt expressed " Waterstones without an apostrophe is , in a digital world of URLs and email addresses , a more versatile and practical spelling " . Linguist David Crystal on his blog added : " ... if Waterstone 's wants to become Waterstones , that 's up to the firm . It 's nothing to do with expressing possession or plurality or anything to do with meaning . "
In the same month , Waterstones confirmed plans to open a Russian language bookshop in its Piccadilly branch , intending to stock 5000 titles with the shop being entirely staffed of Russian @-@ speaking booksellers . The concession , named The Russian Bookshop , opened in March 2012 .
Following a decision in late @-@ 2011 to scrap an e @-@ reading offer in @-@ branch , it was announced in May 2012 that Waterstones would be selling the Amazon Kindle across its estate . James Daunt launched the new agreement with Amazon stating that Waterstones would be offering " e @-@ reading services and offer Kindle digital devices " throughout the company 's branches and on its website , with an intention to " make the Kindle experience better " . This announcement was received with surprise across the book industry as it had been suggested that Waterstones was developing a partnership with Barnes & Noble to launch the Nook in the UK , or that the company was developing its own device , but Daunt ' ultimately rejected ' other avenues as Waterstones ' would have been out of the market ' before their implementation .
It was also announced in May 2012 that the company would begin a refurbishment plan , with Mamut ' investing tens of millions of pounds ' to fund the refit of a planned 100 stores before the end of the year . The plan saw the introduction of wi @-@ fi into shops , reorganisation of shop sections and space dedicated areas for Kindle devices , and a number of own @-@ brand coffee shops called Café W. The Café W brand was trialled in the Sutton branch , with an expressed aim for around 130 shops over a 3 @-@ year period to be fitted with a café . The announcement also noted the introduction of a ' click @-@ and @-@ collect ' service .
The Amazon Kindle officially launched in @-@ branch on 25 October 2012 with an ' outdoor and press advertising campaign ' promoting the launch , with the Kindle Fire and Kindle Paperwhite model going on sale for the first time in the UK along with older models . The Kindles were tailored with Waterstones screensavers , which led to some complaints and customers attempting to return their devices . In response , the company issued a statement that they believed " ... the screensaver does not constitute advertising and differs substantially to the advertising @-@ supported Kindles available to the US market ... We apologise that this change was made without consultation , and hope it does not detract from or alter your reading experience . "
The release of the Kindle coincided with a relaunch of the company 's brand in the same month , pushing the message that the chain was the " nation 's leading bookshop " and producing an exclusive anthology , the Waterstones Red Anthology , to help promote the shops .
By the end of 2012 , the Waterstones estate had shrunk to 288 stores , with " commercial reasons " given for the closure of branches in Bromsgrove , Stevenage , Watford , Fleet Street , High Holborn and Epsom among others , with staff being redeployed where possible . In 2012 , Daunt stated that future expansion was being considered , based on the performance of the company . In 2013 , Waterstones partnered with the University of Derby to launch a professional qualification programme for its staff . By 2014 , the chain began to open new stores , with locations in Ringwood and Blackburn . In July 2014 the company opened the Southwold Bookshop , its first branch to be without Waterstones branding .
= = Takeovers = =
= = = Dillons = = =
Acquired in 1995 by the Thorn EMI group , Dillons was the UK 's second largest bookseller behind Waterstones and was the bookselling arm of EMI 's retail division , which included HMV . Following the demerger of Thorn and EMI in 1996 , the retail arm was divested from the EMI portfolio within a year and spun off into the HMV Media Group , an investment venture between EMI Group and Advent International private equity group . This venture included HMV , Dillons and Waterstones ( the latter bought from W H Smith for £ 300 million ) , combining to make an international entertainment retailer of over 500 stores . Following a rebuffed takeover attempt in 1997 of W H Smith , Tim Waterstone became part of the deal and by May 1998 , following the £ 801 million deal completion , became chairman of the group , with CEO Alan Giles retaining overall control . All Dillons stores were incorporated within the Waterstones brand by 1998 .
= = = Ottakar 's = = =
In September 2005 HMV Group began attempts to buy rival book chain Ottakar 's . This alarmed publishers and authors who hoped the Office of Fair Trading would refer the takeover bid to the Competition Commission . In March 2006 , the Competition Commission cleared Waterstones for takeover of the Ottakar 's , stating the takeover would " not result in a substantial lessening of competition " , and is " not likely to affect book prices , range of titles offered or quality of service . " Through extensive research they also found that " contrary to widespread perception , Waterstones , like Ottakar 's , operates a book @-@ buying system which mixes central and local input on stock selection . "
On 31 May 2006 , Waterstones announced that it had successfully negotiated the takeover of Ottakar 's . HMV chief executive Alan Giles said : " A combined Waterstones and Ottakar 's business will create an exciting , quality bookseller , able to respond better to the increasingly competitive pressures of the retail market . " Ottakar 's chairman Philip Dunne said : " Over the last year the book market has undergone a significant change with new levels of competition from the supermarkets and online retailers impacting all specialist booksellers and in particular those with insufficient scale to compete on equal terms . "
Following the takeover , HMV announced that they would be rebranding every branch of Ottakar 's as a Waterstones . In July 2006 , a conversion programme was initiated and within four months , every Ottakar 's store had been relaunched as a Waterstones and had seen the loss of 100 jobs .
= = = Books Etc = = =
In August 2008 , the now defunct Borders chain agreed to sell eight Books Etc. stores to Waterstones for an undisclosed sum . The takeover , which represented 34 @,@ 000 sq ft of retail space and incurred no staff losses , increased Waterstones ' presence within London to nearly 50 stores , ' crucially [ in ] areas that are not represented by Waterstones bookshops ' . The stores , located in Fleet Street , London Wall , Holborn , Wandsworth , Uxbridge , Finchley Road , and Canary Wharf were rebranded and merged into the Waterstones chain by September 2008 .
= = Ethical standards = =
= = = Tax = = =
Tim Waterstone and James Daunt have been critical of tax avoidance by Amazon.com in the British press . Amazon has received sustained scrutiny for the amount of its overall sales that are reported by its UK subsidiary , in comparison to those ' processed offshore in Luxembourg to avoid UK tax ' . In the 2012 @-@ 13 financial year , Amazon paid £ 3 @.@ 2 million in tax on sales of £ 4 @.@ 2 billion and received £ 2 @.@ 5 million in grants from the government . In the same period , it was revealed that Waterstones paid £ 11 @.@ 9 million in tax , despite an operating loss of £ 25 @.@ 4 million and sales of £ 410 @.@ 4 million .
In a report on tax avoidance in the book industry , the magazine Ethical Consumer argued that A & NN Capital Fund Management , Waterstones ' parent company , was located in Bermuda and this ' was likely to be for tax avoidance purposes ' . In response to this , Waterstones issued a clarification on their website reading ‘ As a UK registered and domiciled business , Waterstones fulfils all its tax obligations . This will include both the payment and reporting of all necessary UK taxes , as set out under UK tax legislation . ’ In the 2013 @-@ 14 financial period , the first full year under A & NN , Waterstones reported sales to Companies House of £ 398 @.@ 5 million and an operating loss of £ 12 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Environmental impact = = =
Waterstones has worked with the British Safety Council to consider its environmental impact , including factors beyond its carbon footprint . After a 2008 audit , the Council awarded Waterstone ’ s three out of a possible five stars for environmental impact .
= = Awards = =
Waterstones maintains and supports various literary awards , including the Waterstones Children 's Laureate , the Waterstones Children 's Book Prize , the Waterstones 11 , The Guardian First Book Award and the Pushkin House Russian Book Prize . The company has also received various industry and consumer awards .
= = = British Book Industry Awards = = =
The Bookseller Industry Awards , formerly the Bookseller Retail Awards , are run by the trade magazine The Bookseller .
In 2008 , the company " was lauded for the success of its loyalty card , Writer 's Year promotion , online growth and its Get Selling bookseller training . "
Headline Bookselling Company of the Year
High Street Retailer of the Year
Nielsen Book Marketing Campaign of the Year
In 2009 , the company took away awards for High Street retailing and in praise of the Liverpool One branch Manager Ian Critchley , who was " applauded by the judges for his " outstanding " work in launching the new shop "
High Street Retailer of the Year
Wiley Manager of the Year
In 2010 , Bookseller Clare Boothby was recognised for her accomplishments at her branch in Dorking
Sue Butterworth Young Bookseller of the Year
In 2011 , Waterstones was recognised for its expertise in children 's bookselling
Usbourne Children 's Bookseller of the Year
= = = Customer satisfaction = = =
At the beginning of 2008 , Waterstones.com was awarded a silver badge for the Best Books Website category at the BT Online Excellence Awards .
In a survey of 96 British chains in January 2009 , Waterstones scored 69 % for a Which ? customer satisfaction survey on " products , price , staff and shopping environment and whether they would recommend the shop to a friend " – placing the chain in joint eight position . In May 2011 , another survey commissioned by Which ? on customer satisfaction of 100 High Street brands showed that Waterstones had maintained its position in the top 10 shops with a score of 77 % , placing it in seventh position .
Waterstones also fared well in an online survey conducted for the consumer show Secret Shopper on Channel 4 , hosted by Mary Portas . Out of 101 High Street brands , Waterstones ' emerged as an early frontrunner ' and has maintained its top position since .
In 2012 , Waterstones won the inaugural " Sports Book Retailer of the Year " category of the British Sports Book Awards .
= = = Children 's Book Prize = = =
Waterstones continued the Ottakar 's Children 's Book Prize under its own brand and since 2005 , the Waterstones Children 's Book Prize has attempted " to uncover hidden talent in children 's writing " by awarding authors with no more than two previously published books ( adult or children 's fiction ) .
2014 Rooftoppers by Katherine Rundell
2013 Ketchup Clouds by Annabel Pitcher
2012 The Pirates Next Door by Jonny Duddle
2011 Artichoke Hearts by Sita Brahmachari
2010 The Great Hamster Massacre by Katie Davies
2009 The Thirteen Treasures by Michelle Harrison
2008 Ways to Live Forever by Sally Nicholls
2007 Darkside by Tom Becker
2006 The Diamond of Drury Lane by Julia Golding
2005 The Cry of the Icemark by Stuart Hill
Waterstones is also the main sponsor of The Waterstones Children 's Laureate , previously sponsored by Ottakar 's . The 2011 – 2013 role saw the position carry the Waterstones branding , with the company stating it was ' up weighting [ its ] activity ' and ' supporting the role in stores and online in different ways throughout the year and beyond.'
= = = The Waterstones 11 = = =
Set up in 2011 , the Waterstones 11 was created to promote debut literary fiction from new authors being published in the year ahead . Books were chosen from a list of 100 submitted by publishers , and were announced in January 2011 with in @-@ store and online support , as well as a media campaign for the final 11 . The inaugural 11 included the Orange Prize Winner The Tiger 's Wife by Téa Obreht , Man Booker Prize nominee Pigeon English , by Stephen Kelman and the Edinburgh International Book Festival First Book Award winner When God Was a Rabbit , by Sarah Winman . The last list was announced in January 2013 , as it was scrapped in January 2014 .
= = Locations = =
Waterstones has academic and high street stores in Europe including the United Kingdom , Republic of Ireland ( with one store in Cork and previously with stores in Dublin and Drogheda ) , and in the Netherlands and Belgium ( including Amsterdam and Brussels ) . Some branches in the company are located in buildings of architectural and historical interest .
Flagship superstores
Its flagship store on Piccadilly , formerly the Simpsons of Piccadilly department store and notable for its 1930s @-@ Modernist architecture , is the largest shop in the Waterstones estate and claimed to be the largest bookstore in Europe . The main academic branch , formerly the flagship store of Dillons , is located on Gower Street , between University College London and the Student Central , and promoted as Europe 's largest academic bookstore . Aside from these branches , Waterstones operates a number of large stores which are set over multiple floors . Waterstones refer to these stores as ' superstores ' :
Piccadilly , London ( formerly Simpsons of Piccadilly ) – flagship branch with six floors and an estimated 8 1 / 2 miles of shelving . In 2012 , the head office of the company was moved to the store . Waterstones also owns the large Hatchards bookshop on the same road .
Gower Street , London – academic branch with five floors and 5 miles of shelving
Deansgate , Manchester – three floors , with over 100 @,@ 000 books in stock .
Milsom Street , Bath – three floors , with over 55 @,@ 000 books in stock .
La Scala Cinema , Sauchiehall Street , Glasgow – five floors , set in a former cinema
Bridlesmith Gate , Nottingham – four floors , with concessions
Large stores
Broad Street , Reading , formerly Broad Street Independent Chapel
New Street , Birmingham , a grade II listed former Midland Bank building ( 1867 – 1869 ) , designed by Edward Holmes
High Street , Birmingham , trading on six floors
Fishergate , Preston , formerly Booths ornate grocery and head office
St Margaret 's Street , Canterbury , the basement has a display of the buried remains of a Roman bath @-@ house
Wool Exchange , Bradford
Emerson Chambers , Newcastle upon Tyne
Dolphin & Anchor , West Street , Chichester
West End Princes Street , Edinburgh
The Carlton Cinema , Swansea
The Tontines Building , Parliament Row , Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent
Corn Exchange , Lincoln
Cornmarket St , Oxford
Midsummer Place , Milton Keynes
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= Socialist Party USA =
The Socialist Party of the United States of America ( SPUSA ) , usually simplified as Socialist Party USA , is a multi @-@ tendency socialist party in the United States . The SPUSA was founded in 1973 as a split from the Socialist Party of America , which had been renamed Social Democrats , USA a year before .
The party is officially committed to socialism . The Socialist Party USA , along with its predecessor , has received varying degrees of support when its candidates have competed against those from the Republican and Democratic parties . The party supports independent political action and opposes working within the two larger , capitalism supporting parties .
The SPUSA self @-@ describes as opposing all forms of oppression , specifically capitalism and authoritarian forms of communism , the Party advocates for the creation of a " radical democracy that places people 's lives under their own control — a non @-@ racist , classless , feminist socialist society [ ... ] where working people own and control the means of production and distribution through democratically @-@ controlled public agencies , cooperatives , or other collective groups ; where full employment is realized for everyone who wants to work ; where workers have the right to form unions freely , and to strike and engage in other forms of job actions ; and where the production of society is used for the benefit of all humanity , not for the private profit of a few " .
The SPUSA 's National Office is located at the AJ Muste Institute in New York . The party has four chartered state organizations in California , Michigan , New Jersey , and New York , as well as eighteen chartered locals throughout the country .
In October 2015 , the Socialist Party USA nominated Mimi Soltysik for President and Angela Walker for Vice President .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1958 , the Independent Socialist League led by Max Shachtman dissolved to join the Socialist Party of America . Shachtman had written that Soviet communism was a new form of class society , bureaucratic collectivism , in which the ruling class exploited and oppressed the population , and therefore he opposed the spread of communism . Shachtman also argued that democratic socialists should work with activists from labor unions and civil @-@ rights organizations to help build a social @-@ democratic " realignment " of the Democratic Party . Though he died on 4 November 1972 and had little involvement with the Socialist Party in the year proceeding his death , his followers , identitified as " Shachmanites " , exercised a tremendous amount of influence on the party .
In its 1972 Convention , the Socialist Party changed its name to " Social Democrats , USA " by a vote of 73 to 34 . The change of name was supported by the two co @-@ chairmen , Bayard Rustin and Charles S. Zimmerman ( of the International Ladies Garment Workers ' Union , ILGWU ) , and by the First National Vice Chairman , James S. Glaser ; these three were re @-@ elected by acclamation .
Renaming the party as SDUSA was meant to be " realistic " . The New York Times observed that the Socialist Party had last sponsored Darlington Hoopes as its candidate for President in the 1956 election , who received only 2 @,@ 121 votes , which were cast in only six states . Because the party no longer sponsored candidates in presidential elections , the name " party " had been " misleading " ; " party " had hindered the recruiting of activists who participated in the Democratic Party , according to the majority report . The name " Socialist " was replaced by " Social Democrats " because many American associated the word " socialism " with Soviet communism . Also , the Party wished to distinguish itself from two small Marxist parties .
The Convention elected a national committee of 33 members , with 22 seats for the majority caucus , 8 seats for Harrington 's coalition caucus , 2 for the Debs caucus , and one for the " independent " Samuel H. Friedman , who also had opposed the name change .
The convention voted on and adopted proposals for its program by a two @-@ one vote , with the majority caucus winning every vote . On foreign policy , the program called for " firmness toward Communist aggression " . However , on the Vietnam War , the program opposed " any efforts to bomb Hanoi into submission " and to work for a peace agreement that would protect Communist political cadres in South Vietnam from further military or police reprisals . Harrington 's proposal for an immediate cease fire and an immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces was defeated . Harrington complained that , after its previous convention , the Socialist Party had endorsed George McGovern with a statement of " constructive criticism " and had not mobilized enough support for McGovern .
After their defeat at the Convention , members of two minority caucuses helped to found new socialist organizations . At most 200 members of the Coalition Caucus joined Michael Harrington in forming the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee , which later became the Democratic Socialists of America . At its start , DSOC had 840 members , of which 2 percent served on its national board in 1973 when SDUSA stated its membership at 1 @,@ 800 , according to a 1973 profile of Harrington . Second , many members of the Debs Caucus joined David McReynolds in reconstituting the Socialist Party USA also in 1973 .
= = = Founding = = =
The Debs Caucus formed the Union for Democratic Socialism , and , on May 30 , 1973 , incorporated the Socialist Party of the United States of America , ( Socialist Party USA ) . Many activists from the local and state branches of the old Socialist Party , including the party 's Wisconsin , California , Illinois , New York City , Philadelphia , and Washington D.C. organizations , participated in the reconstitution of the Socialist Party USA .
After its founding , the party promoted itself as the legitimate heir of the Socialist Party of America . Former Mayor of Milwaukee , Frank Zeidler , was elected the first national chairperson of the party . Zeidler also helped re @-@ organizing the party structure during its early years . He was later nominated as the party 's candidacy for the presidential office , with Zeidler believing the party would be able to collaborate with other socialist parties nationwide to spread the message of socialism .
= = = Subsequent History = = =
Since 1936 , a member of the party was elected to the city council of Iowa City and several members have won tens of thousands of votes when losing elections for statewide offices . In 1992 , Socialist Iowa City Councilwoman Karen Kubby won her re @-@ election with the highest vote in a contested election in the history of the Iowa City Council , and was re @-@ elected until retiring from the Council in 2000 . In 2000 , Socialist Wendell Harris received 19 % of the vote for Mayor of Milwaukee , Wisconsin in the primary . In 2008 , Socialist Jon Osborne pulled in 22 % of the vote for Rhode Island 's 34th District State Senate seat , while listed on the ballot under the Socialist Party USA label . During the 2010 United States Senate elections Dan La Botz of the Socialist Party of Ohio received 25 @,@ 368 ( 0 @.@ 68 % ) votes in Ohio . In 2011 , Socialist Matt Erard was elected to a three @-@ year term on the city of Detroit ’ s Downtown District Citizens ’ District Council . In 2012 , Socialist Pat Noble unseated his incumbent opponent in winning election to the Red Bank Regional High School Board of Education , Socialist John Strinka received 10 % of the vote while running with the party 's ballot label for Indiana 's 39th district State House seat , and Socialist Troy Thompson received 27 % of the vote for Mayor of Floodwood , Minnesota . Also in 2012 , candidate Mary Alice Herbert received 13 @.@ 1 % of the vote for Vermont Secretary of State while running with the dual nomination of both the Socialist and Vermont Liberty Union parties .
= = = Membership = = =
According to the party 's first chairman , Frank Zeidler , the party had around 500 members nationwide in 1975 . The Socialist Party experienced substantial growth during the late 1970s and early to mid @-@ 1980s , expanding from only around 600 dues @-@ paying members to around 1 @,@ 700 . In 2008 , WMNF claimed that the party had around 3 @,@ 000 paying members . However , in 2010 a CommonDreams article suggested that the organization had only 1 @,@ 000 members with party members claiming it to be an increase in the amount of members . A New York Times article in May 2011 stated that the party has " about 1 @,@ 000 members nationally " . In February 2012 , an article from The Root stated that the Party had a " membership around 1 @,@ 500 " .
= = = Current Elected Officials = = =
= = = = Local Boards of Education = = = =
Pat Noble , member of the Red Bank Regional High School Board of Education
= = Ideology = =
= = = Positions = = =
While some SP members favor a more gradual approach to socialism , most others envision a more sweeping or revolutionary transformation of society from capitalist to socialist through the decisive victory of the working class in the class struggle . Some SP members also advocate revolutionary nonviolence or pacifism , while some consider armed struggle a possible necessity . The Party 's Statement of Principles rejects equating socialism with a " welfare state " and calls for democratic social revolution from below . The party is strongly committed to principles of socialist feminism and strives to further embody such commitment in its organizational structure . Its national constitution requires gender parity among its national co @-@ chairs and co @-@ vice chairs , its national committee members and alternates , and seated members of its branch- and region @-@ elected delegations to the Party 's biennial national conventions . The Socialist Party also rejected the new healthcare reform law of 2010 approved by the Obama administration , with SP National Co @-@ Chair Billy Wharton claiming it to be " a corporate restructuring of the health insurance industry created to protect the profit margins of private insurance companies " .
During his campaign , the Socialist Party candidate for president , Brian Moore , was very vocal against the idea that Barack Obama was a socialist of any kind . He further commented on the issue , saying it was " misleading of the Republicans " to spread that message . In a later statement about Obama 's policies , Wharton called Obama 's 2010 State of the Union Address a " public relations ploy " . He concluded with ; " The time for slick public relations campaigns has ended — the time for building our grassroots movements is more urgent than ever . The Socialist Party USA stands ready to join in such a political revitalization " .
= = = = International affairs = = = =
The Party 's National Action Committee condemned the Israeli actions during the Gaza War . The party demands that the Federal government of the United States cease providing military aid to the State of Israel as a precondition for peace . The party also seeks to begin an immediate withdrawal of American troops from Afghanistan . During the 2008 presidential election , the Socialist Party continued to place a strong emphasis on its full @-@ scale opposition to U.S. wars abroad , with Brian Moore , the presidential candidate , claiming the war was destroying small communities throughout the country . He also criticized what he called " pressure on the local governments " by the Bush administration . The Socialist Party of Connecticut denounced Obama 's troop surge in Afghanistan , claiming that the president was throwing away much needed resources the country needed to get pulled out of the financial crisis . After denouncing him , the state affiliate organized a protest in front of the federal building in Hartford .
= = = = Government = = = =
SP candidates , such as New Jersey gubernatorial and senate candidate Greg Pason , have also emphasized immediate public service demands ; these reforms include socializing the U.S. health care system , a steeply graduated income tax , universal rent control , and the elimination of all educational debts and tuition fees . In 1997 , Pason called auto insurance " a regressive tax against working people " . Moore was also vocal of his support for public healthcare and socialized medicine . Moore believes that capitalism is a system based on both exploitation and selfishness , which operates to serve the interests of corporations and the ruling class , at the expense of workers and the poor . During his presidential campaign he claimed that the lack of available remedy to collapsing economic conditions stems from the capitalist system 's foundation upon " greed " , and advocated its replacement with a new system founded upon economic democracy through social ownership and workers ' control of our reigning industrial and financial institutions .
= = Presidential tickets = =
† In each line the first note refers to candidates and results , the second ( if any ) to ballot access
( the number of state + D.C. ballots , out of 51 , on which the Socialist Party candidates appeared )
‡ ^ Endorsed the Citizens Party 's candidates in 1984 .
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= Pictor =
Pictor is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere , located between the star Canopus and the Large Magellanic Cloud . Its name is Latin for painter , and is an abbreviation of the older name Equuleus Pictoris ( the " painter 's easel " ) . Normally represented as an easel , Pictor was named by Abbé Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille in the 18th century . The constellation 's brightest star is Alpha Pictoris , a white main @-@ sequence star around 97 light @-@ years away from Earth . Pictor also hosts RR Pictoris , a cataclysmic variable star system that flared up as a nova , reaching apparent ( visual ) magnitude 1 @.@ 2 in 1925 before fading into obscurity .
Pictor has attracted attention because of its second @-@ brightest star Beta Pictoris , 63 @.@ 4 light @-@ years distant from Earth , which is surrounded by an unusual dust disk rich in carbon , as well as an exoplanet ( extrasolar planet ) . Another five stars in the constellation have been observed to have planets . Among them is HD 40307 , an orange dwarf that has six planets orbiting it , one of which — HD 40307 g — is a potential super @-@ Earth in the circumstellar habitable zone . Kapteyn 's Star , the nearest star in Pictor to Earth , is a red dwarf located 12 @.@ 76 light @-@ years away that was found to have two super @-@ Earths in orbit in 2014 . Pictor A is a radio galaxy that is shooting an 800 @,@ 000 light @-@ year long jet of plasma from a supermassive black hole at its centre . In 2006 , a gamma @-@ ray burst — GRB 060729 — was observed in Pictor , its extremely long X @-@ ray afterglow detectable for nearly two years .
= = History = =
The French astronomer Abbé Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille first described Pictor as le Chevalet et la Palette ( the easel and palette ) in 1756 , after observing and cataloguing 10 @,@ 000 southern stars during a two @-@ year stay at the Cape of Good Hope . He devised 14 new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe . All but one honored instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment . He gave these constellations Bayer designations , including ten stars in Pictor now named Alpha to Nu Pictoris . He labelled the constellation Equuleus Pictorius on his 1763 chart , the word " Equuleus " meaning small horse , or easel — perhaps from an old custom among artists of carrying a canvas on a donkey . The German astronomer Johann Bode called it Pluteum Pictoris . The name was shortened to its current form in 1845 by the English astronomer Francis Baily on the suggestion of his countryman Sir John Herschel .
= = Characteristics = =
Pictor is a small constellation bordered by Columba to the north , Puppis and Carina to the east , Caelum to the northwest , Dorado to the southwest and Volans to the south . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is " Pic " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 18 segments ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 04h 32.5m and 06h 52.0m , while the declination coordinates are between − 42 @.@ 79 ° and − 64 @.@ 15 ° . Pictor culminates each year at 9 p.m. on 17 March . Its position in the far Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 26 ° N , and parts become circumpolar south of latitude 35 ° S.
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Pictor is a faint constellation ; its three brightest stars can be seen near the prominent Canopus . Within the constellation 's borders , there are 49 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 . Located about 97 light @-@ years away from Earth , Alpha Pictoris is the brightest star in the constellation ; it is a white main @-@ sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 3 , and spectral type A8VnkA6 . A rapidly spinning star with a projected rotational velocity estimated at 206 km / s , it has a shell of circumstellar gas . Beta Pictoris is another white main sequence star of spectral type A6V and apparent magnitude 3 @.@ 86 . Located around 63 @.@ 4 light @-@ years distant from Earth , it is a member of the Beta Pictoris moving group — a group of 17 star systems around 12 million years old moving through space together . In 1984 Beta Pictoris was the first star discovered to have a debris disk . Since then , an exoplanet about eight times the mass of Jupiter has been discovered orbiting approximately 8 astronomical units ( AU ) away from the star — a similar distance as that between our Sun and Saturn . The European Southern Observatory ( ESO ) confirmed its presence through the use of direct imagery with the Very Large Telescope in late 2009 .
Gamma Pictoris is an orange giant of spectral type K1III that has swollen to 1 @.@ 4 times the diameter of the Sun . Shining with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 5 , it lies 174 light @-@ years distant from Earth . HD 42540 , called 47 Pictoris by American astronomer Benjamin Apthorp Gould , is a slightly cooler orange giant , with a spectral type of K2.5III and average magnitude 5 @.@ 04 . It has also been suspected of being a variable star . Lacaille mistakenly named this star Mu Doradus , but had recorded its Right Ascension one hour too low . Lacaille named two neighbouring stars Eta Pictoris . Eta2 Pictoris , also known as HR 1663 , is an orange giant of spectral type K5III and apparent magnitude 5 @.@ 05 . 474 light @-@ years distant , it has a diameter 5 @.@ 6 times that of the Sun . Eta1 Pictoris , also known as HR 1649 , is 85 light @-@ years distant and is a main sequence star of spectral type F5V and visual magnitude 5 @.@ 38 . A double star , it has a companion of magnitude 13 ; the two are separated by 11 arcseconds .
Located about 1298 light @-@ years from Earth , Delta Pictoris is an eclipsing binary of the Beta Lyrae type . Composed of two blue stars of spectral types B3III and O9V , the system has a period of 1 @.@ 67 days , and is observed to dip from apparent magnitude 4 @.@ 65 to 4 @.@ 9 . The stars are oval @-@ shaped as they are gravitationally distorted by each other . TV Pictoris is a spectroscopic binary system composed of an A @-@ type star and an F @-@ type star which rotate around each other in a very close orbit . The latter star is elliptical in shape and itself varies in brightness . The visual magnitude ranges between 7 @.@ 37 and 7 @.@ 53 every 20 hours .
Aside from Beta , five other stars in Pictor are known to host planetary systems . AB Pictoris is a BY Draconis variable star with a substellar companion that is either a large planet or a brown dwarf , which was discovered by direct imaging in 2005 . HD 40307 is an orange main sequence star of spectral type K2.5V and apparent magnitude 7 @.@ 17 located about 42 light @-@ years away . Doppler spectroscopy with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) indicates that HD 40307 is host to six super @-@ Earth planets , one of which , HD 40307 g , lies in the circumstellar habitable zone of the star , and is not close enough to be tidally locked ( i.e. with the same face always facing the star ) , unlike the other planets in the same system , and many other planets which orbit close to their parent stars . HD 41004 is a complex binary system about 139 light @-@ years distant . The primary is an orange dwarf of spectral type K1V orbited by a planet roughly 2 @.@ 65 times the mass of Jupiter every 963 days , while the secondary is a red dwarf of spectral type M2V and orbited by a brown dwarf that is at least 19 times as massive as Jupiter . Both substellar components were discovered by doppler spectroscopy using the CORALIE spectrograph in 2004 and 2002 respectively . Kapteyn 's Star , a nearby red dwarf at the distance of 12 @.@ 78 light @-@ years , has a magnitude of 8 @.@ 8 . It has the largest proper motion of any star in the sky after Barnard 's Star . Moving around the Milky Way in the opposite direction to most other stars , it may have originated in a dwarf galaxy that was merged into the Milky Way , with the main remnant being the Omega Centauri globular cluster . In 2014 analysis of the doppler variations of Kapteyn 's Star with the HARPS spectrograph showed that it hosts two super @-@ Earths — Kapteyn b and Kapteyn c . Kapteyn b is the oldest @-@ known potentially habitable planet , estimated to be possibly 11 billion years old .
Located 1 @.@ 5 degrees west southwest of Alpha , RR Pictoris is a cataclysmic variable that flared up as a nova , reaching magnitude 1 @.@ 2 on 9 June 1925 . Six months after its peak brightness , it had faded to be invisible to the unaided eye , and was magnitude 12 @.@ 5 by 1975 . RR Pictoris is a close binary system composed of a white dwarf and secondary star that orbit each other every 3 @.@ 48 hours — so close that the secondary is filling up its Roche lobe with stellar material , which is then transferred onto the first star 's accretion disk . Once this material reaches a critical mass , it ignites and the system brightens tremendously . Calculations from the orbital speed suggest the secondary star is not dense enough for its size to still be on the main sequence , so it also must have begun expanding and cooling already after its core ran out of hydrogen fuel . The RR Pictoris system is estimated to lie around 1300 light @-@ years distant from Earth .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
NGC 1705 is an irregular dwarf galaxy 17 million light @-@ years from Earth . It is one of the most active star forming galaxies in the nearby universe , despite the fact that its rate of star formation peaked around 30 million years ago . Pictor A , around 485 million light @-@ years away , is a double @-@ lobed radio galaxy and a powerful source of radio waves in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere . From a supermassive black hole at its centre , a relativistic jet shoots out to an X @-@ ray hot spot 800 @,@ 000 light years away . SPT @-@ CL J0546 @-@ 5345 is a massive galaxy cluster located around 7 billion light @-@ years away with a mass equivalent to approximately 800 trillion suns .
GRB 060729 was a gamma @-@ ray burst that was first observed on 29 July 2006 . It is likely the signal of a type Ic supernova — the core collapse of a massive star . It was also notable for its extraordinarily long X @-@ ray afterglow , detectable 642 days ( nearly two years ) after the original event . The event was remote , with a redshift of 0 @.@ 54 .
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= Irving Crane =
Irving Crane ( November 13 , 1913 – November 17 , 2001 ) , nicknamed " the Deacon " , was an American pool player from Livonia ( near Rochester ) , New York , and ranks among the stellar players in the history of the sport . Considered one of the all @-@ time greats , he is best known for his mastery in the game of straight pool ( 14 @.@ 1 continuous ) at which he won numerous championships , including six world billiards titles .
= = Early life = =
Crane 's fascination with billiards started at age 11 , sparked by play on a toy pool table his brother received as a Christmas gift . Showing interest and ability , his father Scott Crane , a trial lawyer and sportsman , and his mother , a high school teacher , soon replaced their dining room table with a 4 ' by 8 ' pool table . He soon ventured out of the home to practice a couple days each week at Olympic Billiards , a room that was part of a bowling alley in Scottsville , a suburb of Rochester , New York . Crane stated in 1998 : " Other kids , you know they 'd play for twenty minutes or half an hour and they 'd say , ' let 's do something else . ' I could play all day and never get enough . I couldn 't wait to get home from school to play . "
Crane 's status as a wunderkind was quickly evident ; although he was entirely self @-@ taught , at 14 he ran 89 balls in straight pool at a local pool room , calling each shot in advance , as is mandatory in straight pool . Following this feat , his parents replaced the smaller table with a full size tournament table . Over the next ten years some of the best players of the era , including Willie Hoppe and Andrew Ponzi , came to practice with the promising champion . Despite consistent play throughout his teenage years , Crane did not enter any tournaments until he was 23 years old .
In February 1939 , at age 26 , Crane ran 150 balls and out against his opponent in an exhibition straight pool match on a difficult 5 ' by 10 ' table in Layton , Utah . While this was impressive in and of itself , at the crowd 's urging , he continued his run , ultimately pocketing 309 consecutive balls thus shattering the previous world record of 244 consecutive balls .
= = World titles = =
This coup was soon followed by his first world title in 1942 . Over the following three decades , Crane won almost two dozen major championships , including the World Crown in 1946 , 1955 , 1966 , 1968 , 1970 and 1972 , the Ballantine International Championship in 1965 , the International Roundrobin championship in 1968 , and the World Series of Billiards in 1978 at age 65 . Of these triumphs , his win at the 1966 World Crown is the most celebrated . At that tournament he ran 150 and out in the finals , never letting his opponent back to the table after an early safety battle ; an accomplishment that has never been equaled . Crane also holds the record for the most runner @-@ up finishes for the World Crown with 13 .
Despite his mastery and world renown , Crane found it hard to make a living solely playing pool , and in 1957 began working as a Cadillac salesman at Valley Cadillac Inc . 333 East Avenue in Rochester , New York . He continued there for 17 years . According to Crane 's daughter , at Rochester 's annual auto show his dealership 's exhibit featured a pool table at which Crane would run balls while answering questions . " Working " for a living was purely a choice of survival . In an interview with Sports Illustrated in 1969 Crane said " If I had to make a choice between selling cars and playing pool , I 'd choose pool ... The only time I 've ever been really happy is when I was at a pool table . "
Described as a " tall , lean man with the imperial bearing of the headmaster of Eton , " Crane earned the appellation The Deacon because of his gentlemanly ways , his very cautious approach to the game and his impeccable dress , never approaching a pool table except in a conservative suit . Los Angeles Times sports columnist Jim Murray once said Crane " would make Henry Fonda look furtive . " Highlighting Crane 's both cautious approach and mastery , Mike Sigel , one of pool 's most illustrious players , reportedly asked Crane to play one day when Sigel was a young player . Crane assented and after Sigel broke , Crane ran 200 balls and then played a safety .
= = Later life = =
In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , Crane 's wife of 64 years , Althea , stated " A lot of people , if it was a hot day and there was no air conditioning , they 'd take off their coat to play . But not Irving Crane . " Rudolph Wanderone , a / k / a Minnesota Fats , once opined , " Irv Crane would have been the only guy to notice the horse under Lady Godiva , " while professional rival Willie Mosconi who had criticized Crane for his cautious style , stated in his 1993 autobiography , Willie 's Game , that " Crane wouldn 't take a shot unless his grandmother could make it . "
Crane was inducted into the Billiard Congress of America 's hall of fame in 1978 . In 1999 Crane was ranked as number eight on Billiard Digest 's fifty greatest players of the century . In his entry there he is lauded as having been , along with Mosconi , the " best in the world , flat out " between 1941 and 1956 . In 1980 Crane retired from professional play . He stopped playing entirely in about 1996 . On November 17 , 2001 at age 88 , four days after entering a nursing home , Crane died of natural causes . He was survived by his wife Althea , son Irving , daughter Sandra , three grandchildren , and three great @-@ grandchildren .
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= Paul Stastny =
Paul Stastny ( born December 27 , 1985 ) is a Canadian @-@ born American professional ice hockey center currently playing for the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League .
Of Slovak lineage , Stastny is the son of Hockey Hall of Famer Peter Šťastný , who played for the Avalanche 's predecessor , the Quebec Nordiques , and finished his career with the St. Louis Blues . His older brother Yan has played for the Boston Bruins , Edmonton Oilers and St. Louis Blues . His uncles Anton and Marian Stastny both played in the NHL during the 1980s , also for the Nordiques . His surname pronunciation is " shtyahstnee " .
Stastny began his junior hockey career with the River City Lancers of the United States Hockey League before moving to the University of Denver Pioneers in 2004 . He won the NCAA Men 's Ice Hockey Championship in his first season playing for the Pioneers . He remained at the University of Denver for one more season . He signed a contract with the Avalanche before the 2006 – 07 NHL season , scored 78 points in 82 games in his rookie season and was nominated for the Calder Memorial Trophy . In 2007 – 08 he was named to his first NHL All @-@ Star Game , but didn 't play because of an appendectomy . As a dual citizen , Stastny has chosen to play for the U.S. in international hockey competitions , which have included the 2004 Viking Cup , the 2007 IIHF World Championship , and the 2010 , 2014 Winter Olympics .
= = Early years and family = =
Stastny was born in Quebec City , Quebec , to Peter Šťastný ( anglicised to Stastny ) and his wife Darina , while Peter was playing for the Nordiques . Paul spent his early years in Québec and New Jersey , following his father 's career . Peter joined the St. Louis Blues in 1993 and settled there after finishing his player career , working as a scout for the team . Paul has numerous family relatives who have played in the NHL . He is the son of Czechoslovak defector and Hockey Hall of Fame inductee Peter Šťastný ( surname later anglicised ) , the first European @-@ trained player to reach 1 @,@ 000 points in the NHL , and the nephew of retired NHL players Anton and Marian . Peter and Anton were the first two out of the three brothers to come to North America , in 1980 ; they were smuggled , along with Peter 's pregnant wife with the help of the Québec Nordiques ' owner Marcel Aubut and chief scout Gilles Léger out of Czechoslovakia to Austria . Marián arrived a year later , after Peter and Anton raised the $ 30 @,@ 000 needed to bribe officials of the Czechoslovak government . All 3 played for Quebec from 1981 – 1985 , which was only the third time that 3 brothers played for the same team in the NHL at the same time . The first three brothers who had played for the same team were Reg , Doug and Max Bentley . Followed by the three Plager brothers , Bill , Barclay and Bob who played with the St. Louis Blues from 1968 – 72 . Paul 's older brother Yan has played for the Boston Bruins , Edmonton Oilers , and St. Louis Blues . He currently plays for HC CSKA Moscow in the KHL . Peter and Paul Stastny currently rank fourth all @-@ time in total scoring by a father @-@ son combination in the NHL .
Paul played high school hockey for Chaminade College Preparatory School in St. Louis , Missouri during his freshman and sophomore years in high school , but he left the high school team to play for the Tier III Junior B St. Louis Jr . Blues . He then moved to Omaha , Nebraska to play Tier I junior hockey for the River City Lancers of the United States Hockey League during this last two years of high school , graduating from Millard North High School in Omaha .
Born in Canada to a mother with American citizenship , Stastny and his brother Yan have dual Canadian / U.S. citizenship . Paul has two sisters , Katarina and Kristina ( married to Mike Nash ) . He has mentioned " religion , education and the importance of family " as important values in his upbringing , and has spoken about his father 's help in making him a better player .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur career = = =
Paul Stastny began his junior ice hockey career in 2002 with the River City Lancers of the United States Hockey League , playing with the team for two seasons , scoring 107 points in 113 games . In 2002 – 03 , the Lancers finished the regular season fourth in the West Division and progressed to the playoffs . After advancing two rounds , the Lancers lost in the Clark Cup final against the Lincoln Stars . In 2003 – 04 , the Lancers finished third in the West Division and lost in the first round of the playoffs against the Sioux City Musketeers . Stastny 's 77 points in 56 games ranked him second in the league behind teammate Mike Howe .
Stastny entered the University of Denver to play for the Pioneers in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association of the National Collegiate Athletic Association in 2004 . Despite entering college hockey younger than the usual USHL player , he scored 45 points in 42 games in his first season in Denver to help the Pioneers win the MacNaughton Cup and Broadmoor Trophy . He then helped the team win its second NCAA Men 's Ice Hockey Championship in a row by scoring two power @-@ play goals in the final game at the 2005 Frozen Four tournament against North Dakota . Stastny won the award for WCHA Rookie of the Year and was part of the WCHA All @-@ Rookie Team and the NCAA Championship All @-@ Tournament Team .
In 2005 – 06 , Stastny scored 53 points in 39 games and finished 7th overall in the NCAA scoring list , tied with Matt Carle for the Pioneers ' scoring lead . He scored 44 points in 28 conference games to win the WCHA scoring title .
He was part of the WCHA First All @-@ Star Team and the NCAA West Second All @-@ American Team , as the Pioneers finished the WCHA regular season in second place and lost in the first round of the playoffs against the Minnesota @-@ Duluth Bulldogs . At the end of the season , Stastny left the University of Denver as a business major .
= = = Colorado Avalanche = = =
Stastny was draft @-@ eligible in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft , but opted out of the draft . Prior to the draft , the NHL Central Scouting Bureau ranked him as the 49th best North @-@ American skater available . Ranked by CSB as the 74th best in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft , he was drafted by the Colorado Avalanche in the second round , 44th overall . Before moving to Denver in 1996 , the Avalanche were the Quebec Nordiques , the team for which his father played from 1980 – 1990 and had his jersey number retired . Stastny signed a multi @-@ year contract with the Avalanche on July 24 , 2006 , and began his professional career in the 2006 – 07 NHL season .
Before training camp , it was not expected he would start the season with the Avalanche , but rather for an affiliate team of the Avalanche . However , Steve Konowalchuk 's career @-@ ending heart problem opened a roster spot and Stastny 's play impressed Avalanche coach Joel Quenneville . Stastny started the season with the jersey number 62 until his teammate John @-@ Michael Liles ( switching to # 4 ) changed his to let Stastny use # 26 , the same his father wore when he played for the franchise while it was in Quebec . Stastny had his first NHL assist on a goal by Wojtek Wolski in his third NHL game , on October 8 against the Vancouver Canucks . On October 21 , in his eighth NHL game and first wearing number 26 , Stastny scored his first NHL goal in Montreal against David Aebischer of the Montreal Canadiens .
On February 21 , 2007 , Stastny scored two goals and passed Alex Tanguay 's total of 51 points to set a new Avalanche record for points by a rookie . His father holds the franchise record with 109 . Between February 3 and March 17 , he had a 20 @-@ game scoring streak , breaking not only his father 's franchise rookie record of 16 games , but also the NHL rookie record of 17 games that belonged to Teemu Selänne . He scored 11 goals and had 18 assists during that period and became the third @-@ youngest player in NHL history to record a 20 @-@ game scoring streak , following Mario Lemieux and Wayne Gretzky . At the start of the season , Wojtek Wolski was the Avalanche player seen as favorite to contend for the Calder Memorial Trophy ; however , the scoring streak put Stastny into contention as well . Stastny 's play was one of the reasons the Avalanche experienced their best run of the season towards the end , winning 15 of their last 19 games but missing the playoffs by one point . Stastny ended his rookie season with 78 points , finished second to Pittsburgh Penguins ' Evgeni Malkin in the voting for the Calder Memorial Trophy and was named to the 2006 – 07 NHL All @-@ Rookie Team .
Coming into his sophomore season , Stastny admitted the pressure would increase during the year . He continued the strong finish of his rookie year , by scoring his first career hat @-@ trick against Marty Turco of the Dallas Stars in the season 's first game and scoring five points for the first time four days later , against the San Jose Sharks . He scored 15 goals and had 28 assists in his first 34 games of the season , and had his 100th NHL point in his 99th NHL game . At the same time , Stastny hit a slump , during which he had one point in eight games . With the Avalanche having lost top players Joe Sakic and Ryan Smyth to injuries , Ryan Kennedy of The Hockey News pointed to Stastny 's inconsistency and wrote it was time for Stastny to step up and be a leader in all aspects . Despite being on the longest scoreless streak of his career , which lasted 10 games , on January 11 , 2008 , the NHL announced Stastny would play at the 56th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game . He scored two goals and three assists in three games before the Colorado Avalanche announced six days later that Stastny would miss approximately 2 – 3 weeks , including his first All @-@ Star Game to have his appendix removed . After recovering from the surgery and returning to skating , he suffered a groin injury during a practice , delaying his return . Stastny ended up missing 15 games , but he scored a goal on his comeback against the Phoenix Coyotes on February 22 . He scored seven goals and had 15 assists until the end of the regular season , missing a game due to flu on March 20 . With 71 points scored , he finished the regular season as the team 's scoring leader and the Avalanche finished 6th in the West , progressing to the playoffs to play against the Minnesota Wild . Stastny failed to score a point until the fifth game , when his game @-@ winning goal gave the Avalanche the lead in the series . Colorado ended the series by winning the sixth game and progressed to meet the Detroit Red Wings in the Western Conference Semifinals . Stastny scored a goal and an assist in the first game of the series , but a depleted Avalanche team was swept in four games . Stastny missed the last game of the series after he injured his knee during the first period of the third game .
On November 17 , 2008 , Stastny signed a US $ 33 @-@ million , five @-@ year contract extension with the Avalanche . The contract began in the 2009 – 10 season and runs through 2013 – 14 ; he will be paid an average of $ 6 @.@ 6 million a year . Stastny earned $ 710 @,@ 000 during the 2008 – 09 season .
In a December 23 , 2008 game against the Phoenix Coyotes , Paul suffered a fractured forearm after being struck by a shot from Phoenix 's Olli Jokinen in the last regulation minute of the game . He successfully underwent surgery on his arm and missed 24 games , but also his chance to play in the 2009 All @-@ Star Game in Montreal . This was the second consecutive season that he missed such an opportunity . He was injured again later in the season when he broke his foot while blocking a shot during a March 17 , 2009 game against the Minnesota Wild , putting him out of play for the rest of the season . He scored 36 points in just 45 games that year .
The 2009 – 10 season proved successful for Stastny and the Avalanche . He stayed uninjured the entire season , and only missed one game as a healthy scratch after the Avalanche clinched a playoff spot the previous evening . His 79 points ( 20 goals , 59 assists ) was a career best , and he led the team in points and assists . Tied with Alexander Ovechkin , only five players in the league ended up with more assists . Stastny 's second career appearance in the post season ended after the San Jose Sharks eliminated the Avs in the first round . On January 26 , 2011 , Stastny was named to his 2nd NHL All @-@ Star Game . He and his father became the 8th father @-@ son duo in NHL history to both play in an All @-@ Star Game .
With the delay of the 2012 – 13 season due to the Lockout , Stastny followed his brother 's footsteps to Germany and signed his first European contract with EHC München of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga on November 15 , 2012 . Stastny appeared in 13 games for Red Bull climbing to third among the team with 18 points before returning to the Avalanche upon the tentative lockout resolution on January 6 , 2013 .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
Unable to agree to a new contract with the Avalanche as a free agent , Stastny signed a four @-@ year $ 28 million contract with hometown club and Avalanche rivals , the St. Louis Blues , on July 1 , 2014 . Skating in 74 games in his first season with the Blues , Stastny scored 16 goals to go with 30 assists .
= = International play = =
Although born in Canada , Stastny is a dual citizen of Canada and the United States . Both he and his brother Yan have chosen to play internationally for the United States . Among the reasons that led him to choose to play for the United States was the possibility to play in an international competition with his brother , who had chosen to play for the United States before Paul . Paul represented the U.S. for the first time in the 2004 Viking Cup , where he won a silver medal playing for the junior team . According to Hockey 's Future , he was one of the most important American talents in the tournament . Stastny played internationally for the United States national ice hockey team for the first time in the 2007 IIHF World Championship . He played seven games , scored four goals and four assists , had two penalty minutes and finished even in plus / minus . The United States lost in the quarterfinals against Finland . Stastny was named the best American player in the 3 – 0 win against Germany , when he scored two goals and had one assist . He was chosen as one of the three best United States players at the tournament , together with Lee Stempniak and Toby Petersen .
Stastny was selected to play for the U.S. men 's ice hockey team in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver where he won a silver medal . He scored a goal and two assists over six games . Upon completion of a disappointing 2012 – 13 season with the Avalanche , Stastny accepted an invite the 2013 World Championship event in Finland / Sweden and was selected as Team U.S. Captain . He led the largely unheralded U.S. team , in claiming their country 's first medal at the Championships since 2004 , with shootout victory over Finland for Bronze on May 19 , 2013 . Stastny finished the tournament in second place in individual scoring with 15 points in 10 games , resulting in selection to the World Championship All @-@ Star Team .
= = Style of play = =
Stastny is a left @-@ handed center and was one of the few NHL players known to use a wood stick since 2005 , preferring it through his first four seasons in the NHL . However , he made the switch to a graphite stick to begin his 2010 – 11 NHL season . He considers himself a playmaker , a characteristic he says he inherited from his father . Former Avalanche captain Joe Sakic , who played with Paul and Peter Stastny , sees similarities between the two , namely their strong skating and ability to see the game . Former Avalanche coach Joel Quenneville , who faced Peter during his playing career , has said Paul plays in a similar way and complimented his hockey sense . George Gwozdecky , Stastny 's coach at the University of Denver , has complimented his intelligence , ability to pass and see the ice . Although it has been said that Stastny is a slow skater , Gwozdecky too feels he is a strong skater . Terry Frei of ESPN has said that " ... his game isn 't flashy and eye @-@ popping as much as it is heady , intuitive and efficient " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honors = =
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= Cerebellum =
The cerebellum ( Latin for " little brain " ) is a region of the brain that plays an important role in motor control . It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language , and in regulating fear and pleasure responses , but its movement @-@ related functions are the most solidly established . The cerebellum does not initiate movement , but contributes to coordination , precision , and accurate timing . It receives input from sensory systems of the spinal cord and from other parts of the brain , and integrates these inputs to fine @-@ tune motor activity . Cerebellar damage produces disorders in fine movement , equilibrium , posture , and motor learning .
Anatomically , the cerebellum has the appearance of a separate structure attached to the bottom of the brain , tucked underneath the cerebral hemispheres . Its cortical surface is covered with finely spaced parallel grooves , in striking contrast to the broad irregular convolutions of the cerebral cortex . These parallel grooves conceal the fact that the cerebellar cortex is actually a continuous thin layer of tissue tightly folded in the style of an accordion . Within this thin layer are several types of neurons with a highly regular arrangement , the most important being Purkinje cells and granule cells . This complex neural organization gives rise to a massive signal @-@ processing capability , but almost all of the output from the cerebellar cortex passes through a set of small deep nuclei lying in the white matter interior of the cerebellum .
In addition to its direct role in motor control , the cerebellum is necessary for several types of motor learning , most notably learning to adjust to changes in sensorimotor relationships . Several theoretical models have been developed to explain sensorimotor calibration in terms of synaptic plasticity within the cerebellum . These models derive from those formulated by David Marr and James Albus , based on the observation that each cerebellar Purkinje cell receives two dramatically different types of input : one comprises thousands of weak inputs from the parallel fibers of the granule cells ; the other is an extremely strong input from a single climbing fiber . The basic concept of the Marr – Albus theory is that the climbing fiber serves as a " teaching signal " , which induces a long @-@ lasting change in the strength of parallel fiber inputs . Observations of long @-@ term depression in parallel fiber inputs have provided support for theories of this type , but their validity remains controversial .
= = Structure = =
At the level of gross anatomy , the cerebellum consists of a tightly folded layer of cortex , with white matter underneath and a fluid @-@ filled ventricle at the base . At the microscopic level , there are four deep nuclei embedded in the white matter . Each part of the cortex consists of the same small set of neuronal elements , laid out in a highly stereotyped geometry . At an intermediate level , the cerebellum and its auxiliary structures can be separated into several hundred or thousand independently functioning modules called " microzones " or " microcompartments " .
= = = Gross anatomy = = =
The cerebellum is located in the posterior cranial fossa . The fourth ventricle , pons and medulla are in front of the cerebellum . It is separated from the overlying cerebrum by a layer of leathery dura mater , the tentorium cerebelli ; all of its connections with other parts of the brain travel through the pons . Anatomists classify the cerebellum as part of the metencephalon , which also includes the pons ; the metencephalon is the upper part of the rhombencephalon or " hindbrain " . Like the cerebral cortex , the cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres ; it also contains a narrow midline zone ( the vermis ) . A set of large folds is , by convention , used to divide the overall structure into 10 smaller " lobules " . Because of its large number of tiny granule cells , the cerebellum contains more neurons than the total from the rest of the brain , but takes up only 10 % of the total brain volume . The number of neurons in the cerebellum is related to the number of neurons in the neocortex . There are about 3 @.@ 6 times as many neurons in the cerebellum as in the neocortex , a ratio that is conserved across many different mammalian species .
The unusual surface appearance of the cerebellum conceals the fact that most of its volume is made up of a very tightly folded layer of gray matter : the cerebellar cortex . Each ridge or gyrus in this layer is called a folium . It is estimated that , if the human cerebellar cortex were completely unfolded , it would give rise to a layer of neural tissue about 1 meter long and averaging 5 centimeters wide — a total surface area of about 500 square cm , packed within a volume of dimensions 6 cm × 5 cm × 10 cm . Underneath the gray matter of the cortex lies white matter , made up largely of myelinated nerve fibers running to and from the cortex . Embedded within the white matter — which is sometimes called the arbor vitae ( tree of life ) because of its branched , tree @-@ like appearance in cross @-@ section — are four deep cerebellar nuclei , composed of gray matter .
Connecting the cerebellum to different parts of the nervous system are three paired cerebellar peduncles . These are the superior cerebellar peduncle , the middle cerebellar peduncle and the inferior cerebellar peduncle , named by their position relative to the vermis . The superior cerebellar peduncle is mainly an output to the cerebral cortex , carrying efferent fibers to upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex . The fibers arise from the deep cerebellar nuclei . The middle cerebellar peduncle is connected to the pons and receives all of its input from the pons mainly from the pontine nuclei . The input to the pons is from the cerebral cortex and is relayed from the pontine nuclei via transverse pontine fibers to the cerebellum . The middle peduncle is the largest of the three and its afferent fibers are grouped into three separate fascicles taking their inputs to different parts of the cerebellum . The inferior cerebellar peduncle receives input from afferent fibers from the vestibular nuclei , spinal cord and the tegmentum . Output from the inferior peduncle is via efferent fibers to the vestibular nuclei and the reticular formation . The whole of the cerebellum receives modulatory input from the inferior olivary nucleus via the inferior cerebellar peduncle .
= = = = Subdivisions = = = =
Based on the surface appearance , three lobes can be distinguished within the cerebellum : the anterior lobe ( above the primary fissure ) , the posterior lobe ( below the primary fissure ) , and the flocculonodular lobe ( below the posterior fissure ) . These lobes divide the cerebellum from rostral to caudal ( in humans , top to bottom ) . In terms of function , however , there is a more important distinction along the medial @-@ to @-@ lateral dimension . Leaving out the flocculonodular lobe , which has distinct connections and functions , the cerebellum can be parsed functionally into a medial sector called the spinocerebellum and a larger lateral sector called the cerebrocerebellum . A narrow strip of protruding tissue along the midline is called the cerebellar vermis . ( Vermis is Latin for " worm " . )
The smallest region , the flocculonodular lobe , is often called the vestibulocerebellum . It is the oldest part in evolutionary terms ( archicerebellum ) and participates mainly in balance and spatial orientation ; its primary connections are with the vestibular nuclei , although it also receives visual and other sensory input . Damage to this region causes disturbances of balance and gait .
The medial zone of the anterior and posterior lobes constitutes the spinocerebellum , also known as paleocerebellum . This sector of the cerebellum functions mainly to fine @-@ tune body and limb movements . It receives proprioceptive input from the dorsal columns of the spinal cord ( including the spinocerebellar tract ) and from the cranial trigeminal nerve , as well as from visual and auditory systems . It sends fibers to deep cerebellar nuclei that , in turn , project to both the cerebral cortex and the brain stem , thus providing modulation of descending motor systems .
The lateral zone , which in humans is by far the largest part , constitutes the cerebrocerebellum , also known as neocerebellum . It receives input exclusively from the cerebral cortex ( especially the parietal lobe ) via the pontine nuclei ( forming cortico @-@ ponto @-@ cerebellar pathways ) , and sends output mainly to the ventrolateral thalamus ( in turn connected to motor areas of the premotor cortex and primary motor area of the cerebral cortex ) and to the red nucleus . There is disagreement about the best way to describe the functions of the lateral cerebellum : It is thought to be involved in planning movement that is about to occur , in evaluating sensory information for action , and in a number of purely cognitive functions , such as determining the verb which best fits with a certain noun ( as in " sit " for " chair " ) .
= = = Microanatomy = = =
Two types of neuron play dominant roles in the cerebellar circuit : Purkinje cells and granule cells . Three types of axons also play dominant roles : mossy fibers and climbing fibers ( which enter the cerebellum from outside ) , and parallel fibers ( which are the axons of granule cells ) . There are two main pathways through the cerebellar circuit , originating from mossy fibers and climbing fibers , both eventually terminating in the deep cerebellar nuclei .
Mossy fibers project directly to the deep nuclei , but also give rise to the following pathway : mossy fibers → granule cells → parallel fibers → Purkinje cells → deep nuclei . Climbing fibers project to Purkinje cells and also send collaterals directly to the deep nuclei . The mossy fiber and climbing fiber inputs each carry fiber @-@ specific information ; the cerebellum also receives dopaminergic , serotonergic , noradrenergic , and cholinergic inputs that presumably perform global modulation .
The cerebellar cortex is divided into three layers . At the bottom lies the thick granular layer , densely packed with granule cells , along with interneurons , mainly Golgi cells but also including Lugaro cells and unipolar brush cells . In the middle lies the Purkinje layer , a narrow zone that contains the cell bodies of Purkinje cells and Bergmann glial cells . At the top lies the molecular layer , which contains the flattened dendritic trees of Purkinje cells , along with the huge array of parallel fibers penetrating the Purkinje cell dendritic trees at right angles . This outermost layer of the cerebellar cortex also contains two types of inhibitory interneuron : stellate cells and basket cells . Both stellate and basket cells form GABAergic synapses onto Purkinje cell dendrites .
= = = = Purkinje cells = = = =
Purkinje cells are among the most distinctive neurons in the brain , and one of the earliest types to be recognized — they were first described by the Czech anatomist Jan Evangelista Purkyně in 1837 . They are distinguished by the shape of their dendritic tree : The dendrites branch very profusely , but are severely flattened in a plane perpendicular to the cerebellar folds . Thus , the dendrites of a Purkinje cell form a dense planar net , through which parallel fibers pass at right angles . The dendrites are covered with dendritic spines , each of which receives synaptic input from a parallel fiber . Purkinje cells receive more synaptic inputs than any other type of cell in the brain — estimates of the number of spines on a single human Purkinje cell run as high as 200 @,@ 000 . The large , spherical cell bodies of Purkinje cells are packed into a narrow layer ( one cell thick ) of the cerebellar cortex , called the Purkinje layer . After emitting collaterals that affect nearby parts of the cortex , their axons travel into the deep cerebellar nuclei , where they make on the order of 1 @,@ 000 contacts each with several types of nuclear cells , all within a small domain . Purkinje cells use GABA as their neurotransmitter , and therefore exert inhibitory effects on their targets .
Purkinje cells form the heart of the cerebellar circuit , and their large size and distinctive activity patterns have made it relatively easy to study their response patterns in behaving animals using extracellular recording techniques . Purkinje cells normally emit action potentials at a high rate even in the absence of the synaptic input . In awake , behaving animals , mean rates averaging around 40 Hz are typical . The spike trains show a mixture of what are called simple and complex spikes . A simple spike is a single action potential followed by a refractory period of about 10 ms ; a complex spike is a stereotyped sequence of action potentials with very short inter @-@ spike intervals and declining amplitudes . Physiological studies have shown that complex spikes ( which occur at baseline rates around 1 Hz and never at rates much higher than 10 Hz ) are reliably associated with climbing fiber activation , while simple spikes are produced by a combination of baseline activity and parallel fiber input . Complex spikes are often followed by a pause of several hundred milliseconds during which simple spike activity is suppressed .
= = = = Granule cells = = = =
Cerebellar granule cells , in contrast to Purkinje cells , are among the smallest neurons in the brain . They are also easily the most numerous neurons in the brain : In humans , estimates of their total number average around 50 billion , which means that about 3 / 4 of the brain 's neurons are cerebellar granule cells . Their cell bodies are packed into a thick layer at the bottom of the cerebellar cortex . A granule cell emits only four to five dendrites , each of which ends in an enlargement called a dendritic claw . These enlargements are sites of excitatory input from mossy fibers and inhibitory input from Golgi cells .
The thin , unmyelinated axons of granule cells rise vertically to the upper ( molecular ) layer of the cortex , where they split in two , with each branch traveling horizontally to form a parallel fiber ; the splitting of the vertical branch into two horizontal branches gives rise to a distinctive " T " shape . A human parallel fiber runs for an average of 3 mm in each direction from the split , for a total length of about 6 mm ( about 1 / 10 of the total width of the cortical layer ) . As they run along , the parallel fibers pass through the dendritic trees of Purkinje cells , contacting one of every 3 – 5 that they pass , making a total of 80 – 100 synaptic connections with Purkinje cell dendritic spines . Granule cells use glutamate as their neurotransmitter , and therefore exert excitatory effects on their targets .
Granule cells receive all of their input from mossy fibers , but outnumber them by 200 to 1 ( in humans ) . Thus , the information in the granule cell population activity state is the same as the information in the mossy fibers , but recoded in a much more expansive way . Because granule cells are so small and so densely packed , it is difficult to record their spike activity in behaving animals , so there is little data to use as a basis for theorizing . The most popular concept of their function was proposed in 1969 by David Marr , who suggested that they could encode combinations of mossy fiber inputs . The idea is that with each granule cell receiving input from only 4 – 5 mossy fibers , a granule cell would not respond if only a single one of its inputs were active , but would respond if more than one were active . This combinatorial coding scheme would potentially allow the cerebellum to make much finer distinctions between input patterns than the mossy fibers alone would permit .
= = = = Mossy fibers = = = =
Mossy fibers enter the granular layer from their points of origin , many arising from the pontine nuclei , others from the spinal cord , vestibular nuclei etc . In the human cerebellum , the total number of mossy fibers has been estimated at about 200 million . These fibers form excitatory synapses with the granule cells and the cells of the deep cerebellar nuclei . Within the granular layer , a mossy fiber generates a series of enlargements called rosettes . The contacts between mossy fibers and granule cell dendrites take place within structures called glomeruli . Each glomerulus has a mossy fiber rosette at its center , and up to 20 granule cell dendritic claws contacting it . Terminals from Golgi cells infiltrate the structure and make inhibitory synapses onto the granule cell dendrites . The entire assemblage is surrounded by a sheath of glial cells . Each mossy fiber sends collateral branches to several cerebellar folia , generating a total of 20 – 30 rosettes ; thus a single mossy fiber makes contact with an estimated 400 – 600 granule cells .
= = = = Climbing fibers = = = =
Purkinje cells also receive input from the inferior olivary nucleus on the contralateral side of the brainstem via climbing fibers . Although the inferior olive lies in the medulla oblongata and receives input from the spinal cord , brainstem and cerebral cortex , its output goes entirely to the cerebellum . A climbing fiber gives off collaterals to the deep cerebellar nuclei before entering the cerebellar cortex , where it splits into about 10 terminal branches , each of which gives input to a single Purkinje cell . In striking contrast to the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ plus inputs from parallel fibers , each Purkinje cell receives input from exactly one climbing fiber ; but this single fiber " climbs " the dendrites of the Purkinje cell , winding around them and making a total of up to 300 synapses as it goes . The net input is so strong that a single action potential from a climbing fiber is capable of producing an extended complex spike in the Purkinje cell : a burst of several spikes in a row , with diminishing amplitude , followed by a pause during which activity is suppressed . The climbing fiber synapses cover the cell body and proximal dendrites ; this zone is devoid of parallel fiber inputs .
Climbing fibers fire at low rates , but a single climbing fiber action potential induces a burst of several action potentials in a target Purkinje cell ( a complex spike ) . The contrast between parallel fiber and climbing fiber inputs to Purkinje cells ( over 100 @,@ 000 of one type versus exactly one of the other type ) is perhaps the most provocative feature of cerebellar anatomy , and has motivated much of the theorizing . In fact , the function of climbing fibers is the most controversial topic concerning the cerebellum . There are two schools of thought , one following Marr and Albus in holding that climbing fiber input serves primarily as a teaching signal , the other holding that its function is to shape cerebellar output directly . Both views have been defended in great length in numerous publications . In the words of one review , " In trying to synthesize the various hypotheses on the function of the climbing fibers , one has the sense of looking at a drawing by Escher . Each point of view seems to account for a certain collection of findings , but when one attempts to put the different views together , a coherent picture of what the climbing fibers are doing does not appear . For the majority of researchers , the climbing fibers signal errors in motor performance , either in the usual manner of discharge frequency modulation or as a single announcement of an ' unexpected event ' . For other investigators , the message lies in the degree of ensemble synchrony and rhythmicity among a population of climbing fibers . "
= = = = Deep nuclei = = = =
The deep nuclei of the cerebellum are clusters of gray matter lying within the white matter at the core of the cerebellum . They are , with the minor exception of the nearby vestibular nuclei , the sole sources of output from the cerebellum . These nuclei receive collateral projections from mossy fibers and climbing fibers as well as inhibitory input from the Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex . The four nuclei ( dentate , globose , emboliform , and fastigial ) each communicate with different parts of the brain and cerebellar cortex . ( The globose and the emboliform nuclei are also referred to as combined in the interposed nucleus ) . The fastigial and interposed nuclei belong to the spinocerebellum . The dentate nucleus , which in mammals is much larger than the others , is formed as a thin , convoluted layer of gray matter , and communicates exclusively with the lateral parts of the cerebellar cortex . The flocculonodular lobe is the only part of the cerebellar cortex that does not project to the deep nuclei — its output goes to the vestibular nuclei instead .
The majority of neurons in the deep nuclei have large cell bodies and spherical dendritic trees with a radius of about 400 μm , and use glutamate as their neurotransmitter . These cells project to a variety of targets outside the cerebellum . Intermixed with them are a lesser number of small cells , which use GABA as a neurotransmitter and project exclusively to the inferior olivary nucleus , the source of climbing fibers . Thus , the nucleo @-@ olivary projection provides an inhibitory feedback to match the excitatory projection of climbing fibers to the nuclei . There is evidence that each small cluster of nuclear cells projects to the same cluster of olivary cells that send climbing fibers to it ; there is strong and matching topography in both directions .
When a Purkinje cell axon enters one of the deep nuclei , it branches to make contact with both large and small nuclear cells , but the total number of cells contacted is only about 35 ( in cats ) . Conversely , a single deep nuclear cell receives input from approximately 860 Purkinje cells ( again in cats ) .
= = = = Compartments = = = =
From the viewpoint of gross anatomy , the cerebellar cortex appears to be a homogeneous sheet of tissue , and , from the viewpoint of microanatomy , all parts of this sheet appear to have the same internal structure . There are , however , a number of respects in which the structure of the cerebellum is compartmentalized . There are large compartments that are generally known as zones ; these can be divided into smaller compartments known as microzones .
The first indications of compartmental structure came from studies of the receptive fields of cells in various parts of the cerebellar cortex . Each body part maps to specific points in the cerebellum , but there are numerous repetitions of the basic map , forming an arrangement that has been called " fractured somatotopy " . A clearer indication of compartmentalization is obtained by immunostaining the cerebellum for certain types of protein . The best @-@ known of these markers are called " zebrins " , because staining for them gives rise to a complex pattern reminiscent of the stripes on a zebra . The stripes generated by zebrins and other compartmentalization markers are oriented perpendicular to the cerebellar folds — that is , they are narrow in the mediolateral direction , but much more extended in the longitudinal direction . Different markers generate different sets of stripes , the widths and lengths vary as a function of location , but they all have the same general shape .
Oscarsson in the late 1970s proposed that these cortical zones can be partitioned into smaller units called microzones . A microzone is defined as a group of Purkinje cells all having the same somatotopic receptive field . Microzones were found to contain on the order of 1000 Purkinje cells each , arranged in a long , narrow strip , oriented perpendicular to the cortical folds . Thus , as the adjoining diagram illustrates , Purkinje cell dendrites are flattened in the same direction as the microzones extend , while parallel fibers cross them at right angles .
It is not only receptive fields that define the microzone structure : The climbing fiber input from the inferior olivary nucleus is equally important . The branches of a climbing fiber ( usually numbering about 10 ) usually activate Purkinje cells belonging to the same microzone . Moreover , olivary neurons that send climbing fibers to the same microzone tend to be coupled by gap junctions , which synchronize their activity , causing Purkinje cells within a microzone to show correlated complex spike activity on a millisecond time scale . Also , the Purkinje cells belonging to a microzone all send their axons to the same small cluster of output cells within the deep cerebellar nuclei . Finally , the axons of basket cells are much longer in the longitudinal direction than in the mediolateral direction , causing them to be confined largely to a single microzone . The consequence of all this structure is that cellular interactions within a microzone are much stronger than interactions between different microzones .
In 2005 , Richard Apps and Martin Garwicz summarized evidence that microzones themselves form part of a larger entity they call a multizonal microcomplex . Such a microcomplex includes several spatially separated cortical microzones , all of which project to the same group of deep cerebellar neurons , plus a group of coupled olivary neurons that project to all of the included microzones as well as to the deep nuclear area .
= = Function = =
The strongest clues to the function of the cerebellum have come from examining the consequences of damage to it . Animals and humans with cerebellar dysfunction show , above all , problems with motor control , on the same side of the body as the damaged part of the cerebellum . They continue to be able to generate motor activity , but it loses precision , producing erratic , uncoordinated , or incorrectly timed movements . A standard test of cerebellar function is to reach with the tip of the finger for a target at arm 's length : A healthy person will move the fingertip in a rapid straight trajectory , whereas a person with cerebellar damage will reach slowly and erratically , with many mid @-@ course corrections . Deficits in non @-@ motor functions are more difficult to detect . Thus , the general conclusion reached decades ago is that the basic function of the cerebellum is to calibrate the detailed form of a movement , not to initiate movements or to decide which movements to execute .
Prior to the 1990s the function of the cerebellum was almost universally believed to be purely motor @-@ related , but newer findings have brought that view into question . Functional imaging studies have shown cerebellar activation in relation to language , attention , and mental imagery ; correlation studies have shown interactions between the cerebellum and non @-@ motor areas of the cerebral cortex ; and a variety of non @-@ motor symptoms have been recognized in people with damage that appears to be confined to the cerebellum . In particular , the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome has been described in adults and children . Estimates based on functional mapping of the cerebellum using functional MRI suggest that more than half of the cerebellar cortex is interconnected with association zones of the cerebral cortex .
Kenji Doya has argued that the function of the cerebellum is best understood not in terms of what behaviors it is involved in , but rather in terms of what neural computations it performs ; the cerebellum consists of a large number of more or less independent modules , all with the same geometrically regular internal structure , and therefore all , it is presumed , performing the same computation . If the input and output connections of a module are with motor areas ( as many are ) , then the module will be involved in motor behavior ; but , if the connections are with areas involved in non @-@ motor cognition , the module will show other types of behavioral correlates . Thus the cerebellum has been implicated in the regulation of many differing functional traits such as affection , emotion and behavior . The cerebellum , Doya proposes , is best understood as predictive action selection based on " internal models " of the environment or a device for supervised learning , in contrast to the basal ganglia , which perform reinforcement learning , and the cerebral cortex , which performs unsupervised learning .
= = = Principles = = =
The comparative simplicity and regularity of the cerebellar anatomy led to an early hope that it might imply a similar simplicity of computational function , as expressed in one of the first books on cerebellar electrophysiology , The Cerebellum as a Neuronal Machine by John C. Eccles , Masao Ito , and János Szentágothai . Although a full understanding of cerebellar function has remained elusive , at least four principles have been identified as important : ( 1 ) feedforward processing , ( 2 ) divergence and convergence , ( 3 ) modularity , and ( 4 ) plasticity .
Feedforward processing : The cerebellum differs from most other parts of the brain ( especially the cerebral cortex ) in that the signal processing is almost entirely feedforward — that is , signals move unidirectionally through the system from input to output , with very little recurrent internal transmission . The small amount of recurrence that does exist consists of mutual inhibition ; there are no mutually excitatory circuits . This feedforward mode of operation means that the cerebellum , in contrast to the cerebral cortex , cannot generate self @-@ sustaining patterns of neural activity . Signals enter the circuit , are processed by each stage in sequential order , and then leave . As Eccles , Ito , and Szentágothai wrote , " This elimination in the design of all possibility of reverberatory chains of neuronal excitation is undoubtedly a great advantage in the performance of the cerebellum as a computer , because what the rest of the nervous system requires from the cerebellum is presumably not some output expressing the operation of complex reverberatory circuits in the cerebellum but rather a quick and clear response to the input of any particular set of information . "
Divergence and convergence : In the human cerebellum , information from 200 million mossy fiber inputs is expanded to 40 billion granule cells , whose parallel fiber outputs then converge onto 15 million Purkinje cells . Because of the way that they are lined up longitudinally , the 1000 or so Purkinje cells belonging to a microzone may receive input from as many as 100 million parallel fibers , and focus their own output down to a group of less than 50 deep nuclear cells . Thus , the cerebellar network receives a modest number of inputs , processes them very extensively through its rigorously structured internal network , and sends out the results via a very limited number of output cells .
Modularity : The cerebellar system is functionally divided into more or less independent modules , which probably number in the hundreds to thousands . All modules have a similar internal structure , but different inputs and outputs . A module ( a multizonal microcompartment in the terminology of Apps and Garwicz ) consists of a small cluster of neurons in the inferior olivary nucleus , a set of long narrow strips of Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex ( microzones ) , and a small cluster of neurons in one of the deep cerebellar nuclei . Different modules share input from mossy fibers and parallel fibers , but in other respects they appear to function independently — the output of one module does not appear to significantly influence the activity of other modules .
Plasticity : The synapses between parallel fibers and Purkinje cells , and the synapses between mossy fibers and deep nuclear cells , are both susceptible to modification of their strength . In a single cerebellar module , input from as many as a billion parallel fibers converges onto a group of less than 50 deep nuclear cells , and the influence of each parallel fiber on those nuclear cells is adjustable . This arrangement gives tremendous flexibility for fine @-@ tuning the relationship between the cerebellar inputs and outputs .
= = = Learning = = =
There is considerable evidence that the cerebellum plays an essential role in some types of motor learning . The tasks where the cerebellum most clearly comes into play are those in which it is necessary to make fine adjustments to the way an action is performed . There has , however , been much dispute about whether learning takes place within the cerebellum itself , or whether it merely serves to provide signals that promote learning in other brain structures . Most theories that assign learning to the circuitry of the cerebellum are derived from the ideas of David Marr and James Albus , who postulated that climbing fibers provide a teaching signal that induces synaptic modification in parallel fiber – Purkinje cell synapses . Marr assumed that climbing fiber input would cause synchronously activated parallel fiber inputs to be strengthened . Most subsequent cerebellar @-@ learning models , however , have followed Albus in assuming that climbing fiber activity would be an error signal , and would cause synchronously activated parallel fiber inputs to be weakened . Some of these later models , such as the Adaptive Filter model of Fujita made attempts to understand cerebellar function in terms of optimal control theory .
The idea that climbing fiber activity functions as an error signal has been examined in many experimental studies , with some supporting it but others casting doubt . In a pioneering study by Gilbert and Thach from 1977 , Purkinje cells from monkeys learning a reaching task showed increased complex spike activity — which is known to reliably indicate activity of the cell 's climbing fiber input — during periods when performance was poor . Several studies of motor learning in cats observed complex spike activity when there was a mismatch between an intended movement and the movement that was actually executed . Studies of the vestibulo – ocular reflex ( which stabilizes the visual image on the retina when the head turns ) found that climbing fiber activity indicated " retinal slip " , although not in a very straightforward way .
One of the most extensively studied cerebellar learning tasks is the eyeblink conditioning paradigm , in which a neutral conditioned stimulus ( CS ) such as a tone or a light is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus ( US ) , such as an air puff , that elicits a blink response . After such repeated presentations of the CS and US , the CS will eventually elicit a blink before the US , a conditioned response or CR . Experiments showed that lesions localized either to a specific part of the interposed nucleus ( one of the deep cerebellar nuclei ) or to a few specific points in the cerebellar cortex would abolish learning of a conditionally timed blink response . If cerebellar outputs are pharmacologically inactivated while leaving the inputs and intracellular circuits intact , learning takes place even while the animal fails to show any response , whereas , if intracerebellar circuits are disrupted , no learning takes place — these facts taken together make a strong case that the learning , indeed , occurs inside the cerebellum .
= = = Theories and computational models = = =
The large base of knowledge about the anatomical structure and behavioral functions of the cerebellum have made it a fertile ground for theorizing — there are perhaps more theories of the function of the cerebellum than of any other part of the brain . The most basic distinction among them is between " learning theories " and " performance theories " — that is , theories that make use of synaptic plasticity within the cerebellum to account for its role in learning , versus theories that account for aspects of ongoing behavior on the basis of cerebellar signal processing . Several theories of both types have been formulated as mathematical models and simulated using computers .
Perhaps the earliest " performance " theory was the " delay line " hypothesis of Valentino Braitenberg . The original theory put forth by Braitenberg and Roger Atwood in 1958 proposed that slow propagation of signals along parallel fibers imposes predictable delays that allow the cerebellum to detect time relationships within a certain window . Experimental data did not support the original form of the theory , but Braitenberg continued to argue for modified versions . The hypothesis that the cerebellum functions essentially as a timing system has also been advocated by Richard Ivry . Another influential " performance " theory is the Tensor network theory of Pellionisz and Llinás , which provided an advanced mathematical formulation of the idea that the fundamental computation performed by the cerebellum is to transform sensory into motor coordinates .
Theories in the " learning " category almost all derive from publications by Marr and Albus . Marr 's 1969 paper proposed that the cerebellum is a device for learning to associate elemental movements encoded by climbing fibers with mossy fiber inputs that encode the sensory context . Albus proposed in 1971 that a cerebellar Purkinje cell functions as a perceptron , a neurally inspired abstract learning device . The most basic difference between the Marr and Albus theories is that Marr assumed that climbing fiber activity would cause parallel fiber synapses to be strengthened , whereas Albus proposed that they would be weakened . Albus also formulated his version as a software algorithm he called a CMAC ( Cerebellar Model Articulation Controller ) , which has been tested in a number of applications .
= = Blood supply = =
The cerebellum is provided with blood from three paired major arteries : the superior cerebellar artery ( SCA ) , the anterior inferior cerebellar artery ( AICA ) , and the posterior inferior cerebellar artery ( PICA ) . The SCA supplies the upper region of the cerebellum . It divides at the upper surface and branches into the pia mater where the branches anastomose with those of the anterior and posterior inferior cerebellar arteries . The AICA supplies the front part of the undersurface of the cerebellum . The PICA arrives at the undersurface , where it divides into a medial branch and a lateral branch . The medial branch continues backward to the cerebellar notch between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum ; while the lateral branch supplies the under surface of the cerebellum , as far as its lateral border , where it anastomoses with the AICA and the SCA .
= = Clinical significance = =
The most salient symptoms of cerebellar dysfunction are motor @-@ related — the specific symptoms depend on which part of the cerebellum is involved and how it is disrupted . Damage to the flocculonodular lobe ( vestibulocerebellum ) may show up as a loss of equilibrium and , in particular , an altered walking gait , with a wide stance that indicates difficulty in balancing . Damage to the lateral zone , or the cerebrocerebellum , results in problems with skilled voluntary and planned movements . This can cause errors in the force , direction , speed and amplitude of movements . Some manifestations include hypotonia ( decreased muscle tone ) , dysarthria ( problems with speech articulation ) , dysmetria ( problems judging distances or ranges of movement ) , dysdiadochokinesia ( inability to perform rapid alternating movements ) , impaired check reflex or rebound phenomenon , and intention tremor ( involuntary movement caused by alternating contractions of opposing muscle groups ) . Damage to the midline portion may disrupt whole @-@ body movements , whereas damage localized more laterally is more likely to disrupt fine movements of the hands or limbs . Damage to the upper part of the cerebellum tends to cause gait impairments and other problems with leg coordination ; damage to the lower part is more likely to cause uncoordinated or poorly aimed movements of the arms and hands , as well as difficulties in speed . This complex of motor symptoms is called ataxia .
To identify cerebellar problems , neurological examination includes assessment of gait ( a broad @-@ based gait being indicative of ataxia ) , finger @-@ pointing tests and assessment of posture . If cerebellar dysfunction is indicated , a magnetic resonance imaging scan can be used to obtain a detailed picture of any structural alterations that may exist .
The list of medical problems that can produce cerebellar damage is long , including stroke , hemorrhage , swelling of the brain ( cerebral edema ) , tumors , alcoholism , physical trauma such as gunshot wounds or explosives , and chronic degenerative conditions such as olivopontocerebellar atrophy . Some forms of migraine headache may also produce temporary dysfunction of the cerebellum , of variable severity . Infection can result in cerebellar damage in such conditions as the prion diseases and Miller Fisher syndrome , a variant of Guillain – Barré syndrome .
= = = Aging = = =
The human cerebellum changes with age . These changes may differ from those of other parts of the brain . The cerebellum is the youngest brain region ( and body part ) in centenarians according to an epigenetic biomarker of tissue age known as epigenetic clock : it is about 15 years younger than expected in a centenarian . Further , gene expression patterns in the human cerebellum show less age @-@ related alteration than that in the cerebral cortex . Some studies have reported reductions in numbers of cells or volume of tissue , but the amount of data relating to this question is not very large .
= = = Developmental and degenerative disorders = = =
Congenital malformation , hereditary disorders , and acquired conditions can affect cerebellar structure and , consequently , cerebellar function . Unless the causative condition is reversible , the only possible treatment is to help people live with their problems . Visualization of the fetal cerebellum by ultrasound scan at 18 to 20 weeks of pregnancy can be used to screen for fetal neural tube defects with a sensitivity rate of up to 99 % .
In normal development , endogenous Sonic hedgehog signaling stimulates rapid proliferation of cerebellar granule neuron progenitors ( CGNPs ) in the external granule layer ( EGL ) . Cerebellar development occurs during late embryogenesis and the early postnatal period , with CGNP proliferation in the EGL peaking during early development ( postnatal day 7 in the mouse ) . As CGNPs terminally differentiate into cerebellum granule cells ( also called cerebellar granule neurons , CGNs ) , they migrate to the internal granule layer ( IGL ) , forming the mature cerebellum ( by post @-@ natal day 20 in the mouse ) . Mutations that abnormally activate Sonic hedgehog signaling predispose to cancer of the cerebellum ( medulloblastoma ) in humans with Gorlin Syndrome and in genetically engineered mouse models .
Congenital malformation or underdevelopment ( hypoplasia ) of the cerebellar vermis is a characteristic of both Dandy – Walker syndrome and Joubert syndrome . In very rare cases , the entire cerebellum may be absent . The inherited neurological disorders Machado – Joseph disease , ataxia telangiectasia , and Friedreich 's ataxia cause progressive neurodegeneration linked to cerebellar loss . Congenital brain malformations outside the cerebellum can , in turn , cause herniation of cerebellar tissue , as seen in some forms of Arnold – Chiari malformation .
Other conditions that are closely linked to cerebellar degeneration include the idiopathic progressive neurological disorders multiple system atrophy and Ramsay Hunt syndrome type I , and the autoimmune disorder paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration , in which tumors elsewhere in the body elicit an autoimmune response that causes neuronal loss in the cerebellum . Cerebellar atrophy can result from an acute deficiency of vitamin B1 ( thiamine ) as seen in beriberi and in Wernicke – Korsakoff syndrome , or from vitamin E deficiency .
Cerebellar atrophy has been observed in many other neurological disorders including Huntington 's disease , multiple sclerosis , essential tremor , progressive myoclonus epilepsy , and Niemann – Pick disease . Cerebellar atrophy can also occur as a result of exposure to toxins including heavy metals or pharmaceutical or recreational drugs .
= = Comparative anatomy and evolution = =
The circuits in the cerebellum are similar across all classes of vertebrates , including fish , reptiles , birds , and mammals . There is also an analogous brain structure in cephalopods with well @-@ developed brains , such as octopuses . This has been taken as evidence that the cerebellum performs functions important to all animal species with a brain .
There is considerable variation in the size and shape of the cerebellum in different vertebrate species . In amphibians , it is little developed , and in lampreys , and hagfish , the cerebellum is barely distinguishable from the brain @-@ stem . Although the spinocerebellum is present in these groups , the primary structures are small , paired @-@ nuclei corresponding to the vestibulocerebellum . The cerebellum is a bit larger in reptiles , considerably larger in birds , and larger yet in mammals . The large paired and convoluted lobes found in humans are typical of mammals , but the cerebellum is , in general , a single median lobe in other groups , and is either smooth or only slightly grooved . In mammals , the neocerebellum is the major part of the cerebellum by mass , but , in other vertebrates , it is typically the spinocerebellum .
The cerebellum of cartilaginous and bony fishes is extraordinarily large and complex . In at least one important respect , it differs in internal structure from the mammalian cerebellum : The fish cerebellum does not contain discrete deep cerebellar nuclei . Instead , the primary targets of Purkinje cells are a distinct type of cell distributed across the cerebellar cortex , a type not seen in mammals . In mormyrid fish ( a family of weakly electrosensitive freshwater fish ) , the cerebellum is considerably larger than the rest of the brain put together . The largest part of it is a special structure called the valvula , which has an unusually regular architecture and receives much of its input from the electrosensory system .
The hallmark of the mammalian cerebellum is an expansion of the lateral lobes , whose main interactions are with the neocortex . As monkeys evolved into great apes , the expansion of the lateral lobes continued , in tandem with the expansion of the frontal lobes of the neocortex . In ancestral hominids , and in Homo sapiens until the middle Pleistocene period , the cerebellum continued to expand , but the frontal lobes expanded more rapidly . The most recent period of human evolution , however , may actually have been associated with an increase in the relative size of the cerebellum , as the neocortex reduced its size somewhat while the cerebellum expanded . The size of the human cerebellum , compared to the rest of the brain , has been increasing in size while the cerebrum decreased in size With both the development and implementation of motor tasks , visual @-@ spatial skills and learning taking place in the cerebellum , the growth of the cerebellum is thought to have some form of correlation to greater human cognitive abilities . The lateral hemispheres of the cerebellum are now 2 @.@ 7 times greater in both humans and apes than they are in monkeys . These changes in the cerebellum size cannot be explained by greater muscle mass . They show that either the development of the cerebellum is tightly linked to that of the rest of the brain or that neural activities taking place in the cerebellum were important during Hominidae evolution . Due to the cerebellum 's role in cognitive functions , the increase in its size may have played a role in cognitive expansion .
= = = Cerebellum @-@ like structures = = =
Most vertebrate species have a cerebellum and one or more cerebellum @-@ like structures , brain areas that resemble the cerebellum in terms of cytoarchitecture and neurochemistry . The only cerebellum @-@ like structure found in mammals is the dorsal cochlear nucleus ( DCN ) , one of the two primary sensory nuclei that receive input directly from the auditory nerve . The DCN is a layered structure , with the bottom layer containing granule cells similar to those of the cerebellum , giving rise to parallel fibers that rise to the superficial layer and travel across it horizontally . The superficial layer contains a set of GABAergic neurons called cartwheel cells that resemble Purkinje cells anatomically and chemically — they receive parallel fiber input , but do not have any inputs that resemble climbing fibers . The output neurons of the DCN are pyramidal cells . They are glutamatergic , but also resemble Purkinje cells in some respects — they have spiny , flattened superficial dendritic trees that receive parallel fiber input , but they also have basal dendrites that receive input from auditory nerve fibers , which travel across the DCN in a direction at right angles to the parallel fibers . The DCN is most highly developed in rodents and other small animals , and is considerably reduced in primates . Its function is not well understood ; the most popular speculations relate it to spatial hearing in one way or another .
Most species of fish and amphibians possess a lateral line system that senses pressure waves in water . One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral line organ , the medial octavolateral nucleus , has a cerebellum @-@ like structure , with granule cells and parallel fibers . In electrosensitive fish , the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus , which also has a cerebellum @-@ like structure . In ray @-@ finned fishes ( by far the largest group ) , the optic tectum has a layer — the marginal layer — that is cerebellum @-@ like .
All of these cerebellum @-@ like structures appear to be primarily sensory @-@ related rather than motor @-@ related . All of them have granule cells that give rise to parallel fibers that connect to Purkinje @-@ like neurons with modifiable synapses , but none have climbing fibers comparable to those of the cerebellum — instead they receive direct input from peripheral sensory organs . None has a demonstrated function , but the most influential speculation is that they serve to transform sensory inputs in some sophisticated way , perhaps to compensate for changes in body posture . In fact , James M. Bower and others have argued , partly on the basis of these structures and partly on the basis of cerebellar studies , that the cerebellum itself is fundamentally a sensory structure , and that it contributes to motor control by moving the body in a way that controls the resulting sensory signals . Despite Bower 's viewpoint , there is also strong evidence that the cerebellum directly influences motor output in mammals .
= = History = =
= = = Descriptions = = =
Even the earliest anatomists were able to recognize the cerebellum by its distinctive appearance . Aristotle and Herophilus ( quoted in Galen ) called it the parencephalis , as opposed to the encephalon or brain proper . Galen 's extensive description is the earliest that survives . He speculated that the cerebellum was the source of motor nerves .
Further significant developments did not come until the Renaissance . Vesalius discussed the cerebellum briefly , and the anatomy was described more thoroughly by Thomas Willis in 1664 . More anatomical work was done during the 18th century , but it was not until early in the 19th century that the first insights into the function of the cerebellum were obtained . Luigi Rolando in 1809 established the key finding that damage to the cerebellum results in motor disturbances . Jean Pierre Flourens in the first half of the 19th century carried out detailed experimental work , which revealed that animals with cerebellar damage can still move , but with a loss of coordination ( strange movements , awkward gait , and muscular weakness ) , and that recovery after the lesion can be nearly complete unless the lesion is very extensive . By the beginning of the 20th century , it was widely accepted that the primary function of the cerebellum relates to motor control ; the first half of the 20th century produced several detailed descriptions of the clinical symptoms associated with cerebellar disease in humans .
= = = Etymology = = =
The name cerebellum is a diminutive of cerebrum ( brain ) ; it can be translated literally as little brain . The Latin name is a direct translation of the Ancient Greek παρεγκεφαλίς ( parencephalis ) , which was used in the works of Aristotle , the first known writer to describe the structure . No other name is used in the English @-@ language literature , but historically a variety of Greek or Latin @-@ derived names have been used , including cerebrum parvum , encephalion , encranion , cerebrum posterius , and parencephalis .
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= Donn Cabral =
Donald " Donn " Cabral is an American cross country and track athlete from Connecticut who went on to star at Princeton University . As a long distance runner he has been most successful in the steeplechase , but has also been a National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) All @-@ American at cross country and the 5000 metres as well as the Ivy League champion at the 3000 metres . He is the current American collegiate steeplechase record holder and was the 2012 NCAA steeplechase champion . He competed in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games in the steeplechase . At Princeton , Cabral was an eight @-@ time NCAA All @-@ American and ten @-@ time individual Ivy League champion . He was a long distance running champion in high school for Glastonbury High School , winning two Class LL championships as a sophomore and then open state and New England championships as a junior and senior .
= = Running career = =
= = = High school = = =
Early on , Cabral showed interest in Olympic competition and high caliber racing . After watching patriotic flag waving during the 1996 Summer Olympics , Cabral requested that his father wave the American Flag during one of his swim meets as a six @-@ year @-@ old . In his first Manchester Road Race at age 12 , Cabral 's parents placed him in the starting position with the runners who run at an 8 – 9 minute per mile pace , but he complained , " How am I going to win from back here ? "
At Glastonbury High School in Glastonbury , Connecticut , Cabral excelled in track and cross country . He was a two @-@ time State Open and New England cross country champion . He was also the indoor track Connecticut 2 mile champion . He ran the fastest high school 1500 metres in the country during his senior year . He also established state records in the 5 @,@ 000 m ( 14 : 32 @.@ 60 ) and the 2 mile run ( 8 : 56 @.@ 35 ) .
As a freshman , Cabral was the second slowest runner on the soccer team . He tried out for track to work on his speed . At first he ran the 400 metres in 68 seconds . By the end of the spring , he broke 10 minutes in the 2 mile and was considering joining the cross country team instead of participating in his usual fall sport , soccer . In the summer of 2005 , the cross country coach sent him a letter of encouragement .
During his sophomore year , he won the boys Connecticut Interscholastic Athletic Conference ( CIAC ) class LL indoor track two mile run and placed third in the New England Championships . He finished third in the CIAC Cross Country Open Championships and 19th in the New England Championships . His cross country performance earned him the Class LL championship that year .
As a junior , Cabral won the CIAC Cross Country Open Championships . He also won the 72nd New England Cross Country Championships at Ponaganset High School with a 5K race time of 15 : 29 . Glastonbury finished second to Danbury High School in the team competition . At the Foot Locker National Cross Country Championship , Cabral finished 21st with a time of 15 : 57 .
In his senior season , Cabral won the 2007 boys CIAC State Open Cross Country Championships . He also won the New England Cross Country Championships . At the Foot Locker National Cross Country Championship at Balboa Park in San Diego , Cabral finished 8th with a time of 15 : 19 , which tied the best ever finish by a Connecticut runner . In May , his 4 : 09 @.@ 80 became the best mile time of the school year for an American high schooler . Cabral placed second in the 10 @,@ 000 metres ( 30 : 50 @.@ 28 ) at the 2008 USA Junior Track & Field championships , qualifying him for the at the IAAF World Junior Championships in Poland .
= = = Collegiate = = =
During his Princeton running career , Cabral was a three @-@ time NCAA All @-@ American in the steeplechase , two @-@ time outdoor NCAA All @-@ American in the 5000 meter , two @-@ time cross country NCAA All @-@ American , and one @-@ time indoor NCAA All @-@ American in the 5000 meter . As a senior , Cabral became the 2012 NCAA champion in the steeplechase after having been the runner @-@ up to Matt Hughes in the two prior NCAA steeplechase championships .
As a freshman , Cabral endured a plantar fascia tear while waterskiing and did not compete in cross country . He did not compete in the steeplechase until his sophomore season at Princeton . In his second time running the event , he won at the 2010 Penn Relays . That year he was the Ivy League outdoor 10 @,@ 000 meter and steeplechase champion and the indoor runner @-@ up in the 3000 meters and 5000 meters . He finished second at the NCAA championships with a time of 8 : 38 @.@ 90 .
As a junior in 2011 , he repeated as the Ivy League outdoor 10 @,@ 000 meter and steeplechase champion and became the indoor champion in the 3000 meters and 5000 meters . He was selected as the most outstanding performer at both the indoor and outdoor Heps meets . That fall , he had been the 2010 Ivy League cross country champion . He finished second at the NCAA championships with a time of 8 : 32 @.@ 14 . At the NCAA national outdoor 5 @,@ 000 meter race , he established a school record of 13 : 40 @.@ 62 that would stand for less than a year .
He spent the summer of 2011 training in Park City , Utah . During his senior season , Cabral purchased a high @-@ altitude tent on craigslist that he used in his dormitory room for five months leading up to the 2012 Olympic Trials . This enabled him to sleep and study at a simulated altitude of 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) with the goal of making his body more efficient by depriving himself of oxygen . He spent 10 – 12 hours per day in the tent . In 2012 , he won his third consecutive Ivy League outdoor 10 @,@ 000 meter and steeplechase championships . He also repeated as the indoor champion in the 5000 meters . He won at the NCAA championships with a time of 8 : 35 @.@ 44 .
On May 18 , 2012 , while running in the OXY High Performance meet in California , Cabral completed the 3000 metre steeplechase in 8 : 19 @.@ 14 , surpassing Farley Gerber 's American Collegiate record of 8 : 19 @.@ 27 , set for Weber State University in 1984 and smashing his own personal best time of 8 : 32 . The previous Ivy League record of 8 : 29 @.@ 01 had been set by Michael Fadil of Dartmouth College in 1985 . Cabral also holds the Ivy League record for the indoor 5000 metres .
Cabral became the 2012 NCAA steeplechase champion on June 8 , 2012 , winning by five seconds and capping an undefeated season in the event . Cabral is Princeton 's first individual track event NCAA champion since William Bonthron 's 1934 championship in the mile run in 1934 . This does excludes field event champions such as Tora Harris ( 2002 high jump ) who had been Princeton 's last NCAA Outdoor Track and Field champion . When combined with the men 's squash team and epeeist Jonathan Yergler , it marked the first academic year that Princeton had three national champions since 2003 . Harris had also been the last track and field Olympian , although no Princeton distance runner had qualified for the Olympics since class of 1906 Princetonian John Eisele earned a silver medal in the steeplechase and a bronze medal in the three @-@ mile at the 1908 Summer Olympics . No Princeton runner had made the Olympics since Bill Stevenson went to the 1924 Summer Olympics .
Because athletes in Ivy League competition only have four years of athletic eligibility , Cabral could not participate in NCAA competition for Princeton to use his final year of cross country eligibility . As a result , he intended to enroll in business school at the University of Colorado , where he would continue training with Billy Nelson coach Mark Wetmore . He opted to turn pro rather than attend Colorado .
= = = International = = =
Cabral finished 17th in the 10 @,@ 000 metres at the 2008 World Junior Championships . In the 2010 NACAC Under @-@ 23 Championships , he won the steeplechase with at time of 8 : 52 @.@ 67 .
Although a competitive collegiate runner , Cabral has focused his training on the Olympics . On June 28 , 2012 , Cabral qualified for the 2012 United States Olympic team as a steeplechase participant by finishing second to Evan Jager with a time of 8 : 19 @.@ 81 in the 2012 United States Olympic Trials and surpassing the Olympic A standard time of 8 : 23 @.@ 10 . In an August 3 , 2012 Olympic heat , Cabral finished 4th with a time of 8 : 21 @.@ 46 in his 13 @-@ man heat , earning the last automatic berth to the August 5 finals . Cabral 's time was 10th fastest of the 15 advancing runners ( and of all 39 entrants ) , slower than all six qualifiers from heat 1 and faster than all 4 qualifiers from heat 2 . In the finals , he led at the 1000 meter split with a time of 2 : 52 @.@ 70 , but he finished in eighth place with a time of 8 : 25 @.@ 91 .
Instead of continuing his collegiate career at another institution , he decided to go pro as a runner in the summer of 2012 . After graduating from Princeton University in 2012 , he signed with Nike , and is now a professional runner for them . Following the 2012 Olympics and a little time off , Cabral moved to Bellingham , Washington , where he trains with former coach Peter Oviatt .
At the 2015 World Championships in Beijing , China , Cabral placed 10th in the 3000 metres steeplechase with a time of 8 : 24 @.@ 94 .
Donn Cabral placed third in the steeplechase in a time of 8 : 26 @.@ 37 at the 2016 United States Olympic Trials ( track and field ) behind Team USA teammates Hillary Bor and Evan Jager to qualify to represent United States at Athletics at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Brazil .
= = Personal = =
His parents are John Cabral and Deborah Hadaway . His father coached him in soccer . At Princeton , Cabral earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in economics .
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= Euston Road =
Euston Road in Central London , England , runs from Marylebone Road to King 's Cross . The road is part of the London Inner Ring Road and forms part of the London congestion charge zone boundary .
The road was originally the central section of New Road from Paddington to Islington which opened in 1756 as London 's first bypass providing a route along which to drive cattle to Smithfield Market avoiding central London . Traffic increased when major railway stations , including Euston , opened in the mid @-@ 19th century and led to the road 's renaming in 1857 . Euston Road was widened in the 1960s to cater for the increasing demands of motor traffic , and the Euston Tower was built around that time . The road contains several significant buildings including the Wellcome Library , the British Library and the St. Pancras Renaissance London Hotel .
= = Geography = =
The road starts as a continuation of the A501 , a major road through Central London , at its junction with Marylebone Road and Great Portland Street . It meets the northern end of Tottenham Court Road at a large junction where there is an underpass , and ends at King 's Cross with Gray 's Inn Road . The road ahead to Islington is Pentonville Road .
The road is part of the London Inner Ring Road and on the edge of the London congestion charge zone . Drivers are not charged for travelling on the road , but may be if they turn south into the zone during its hours of operation . King 's Cross and St Pancras railway stations are at the eastern end of the road , the British Library is nearby , and Euston railway station is a further west . The Euston Tower is a landmark on the road . The old and new headquarters of the Wellcome Trust are on its south side . From west to east the road passes Regent 's Park , Great Portland Street , Warren Street , Euston Square , Euston and King 's Cross St Pancras tube stations . London Bus Route 205 runs along the entire extent of Euston Road from Great Portland Street to King 's Cross .
= = History = =
= = = 18th – 19th century = = =
Before the 18th century , the land along which Euston Road runs was fields and farmland . Camden Town was a village retreat for Londoners working in the city . Euston Road was originally part of New Road , promoted by Charles FitzRoy , 2nd Duke of Grafton and enabled by an Act of Parliament passed in 1756 . Construction began in May that year , and it was open to traffic by September .
The road provided a new drovers ' road for moving sheep and cattle to Smithfield Market avoiding Oxford Street and Holborn , and ended at St John 's Street , Islington . It provided a quicker route for army units to reach the Essex coast when there was a threat of invasion , without passing through the cities of London and Westminster , and was a barrier between the increasing urban sprawl that threatened to reach places such as Camden Town . The Capper family , who lived on the south side of the proposed route , opposed its construction and complained their crops would be ruined by dust kicked up by cattle along the route . Capper Street , a side street off Tottenham Court Road , is named after the family . A clause in the 1756 Act stipulated that no buildings should be constructed within 50 feet ( 15 m ) of the road , with the result that most of the houses along it lay behind substantial gardens . During the 19th century the law was increasingly ignored .
Euston Station opened on the north side of New Road in July 1837 . It was planned by Robert Stephenson on the site of gardens called Euston Grove , and was the first mainline station to open in London . Its entrance , designed by Philip Hardwick , cost £ 35 @,@ 000 ( now 2 @,@ 868 @,@ 000 ) and had the highest portico in London at 72 feet ( 22 m ) . The Great Hall opened in 1849 to improve accommodation for passengers , and a statue of Stephenson 's father , George was installed in 1852 . The Dukes of Grafton had become the main property owners in the area , and in 1857 the central section of the road , between Osnaburgh Street and Kings Cross , was renamed Euston Road after Euston Hall , their country house . The eastern section became Pentonville Road , the western Marylebone Road . The full length of Euston Road was dug up so that the Metropolitan Railway could be built beneath it using a cut @-@ and @-@ cover system and the road was then relaid to a much higher standard . St Pancras station opened in 1867 , with the Midland Grand Hotel in 1873 . The station complex was controversially demolished in 1963 to accommodate British Rail 's facilities . The replacement building opened in 1968 , and now serves 50 million passengers annually .
Tolmers Village was in the tiny triangle ( less than 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) ) on the north side of Euston Road between Hampstead Road and North Gower Street . It was built in the early 1860s over a former reservoir to provide affordable middle @-@ class terraced housing but its proximity to a main road and the Euston Station complex meant it ultimately catered for the working classes . By 1871 , around 5 @,@ 000 residents were housed in a 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) area . The estate continued to expand throughout the early 20th century in a piecemeal fashion , and attracted Greek , Cypriot and Asian immigrants following World War II . In the 1970s , the estate came under threat from property developers who wanted to demolish it and build offices , which led to demonstrations and protests , including supporters from University College . The plans were cancelled , but the estate was still bulldozed and replaced by tower blocks .
= = = 20th – 21st century = = =
The area around the junction with Tottenham Court Road suffered significant bomb damage during the Second World War . Patrick Abercrombie 's contemporary Greater London Plan called for a new ring road around Central London called the ' A ' Ring , but post @-@ war budget constraints meant that a medley of existing routes were improved to form the ring road , including Euston Road . An underpass to avoid the junction with Tottenham Court Road was proposed in 1961 , with construction taking place in 1964 . The property developer Joe Levy was keen to develop buildings in the area and bought various properties . When the London County Council ( LCC ) refused planning permission because of the underpass development , Levy , who had outline planning permission , insisted the council pay him £ 1 million if they wanted to compulsorily purchase the site . Over the next four years , Levy bought properties along the north side of Euston Road , and an agreement was reached so that the council built the underpass and he built a complex of two tower blocks with office shops and apartments , the Euston Tower .
The tower attracted a number of significant tenants , including INMARSAT and the independent radio station Capital Radio . The ITV broadcaster Thames Television 's corporate headquarters were based nearby at No. 306 – 316 Euston Road from 1971 to 1992 when the station closed . That building was demolished in 1994 and redeveloped when Thames , now a production company , moved all operations to Teddington Studios .
In the early @-@ 21st century , the Greater London Authority commissioned a plan to improve the road from thearchitectural firm , Terry Farrell and Partners . The original study proposed removing the underpass ( which was subsequently cancelled ) and providing a pedestrian crossing and removing the gyratory system connecting Tottenham Court Road and Gower Street . The scheme was approved by the Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone as " the start of changing the Marylebone to Euston road from a highway into a series of linked public spaces . " The pedestrian crossing opened in March 2010 . Livingstone 's successor , Boris Johnston , favours keeping the Euston Road underpass and declared it to be a good place to test his nerves when cycling around London .
In 2015 , Transport for London announced its intention to close one lane in each direction on Euston Road between 2020 and 2026 to accommodate work on High Speed 2 . The decision was condemned by Camden Borough Council as it could affect business and cost more than £ 1 billion in lost revenue . The Automobile Association said the works were the largest ever proposed in London and would affect far more than local traffic due to its Inner Ring Road status .
= = Notable buildings = =
About halfway along Euston Road , at the junction with Upper Woburn Place , is St Pancras New Church , built in 1822 . Designed by William and Henry Inwood and costing around £ 90 @,@ 000 ( now £ 7 @,@ 396 @,@ 000 ) , it was the most expensive property to be designed in London since St Paul 's Cathedral the previous century . Almost opposite is Euston Road fire station , built 1901 – 2 , in an Arts and Crafts style by Percy Nobbs . The Shaw Theatre opened at No. 100 – 110 in 1971 , in honour of George Bernard Shaw . It was refurbished in 2000 as part of an adjacent Novotel development . The Keith Grant sculpture at the theatre 's front was removed but was subsequently reinstated after protests .
The New Hospital for Women moved to No. 144 Euston Road in 1888 , and was rebuilt by J.M. Brydon two years later . It housed 42 beds and was staffed entirely by women , which made it a comfortable environment for gynaecological problems . It was renamed the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital in 1918 following the death of the hospital 's founder , Elizabeth Garrett Anderson , the first woman in England to qualify as a doctor of medicine . The Euston Road premises closed in 1993 , its services transferred to University College Hospital . The current hospital is at No. 235 . The Wellcome Trust , a private medical research charity , was established in 1936 and has premises at No. 183 and No. 210 Euston Road . Its library holds about half a million books , including more than 6 @,@ 000 Sanskrit manuscripts and the largest collection of Hindi and Punjabi medical documents in Europe . Its objects were transferred on permanent loan to the Science Museum in 1976 . The University College London Hospital 's archives are at No 250 Euston Road .
The Midland Grand Hotel , fronting St Pancras station , was designed by George Gilbert Scott . It was built mainly with red bricks with a tower at one end and a spire at the other . It closed in 1935 and was repeatedly threatened with demolition until it was Grade I listed in 1967 . It was used as offices and a major restoration was undertaken in the early 1990s . The hotel reopened as the St. Pancras Renaissance London Hotel in 2011 .
Camden Town Hall , formerly St Pancras Town Hall opened in 1937 . The Euston Theatre of Varieties was based at No. 37 – 43 . It was renamed the Regent Theatre in 1922 , and converted to a cinema in 1932 . It was demolished in 1950 so that the town hall could be extended .
The headquarters of the Religious Society of Friends , better known as the Quakers , is at the Friends House , No. 173 Euston Road . It was built between 1925 – 7 and holds the society 's library dating back to 1673 , including George Fox 's journal covering the foundation of Pennsylvania . Euston Road School was opened at No. 314 in 1934 by William Coldstream , Victor Pasmore and Claude Rogers to encourage artwork in an atmosphere different to traditional art schools . The school struggled and closed by the start of World War II . It was demolished in the early 1960s ; the cover shot of the Beatles ' Twist and Shout EP was taken on its remains after demoliion .
The British Library moved to No. 96 Euston Road in 1999 into a new complex designed by Colin St John Wilson and opened by Queen Elizabeth II . It was built using more than ten million bricks and covers a floor area of 112 @,@ 000 square metres ( 1 @,@ 210 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . Although it was given a critical reception by architectural critics , visitors have enjoyed the welcoming entrance and praised its internal arrangements . It caters for around 16 @,@ 000 daily visitors .
= = Cultural references = =
In Oscar Wilde 's The Picture of Dorian Gray , the characters Sibyl and James Vane live at a " shabby lodgings " on Euston Road .
The street is referenced as a property in the United Kingdom edition of the board game Monopoly , which features famous London areas on its gameboard , it is a part of the pale blue set , including Pentonville Road and the only space named after a building , The Angel , Islington .
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= French destroyer Léopard =
The French destroyer Léopard was a Chacal @-@ class destroyer built for the French Navy during the 1920s . She became a training ship in the mid @-@ 1930s before serving as a convoy escort during World War II before the Germans invaded France in May 1940 . After that time , she bombarded advancing German forces near the northern French coast and took part in the Dunkirk evacuation . After the surrender of France , she was seized by the British in July and turned over to the Free French .
Léopard escorted convoys in the Western Approaches in 1940 – 41 before beginning a year @-@ long conversion into an escort destroyer . She helped to sink a German submarine before liberating the island of La Réunion in late 1942 . She ran aground near Benghazi just a few weeks after being transferred to the Mediterranean in mid @-@ 1943 . Salvage attempts failed and her wreck was abandoned after it broke in half .
= = Design and description = =
The Chacal @-@ class ships were designed to counter the large Italian Leone @-@ class destroyers . They had an overall length of 126 @.@ 8 meters ( 416 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 11 @.@ 1 meters ( 36 ft 5 in ) , and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 126 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 092 long tons ) at standard and 2 @,@ 980 – 3 @,@ 075 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 933 – 3 @,@ 026 long tons ) at deep load . They were powered by two geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by five du Temple boilers . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ; 49 @,@ 000 shp ) , which would propel the ship at 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . During her sea trials on 12 May 1927 , Léopard reached 35 @.@ 59 knots ( 65 @.@ 91 km / h ; 40 @.@ 96 mph ) for a single hour . The ships carried 530 metric tons ( 522 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their crew consisted of 10 officers and 187 crewmen in peacetime and 12 officers and 209 enlisted men in wartime .
The main armament of the Chacal @-@ class ships consisted of five Canon de 130 mm modèle 1919 guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel . The guns were numbered ' 1' to ' 5' from front to rear . Their anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two Canon de 75 mm modèle 1924 guns in single mounts positioned amidships . The ships carried two above @-@ water triple sets of 550 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern ; these housed a total of twenty 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) depth charges . They were also fitted with four depth @-@ charge throwers for which they carried a dozen 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) depth charges .
= = Construction and career = =
Léopard , named after the eponymous feline , was ordered on 26 February 1923 from the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire . She was laid down on 14 August 1923 at their shipyard at Saint @-@ Nazaire , launched on 29 September 1924 , commissioned on 15 June 1927 , completed on 13 October and entered service on 15 November . Completion was delayed by problems with her propulsion machinery and late deliveries by sub @-@ contractors . Léopard was assigned to the 4th Light Division ( Division légère ) ( DL ) of the Second Squadron ( 2ème Escadre ) based at Brest upon completion , together with her sister ships Lynx and Jaguar . The four depth charge throwers were removed in 1932 . The next year , the ship was present when the fleet was reviewed by the President of France , Albert Lebrun , in Cherbourg on 20 July 1933 . About a year later , the 75 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four twin mounts for 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machineguns . On 15 July 1935 , Léopard and her sister Chacal of the 8th DL were assigned to the Naval School ( Ecole Navale ) at Brest . On 12 April 1937 , the 8th DL was redesignated as the 2nd Large Destroyer Division ( 2ème division de contre @-@ torpeilleurs ) ( DCT ) ; their sister Jaguar joined them in September .
= = = World War II = = =
By 7 September 1939 , Léopard was no longer a part of the 2nd DCT and was assigned to the Western Command ( Forces maritimes de l 'Ouest ) for convoy escort duties from October to May 1940 where she guarded convoys traveling between Gibraltar and Brest as well as Casablanca , French Morocco , and Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer . In early 1940 , the ship had a British Type 123 ASDIC installed ; in addition two depth @-@ charge throwers were reinstalled , No. 3 gun removed , and her depth charge stowage reduced to a dozen 200 kg and eight 100 kg depth charges to improve her stability .
By 22 May Léopard was reassigned to the 2nd DCT when the unit was tasked to carry demolition teams to the northernmost French ports ; the ship arrived at Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer that evening . Together with Chacal and eight smaller destroyers , Léopard bombarded advancing German troops as they approached the defenses of Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , firing the last shots of the battle at midday on 24 May . On 28 May , a special flotilla was constituted under the command of Admiral Marcel Landriau , with his flag on the aviso Savorgnan de Brazza , with these ships and a number of smaller units to support the ongoing evacuation of Dunkirk . On 3 June , the contre @-@ torpilleur rescued 19 British soldiers from a boat and delivered them to England .
In mid @-@ June , Léopard defended the approaches to Cherbourg and sailed to Portsmouth on 19 June , after the port surrendered to the Germans . The ship was still there when Operation Catapult , a British operation to capture or disable the ships of the French Navy lest the Germans seize them and use them against the British , began on 3 July . She was handed over to the Free French Naval Forces on 31 August . Command of Léopard was given to Lieutenant ( Lieutenant de vaisseau ) Jules Evenou , who went by the nom de guerre of " Jacques Richard " .
= = = = Service with the Free French = = = =
Léopard was commissioned by the Free French on 3 September although she was under repair until November as the British dockyards were very congested . During this time , the British took the opportunity to improve her anti @-@ aircraft suite . A QF 4 in ( 102 mm ) Mk V AA gun replaced the two 13 @.@ 2 mm machinegun mounts on the platform abaft the rear funnel , the 13 @.@ 2 mm guns on the forecastle were moved to positions abreast the fore funnel , and a pair of 2 @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) Mk II " pom @-@ pom " light AA guns were added on platforms on the side of the forward superstructure . Upon the completion of this refit , she was assigned to convoy escort duties in the Western Approaches . On 24 February 1941 , Léopard rescued 39 survivors of a British cargo ship .
On 8 May 1941 , she began a lengthy conversion into an escort destroyer at Kingston upon Hull . Her forward boiler and its funnel were removed and replaced by additional oil storage and additional accommodation for her ratings . They reduced her maximum speed to 31 @.@ 5 knots ( 58 @.@ 3 km / h ; 36 @.@ 2 mph ) , but increased her fuel storage to 780 metric tons ( 770 long tons ; 860 short tons ) which raised her range to 4 @,@ 200 nmi ( 7 @,@ 800 km ; 4 @,@ 800 mi ) , and her crew to 234 ratings . Her troublesome depth charge chutes were sealed off and their machinery was removed ; her stern had to be rebuilt to accommodate two rails at the stern , each with a dozen 251 @-@ kilogram ( 553 lb ) Mk VIIH heavy depth charges , plus an additional four stored below decks . Her two existing depth charge throwers were replaced by four improved Thornycroft Mk IV throwers . The ship carried a total of twenty @-@ four 191 @-@ kilogram ( 421 lb ) Mk VII light depth charges for the throwers . To compensate for the weight of the additional depth charges , her aft torpedo tubes were removed . The 4 @-@ inch gun was replaced by a single 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon light AA gun and two others replaced the " pom @-@ pom " s . These were moved to positions on the upper deck that had formerly been occupied by the 75 mm guns and another gun was added on top of the aft superstructure . A pair of quadruple mounts for Vickers 0 @.@ 5 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) AA machineguns were added on the forward superstructure . A Type 291 search radar was also added .
While escorting Convoy OS33 on 11 July 1942 , the frigate HMS Spey spotted the German submarine U @-@ 136 on the surface and made multiple attacks after the U @-@ boat dived . Léopard joined her , as did the sloop HMS Pelican and they sank the submarine at coordinates 33 ° 28 ′ N 23 ° 28 ′ W. The next day Léopard collided with the sloop HMS Lowestoft and had her bow stove in by the British ship . She was repaired in South Africa in September – October .
= = = = = Liberation of La Réunion = = = = =
Léopard had been selected to convince the Vichy government of La Réunion to join the Free French in June , but the collision and her consequent repairs delayed her mission . On the night of 27 / 28 November , she arrived off the island with 80 troops aboard . They were landed successfully and seized control of Saint @-@ Denis , Réunion , the island 's capital , although the governor fled into the interior . A coast @-@ defense battery engaged the contre @-@ torpilleur and she fired back , with men killed on both sides . The Vichy hold @-@ outs surrendered on the 30th and Léopard remained in the Indian Ocean escorting convoys until March 1943 .
She was briefly refitted at Diégo @-@ Suarez , Madagascar from 13 March to mid @-@ April when she was transferred to the Mediterranean . Léopard arrived in Alexandria , Egypt , on 12 May and screened a convoy to Malta shortly afterwards . She departed on 24 May with a convoy returning to Alexandria and accidentally ran aground near Benghazi three days later after aerial attacks disrupted the convoy . The Allies attempted to refloat her , but they failed and the wreck broke in two on 19 June and was declared a total loss on 1 July .
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= French minelaying cruiser Pluton =
Pluton was a fast minelaying cruiser built for the French Navy in the late 1920s . She was also able to carry 1 @,@ 000 troops on her mine deck as a fast troop transport . Shortly after completion she was modified and became a gunnery training ship , replacing the elderly armored cruiser Gueydon . Shortly before the beginning of World War II , she reverted to her original role and most of the gunnery training equipment was removed . She was sent to Casablanca , in French Morocco , when the war began to lay a minefield , but the order was cancelled a day later and she was ordered to disembark her naval mines . She exploded while landing her still @-@ fuzed mines on 13 September 1939 .
= = Design = =
The Marine Nationale decided to build a fast minelayer as part of its 1925 Naval Programme after the British HMS Adventure made her debut in the early 1920s . Pluton was similar in many respects , also being armed with four single destroyer @-@ caliber guns , but was smaller and faster . She could also be used as a fast transport for up to 1 @,@ 000 troops . The sides of the mine deck were normally open to the weather , but metal panels could be used to close it off when carrying troops .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Pluton was 152 @.@ 5 m ( 500 ft 4 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 15 @.@ 5 m ( 50 ft 10 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 2 m ( 17 ft 1 in ) . Her longitudinally framed hull was subdivided by 15 transverse watertight bulkheads . Duralumin was extensively used in the superstructure to save weight , but this resulted in corrosion problems and strength issues . She was fitted with a single counterbalanced rudder powered by an electric motor that was too weak for the job . Her turning circle was 875 m ( 957 yd ) with 25 ° of rudder at 27 kn ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , larger than that of the 8 @,@ 000 t ( 7 @,@ 900 long tons ) light cruiser Duguay @-@ Trouin which was 30 m ( 98 ft 5 in ) longer . She was totally unarmored and relied upon her watertight subdivision for survival .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Pluton had a two @-@ shaft unit machinery layout with alternating boiler and engine rooms . Her Bréguet single @-@ reduction impulse geared steam turbines were designed for 57 @,@ 000 shp ( 43 @,@ 000 kW ) , but made 64 @,@ 705 shp ( 48 @,@ 251 kW ) on trials . Four small @-@ tube boilers powered the turbines at a pressure of 20 kg / cm2 ( 2 @,@ 000 kPa ; 280 psi ) . An auxiliary boiler was fitted to heat or cool the ship 's magazines and provide drinking water . Each propeller shaft drove a three @-@ bladed 4 @.@ 08 m ( 13 ft 5 in ) bronze three @-@ bladed propeller for a designed speed of 30 kn ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , but she achieved 31 @.@ 4 kn ( 58 @.@ 2 km / h ; 36 @.@ 1 mph ) on trials . 1 @,@ 150 t ( 1 @,@ 130 long tons ) of fuel oil was carried which was originally calculated to provide an endurance of 7 @,@ 770 nmi ( 14 @,@ 390 km ; 8 @,@ 940 mi ) at 14 kn ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , but it was revised downwards to 4 @,@ 510 nmi ( 8 @,@ 350 km ; 5 @,@ 190 mi ) once she entered service because the demands of her auxiliary machinery had been seriously underestimated . Two 200 @-@ kilowatt turbo generators provided electricity at 235 volts . Two 100 @-@ kilowatt diesel generators were mounted in the aft engine room to provide power while in harbor and a third was installed in a special compartment on the first deck for emergency use .
= = = Armament = = =
Pluton was originally intended to carry two single turrets , one each fore and aft , with 203 mm ( 8 in ) guns , four 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and four light 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) AA guns . However four 138 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns were substituted for the 203 mm guns before construction began and six more 37 mm guns were added in lieu of the 75 mm guns during construction although the baseplates for the 75 mm guns were retained for future use .
The four 138 mm 40 @-@ caliber guns were on M1924 mounts with gun shields . Two guns each were fore and aft in superfiring positions on the centerline . Their elevation limits were -10 ° to + 35 ° and they had a 270 ° arc of fire . Their rate of fire was a nominal eight to nine rounds per minute , but proved to be considerably less in service . They had a maximum range of about 18 @,@ 200 m ( 19 @,@ 900 yd ) with a 40 kg ( 88 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 700 m / s ( 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ) . 150 rounds were provided for each gun . One powder and one shell magazine served each pair of guns , each of which had their own individual hoist .
Ten 37 mm / 50 cal semi @-@ automatic AA guns were carried by Pluton . Two were fitted on the foredeck , six amidships between the funnels and two on a platform at the stern . 10 @,@ 000 rounds were carried with 144 rounds in ready @-@ use boxes near each gun . The guns could depress 15 ° and elevate to 80 ° . They fired 0 @.@ 725 kg ( 1 @.@ 60 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 810 m / s ( 2 @,@ 657 ft / s ) . Their effective anti @-@ aircraft range was less than 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) . All of these guns — except for the pair on the stern — were removed shortly after Pluton was commissioned in 1932 .
Twelve obsolete 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 315 in ) Hotchkiss M1914 machine guns were carried in six twin mounts . Two mounts were on top of the bridge , two atop the after boiler room ventilator housing and two just forward of the tripod mainmast . 48 @,@ 000 rounds were provided for them . They were removed shortly after Pluton was commissioned in 1932 .
Pluton was designed to carry 220 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) Sautter @-@ Harlé mines , but had space for 30 extra , for a total of 250 . They were carried on the first deck , or mine deck , using a system of four rails along the sides of the ship and moved via chain @-@ drives . Each pair of rails converged on a turntable at the forward end of the rails and a transverse spur connected the two turntables . The spur facilitated loading mines from one side of the ship and allowed mines to be moved to each of the rails . The rails ended in four ramps at the stern of the ship that sloped down at a 30 ° angle to minimize the shock of impact when the mines were released from the chain drive . Up to 270 of the smaller Bréguet B4 mines could be carried .
= = Service = =
She entered service with the French Mediterranean Fleet in 1932 . Pluton experienced many teething problems , particularly with the machinery . Shortly after she was commissioned the Navy decided to give her an extra role as a gunnery training ship and she entered Toulon Dockyard for the necessary modifications on 24 October 1932 . Quarters for 40 men were added on the mine deck . Most of the 37 @-@ mm AA guns and all of the 8 mm machine guns were replaced by four 50 @-@ caliber 75 mm Canon de 75 mm Mle 22 or 24 AA guns and 12 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Hotchkiss machine guns on six twin mounts , two mounts where the 37 mm guns had been mounted on the foredeck and four between the funnels . The 75 mm guns had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . They fired a 5 @.@ 93 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 1 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) at a rate of fire of 8 – 18 rounds per minute and had a maximum effective ceiling of 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) . The Hotchkiss guns had a cyclic rate of fire of 450 rounds per minute , but the practical rate was between 200 and 250 rounds per minute to allow for reloading its 30 @-@ round magazines . They had a theoretical ceiling of 4 @,@ 200 m ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) . A simple fire @-@ control director was added for the 138 mm guns and 15 additional rangefinders were installed for use by the Rangefinding School .
Pluton spent much of 1933 – 1935 in dockyard hands after finishing her first round of modifications on 27 April 1933 . She was refitted four times during this period to add more gunnery equipment and to rectify some of her defects . These included reinforcement of her superstructure where it had been damaged by the muzzle blast from her 138 mm guns and replacement of her corroded aluminum ladders and booms with steel ones . A high @-@ angle fire @-@ control director for her 75 mm guns was added , two of her 75 mm gun were converted to powered , remotely controlled mounts , gun shields were added to the 75 mm guns to protect their crews from blast and facilities for another 40 men was installed on her mine deck .
In 1936 , an experimental twin 13 @.@ 2 mm gun mount with a gun shield was added between the starboard 75 @-@ mm guns and more rangefinders were added to bring her total up to 31 . Her boilers and condensers were repaired in a refit between 25 November 1936 and 13 March 1937 . Later that year Pluton had a major refit that involved repair of her turbines , replacement of her 138 mm fire @-@ control director by one of the type used by the 8 @,@ 000 t ( 7 @,@ 900 long tons ) light cruisers and the transfer of the foredeck 13 @.@ 2 mm machine guns to positions on the forward superstrucut . Her last refit , from 15 November 1938 – 15 February 1939 , retubed two boilers , enclosed the AA director to protect it from the weather , improved the remote control of the 138 mm guns and added gun shields to each of the twin 13 @.@ 2 mm mounts .
Pluton was transferred to Lorient on 10 May 1939 when the French Navy formed the 5e Escadre there which controlled all training ships and planned to convert her into a full @-@ time training ship as consort to the training cruiser Jeanne d 'Arc on 1 June 1940 . She would have been renamed La Tour d 'Auvergne at that time , as the name Pluton was reserved for mine warfare ships in the French Navy .
As war approached , it was decided to retain her as a minelayer and most of the extra fire control equipment was removed . She was transferred to Brest as part of the reorganization of the 5e Escadre . She sailed for Casablanca , French Morocco on 2 September with 125 Bréguet mines embarked . She was ordered to lay a defensive minefield there on 4 September , but this order was rescinded the next day , after the mines had already been fuzed , and the ship was ordered to disembark the mines . While landing the mines on 13 September one of them exploded , destroying the ship and killing 186 people . A further 73 crewmen and 47 others were injured and significant damage was caused by flying debris . One gun and some armor was salvaged during the war , but demolition work did not begin until October 1952 and was completed by July 1953 .
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= Littlest Things =
" Littlest Things " is a song by British recording artist Lily Allen from her debut studio album , Alright , Still . Written by Allen , Mark Ronson and Santi White , the song was released as the third single of the album on 11 December 2006 by Regal Recordings . It incorporates a piano sample from Pierre Bachelet and Herve Roy 's music from Emmanuelle , for which they were credited as co @-@ writers , as the lyrics tackle the singer dealing with the departure of her boyfriend , while reminiscing about their time together . The song was created in a New York studio , after Allen had met Ronson , who was impressed by her previous work and offered her different samples .
Contemporary critics gave the song mixed reviews , some claiming it to be Allen 's sweetest lyrical moments , while others accuse it of being a fraud . The single peaked at number twenty @-@ one on the UK Singles Chart , being her first single not to reach the top twenty in the United Kingdom . The accompanying music video portrayed a view over the mundane moments of a dying relationship , with Allen watching herself and her ex @-@ boyfriend together . It was directed by Nima Nourizadeh and was mainly shot in black and white . The song was performed live during her 2007 concert tour and also during her 2009 concert tour .
= = Background = =
After obtaining commercial success with first two singles , " Smile " and " LDN " , Allen decided to promote the album by releasing " Littlest Things " . The song was composed in New York , where Allen travelled after she had met producer Mark Ronson when at lunch with her then boyfriend , Seb . There , she told him she was a singer and gave him a copy of her demo CD . He was impressed by her song " Smile " and asked her to work together . Regarding the process of composing the song , Ronson stated :
We spent a day together and worked on a couple of things , and went to record shops where I played samples to her . Then I wrote the piano and guitar bit to " Littlest Things " , and she sat down and scribbled for about an hour and finished the lyrics . We went into the booth to record the song . She originally wanted to do a Mike Skinner thing , rapping the verse and singing the chorus . But I asked her to sing it all , and she just made up the whole melody on the spot , and sang this amazing solo . At that moment I realised that this girl has a really special gift .
In regards to composing the song and its lyrical meaning , Allen noted that ,
Mark 's got a very good ear . He 's very relaxed in the studio and very thoughtful . There 's not really any pressure working there , because he 's got his own studio so he doesn 't have time constraints .
The song was called " Littlest Things " and was about having broken up with my boyfriend , because Seb and I had split up for a few months . We 've since got back together . It must have been quite awkward for Mark because Seb was his friend , but being fresh out of a relationship I wanted to write about what was on my mind .
Mark came up with the music first , then I came up with the words and we fitted it all together into a melody . That 's the way I normally make songs – I write everything in the studio – and it obviously means that producers are very important to me . It 's a complete joint effort .
= = Music structure and lyrics = =
Musically , the song is written in the time signature of common time and set in the key of A minor , having a metronome of 82 beats per minute . It has a basic sequence of Am — D7 — G — Em — Am — F # 7 — B as its chord progression , while the piano and guitar are used for the background music . " Littlest Things " samples elements from " Emmanuelle in the Mirror " and the " Theme from Emmanuelle ( Instrumental ) " , which are written by Pierre Bachelet and Herve Roy for the 1974 French softcore pornographic film Emmanuelle . It does not , though , sample " Karma Police " by Radiohead , contrary to popular misinterpretations . The lyrics describe a post @-@ relationship overview and the way one reminiscences about it . Alex Petridis from The Guardian describes them as dealing with " misery and sex in equal measure " , while reporting that Ronson asked Allen to sing in her London accent .
= = Critical reception = =
" Littlest Things " has met mixed reviews ; Heather Phares from AllMusic complimented the song , saying the ballad softens Allen 's rough image and celebrates " the mundane moments of a dying relationship " , whereas Blender reporter Jon Dolan considers it a " forlorn single " , where the singer writes about the terror of being in a relationship " with white @-@ knuckled worry over a snip of florid piano from a ’ 70s soft @-@ core porn flick " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine criticised Allen for being a " poser who lacks charisma , bites off of everyone else , and is so sickeningly contemptuous of everyone but herself that it makes the pretty , melancholy piano @-@ and @-@ drum @-@ loop ballad ' Littlest Things ' seem like a farce " . While analysing Alright , Still , The Guardian reviewer , Sophie Heawood , described the lyrics as the " perfect description of missing someone : ' We 'd spend the whole weekend lying in our own dirt / I was just so happy in your boxers and your T @-@ shirt ' . " Mark Pytlik from Pitchfork Media gave a positive review , saying that " ' Littlest Things ' is a supple piano @-@ tickler that provides one of Allen 's sweetest lyrical moments while simultaneously leaving Ms. Dynamite in the dust on the R & B balladeering front " . He believed that the song is made out of Allen 's " comfort zone " of songs such as " Smile " , the result being of " high order , if not a bit more erratic " . IGN reviewer Todd Gilchrist named the song as the album 's " most affecting tune " , while thought it " compiles a sad and beautiful checklist of the intimate moments she no longer shares with her dearly departed boyfriend " .
= = Commercial reception = =
The single debuted at number fifty @-@ three in the singer 's home country and later rose to twenty @-@ one , which became its peak . It was Allen 's lowest position on the UK Singles Chart at that time , being the only song to miss the top twenty , until " Who 'd Have Known " peaked at thirty @-@ nine in 2009 . Though it did not enter the main chart in the Flanders region of Belgium , the single obtained position thirteen on Ultratip , a continuation of the chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Nima Nourizadeh and released on 11 December 2006 . It opens with an aerial shot of a piano which begins to play by itself , and then moves to reveal a film set . Allen stands on a lamppost , wearing a raincoat , with lights , a camera and directors surrounding her . The image zooms into the camera from the studio and turns the video black @-@ and @-@ white , with the story coming to life , as the singer begins the first verse . From the lamppost she is able to see her former self walking down the street with her boyfriend . While they enter a building , a light comes out in one of the windows , revealing their silhouettes kissing . The caption changes , with the two of them dancing , while a man plays the piano in the background ; as he dips her and holds this position , she continues to sing . The camera zooms out to see a heart shaped window surrounding the two that opens and changes to a picture on Allen 's wall . She is alone in a room , staring at a mirror . Her hair is let down and she is wearing a white nightgown . The piano is seen again playing itself , as the image shifts to the window , where Allen is again portrayed leaning against the lamppost in the street , as in the beginning of the video . She again looks at the silhouettes in the window of the building , as it collapses on her , once again changing the scene . This time , the singer is looking through another window , and then turns around to a mirror which captures a door . The former Allen with the raincoat walks through with her boyfriend , as their shadows are seen kissing . The image changes to Allen from the film set , zooming out from the camera 's viewing piece , making the video in colour again .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lead vocals – Lily Allen
Written by – Lily Allen , Mark Ronson , Santi White
Writers of sample – Pierre Bachelet , Hervé Roy
Produced by – Mark Ronson
Recorded by – Mark Ronson , Rob Smith
Assistant recording – Kieran Panesar
Drum programming & samples – Mark Ronson
Percussion – Mark Ronson
Mastered by – Tim Burrell , Tim Debney
Audio mixing – Vaughan Merrick
= = Charts = =
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= Spanish battleship España =
España was a Spanish dreadnought battleship , the lead ship of her class . She had two sister ships , Alfonso XIII and Jaime I. España was built by the SECN shipyard ; she was laid down in December 1909 , launched in February 1912 , and completed in October 1913 . She was armed with a main battery of eight 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns and had a top speed of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph )
España served in the 1st Squadron after her commissioning , along with her two sisters . Spain remained neutral during World War I , so the Spanish fleet did not see action during the conflict . España provided gunfire support during the Rif War in the early 1920s . During these operations , she ran aground off Cape Tres Forcas , Morocco in August 1923 . The Navy was unable to raise the ship , and severe storms destroyed the wreck in 1924 , which led the Navy to abandon her .
= = Technical characteristics = =
España was 132 @.@ 6 m ( 435 ft ) long at the waterline and 140 m ( 460 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 24 m ( 79 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 8 m ( 26 ft ) ; her freeboard was 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) amidships . Her propulsion system consisted of four @-@ shaft Parsons steam turbines and twelve Yarrow boilers . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 11 @,@ 600 kW ) and produced a top speed of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) . España had a cruising radius of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew consisted of 854 officers and enlisted men .
España was armed with a main battery of eight 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) / 50 guns , mounted in four twin gun turrets . One turret was placed forward , two were positioned en echelon amidships , and the fourth was aft of the superstructure . This mounting scheme was chosen in preference to superimposed turrets , as was done in the South Carolinas , to save weight and cost . Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 102 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) guns mounted in casemates along the length of the hull . They were too close to the waterline , however , which made them unusable in heavy seas . She was also armed with four 3 @-@ pounder guns and two machine guns . Her armored belt was 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) thick amidships ; the main battery turrets were protected with the same amount of armor plate . The conning tower had 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick sides . Her armored deck was 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
The Navy Law of 7 January 1908 authorized construction of España . She was laid down at the Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval shipyard in Ferrol on 6 December 1909 . She was launched on 5 February 1912 , and completed on 23 October 1913 . After their completion , España and her sisters , Alfonso XIII and Jaime I , the three battleships formed the 1st Squadron of the Spanish fleet . Spain remained neutral after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , so España and her sisters were the only European dreadnoughts to avoid the war . In mid @-@ 1915 , España crossed the Atlantic to represent Spain at the opening ceremonies for the Panama Canal . Since the major European navies were occupied with World War I , only Spain and Portugal sent ships to the ceremonies .
In 1920 España carried the Spanish representative to the quatercentenary of the discovery of the Straits of Magellan in Chile , in the process becoming the Spanish Navy 's first ship to pass through the Panama Canal . On 29 January 1921 she ran aground in Chilean waters off Puerto Montt on her return to Spain , though she was refloated with some difficulty . Her hull was dented badly for a length of 150 ft ( 46 m ) , and the rocks tore a large hole that was approximately 8 by 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 by 2 @.@ 4 m ) between frames 22 and 36 , and several smaller holes between frames 48 to 56 on the port side and 58 to 76 on the starboard side . Divers effected temporary repairs with concrete in Chile , followed by permanent repairs that were made in Balboa , Panama before she made her return voyage across the Atlantic . During this period , she was assigned to the Training Squadron , along with her two sister ships . Throughout the early 1920s , she provided fire support to the Spanish Army in its campaigns in Morocco during the Rif War . While conducting a bombardment off Cape Tres Forcas near Melilla on 26 August 1923 , she ran hard aground .
The Spanish Navy hired two salvage companies to refloat the battleship , but both declined after they surveyed the wreck . Unable to raise her , the Spanish decided to remove as much weight as possible from España in an attempt to lighten her to permit refloating . Her guns were removed and dropped overboard to be picked up later by the salvage vessel Kanguro . The battleship 's armor , machinery , and ammunition stores were also removed to lighten her . Her hull was then sealed and partially drained in preparation for raising , but while waiting for the necessary equipment from Italy , several violent storms hit the ship and caused further damage . The battered hull could now no longer be raised , and in November 1924 , she broke in half and was abandoned by the Spanish Navy . The 305 mm and 102 mm guns recovered from España were installed in coastal batteries , some of which remained in service until 1999 before they were retired from service . After the overthrow of King Alfonso XIII , his namesake ship Alfonso XIII , was renamed España in April 1931 .
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= Greek battleship Kilkis =
Kilkis ( Greek : Θ / Κ Κιλκίς ) was a 13 @,@ 000 ton Mississippi @-@ class battleship originally built by the US Navy in 1904 – 1908 . As Mississippi she was purchased by the Greek Navy in 1914 , and renamed her Kilkis , along with her sister Idaho , renamed Lemnos . Kilkis was named for the Battle of Kilkis @-@ Lahanas , a crucial engagement of the Second Balkan War . Armed with a main battery of four 12 in ( 305 mm ) guns , Kilkis and her sister were the most powerful vessels in the Greek fleet .
The ship saw limited action during World War I. Greece 's pro @-@ German monarch , Constantine I opted to remain neutral until October 1916 , when pressure from the Triple Entente forced him to abdicate in favor of a pro @-@ Entente government . For the remainder of the war , Kilkis operated solely as a harbor defense ship . In the immediately ensuing Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1919 – 1922 , Kilkis supported Greek landings in Turkey and participated in the final Greek sea @-@ borne withdrawal in 1922 . She remained in service into the early 1930s , when she was used for a training ship . During the German invasion of Greece in 1941 , she and her sister were sunk in Salamis by German Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers . The two ships were ultimately raised in the 1950s and broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Kilkis was 382 feet ( 116 m ) long overall and had a beam of 77 ft ( 23 m ) and a draft of 24 ft 8 in ( 7 @.@ 52 m ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 000 long tons ; 14 @,@ 000 short tons ) as designed and up to 14 @,@ 465 t ( 14 @,@ 237 long tons ; 15 @,@ 945 short tons ) at full combat load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft vertical triple expansion engines and eight coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) and a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . Lattice masts were installed in 1909 . She had a crew of 744 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 in ( 305 mm ) L / 45 guns in two twin turrets , one on either end of the superstructure . Eight 8 in ( 203 mm ) L / 45 guns were mounted in four twin turrets , two on other side of the vessel amidships . The secondary battery was rounded out with eight 7 in ( 178 mm ) L / 45 guns mounted individually in casemates along the length of the hull . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was protected by a battery of twelve 3 in ( 76 mm ) L / 50 guns , six 3 @-@ pounder guns and two 1 @-@ pounder guns . The ship 's armament system was completed by two 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged in her hull . Kilkis and Lemnos were the most powerful vessels in the Greek Navy .
= = Service history = =
Laid down on 12 May 1904 , the ship was launched on 30 September 1905 and commissioned into the United States Navy on 1 January 1908 as USS Mississippi . Greece became engaged in a naval arms race with the Ottoman Empire at the time ; the Ottomans had purchased a pair of German pre @-@ dreadnoughts — Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg in 1910 — and ordered dreadnought battleships from Britain in 1911 and 1914 . The Greek Navy ordered the dreadnought Salamis from Germany in 1913 and the dreadnought Basileus Konstantinos from France . As a stop @-@ gap measure , the Greeks purchased Mississippi and Idaho from the US Navy , for the sum of $ 12 @,@ 535 @,@ 276 @.@ 58 , on 30 June 1914 . , The two ships were transferred to the Greek Navy in Newport News , Virginia the following month . Kilkis and Lemnos quickly left the United States after their transfer in July , due to the rising tensions in Europe following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria the previous month . After arriving in Greece , Kilkis became the flagship of the Greek fleet .
At the outbreak of World War I in July 1914 , Greece 's pro @-@ German monarch , Constantine I , decided to remain neutral . The Entente powers landed troops in Salonika in 1915 , which was a source of tension between France and Greece . Ultimately , the French seized the Greek Navy on 19 October 1916 ( see Noemvriana and National Schism ) . Kilkis was reduced to a skeleton crew and had the breech blocks for her guns removed to render them inoperable . All ammunition and torpedoes were also removed . Ultimately , a pro @-@ Entente government replaced Constantine and declared war on the Central Powers . Kilkis , however , did not see active service with Greece 's new allies , and instead was used solely for harbor defense until the end of the war .
After the end of World War I Kilkis saw service during the Greco @-@ Turkish War , where she supported landings to seize Ottoman territory . These operations also included actions to support the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea . While supporting the French and British forces defending Sevastopol in April 1919 , Kilkis observed mutinies on several French battleships . Her crew taunted the French mutineers by hanging a dummy from the yardarm . Kilkis then returned to Greece ; on 5 May 1919 , she and a pair of destroyers escorted a convoy of six troop transports to Smyrna , where the soldiers were disembarked . Kilkis carried Rear Admiral Kaloulides , who thereafter served as the military governor of the city . The Ottoman Navy had been interned by the Allies after the end of World War I , and so provided no opposition to the Greek Navy 's activities .
In March 1920 , Kilkis was stationed in Constantinople as part of an Allied fleet , which was composed primarily of British warhips . The ships ' crews practiced landing operations to support the garrison occupying the city , but in the event only crews from the British ships went ashore . Kilkis left the theater to represent Greece during the Fleet Review in Spithead to honor King George V on his birthday , 3 June 1920 . In July , Kilkis and a pair of destroyers escorted a convoy carrying 7 @,@ 000 infantrymen , 1 @,@ 000 artillerists , and 4 @,@ 000 mules to Panderma . Among the Greek naval vessels that supported the landings with Kilkis were the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and the destroyers Aetos , Leon , and Ierax , and a hospital ship . Landings also took place at Eregli on the other side of the Sea of Marmora . On 19 July , Kilkis departed with several transport ships and the British seaplane carrier HMS Ark Royal , which provided aerial reconnaissance for the Greek forces . Operations came to a close in September 1922 when the Greek Army was forced to evacuate by sea , along with a sizable number of civilians , from Asia Minor . The fleet transported a total of 250 @,@ 000 soldiers and civilians during the evacuation . Kilkis and Lemnos departed Smyrna on the evening of 8 September .
Kilkis underwent repairs and upgrades in 1926 – 1928 but was already obsolete due to low speed and low freeboard . The ship had her boilers re @-@ tubed during this refit . On 29 November 1929 , the Greek navy announced that Kilkis would be withdrawn from service and broken up for scrap . Consequently , in 1930 , Georgios Averof replaced her as the fleet flagship . Nevertheless , Kilkis remained in service with the fleet until 1932 . The ship was then withdrawn from the active fleet and used as a training ship . A failed insurrection in the Greek fleet in March 1935 led to a reduction in the number of personnel in the Navy . As a result , Kilkis and Georgios Averof were removed from active service . After the revolt , Kilkis was used as a training ship for anti @-@ aircraft gunners .
= = = World War II = = =
On 28 October 1940 , Italy invaded Greece , initiating the Greco @-@ Italian War as part of the Italian dictactor Benito Mussolini 's expansionist program . The Greek army quickly defeated the Italians and pushed them back to Albania . Less than two weeks later , the Italian fleet was badly damaged in the British Raid on Taranto , which significantly reduced the threat the Italian Regia Marina posed to the Greek fleet . From the start of the conflict , Kilkis was used as a floating battery based in Salamis . Spare guns from Kilkis and Lemnos were employed as coastal batteries throughout Greece .
On 6 April 1941 , the German Wehrmacht invaded Greece to support its Italian ally in the stalemated conflict . British planners suggested using the ship to block the Corinth Canal by scuttling her at the southern entrance to the canal , but the Greek Navy refused , preferring to use the ship as a barracks ship if they should have to retreat from Salamis . The ship was attacked in Salamis Naval Base by Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers on 23 April 1941 , during the German invasion . Kilkis attempted to get underway to evade the attacks , but she was hit by several bombs and sank in the harbor . Her wreck was refloated and broken up for scrap in the 1950s .
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= Tropical Storm Etau ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Storm Etau was the deadliest tropical cyclone to impact Japan since Typhoon Tokage in 2004 . Forming on August 8 , 2009 from an area of low pressure , the system gradually intensified into a tropical storm . Tracking in a curved path around the edge of a subtropical ridge , Etau continued to intensify as it neared Japan . By August 11 , the cyclone reached its peak intensity as a hurricane with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 992 hPa ( mbar ) . Shortly after , Etau began to weaken and was downgraded to a tropical storm early on August 11 . Increasing wind shear led to the center becoming devoid of convection and the system eventually weakened to a tropical depression on August 13 . The remnants of Etau persisted for nearly day before dissipating early on August 14 .
Although Etau did not make landfall , the outer bands of the storm produced torrential rainfall in Japan , peaking at 326 @.@ 5 mm ( 12 @.@ 85 in ) . These rains triggered deadly flooding and mudslides , especially in Hyōgo Prefecture . Twenty @-@ eight people were killed by the storm and ¥ 7 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 87 @.@ 5 million ) in damage occurred throughout the affected region . According to the Fire and Disaster Management Agency , a total of 5 @,@ 602 homes were flooded and 183 were destroyed . Following the storm , 600 Japanese soldiers were deployed from Tokyo to assist in cleanup efforts .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Etau originated on August 5 out of an area of low pressure associated with disorganized convective activity located about 550 km ( 280 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Guam . The following day , the system relocated several dozen kilometers to the north . Convective turning began to appear on satellite imagery and a Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough ( TUTT ) cell to the north provided a northward component to the system 's movement . Early on August 7 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert for the developing system as deep convection consolidated around the low pressure system . Around 0000 UTC on August 8 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) designated the system as a tropical depression .
Several hours later on August 8 , the JTWC also declared the system a tropical depression , classifying it at 10W . Later that day , convection associated with the depression became disorganized , preventing intensification of the system . The depression generally tracked towards the northwest during the day in response a subtropical ridge to the north . By August 9 , the center of circulation became more defined as convection wrapped around it . Around 1200 UTC , the JMA upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and gave it the name Etau . The JTWC , however , did not upgrade the system to a tropical storm for several more hours . On August 10 , the JTWC briefly downgraded the storm to a tropical depression . By this time , the system had re @-@ curved to the east around the western periphery of the subtropical ridge . Etau also became slightly disorganized as it began to interact with the baroclinic zone near Japan . Early on August 11 , the JMA reported that the storm winds had peaked at 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 992 hPa ( mbar ) . Later that day , the storm once more became slightly disorganized due to increased wind shear ; however , the JTWC reported that the storm intensified based on satellite intensity estimates and weather radar imagery from Japan .
Later on August 11 , the center of Etau became partially devoid of convection , with only a narrow band of shower and thunderstorm activity persisting to the southeast of the center . Increasing wind shear prevented convection from redeveloping and the storm continued to weaken . Early the following day , the JTWC issued their final advisory on Etau as they reported it had weakened to a tropical depression well to the east of Japan . Roughly 24 hours later , the JMA also downgraded the system to a tropical depression . The final advisory on Etau was issued by the JMA early on August 14 as it slowly tracked northward .
= = Preparations , impact and aftermath = =
In anticipation of wind gusts up to 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) and heavy rains , Japanese officials evacuated roughly 47 @,@ 000 residents from western regions along the coast as gale warnings were declared by the JMA . Officials also feared that flooding from Tropical Storm Etau would mirror that of Typhoon Morakot in Taiwan where at least 14 were killed in the country 's worst flood in 50 years . Six flights in the country were canceled after a plane was struck by lightning . Fifteen railway services were also canceled due to heavy rains . According to officials in Japan , nearly 140 @,@ 000 people were evacuated to shelters in relation to flooding and landslides produced by Etau .
As Tropical Storm Etau brushed Japan on August 10 , torrential rains fell within its outer bands . In a 24 ‑ hour span , a record 326 @.@ 5 mm ( 12 @.@ 85 in ) of rain fell , triggering extensive flooding and landslides . Initial reports stated that 13 people were killed and 10 others were missing due to the storm . Most of the fatalities took place in Hyōgo Prefecture where hundreds of homes were flooded and numerous others were damaged or destroyed by landslides . In some areas , flood waters reached a depth of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) . One man drowned after driving his car into a flooded street and being overcome by the water . Another person was killed after her home was destroyed by a landslide in Okayama prefecture .
In Tokushima , two people were listed as missing and two others sustained serious injuries . Later news reports stated that up to 18 people were missing following further landslides . The affected region was especially susceptible to landslides due to recent seismic activity , with a magnitude 6 @.@ 4 earthquake taking place on August 10 . By August 11 , one of the missing persons was confirmed to have been killed during the storm . About 800 people were placed in public shelters and 53 @,@ 000 homes were left without running water . By August 12 , a total of 18 people were confirmed to have been killed and nine others were still missing . Three bridges in Tokushima were also washed away . Days later , the Japanese Fire and Disaster Management Agency finalized the death toll at 26 with one other missing , making Etau the deadliest tropical cyclone to impact Hyōgo Prefecture , Japan since Typhoon Tokage in 2004 . Throughout several prefectures , 5 @,@ 602 homes were flooded and 183 were destroyed . Landslides triggered by the storm damaged another 2 @,@ 109 structures , most of which were in Okayama and Hyōgo prefectures . Following severe damages , in the town of Sayo it requested assistance from the national government . As a result , more than 200 troops were deployed to the town . A post @-@ disaster office was also set up by the prime minister 's office crisis management center . An additional 400 troops were deployed to the city by August 11 to assist in rescue efforts .
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= Magic Alex =
Yanni ( later John ) Alexis Mardas ( Greek : Αλέξης Μάρδας ; born May 5 , 1942 ) is better known as Magic Alex , the nickname given to him by The Beatles when he was involved with the group between 1965 and 1969 , including being head of Apple Electronics .
Mardas arrived in England in 1965 , exhibiting his Kinetic Light Sculptures at the Indica Gallery . He impressed John Lennon with the Nothing Box ; a small plastic box with randomly blinking lights , and allegedly said that he could build a 72 @-@ track tape machine . Mardas was then given the job of designing the new Apple Studio in Savile Row , and was in India with The Beatles at the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's ashram in India .
In the 1970s , the anti @-@ terrorism industry offered bullet @-@ proof vehicles , bugging devices and security hardware , so Mardas set up various companies offering these products to royalty and VIPs . King Hussein of Jordan bought a fleet of cars that Mardas had customised . In 1987 , Mardas was a managing director of Alcom Ltd , which specialised in electronic communications and security . He now lives in Greece .
= = London and The Beatles = =
The 21 @-@ year @-@ old Yanni Alexis Mardas first arrived in England on a student visa in 1965 , befriending John Dunbar of the Indica Gallery in London , and later moving in with him in a flat on Bentinck Street , which was where Mardas first met Lennon . Known as Yanni Mardas , he found employment as a television repairman . Dunbar later introduced Mardas to Brian Jones , after Mardas exhibited his Kinetic Light Sculptures at the Indica Gallery . Dunbar worked with Mardas on the “ psychedelic light box ” for The Rolling Stones ' three @-@ week tour of Europe in 1967 , although they were not impressed with the results . Dunbar later said : " He was quite cunning in the way he pitched his thing . He knew enough to know how to wind people up and to what extent . He was a fucking TV repairman : Yanni Mardas , none of this ' Magic Alex ' shit ! "
Jones introduced Mardas to Lennon , and it was at this point that Mardas impressed Lennon with the Nothing Box ; a small plastic box with randomly blinking lights that Lennon would stare at for hours while under the influence of LSD . Lennon later introduced the renamed John Alexis Mardas as his " new guru " , calling him " Magic Alex " . Mardas allegedly told Lennon about ideas for futuristic electronic devices he was " working on " , which he later denied either promising or discussing : a telephone that responded to its owner 's voice and could identify who was calling , a force field that would surround The Beatles ' homes , an X @-@ ray camera , paint that would make anything invisible , car paint that would change colour by flicking a switch , and wallpaper speakers , which would actually be a part of the wallpaper . Mardas later asked for the V @-@ 12 engines from Lennon 's Rolls @-@ Royce and George Harrison 's Ferrari Berlinetta car , so he could build a flying saucer . Mardas also denied making these claims .
The Beatles set up a company for Mardas called Fiftyshapes Ltd . , in September 1967 , and Mardas later became one of the first employees of the newly formed Apple Corps , earning £ 40 a week and receiving 10 % of any profits made from his inventions .
The Beatles often called Mardas the " Greek wizard " , and Paul McCartney remembered being interested in his ideas : “ Well , if you [ Mardas ] could do that , we ’ d like one " . It was always , ' We ’ d like one ' ” . Mardas ' ideas were not confined to the realms of electronic wizardry , but included songwriting involvement , with a Lennon @-@ Mardas composition , " What 's the New Mary Jane " , originally meant for inclusion on The White Album .
Mardas was given his own laboratory called Apple Electronics , at 34 Boston Place , Westminster , London , and was helped to obtain a British work visa . His pay eventually rose to £ 6 @,@ 000 per year , and an American patent attorney , Alfred Crotti , moved to England to assist Mardas . In a historical TV promo for Apple Corps that 's included on The Beatles Anthology DVD , Mardas is shown wearing a white laboratory assistant 's coat in Apple Electronics ( with loud oscillating noises in the background ) saying , " Hello , I 'm Alexis , from Apple Electronics . I would like to say ' Hello ' to all my brothers around the world , and to all the girls around the world , and to all the electronic people around the world . That is Apple Electronics . " Mardas then turns and points back to a collection of two portable 2 @-@ track recorders in wooden boxes , a 2 @-@ track studio recording machine , voltage meters , a hi @-@ fi amplifier , an oscilloscope and a TV screen showing pulsating psychedelic balloon shapes . A mysterious fire at the laboratory prevented Mardas from presenting his inventions , but he later said : " I 'm a rock gardener , and now I 'm doing electronics . Maybe next year , I make films or poems . I have no formal training in any of these , but this is irrelevant " .
= = = Greece = = =
The Beatles had tried in 1964 to buy the 14 @-@ acre ( 57 @,@ 000 m2 ) Trinity Island , off the coast of the Greek island of Euboea ( pronounced EV @-@ i @-@ a ) ( resembling a guitar in shape ) but the owners were not interested in a sale . Lennon was still interested in buying or leasing an island to live on together , and discussed it with the other Beatles on 19 July 1967 . Mardas ' father was a major in the Greek secret police , and Mardas explained that through him The Beatles would have access to Greek government connections , which would speed the acquisition of an island , as many islands did have the right certificates of ownership and were subject to government restrictions . On 22 July 1967 , Harrison and his wife , Pattie Boyd , Ringo Starr and Neil Aspinall flew to Athens , where they stayed in Mardas ' parents ' house overnight until Lennon , Cynthia Lennon , and their son , Julian Lennon , McCartney and Jane Asher , Pattie Boyd 's 16 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Paula , Mal Evans and Alistair Taylor set off for Athens .
Their chartered yacht , the MV Arvi , was detained in Crete because of bad weather , so the party had to wait in Athens for three days . Taylor complained that on a trip to a small hill village , " We came round a corner of the peaceful road only to find hundreds of photographers clicking away at us " , which Mardas had organised . McCartney later said that while sailing around Greek islands , everybody just sat around and took LSD . They eventually found the 80 @-@ acre ( 320 @,@ 000 m2 ) island of Leslo , which had a small fishing village , four beaches and a large olive grove . Four small neighbouring islands surrounded it ( which were planned as one for each Beatle ) so the island was bought for £ 95 @,@ 000 ( with a 25 % premium ) but was sold for a modest profit a few months later , after all four Beatles lost interest in the idea .
= = = Apple Boutique and marriage = = =
On 1 August 1967 , Mardas , Aspinall and Derek Taylor , were invited by Harrison to stay at the home of Robert Fitzpatrick , on Blue Jay Way , and on 7 August 1967 , Harrison and his wife visited San Francisco 's Haight @-@ Ashbury district with Mardas . The Apple Boutique , at 94 Baker Street , London , was one of the first business ventures made by The Beatles ' fledgling Apple Corps , and Mardas ( at great expense ) was commissioned to create one of his ideas ; an " artificial sun " which would light up the night @-@ time sky , for the opening on 7 December 1967 . When the time came for Mardas to produce his artificial sun , he claimed that there was not a strong enough energy supply to power it , which was accepted by The Beatles . Mardas appeared ( uncredited ) in the Beatles ' TV movie Magical Mystery Tour , which was first broadcast on BBC1 on Boxing Day in 1967 . On 11 July 1968 , 26 @-@ year @-@ old Mardas married 22 @-@ year @-@ old Eufrosyne Doxiades ( the daughter of a respected Greek architect ) at St Sophia 's Church , London . Harrison and his wife attended , and Lennon ( who was there with Yoko Ono ) was joint best man , along with Donovan .
= = = Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and India = = =
Mardas and Aspinall joined Lennon and Harrison in India , where they were studying meditation under the tutelage of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi , although Starr had flown back to England — complaining the Indian food did not agree with him — and McCartney had left on 24 March 1968 . When Mardas first met the Maharishi , he said sarcastically , " I know you ! Didn ’ t I meet you in Greece years ago ? "
Mardas was jealous about the control the Maharishi had over Lennon , and during one of their frequent walks through the woods he asked Lennon why the Maharishi always had an accountant by his side . Lennon replied that The Beatles ( or Lennon and Harrison ) were considering donating a large part of their income to the Maharishi 's bank accounts in Switzerland . When Mardas questioned the Maharishi about this , he offered money to Mardas to build a high @-@ powered radio station , so he could broadcast his teachings to the whole of India .
Alcohol was not allowed in the Maharishi 's ashram , but Mardas smuggled some in from Dehra Dun , and later reported to Lennon and Harrison that the Maharishi had sex with a young American student , and had made a sexual advance toward Mia Farrow . This was not fully supported in Farrow 's autobiography What Falls Away ( 1997 ) , writing that she may have misinterpreted the supposed sexual advance . Mardas continued to insist the Maharishi was not what he said he was ; even making Harrison unsure . Lennon mused in 1970 : " Well , it must be true , because if George [ Harrison ] is doubting him , there must be something in it " . Lennon and Harrison confronted the Maharishi , but the startled Maharishi 's answers did not satisfy them , and they decided to leave the camp . Mardas insisted that they ( Lennon , Harrison and their respective wives ) must leave the camp at once , or the Maharishi might send down some " black magic " on them . Mardas then went down to Dehra Dun to organise taxis for the next morning to take them all to Delhi .
Cynthia Lennon personally believed that Mardas invented the story about sexual impropriety to undermine the Maharishi 's influence on The Beatles , as Mardas was always jealous of anyone having Lennon 's attention . Harrison and McCartney later offered their apologies to the Maharishi ( McCartney said that he did not believe the accusation at all ) . In 2010 , Mardas issued a statement denying that he had spread rumours .
= = = Lennon 's divorce = = =
After returning to England in May 1968 , Lennon suggested that Cynthia take a holiday in Greece with Mardas , Donovan , Boyd , and her sister . Lennon said that he would be very busy recording what would become The White Album and that it would do her some good to take a break with Mardas , his girlfriend Jenny Boyd , and others . Cynthia arrived home one day early from Greece on 22 May 1968 . She and Mardas discovered Lennon and Ono sitting cross @-@ legged on the floor , staring into each other 's eyes , and found Ono 's slippers outside the Lennons ' marital bedroom door . Cynthia asked Boyd and Mardas if she could spend the night at their apartment . At the apartment Boyd went straight to bed , but Mardas got Cynthia drunk and tried to convince her that they should both run away together . After Cynthia had been sick in the bathroom she collapsed on a bed in the spare bedroom , but Mardas joined her and tried to kiss her until she ( in her words ) " pushed him away " . Brian Epstein 's personal assistant , Peter Brown , maintains that Cynthia did sleep with Mardas , saying : " She knew it was a mistake the moment it happened , especially with Alex [ Mardas ] , whom she had never trusted , nor even liked " .
Lennon went to New York with McCartney shortly after and told Cynthia she could not go with them , so Cynthia went on a trip to Italy with her mother . During Cynthia 's holiday in Italy , an " agitated " Mardas unexpectedly arrived ( pacing up and down outside Cynthia 's hotel until she returned ) , giving the news that Lennon was planning to sue Cynthia for divorce on grounds of adultery , seek sole custody of Julian , and send Cynthia " back to Hoylake " . Mardas also said that he intended to testify in court that Cynthia had committed adultery with him . She said in 2005 : " The mere fact that Magic Alex [ Mardas ] arrived in Italy in the middle of the night without any prior knowledge of where I was staying made me extremely suspicious . I was being coerced into making it easy for John [ Lennon ] and Yoko to accuse me of doing something that would make them not look so bad " .
= = = Apple Studio = = =
Mardas often said that the Abbey Road studio was " no good " , much to producer George Martin 's annoyance : " The trouble was that Alex was always coming to the studios to see what we were doing and to learn from it , while at the same time saying ‘ These people are so out of date . ’ But I found it very difficult to chuck him out , because the boys liked him so much . Since it was very obvious that I didn ’ t , a minor schism developed " . Mardas boasted that he could build a much better studio , with a 72 @-@ track tape machine , instead of the 4 @-@ track at Abbey Road — which was being updated at the time to an 8 @-@ track — so he was given the job of designing the new Apple Studio in the basement of Apple headquarters in Savile Row . One of Mardas ' more outrageous plans was to replace the acoustic baffles around Starr 's drums with an invisible sonic force field . Starr remembered that Mardas bought some " huge " computers from British Aerospace , which were stored in his barn , but " they never left the barn " , and were later sold as scrap metal .
Mardas gave the Beatles regular reports of his progress , but when they required their new studio in January 1969 , during the Get Back project that became Let It Be , they discovered an unusable studio : no 72 @-@ track tape deck ( Mardas had reduced it to 16 tracks ) , no soundproofing , no talkback ( intercom ) system , and not even a patch bay to run the wiring between the control room and the 16 speakers that Mardas had fixed haphazardly to the walls . The only new piece of sound equipment present was a crude mixing console which Mardas had built , which looked ( in the words of Martin 's assistant , Dave Harries ) like " bits of wood and an old oscilloscope " . The console was scrapped after just one session . Harrison said it was " chaos " , and that they had to " rip it all out and start again , " calling it " the biggest disaster of all time . " Harrison 's suspicions of Mardas ' competence had been raised when he saw him wandering around in a white coat with a clipboard , and considered the possibility that Mardas had " just read the latest version of Science Weekly , and used its ideas " . Mardas later stated that he had never been in the basement of Savile Row , as the studio equipment he was building was being tested in Apple Electronics , at Boston Place , Marylebone .
The Beatles asked producer Martin to come to the rescue , so he borrowed two four @-@ track recorders from EMI , and long @-@ time Beatles ' engineer Geoff Emerick was given the task of building and setting up a studio with portable equipment . After Allen Klein was brought in to be The Beatles ' manager in 1969 , he closed Apple Electronics , and Mardas left the company . It was later estimated that Mardas ' ideas and projects had cost The Beatles at least £ 300 @,@ 000 ( 3 million British pounds today ) . Starr once approved of one of Mardas ’ ideas : " He [ Mardas ] had an idea to stop people taping our records off the radio – you ’ d have to have a decoder to get the signal , and then we thought we could sell the time and put commercials on instead . We brought EMI and Capitol in from America to look at it , but they weren ’ t interested at all " .
= = Security consultant = =
In the 1970s , the anti @-@ terrorism industry offered bullet @-@ proof vehicles , bugging devices and security hardware . Mardas set up various companies offering these products to royalty and VIPs , using the former King of Greece as his principal salesman . Ex @-@ King Constantine II of Greece ( then exiled in Britain ) provided contacts to a half a dozen royal families for Mardas , and had close contact with the deposed Shah of Iran , who had moved to Mexico . The Shah was one of the first customers for the customised bullet @-@ proof cars that Mardas was offering , and was believed to have financially assisted Mardas ’ companies .
In 1974 , Mardas held an expensive party for the then Spanish heir , Prince Juan Carlos , which secured Mardas a contract . After the assassination of Admiral Carrero Blanco the Spanish royal family thought it should acquire more bullet @-@ proof cars , although one car was shipped to England , where it was parked in Chobham for almost a year as nobody knew how to do the work needed to upgrade it . The second contract ( worth over £ 1 / 2 million ) allowed Mardas to set up new security companies : Alcom Devices Ltd , and Night Vision Systems Ltd ( under the collective name of " Project Alcom " ) in St Albans Mews off Edgware Road , London , to provide a sophisticated communications system for Juan Carlos , so he could be in constant contact with his security services . Mardas employed Arthur Johnson ( known as Johnny Johnson ) , a former M.O.D. official .
The Sultan of Oman ordered six Mercedes 450 limousines in 1977 , but quickly discovered that they were not as safe as he had been led to believe . His ex @-@ SAS bodyguards tested one of the cars in the desert in July 1977 , by firing at them , but a bullet hit an emergency air cylinder , which led to the petrol tank blowing up , burning the whole car . The remaining cars were immediately sent back , with a demand to refund the money spent . King Hussein of Jordan had a fleet of cars that Mardas customised , but carried out a safety test on them with live ammunition in November 1977 . One eyewitness reported that the cars could be more life @-@ threatening than ordinary vehicles , as bullets easily pierced the armour @-@ plating , and the thick armoured glass broke into jagged splinters when struck . Hussein ordered that the cars be restored to their previous state . These failures convinced Mardas and Constantine to look at the growing European market for anti @-@ terrorist protection , setting up a factory in London to produce “ bullet @-@ proof ” cars in 1978 . This was financed by an investment of over £ 1 million through anonymous Monaco and Swiss bank accounts , which were believed to be controlled by the Shah .
= = The media and the courts = =
On 28 February 1988 , The Observer published an article naming Mardas as an arms dealer , but printed an apology on 30 April 1989 . After an article on 18 September 1988 ( " Joan 's Secret Lover " ) , and another a week later , The People newspaper was taken to court by Mardas , who won £ 75 @,@ 000 in damages . The Daily Mail published an apology and gave an undisclosed sum in damages on 16 January 2004 , after an article on 11 June 2003 , which accused Mardas of dealings that would later resurface in his claim against the New York Times in 2008 .
The Independent newspaper apologised on 21 August 2006 , writing that on 14 June 2006 , the paper had wrongly reported Mardas ' involvement with Apple Electronics Ltd . They corrected the earlier piece by writing that Mardas had not been a company employee , but a director and shareholder of Apple Electronics , and was not sacked , but resigned his directorship in May 1971 , while still retaining his shareholding , until giving it to Apple Corps some years later . The paper accepted that Mardas “ did not claim to have invented electric paint , a flying saucer or a recording studio with a ‘ sonic force field ’ or cause his employers to waste money on such ideas . We apologise to Mr. Mardas for these errors " .
In 2008 , Mardas won the right to sue the New York Times in England related to an online article which it said he was a charlatan . In a story about the Maharishi , Allan Kozinn had written : " Alexis Mardas , a supposed inventor and charlatan who had become a Beatles ’ insider " . After an appeal , Mardas won the right to continue his case of defamation against the New York Times in 2009 . After the New York Times produced a witness , Sir Harry Evans , who gave evidence supporting the journalistic responsibility of the paper , Mardas said he would not pursue the case further , but only if the paper would publicly explain that by labelling him as a charlatan , it did not mean to imply that he was a conman . On 4 March 2010 , the New York Times published an editor 's update to the 2008 article , saying : " While expressing skepticism about his work as an inventor during that period , the article did not accuse Mr. Mardas of engaging in fraudulent dealings or criminality ... The Times ’ s reporting on those events was attributed to Paul McCartney and based on widely published accounts from books and magazines ... "
= = Later years and present = =
Mardas put 15 items from his collection of Lennon memorabilia up for sale on 5 May 2004 at Christie 's in South Kensington , London . Among the sale was Lennon ’ s leather collar worn during 1967 and 1968 ( at the launch party for the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band LP , and on the cover of Lennon and Ono ’ s Unfinished Music No.1 : Two Virgins ) , as well as a custom Vox Kensington guitar , a coloured felt pen drawing called " Strong " , and a pen and ink drawing by Lennon entitled “ Happy Fish ” . Mardas said he planned to donate the money to a charity in Greece . The ' custom Vox Kensington guitar ' later sold at an auction for £ 269 @,@ 000 on 19 May 2013 . Link label Mardas is now living in Athens .
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= Upminster =
Upminster is a suburban town in east London , England , and part of the London Borough of Havering . Located 16 @.@ 5 miles ( 26 @.@ 6 km ) east @-@ northeast of Charing Cross , it is one of the locally important district centres identified in the London Plan , and comprises a number of shopping streets and a large residential area . It was historically , a rural village in Essex and formed an ancient parish . Although peripheral to London , the town has good transport links ; it was first connected to central London by rail in 1885 and has a terminal station on the London Underground network . The economic history of Upminster is characterised by a shift from farming to garden suburb . As part of the suburban growth of London in the 20th century , Upminster significantly expanded and increased in population , becoming part of Hornchurch Urban District in 1934 , and has formed part of Greater London since 1965 .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The placename Upminster is first recorded in 1062 as Upmynstre and is recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book as Upmunstra . It is formed from Old English upp and mynster , meaning the large church on high ground . The high ground of the parish church being in relation to the valley of the River Ingrebourne and the Upminster Bridge over the river shares the name . An alternative explanation suggests the upp could refer to the geographical relationship to a church at Barking or Tilbury in Anglo @-@ Saxon times .
= = = Economic development = = =
There was an ancient farmstead from the 1st century to the 3rd century in the Upminster area , and agriculture was the predominant industry throughout the following centuries . The area was once wooded , but clearances in the 12th century gave more land over to arable farming ; and by the 17th century there were a variety of crops and livestock . There was a growth in market gardening in the 19th century . There have been a number of windmills in Upminster and one of which , a smock mill built in 1803 , remains . Local industry included a tannery , gravel extraction and a brick works that was connected to the railway station by a tramway in 1895 .
The London , Tilbury and Southend Railway from Fenchurch Street was extended from Barking to Upminster in 1885 . The underground Whitechapel and Bow Railway opened in 1902 and allowed through services of the District Railway to operate to Upminster . The District converted to electric trains in 1905 and services were cut back to East Ham . Delayed by World War I , electrified tracks were extended by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway to Upminster and through services resumed in 1932 .
= = = Local government = = =
Upminster formed an ancient parish of 3 @,@ 369 acres ( 1 @,@ 363 ha ) in the Chafford hundred of Essex . The parish vestry had meetings in the church until 1798 , when they moved to the Bell Inn . The parish was divided into North and South wards by the Hornchurch to Cranham road . In 1836 the vestry lost control of poor relief , with Upminster becoming part of the Romford Poor Law Union and in 1875 the parish became part of Romford rural sanitary district . Following the Local Government Act 1894 , the sanitary district became Romford Rural District and a parish council was formed of nine members , increasing to twelve by 1913 as the population had doubled . The parish council acquired the Clock House building on St Mary 's Lane for use as offices in 1924 . The parish formed part of the London Traffic Area from 1924 and the London Passenger Transport Area from 1933 . In 1934 the parish council was abolished and Upminster was combined with other parishes to form part of Hornchurch Urban District . In 1965 the urban district was abolished and its former area was combined with that of Municipal Borough of Romford ; and since then has formed part of the London Borough of Havering in Greater London .
= = = Urban development = = =
The parish had three early centres of activity ; the village around the church and the settlements of Hacton and Corbets Tey . The estates of Gaynes , New Place and Upminster Hall were purchased during the 17th century by merchants in the City of London . This caused a significant number of buildings in the town to be constructed or improved . Upkeep of the three bridges crossing the Ingrebourne were the responsibility of Upminster , as the adjacent Hornchurch parish was in the Havering liberty and was exempt from responsibility because of its charter . Although the opening of the station was key to the development of the suburb , land was not purchased for development until 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) were secured in 1901 .
Electricity was introduced in Upminster in 1926 . Gas main supply came from Romford in 1872 and from 1905 there was gas street lighting . The area was served by good spring water , with mains supply provided by the South Essex Waterworks Company from 1836 . Works on the sewerage system began in 1899 in Upminster village and Corbets Tey . In 1922 sewage works for Upminster and Cranham were opened in Great Warley . Land for Upminster Park was purchased by the parish council in 1929 .
= = Governance = =
The town forms part of the Hornchurch and Upminster UK Parliament constituency , and is covered by the Havering wards of Upminster and Cranham . The current MP is Angela Watkinson . Each ward elects three councillors to Havering London Borough Council . All six councillors elected in 2010 for the two wards were the Upminster and Cranham Residents ' Association candidates and the area is unusual in that the residents ' association is strongly active . From 1945 to 1974 Upminster formed part of the Hornchurch constituency and from 1974 to 2010 it formed part of the Upminster constituency . Upminster is within the Havering and Redbridge London Assembly constituency and the London European Parliament constituency .
= = Geography = =
Upminster rises to about 200 feet ( 61 m ) above sea level to the north and is about 50 feet ( 15 m ) above sea level to the south . It rests on a layer of loam , above sand and gravel in the south and London Clay to the north . It is bounded in the west by the River Ingrebourne and there is a stream running east @-@ west , just north of Corbets Tey that has been dammed to form a lake . It has formed part of the continuously built @-@ up area of London since the 1930s and is contiguous with Cranham to the east and Hornchurch to the west . To the north and south there is open land that forms part of the Metropolitan Green Belt and there are open spaces formed by Upminster Golf Club and Upminster Hall Playing Field to the north , Upminster Park and Clock House Gardens to the south , and the Ingrebourne Valley linear park to the south west . The town is effectively divided into north and south parts by the railway line . The north is predominantly residential , with the southern part containing the main shopping area . Further south it becomes predominantly residential again . Upminster is a post town in the RM postcode area ; it forms a long protrusion over the M25 motorway and additionally includes North Ockendon , also in Havering , and Bulphan in Thurrock . Climate data for Upminster is taken from the nearest weather station at Greenwich , around 12 miles ( 19 @.@ 3 km ) southwest of St Laurence church :
= = Demography = =
The Havering committee area for Upminster is defined as the wards of Upminster and Cranham . Demographic data is produced by the Office for National Statistics for these wards . All of Upminster is contained within these wards , however they also cover the connected settlement of Cranham and the rural outlier of North Ockendon . In 2001 the population of Upminster ward was 12 @,@ 674 and Cranham ward was 12 @,@ 242 , giving a total population of 25 @,@ 098 . 80 @.@ 95 % in Upminster and 81 @.@ 73 % in Cranham report their religion as Christian , compared to 76 @.@ 13 % for Havering , 58 @.@ 23 % in London and 71 @.@ 74 % in England . 10 @.@ 08 % in Upminster and 10 @.@ 46 % in Cranham report having no religion , compared to 13 @.@ 18 % in Havering , 15 @.@ 76 % in London and 14 @.@ 59 % in England . With a black and minority ethnic population of 3 % in 2001 , Cranham and Upminster wards have the lowest Simpson index for ethnic diversity in London . The level of home ownership is atypically high compared to the rest of London and England , with over 90 % of housing tenure under owner @-@ occupation in both wards . The Upminster ward has one of the lowest levels of deprivation in London .
= = Economy = =
Upminster is identified in the London Plan as a local district centre with 37 @,@ 000 square metres ( 400 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of commercial floorspace . It is not considered a significant commercial office location . Within Havering , it is identified as one of seven town centres in the borough , with a retail area extending along Station Road , St Mary 's Lane and Corbets Tey Road . The unit sizes are mostly small with the largest outlets the Roomes Fashion and Home department store , the Roomes Furniture and Interiors furniture store , and the Aldi , M & S Simply Food and Waitrose supermarkets .
= = Transport = =
The town is served by Upminster station on the London @-@ Tilbury @-@ Southend Line and the London Underground , in London fare zone 6 . The western part of the town is also served by Upminster Bridge tube station . Upminster and Upminster Bridge are on the District line of the London Underground , with services to Richmond , Ealing Broadway and Wimbledon via central London . The station at Upminster is served by National Rail operator c2c provides services to Fenchurch Street via West Ham ; Shoeburyness via Basildon ; Southend via Chafford Hundred . London Overground operate services to Romford via Emerson Park . There are Transport for London bus services to Hornchurch , Romford , North Ockendon , Lakeside Shopping Centre and Cranham . To the south of Upminster is Damyns Hall Aerodrome . The A127 road to the north is the main radial artery to central London , with the A124 road terminating in the town . The M25 motorway is located about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the east of the town centre .
= = Culture = =
Havering Council 's urban strategy recognises that nearby Hornchurch is the main cultural hub of the borough with a large theatre and arts spaces , and Romford offers the largest regional concentration of entertainment facilities . Within Upminster is New Windmill Hall , a flexible entertainment space , built in 1968 , which holds up to 300 people . Upminster forms part of the tourism strategy for the borough . It is the location of Upminster Windmill , one of the few remaining mills in Greater London and is Grade II * listed . There is also the Tithe Barn Museum , containing artifacts of domestic and agricultural use . In the west of Upminster is Hornchurch Stadium , which is the home ground of A.F.C. Hornchurch . Upminster is often associated with Ian Dury and his 1981 album Lord Upminster is named after the town .
= = = Speed of sound = = =
The speed of sound was first accurately calculated by the Reverend William Derham , Rector of Upminster , thus improving on Newton 's estimates . Derham used a telescope from the tower of the church of St Laurence , Upminster to observe the flash of a distant shotgun being fired , and then measured the time until he heard the gunshot with a half second pendulum . Measurements were made of gunshots from a number of local landmarks , including North Ockendon church . The distance was known by triangulation , and thus the speed that the sound had travelled could be calculated .
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= Les Horvath =
Leslie " Les " Horvath ( October 12 , 1921 – November 14 , 1995 ) was an American football quarterback and halfback who won the Heisman Trophy while playing for Ohio State University in 1944 . Horvath was the first Ohio State player to win the Heisman , an award given to the best college football player in the United States . The school retired his jersey number 22 in 2001 .
Horvath grew up in a suburb of Cleveland , Ohio and became a standout high school athlete despite his small stature . He entered Ohio State in 1939 on a work scholarship , but tried out for and made the football team the following year . He played as a reserve halfback on a 1942 team coached by Paul Brown that won Ohio State 's first @-@ ever national championship . Horvath graduated that year and moved to Ohio State 's dental school . In 1944 , however , acting Ohio State football coach Carroll Widdoes asked Horvath to rejoin the team , taking advantage of a World War II @-@ era rule allowing graduate students with remaining eligibility to play . Horvath agreed , and helped lead the Buckeyes to a 9 – 0 record and a second @-@ place showing in the AP Poll . He won the Heisman and was named an All @-@ American after the season .
Horvath graduated from dental school in 1945 and served as a dental officer in the U.S. Navy for two years . Following his discharge , he played professionally for the Los Angeles Rams in 1947 and 1948 before being released and signing with the Cleveland Browns in 1949 . The Browns won the All @-@ America Football Conference championship that year . Horvath retired from playing in 1950 and moved to Los Angeles to practice dentistry . He lived there for the rest of his life . Horvath was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1966 and the Ohio State athletics hall of fame in 1977 .
= = Early life = =
Horvath was born to Croatian immigrants in South Bend , Indiana in 1921 ; his family soon moved to Parma , Ohio , a suburb of Cleveland , Ohio . He attended Parma Senior High School starting in 1936 and played on the track , basketball and football teams until the 11th grade . He decided to switch schools because he felt his basketball teammates were not taking the sport seriously . Horvath 's family relocated , and in 1938 he enrolled at James Ford Rhodes High School in Cleveland , one of Parma 's rivals . Playing as a quarterback for the Rhodes Rams , Horvath guided the team to seven straight wins in 1938 , but the team lost to West Technical High School for a chance to be the Cleveland Senate League 's nomination to play in the city championship . He graduated in 1939 .
= = College career = =
After graduating , Horvath attended Ohio State University on a work scholarship , but managed to make the school 's football team in 1940 . Horvath was small for a football player – he weighed just 160 pounds – but was a quick runner and had a strong arm . Ohio State 's football team was a disappointment in 1940 , however , finishing the season with a 4 – 4 win – loss record under head coach Francis Schmidt . Schmidt was fired after the season and replaced by Paul Brown , an Ohio high school coach who had guided Massillon Washington to a series of undefeated records and state championships . Brown simplified Ohio State 's offense , but imposed a level of discipline and organization that had been absent under Schmidt . Horvath was a reserve halfback in the Buckeyes ' single @-@ wing offense in 1941 , when the team posted a 6 – 1 – 1 win – loss – tie record and finished second in the Big Ten Conference standings . He played in many games , but senior fullback Jack Graf and senior halfback Tom Kinkade got most of the carries for Ohio State .
Despite his small frame , Brown recognized Horvath 's potential as a senior in 1942 and made him a regular starter at halfback beside Paul Sarringhaus and fullback Gene Fekete . While Sarringhaus and Fekete were Ohio State 's main offensive weapons , Horvath averaged eight yards per carry in a victory over Pittsburgh and scored two touchdowns and passed for 109 yards in a win over Illinois in Cleveland . Ohio State was ranked first in the country in the AP Poll early in the season , but fell in the rankings after a loss to Wisconsin in October . The team won the rest of its games , however , including a 21 – 7 victory over arch @-@ rival Michigan at the end of the season . Horvath passed to Sarringhaus for a 35 @-@ yard touchdown and caught another 32 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Sarringhaus in the Michigan game . Ohio State 's 9 – 1 record put it on top of the Big Ten standings and in the final AP Poll , giving the school its first @-@ ever national championship .
Horvath expected his college football career to be over in 1942 . He finished his undergraduate degree that year and enrolled in a graduate program at The Ohio State University College of Dentistry . Ohio State 's football program , meanwhile , struggled in 1943 after Brown and many of its best players entered the military during World War II . Carroll Widdoes , an assistant under Brown , was appointed the acting head coach and led the team to a 3 – 6 record .
The following year , Widdoes asked Horvath to return to the team , taking advantage of a wartime rule that allowed college programs to use graduate students if they had not exhausted their four years of college eligibility . Widdoes promised Horvath a leading role as the team 's left halfback , a level of prominence he had been denied under Brown . Horvath agreed to come back and be a veteran leader for a team that was composed mostly of freshmen because of older players ' service in the war . Horvath had a breakout season in 1944 , gaining 669 rushing yards and 1 @,@ 200 all @-@ purpose yards as the Buckeyes turned in a 9 – 0 record and finished second in the national polls . The highlights of Horvath 's season included scoring the winning touchdown in Ohio State 's annual matchup against Michigan . Calling all of Ohio State 's offensive plays , he was nicknamed the " playing coach " .
Horvath was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by sportswriters and the Most Valuable Player in the Big Ten after the season . He was voted by his teammates as Ohio State 's Most Valuable Player . He also won the Heisman Trophy , an award given each year to the best college football player in the country . Horvath was the first Ohio State player to win the Heisman , and he remains the only Heisman winner not to have played football the previous season . In early 1945 , Horvath played in the annual East – West Shrine Game , a college all @-@ star game . While at Ohio State , he was a member of Delta Tau Delta fraternity .
= = Military and professional career = =
After graduating from Ohio State 's dental school in 1945 , Horvath signed to play for the Cleveland Rams of the National Football League . Horvath , however , applied for a commission to join the U.S. Navy and was sworn in as a junior lieutenant that August . He was sent at first to Naval Station Great Lakes in Illinois for training , where he practiced dentistry and acted as an assistant to Brown , who had entered the Navy and was coaching the base 's football team . Horvath served in Hawaii and coached a football team there that won a service national championship . He later traveled on assignment as far as China as a naval dental officer .
Before his discharge from the Navy in 1947 , there was speculation that Horvath may join the Cleveland Browns , a new team coached by Brown in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . Horvath was still under contract with the Rams , however , and joined the team , which by then had moved from Cleveland to Los Angeles . Led by quarterback Bob Waterfield , Los Angeles finished the season with a 6 – 6 record in 1947 . Horvath rushed for 68 yards and had three receptions . Horvath had 118 yards of rushing the next season , when the Rams finished with a 6 – 5 – 1 record and took third place in the NFL West division .
Horvath , who worked as a dentist in the offseason in Los Angeles , was released by the Rams in 1949 . He signed with the Browns a week later , closing his dental office and moving to Cleveland to reunite with Brown . Horvath , who was used primarily on defense early in the season , had an 84 @-@ yard fumble return for a touchdown in a game against the New York Yankees , and ran for two touchdowns in a November game against the Chicago Hornets . Cleveland finished the season with a 9 – 1 – 2 record and won a fourth straight AAFC championship . The AAFC disbanded after the season and the Browns were absorbed by the NFL , but Horvath decided to quit football to practice dentistry back in California .
= = Later life and death = =
Horvath got married after the 1949 season to Shirley Phillips , an airline hostess , and moved back to Los Angeles . He coached little league football and practiced dentistry in Glendale , California , a major Los Angeles suburb , for the rest of his life . His wife died in 1973 , and he got remarried two years later to Ruby Aylor , whom he met in Hawaii while on vacation in 1974 . They were married for 20 years , until Horvath 's death in 1995 of heart failure .
Horvath was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1966 and became a member of Ohio State 's athletics hall of fame in 1977 . Ohio State retired his number 22 uniform in 2001 , six years after his death . He was inducted into the Parma Senior High School athletics hall of fame in 2007 .
= = Awards and honors = =
1942 AP National Championship ( with the Ohio State Buckeyes )
1944 Heisman Trophy winner
1944 First Team All @-@ American
1949 AAFC Champion ( with the Cleveland Browns )
College Football Hall of Fame inductee ( class of 1966 )
Ohio State " Block O " Varsity Hall of Fame inductee ( class of 1977 )
Parma Senior High School Hall of Fame inductee ( class of 2007 )
Number retired by Ohio State ( # 22 )
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= Greece runestones =
The Greece runestones ( Swedish : Greklandsstenarna ) are about 30 runestones containing information related to voyages made by Norsemen to the Byzantine Empire . They were made during the Viking Age until about 1100 and were engraved in the Old Norse language with Scandinavian runes . All the stones have been found in modern @-@ day Sweden , the majority in Uppland ( 18 runestones ) and Södermanland ( 7 runestones ) . Most were inscribed in memory of members of the Varangian Guard who never returned home , but a few inscriptions mention men who returned with wealth , and a boulder in Ed was engraved on the orders of a former officer of the Guard .
On these runestones the word Grikkland ( " Greece " ) appears in three inscriptions , the word Grikk ( j ) ar ( " Greeks " ) appears in 25 inscriptions , two stones refer to men as grikkfari ( " traveller to Greece " ) and one stone refers to Grikkhafnir ( " Greek harbours " ) . Among other runestones which refer to expeditions abroad , the only groups which are comparable in number are the so @-@ called " England runestones " that mention expeditions to England and the 26 Ingvar runestones that refer to a Viking expedition to the Middle East .
The stones vary in size from the small whetstone from Timans which measures 8 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) × 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) × 3 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) to the boulder in Ed which is 18 m ( 59 ft ) in circumference . Most of them are adorned with various runestone styles that were in use during the 11th century , and especially styles that were part of the Ringerike style ( eight or nine stones ) and the Urnes style ( eight stones ) .
Since the first discoveries by Johannes Bureus in the late 16th century , these runestones have been frequently identified by scholars , with many stones discovered during a national search for historic monuments in the late 17th century . Several stones were documented by Richard Dybeck in the 19th century . The latest stone to be found was in Nolinge , near Stockholm , in 1952 .
= = Historical background = =
Scandinavians had served as mercenaries in the Roman army many centuries before the Viking Age , but during the time when the stones were made , there were more contacts between Scandinavia and Byzantium than at any other time . Swedish Viking ships were common on the Black Sea , the Aegean Sea , the Sea of Marmara and on the wider Mediterranean Sea . Greece was home to the Varangian Guard , the elite bodyguard of the Byzantine Emperor , and until the Komnenos dynasty in the late 11th century , most members of the Varangian Guard were Swedes . As late as 1195 , Emperor Alexios Angelos sent emissaries to Denmark , Norway and Sweden requesting 1 @,@ 000 warriors from each of the three kingdoms . Stationed in Constantinople , which the Scandinavians referred to as Miklagarðr ( the " Great City " ) , the Guard attracted young Scandinavians of the sort that had composed it since its creation in the late 10th century .
The large number of men who departed for the Byzantine Empire is indicated by the fact that the medieval Scandinavian laws still contained laws concerning voyages to Greece when they were written down after the Viking Age . The older version of the Westrogothic law , which was written down by Eskil Magnusson , the lawspeaker of Västergötland 1219 – 1225 , stated that " no man may receive an inheritance ( in Sweden ) while he dwells in Greece " . The later version , which was written down from 1250 to 1300 , adds that " no one may inherit from such a person as was not a living heir when he went away " . Also the old Norwegian Gulaþingslög contains a similar law : " but if ( a man ) goes to Greece , then he who is next in line to inherit shall hold his property " .
About 3 @,@ 000 runestones from the Viking Age have been discovered in Scandinavia of which c . 2 @,@ 700 were raised within what today is Sweden . As many as 1 @,@ 277 of them were raised in the province of Uppland alone . The Viking Age coincided with the Christianisation of Scandinavia , and in many districts c . 50 % of the stone inscriptions have traces of Christianity . In Uppland , c . 70 % of the inscriptions are explicitly Christian , which is shown by engraved crosses or added Christian prayers , while only a few runestones are explicitly pagan . The runestone tradition probably died out before 1100 , and at the latest by 1125 .
Among the runestones of the Viking Age , 9 @.@ 1 – 10 % report that they were raised in memory of people who went abroad , and the runestones that mention Greece constitute the largest group of them . In addition , there is a group of three or four runestones that commemorate men who died in southern Italy , and who were probably members of the Varangian Guard . The only group of stones comparable in number to the Greece runestones are those that mention England , followed by the c . 26 Ingvar runestones raised in the wake of the fateful Ingvar expedition to Persia .
Blöndal & Benedikz ( 2007 ) note that most of the Greece runestones are from Uppland and relate it to the fact that it was the most common area to start a journey to Greece , and the area from which most Rus ' originated . However , as noted by Jansson ( 1987 ) , the fact that most of these runestones were raised in Uppland and Södermanland does not necessarily mean that their number reflects the composition of the Scandinavians in the Varangian Guard . These two provinces are those that have the greatest concentrations of runic inscriptions .
Not all those who are commemorated on the Greece runestones were necessarily members of the Varangian Guard , and some may have gone to Greece as merchants or died there while passing by on a pilgrimage . The fact that a voyage to Greece was associated with great danger is testified by the fact that a woman had a runestone made in memory of herself before she departed on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem : " Ingirún Harðardóttir had runes graven for herself ; she would go East and out to Jerusalem . Fótr carved the runes . " However , Blöndal and Benedikz ( 2007 ) state that although there were other reasons for going to Greece , it is certain that most of the runestones were made in memory of members of the Varangian Guard who died there . Still , some runestones tell of men who returned with increased wealth , and an inscription on a boulder in Ed was commissioned by a former captain of the Guard , Ragnvaldr .
= = = Purpose = = =
The reasons for the runestone tradition are a matter of debate but they include inheritance issues , status and the honouring of the deceased . Several runestones explicitly commemorate inheritance such as the Ulunda stone and the Hansta stone , but the vast majority of the runestones only tell who raised the stone and in memory of whom .
A common view held by scholars such as Erik Moltke and Sven B. F. Jansson is that the runestones were primarily the result of the many Viking expeditions from Scandinavia , or to cite Jansson ( 1987 ) :
When the great expeditions were over , the old trade routes closed , and the Viking ships no longer made ready each spring for voyages to east and west , then that meant the end of the carving and setting up of rune stones in the proper sense of the term . They may be called the monuments of the Viking voyages , and the sensitive reader may catch in many of their inscriptions the Viking 's love of adventure and exploits of boisterous daring .
Sawyer ( 2000 ) , on the other hand , reacts against this commonly held view and comments that the vast majority of the runestones were raised in memory of people who are not reported to have died abroad . She argues that few men who went abroad were honoured with memorials and the reason is that the runestones were mainly raised because of concerns at home , such as inheritance issues . Such concerns would have arisen when a family knew that a relative would not return from abroad .
= = The runestones = =
Below follows a presentation of the Greece runestones based on information collected from the Rundata project , organised according to location . The transcriptions from runic inscriptions into standardised Old Norse are in Old East Norse ( OEN ) , the Swedish and Danish dialect , to facilitate comparison with the inscriptions , while the English translation provided by Rundata give the names in the standard dialect , Old West Norse ( OWN ) , the Icelandic and Norwegian dialect .
= = = Transliteration and transcription = = =
There is a long @-@ standing practice of writing transliterations of the runes in Latin characters in boldface and transcribing the text into a normalized form of the language with italic type . This practice exists because the two forms of rendering a runic text have to be kept distinct . By not only showing the original inscription , but also transliterating , transcribing and translating , scholars present the analysis in a way that allows the reader to follow their interpretation of the runes . Every step presents challenges , but most Younger Futhark inscriptions are considered easy to interpret .
In transliterations , * , : , × , ' and + represent common word dividers , while ÷ represents less common ones . Parentheses , ( ) , represent damaged runes that cannot be identified with certainty , and square brackets , [ ] , represent sequences of runes that have been lost , but can be identified thanks to early descriptions by scholars . A short hyphen , - , indicates that there is a rune or other sign that cannot be identified . A series of three full stops ... shows that runes are assumed to have existed in the position , but have disappeared . The two dividing signs | | divide a rune into two Latin letters , because runemasters often carved a single rune instead of two consecutive ones . § P and § Q introduce two alternative readings of an inscription that concern multiple words , while § A , § B and § C introduce the different parts of an inscription as they may appear on different sides of a runestone .
Angle brackets , 〈 〉 , indicate that there is a sequence of runes that cannot be interpreted with certainty . Other special signs are þ and ð , where the first one is the thorn letter which represents a voiceless dental fricative as th in English thing . The second letter is eth which stands for a voiced dental fricative as th in English them . The ʀ sign represents the yr rune , and ô is the same as the Icelandic O caudata ǫ .
= = = Nomenclature = = =
Every runic inscription is shown with its ID code that is used in scholarly literature to refer to the inscription , and it is only obligatory to give the first two parts of it . The first part is one or two letters that represent the area where the runic inscription appears , e.g. U for Uppland , Sö for Södermanland and DR for Denmark . The second part represents the order in which the inscription is presented in official national publications ( e.g. Sveriges runinskrifter ) . Thus U 73 means that the runestone was the 73rd runic inscription in Uppland that was documented in Sveriges runinskrifter . If the inscription was documented later than the official publication , it is listed according to the publication where it was first described , e.g. Sö Fv1954 ; 20 , where Sö represents Södermanland , Fv stands for the annual publication Fornvännen , 1954 is the year of the issue of Fornvännen and 20 is the page in the publication .
= = = Uppland = = =
There are as many as 18 runestones in Uppland that relate information about men who travelled to Greece , most of whom died there .
= = = = U 73 = = = =
Runestone U 73 ( location ) was probably erected to explain the order of inheritance from two men who died as Varangians . It is in the style Pr3 which is part of the more general Urnes style . The stone , which is of greyish granite measuring 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) in height and 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) in width , is raised on a slope some 100 m ( 330 ft ) north of Hägerstalund farm , formerly Hansta ( lund ) . The stone was discovered by Johan Peringskiöld during the national search for historic monuments in the late 17th century . The stone shares the same message as U 72 , together with which it once formed a monument , but U 72 was moved to Skansen in 1896 . The latter stone relates that " these stones " were raised by Gerðarr and Jörundr in memory of Ernmundr and Ingimundr . Consequently , U 73 's phrase " Inga 's sons " and " they died in Greece " refer to Ernmundr and Ingimundr . Ernmundr and Ingimundr had inherited from their father , but they departed for the Byzantine Empire and died there as Varangians . As they had not fathered any children , their mother Inga inherited their property , and when she died , her brothers Gerðarr and Jörundr inherited from her . These two brothers then raised the two memorials in honour of their nephews , which was probably due to the nephews having distinguished themselves in the South . However , it may have also been in gratitude for wealth gathered by the nephews overseas . At the same time , the monument served to document how the property had passed from one clan to another . Sawyer ( 2000 ) , on the other hand , suggests that because the two inscriptions do not mention who commissioned them , the only eventual claimant to the fortune , and the one that had the stones made , may have been the church . The runemaster has been identified as Visäte .
Latin transliteration :
' þisun ' merki ' iru ' gar ' eftʀ ' suni ' ikur ' hon kam ' þeira × at arfi ' in þeir × brþr * kamu hnaa : at ' arfi × kiaþar b 'reþr ' þir to i kirikium
Old Norse transcription :
Þessun mærki æʀu gar æftiʀ syni Inguʀ . Hon kvam þæiʀa at arfi , en þæiʀ brøðr kvamu hænnaʀ at arfi , Gærðarr brøðr . Þæiʀ dou i Grikkium .
English translation :
" These landmarks are made in memory of Inga 's sons . She came to inherit from them , but these brothers — Gerðarr and his brothers — came to inherit from her . They died in Greece . "
= = = = U 104 = = = =
Runestone U 104 ( original location ) is in red sandstone measuring 1 @.@ 35 m ( 4 ft 5 in ) in height and 1 @.@ 15 m ( 3 ft 9 in ) in width . It was first documented by Johannes Bureus in 1594 . It was donated as one of a pair ( the other is U 1160 ) to the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford in 1687 upon the request of king James II of England to king Charles XI of Sweden asking for two runestones to add to the Oxford University collection . It is in the Urnes ( Pr5 ) style . It was raised by Þorsteinn in memory of his father Sveinn and his brother Þórir , both of whom went to Greece , and lastly in memory of his mother . The stone is signed by the runemaster Öpir whose Old Norse is notable for its unorthodox use of the haglaz rune ( ᚼ ) , as in hut for Old Norse út ( " out " ) . The erratic use of the h @-@ phoneme is a dialect trait that has survived and is still characteristic for the modern Swedish dialect of Roslagen , one of the regions where Öpir was active .
Latin transliteration :
' þorstin ' lit × kera ' merki ' ftiʀ ' suin ' faþur ' sin ' uk ' ftiʀ ' þori ' ( b ) roþur ' sin ' þiʀ ' huaru ' hut ' til ' k — ika ' ( u ) ( k ) ' iftiʀ ' inkiþuru ' moþur ' sin ' ybiʀ risti '
Old Norse transcription :
Þorstæinn let gæra mærki æftiʀ Svæin , faður sinn , ok æftiʀ Þori , broður sinn , þæiʀ vaʀu ut til G [ r ] ikkia , ok æftiʀ Ingiþoru , moður sina . Øpiʀ risti .
English translation :
" Þorsteinn let make the landmark after Sveinn , his father , and Þórir , his brother . They were out to Greece . And after Ingiþóra , his mother . Œpir carved . "
= = = = U 112 = = = =
Runestone U 112 ( location ) , a large boulder measuring 18 m ( 59 ft ) in circumference , is beside a wooded path named Kyrkstigen ( " church path " ) in Ed . It has been known to scholars since Johannes Bureus ' first runological expedition in 1594 , and it dates to the mid @-@ 11th century .
The boulder bears runic inscriptions on two of its sides , referred to as U 112 A and B. The linguistic significance of the inscriptions lies in the use of the haglaz ( ᚼ ) rune to denote the velar approximant / ɣ / ( as in Ragnvaldr ) , something that would become common after the close of the Viking Age . The inscription also includes some dotted runes , and the ansuz ( ᚬ ) rune is used for the / o / phoneme .
The inscriptions are in the Urnes style ( Pr4 ) , and they were commissioned by a former captain of the Varangian Guard named Ragnvaldr in memory of his mother as well as in his own honour . Very few could boast of returning home with the honour of having been the captain of the Varangian Guard . Moreover , the name Ragnvaldr shows that he belonged to the higher echelons of Old Norse society , and that he may have been a relative of the ruling dynasty .
Ragnvald 's maternal grandfather , Ónæmr , is mentioned on two additional runestones in Uppland , U 328 and U 336 . Runestone U 328 relates that Ragnvaldr had two aunts , Gyríðr and Guðlaug . Additionally , runestone U 336 adds that Ulf of Borresta , who received three Danegelds in England , was Ónæm 's paternal nephew and thus Ragnvald 's first cousin . He was probably the same Ragnvaldr whose death is related in the Hargs bro runic inscriptions , which would also connect him to Estrid and the wealthy Jarlabanke clan .
Considering Ragnvald 's background , it is not surprising that he rose to become an officer of the Varangian Guard : he was a wealthy chieftain who brought many ambitious soldiers to Greece .
Latin transliteration :
Side A : * rahnualtr * lit * rista * runar * efʀ * fastui * moþur * sina * onems * totʀ * to i * aiþi * kuþ hialbi * ant * hena *
Side B : runa * rista * lit * rahnualtr * huar a × griklanti * uas * lis * forunki *
Old Norse transcription :
Side A : Ragnvaldr let rista runaʀ æftiʀ Fastvi , moður sina , Onæms dottiʀ , do i Æiði . Guð hialpi and hænnaʀ .
Side B : Runaʀ rista let Ragnvaldr . Vaʀ a Grikklandi , vas liðs forungi .
English translation :
Side A : " Ragnvaldr had the runes carved in memory of Fastvé , his mother , Ónæmr 's daughter , ( who ) died in Eið . May God help her spirit . "
Side B : " Ragnvaldr had the runes carved ; ( he ) was in Greece , was commander of the retinue . "
= = = = U 136 = = = =
Runestone U 136 ( location ) is in the Pr2 ( Ringerike ) style , and it once formed a monument together with U 135 . It is a dark greyish stone that is 1 @.@ 73 m ( 5 ft 8 in ) tall and 0 @.@ 85 m ( 2 ft 9 in ) wide . In 1857 , Richard Dybeck noted that it had been discovered in the soil five years earlier . A small part of it had stuck up above the soil and when the landowner was tilling the land and discovered it , he had it raised again on the same spot . Some pieces were accidentally chipped away by the landowner and the upper parts of some runes were lost .
The stone was originally raised by a wealthy lady named Ástríðr in memory of her husband Eysteinn , and Sawyer ( 2000 ) suggests it to have been one of several stones made in a tug @-@ of @-@ war over inheritance . There is uncertainty as to why Eysteinn went to Greece and Jerusalem , because of the interpretation of the word sœkja ( attested as sotti in the past tense ) . It means " seek " but it can mean " attack " as on the stones Sö 166 and N 184 , but also " visit " or " travel " . Consequently , Eysteinn has been identified as one of the first Swedes to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem , but Jesch ( 2001 ) notes that judging from the other runic examples , the " attack " sense is more likely . The translation of sœkja as " attack " is also chosen by the Rundata project ( see below ) . It is one of two Jarlabanke Runestones that mention travellers abroad , the other being U140 , below .
Latin transliteration :
× astriþr × la ( t ) + raisa × staina × þasa × [ a ] t austain × buta sin × is × suti × iursalir auk antaþis ub i × kirkum
Old Norse transcription :
Æstriðr let ræisa stæina þessa at Øystæin , bonda sinn , es sotti Iorsaliʀ ok ændaðis upp i Grikkium .
English translation :
" Ástríðr had these stones raised in memory of Eysteinn , her husbandman , who attacked Jerusalem and met his end in Greece . "
= = = = U 140 = = = =
Runestone U 140 is in Broby ( location ) , near the Broby bro Runestones and U 150 . The granite fragment is in Ringerike style ( Pr 2 ) . It was discovered by Richard Dybeck among the foundations of a small building . Dybeck searched without success for the remaining parts . Initially , the fragment was moved to a slope near the road between Hagby and Täby church , but in 1930 , it was moved next to the road . It is one of the Jarlabanke Runestones and it mentions a man who travelled abroad ( compare U 136 , above ) .
Latin transliteration :
× ... la × b ( a ) ... ... han : entaþis * i kirikium
Old Norse transcription :
[ Iar ] laba [ nki ] ... Hann ændaðis i Grikkium .
English translation :
" Jarlabanki ... He met his end in Greece . "
= = = = U 201 = = = =
Runestone U 201 ( location ) is in the Pr1 ( Ringerike ) type and it was made by the same runemaster as U 276 . The reddish granite stone is walled into the sacristy of Angarn Church c . 0 @.@ 74 m ( 2 ft 5 in ) above the ground , measuring 1 @.@ 17 m ( 3 ft 10 in ) in height and 1 @.@ 16 m ( 3 ft 10 in ) in width . Johannes Bureus ( 1568 – 1652 ) mentioned the stone , but for reasons unknown , it was overlooked during the national search for historic monuments in 1667 – 1684 . Two of the men who are mentioned on the stone have names that are otherwise unknown and they are reconstructed as Gautdjarfr and Sunnhvatr based on elements known from other Norse names .
Latin transliteration :
* þiagn * uk * kutirfʀ * uk * sunatr * uk * þurulf * þiʀ * litu * risa * stin * þina * iftiʀ * tuka * faþur * sin * on * furs * ut i * krikum * kuþ * ialbi ot ans * ot * uk * salu
Old Norse transcription :
Þiagn ok Gautdiarfʀ ( ? ) ok Sunnhvatr ( ? ) ok Þorulfʀ þæiʀ letu ræisa stæin þenna æftiʀ Toka , faður sinn . Hann fors ut i Grikkium . Guð hialpi and hans , and ok salu .
English translation :
" Þegn and Gautdjarfr ( ? ) and Sunnhvatr ( ? ) and Þórulfr , they had this stone raised in memory of Tóki , their father . He perished abroad in Greece . May God help his spirit , spirit and soul . "
= = = = U 270 = = = =
Runestone U 270 was discovered in Smedby ( location ) near Vallentuna and depicted by Johan Hadorph and assistant , for Johan Peringskiöld , during the national search for historic monuments in 1667 – 84 . Richard Dybeck noted in 1867 that he had seen the runestone intact three years previously , but that it had been used for the construction of a basement in 1866 . Dybeck sued the guilty farmer , and the prosecution was completed by the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters , History and Antiquities . The documentation from the court case shows that it had been standing at the homestead and that it had been blown up three times into small pieces that could be used for the construction of the basement . Reconstruction of the runestone was deemed impossible . The stone was 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) tall and 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) wide , and it was raised in memory of a father who appears to have travelled to Greece .
Latin transliteration :
[ ikiþur- isina ... ... – * stiu nuk * at * kiatilu ... faþur * sin krikfarn * k ... ]
Old Norse transcription :
Ingiþor [ a ] ... ... 〈 stiu 〉 ok at Kætil ... , faður sinn , Grikkfara ( ? ) ...
English translation :
" Ingiþóra ... ... and in memory of Ketill- ... her father , ( a ) traveller to Greece ( ? ) ... "
= = = = U 358 = = = =
The runestone U 358 ( location ) in the RAK style was first mentioned by Richard Dybeck who discovered the stone in the foundation of the belfry of Skepptuna Church . The parishioners did not allow him to uncover the inscription completely , and they later hid the stone under a thick layer of soil . It was not until 1942 that it was removed from the belfry and was raised anew a few paces away . The stone is in light greyish granite . It is 2 @.@ 05 m ( 6 ft 9 in ) tall above the ground and 0 @.@ 78 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) wide . The contractor of the runestone was named Folkmarr and it is a name that is otherwise unknown from Viking Age Scandinavia , although it is known to have existed after the close of the Viking Age . It was on the other hand a common name in West Germanic languages and especially among the Franks .
Latin transliteration :
fulkmar × lit × risa × stin × þina × iftiʀ × fulkbiarn × sun × sin × saʀ × itaþis × uk miþ krkum × kuþ × ialbi × ans × ot uk salu
Old Norse transcription :
Folkmarr let ræisa stæin þenna æftiʀ Folkbiorn , sun sinn . Saʀ ændaðis ok með Grikkium . Guð hialpi hans and ok salu .
English translation :
" Folkmarr had this stone raised in memory of Folkbjörn , his son . He also met his end among the Greeks . May God help his spirit and soul . "
= = = = U 374 = = = =
Runestone U 374 was a runestone that once existed in Örby ( location ) . In 1673 , during the national search for historic monuments , Abraham Winge reported that there were two runestones standing at Örby . In 1684 , Peringskiöld went to Örby in order to document and depict the stones , but he found only one standing ( U 373 ) . Instead he discovered the second , or a third runestone , U 374 , as the bottom part of a fire stove . The use of the stone as a fireplace was detrimental to the inscription , and the last time someone wrote about having seen it was in 1728 . Peringskiöld 's drawing is consequently the only documentation of the inscription that exists . The height of the stone was 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) and its width 0 @.@ 88 m ( 2 ft 11 in ) , and it is attributed to the runemaster Åsmund Kåresson .
Latin transliteration :
[ ... litu ' rita : stain þino * iftiʀ * o @-@ hu ... ... an hon fil o kriklontr kuþ hi @-@ lbi sal ... ]
Old Norse transcription :
... letu retta stæin þenna æftiʀ ... ... Hann fell a Grikklandi . Guð hi [ a ] lpi sal [ u ] .
English translation :
" ... had this stone erected in memory of ... ... He fell in Greece . May God help ( his ) soul . "
= = = = U 431 = = = =
Runestone U 431 ( location ) was discovered , like U 430 , in a field belonging to the inn of Åshusby when stones were blown up in order to prepare the field for growing crops in 1889 . As the stone was lying with the inscription side downwards , it was blown up and it was not until the shards were picked up that the runes were discovered . The runestone was mended with concrete and moved to the atrium of the church of Norrsunda . The stone is in bluish grey gneiss , and it measures 1 @.@ 95 m ( 6 ft 5 in ) in height and 0 @.@ 7 m ( 2 ft 4 in ) in width . The surfaces are unusually smooth . It is in the Ringerike ( Pr2 ) style , and it is attributed to the runemaster Åsmund Kåresson . It was raised by a father and mother , Tófa and Hemingr , in memory of their son , Gunnarr , who died " among the Greeks " , and it is very unusual that the mother is mentioned before the father .
Latin transliteration :
tufa auk hominkr litu rita stin þino ' abtiʀ kunor sun sin ' in – hon u ( a ) ʀ ta ( u ) - ( r ) miʀ krikium ut ' kuþ hialbi hons | | salu | | uk | | kuþs m — ( i ) ( ʀ )
Old Norse transcription :
Tofa ok Hæmingʀ letu retta stæin þenna æftiʀ Gunnar , sun sinn . En ... hann vaʀ dau [ ð ] r meðr Grikkium ut . Guð hialpi hans salu ok Guðs m [ oð ] iʀ .
English translation :
" Tófa and Hemingr had this stone erected in memory of Gunnarr , their son , and ... He died abroad among the Greeks . May God and God 's mother help his soul . "
= = = = U 446 = = = =
A fragment of the runestone U 446 in Droppsta ( location ) is only attested from a documentation made during the national search for historic monuments in the 17th century , and during the preparation of the Uppland section of Sveriges runinskrifter ( 1940 – 1943 ) scholars searched unsuccessfully for any remains of the stone . The fragment was what remained of the bottom part of a runestone and it appears to have been in two pieces of which one had the first part of the inscription and the second one the last part . The fragment appears to have been c . 1 @.@ 10 m ( 3 ft 7 in ) high and 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) wide and its Urnes style is attributed to either Pr3 or Pr4 . The runes isifara have been interpreted as æist @-@ fari which means " traveller to Estonia " , which is known from an inscription in Södermanland , but they are left as undeciphered by the Rundata project .
Latin transliteration :
[ isifara * auk * ... r * sin * hon tu i krikum ]
Old Norse transcription :
〈 isifara 〉 ok ... sinn . Hann do i Grikkium .
English translation :
" 〈 isifara 〉 and ... their . He died in Greece . "
= = = = U 518 = = = =
Runestone U 518 ( location ) is in the RAK style and is raised on the southern side of a piny slope some 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) north @-@ east of the main building of the homestead Västra Ledinge . The stone was made known by Richard Dybeck in several publications in the 1860s , and at the time it had recently been destroyed and was in several pieces of which the bottom part was still in the ground . In 1942 , the stone was mended and raised anew at the original spot . The stone consists of grey and coarse granite .
The runestone was made in memory of three men , of whom two died in Greece , while a third one , Freygeirr , died at a debated location written as i silu × nur . Richard Dybeck suggested that it might either refer to the nearby estate of Skällnora or lake Siljan , and Sophus Bugge identified the location as " Saaremaa north " ( Øysilu nor ) , whereas Erik Brate considered the location to have been Salo in present @-@ day Finland . The contemporary view , as presented in Rundata , derives from a more recent analysis by Otterbjörk ( 1961 ) who consider it to refer to a sound at the island Selaön in Mälaren .
Latin transliteration :
þurkir × uk × suin × þu litu × risa × stin × þina × iftiʀ × urmiʀ × uk × urmulf × uk × frikiʀ × on × etaþis × i silu × nur × ian þiʀ antriʀ × ut i × krikum × kuþ ihlbi – ʀ ( a ) ot × uk salu
Old Norse transcription :
Þorgærðr ok Svæinn þau letu ræisa stæin þenna æftiʀ Ormæiʀ ok Ormulf ok Frøygæiʀ . Hann ændaðis i Silu nor en þæiʀ andriʀ ut i Grikkium . Guð hialpi [ þæi ] ʀa and ok salu .
English translation :
" Þorgerðr and Sveinn , they had this stone raised in memory of Ormgeirr and Ormulfr and Freygeirr . He met his end in the sound of Sila ( Selaön ) , and the others abroad in Greece . May God help their spirits and souls . "
= = = = U 540 = = = =
Runestone U 540 ( location ) is in the Urnes ( Pr4 ) style and it is attributed to the runemaster Åsmund Kåresson . It is mounted with iron to the northern wall of the church of Husby @-@ Sjuhundra , but when the stone was first documented by Johannes Bureus in 1638 he noted that it was used as a threshold in the atrium of the church . It was still used as a threshold when Richard Dybeck visited it in 1871 , and he arranged so that the entire inscription was made visible in order to make a cast copy . In 1887 , the parishioners decided to extract both U 540 and U 541 from the church and with financial help from the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters , History and Antiquities the stones were removed and attached outside the northern wall . The stone is of red sandstone and it is 1 @.@ 50 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) high and 1 @.@ 13 m ( 3 ft 8 in ) wide . Several parts of the stone and its inscription have been lost , and it is worn down due to its former use as a threshold .
A theory , proposed by Germanist F. A. Braun ( 1910 ) , which is based on the runestones runestone U 513 , U 540 , Sö 179 and Sö 279 , holds the grieving Ingvar to be the same person as Ingvar the Far @-@ Travelled , the son of the Swedish king Emund the Old . Braun notes that the stones were raised at a Husby , a royal residence , and the names Eiríkr ( Eric ) and Hákon were rather rare in Sweden , but known from the royal dynasty . Önundr would be Anund Gårdske , who was raised in Russia , while Eiríkr would be one of the two pretenders named Eric , and Hákon would be Håkan the Red . These identifications of the three men Eiríkr , Hákon and Ingvarr also appear in the reference work Nordiskt runnamnslexikon ( 2002 ) , where it adds that Eiríkr is also considered to appear on the Hillersjö stone and runestone U 20 . It also identifies Hákon with the one who commissioned the runestones Ög 162 and Ög Fv1970 ; 310 .
Latin transliteration :
airikr ' auk hokun ' auk inkuar aukk rahn [ ilt ] r ' þou h — ... ... ... -ʀ ' -na hon uarþ [ tau ] þ ( r ) [ a ] kriklati ' kuþ hialbi hons | | salu | | uk | | kuþs muþi ( ʀ )
Old Norse transcription :
Æirikʀ ok Hakon ok Ingvarr ok Ragnhildr þau ... ... ... ... Hann varð dauðr a Grikklandi . Guð hialpi hans salu ok Guðs moðiʀ .
English translation :
" Eiríkr and Hákon and Ingvarr and Ragnhildr , they ... ... ... ... He died in Greece . May God and God 's mother help his soul . "
= = = = U 792 = = = =
Runestone U 792 ( location ) is in the Fp style and it is attributed to the runemaster Balli . The stone is in grey granite and it measures 1 @.@ 65 m ( 5 ft 5 in ) in height and 1 @.@ 19 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) in width . It was originally raised together with a second runestone , with one on each side of the Eriksgata where the road passed a ford , c . 300 m ( 980 ft ) west of where the farm Ulunda is today . The Eriksgata was the path that newly elected Swedish kings passed when they toured the country in order to be accepted by the local assemblies . The stone was first documented by Johannes Bureus in the 17th century , and later in the same century by Johan Peringskiöld , who considered it to be a remarkable stone raised in memory of a petty king , or war chief , in pagan times . When Richard Dybeck visited the stone , in 1863 , it was reclining considerably , and in 1925 , the stone was reported to have completely fallen down at the bank of the stream . It was not until 1946 that the Swedish National Heritage Board arranged to have it re @-@ erected . It was raised in memory of a man ( probably Haursi ) by his son , Kárr , and his brother @-@ in @-@ law . Haursi had returned from Greece a wealthy man , which left his son heir to a fortune .
Latin transliteration :
kar lit * risa * stin * þtina * at * mursa * faþur * sin * auk * kabi * at * mah sin * fu- hfila * far * aflaþi ut i * kri [ k ] um * arfa * sinum
Old Norse transcription :
Karr let ræisa stæin þenna at Horsa ( ? ) , faður sinn , ok Kabbi ( ? ) / Kampi ( ? ) / Kappi ( ? ) / Gapi ( ? ) at mag sinn . Fo [ r ] hæfila , feaʀ aflaði ut i Grikkium arfa sinum .
English translation :
" Kárr had this stone raised in memory of Haursi ( ? ) , his father ; and Kabbi ( ? ) / Kampi ( ? ) / Kappi ( ? ) / Gapi ( ? ) in memory of his kinsman @-@ by @-@ marriage . ( He ) travelled competently ; earned wealth abroad in Greece for his heir . "
= = = = U 922 = = = =
Runestone U 922 ( location ) is in the Pr4 ( Urnes ) style and it measures 2 @.@ 85 m ( 9 ft 4 in ) in height and 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) in width . It is hidden inside the floor in Uppsala Cathedral , next to the tomb of king Gustav Vasa of Sweden . Its existence was first documented by Johannes Bureus in 1594 , and in 1666 , Johannes Schefferus commented on the stone as one of many runestones that had been perceived as heathen and which had therefore been used as construction material for the cathedral . Schefferus considered U 922 to be the most notable one of these stones and he regretted that parts were under the pillar and that it could thus not be read entirely . In 1675 , Olof Verelius discovered that it had been made in memory of a traveller to Greece , but still the French traveller Aubrey de la Motraye wrote home , in 1712 , that he had been informed that it had been made in memory of a traveller to Jerusalem . The last scholar to report that the inscription was visible was Olof Celsius in 1729 , and it appears that it was soon covered by a new layer of floor . In 1950 , professor Elias Wessén and the county custodian of antiquities requested that it be removed for better analysis together with three other runestones , but the request was rejected by the Royal Board of Construction ( KBS ) because of safety concerns .
Ígulbjörn also appears on a second runestone in Uppsala Cathedral , U 925 , made by Ígulbjörn in memory of his son Gagʀ who died " in the South " , with " South " likely referring to the Byzantine Empire .
Latin transliteration :
ikimuntr ' uk þorþr * [ iarl ' uk uikibiarn * litu ' risa * stain ' at ] ikifast * faþur [ * sin sturn * maþr ' ] sum ' for ' til * girkha ' hut ' sun ' ionha * uk * at * igulbiarn * in ybiʀ [ * risti * ]
Old Norse transcription :
Ingimundr ok Þorðr , Iarl ok Vigbiorn ( ? ) letu ræisa stæin at Ingifast , faður sinn , styrimaðr , sum for til Girkia ut , sunn Iona ( ? ) , ok at Igulbiorn . En Øpiʀ risti .
English translation :
" Ingimundr and Þórðr ( and ) Jarl and Vígbjôrn ( ? ) had the stone raised in memory of Ingifastr , their father , a captain who travelled abroad to Greece , Ióni 's ( ? ) son ; and in memory of Ígulbjôrn . And Œpir carved . "
= = = = U 956 = = = =
Runestone U 956 ( location ) was carved by the runemaster Åsmund Kåresson in runestone style Pr3 or Urnes style . It is one of two surviving inscriptions that indicate Åsmund 's patronym , the other being GS 11 in Järvsta . This stone is raised at Vedyxa near Uppsala , about 80 m ( 260 ft ) east of the crossroads of the road to Lövsta and the country road between Uppsala and Funbo . The stone is in grey granite and it has an unusual shape with two flat surfaces and an obtuse angle between them . The inscription is 2 @.@ 27 m ( 7 ft 5 in ) high , of which the upper part is 1 @.@ 37 m ( 4 ft 6 in ) and the lower part 0 @.@ 9 m ( 2 ft 11 in ) , and the width is 0 @.@ 95 m ( 3 ft 1 in ) .
U 956 was first documented by Johannes Haquini Rhezelius ( d . 1666 ) , and later by Johan Peringskiöld ( 1710 ) , who commented that the inscription was legible in spite of the stone having been split in two parts . Unlike modern scholars , Peringskiöld connected this stone , like the other Greece runestones , to the Gothic wars in south @-@ eastern Europe from the 3rd century and onwards . Olof Celsius visited the stone three times , and the last time was in 1726 together with his nephew Anders Celsius . Olof Celsius noted that Peringskiöld had been wrong and that the stone was intact , although it gives an impression of being split in two , and the same observation was made by Richard Dybeck in 1866 .
Latin transliteration :
' stniltr ' lit * rita stain þino ' abtiʀ ' uiþbiurn ' krikfara ' buanta sin kuþ hialbi hos | | salu | | uk | | kuþs u muþiʀ osmuntr kara sun markaþi
Old Norse transcription :
Stæinhildr let retta stæin þenna æptiʀ Viðbiorn Grikkfara , boanda sinn . Guð hialpi hans salu ok Guðs 〈 u 〉 moðiʀ . Asmundr Kara sunn markaði .
English translation :
" Steinhildr had this stone erected in memory of Viðbjôrn , her husband , a traveller to Greece . May God and God 's mother help his soul . Ásmundr Kári ' son marked . "
= = = = U 1016 = = = =
Runestone U 1016 ( location ) is in light grey and coarse granite , and it is 1 @.@ 91 m ( 6 ft 3 in ) high and 1 @.@ 62 m ( 5 ft 4 in ) wide . The stone stands in a wooded field 5 m ( 16 ft ) west of the road to the village Fjuckby , 50 m ( 160 ft ) of the crossroads , and about 100 m ( 330 ft ) south @-@ south @-@ east of the farm Fjuckby . The first scholar to comment on the stone was Johannes Bureus , who visited the stone on June 19 , 1638 . Several other scholars would visit the stone during the following centuries , such as Rhezelius in 1667 , Peringskiöld in 1694 , and Olof Celsius in 1726 and in 1738 . In 1864 , Richard Dybeck noted that the runestone was one of several in the vicinity that had been raised anew during the summer .
Parts of the ornamentation have been lost due to flaking , which probably happened during the 17th century , but the inscription is intact . The art on the runestone has tentatively been classified under style Pr2 , but Wessén & Jansson ( 1953 – 1958 ) comment that the ornamentation is considered unusual and it is different from that on most other runestones in the district . Other stones in the same style are the Vang stone and the Alstad stone in Norway , and Sö 280 and U 1146 in Sweden . The style was better suited for wood and metal and it is likely that only few runemasters ever tried to apply it on stone .
Similar the inscription on U 1011 , this runic inscription uses the term stýrimaðr as a title that is translated as " captain " . Other runestones use this term apparently to describe working as a steersman on a ship . There have been several different interpretations of parts of the inscription , but the following two interpretations appear in Rundata ( 2008 ) :
Latin transliteration :
§ P * liutr : sturimaþr * riti : stain : þinsa : aftir : sunu * sina : sa hit : aki : sims uti furs : sturþ ( i ) * - ( n ) ari * kuam * : hn krik * : hafnir : haima tu : ... -mu- ... ... ( k ) ( a ) ( r ) ... ( i ) uk ( r ) ( u ) - ( a ) * ...
§ Q * liutr : sturimaþr * riti : stain : þinsa : aftir : sunu * sina : sa hit : aki : sims uti furs : sturþ ( i ) * - ( n ) ari * kuam * : hn krik * : hafnir : haima tu : ... -mu- ... ... ( k ) ( a ) ( r ) ... ( i ) uk ( r ) ( u ) - ( a ) * ...
Old Norse transcription :
§ P Liutr styrimaðr retti stæin þennsa æftiʀ sunu sina . Sa het Aki , sem 's uti fors . Styrði [ k ] nærri , kvam hann Grikkhafniʀ , hæima do ... ... hiogg ( ? ) ru [ n ] aʀ ( ? ) ...
§ Q Liutr styrimaðr retti stæin þennsa æftiʀ sunu sina . Sa het Aki , sem 's uti fors . Styrði [ k ] nærri , kvam hann Grikkia . Hæfniʀ , hæima do ... ... hiogg ( ? ) ru [ n ] aʀ ( ? ) ...
English translation :
§ P " Ljótr the captain erected this stone in memory of his sons . He who perished abroad was called Áki . ( He ) steered a cargo @-@ ship ; he came to Greek harbours ; died at home ... ... cut the runes ... "
§ Q " Ljótr the captain erected this stone in memory of his sons . He who perished abroad was called Áki . ( He ) steered a cargo @-@ ship ; he came to Greece . Hefnir died at home ... ... cut the runes ... "
= = = = U 1087 = = = =
Runestone U 1087 ( former location ) was an unusually large and imposing runestone in the Urnes ( Pr4 ) style , but it has disappeared . Before it was lost , it was studied and described by several scholars such as Bureus , Rhezelius , Peringskiöld and lastly by Olof Celsius in 1726 .
Peringskiöld commented that the stone was reclining backwards in a hop @-@ garden at the eastern farm of Lövsta , which was later confirmed by Celius in 1726 . Stolpe tried to find it , but noted in 1869 that the landowner knew of the runestone , but that the latter had reported it to be completely covered in soil , and in 1951 , a runologist tried to locate the runestone but failed .
The inscription had an unusual dotted k @-@ rune in girkium ( " Greece " ) which it had in common with U 922 , above , but the only difficulty that has arisen in the interpretation of the runes is the sequence onar . Rhezelius read it as a name , Onarius , which would have belonged to a third son , whereas Verelius , Peringskiöld , Dijkman and Celsius interpreted it as the pronoun annarr meaning " the other " and referring to Ótryggr , an interpretation supported by Wessén and Jansson ( 1953 – 1958 ) , and by Rundata ( see below ) .
Latin transliteration :
[ fastui * lit * risa stain * iftiʀ * karþar * auk * utirik suni * sino * onar uarþ tauþr i girkium * ]
Old Norse transcription :
Fastvi let ræisa stæin æftiʀ Gærðar ok Otrygg , syni sina . Annarr varð dauðr i Grikkium .
English translation :
" Fastvé had the stone raised in memory of Gerðarr and Ótryggr , her sons . The other ( = the latter ) died in Greece . "
= = = Södermanland = = =
There are seven runestones in Södermanland that relate of voyages to Greece . Two of them appear to mention commanders of the Varangian Guard and a second talks of a thegn , a high ranking warrior , who fought and died together with Greeks .
= = = = Sö Fv1954 ; 20 = = = =
The runestone Sö Fv1954 ; 20 ( location ) was discovered in 1952 approximately 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) west @-@ south @-@ west of Nolinge manor during the plowing of a field , together with an uninscribed stone . It was consequently part of a twin monument and they had been positioned about 2 – 3 m apart on both sides of a locally important road , where they had marked a ford . Both stones had lost their upper parts and the present height of the runestone is 1 @.@ 52 m ( 5 ft 0 in ) ( of which 1 @.@ 33 m ( 4 ft 4 in ) is above ground ) and it is 0 @.@ 55 m ( 1 ft 10 in ) wide . It is classified as being carved in runestone style Fp .
Latin transliteration :
biurn : lit : risa : stin : i ( f ) ... ... ... ... r : austr : i : kirikium : biurn hik
Old Norse transcription :
Biorn let ræisa stæin æf [ tiʀ ] ... ... [ dauð ] r austr i Grikkium . Biorn hiogg .
English translation :
" Bjôrn had the stone raised in memory of ... ... died in the east in Greece . Bjôrn cut . "
= = = = Sö 82 = = = =
Runestone Sö 82 ( location ) is in granite , and it measures 1 @.@ 18 m ( 3 ft 10 in ) in height and it is 1 @.@ 30 m ( 4 ft 3 in ) wide . It was formerly under a wooden threshold inside Tumbo church , and the upper part was hidden under the wall of the atrium . Most of the inscription and the artwork have been destroyed , but what remains is classified as either style Fp or Pr1 ( Ringerike style ) . The inscription partly consists of cipher runes .
The stone was raised by Vésteinn in memory of his brother Freysteinn who died in Greece , and according to Omeljan Pritsak , Freysteinn was the commander of a retinue . The wolf @-@ beast image in the center of Sö 82 touches the inscription at the name Freysteinn and has its jaws at the word for " was dead " or " died . " Since one known kenning in Old Norse poetry for being killed in battle was that the " wolf was fed , " the combination of the text and imagery would lead to the conclusion that Freysteinn had died in battle in Greece .
Although the memorial stone image includes a Christian cross , the two personal names in the inscription both refer to Norse paganism . Þorsteinn includes as a name element the god Thor and means " Thor 's stone , " while Vésteinn includes the word vé , a temple or sanctuary , and when used in a personal name means " holy , " giving the name the meaning " holy stone . "
Latin transliteration :
[ + ] ui — ( a ) n [ × ( b ) a- ] iʀ × ( i ) þrn + ʀftʀh × fraitʀn × bruþur × [ is ] ( ʀ ) n × þuþʀ × kʀkum ( × ) [ þulʀ × iuk × uln × ]
Old Norse transcription :
Vi [ st ] æinn 〈 ba @-@ iʀ 〉 〈 iþrn 〉 æftiʀ Frøystæin , broður sinn , dauðr [ i ] Grikkium . Þuli ( ? ) / Þulʀ ( ? ) hiogg 〈 uln 〉 .
English translation :
" Vésteinn ... in memory of Freysteinn , his brother , ( who ) died in Greece . Þuli ( ? ) / Þulr ( ? ) cut ... "
= = = = Sö 85 = = = =
Runestone Sö 85 ( location ) is a runestone in style KB that measures 1 @.@ 23 m ( 4 ft 0 in ) in height . The granite stone was discovered at a small brook , but in 1835 the runestone was destroyed . Some pieces were brought to Munkhammar and Mälhammar where they were used for the construction of fireplaces . Seven remaining pieces were brought to Västerby in 1855 in order to be protected by a fence , but when a scholarly enquiry took place in 1897 , only four pieces remained . An association of local antiquarians arranged so that the four remaining parts could be reassembled at Västerby .
Latin transliteration :
: ansuar : auk : ern ... ... [ : faþur sin : han : enta ] þis : ut i : krikum ( r ) uþr : — ... unk — — an — —
Old Norse transcription :
Andsvarr ok Ærn ... ... faður sinn . Hann ændaðis ut i Grikkium ... ...
English translation :
" Andsvarr and Ern- ... ... their father . He met his end abroad in Greece . ... ... "
= = = = Sö 163 = = = =
Runestone Sö 163 ( location ) is in the style Fp and it is of grey gneiss measuring 1 @.@ 22 m ( 4 ft 0 in ) in height and 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) in width . The runestone was first documented during the national search for historic monuments in 1667 – 84 and Peringskiöld noted that it was near the village of Snesta between Ryckesta and the highway . In 1820 , the stone was reported to be severely damaged and mostly hidden in the ground due to its being on the side of a local road . George Stephens reported in 1857 that its former position had been on a barrow at a small path near Ryckesta , but that it had been moved in 1830 to the avenue of the manor Täckhammar and reerected on a wooded slope some 14 paces from the entrance to the highway .
The man who raised the stone is named with the runes þruʀikr and the name was identified as Þrýríkr by Sophus Bugge who identified the first element of the name as the noun þrýð- that would be derived from a * þrūði- and correspond to Old English þrýðu ( " power " , " force " ) . The Old English form is cognate with the Old Icelandic element þrúð- ( " force " ) which appears in several Old Norse words in connection with the Norse god Thor . This analysis was accepted by Brate & Wessén although they noted that the name contains ʀ instead of the expected r , whereas the Rundata corpus gives the slightly different form Þryðríkr .
The stone was raised in memory of two sons , one of whom went to Greece where he " divided up gold " , an expression that also appears on runestone Sö 165 , below . It can either mean that he was responsible for distributing payment to the members of the Varangian Guard or that he took part in the division of loot . Düwel has suggested that the expression is the eastern route equivalent of gjaldi skifti ( " divided payment " ) which appears in the nearby stone Sö 166 that talks of payments to Vikings in England ( see also U 194 , U 241 and U 344 ) . If so , the expression could mean that the man who was commemorated had received payment .
Latin transliteration :
þruʀikr : stain : at : suni : sina : sniala : trakia : for : ulaifr : i : krikium : uli : sifti :
Old Norse transcription :
Þryðrikʀ stæin at syni sina , snialla drængia , for Olæifʀ / Gullæifʀ i Grikkium gulli skifti .
English translation :
" Þryðríkr ( raised ) the stone in memory of his sons , able valiant men . Óleifr / Gulleifr travelled to Greece , divided ( up ) gold . "
= = = = Sö 165 = = = =
Runestone Sö 165 ( location ) is tentatively categorised as being in the RAK style . It is of grey granite and is 1 @.@ 61 m ( 5 ft 3 in ) tall and 0 @.@ 57 m ( 1 ft 10 in ) wide . The runestone was first documented during the national search for historic monuments ( 1667 – 81 ) and then it was raised near a number of raised stones . Later the runestone was moved and raised beside Sö 166 at a ditch southwest of Grinda farm .
It was raised by a mother , Guðrun , in memory of her son , Heðinn . Like runestone Sö 163 , it also reports that the man concerned went to Greece and " divided up gold " which may refer to distributing payment to members of the Varangian guard , the division of loot or having received payment ( compare Sö 163 , above ) . The inscription itself is a poem in fornyrðislag .
Latin transliteration :
kuþrun : raisti : stain : at : hiþin : uaʀ : nafi suais : uaʀ : han : : i : krikum iuli skifti : kristr : hialb : ant : kristunia :
Old Norse transcription :
Guðrun ræisti stæin at Heðin , vaʀ nefi Svæins . Vaʀ hann i Grikkium , gulli skifti . Kristr hialp and kristinna .
English translation :
" Guðrún raised the stone in memory of Heðinn ; ( he ) was Sveinn 's nephew . He was in Greece , divided ( up ) gold . May Christ help Christians ' spirits . "
= = = = Sö 170 = = = =
Runestone Sö 170 in grey granite is raised north of the former road in Nälberga ( location ) , and the stone is 1 @.@ 85 m ( 6 ft 1 in ) tall and 0 @.@ 80 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) wide . Its style is tentatively given as RAK and some of the runes are cipher runes in the form of branch runes . The runic text tells that a man named Báulfr died with the Greeks at a location that has not been clearly identified through several analyses of the cipher runes . Läffler ( 1907 ) suggested that the location is to be read Ίϑὡμη which was the name of a town in Thessaly and a stronghold in Messenia , also called Θὡμη . Báulfr is described as being þróttar þegn or a thegn of strength . The term thegn describes a class of retainer . The phrase þróttar þegn is used on six other runestones , Sö 90 in Lövhulta , Sö 112 in Kolunda , Sö 151 in Lövsund , and Sö 158 in Österberga , and , in its plural form at Sö 367 in Släbro and Sö Fv1948 ; 295 in Prästgården .
Omeljan Pritsak ( 1981 ) comments that among those who raised the memorial , the youngest son Guðvér would rise to become the commander of the Varangian Guard in the mid @-@ 11th century , as shown in a second mention of Guðvér on the runestone Sö 217 . That stone was raised in memory of one of the members of Guðvér 's retinue .
Latin transliteration :
: uistain : agmunr : kuþuiʀ : þaiʀ : r ... ( s ) þu : stain : at : baulf : faþur sin þrutaʀ þiagn han miþ kriki uarþ tu o / þum þa / þumþa
Old Norse transcription :
Vistæinn , Agmundr , Guðveʀ , þæiʀ r [ æi ] sþu stæin at Baulf , faður sinn , þrottaʀ þiagn . Hann með Grikki varð , do a / 〈 þum 〉 þa / 〈 þumþa 〉 .
English translation :
" Vésteinn , Agmundr ( and ) Guðvér , they raised the stone in memory of Báulfr , their father , a Þegn of strength . He was with the Greeks ; then died with them ( ? ) / at 〈 þum 〉 . "
= = = = Sö 345 = = = =
Runestone Sö 345 ( location ) was first documented during the national search for historic monuments in 1667 , and it was then used as a doorstep to the porch of Ytterjärna church . It had probably been used for this purpose during a considerable period of time , because according to a drawing that was made a few years later , it was very worn down . In 1830 a church revision noted that it was in a ruined state and so worn that only a few runes remained discernible , and when Hermelin later depicted the stone , he noted that the stone had been cracked in two pieces . In 1896 , the runologist Erik Brate visited the stone and discovered that one of the pieces had disappeared and that the only remaining part was reclining on the church wall . The remaining piece measured 1 @.@ 10 m ( 3 ft 7 in ) and 1 @.@ 15 m ( 3 ft 9 in ) . The stone has since then been reassembled and raised on the cemetery .
Latin transliteration :
Part A : ... ... in × þinsa × at × kai ( r ) ... ... ... -n * eʀ * e [ n @-@ a ] þr × ut – × kr ...
Part B : ... ... roþur × ...
Part C : ... ... raisa : ...
Old Norse transcription :
Part A : ... [ stæ ] in þennsa at Gæiʀ ... ... [ Ha ] nn eʀ æn [ d ] aðr ut [ i ] Gr [ ikkium ] .
Part B : ... [ b ] roður ...
Part C : ... [ let ] ræisa ...
English translation ( parts B and C are probably not part of the monument and are not translated ) :
" ... this stone in memory of Geir- ... ... He had met his end abroad in Greece . "
= = = Östergötland = = =
In Östergötland , there are two runestones that mention Greece . One , the notable Högby Runestone , describes the deaths of several brothers in different parts of Europe .
= = = = Ög 81 = = = =
The Högby runestone ( location ) is in Ringerike ( Pr1 ) style , and the reddish granite stone measures 3 @.@ 45 m ( 11 @.@ 3 ft ) in height and 0 @.@ 65 m ( 2 ft 2 in ) in width . It was formerly inserted into the outer wall of Högby church with the cross side ( A ) outwards . The church was demolished in 1874 , and then side B of the inscription was discovered . The stone was raised anew on the cemetery of the former church .
The runestone commemorates Özurr , one of the first Varangians who is known to have died in the service of the Byzantine Emperor , and he is estimated to have died around 1010 , or in the late 10th century . He was one of the sons of the " good man " Gulli , and the runestone describes a situation that may have been common for Scandinavian families at this time : the stone was made on the orders of Özur 's niece , Þorgerðr , in memory of her uncles who were all dead .
Þorgerðr probably had the stone made as soon as she had learnt that Özurr , the last of her uncles , had died in Greece , and she likely did this to ensure her right of inheritance . The inscription on the reverse side of the stone , relating how her other uncles died , is in fornyrðislag .
Her uncle Ásmundr probably died in the Battle of Fýrisvellir , in the 980s , and it was probably at the side of king Eric the Victorious . Özurr had entered into the service of a more powerful liege and died for the Byzantine Emperor . Halfdan may have died either on Bornholm or in a holmgang , whereas where Kári died remains uncertain . The most likely interpretation may be that he died on Od , the old name for the north @-@ western cape of Zealand , but it is also possible that it was at Dundee in Scotland . Búi 's location of death is not given , but Larsson ( 2002 ) comments that it was probably in a way that was not considered as glorious as those of his brothers .
Latin transliteration :
Side A : * þukir * resþi * stin * þansi * eftiʀ * asur * sen * muþur * bruþur * sin * iaʀ * eataþis * austr * i * krikum *
Side B : * kuþr * karl * kuli * kat * fim * syni * feal * o * furi * frukn * treks * asmutr * aitaþis * asur * austr * i krikum * uarþ * o hulmi * halftan * tribin * kari * uarþ * at uti *
Side C : auk * tauþr * bui * þurkil * rist * runaʀ *
Old Norse transcription :
Side A : Þorgærðr ( ? ) ræisþi stæin þannsi æftiʀ Assur , sinn moðurbroður sinn , eʀ ændaðis austr i Grikkium .
Side B : Goðr karl Gulli gat fæm syni . Fioll a Føri frøkn drængʀ Asmundr , ændaðis Assurr austr i Grikkium , varð a Holmi Halfdan drepinn , Kari varð at Uddi ( ? )
Side C : ok dauðr Boi . Þorkell ræist runaʀ .
English translation :
Side A : " Þorgerðr ( ? ) raised this stone in memory of Ôzurr , her mother 's brother . He met his end in the east in Greece . "
Side B : " The good man Gulli got five sons . The brave valiant man Ásmundr fell at Fœri ; Ôzurr met his end in the east in Greece ; Halfdan was killed at Holmr ( Bornholm ? ) ; Kári was ( killed ) at Oddr ( ? ) ; "
Side C : " also dead ( is ) Búi . Þorkell carved the runes . "
= = = = Ög 94 = = = =
Runestone Ög 94 ( location ) in the style Ringerike ( Pr1 ) , is in reddish granite and it raised on the former cemetery of Harstad church . The stone is 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) high and 1 @.@ 18 m ( 3 ft 10 in ) wide at its base . The toponym Haðistaðir , which is mentioned in the inscription , refers to modern Haddestad in the vicinity , and it also appears to mention Greece as the location where the deceased died , and it was probably as a member of the Varangian guard . Additionally , the last part of the inscription that mentions the location of his death is probably a poem in fornyrðislag .
Latin transliteration :
: askata : auk : kuþmutr : þau : risþu : kuml : þ [ i ] ( t ) a : iftiʀ : u @-@ auk : iaʀ : buki | | i : haþistaþum : an : uaʀ : bunti : kuþr : taþr : i : ki [ ( r ) ] k [ ( i ) ( u ) ( m ) ]
Old Norse transcription :
Asgauta / Askatla ok Guðmundr þau ræisþu kumbl þetta æftiʀ O [ ddl ] aug ( ? ) , eʀ byggi i Haðistaðum . Hann vaʀ bondi goðr , dauðr i Grikkium ( ? ) .
English translation :
" Ásgauta / Áskatla and Guðmundr , they raised this monument in memory of Oddlaugr ( ? ) , who lived in Haðistaðir . He was a good husbandman ; ( he ) died in Greece ( ? ) "
= = = Västergötland = = =
In Västergötland , there are five runestones that tell of eastern voyages but only one of them mentions Greece .
= = = = Vg 178 = = = =
Runestone Vg 178 ( location ) in style Pr1 used to be outside the church of Kölaby in the cemetery , some ten metres north @-@ north @-@ west of the belfry . The stone consists of flaking gneiss measuring 1 @.@ 85 m ( 6 ft 1 in ) in height and 1 @.@ 18 m ( 3 ft 10 in ) in width .
The oldest annotation of the stone is in a church inventory from 1829 , and it says that the stone was illegible . Ljungström documented in 1861 that it was in the rock fence with the inscription facing the cemetery . When Djurklou visited the stone in 1869 , it was still in the same spot . Djurklou considered its placement to be unhelpful because a part of the runic band was buried in the soil , so he commanded an honourable farmer to select a group of men and remove the stone from the wall . The next time Djurklou visited the location , he found the stone raised in the cemetery .
Latin transliteration :
: agmuntr : risþi : stin : þonsi : iftiʀ : isbiurn : frinta : sin : auk : ( a ) ( s ) ( a ) : it : buta : sin : ian : saʀ : uaʀ : klbins : sun : saʀ : uarþ : tuþr : i : krikum
Old Norse transcription :
Agmundr ræisti stæin þannsi æftiʀ Æsbiorn , frænda sinn , ok Asa ( ? ) at bonda sinn , en saʀ vaʀ Kulbæins sunn . Saʀ varð dauðr i Grikkium .
English translation :
" Agmundr raised this stone in memory of Ásbjôrn , his kinsman ; and Ása ( ? ) in memory of her husbandman . And he was Kolbeinn 's son ; he died in Greece . "
= = = Småland = = =
There was only one rune stone in Småland that mentioned Greece ( see Sm 46 , below ) .
= = = = Sm 46 = = = =
Runestone Sm 46 ( location ) was in the style RAK and it was 2 @.@ 05 m ( 6 ft 9 in ) high and 0 @.@ 86 m ( 2 ft 10 in ) wide .
The stone was already in a ruined state when Rogberg depicted the stone in 1763 . Rogberg noted that it had been used as a bridge across a brook and because of this the runes had been worn down so much that most of them were virtually illegible , a statement that is contradicted by later depictions . Since the runestone had passed unnoticed by the runologists of the 17th century , it is likely that it was used as a bridge . In a traveller 's journal written in 1792 by Hilfeling , the bottom part of the stone is depicted for the first time , though the artist does not appear to have realised that the two parts belonged together . In 1822 , Liljegren arrived to depict it . A surviving yet unsigned drawing is attributed to Liljegren ( see illustration ) . In 1922 , the runologist Kinander learnt from a local farmer that some 40 years earlier , the runestone had been seen walled into a bridge that was part of the country road , and the inscription had been upwards . Someone had decided to remove the runestone from the bridge and put it beside the road . Kinander wanted to see the stone and was shown a large worn down stone in the garden of Eriksstad . However , according to Kinander it was not possible to find any remaining runes on what was supposed to be the runestone .
Latin transliteration :
[ ... nui krþi : kubl : þesi : iftiʀ suin : sun : sin : im ÷ itaþisk ou * tr i krikum ]
Old Norse transcription :
... vi gærði kumbl þessi æftiʀ Svæin , sun sinn , eʀ ændaðis austr i Grikkium .
English translation :
" ... -vé made these monuments in memory of Sveinn , her son , who met his end in the east in Greece . "
= = = Gotland = = =
Only one runestone mentioning the Byzantine Empire has been found on Gotland . This may be due both to the fact that few rune stones were raised on Gotland in favour of image stones , as well as to the fact that the Gotlanders dealt mainly in trade , paying a yearly tribute to the Swedes for military protection .
= = = = G 216 = = = =
G 216 ( original location ) is an 8 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) long , 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) wide and 3 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) thick sharpening stone with a runic inscription that was discovered in 1940 . It was found by a worker at a depth of 40 cm ( 16 in ) while he dug a shaft for a telephone wire in a field at Timans in Roma . It is now at the museum Gotlands fornsal with inventory number C 9181 . It has been dated to the late 11th century , and although the interpretation of its message is uncertain , scholars have generally accepted von Friesen 's analysis that it commemorates the travels of two Gotlanders to Greece , Jerusalem , Iceland and the Muslim world ( Serkland ) .
The inscription created a sensation as it mentions four distant countries that were the targets of adventurous Scandinavian expeditions during the Viking Age , but it also stirred some doubts as to its authenticity . However , thorough geological and runological analyses dispelled any doubts as to its genuine nature . The stone had the same patina as other Viking Age stones on all its surfaces and carvings , and in addition it has the normal r @-@ rune with an open side stroke , something which is usually overlooked by forgerers . Moreover , v Friesen commented that there could be no expert on Old Swedish that made a forgery while he correctly wrote krikiaʀ as all reference books of the time incorrectly told that the form was grikir .
Jansson , Wessén & Svärdström ( 1978 ) comment that the personal name that is considered most interesting by scholars is Ormika , which is otherwise only known from the Gutasaga , where it was the name of a free farmer who was baptised by the Norwegian king Saint Olaf in 1029 . The first element ormr ( " serpent " ) is well @-@ known from the Old Norse naming tradition , but the second element is the West Germanic diminutive -ikan , and the lack of the final -n suggests a borrowing from Anglo @-@ Saxon or Old Frisian , although the name is unattested in the West Germanic area . The runologists appreciate the appearance of the nominative form Grikkiaʀ ( " Greece " ) as it is otherwise unattested while other case forms are found on a number of runestones . The place name Jerusalem appears in the Old Gutnish form iaursaliʀ while the western @-@ most dialect of Old Norse , Old Icelandic , has Jórsalir , and both represent a Scandinavian folk etymological rendering where the first element is interpreted as the name element jór- ( from an older * eburaz meaning " boar " ) . The inscription also shows the only runic appearance of the name of Iceland , while there are five other runic inscriptions in Sweden that mention Serkland .
Latin transliteration :
: ormiga : ulfua @-@ r : krikiaʀ : iaursaliʀ ( : ) islat : serklat
Old Norse transcription :
Ormika , Ulfhva [ t ] r ( ? ) , Grikkiaʀ , Iorsaliʀ , Island , Særkland .
English translation :
" Ormika , Ulfhvatr ( ? ) , Greece , Jerusalem , Iceland , Serkland . "
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= Falsas Esperanzas =
" Falsas Esperanzas " ( English : " False Hopes " ) is a song performed by American recording artist Christina Aguilera for her second studio album , Mi Reflejo ( 2000 ) . It was written by Jorge Luis Piloto and released as a single through RCA Records on July 2 , 2001 . The uptempo Latin record was produced by Rudy Pérez and features instrumentation from a horn .
" Falsas Esperanzas " received mixed reviews from music critics with some naming it a stand @-@ out track from the album while others were not impressed by it . The single peaked at fifteen on the Productores de Música de España and number seven on the Dutch Tipparade . Aguilera performed " Falsas Esperanzas " at the 2001 Grammy Awards and during her tours Justified and Stripped Tour and The Stripped Tour .
= = Background = =
According to her manager Steve Kurtz , Aguilera expressed interest in recording a Spanish @-@ language album before she recorded her debut studio album Christina Aguilera ( 1999 ) . Producer Rudy Pérez was approached during the recording sessions of Mi Reflejo and asked to produce a number of tracks . After agreeing , he produced many songs including the Jorge Luis Piloto written piece " Falsas Esperanzas " .
" Falsas Esperanzas " is an uptempo Latin song that incorporates elements from Tropical music . Instrumentation of the track comes from a horn done by Venezuelan @-@ American musician by Ed Calle and a few Tropical elements , including a " snazzy " piano performance by Cuban musician Paquito Hechavarría . " According to music critic Kembrew McLeod , the track features ' bouncy rhythms ' and ' splashes of horns ' . " Sun @-@ Sentinel editor Sean Picolli wrote that the song 's refrain contains a see @-@ saw effect with the lines " No me des ... No me digas ... " ( English : " Don 't give me ... Don 't tell me ... " ) . These lines hint toward lyrical themes pertaining to relationship troubles as well as defiance .
= = Release and reception = =
" Falsas Esperanzas " was released as the third single from Mi Reflejo on July 2 , 2001 in Spain and on July 3 , 2001 in the United States . A remix of the song was released in Germany on July 17 , 2001 . It peaked at number seven on the Dutch Tipparade chart and number fifteen in Spain . Patty Gettelman from Orlando Sentinel thought that the piece had more Latin influence than contemporary Latin hits such as Ricky Martin 's " La Vida Loca " or Lou Bega 's " A Little Bit of Mambo " . David Browne , writing for Entertainment Weekly felt that " Falsas Esperanzas " left Aguilera " room to growl like a " blues singer " . Sonic.net editor Kembrew McLeon lauded the song as one of Aguilera 's best uptempo songs that " breathe [ s ] life into the album " . Picolli praised the song as the album 's best track , noting : " a dizzy Vegas showstopper ... that scoots along on Aguilera 's high @-@ flying harmonies and a defiant chorus " . " Falsas Esperanzas " was later included on the Spanish edition of Aguilera 's greatest hits album Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits ( 2008 ) . The song also served as the main theme for the Mexican telenovela Como en el cine .
= = Live performances = =
In December 2000 , she held a one @-@ hour special show on ABC and performed " Falsas Esperanzas " , it was later recorded in a video release entitled My Reflection . Aguilera also gave a performance at the 2001 Grammy Awards in February , performing " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " and " Falsas Esperanzas " Leila Cobo of Billboard magazine called Aguilera 's Grammy performance " remarkably mainstream " . During her 2003 Justified and Stripped Tour , her first co @-@ headlining tour with Justin Timberlake , she performed a medley of " Falsas Esperanzas " and " Contigo en la Distancia " . At the end of the performance , a male dancer ripped off the skirt she wore , revealing " tiny " denim shorts underneath . Later , she " saucily " replied , " Just because my album name is Stripped , doesn 't mean you can take my clothes off " . She also performed the medley during the tour 's extension , The Stripped Tour in late 2003 ; it was later included in the DVD release Stripped Live in the U.K ..
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
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= John L. Helm =
John LaRue Helm ( July 4 , 1802 – September 8 , 1867 ) was the 18th and 24th governor of the U.S. state of Kentucky , although his service in that office totaled less than fourteen months . He also represented Hardin County in both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly and was chosen to be the Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives four times . In 1838 his sole bid for federal office ended in defeat when his opponent , Willis Green , was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives .
Helm was first elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1826 ; between 1826 and 1843 he served eleven one @-@ year terms in the state house . In 1844 he was elected to the state senate , where he served continuously until he was chosen as the Whig Party nominee for lieutenant governor on a ticket with John J. Crittenden , famous for the Crittenden Compromise . The Whigs won the general election and Helm was elevated to governor on July 31 , 1850 , when Crittenden resigned to accept an appointment as United States Attorney General in President Millard Fillmore 's cabinet . After his service as governor Helm became president of the struggling Louisville and Nashville Railroad . He invested thousands of dollars of his own money in the project and convinced residents along the line 's main route to buy stock in the company . In 1859 the line was completed , but the next year Helm resigned over of differences with the board of directors regarding a proposed branch that would extend the line to Memphis , Tennessee .
Although he openly opposed secession during the American Civil War , federal military forces labeled Helm a Confederate sympathizer . In September 1862 , he was arrested for this alleged sympathy , but Governor James F. Robinson recognized him as he was being transported to a prison in Louisville and had him released . After the war Helm identified with the Democratic Party , and in 1865 Hardin County voters returned him to the state senate . In 1867 he was the state 's Democratic candidate for governor . Despite his failing health , Helm made a vigorous canvass of the state and won the general election . He was too weak to travel to Frankfort for his inauguration , so state officials administered the oath of office at his home on September 3 , 1867 . He died five days later .
= = Early life = =
In 1780 Helm 's grandfather , Thomas Helm , emigrated to Kentucky from Prince William County , Virginia and founded the settlement of Helm Station near Elizabethtown , Kentucky in Hardin County , where John L. Helm was born on July 4 , 1802 . He was the eldest of nine children born to George B. Helm , a farmer and politician , and Rebecca LaRue Helm , a descendant of a prominent local pioneer family .
Helm attended the area 's public schools and studied with noted educator Duff Green . When Helm was 14 his father fell on hard financial times and Helm returned to work on the family farm . In 1818 he took a better @-@ paying job in the office of Samuel Haycraft , the circuit court clerk of Hardin County . While there he read law with Haycraft , then entered the law office of Ben Tobin in 1821 .
At about this time Helm 's father traveled to Texas to enter into business and rebuild his finances , but he died there in 1822 , leaving Helm responsible for his mother and siblings . He was admitted to the bar in 1823 , the same year Meade County , Kentucky was formed . There were no lawyers in the county yet , so although Helm continued living in Hardin County he was made Meade 's county attorney . His practice grew rapidly and he was soon able to pay off his father 's debts and purchase the Helm homestead . Between 1832 and 1840 he built " Helm Place " on this land and it remained his home for the rest of his life .
In 1823 Helm called on Representative Benjamin Hardin . While Hardin and Helm discussed business , Hardin 's 14 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Lucinda , entered the room to show her father a map she had drawn . Helm later claimed it was love at first sight , and began to pursue Lucinda 's affections . They courted for seven years , married in 1830 and had six daughters and five sons together . One of his sons , Benjamin Hardin Helm , was a Confederate general in the Civil War and was killed at the Battle of Chickamauga .
= = Political career = =
The major political issue in Kentucky during Helm 's legal training was the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . Reeling from the panic of 1819 , Kentuckians had demanded debt relief . In response , the Kentucky General Assembly passed an act that granted debtors a grace period of two years in repaying their debts unless their creditors would accept payment in the devalued notes of the Bank of the Commonwealth . The Kentucky Court of Appeals struck down the law , claiming it was in violation of the Contract Clause of the U.S. Constitution . The angered legislature attempted to impeach the justices on the Court of Appeals , but lacked the necessary two @-@ thirds majority . Instead , they abolished the Court of Appeals and replaced it with a new court , which was stocked with more sympathetic justices by pro @-@ relief governor John Adair . Both courts claimed to be Kentucky 's court of last resort .
Throughout 1825 Helm made speeches and distributed pamphlets in Hardin and surrounding counties , espousing the Old Court position . In 1826 he campaigned as a Whig for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives . Helm won the election , and at the age of twenty @-@ four became one of the youngest members to serve in the Kentucky General Assembly . An Old Court majority was elected to both houses of the General Assembly in 1826 , which then passed legislation abolishing the New Court .
Helm was re @-@ elected to the state House in 1827 and 1830 , and was re @-@ elected every year from 1833 to 1837 . He served as Speaker of the House in 1835 and 1836 . In 1837 there was a three @-@ way race for speaker between Helm , James Turner Morehead and Robert P. Letcher . After nine ballots Helm withdrew , and Letcher was elected speaker .
Helm made his only run for federal office in 1838 and was defeated by Willis Green for a seat in the United States House of Representatives . He returned to the Kentucky House in 1839 and was re @-@ elected in 1842 and 1843 , serving as Speaker of the House both years . In 1843 , the Kentucky General Assembly proposed to create a new county from part of Hardin County and name it Helm County in honor of John L. Helm . Because of the few dissenting votes on this question , Helm declined the honor and proposed instead that the county be called LaRue County after his mother 's family , many of whom still lived in the proposed county . Helm 's suggestion was unanimously adopted .
= = = Lieutenant governor and governor = = =
In 1844 Helm was elected to the Kentucky Senate , where he served until 1848 . That year he was the Whig candidate for lieutenant governor on a ticket with John J. Crittenden . Helm defeated Democrat John Preston Martin in the general election . The major political question in the state during Helm 's time as lieutenant governor was whether to adopt a new state constitution . As a state senator in 1848 , Helm had voted to allow the state 's citizens to decide the matter in a referendum , but after seeing the document produced by the constitutional convention , he opposed its ratification . In an address to the state senate in 1850 he declared , " I was for reform , and not for revolution . I was for amending the Constitution , and not for obliterating every vital principle in contained . " He especially opposed creating an elective judiciary . His antagonism to the constitution put him at odds with his father @-@ in @-@ law , Benjamin Hardin . The two did not reconcile until 1852 , as Hardin lay on his deathbed . The new constitution was adopted in 1850 , and in June of that year Helm encouraged the people to accept it .
Governor Crittenden resigned on July 31 , 1850 to accept President Millard Fillmore 's appointment as attorney general , and Helm ascended to the governorship . As governor , Helm vetoed a legislative plan to cover deficits in the public school fund by drawing money from the state 's sinking fund , but the General Assembly overrode the veto . He urged the legislature to fund a survey of the state 's mineral reserves and a census of the state 's agricultural and manufacturing resources . He called for spending on internal improvements and for raising judges ' salaries to attract more qualified jurists to the bench . He also sought a ban on the carrying of concealed deadly weapons . The legislature did not act on any of these proposed reforms . The only part of Helm 's agenda that did progress through the General Assembly was election reform .
= = President of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad = =
Helm was a presidential elector for Winfield Scott in the 1852 presidential election . After this he took twelve years off from politics . As early as 1836 , Helm had advocated the construction of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . On October 2 , 1854 , he became the railroad 's second president . The previous president had been forced out of that position after a disagreement with Louisville 's board of aldermen , and construction of the line had almost been abandoned .
Helm worked diligently to convince residents along the line 's main route of the economic benefits it would bring . He persuaded many of them to help clear and grade land for the line and accept company stock as payment , and succeeded in selling stock subscriptions to people in the same area . Rising labor costs and troubles transporting materials raised expenses far above the projected budget , and at one point Helm personally redeemed $ 20 @,@ 000 ( $ 530 thousand as of 2016 ) of the company 's bonds . Meanwhile , some observers accused Helm of mismanaging the company . The company 's fortunes improved in 1857 when the city of Louisville provided $ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 7 @.@ 62 million as of 2016 ) in financial aid and the line was completed on October 18 , 1859 . Due to Helm 's influence , the railroad 's charter required all trains traveling through Elizabethtown to stop there .
By the time the line was finished there were public calls from inside and outside the company for Helm to resign , mostly because of his support for a proposed Memphis branch of the railroad . To complete the branch , the Louisville and Nashville would have to complete a line from Bowling Green to Guthrie , Kentucky . There it would join a line owned by the Memphis and Ohio Railroad that began across the state line at Clarksville , Tennessee and extended to Memphis . Supporters believed the branch would economically help both Louisville and Memphis and would lessen their dependence on trade along the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers . Opponents argued that the project was simply a ploy to whip up new support for the struggling railroad . Helm endorsed the Memphis branch in his annual report in 1857 .
On February 4 , 1860 , two members of the company 's board of directors wrote a letter requesting Helm 's resignation ; they claimed they had voted for his re @-@ election as president of the company with the understanding that he would resign when the main line between Louisville and Nashville was finished . Helm maintained that he felt an obligation to the citizens of Logan County – many of whom he had personally sold stock to – to remain president until the Memphis branch through their county was built . The rift between Helm and the directors continued to widen , however . Helm resigned on February 21 , 1860 , and was replaced by James Guthrie . The Memphis branch was completed on September 24 , 1860 .
= = Civil War and second term as governor = =
On January 8 , 1861 Helm chaired a meeting in Louisville that advocated for Kentucky 's neutrality in the Civil War . Helm was an outspoken opponent of secession , but also denounced the election of Abraham Lincoln and his use of military force to subdue the southern states . Because Helm did not condemn his son , Benjamin , for joining the Confederate Army , federal authorities classified him as a southern sympathizer .
After learning of the arrest of former governor Charles S. Morehead by federal authorities , Helm fled to Bowling Green , fearing his own arrest . Through the intervention of Warner Underwood he was able to return home on the condition that he swear an oath of allegiance to the Constitution . Nevertheless , federal soldiers repeatedly entered his home , encouraging his slaves to abandon him , and consuming or destroying his crops . Because the state 's courts were closed on account of the war , he was unable to earn a living by practicing law . In short order his once @-@ substantial fortune was expended , and he resorted to borrowing money to support his family .
In September 1862 Helm and several other citizens from Hardin County were arrested by Colonel Knox . After several days of confinement in Elizabethtown the prisoners were conducted to Louisville . By chance , Kentucky governor James F. Robinson recognized Helm in the group and negotiated with General Jeremiah Boyle to get him released . Shortly after returning home Helm learned of Benjamin 's death at the Battle of Chickamauga .
After the war Helm identified with the Democratic Party , and he returned to the state senate in 1865 . During his tenure he chaired the Committee on Federal Relations and fought against punitive and restrictive laws against ex @-@ Confederates . On January 22 , 1866 he presented to the state senate a protest against the actions of the United States Congress during the Civil War . It denounced the Reconstruction Amendments on the grounds that they granted powers to the federal government that were reserved for the states , and that they were passed while many southern states were not represented in Congress . He also decried the creation and operation of the Freedmen 's Bureau . On January 29 , 1867 , Helm introduced legislation to organize a meeting in Louisville to rally support for President Andrew Johnson and his efforts to restore the Union .
The state Democratic Convention met on February 22 , 1867 in Frankfort and chose Helm and John W. Stevenson as the party 's candidates for governor and lieutenant governor , respectively . Helm resigned his seat in the state senate to accept the nomination . Though his health was frail , he determined to canvass the entire state . He continued his call for an end to Civil War bitterness and proscriptions against those who had sided with the Confederacy . He won the general election over Republican Sidney Barnes and a third party candidate , Judge William B. Kinkead .
The strenuous campaign took a decisive toll on Helm 's already weakened body . He was too weak to travel to Frankfort for his inauguration , so the oath of office was administered at his home on September 3 , 1867 . Helm 's secretary of state read the governor 's inaugural address at the Hardin County Courthouse . In it Helm repeated his intent to remove political disabilities from ex @-@ Confederates . He also charged that Congress was meddling in the affairs of the states . Though he promised protections for blacks , he opposed the idea of black suffrage .
Helm died on September 8 , 1867 , just five days after his inauguration . He was buried in a family graveyard at Helm Place . Helm Place was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 9 , 1976 .
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= Tufted tit @-@ tyrant =
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant ( Anairetes parulus ) is a species of bird in the tyrant flycatcher family Tyrannidae . This species is found in western South America ; its range stretches from southern Colombia south along the Andes mountains to Tierra del Fuego . It prefers to live in upper montane forests and shrublands ; however , it is a habitat generalist and can be found across a wide range of ecosystems . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant has three subspecies , including the nominate subspecies Anairetes parulus parulus , A. p. aequatorialis , and A. p. patagonicus , and is very closely related to the Juan Fernández tit @-@ tyrant . It is very small with a distinctive and conspicuous crest . The bird 's head is black overall with white supraloral and postocular stripes . Its dull grayish @-@ brown back contrasts with its white throat and breast that are covered with black streaks and pale , unmarked yellow underbelly . There are few noticeable differences in plumage between the subspecies . It is a vocal flycatcher with a broad repertoire of songs .
This tit @-@ tyrant defends its territory only against other tit @-@ tyrants and , except for the southernmost population , is non @-@ migratory . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant feeds mainly on a variety of insects that it hunts on or from small shrubs , typically by perch gleaning . It normally hunts in pairs . The breeding season varies for this bird depending on its geographical location . Two to three eggs are normally laid twice a year in a cup @-@ shaped nest made of root fibers , grasses , and lichens and lined with small feathers . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is listed as a species of least concern due to its large range and population .
= = Taxonomy = =
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant 's genus , Anairetes , is in the tyrant flycatcher family Tyrannidae and is believed to be most closely related to the tyrannulet genera Mecocerculus and Serpophaga ; however , there is no definitive evidence supporting this claim . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant was described as Muscicapa parulus by Heinrich von Kittlitz in 1830 from a specimen collected near Valparaíso , Chile . It was later moved from the genus Muscicapa , which today solely contains Old World flycatchers , to Anairetes ; however , this genus was too similar to the pre @-@ existing genus Anaeretes , so Harry Church Oberholser erected the genus Spitzitornis for it and the other tit @-@ tyrants . However , Spitzitornis was eventually abolished and the tit @-@ tyrants were returned to Anairetes . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is believed to form a superspecies with the Juan Fernández tit @-@ tyrant . Members of the genus Anairetes are commonly known as tit @-@ tyrants because their active foraging behavior and crests are reminiscent of the true tits in the family Paridae , while the genus itself is part of the tyrant flycatcher family . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is known in Spanish as the Cachudito , which means " little longhorn " in reference to the bird 's crest .
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant has three described subspecies . Anairetes parulus aequatorialis is the northernmost subspecies and is found in the Andes from southern Colombia to western Bolivia and northern Argentina . It was described by Hans von Berlepsch and Władysław Taczanowski in 1884 . The nominate subspecies , A. p. parulus , is found in western Chile and in southwest Argentina south to Tierra del Fuego and was described by Kittlitz in 1830 . The third subspecies , A. p. patagonicus , is found in western Argentina and was described by Austrian ornithologist Carl Eduard Hellmayr in 1920 .
= = Description = =
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is a small bird , averaging 9 @.@ 5 to 11 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 3 in ) in length and weighing about 6 grams ( 0 @.@ 21 oz ) . Its long , recurved crest is typically conspicuous and is often parted , giving the impression that the bird has two crests . The crest 's feathers are black and emerge from the center of the bird 's black crown , although occasionally there is a small patch of white hidden by the crest . The head is black overall with a white supraloral and postocular stripe . The bird 's iris is creamy white to pale yellow and the bill is black . This tit @-@ tyrant 's back is a dull , grayish brown , and the wings and tail are a duskier shade of this color . The wings also feature two narrow white wingbars , while the outer tail feathers are white . The throat and breast are white and covered in dark gray to black streaks , which thin out further down the breast and along the sides . The belly is a pale yellow which fades as the plumage becomes more worn , while the bird 's legs are black . Males and females are similar in appearance , although females are typically smaller and may have smaller crests . Juvenile tufted tit @-@ tyrants are duller in coloration and have a shorter crest ; the juvenile 's wingbars are also buffy and there is no hidden white spot on the crown .
There are few variations in plumage between the three subspecies . Anairetes parulus aequatorialis tends to be browner than the nominate subspecies in its upperparts , with broader and more extensive breast streaks and broader and more distinct white wingbars . A. p. patagonicus has more variation from the nominate subspecies as it is paler gray overall , particularly on the crown , and the wingbars and breast streaks are broader and more distinct . A. p. patagonicus 's underbelly is also a paler yellow to white .
This flycatcher has a loud , high @-@ pitched song . It is also known to give a fast chuit @-@ chuit @-@ chuit @-@ chuit @-@ chuit @-@ chidi @-@ didi song , and occasionally single notes of chuit are made in a slow series of calls . When foraging in pairs , tufted tit @-@ tyrants have been observed using a perr @-@ reet call to stay in contact with each other . The species ' contact call has been described as a pluit @-@ pluit . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is also known to give a long , weak trill .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant has been recorded in Colombia , Ecuador , Peru , Bolivia , Argentina , and Chile . It is mostly restricted to the Andes mountains throughout the northern portions of its range , while in the south its range broadens to include the coast . It has also been recorded as a vagrant in the Falkland Islands . It is the most abundant and widely distributed of the tit @-@ tyrant species .
Its preferred habitat is upper montane forests and shrublands . Despite this preference , it is a habitat generalist and is also found in elfin forest , the edges of cloud forests , Polylepis woodland , brushy forests with Chusquea bamboo , disturbed humid scrub , temperate forests , and dry thorn scrub . It seems to move back into fire @-@ stricken areas at a normal rate for páramo birds , neither colonizing recently burned areas nor waiting for the area to completely recover . This tit @-@ tyrant is most frequently found between 1 @,@ 800 and 3 @,@ 500 meters ( 5 @,@ 900 and 11 @,@ 500 ft ) , though it can be found at sea level in Chile and up to 4 @,@ 200 meters ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) in the Andes .
= = Behavior = =
This tit @-@ tyrant appears to be territorial in defending what it regards as its feeding territory , although it only displays territorial behavior against other tufted tit @-@ tyrants . Birds defending their territory , either alone or in a pair , tend to begin their defense by calling rapidly and displaying displacement behavior , such as bill wiping or wing flaring . They then raise their crest and chase the other tit @-@ tyrant through the shrubs , occasionally physically attacking the intruder . The victorious tit @-@ tyrant then returns to its normal foraging behavior . The southern subspecies , A. p. patagonicus , migrates to northern Argentina after the breeding season ; the other populations appear to be non @-@ migratory .
= = = Diet = = =
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is a generalist feeder that eats insects . It is also known to eat seeds in rare circumstances . It is an active forager that hunts in pairs or , after the breeding season , small family groups . It has also been known to feed with mixed @-@ species foraging flocks , although this behavior is abnormal . When this does occur , it is most frequently seen foraging with the thorn @-@ tailed rayadito ; flocks of thirty tufted tit @-@ tyrants in these mixed @-@ species foraging groups have been reported . Birds in pairs tend to feed leapfrog style and maintain constant visual contact with each other . This species feeds at all strata of its habitat from the understory to the canopy .
When feeding , this flycatcher makes many short flights from perch to perch , preferring to hunt in shrubs with small leaves , particularly those from the genera Adesmia , Baccharis , and Porlieria . A tit @-@ tyrant tends to land near the base of the shrub and make its way upwards while frequently flicking its tail upwards and shuddering its wings . It has also been observed pivoting on its perch throughout this process . While foraging , the tufted tit @-@ tyrant averages three attacks on prey items per minute . Its feeding style has been compared to that of a kinglet .
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant uses three different hunting strategies to catch its prey . Gleaning insects from a perch is its primary hunting strategy ; while gleaning , the bird sits upright with its wings dropped below the tail , which is pointing straight down . From this position the tit @-@ tyrant scans upwards into the vegetation for three to five seconds before attacking , making them surprisingly deliberate hunters for a small flycatcher .
The second most prevalent hunting strategy observed is hover gleaning , in which the tit @-@ tyrant flies upwards from its perch and then hovers midair while grabbing prey from the vegetation . A third and less frequently used strategy is flycatching , in which the bird flies away from its shrub to grab prey in midair . Prey can be grabbed either close to the bird 's perch or at a short distance , which often requires the bird to pursue its prey . When pairs flycatch cooperatively , one bird quietly lurks within the shrub while the other snatches nearby insects ; after about a dozen attacks , the birds switch positions .
= = = Reproduction = = =
This flycatcher typically raises two broods a year . The northern populations nest from January to June , while the southern populations nest from August to January . The male tufted tit @-@ tyrant is aggressive during the breeding season , frequently chasing potential rivals in undulating flights while making a whirring sound .
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant 's nest is built in shrubs or bamboo , often beside a stream , clearings , or path , and is frequently well hidden . The nest is small and compact , and is made in the shape of an open cup . The cup is made of root fibers , lichens , grasses , and the down of thistles , and small feathers line the interior of the cup . The tufted tit @-@ tyrant 's nests are remarkably homogeneous , varying only slightly in composition . Two to three creamy yellow eggs are laid in the nest . The eggs have an average size of 15 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) by 11 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 46 in ) .
= = Conservation = =
The tufted tit @-@ tyrant is listed as Least Concern because of its large range of 2 @,@ 640 @,@ 000 km2 ( 1 @,@ 020 @,@ 000 sq mi ) and stable population , which , although not officially estimated , is believed to be well above 10 @,@ 000 individuals . It is uncommon to locally common throughout its range . This species is considered to have a low sensitivity towards human disturbances in its habitat .
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= Harvie Krumpet =
Harvie Krumpet is a 2003 Australian clay animation comedy @-@ drama short film written , directed and animated by Adam Elliot , and narrated by Geoffrey Rush . It tells the life story of Harvie Krumpet , a Polish @-@ Australian man whose life is plagued by bad luck but who nevertheless remains optimistic .
The film was funded by SBS Independent , the Australian Film Commission and Film Victoria , and it was filmed and animated by Adam Elliot and two assistants over 15 months in 2001 – 2003 , using models made of plasticine and other materials . The production was completed in May 2003 and Harvie Krumpet premiered a month later at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival , followed by over 100 subsequent film festival screenings . It won many accolades , including the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film in 2004 .
= = Plot = =
The story revolves around the life of Harvek Milos Krumpetzki , born in Poland in 1922 . As a child , he begins to collect pieces of information he calls " fakts " , which are presented throughout the film . At the outbreak of World War II , shortly after his parents ' death in a house fire , he migrates to Australia as a refugee , settling in Spotswood , Victoria , and changing his name to Harvie Krumpet .
Despite a life filled with bad luck — having Tourette syndrome , being struck by lightning , and losing one of his testicles to cancer — Harvie remains optimistic , living out his own eccentric way of life . In one of the pivotal episodes of his life , Harvie sits in the park next to a statue of Horace while he hears the instructional Carpe diem , which inspires him to make many changes in his life , such as embracing nudism and embarking on daring rescue missions for animal rights . He marries Val , a nurse he meets in hospital , and they adopt a daughter , Ruby , who has deformed limbs due to the effects of thalidomide .
After Ruby moves to America and Val dies of a stroke , Harvie develops Alzheimer 's disease and is placed in a nursing home . Although he briefly considers suicide , he decides to continue living his life to the fullest . The final " fakt " presented reads : " Life is like a cigarette . Smoke it to the butt " .
= = Voice cast = =
John Flaus as Harvie Krumpet
Geoffrey Rush as the Narrator . The filmmakers approached Rush with copies of Elliot 's three previous short films to ask him to be involved in Harvie Krumpet . Rush recorded the narration at the beginning of production on the film , so that his dialogue could be used to guide the animators in determining the length of each shot . When the animation was complete , however , Elliot found that " when we put his voice to the images , his voice came out a bit too cold " , so Rush re @-@ recorded his lines with a " more colourful , emotive performance " .
Julie Forsyth as Lilliana Krumpetzki . Forsyth , along with the Elwood Primary School choir , also provided vocals for the song " God Is Better than Football " , composed by Keith Binns .
Kamahl as the Statue of Horace
= = Production = =
Adam Elliot conceived the idea behind Harvie Krumpet over a ten @-@ year period , and wrote fourteen drafts of the script over three months . He also created a 300 @-@ panel storyboard to visualise the film before the animation began . He described Harvie 's character as " an amalgamation of many people I know " , in addition to being partly autobiographical . Elliot 's development of the plot began with small character details with which he could " work backwards and then find a rhythm to the piece " . Harvie Krumpet marked the first time that Elliot worked with a producer , Melanie Coombs . Financing for the film 's A $ 377 @,@ 000 production budget was split between three production companies : SBS Independent , the Australian Film Commission and Film Victoria .
Harvie Krumpet was filmed in Melbourne over 15 months between October 2001 and January 2003 . The film was shot in sequence in three @-@ month blocks , interspersed with three @-@ month blocks of building sets and models . Production began in Elliott 's garage and subsequently took place in three separate studios , moving three times in order to accommodate the growing size of the sets . It was shot on Super 16 mm film using a Bolex camera . Each individual frame was animated , meaning that an average of 3 – 5 seconds ' worth of film was produced in each full day of filming .
The film was produced by clay animation using character models each about the size of a wine bottle . The models were first constructed using plasticine before pouring Carbog , a solid material used by mechanics , into moulds to form the bodies . They were then painted to appear like plasticine , and real plasticine around wire was used for the arms . Elliot said he chose to use Carbog since models made from just plasticine would require more maintenance . Some characters had replaceable mouths made of hardened Sculpey clay that were attached magnetically to the faces to reflect different facial expressions ; Harvie 's model had more than 30 separate mouth shapes . The design of the models was influenced by Elliot 's tremor , since he needed them to be relatively large and easy to manipulate . He made the models ' eyes particularly large " to fully express the character 's emotion " . He intentionally left fingerprints in the plasticine when manipulating the models to remind the audience that " what they 're seeing is tangible , tactile and it 's not generated through a computer " . He was assisted by Sophie Raymond and Michael Bazeley in constructing and modelling the characters . The sets were largely constructed from wood .
Harvie Krumpet was edited by Bill Murphy for eight days spread over several weeks . The original cut of 45 – 50 minutes of footage was reduced to a final cut of less than 23 minutes . Over 2000 sound clips were added during the sound design process and the film was converted to 35 mm film in May 2003 .
= = Release and reception = =
Harvie Krumpet premiered at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival in June 2003 , where it won three of the festival 's four major prizes , the Prix FIPRESCI , Prix du public and Prix special du jury . Its Australian premiere was at the 2003 Melbourne International Film Festival , where it won the Best Australian Short Award . During 2003 – 2004 , the film was screened at over 100 film festivals around the world , winning 40 awards . At the 76th Academy Awards , the film was awarded Best Animated Short Film , and in Australia it won the Best Short Animation prize at the 45th Australian Film Institute Awards and the Best Animation prize at the 2004 Inside Film Awards .
Rob Mackie awarded Harvie Krumpet 4 out of 5 stars in a review for The Guardian , describing it as " both fondly evocative and uproariously funny " . The Sydney Morning Herald critic Sacha Molitorisz summarised the film as " hilarious , moving and wonderful " , " a melancholy short that doesn 't put a foot wrong " . He praised Elliot 's " meticulous attention to detail and love for his characters " as well as Rush 's narration .
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= Geography of Ireland =
Ireland is an island in northwest Europe in the north Atlantic Ocean . The island lies on the European continental shelf , part of the Eurasian Plate . The island 's main geographical features include low central plains surrounded by coastal mountains . The highest peak is Carrauntoohil ( Irish : Corrán Tuathail ) , which is 1 @,@ 041 metres ( 3 @,@ 415 ft ) above sea level . The western coastline is rugged , with many islands , peninsulas , headlands and bays . The island is bisected by the River Shannon , which at 360 @.@ 5 km ( 224 mi ) with a 102 @.@ 1 km ( 63 mi ) estuary is the longest river in Ireland and flows south from County Cavan in Ulster to meet the Atlantic just south of Limerick . There are a number of sizeable lakes along Ireland 's rivers , of which Lough Neagh is the largest .
Politically , the island consists of the Republic of Ireland , with jurisdiction over about five @-@ sixths of the island ; and Northern Ireland , a constituent country ( and an unconfirmed " practical " exclave ) of the United Kingdom , with jurisdiction over the remaining sixth . Located west of the island of Great Britain , it is located at approximately 53 ° N 8 ° W. It has a total area of 84 @,@ 421 km2 ( 32 @,@ 595 sq mi ) . It is separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and from mainland Europe by the Celtic Sea . Ireland and Great Britain , together with nearby islands , are known collectively as the British Isles ; as the term British Isles is controversial in relation to Ireland , the alternative term Britain and Ireland is increasingly preferred .
= = Geological development = =
The geology of Ireland is diverse . Different regions contain rocks belonging to different geologic periods , dating as far back almost 2 billion years . The oldest known Irish rock is about 1 @.@ 7 billion years old and is found on Inishtrahull Island off the north coast of County Donegal and also at Annagh Head on the Mullet Peninsula . The newer formations are the drumlins and glacial valleys as a result of the last ice age , and the sinkholes and cave formations in the limestone regions of Clare .
Ireland 's geographic history covers everything from volcanoes and tropical seas to the ice age . Ireland has been in formed by two distinct parts and slowly joined together , uniting about 440 million years ago . As a result of tectonics and changes in latitude the sea level has risen and fallen . In every area of the country the rocks which formed can be seen as a result . Finally the impact of the glaciers created the views that we see today . This variation in the two areas along with the differences between volcanic areas and shallow seas gives Ireland a range of soils as well . There are wide bogs and free draining brown earths . The mountains are granite , sandstone , limestone with karst like areas and basalt formations .
= = Physical geography = =
= = = Mountain ranges = = =
Ireland consists of a mostly flat low @-@ lying area in the midlands , ringed by mountain ranges such as ( beginning in County Kerry and working counter @-@ clockwise ) the Macgillycuddy 's Reeks , Comeragh Mountains , Blackstairs Mountains , Wicklow Mountains , the Mournes , Glens of Antrim , Sperrin Mountains , Bluestack Mountains , Derryveagh Mountains , Ox Mountains , Nephinbeg Mountains and the Twelve Bens / Maumturks group . Some mountain ranges are further inland in the south of Ireland , such as the Galtee Mountains ( the highest inland range ) , Silvermine and Slieve Bloom Mountains . The highest peak is Carrauntoohil , 1 @,@ 038 m ( 3 @,@ 405 ft ) high , is in the Macgillycuddy 's Reeks , a range of glacier @-@ carved sandstone mountains . The mountains are not high – only three peaks are over 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) and another 457 exceed 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) .
= = = Rivers and lakes = = =
The main river in Ireland is the River Shannon , 360 @.@ 5 km ( 224 @.@ 0 mi ) , the longest river in Ireland as well as both the islands of Ireland and Britain , it is a river that separates the boggy midlands of Ireland from the west of the island . The river develops into three lakes along its course , Lough Allen , Lough Ree , and Lough Derg . Of these , Lough Derg is the largest . The River Shannon enters the Atlantic Ocean after Limerick city at the Shannon Estuary . Other major rivers include the River Liffey , River Lee , River Blackwater , River Nore , River Suir , River Barrow , River Bann , River Foyle , River Erne , and River Boyne ( see the list of rivers in Ireland ) .
Lough Neagh , in Ulster , is the largest lake in Ireland and the UK . Legend has it that a giant , Fionn mac Cumhail , was fighting with another in Scotland , and enraged , scooped out a lump of earth , which he threw . It fell into the Irish Sea , creating the Isle of Man , while the hole filled up with water to become Lough Neagh . Other large lakes include Lough Erne and Lough Corrib .
= = = Inlets = = =
Beginning with County Donegal , Lough Swilly separates one side of the Inishowen peninsula . Lough Foyle on the other side , is one of Ireland 's larger inlets , situated between County Donegal and County Londonderry . Further round the coast is Belfast Lough , between County Antrim and County Down . Also in County Down is Strangford Lough , actually an inlet partially separating the Ards peninsula from the mainland . Further down the coast , Carlingford Lough is situated between Down and County Louth .
Dublin Bay is the next sizeable inlet , while the eastern coast of Ireland is mostly uniform until Wexford Harbour at the mouth of the River Slaney . On the southern coast , Waterford Harbour is situated at the mouth of the River Suir ( into which the other two of the Three Sisters ( River Nore and River Barrow ) flow ) . The next major inlet is Cork Harbour , at the mouth of the River Lee , in which Great Island is situated .
Dunmanus Bay , Bantry Bay , Kenmare estuary and Dingle Bay are all inlets between the peninsulas of County Kerry . North of these is the Shannon Estuary . Between north County Clare and County Galway is Galway Bay . Clew Bay is located on the coast of County Mayo , south of Achill Island , while Broadhaven Bay , Blacksod Bay and Sruth Fada Conn bays are situated in northwest Connacht , in North Mayo . Killala Bay is on the northeast coast of Mayo . Donegal Bay is a major inlet between County Donegal and County Sligo .
= = = Headlands = = =
Malin Head is the most northerly point in Ireland , while Mizen Head is one of the most southern points , hence the term " Malin head to Mizen head " ( or the reverse ) is used for anything applying to the island of Ireland as a whole . Carnsore Point is another extreme point of Ireland , being the southeastern most point of Ireland . Further along the coast is Hook Head while the Old Head of Kinsale in is one of many headlands along the south coast of Ireland .
Loop Head is the headland at which County Clare comes to a point on the west coast of Ireland , with the Atlantic on the north , and further inland on the south , the Shannon estuary . Hag 's Head is another headland further up Clare 's north / western coastline , with the Cliffs of Moher along the coastline north of the point .
Erris Head is the northwesternmost point of Connacht .
= = = Islands and peninsulas = = =
Achill Island , in the northwest , is the largest island off Ireland 's coast . The island is inhabited , and is connected to the mainland by a bridge . Some of the next largest islands are the Aran Islands , off the coast of southern Connacht , host to an Irish @-@ speaking community , or Gaeltacht . Valentia Island off the Iveragh peninsula is also one of Ireland 's larger islands , and is relatively settled , as well as being connected by a bridge at its southeastern end . Omey Island , off the coast of Connemara is a tidal island .
Some of the best @-@ known peninsulas in Ireland are in County Kerry ; the Dingle peninsula , the aforementioned Iveragh peninsula and the Beara peninsula . The Ards peninsula is one of the larger peninsulas outside Kerry . The Inishowen peninsula in County Donegal includes Ireland 's most northerly point , Malin Head and several important towns including Buncrana on Lough Swilly , Carndonagh and Moville on Lough Foyle . Ireland 's most northerly land feature is Inishtrahull island , off Malin Head . Rockall Island may deserve this honour but its status is disputed , being claimed by the United Kingdom , Republic of Ireland , Denmark ( for the Faroe Islands ) and Iceland . The most southerly point is the Fastnet Rock .
= = Climate = =
The climate of Ireland is mild , moist and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes . Ireland 's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate , or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system , a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe . The country receives generally warm summers and mild winters . It is considerably warmer than other areas on its latitude , because it lies in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean , and as a result is warmed by the North Atlantic Current all year .
The influence of the North Atlantic Current also ensures the coastline of Ireland remains ice @-@ free throughout the winter — unlike for example the Sea of Okhotsk and the Labrador Sea which are at a similar latitude . The climate in Ireland does not experience extreme weather , with tornadoes and similar weather features being rare .
The prevailing wind blows from the southwest , breaking on the high mountains of the west coast . Rainfall is therefore a particularly prominent part of western Irish life , with Valentia Island , off the west coast of County Kerry , getting almost twice as much annual rainfall as Dublin on the east ( 1 @,@ 400 mm or 55 @.@ 1 in vs. 762 mm or 30 @.@ 0 in ) .
January and February are the coldest months of the year , and mean daily air temperatures fall between 4 and 7 ° C ( 39 @.@ 2 and 44 @.@ 6 ° F ) during these months . July and August are the warmest , with mean daily temperatures of 14 to 16 ° C ( 57 @.@ 2 to 60 @.@ 8 ° F ) , whilst mean daily maximums in July and August vary from 17 to 18 ° C ( 62 @.@ 6 to 64 @.@ 4 ° F ) near the coast , to 19 to 20 ° C ( 66 @.@ 2 to 68 @.@ 0 ° F ) inland . The sunniest months are May and June , with an average of five to seven hours sunshine per day .
Though extreme weather events in Ireland are comparatively rare when compared with other countries in the European Continent , they do occur . Atlantic depressions , occurring mainly in the months of December , January and February , can occasionally bring winds of up to 160 km / h or 99 mph to Western coastal counties ; while the summer months , and particularly around late July / early August , thunderstorms can develop .
The table shows mean climate figures for the Dublin Airport weather station over a thirty @-@ year period . Climate statistics based on the counties of Northern Ireland vary slightly but are not significantly different .
= = Political and human geography = =
Ireland is divided into four provinces , Connacht , Leinster , Munster and Ulster , and 32 counties . Six of the nine Ulster counties form Northern Ireland and the other 26 form the state , Ireland . The map shows the county boundaries for all 32 counties .
From an administrative viewpoint , 21 of the counties in the republic are units of local government . The other six have more than one local council area , producing a total of 31 county @-@ level authorities . County Tipperary had two ridings , North Tipperary and South Tipperary , originally established in 1838 , renamed in 2001 and amalgamated in 2014 . The cities of Dublin , Cork and Galway have city councils and are administered separately from the counties bearing those names . The cities of Limerick and Waterford were merged with their respective county councils in 2014 to form new city and county councils . The remaining part of County Dublin is divided into Dún Laoghaire – Rathdown , Fingal , and South Dublin .
Electoral areas in Ireland ( the state ) , called constituencies in accordance with Irish law , mostly follow county boundaries . Maintaining links to the county system is a mandatory consideration in the re @-@ organisation of constituency boundaries by a Constituency Commission .
In Northern Ireland , a major re @-@ organisation of local government in 1973 replaced the six traditional counties and two county boroughs ( Belfast and Derry ) by 26 single @-@ tier districts , which , apart from Fermanagh cross the traditional county boundaries . The six counties and two county @-@ boroughs remain in use for purposes such as Lieutenancy . In November 2005 , proposals were announced which would see the number of local authorities reduced to seven . The island 's total population of approximately 6 million people is concentrated on the east coast , particularly in Dublin and Belfast and their surrounding areas .
= = Natural resources = =
= = = Bogs = = =
Ireland has 12 @,@ 000 km ² ( 4 @,@ 633 miles ² ) of bogland , consisting of two distinct types , blanket bogs and raised bogs . Blanket bogs are the more widespread of the two types . They are essentially a product of human activity aided by the moist Irish climate . Blanket bogs formed on sites where Neolithic farmers cleared trees for farming . As the land so cleared fell into disuse , the soil began to leach and become more acidic , producing a suitable environment for the growth of heather and rushes . The debris from these plants accumulated and a layer of peat formed . One of the largest expanses of Atlantic blanket bog in Ireland is to be found in County Mayo .
Raised bogs are most common in the Shannon basin . They formed when depressions left behind after the ice age filled with water to form lakes . Debris from reeds in these lakes formed a layer at the bottom of the water . This eventually choked the lakes and raised above the surface , forming raised bogs .
Since the 17th century , peat has been cut for fuel for domestic heating and cooking and it is called turf when so used . The process accelerated as commercial exploitation of bogs grew . In the 1940s , machines for cutting turf were introduced and larger @-@ scale exploitation became possible . In the Republic , this became the responsibility of a semi @-@ state company called Bord na Móna . In addition to domestic uses , commercially extracted turf is used in a number of industries , especially electricity generation though peat is being combined with biomass for dual @-@ firing electricity generation .
In recent years , the high level of bog being destroyed by cutting has raised environmental concerns . The problem is particularly acute for raised bogs as they yield a higher @-@ grade fuel than blanket bogs . Plans are now in place in both the Republic and Northern Ireland to conserve most of the remaining raised bogs on the island .
= = = Oil , natural gas and minerals = = =
Offshore exploration for natural gas began in 1970 . The first major discovery was the Kinsale Head gas field in 1971 . Next was the smaller Ballycotton gas field in 1989 , and the Corrib gas field in 1996 . Exploitation of the Corrib project has yet to get off the ground because the controversial proposal to refine the gas onshore , rather than at sea has been met with widespread opposition . Gas from these fields is pumped ashore and used for both domestic and industrial purposes . The Helvick oil field , estimated to contain over 28 million barrels ( 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil , is a 2000 discovery . Ireland is the largest European producer of zinc with three operating zinc @-@ lead mines at Navan , Galmoy and Lisheen . Other mineral deposits with actual or potential commercial value include gold , silver , gypsum , talc , calcite , dolomite , roofing slate , limestone aggregate , building stone , sand and gravel .
In May 2007 the Department of Communications , Marine and Natural Resources ( now replaced by the Department of Communications , Energy and Natural Resources ) reported that there may be volumes over 130 billion barrels ( 2 @.@ 1 × 1010 m3 ) of petroleum and 50 trillion cubic feet ( 1 @,@ 400 km3 ) of natural gas in Irish waters – worth trillions of Euro , if true . The minimum ' guaranteed ' amount of oil in the Irish Atlantic waters is 10 billion barrels ( 1 @.@ 6 × 109 m3 ) , worth over € 450 billion . There are also areas of petroleum and natural gas on shore , for example the Lough Allen basin , with 9 @.@ 4 trillion cubic feet ( 270 km3 ) of gas and 1 @.@ 5 billion barrels ( 240 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil , valued at € 74 @.@ 4 billion . Already some fields are being exploited , such as the Spanish Point field , with 1 @.@ 25 trillion cubic feet ( 35 km3 ) of gas and 206 million barrels ( 32 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil , valued at € 19 @.@ 6 billion . The Corrib Basin is also quite large , worth anything up to € 87 billion , while the Dunquin gas field contains 25 trillion cubic feet ( 710 km3 ) of natural gas and 4 @.@ 13 billion barrels ( 657 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of petroleum .
In March 2012 the first commercial oil well was drilled 70 km off the Cork coast by Providence Resources . The Barryroe oil well is yielding 3500 barrels per day , at current oil prices at $ 120 a barrel Barryroe oil well is worth in excess of € 2.14bn annually .
= = = Print = = =
Mitchell , Frank and Ryan , Michael . Reading the Irish landscape ( 1998 ) . ISBN 1 @-@ 86059 @-@ 055 @-@ 1
Whittow , J. B. Geography and Scenery in Ireland ( Penguin Books 1974 )
Holland , Charles , H and Sanders , Ian S. The Geology of Ireland 2nd ed . ( 2009 ) . ISBN 1903765722
Place @-@ names , Diarmuid O Murchadha and Kevin Murray , in The Heritage of Ireland , ed . N. Buttimer et al . , The Collins Press , Cork , 2000 , pp. 146 – 155 .
A paper landscape : the Ordnance Survey in nineteenth @-@ century Ireland , J.H. Andrews , London , 1975
Monasticon Hibernicum , M. Archdall , 1786
Etymological aetiology in Irish tradition , R. Baumgarten , Eiru 41 , pp. 115 – 122 , 1990
The Origin and History of Irish names of Places , Patrick Weston Joyce , three volumes , Dublin , 1869 , 1875 , 1913 .
Irish Place Names , D. Flanagan and L. Flanagan , Dublin , 1994
Census of Ireland : general alphabetical index to the townlands and towns , parishes and paronies of Ireland , Dublin , 1861
The Placenames of Westmeath , Paul Walsh , 1957
The Placenames of Decies , P. Power , Cork , 1952
The place @-@ names of county Wicklow , Liam Price , seven volumes , Dublin , 1945 – 67
= = = Online = = =
Abbot , Patrick . Ireland 's Peat Bogs . Retrieved on 23 January 2008 .
Ireland – The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . Retrieved on 23 January 2008 .
OnlineWeather.com – climate details for Ireland . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 01 @-@ 12
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= Variable @-@ frequency drive =
A variable @-@ frequency drive ( VFD ) ( also termed adjustable @-@ frequency drive , variable speed drive , AC drive , micro drive or inverter drive ) is a type of adjustable @-@ speed drive used in electro @-@ mechanical drive systems to control AC motor speed and torque by varying motor input frequency and voltage .
VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to the largest of mine mill drives and compressors . However , around 25 % of the world 's electrical energy is consumed by electric motors in industrial applications , which are especially conducive for energy savings using VFDs in centrifugal load service , and VFDs ' global market penetration for all applications is still relatively small . That lack of penetration highlights significant energy efficiency improvement opportunities for retrofitted and new VFD installations .
Over the last four decades , power electronics technology has reduced VFD cost and size and has improved performance through advances in semiconductor switching devices , drive topologies , simulation and control techniques , and control hardware and software .
VFDs are available in a number of different low- and medium @-@ voltage AC @-@ AC and DC @-@ AC topologies .
= = System description and operation = =
A variable @-@ frequency drive is a device used in a drive system consisting of the following three main sub @-@ systems : AC motor , main drive controller assembly , and drive / operator interface .
= = = AC Motor = = =
The AC electric motor used in a VFD system is usually three @-@ phase induction motor . Some types of single @-@ phase motors can be used , but three @-@ phase motors are usually preferred . Various types of synchronous motors offer advantages in some situations , but three @-@ phase induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical motor choice . Motors that are designed for fixed @-@ speed operation are often used . Elevated @-@ voltage stresses imposed on induction motors that are supplied by VFDs require that such motors be designed for definite @-@ purpose inverter @-@ fed duty in accordance with such requirements as Part 31 of NEMA Standard MG @-@ 1 .
= = = Controller = = =
The VFD controller is a solid @-@ state power electronics conversion system consisting of three distinct sub @-@ systems : a rectifier bridge converter , a direct current ( DC ) link , and an inverter . Voltage @-@ source inverter ( VSI ) drives ( see ' Generic topologies ' sub @-@ section below ) are by far the most common type of drives . Most drives are AC @-@ AC drives in that they convert AC line input to AC inverter output . However , in some applications such as common DC bus or solar applications , drives are configured as DC @-@ AC drives . The most basic rectifier converter for the VSI drive is configured as a three @-@ phase , six @-@ pulse , full @-@ wave diode bridge . In a VSI drive , the DC link consists of a capacitor which smooths out the converter 's DC output ripple and provides a stiff input to the inverter . This filtered DC voltage is converted to quasi @-@ sinusoidal AC voltage output using the inverter 's active switching elements . VSI drives provide higher power factor and lower harmonic distortion than phase @-@ controlled current @-@ source inverter ( CSI ) and load @-@ commutated inverter ( LCI ) drives ( see ' Generic topologies ' sub @-@ section below ) . The drive controller can also be configured as a phase converter having single @-@ phase converter input and three @-@ phase inverter output .
Controller advances have exploited dramatic increases in the voltage and current ratings and switching frequency of solid @-@ state power devices over the past six decades . Introduced in 1983 , the insulated @-@ gate bipolar transistor ( IGBT ) has in the past two decades come to dominate VFDs as an inverter switching device .
In variable @-@ torque applications suited for Volts @-@ per @-@ Hertz ( V / Hz ) drive control , AC motor characteristics require that the voltage magnitude of the inverter 's output to the motor be adjusted to match the required load torque in a linear V / Hz relationship . For example , for 460 V , 60 Hz motors , this linear V / Hz relationship is 460 / 60
= 7 @.@ 67 V / Hz . While suitable in wide @-@ ranging applications , V / Hz control is sub @-@ optimal in high @-@ performance applications involving low speed or demanding , dynamic speed regulation , positioning , and reversing load requirements . Some V / Hz control drives can also operate in quadratic V / Hz mode or can even be programmed to suit special multi @-@ point V / Hz paths .
The two other drive control platforms , vector control and direct torque control ( DTC ) , adjust the motor voltage magnitude , angle from reference , and frequency so as to precisely control the motor 's magnetic flux and mechanical torque .
Although space vector pulse @-@ width modulation ( SVPWM ) is becoming increasingly popular , sinusoidal PWM ( SPWM ) is the most straightforward method used to vary drives ' motor voltage ( or current ) and frequency . With SPWM control ( see Fig . 1 ) , quasi @-@ sinusoidal , variable @-@ pulse @-@ width output is constructed from intersections of a saw @-@ toothed carrier signal with a modulating sinusoidal signal which is variable in operating frequency as well as in voltage ( or current ) .
Operation of the motors above rated nameplate speed ( base speed ) is possible , but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than the nameplate rating of the motor . This is sometimes called " field weakening " and , for AC motors , means operating at less than rated V / Hz and above rated nameplate speed . Permanent magnet synchronous motors have quite limited field @-@ weakening speed range due to the constant magnet flux linkage . Wound @-@ rotor synchronous motors and induction motors have much wider speed range . For example , a 100 HP , 460 V , 60 Hz , 1775 RPM ( 4 @-@ pole ) induction motor supplied with 460 V , 75 Hz ( 6 @.@ 134 V / Hz ) , would be limited to 60 / 75 =
80 % torque at 125 % speed ( 2218 @.@ 75 RPM ) = 100 % power . At higher speeds , the induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway torque of the motor . Thus , rated power can be typically produced only up to 130 @-@ 150 % of the rated nameplate speed . Wound @-@ rotor synchronous motors can be run at even higher speeds . In rolling mill drives , often 200 @-@ 300 % of the base speed is used . The mechanical strength of the rotor limits the maximum speed of the motor .
An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller . Basic programming of the microprocessor is provided as user @-@ inaccessible firmware . User programming of display , variable , and function block parameters is provided to control , protect , and monitor the VFD , motor , and driven equipment .
The basic drive controller can be configured to selectively include such optional power components and accessories as follows :
Connected upstream of converter -- circuit breaker or fuses , isolation contactor , EMC filter , line reactor , passive filter
Connected to DC link -- braking chopper , braking resistor
Connected downstream of inverter — output reactor , sine wave filter , dV / dt filter .
= = = Operator interface = = =
The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed . Additional operator control functions might include reversing , and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal . The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display and / or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive . An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above . The keypad display can often be cable @-@ connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller . Most are also provided with input and output ( I / O ) terminals for connecting push buttons , switches , and other operator interface devices or control signals . A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured , adjusted , monitored , and controlled using a computer .
= = = Drive operation = = =
Referring to the accompanying chart , drive applications can be categorized as single @-@ quadrant , two @-@ quadrant , or four @-@ quadrant ; the chart 's four quadrants are defined as follows :
Quadrant I - Driving or motoring , forward accelerating quadrant with positive speed and torque
Quadrant II - Generating or braking , forward braking @-@ decelerating quadrant with positive speed and negative torque
Quadrant III - Driving or motoring , reverse accelerating quadrant with negative speed and torque
Quadrant IV - Generating or braking , reverse braking @-@ decelerating quadrant with negative speed and positive torque .
Most applications involve single @-@ quadrant loads operating in quadrant I , such as in variable @-@ torque ( e.g. centrifugal pumps or fans ) and certain constant @-@ torque ( e.g. extruders ) loads .
Certain applications involve two @-@ quadrant loads operating in quadrant I and II where the speed is positive but the torque changes polarity as in case of a fan decelerating faster than natural mechanical losses . Some sources define two @-@ quadrant drives as loads operating in quadrants I and III where the speed and torque is same ( positive or negative ) polarity in both directions .
Certain high @-@ performance applications involve four @-@ quadrant loads ( Quadrants I to IV ) where the speed and torque can be in any direction such as in hoists , elevators , and hilly conveyors . Regeneration can occur only in the drive 's DC link bus when inverter voltage is smaller in magnitude than the motor back @-@ EMF and inverter voltage and back @-@ EMF are the same polarity .
In starting a motor , a VFD initially applies a low frequency and voltage , thus avoiding high inrush current associated with direct @-@ on @-@ line starting . After the start of the VFD , the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load . This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150 % of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50 % of its rated current from the mains in the low @-@ speed range . A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150 % starting torque from standstill right up to full speed . However , motor cooling deteriorates and can result in overheating as speed decreases such that prolonged low @-@ speed operation with significant torque is not usually possible without separately motorized fan ventilation .
With a VFD , the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence . The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate . When the frequency approaches zero , the motor is shut off . A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast . Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit ( resistor controlled by a transistor ) to dissipate the braking energy . With a four @-@ quadrant rectifier ( active front @-@ end ) , the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and injecting the energy back to the AC line .
= = Benefits = =
= = = Energy savings = = =
Many fixed @-@ speed motor load applications that are supplied direct from AC line power can save energy when they are operated at variable speed by means of VFD . Such energy cost savings are especially pronounced in variable @-@ torque centrifugal fan and pump applications , where the load 's torque and power vary with the square and cube , respectively , of the speed . This change gives a large power reduction compared to fixed @-@ speed operation for a relatively small reduction in speed . For example , at 63 % speed a motor load consumes only 25 % of its full @-@ speed power . This reduction is in accordance with affinity laws that define the relationship between various centrifugal load variables .
In the United States , an estimated 60 @-@ 65 % of electrical energy is used to supply motors , 75 % of which are variable @-@ torque fan , pump , and compressor loads . Eighteen percent of the energy used in the 40 million motors in the U.S. could be saved by efficient energy improvement technologies such as VFDs .
Only about 3 % of the total installed base of AC motors are provided with AC drives . However , it is estimated that drive technology is adopted in as many as 30 @-@ 40 % of all newly installed motors .
An energy consumption breakdown of the global population of AC motor installations is as shown in the following table :
= = = Control performance = = =
AC drives are used to bring about process and quality improvements in industrial and commercial applications ' acceleration , flow , monitoring , pressure , speed , temperature , tension , and torque .
Fixed @-@ speed loads subject the motor to a high starting torque and to current surges that are up to eight times the full @-@ load current . AC drives instead gradually ramp the motor up to operating speed to lessen mechanical and electrical stress , reducing maintenance and repair costs , and extending the life of the motor and the driven equipment .
Variable @-@ speed drives can also run a motor in specialized patterns to further minimize mechanical and electrical stress . For example , an S @-@ curve pattern can be applied to a conveyor application for smoother deceleration and acceleration control , which reduces the backlash that can occur when a conveyor is accelerating or decelerating .
Performance factors tending to favor the use of DC drives over AC drives include such requirements as continuous operation at low speed , four @-@ quadrant operation with regeneration , frequent acceleration and deceleration routines , and need for the motor to be protected for a hazardous area . The following table compares AC and DC drives according to certain key parameters :
^ High @-@ frequency injection
= = VFD types and ratings = =
= = = Generic topologies = = =
AC drives can be classified according to the following generic topologies :
Voltage @-@ source inverter ( VSI ) drive topologies ( see image ) : In a VSI drive , the DC output of the diode @-@ bridge converter stores energy in the capacitor bus to supply stiff voltage input to the inverter . The vast majority of drives are VSI type with PWM voltage output .
Current @-@ source inverter ( CSI ) drive topologies ( see image ) : In a CSI drive , the DC output of the SCR @-@ bridge converter stores energy in series @-@ reactor connection to supply stiff current input to the inverter . CSI drives can be operated with either PWM or six @-@ step waveform output .
Six @-@ step inverter drive topologies ( see image ) : Now largely obsolete , six @-@ step drives can be either VSI or CSI type and are also referred to as variable @-@ voltage inverter drives , pulse @-@ amplitude modulation ( PAM ) drives , square @-@ wave drives or D.C. chopper inverter drives . In a six @-@ step drive , the DC output of the SCR @-@ bridge converter is smoothed via capacitor bus and series @-@ reactor connection to supply via Darlington Pair or IGBT inverter quasi @-@ sinusoidal , six @-@ step voltage or current input to an induction motor .
Load commutated inverter ( LCI ) drive topologies : In an LCI drive ( a special CSI case ) , the DC output of the SCR @-@ bridge converter stores energy via DC link inductor circuit to supply stiff quasi @-@ sinusoidal six @-@ step current output of a second SCR @-@ bridge 's inverter and an over @-@ excited synchronous machine .
Cycloconverter or matrix converter ( MC ) topologies ( see image ) : Cycloconverters and MCs are AC @-@ AC converters that have no intermediate DC link for energy storage . A cycloconverter operates as a three @-@ phase current source via three anti @-@ parallel @-@ connected SCR @-@ bridges in six @-@ pulse configuration , each cycloconverter phase acting selectively to convert fixed line frequency AC voltage to an alternating voltage at a variable load frequency . MC drives are IGBT @-@ based .
Doubly fed slip recovery system topologies : A doubly fed slip recovery system feeds rectified slip power to a smoothing reactor to supply power to the AC supply network via an inverter , the speed of the motor being controlled by adjusting the DC current .
= = = Control platforms = = =
Most drives use one or more of the following control platforms :
PWM V / Hz scalar control
PWM field @-@ oriented control ( FOC ) or vector control
Direct torque control ( DTC ) .
= = = Load torque and power characteristics = = =
Variable @-@ frequency drives are also categorized by the following load torque and power characteristics :
Variable torque , such as in centrifugal fan , pump , and blower applications
Constant torque , such as in conveyor and positive @-@ displacement pump applications
Constant power , such as in machine tool and traction applications .
= = = Available power ratings = = =
VFDs are available with voltage and current ratings covering a wide range of single @-@ phase and multi @-@ phase AC motors . Low @-@ voltage ( LV ) drives are designed to operate at output voltages equal to or less than 690 V. While motor @-@ application LV drives are available in ratings of up to the order of 5 or 6 MW , economic considerations typically favor medium @-@ voltage ( MV ) drives with much lower power ratings . Different MV drive topologies ( see Table 2 ) are configured in accordance with the voltage / current @-@ combination ratings used in different drive controllers ' switching devices such that any given voltage rating is greater than or equal to one to the following standard nominal motor voltage ratings : generally either 2 @.@ 3 / 4 @.@ 16 kV ( 60 Hz ) or 3 @.@ 3 / 6 @.@ 6 kV ( 50 Hz ) , with one thyristor manufacturer rated for up to 12 kV switching . In some applications a step @-@ up transformer is placed between a LV drive and a MV motor load . MV drives are typically rated for motor applications greater than between about 375 kW ( 500 HP ) and 750 kW ( 1000 hp ) . MV drives have historically required considerably more application design effort than required for LV drive applications . The power rating of MV drives can reach 100 MW , a range of different drive topologies being involved for different rating , performance , power quality , and reliability requirements .
= = = Drives by machines & detailed topologies = = =
It is lastly useful to relate VFDs in terms of the following two classifications :
In terms of various AC machines as shown in Table 1 below
In terms of various detailed AC @-@ AC converter topologies shown in Tables 2 and 3 below .
= = Application considerations = =
= = = AC line harmonics = = =
Note of clarification : .
While harmonics in the PWM output can easily be filtered by carrier @-@ frequency @-@ related filter inductance to supply near @-@ sinusoidal currents to the motor load , the VFD 's diode @-@ bridge rectifier converts AC line voltage to DC voltage output by super @-@ imposing non @-@ linear half @-@ phase current pulses thus creating harmonic current distortion , and hence voltage distortion , of the AC line input . When the VFD loads are relatively small in comparison to the large , stiff power system available from the electric power company , the effects of VFD harmonic distortion of the AC grid can often be within acceptable limits . Furthermore , in low @-@ voltage networks , harmonics caused by single @-@ phase equipment such as computers and TVs are partially cancelled by three @-@ phase diode bridge harmonics because their 5th and 7th harmonics are in counterphase . However , when the proportion of VFD and other non @-@ linear load compared to total load or of non @-@ linear load compared to the stiffness at the AC power supply , or both , is relatively large enough , the load can have a negative impact on the AC power waveform available to other power company customers in the same grid .
When the power company 's voltage becomes distorted due to harmonics , losses in other loads such as normal fixed @-@ speed AC motors are increased . This condition may lead to overheating and shorter operating life . Also , substation transformers and compensation capacitors are affected negatively . In particular , capacitors can cause resonance conditions that can unacceptably magnify harmonic levels . In order to limit the voltage distortion , owners of VFD load may be required to install filtering equipment to reduce harmonic distortion below acceptable limits . Alternatively , the utility may adopt a solution by installing filtering equipment of its own at substations affected by the large amount of VFD equipment being used . In high @-@ power installations , harmonic distortion can be reduced by supplying multi @-@ pulse rectifier @-@ bridge VFDs from transformers with multiple phase @-@ shifted windings .
It is also possible to replace the standard diode @-@ bridge rectifier with a bi @-@ directional IGBT switching device bridge mirroring the standard inverter which uses IGBT switching device output to the motor . Such rectifiers are referred to by various designations including active infeed converter ( AIC ) , active rectifier , IGBT supply unit ( ISU ) , active front end ( AFE ) , or four @-@ quadrant operation . With PWM control and a suitable input reactor , an AFE 's AC line current waveform can be nearly sinusoidal . AFE inherently regenerates energy in four @-@ quadrant mode from the DC side to the AC grid . Thus , no braking resistor is needed , and the efficiency of the drive is improved if the drive is frequently required to brake the motor .
Two other harmonics mitigation techniques exploit use of passive or active filters connected to a common bus with at least one VFD branch load on the bus . Passive filters involve the design of one or more low @-@ pass LC filter traps , each trap being tuned as required to a harmonic frequency ( 5th , 7th , 11th , 13th , . . . kq + / -1 , where k = integer , q = pulse number of converter ) .
It is very common practice for power companies or their customers to impose harmonic distortion limits based on IEC or IEEE standards . For example , IEEE Standard 519 limits at the customer 's connection point call for the maximum individual frequency voltage harmonic to be no more than 3 % of the fundamental and call for the voltage total harmonic distortion ( THD ) to be no more than 5 % for a general AC power supply system .
= = Switching frequency = =
= = = Switching frequency foldback = = =
One drive uses a default switching frequency setting of 4 kHz . Reducing the drive ’ s switching frequency ( the carrier @-@ frequency ) reduces the heat generated by the IGBTs .
A carrier frequency of at least ten times the desired output frequency is used to establish the PWM switching intervals . A carrier frequency in the range of 2 @,@ 000 to 16 @,@ 000 Hz is common for LV [ low voltage , under 600 Volts AC ] VFDs . A higher carrier frequency produces a better sine wave approximation but incurs higher switching losses in the IGBT , decreasing the overall power conversion efficiency .
= = = Noise Smoothing = = =
Some drives have a noise smoothing feature that can be turned on to introduce a random variation to the switching frequency . This distributes the acoustic noise over a range of frequencies to lower the peak noise intensity .
= = = Long @-@ lead effects = = =
The carrier @-@ frequency pulsed output voltage of a PWM VFD causes rapid rise times in these pulses , the transmission line effects of which must be considered . Since the transmission @-@ line impedance of the cable and motor are different , pulses tend to reflect back from the motor terminals into the cable . The resulting voltages can produce overvoltages equal to twice the DC bus voltage or up to 3 @.@ 1 times the rated line voltage for long cable runs , putting high stress on the cable and motor windings , and eventual insulation failure . Note that standards for three @-@ phase motors rated 230 V or less adequately protect against such long @-@ lead overvoltages . On 460 V or 575 V systems and inverters with 3rd @-@ generation 0 @.@ 1 @-@ microsecond @-@ rise @-@ time IGBTs , the maximum recommended cable distance between VFD and motor is about 50 m or 150 feet . Solutions to overvoltages caused by long lead lengths include minimizing cable distance , lowering carrier frequency , installing dV / dt filters , using inverter @-@ duty @-@ rated motors ( that are rated 600 V to withstand pulse trains with rise time less than or equal to 0 @.@ 1 microsecond , of 1 @,@ 600 V peak magnitude ) , and installing LCR low @-@ pass sine wave filters . Regarding lowering of carrier frequency , note that audible noise is noticeably increased for carrier frequencies less than about 6 kHz and is most noticeable at about 3 kHz . Note also that selection of optimum PWM carrier frequency for AC drives involves balancing noise , heat , motor insulation stress , common @-@ mode voltage @-@ induced motor bearing current damage , smooth motor operation , and other factors . Further harmonics attenuation can be obtained by using an LCR low @-@ pass sine wave filter or dV / dt filter .
= = = Motor bearing currents = = =
PWM drives are inherently associated with high @-@ frequency common @-@ mode voltages and currents which may cause trouble with motor bearings . When these high @-@ frequency voltages find a path to earth through a bearing , transfer of metal or electrical discharge machining ( EDM ) sparking occurs between the bearing 's ball and the bearing 's race . Over time , EDM @-@ based sparking causes erosion in the bearing race that can be seen as a fluting pattern . In large motors , the stray capacitance of the windings provides paths for high @-@ frequency currents that pass through the motor shaft ends , leading to a circulating type of bearing current . Poor grounding of motor stators can lead to shaft @-@ to @-@ ground bearing currents . Small motors with poorly grounded driven equipment are susceptible to high @-@ frequency bearing currents .
Prevention of high @-@ frequency bearing current damage uses three approaches : good cabling and grounding practices , interruption of bearing currents , and filtering or damping of common @-@ mode currents for example through soft magnetic cores , the so @-@ called inductive absorbers . Good cabling and grounding practices can include use of shielded , symmetrical @-@ geometry power cable to supply the motor , installation of shaft grounding brushes , and conductive bearing grease . Bearing currents can be interrupted by installation of insulated bearings and specially designed electrostatic @-@ shielded induction motors . Filtering and damping high @-@ frequency bearing can be done though inserting soft magnetic cores over the three phases giving a high frequency impedance against the common mode or motor bearing currents . Another approach is to use instead of standard 2 @-@ level inverter drives , using either 3 @-@ level inverter drives or matrix converters .
Since inverter @-@ fed motor cables ' high @-@ frequency current spikes can interfere with other cabling in facilities , such inverter @-@ fed motor cables should not only be of shielded , symmetrical @-@ geometry design but should also be routed at least 50 cm away from signal cables .
= = = Dynamic braking = = =
Torque generated by the drive causes the induction motor to run at synchronous speed less the slip . If the load drives the motor faster than synchronous speed , the motor acts as a generator , converting mechanical power back to electrical power . This power is returned to the drive 's DC link element ( capacitor or reactor ) . A DC @-@ link @-@ connected electronic power switch or braking DC chopper controls dissipation of this power as heat in a set of resistors . Cooling fans may be used to prevent resistor overheating .
Dynamic braking wastes braking energy by transforming it to heat . By contrast , regenerative drives recover braking energy by injecting this energy into the AC line . The capital cost of regenerative drives is , however , relatively high .
= = = Regenerative drives = = =
Regenerative AC drives have the capacity to recover the braking energy of a load moving faster than the designated motor speed ( an overhauling load ) and return it to the power system .
Cycloconverter , Scherbius , matrix , CSI , and LCI drives inherently allow return of energy from the load to the line , while voltage @-@ source inverters require an additional converter to return energy to the supply .
Regeneration is useful in VFDs only where the value of the recovered energy is large compared to the extra cost of a regenerative system , and if the system requires frequent braking and starting . Regenerative VFDs are widely used where speed control of overhauling loads is required .
Some examples :
Conveyor belt drives for manufacturing , which stop every few minutes . While stopped , parts are assembled correctly ; once that is done , the belt moves on .
A crane , where the hoist motor stops and reverses frequently , and braking is required to slow the load during lowering .
Plug @-@ in and hybrid electric vehicles of all types ( see image and Hybrid Synergy Drive ) .
= = Historical systems = =
Before solid @-@ state devices became available , variable @-@ frequency drives used rotary machines and the General Electric Company obtained several patents for these in the early 20th century . An example is US patent 949320 of 1910 which states : " Such a generator finds a useful application in supplying current to induction motors for driving cars , locomotives , or other mechanism which are to be driven at variable speeds " .
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= Russian battleship Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya =
The Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya ( Russian : Императрица Екатерина Великая , or Empress Catherine the Great ) was the second ship of the Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class dreadnoughts of the Imperial Russian Navy . She was begun before World War I , completed in 1915 and saw service with the Black Sea Fleet . She engaged the ex @-@ German battlecruiser Yavuz once , but only inflicted splinter damage while taking no damage herself . She was renamed Svobodnaya Rossiya ( Russian : Свободная Россия , Free Russia ) after the February Revolution , but saw no further combat . She was evacuated from Sevastopol as the Germans approached in May 1918 , but was scuttled in Novorossiysk harbor the following month when the Germans demanded that the Soviets hand her over according to the terms of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk .
= = Description = =
Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya was slightly larger than her half @-@ sisters . She was 167 @.@ 8 meters ( 550 ft 6 in ) long at the waterline and had a beam of 28 @.@ 07 meters ( 92 ft 1 in ) ; 4 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 47 m ) longer and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) wider than her half sisters . Her exact draft is not known , but she had a draft of 8 @.@ 7 meters ( 28 ft 7 in ) on trials . Her displacement was 24 @,@ 644 long tons ( 25 @,@ 039 t ) at load , over 900 long tons ( 910 t ) more than her designed displacement of 23 @,@ 783 long tons ( 24 @,@ 165 t ) . The first ship of the class , Imperatritsa Mariya , had proved to be very bow heavy in service and tended to ship large amounts of water through her forward casemates . The ammunition for Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya 's forward 12 @-@ inch guns was reduced from 100 to 70 rounds each while the forward 130 mm ammunition was reduced from 245 to 100 rounds per gun in an attempt to compensate for her trim . This sufficed as Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya 's longer length meant that she was less affected by the trim problem to begin with .
Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya was fitted with four Parsons @-@ type steam turbines built by the Associated Factories and Shipyards of Nikolayev ( ONZiV ) with technical assistance from Vickers Limited . They were designed for a total of 27 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 000 kW ) , but produced 33 @,@ 000 shp ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) on trials . 20 mixed @-@ firing triangular Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers powered the turbines with a working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 atm ( 257 psi ) . Her designed speed was 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Her maximum coal capacity was 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 032 t ) plus 630 long tons ( 640 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 1 @,@ 680 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 110 km ; 1 @,@ 930 mi ) at full speed and 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at economical speed . All of her electrical power was generated by three main Curtis 360 kilowatt turbo generators and two 200 kilowatt auxiliary units .
Her main armament consisted of twelve Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch Pattern 1907 52 @-@ caliber guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) B7 Pattern 1913 55 @-@ caliber guns mounted in casemates . They were arranged in two groups , six guns per side from the forward turret to the rear funnel and the remaining four clustered around the rear turret . She was fitted with three 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , one mounted on the roof of the fore turret and two side by side on the aft turret . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted , two tubes on each broadside abaft the forward magazine .
= = Service = =
Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya was built by the ONZiV Shipyard at Nikolayev . She was laid down on 30 October 1911 as Ekaterina II , but this was just a ceremonial event as the design had not yet been finalized or the contract signed . ONZiV decided , on advice from Vickers , to increase her dimensions over those of her sisters to prevent her from being overweight . This added over two million gold rubles to her cost and delayed the start of her construction three months past her sisters . She suffered from a number of other delays during construction . First the method of fastening the armor to its supports was changed and the armor plates were locked together by a type of mortise and tenon joint to better distribute the shock of an impact . This was based on the full @-@ scale armor trials conducted using the hulk of the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Chesma in 1913 and added almost 500 long tons ( 508 t ) of weight to the ship . She was launched on 6 June 1914 , renamed on 27 June 1915 , and completed on 18 October 1915 . She ran her trials during the remainder of the year .
She was nearly sunk by the Russian destroyer Bystry on 5 January 1916 when the destroyer fired seven torpedoes at her in a case of mistaken identity ; luckily they all missed . Three days later she encountered the Ottoman battlecruiser Yavuz at long range . The ships opened fire at about 22 @,@ 000 yards ( 20 @,@ 000 m ) and Yavuz only got off five salvoes before she disengaged from the slower Russian dreadnought without damaging her . Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya fired 96 shells from her longer @-@ ranged guns , but inflicted only splinter damage on Yavuz before she pulled out of range . Six months later both Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya and her half @-@ sister Imperatritsa Mariya , alerted by intercepted radio transmissions , sortied from Sevastopol in an attempt to intercept Yavuz as she returned from a bombardment of the Russian port of Tuapse on 4 July . Yavuz dodged north and avoided the Russians by paralleling the Bulgarian coastline back to the Bosphorus .
After the February Revolution she was renamed Svobodnaya Rossiya ( Russian : Свободная Россия , " Free Russia " ) on 29 April 1917 . She sailed from Sevastopol to Novorossiysk on 30 April 1918 as German troops approached the city . The ship was scuttled on 19 June 1918 by four torpedoes fired by the destroyer Kerch in Novorossiysk harbor to prevent her from being turned over to the Germans as required by the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . The fourth torpedo caused a massive explosion and she capsized and sank in four minutes . No attempt was made to salvage her during the 1920s , but the 12 @-@ inch shells were salvaged from her wreck . Explosive charges were used to gain access to her magazines until one day in 1930 when a charge set off a torpedo warhead , which caused a nearby powder magazine to explode , throwing a column of water 100 – 120 metres ( 330 – 390 ft ) into the air . No one was injured , but salvage work of this type ceased , although parts of her engines and boilers were later salvaged .
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= Coccomyces dentatus =
Coccomyces dentatus is a species of fungus in the family Rhytismataceae . A widespread species , particularly in temperate areas , it colonizes the dead fallen leaves of vascular plants , particularly oak and chestnut . The fungus apothecia , which form in the epidermal layer of the leaf host , resemble dark hexagonal spots scattered on a multi @-@ colored mosaic pattern bounded by thin black lines . When mature , the apothecia open by triangular flaps to release spores . The anamorph form of C. dentatus is Tricladiopsis flagelliformis . Lookalike species can be distinguished by the shape of the apothecia , or by microscopic characteristics .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described scientifically as Phacidium dentatum by Johann Karl Schmidt in 1817 . Italian botanist Giuseppe De Notaris moved it to Lophodermium in 1847 . In 1877 , Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred it to Coccomyces , giving it its current name . The variety C. dentatus var. hexagonus , described by Otto Penzig and Saccardo from West Java , Indonesia in 1901 , is sometimes applied to western US collections with large six @-@ sided apothecia . However , its status is unclear , as the type is no longer in Saccardo 's herbarium at the University of Padua , and Penzig 's collection was destroyed during World War II . C. dentatus f. lauri was described by Heinrich Rehm in 1901 , for a collection found growing on a species of Lauraceae in Rio Grande do Sul ( southern Brazil ) . According to English botanist Martha Sherwood , who revised the genus Coccomyces in 1980 , it is indistinguishable from the main type and should be considered synonymous .
One author regarded C. dentatus as a synonym of Coccomyces coronatus , although later authors have treated them separately . In 1923 , Carlos Luigi Spegazzini tentatively reported the presence of C. dentatus on fallen Nothofagus leaves in Tierra del Fuego ( southern South America ) ; this species was later identified as a distinct species , C. australis .
In 1982 , Enrique Descals described an aquatic hyphomycete Tricladiopsis flagelliformis growing from submerged leaves found in the shoreline of Windermere ( Cumbria , England ) , which he tentatively assigned as the anamorph state of Coccomyces dentatus . The specific epithet flagelliformis ( from the Latin flagellum " whip " and formis " shape " ) refers to the " whip @-@ like " form of the conidium .
= = Description = =
The apothecia of Coccomyces dentatus are distributed in bleached spots that are bounded by a black lines inside the outer cell layer of the leaf ( intraepidermal ) . The black lines — often referred to as zone lines — are the result of an antagonistic interactions between individuals of different genotypes that colonize the leaf surface . Apothecia are usually accompanied by pycnidia ( asexual fruit bodies ) measuring 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 0 mm in diameter . The apothecia are black , and shiny , with four to six sides . They have a star @-@ shaped pattern of grooves formed by lighter colored cells . When the spores are mature , these open ( dehisce ) by triangular " teeth " to expose the dull yellow hymenium ( spore @-@ bearing surface ) .
The layer covering the apothecia is about 30 μm thick , and made of blackened ( carbonized ) cells measuring 5 – 6 μm in diameter . At the base of the apothecia is carbonized supportive tissue about 5 μm thick . The paraphyses ( sterile filamentous hyphal cells ) are unbranched , threadlike ( filiform ) , gradually enlarge to a width of 2 @.@ 0 μm at the tip , and have granular contents . The thin @-@ walled cylindrical to club @-@ shaped asci ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are on a short stalk , and measure 70 – 105 by 8 – 10 μm ; each ascus contains eight ascospores . Ascospores , which measure 45 – 65 by 3 @.@ 0 μm , have a thin but distinct sheath , and lack septa ( cross @-@ walls ) . Pycnidia ( which appear before the apothecia mature ) are intraepidermal , lenticular ( having the shape of a double @-@ convex lens ) in cross section , 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 3 mm in diameter , and covered with a dark brown layer of cells . The phialides are arranged in a basal layer , and borne on short conidiophores . They are slender and subulate ( tapering to a point ) , lack a collarette , and measure 5 – 10 by 2 – 2 @.@ 5 μm . The conidia are colorless , rod @-@ shaped , lack septa , and have dimensions of 4 – 5 by 1 @.@ 0 μm .
The putative anamorph form of C. dentatus has been described as Tricladiopsis flagelliformis . Grown on 2 % malt agar at standard conditions , it forms black @-@ centered colonies that have a growth rate of 7 cm per week . The conidia produced are thin and curved with a whip @-@ like shape . They have 13 – 20 septa , measure 65 – 135 by 2 – 3 @.@ 5 μm , and usually have a single branch ( typically about 45 μm long ) that appears before cells are released .
There are only a few species of Rhytismatales known to have anamorphs that do not function as spermatia ( non @-@ motile cells that function as a male gamete ) . Coccomyces dentatus is one of only two species that are known to have both a spermatial and a non @-@ spermatial state ( the other is Ascodichaena rugosa ) .
= = = Similar species = = =
The species is frequently confused with Coccomyces coronatus , which has inflated paraphyses , longer asci and ascospores , less regularly shaped apothecia , and rarely occurs on leaves of evergreens . It prefers to grow on well @-@ rotted leaves , and is found predominantly in northern Europe and eastern North America . C. tumidus is somewhat similar in appearance , but distinguished in the field by round to ellipsoid apothecia . C. australis has circinate ( rolled up with the tip in the center ) rather than filiform paraphyses , larger asci and somewhat larger ascospores ( 150 – 180 by 14 – 16 @.@ 5 μm and 60 – 75 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 μm , respectively ) . Another lookalike species that is morphological quite similar to C. dentatus is C. kinabaluensis , found in the Malaysian state of Sabah . However , the latter can be distinguished by the following characters : three- to four @-@ sided ascocarps ; ascospores with a single septum ; and longer , wider asci measuring 110 – 135 by 10 – 14 μm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Coccomyces dentatus is a saprobic species , and grows on dead leaves of a wide variety of angiosperms . It is frequently encountered on members of the heather ( family Ericaceae ) , and the beech family ( Fagaceae ) , such as oak ( red , white , and live oak ) and chestnut , and also on the exotic Castanea sativa from Chile . Other common substrates include leaves of trees in the genera Rhododendron , Lithocarpus , Berberis , Arbutus , Gaultheria , and Myrica .
Widely distributed and common , the fungus occurs predominantly in warm temperate areas . It has been found in Africa ( Tunisia ) , Europe , and the Americas . In the northern part of its range , it occurs in the summer and autumn , but in subtropical areas it can be found year @-@ round . Because of its wide geographical distribution , abundance , and conspicuousness , Coccomyces dentatus is the most often collected species of Coccomyces .
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= Theramenes =
Theramenes ( / θᵻˈræmᵻniːz / ; Greek : Θηραμένης ; died 404 BC ) was an Athenian statesman , prominent in the final decade of the Peloponnesian War . He was particularly active during the two periods of oligarchic government at Athens , as well as in the trial of the generals who had commanded at Arginusae in 406 BC . A moderate oligarch , he often found himself caught between the democrats on the one hand and the extremist oligarchs on the other . Successful in replacing a narrow oligarchy with a broader one in 411 BC , he failed to achieve the same end in 404 BC , and was executed by the extremists whose policies he had opposed .
Theramenes was a central figure in four major episodes of Athenian history . He appeared on the scene in 411 BC as one of the leaders of an oligarchic coup , but , as his views and those of the coup 's other leaders diverged , he began to oppose their dictates and took the lead in replacing the narrow oligarchy they had imposed with a more broadly based one . He served as a general for several years after this , but was not reelected to that office in 407 BC . After the Battle of Arginusae , in which he served as a trierarch , he was assigned to rescue Athenian sailors from sinking ships , but was prevented from doing so by a storm . That incident prompted a massive furor at Athens , in which Theramenes had to exonerate himself from responsibility for the failed rescue ; the controversy ended in the execution of six generals who had commanded at that battle . After the Athenian defeat at Aegospotami in 405 BC , Theramenes arranged the terms by which Athens surrendered to Sparta . He then became a member of the narrow oligarchic government , known as the Thirty Tyrants , that Sparta imposed on its defeated rival . As he had in 411 BC , Theramenes soon came into conflict with the more extreme members of that government ; his protests against the reign of terror the Thirty implemented led the leading oligarchs to plot his demise ; he was denounced before the oligarchic assembly , and then , when that body appeared reluctant to punish him , struck him from the roster of citizens and executed him without trial .
Theramenes remained a controversial figure after his death ; Lysias vigorously denounced him while prosecuting several of his former political allies , but others defended his actions . Modern historical assessments have shifted over time ; in the 19th century , Theramenes 's part in the coup of 411 BC and his use of Arginusae were widely condemned , but newly discovered ancient texts and 20th @-@ century scholarship supported more positive assessments . Some historians have found in Theramenes a selfish opportunist , others a principled moderate . The details of his actions , his motivations , and his character continue to be debated down to the present day .
= = Historical record = =
No ancient biographies of Theramenes are known , but his life and actions are relatively well documented , due to the extensive treatment given him in several surviving works . The Attic orator Lysias deals with him at length in several of his speeches , albeit in a very hostile manner . Theramenes also appears in several ancient narrative histories : Thucydides ' account includes the beginnings of Theramenes ' career , and Xenophon , picking up where Thucydides left off , gives a detailed account of several episodes from Theramenes career ; Diodorus Siculus , probably drawing his account from Ephorus at most points , provides another account that varies widely from Xenophon 's at several points . Theramenes also appears in several other sources , which , although they do not provide as many narrative details , have been used to illuminate the political disputes which surrounded Theramenes ' life and memory .
= = Family = =
Only the barest outlines of Theramenes ' life outside the public sphere have been preserved in the historical record . His father , Hagnon had played a significant role in Athenian public life in the decades before Theramenes ' appearance on the scene . He had commanded the group of Greek colonists who founded Amphipolis in 437 – 6 BC , had served as a general on several occasions before and during the Peloponnesian War , and was one of the signers of the Peace of Nicias . Hagnon 's career overlapped with his son 's when he served as one of the ten commissioners appointed by the government of the 400 to draft a new constitution in 411 BC .
= = Coup of 411 BC = =
= = = Overthrow of the democracy = = =
Theramenes ' first appearance in the historical record comes with his involvement in the oligarchic coup of 411 BC . In the wake of the Athenian defeat in Sicily , revolts began to break out among Athens ' subject states in the Aegean Sea and the Peace of Nicias fell apart ; the Peloponnesian War resumed in full by 412 BC . In this context , a number of Athenian aristocrats , led by Peisander and with Theramenes prominent among their ranks , began to conspire to overthrow the city 's democratic government . This intrigue was initiated by the exiled nobleman Alcibiades , who was at that time acting as an assistant to the Persian satrap Tissaphernes . Claiming that he had great influence with Tissaphernes , Alcibiades promised to return to Athens , bringing Persian support with him , if the democracy that had exiled him were replaced with an oligarchy . Accordingly , a number of trierarchs and other leaders of the Athenian army at Samos began planning the overthrow of the democracy . They eventually dispatched Peisander to Athens , where , by promising that the return of Alcibiades and an alliance with Persia would follow if the Athenians would replace their democracy with an oligarchy , he persuaded the Athenian ecclesia to send him as an emissary to Alcibiades , authorized to make whatever arrangements were necessary .
Alcibiades , however , did not succeed in persuading the satrap to ally with the Athenians , and , to hide this fact , demanded ( claiming to be speaking for Tissaphernes ) greater and greater concessions of them until they finally refused to comply . Disenchanted with Alcibiades but still determined to overthrow the democracy , Peisander and his companions returned to Samos , where the conspirators worked to secure their control over the army and encouraged a group of native Samian oligarchs to begin planning the overthrow of their own city 's democracy . In Athens , meanwhile , a party of young oligarchic revolutionaries succeeded in gaining de facto control of the government through assassination and intimidation .
After making arrangements to their satisfaction at Samos the leaders of the conspiracy set sail for Athens . Among them was Theramenes ; Thucydides refers to him as " one of the leaders of the party that put down the democracy — an able speaker and a man with ideas . " Calling the assembly together , the conspirators proposed a series of measures by which the democracy was formally replaced with a government of 400 chosen men , who were to select and convene a larger body of 5 @,@ 000 as time went on . Shortly afterwards , the conspirators went , under arms , to the council chamber , where they ordered the democratic council to disperse after collecting their pay ; the council did as ordered , and from this point forward the mechanism of government was fully under the control of the oligarchic conspirators ; they quickly changed the laws to reflect the new form of government they had imposed .
= = = Conflict within the movement = = =
At this point , several conflicts began to develop that threatened the future of the new government at Athens . First , the planned coup at Samos was thwarted by the efforts of Samian democrats and a group of Athenians who they entrusted with helping them . When the army at Samos heard the news of the coup at Athens , which arrived along with exaggerated reports of outrages being perpetrated by the new government , they declared their loyalty to democracy and hostility to the new government . At Athens , meanwhile , a split developed between the moderate and radical oligarchs , with Theramenes emerging alongside one Aristocrates son of Scelias as the leader of the moderate faction . The extremist faction , led by Phrynicus , containing such prominent leaders of the coup as Peisander and Antiphon , and dominant within the 400 , opposed broadening the base of the oligarchy , and were willing to seek peace with Sparta on almost any terms . The moderates , on the other hand , although willing to seek peace with Sparta on terms that would preserve Athens ' power , were not willing to sacrifice the empire and the fleet , and wanted to broaden the oligarchy to include the putative 5 @,@ 000 , presumably including all men of hoplite status or higher .
Shortly after taking power , the extremist leaders of the revolution had begun constructing fortifications on Eetioneia , a dominant point in the entrance to the harbor of Piraeus , ostensibly to protect the harbor against an attack from the fleet at Samos . With internal dissent increasing , they joined these new fortifications to existing walls to form a redoubt defensible against attacks from land or sea , which contained a large warehouse into which the extremists moved most of the city 's corn supply . Theramenes protested strongly against the building of this fortification , arguing that its purpose was not to keep the democrats out , but to be handed over to the Spartans ; Thucydides testifies that his charges were not without substance , as the extremists were actually contemplating such an action . Initially cautious ( as enemies of the regime had been executed before ) , Theramenes and his party were emboldened and galvanized into action by several events . First , a Peloponnesian fleet , ostensibly dispatched to assist anti @-@ Athenian forces on Euboea , was moving slowly up the coast of the Peloponnese ; Theramenes charged that this fleet was planning to seize the fortifications on Eetioneia , in collaboration with the extremists . Second , an Athenian militiaman , apparently acting on orders from conspirators higher in the ranks of the government , assassinated Phrynichus , the leader of the extremist faction . He escaped , but his accomplice , an Argive , was captured ; the prisoner , under torture , refused to state the name of his employer . With the extremists unable to take effective action in this case , and with the Peloponnesian fleet overrunning Aegina ( a logical stopping point on the approach to Piraeus ) , Theramenes and his party decided to act .
Aristocrates , who was commanding a regiment of hoplites in Piraeus , arrested the extremist general Alexicles ; enraged , the extremist leaders of the 400 demanded action , and made a number of threats against Theramenes and his party . To their surprise , Theramenes volunteered to lead a force to rescue Alexicles ; the leaders of the extremists acquiesced , and Theramenes set out to Piraeus , sharing his command with one other moderate and one extremist , Aristarchus . When Theramenes and his force arrived at Piraeus , Aristarchus , in a rage , exhorted the men to attack the hoplites who had seized Alexicles . Theramenes feigned rage as well , but when asked by the hoplites whether he thought that the fortification on Eetioneia was a good idea , he responded that if they wanted to pull it down , he thought that would be good . Calling out that everyone who wanted the 5 @,@ 000 to govern instead of the 400 , the hoplites set to work . Donald Kagan has suggested that this call was probably instigated by Theramenes ' party , who wanted the 5 @,@ 000 to govern ; the hoplites tearing down the fortification might well have preferred a return to the democracy . Several days later , the Peloponnesian fleet approached Piraeus , but , finding the fortifications destroyed and the port well defended , they sailed on to Euboea . Several days later , the 400 were formally deposed and replaced by a government of the 5 @,@ 000 ; the most extreme of the oligarchs fled the city .
= = In command = =
Under the government of the 5 @,@ 000 and under the democracy that replaced it in 410 BC , Theramenes served as a general for several years , commanding fleets in the Aegean Sea and the Hellespont . Shortly after the rise of the government of the 5 @,@ 000 , Theramenes set sail to the Hellespont to join Thrasybulus and the generals elected by the army at Samos . After the Athenian victory at Abydos , he took thirty triremes to attack the rebels on Euboea , who were building a causeway to Boeotia to provide land access to their island . Unable to stop the construction , he plundered the territory of several rebellious cities , then travelled around the Aegean suppressing oligarchies and raising funds from various cities of the Athenian Empire . He then took his fleet to Macedon , where he assisted the Macedonian king Archelaus in his siege of Pydna , but , with that siege dragging on , he sailed on to join Thrasybulus in Thrace . The fleet soon moved on from there to challenge Mindarus ' fleet , which had seized the city of Cyzicus . Theramenes commanded one wing of the Athenian fleet in the resulting Battle of Cyzicus , a decisive Athenian victory . In that battle , Alcibiades ( who had been recalled from exile by the fleet at Samos shortly after the coup ) led a decoy force that drew the Spartan fleet out into open water , while Thrasybulus and Theramenes , each commanding an independent squadron , cut off the Spartans ' retreat . Mindarus was forced to flee to a nearby beach , and vicious fighting ensued on land as the Athenians attempted to drag off the Spartan ships . Thrasybulus and Alcibiades kept the Spartans occupied while Theramenes joined up with the nearby Athenian land forces and then hurried to the rescue ; his arrival precipitated a total Athenian victory , in which all the Spartan ships were captured . In the wake of this victory , the Athenians captured Cyzicus and constructed a fort at Chrysopolis , from which they extracted a customs duty of one tenth on all ships passing through the Bosporus . Theramenes and another general remained at this fort with a garrison of thirty ships to oversee the collection of the duty . At Athens , meanwhile , the government of the 5 @,@ 000 was replaced by a restored democracy within a few months of this battle ; Donald Kagan has suggested that the absence of Theramenes , " the best spokesman for the moderates " , paved the way for this restoration .
According to Diodorus and Plutarch , Theramenes participated under the command of Alcibiades to the siege of Byzantium ( 408 BC ) , winning the battle against the peloponnesiac army that was appointed to defend that city : Alcibiades was in command of the right wing , while Theramenes was in charge of the left one .
= = Arginusae = =
Theramenes remained a general through 407 BC , but , in that year , when the Athenian defeat at Notium led to the downfall of Alcibiades and his political allies , Theramenes was not reelected . In the next year , however , he did sail as a trierarch in the scratch Athenian relief fleet sent out to relieve Conon , who had been blockaded with 40 triremes at Mytilene by Callicratidas . That relief force won a surprising victory over the more experienced Spartan force in the Battle of Arginusae , but in the wake of that battle Theramenes found himself in the middle of a massive controversy . At the end of the battle , the generals in command of the fleet had conferred to decide on their next steps . Several pressing concerns presented themselves ; 50 Peloponnesian ships under Eteonicus remained at Mytilene , blockading Conon , and decisive action by the Athenians could lead to the destruction of that force as well , but , at the same time , ships needed to be dispatched to recover the sailors of the twenty five Athenian triremes sunk or disabled in the battle . Accordingly , all eight generals , with the larger part of the fleet , set out for Mytilene , while a rescue force under Thrasybulus and Theramenes , both of whom were trierarchs in this battle but had served as generals in prior campaigns , remained behind to pick up the survivors and retrieve corpses for burial . At this point , however , a severe storm blew up , and both of these forces were driven back to shore . Eteonicus escaped , and a great number of Athenian sailors — estimates as to the precise figure have ranged from near 1 @,@ 000 to as many as 5 @,@ 000 — drowned .
Soon after the news of this public tragedy reached Athens , a massive controversy erupted over the apportionment of blame for the botched rescue . The public was furious over the loss of so many sailors , and over the failure to recover the bodies of the dead for burial , and the generals suspected that Thrasybulus and Theramenes , who had already returned to Athens , might have been responsible for stirring up the assembly against them , and wrote letters to the people denouncing the two trierarchs as responsible for the failed rescue . Thrasybulus and Theramenes were called before the assembly to defend their behavior ; in their defense , Theramenes produced a letter from the generals in which they blamed only the storm for the mishap ; the trierarchs were exonerated , and public anger now turned against the generals . All eight were deposed from office , and summoned back to Athens to stand trial . Two fled , but six returned as commanded to face the charges against them .
Diodorus notes that the generals committed a critical error by attempting to shift the blame onto Theramenes . " For , " he states , " although they could have had the help of Theramenes and his associates in the trial , men who both were able orators and had many friends and , most important of all , had been participants in the events relative to the battle , they had them , on the contrary , as adversaries and bitter accusers . " When the trial came , Theramenes ' numerous political allies were among the leaders of the faction seeking the generals ' conviction . A bitter series of debates and legal maneuvers ensued as the assembly fought over what to do with the generals . At first , it appeared that they might be treated leniently , but in the end , public displays of bereavement by the families of the deceased and aggressive prosecution by a politician named Callixenus swung the opinion of the assembly ; the six generals were tried as a group and executed . The Athenian public , as the grief and anger prompted by the disaster cooled , came to regret their action , and for thousands of years historians and commentators have pointed to the incident as perhaps the greatest miscarriage of justice the city 's government ever perpetrated .
= = Negotiating a peace = =
In 405 BC , the Athenian navy was defeated and destroyed by the Peloponnesian fleet under Lysander at the Battle of Aegospotami in the Hellespont . Without sufficient funds to build another fleet , the Athenians could only wait as Lysander sailed westward across the Aegean towards their city . Blockaded by land and sea , with their food supplies running low , the Athenians sent ambassadors to the Spartan king Agis , whose army was camped outside their walls , offering to join the Spartan alliance if they were allowed to keep their walls and port ; Agis , claiming that he had no power to negotiate , sent the ambassadors on to Sparta , but there they were told that , if they really wanted peace , they should bring the Spartans better proposals . The Athenians were initially intransigent , going so far as to imprison a man who suggested that a stretch of the long walls be torn down as the Spartans had insisted , but the reality of their situation soon compelled them to consider compromises . In this situation , Theramenes , in a speech to the assembly , requested that he be sent as an ambassador to Lysander ( who was at this time besieging Samos ) to determine the Spartans ' intentions towards Athens ; he also stated that he had discovered something that might improve the Athenians ' situation , although he declined to share it with the citizenry . His request was granted , and Theramenes sailed to Samos to meet with Lysander ; from there , he was sent to Sparta , perhaps stopping at Athens on the way . At Sparta , with representatives of all of Sparta 's allies present , Theramenes and his colleagues negotiated the terms of the peace that ended the Peloponnesian War ; the long walls and the walls of Piraeus were pulled down , the size of the Athenian fleet was sharply limited , and Athenian foreign policy was subordinated to that of Sparta ; the treaty also stipulated that the Athenians were to use " the constitution of their ancestors " . Theramenes returned to Athens and presented the results of the negotiations to the assembly ; although some still favored holding out , the majority voted to accept the terms ; the Peloponnesian War , after 28 years , was at an end .
= = Thirty Tyrants = =
In the wake of Athens ' surrender , the long walls were torn down and the troops besieging the city returned to their various homes ; a Spartan garrison probably remained in Athens to supervise the dismantling of the walls ; Lysander sailed off to Samos to complete the siege of that city . Another clause of the treaty that had ended the war had allowed all exiles to return to Athens , and these men , many of them oligarchic agitators who had been cast out by the democracy , were hard at work in the months after the treaty . Five " overseers " were appointed by the members of the oligarchic social clubs to plan the transition to an oligarchy . In July 404 BC , they summoned Lysander back to Athens , where he supervised the change of government ; an oligarchic politician , Dracontides , proposed in the council to place the government in the hands of thirty chosen men ; Theramenes supported this motion , and , with Lysander threatening to punish the Athenians for failing to dismantle the walls quickly enough unless they assented , it passed the assembly . Thirty men were selected : ten appointed by the " overseers " , ten chosen by Theramenes ( including himself ) , and ten picked by Lysander .
This government , which soon came to be known as the " Thirty Tyrants " for its excesses and atrocities , rapidly set about establishing its control over the city . The oligarchs , led by Critias , one of the " overseers " and a former exile , summoned a Spartan garrison to ensure their safety and then initiated a reign of terror , executing any men who they thought might possess sufficient initiative or a large enough following to effectively challenge them . It was this campaign that first drove a wedge between Theramenes and the leaders of the Thirty ; initially a supporter of Critias , Theramenes now argued that it was unnecessary to execute men who had shown no sign of wishing the oligarchy harm just because they had been popular under the democracy . This protest , however , failed to slow the pace of the executions , so Theramenes next argued that , if the oligarchy was to govern by force , it must at least expand its base ; fearful that Theramenes might lead a popular movement against them , Critias and the leaders of the Thirty issued a list of 3 @,@ 000 men who would be associates in the new government . When Theramenes again objected that this number was still too small , the leaders arranged for a military review to be staged after which the citizens were ordered to pile their arms ; with the help of the Spartan garrison , the oligarchs then confiscated all arms except those belonging to the 3 @,@ 000 . This , in turn , marked the beginning of even greater excesses ; to pay the Spartan garrison 's wages , Critias and the leaders ordered each of the Thirty to arrest and execute a metic , or resident alien , and confiscate his property . Theramenes , protesting that this action was worse than the worst excesses of the democracy , refused to follow the order .
Critias and his compatriots , in the light of these events , decided that Theramenes had become an intolerable threat to their rule ; accordingly , speaking before the assembly of the 3 @,@ 000 , Critias denounced Theramenes as a born traitor , always ready to shift his political allegiances with the expediencies of the moment . Famously , he branded him with the nickname " cothurnus " , the name of a boot worn on the stage that could fit either foot ; Theramenes , he proclaimed , was ready to serve either the democratic or oligarchic cause , seeking only to further his own personal interest . In an impassioned response , Theramenes denied that his politics had ever been inconsistent . He had always , he insisted , favored a moderate policy , neither extreme democracy nor extreme oligarchy , and held true to the ideal of a government composed of men of hoplite status or higher , who would be able to effectively serve the state . This speech had a substantial effect on the audience , and Critias saw that , if the case were brought to a vote , Theramenes would be acquitted . Accordingly , after conferring with the Thirty , Critias ordered men with daggers to line the stage in front of the audience and then struck Theramenes ' name from the roster of the 3 @,@ 000 , denying him his right to a trial . Theramenes , springing to a nearby altar for sanctuary , admonished the assemblage not to permit his murder , but to no avail ; the Eleven , keepers of the prison , entered , dragged him away , and forced him to drink a cup of hemlock . Theramenes , imitating a popular drinking game in which the drinker toasted a loved one as he finished his cup , downed the poison and then flung the dregs to the floor , exclaiming " Here 's to the health of my beloved Critias ! "
= = Historiography = =
Theramenes lived a controversial life , and his death did not end the struggle over how to interpret his actions . In the years after his death , his reputation became an item of contention as former associates of his defended themselves against prosecutors under the restored democracy . ( The regime of the Thirty lasted only until 403 BC . ) It would appear that , as they defended themselves before democratic @-@ sympathizing Athenian jurymen , Theramenes ' former comrades in the oligarchy attempted to exculpate themselves by associating their actions with those of Theramenes and portraying him as a steadfast defender of the Athenian democracy ; examples of such accounts can be found in the Histories of Diodorus Siculus and in the " Theramenes papyrus " , a fragmentary work discovered in the 1960s . An example of the sort of attack this portrayal was intended to defend against can be found in two orations of Lysias , Against Eratosthenes and Against Agoratus ; there , Theramenes is portrayed as treasonous and self @-@ interested , doing tremendous harm to the Athenian cause through his machinations . Xenophon adopts a similarly hostile attitude in the early parts of his work , but apparently had a change of heart during the chronological break in composition that divides the second book of the Hellenica ; his portrayal of Theramenes during the reign of the Thirty Tyrants is altogether more favorable than that of his earlier years . A final portrayal is offered by Aristotle , who , in his Constitution of the Athenians , portrays Theramenes as a moderate and a model citizen ; historians have disputed the origin of this account , with some treating it as a product of 4th @-@ century BC propaganda by a moderate " Theramenean " party , while others , such as Phillip Harding , see no evidence for such a tradition and argue that Aristotle 's treatment of Theramenes is entirely a product of his own reassessment of the man . Diodorus Siculus , a historian active in the time of Caesar , presents a generally favorable account of Theramenes , which appears to be drawn from the noted historian Ephorus , who studied in Athens under Isocrates who was taught by Theramenes .
Theramenes ' reputation has undergone a dramatic shift since the 19th century , when Xenophon 's and Lysias ' unfavorable accounts were widely accepted , and Theramenes was execrated as a turncoat and blamed for instigating the execution of the generals after Arginusae . The discovery of Aristotle 's Constitution of the Athenians in 1890 reversed this trend for the broad assessment of Theramenes ' character , and Diodorus ' account of the Arginusae trial has been preferred by scholars since Antony Andrewes undermined Xenophon 's account in the 1970s ; Diodorus ' more melodramatic passages , such as his elaborate presentation of Theramenes ' last moments , are still discounted , but he is now preferred on a number of issues , and on the Arginusae trial in particular . Aristophanes , in The Frogs , pokes fun at Theramenes ' ability to extricate himself from tight spots , but delivers none of the scathing rebukes one would expect for a politician whose role in the shocking events after Arginusae had been regarded as particularly blameworthy , and modern scholars have seen in this a more accurate depiction of how Theramenes was perceived in his time ; Lysias , meanwhile , who mercilessly attacks Theramenes on many counts , has nothing negative to say about the aftermath of Arginusae .
Recent works have generally accepted the image of Theramenes as a moderate , committed to the ideal of a hoplite @-@ based broad oligarchy . Donald Kagan has said of him that " ... his entire career reveals him to be a patriot and a true moderate , sincerely committed to a constitution granting power to the hoplite class , whether in the form of a limited democracy or a broadly based oligarchy " , while John Fine has noted that " like many a person following a middle course , he was hated by both political extremes . " The constitution of the 5 @,@ 000 is recognized as his political masterpiece ; his attempt to bring about a similar shift towards moderatism in 404 led directly to his death . That death , meanwhile , has become famous for its drama , and the story of Theramenes ' final moments has been repeated over and over throughout classical historiography . " Because he met his death defying a tyrant , " John Fine notes , " it is easy to idealize Theramenes . " In the millennia since his death , Theramenes has been both idealized and reviled ; his brief seven @-@ year career in the spotlight , touching as it did on all the major points of controversy in the last years of the Peloponnesian War , has been subject to myriad different interpretations . From the polemical contemporary works which describe his career have emerged the outlines of a complex figure , charting a dangerous course through the chaos of the late 5th @-@ century Athenian political scene ; although historians from ancient times to the present have offered far more specific portraits , of one form or another , it may be that nothing more than that outline will ever be known with certainty .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Aristotle . Athenian Constitution . Trans . Frederic George Kenyon . Wikisource .
Diodorus Siculus , Library
Lysias , Against Agoratus
Lysias , Against Eratosthenes
Thucydides . History of the Peloponnesian War . Trans . Richard Crawley . Wikisource .
Xenophon ( 1890s ) [ original 4th century BC ] . Hellenica . Trans . Henry Graham Dakyns . Wikisource .
Unknown author , P. Mich . 5982 De Theramene
Plutarch , Life of Alcibiades
= = = Modern sources = = =
Andrewes , A. " The Arginousai Trial " , Phoenix , Vol . 28 No. 1 ( Spring 1974 ) pp. 112 – 122
Fine , John V.A. The Ancient Greeks : A critical history ( Harvard University Press , 1983 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 03314 @-@ 0
Harding , Phillip . " The Theramenes Myth " , Phoenix , Vol . 28 , No. 1 ( Spring 1974 ) , pp. 101 – 111
Hornblower , Simon . The Greek World 479 – 323 BC ( Routledge , 1991 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 06557 @-@ 7
Kagan , Donald . The Peloponnesian War ( Penguin Books , 2003 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 03211 @-@ 5
Keaney , John J. " A Source / Model of Aristotle 's Portrait of Theramenes " . The Classical Journal , Vol . 75 , No. 1 ( Oct. – Nov. 1979 ) pp. 40 – 41
Peck , Harry Thurston ( 1898 ) . Harper 's Dictionary Of Classical Literature And Antiquities .
Perrin , Bernadotte , " The Rehabilitation of Theramenes " , The American Historical Review , Vol . 9 No. 4 ( July 1904 ) pp. 649 – 669
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= SMS Ostfriesland =
SMS Ostfriesland was the second vessel of the Helgoland class of battleships of the Imperial German Navy . Named for the region of East Frisia , Ostfriesland 's keel was laid in October 1908 at the Kaiserliche Werft dockyard in Wilhelmshaven . She was launched on 30 September 1909 and was commissioned into the fleet on 1 August 1911 . The ship was equipped with twelve 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in six twin turrets , and had a top speed of 21 @.@ 2 knots ( 39 @.@ 3 km / h ; 24 @.@ 4 mph ) . Ostfriesland was assigned to the I Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career , including World War I.
Along with her three sister ships , Helgoland , Thüringen , and Oldenburg , Ostfriesland participated in all of the major fleet operations of World War I in the North Sea against the British Grand Fleet . This included the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , the largest naval battle of the war . The ship also saw action in the Baltic Sea against the Russian Navy . She was present during the unsuccessful first incursion into the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 .
After the German collapse in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet was interned in Scapa Flow during the peace negotiations . The four Helgoland @-@ class ships were allowed to remain in Germany , however , and were therefore spared the destruction of the fleet in Scapa Flow . Ostfriesland and her sisters were eventually ceded to the victorious Allied powers as war reparations ; Ostfriesland was transferred to the United States Navy . She was sunk during air power trials off the Virginia Capes in July 1921 .
= = Construction = =
Ostfriesland was ordered by the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) under the provisional name Ersatz Oldenburg , as a replacement for the old coastal defense ship Oldenburg . The contract for the ship was awarded to the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Dockyard ) in Wilhelmshaven under construction number 31 . Work began on 19 October 1908 with the laying of her keel , and the ship was launched less than a year later , on 30 September 1909 . She was christened by the Princess of Innhausen and Knyphausen , a representative of the oldest East Frisian nobility . Fitting @-@ out , including completion of the superstructure and the installation of armament , lasted until August 1911 . Ostfriesland , named for the north @-@ western coastal area of Germany , was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 August 1911 , just under three years from when work commenced , at a cost of 43 @.@ 579 million gold marks .
The ship was 167 @.@ 2 m ( 548 ft 7 in ) long , had a beam of 28 @.@ 5 m ( 93 ft 6 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 94 m ( 29 ft 4 in ) , and displaced 24 @,@ 700 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 310 long tons ) at full load . She was powered by three 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines with 15 boilers ; each engine drove a four @-@ bladed screw . The ship 's engines were rated at 28 @,@ 000 PS ( 28 @,@ 000 ihp ; 21 @,@ 000 kW ) and produced a top speed of 21 @.@ 2 knots ( 39 @.@ 3 km / h ; 24 @.@ 4 mph ) . Ostfriesland stored up to 3 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 100 long tons ) of coal , which allowed her to steam for 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . After 1915 the boilers were modified to spray oil on the coal ; the ship could carry up to 197 metric tons ( 194 long tons ) of fuel oil . She had a crew of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 071 enlisted men .
Ostfriesland was armed with a main battery of twelve 30 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 50 guns in six twin gun turrets , with one turret fore , one aft , and two on each flank of the ship . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns and fourteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns . After 1914 , two of the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced by 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns . Ostfriesland was also armed with six 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) submerged torpedo tubes . Her main armored belt was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick in the central portion , and was composed of Krupp cemented armor ( KCA ) . Her main battery gun turrets were protected by the same thickness of KCA armor on the sides and faces , as well as the barbettes that supported the turrets . Ostfriesland 's deck was 63 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 50 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
After commissioning , Ostfriesland conducted sea trials , which were completed by 15 September . Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Walter Engelhardt served as the ship 's first commanding officer . On the 22nd , the ship was formally assigned to the I Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . She then conducted individual ship training exercises , which were followed by I Squadron , and then fleet maneuvers in November . Ostfriesland became the new squadron flagship on 24 April 1912 , replacing Westfalen . The annual summer cruise in July – August , which typically went to Norway , was interrupted by the Agadir Crisis . As a result , the cruise only went into the Baltic . Ostfriesland and the rest of the fleet then fell into a pattern of individual ship , squadron , and full fleet exercises over the next two years of peacetime . Ostfriesland won the 1912 / 1913 Kaiserschiesspreis — the Kaiser 's artillery shooting prize — for I Squadron . Kapitänleutnant Friedrich Beesel was the ship 's gunnery officer at the time and , as such , was responsible for the accuracy of the ship 's shooting .
On 14 July 1914 , the annual summer cruise to Norway began . During the last peacetime cruise of the Imperial Navy , the fleet conducted drills off Skagen before proceeding to the Norwegian fjords on 25 July . The following day the fleet began to steam back to Germany , as a result of Austria @-@ Hungary 's ultimatum to Serbia . On the 27th , the entire fleet assembled off Cape Skadenes before returning to port , where it remained at a heightened state of readiness . War between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia broke out on the 28th , and in the span of a week all of the major European powers had joined the conflict . By 29 July Ostfriesland and the rest of I Squadron was back in Wilhelmshaven .
= = = World War I = = =
The first major naval action in the North Sea , the Battle of Helgoland Bight , took place on 28 August 1914 . At 04 : 30 , Helgoland , which was stationed off the heavily fortified island of Wangerooge , received the order to join Ostfriesland and sail out of the harbor . At 05 : 00 , the two battleships met the battered cruisers Frauenlob and Stettin . By 07 : 30 , the ships had returned to port for the night . On the afternoon of 7 September , Ostfriesland and the rest of the High Seas Fleet conducted a training cruise to the island of Heligoland . In October , Ostfriesland was equipped with a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm flak guns for anti @-@ air defense .
Ostfriesland was present during the first sortie by the German fleet into the North Sea , which took place on 2 – 3 November 1914 . No British forces were encountered during the operation . A second operation followed on 15 – 16 December . This sortie was the initiation of a strategy adopted by Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet . Admiral von Ingenohl intended to use the battlecruisers of Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group to raid British coastal towns to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet . Early on 15 December the fleet left port to raid the towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby . That evening , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts — including Ostfriesland and her three sisters — and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced von Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battle fleet back toward Germany .
The Battle of Dogger Bank , in which Vice Admiral David Beatty 's 1st and 2nd Battlecruiser Squadrons ambushed the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group , occurred on 24 January 1915 . Ostfriesland and the rest of I Squadron sortied to reinforce the outnumbered German battlecruisers ; I Squadron left port at 12 : 33 CET , along with the pre @-@ dreadnoughts of II Squadron . They were too late , however , and failed to locate any British forces . By 19 : 05 , the fleet had returned to the Schillig Roads outside Wilhelmshaven . In the meantime , the armored cruiser Blücher had been overwhelmed by concentrated British fire and sunk , while the battlecruiser Seydlitz was severely damaged by a fire in one of the ammunition magazines . As a result , Kaiser Wilhelm II removed von Ingenohl from his post and replaced him with Admiral Hugo von Pohl on 2 February .
The eight I Squadron ships went into the Baltic on 22 February 1915 for unit training , which lasted until 13 March . Following their return to the North Sea , the ships participated in a series of uneventful fleet sorties on 29 – 30 March , 17 – 18 April , 21 – 22 April , 17 – 18 May , and 29 – 30 May . Ostfriesland and the rest of the fleet remained in port until 4 August , when I Squadron returned to the Baltic for another round of training maneuvers . That month , KzS Ernst @-@ Oldwig von Natzmer replaced Engelhardt as the ship 's commanding officer . From the Baltic , the squadron was attached to the naval force that attempted to sweep the Gulf of Riga of Russian naval forces in August 1915 . The assault force included the eight I Squadron battleships , the battlecruisers Von der Tann , Moltke , and Seydlitz , several light cruisers , 32 destroyers and 13 minesweepers . The plan called for channels in Russian minefields to be swept so that the Russian naval presence , which included the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Slava , could be eliminated . The Germans would then lay minefields of their own to prevent Russian ships from returning to the Gulf . Ostfriesland and the majority of the other big ships of the High Seas Fleet remained outside the Gulf for the entirety of the operation . The dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen were detached on 16 August to escort the minesweepers and to destroy Slava , though they failed to sink the old battleship . After three days , the Russian minefields had been cleared , and the flotilla entered the Gulf on 19 August , but reports of Allied submarines in the area prompted a German withdrawal from the Gulf the following day . By 26 August , I Squadron had returned to Wilhelmshaven .
On 23 – 24 October , the High Seas Fleet undertook its last major offensive operation under the command of Admiral von Pohl , though it ended without contact with British forces . By January 1916 hepatic cancer had weakened von Pohl to the point where he was no longer able to carry out his duties , and he was replaced by Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Reinhard Scheer in January . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . Scheer 's first operation was a sweep into the North Sea on 5 – 7 March , followed by two more on 21 – 22 March and 25 – 26 March . During Scheer 's next operation , Ostfriesland supported a raid on the English coast on 24 April 1916 conducted by the German battlecruiser force . The battlecruisers left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 and the rest of the High Seas Fleet followed at 13 : 40 . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed but , during the approach to Yarmouth , encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short gun duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted I Scouting Group to retreat . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Ostfriesland was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the battle of Jutland , which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . During the operation , Ostfriesland was the lead ship in I Squadron 's I Division and the ninth ship in the line , directly astern of the fleet flagship Friedrich der Grosse and ahead of her sister Thüringen . I Squadron was the center of the German line , behind the eight König- and Kaiser @-@ class battleships of III Squadron . The six elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the III and IV Divisions — II Battle Squadron — formed the rear of the formation . Ostfriesland flew the flag of Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Erhardt Schmidt , the squadron commander during the battle and Scheer 's deputy commander .
Shortly before 16 : 00 , the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , the crew of the leading German battleship , König , spotted both I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers and , a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
While the leading battleships engaged the British battlecruiser squadron , Ostfriesland and ten other battleships fired on the British 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron . Ostfriesland , Kaiser , and Nassau engaged the cruiser Southampton , though only Nassau scored a hit . After about 15 minutes , Ostfriesland shifted fire to Birmingham and Nottingham , though again failed to hit her targets . Shortly after 19 : 15 , the British dreadnought Warspite came into range ; Ostfriesland opened fire at 19 : 25 with her main battery guns , at ranges of 10 @,@ 800 to 15 @,@ 000 yd ( 9 @,@ 900 to 13 @,@ 700 m ) . Ostfriesland claimed hits from her third and fourth salvos . Warspite was hit by a total of thirteen heavy shells during this period .
By 20 : 15 , the German battle line had faced the entire deployed Grand Fleet a second time . Scheer ordered a 180 @-@ degree turn at 20 : 17 , which was covered by a charge by the battlecruiser squadron and a torpedo @-@ boat attack . In order to hasten the maneuver , Schmidt ordered Ostfriesland to turn immediately without waiting for Thüringen behind him . This move caused some difficulty for the III Squadron ships ahead , though the ships quickly returned to their stations . At around 23 : 30 , the German fleet reorganized into the night cruising formation . Ostfriesland was the eighth ship , stationed toward the front of the 24 @-@ ship line . An hour later , the leading units of the German line encountered British light forces and a violent firefight at close range ensued . Sometime around 01 : 10 , the armored cruiser Black Prince stumbled into the German line . Thüringen illuminated the vessel with her spotlights and poured salvos of 30 @.@ 5 cm rounds into the ship . Ostfriesland fired with her 15 cm guns and Kaiser fired both 30 @.@ 5 cm and 15 cm guns . In the span of less than a minute , two massive explosions tore the cruiser apart and killed the entire 857 @-@ man crew .
Despite the ferocity of the night fighting , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British destroyer forces and reached Horns Reef by 4 : 00 on 1 June . At 06 : 20 , however , Ostfriesland struck a mine , previously laid by the destroyer HMS Abdiel on 4 May , on her starboard side . The ship hauled out of line , as the explosion was initially thought to have been a torpedo fired by a submarine . Ostfriesland fell behind the fleet and steamed at slow speed , screened by the destroyers V3 , V5 , and briefly by G11 . By 10 : 40 , the battleship had increased speed to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Her anti @-@ submarine escort was eventually reinforced by a floatplane , which spotted what it believed to be a British submarine at 12 : 20 . Ostfriesland turned away , which caused the torpedo bulkhead , damaged slightly by the mine explosion , to tear open . More water entered the ship and caused a 4 @.@ 75 degree list to starboard , forcing Ostfriesland to reduce speed again . The ship requested assistance from a pumping ship at 14 : 20 , but by 14 : 45 the flooding was under control and the ship passed the Outer Jade Lightship . She was able to increase speed gradually to 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , and at 18 : 15 she reached port in Wilhelmshaven . The mine tore a hole that measured 40 ft × 16 ft ( 12 @.@ 2 m × 4 @.@ 9 m ) and allowed 500 t ( 490 long tons ) of water into the ship . Further flooding occurred after the torpedo bulkhead damage at 12 : 20 , though the full damage report has not survived . Ostfriesland was drydocked in Wilhelmshaven for repairs , which lasted until 26 July . In the course of the battle , Ostfriesland fired 111 rounds from her main battery , 101 shells from her 15 cm guns , and a single 8 @.@ 8 cm shell . The only damage sustained was the mine that was struck on the morning of 1 June , which killed one man and wounded ten .
= = = = Later operations = = = =
On 18 August 1916 , Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the 31 May operation . The two serviceable German battlecruisers , Moltke and Von der Tann , supported by three dreadnoughts , were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . The rest of the fleet , including Ostfriesland , would trail behind and provide cover . On the approach to the English coast , Scheer turned north after receiving a false report from a zeppelin about a British unit in the area . As a result , the bombardment was not carried out , and by 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and so turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
On 25 – 26 September , Ostfriesland and the rest of I Squadron provided support for a sweep out to the Terschelling Bank conducted by the II Führer der Torpedoboote ( Leader of Torpedo Boats ) . Scheer conducted another fleet operation on 18 – 20 October in the direction of the Dogger Bank . For the majority of 1917 , Ostfriesland was assigned to guard duty in the German Bight . During Operation Albion , the amphibious assault on the Russian @-@ held islands in the Gulf of Riga , Ostfriesland and her three sisters were moved to the Danish straits to block any possible British attempt to intervene . On 28 October the four ships arrived in Putzig Wiek , and from there steamed to Arensburg on the 29th . On 2 November the operation was completed and Ostfriesland and her sisters began the voyage back to the North Sea . In March 1918 , Natzmer was replaced as the ship 's commander by KzS Hans Herr . A final abortive fleet sortie took place on 23 – 24 April 1918 . Ostfriesland , Thüringen , and Nassau were formed into a special unit for Operation Schlußstein , a planned occupation of St. Petersburg . The three ships reached the Baltic on 10 August , but the operation was postponed and eventually canceled . The special unit was dissolved on 21 August and the battleships were back in Wilhelmshaven on the 23rd .
= = = Fate = = =
Ostfriesland and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from its base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Großadmiral ( Grand Admiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , to improve Germany 's bargaining position , despite the expected casualties . But many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt that the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of the 29th , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated " I no longer have a navy " . On 16 December , Ostfriesland was decommissioned and used as a barracks ship .
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , was interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Only the most modern ships were sent for internment ; the four Helgoland @-@ class ships were left in Germany . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to scuttle his ships . In the span of a few hours , ten battleships and five battlecruisers sank in the shallow waters of Scapa Flow . KzS Karl Windmüller served as Ostfriesland 's final commander , until she was stricken from the navy list on 5 November 1919 . She was then surrendered to the Allies as " H " as a replacement for the ships that had been scuttled . The ship remained in Germany until 7 April 1920 , when a German crew took her to Rosyth . She was ceded to the United States as war reparations , and on 9 April an American crew arrived to bring her to the US .
In July 1921 , the Army Air Service and the US Navy conducted a series of bombing tests off Cape Hatteras , led by General Billy Mitchell . The targets included demobilized American and former German warships , including the old battleship Iowa , the cruiser Frankfurt , and finally Ostfriesland on 20 July . At 13 : 30 ET , the first attack wave , armed with 230 lb ( 100 kg ) bombs , struck the stationary ship . Eight of thirty @-@ three bombs found their mark , after which the ship was inspected . The second wave was also armed with 230 lb bombs , and the third and fourth carried 600 lb ( 270 kg ) bombs . Five 600 lb bombs found their mark , but little damage was done to the ship 's topside . The bombs that nearly missed the ship , however , had done significant underwater damage to the hull , which allowed some flooding and created a list of five degrees to port and three additional feet of draft at the stern . The bombing schedule was interrupted by a storm in the late afternoon .
Early on the morning of 21 July , the fifth wave of bombers began their attack . At 08 : 52 , the first Army bomber dropped a 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bomb that hit the ship ; four more bombers followed and scored two further hits . Inspectors again went aboard Ostfriesland following the fifth attack and noted that the hits had not seriously damaged the ship , though one had created a large hole on her starboard side that allowed further flooding . By noon , she was down five feet at the stern and one foot at the bow . At 12 : 19 , the next attack wave , equipped with 2 @,@ 000 lb ( 910 kg ) bombs , struck . Six bombs were dropped , none of which hit , though three detonated very close to the hull . At 12 : 30 , Ostfriesland began to sink rapidly by the stern and the list to port increased dramatically . At 12 : 40 , the ship rolled over and sank . The results of the tests were widely publicized and Mitchell became both a national hero and the " infallible prophet of aviation " .
The leadership of the US Navy , however , was outraged by Mitchell 's handling of the tests ; the 2 @,@ 000 lb bombs had not been sanctioned by the Navy , which had set the rules for the engagement . Mitchell 's bombers had also not allowed inspectors aboard the ship between bombing runs as stipulated by the Navy . The joint Army – Navy report on the tests , issued a month later and signed by General John Pershing , stated that " the battleship is still the backbone of the fleet . " Mitchell wrote his own , contradictory account of the tests , which was then leaked to the press . The sinking of the battleship sparked great controversy in the American public sphere ; Mitchell 's supporters exaggerated the significance of the tests by falsely claiming Ostfriesland to be an unsinkable " super @-@ battleship " and that " old sea dogs ... wept aloud . " Senator William Borah argued that the tests had rendered battleships obsolete . Mitchell was widely supported in the press , though his increasingly combative tactics eventually resulted in a court @-@ martial for insubordination that forced him to retire from the military .
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= Parliament House ( Malta ) =
The Parliament House ( Maltese : Il @-@ Parlament il @-@ Ġdid , meaning " The New Parliament " ) is the meeting place of the Parliament of Malta located in Valletta , Malta . The building was constructed between 2011 and 2015 to designs by Renzo Piano as part of the City Gate Project , which also included building a new City Gate and converting the ruins of the Royal Opera House into an open @-@ air theatre . Construction of the Parliament House generated considerable controversy , mainly due to the modern design of the building and the cost of construction , which amounted to around € 90 million .
From 1921 to 1976 , the meeting place of the Parliament of Malta had been the Tapestry Chamber of the Grandmaster 's Palace , also in Valletta . In 1976 , the former armoury of the same palace was converted into a new parliament , and meetings were held there until the opening of the purpose @-@ built Parliament House on 4 May 2015 .
= = Site = =
Parliament House is located in Republic Street near City Gate , the entrance to Valletta . The building is located adjacent to Saint James Cavalier and the ruins of the Royal Opera House , and opposite the City Gate Shopping Arcade and Palazzo Ferreria .
The site presently occupied by the Parliament House was originally built up with houses , and later the Valletta Station of the Malta Railway . The area was bombarded during World War II , and the station and surrounding buildings were demolished in the 1960s as part of a project to redevelop the entrance to Valletta . The area was converted into an open space known as Freedom Square ( Maltese : Misraħ il @-@ Ħelsien ) , which was surrounded by a shopping arcade . The square was rather plain , and was commonly used as a car park .
= = Design and construction = =
= = = Planning = = =
The building of the Parliament House was a part of the City Gate Project , which was meant to redevelop the entrance of Valletta . The project consisted of the demolition of the fourth City Gate and the Freedom Square Arcade and the construction of the fifth City Gate and the Parliament House . In addition , the ruins of the Royal Opera House were converted into an open @-@ air theatre known as Pjazza Teatru Rjal . The City Gate project was designed by the Italian architect Renzo Piano , and the plans were revealed on 27 June 2009 . The Grand Harbour Regeneration Corporation paid Piano € 6 @.@ 6 million for his work on the project .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The building of the Parliament House , along with the rest of the City Gate project , was controversial . Critics considered it an unnecessary project , proposing to restore Fort Saint Elmo or one of the large dilapidated palaces in the city and converting it into a parliament building , for a fraction of the cost of constructing a new building . Some argued that the square should not have been built up as it was one of the few open spaces in Valletta . Others attacked the modern design of the structure itself , including the Labour MP Carmelo Abela , who called the Parliament House " an ugly building built on stilts " . The building 's design , precisely the system of cladding , was compared to a dovecote ( Maltese : Barumbara tal @-@ ħamiem ) and to a cheese grater by the general public . The ultramodern design that contrasts much with the rest of Valletta has went as far as the UNESCO questioning the city 's title as a World Heritage Site . In 2015 the building caught the attention of The Telegraph , among few other buildings and structures , and featured as potentially the best or worst building of that year .
= = = Construction = = =
The demolition of the arcades of Freedom Square began in October 2010 . Excavation works for the foundations of the Parliament House began soon after demolition was complete . In early 2011 , the original plan was modified with the relocation of a staircase , the extension of one of the blocks , and changes in the design of the louvers on the facade . Construction started later that year , and the steel frame of the structure was complete by early 2012 . At this point , it began to be covered in limestone which had been quarried in Gozo , and cut into specific shapes in Italy , before being sent back to Malta . Between 120 and 150 workers were on the construction site every day , and it cost more than € 90 million to build .
The completion date of the project was originally given as November 2012 or early 2013 . The estimated completion date was extended to September 2013 , and later to September 2014 . Contractors failed to meet deadlines , and the building was still not complete by the end of 2014 . It was eventually completed in 2015 .
= = = Inauguration = = =
The Parliament House was officially inaugurated by President Marie Louise Coleiro Preca on 4 May 2015 . Members of Parliament and other guests gathered at the old chamber at the Grandmaster 's Palace , and walked to the new building accompanied by the police force band . Coleiro Preca called the inauguration of the Parliament House " a milestone in Malta 's parliamentary history " , since this is the first purpose @-@ built parliament building in Malta . The first sitting was held later the same day .
Most of the building is closed off for security reasons , but a permanent exhibition on the ground floor is open to the public .
On 1 August 2015 , Piano visited the Parliament House for the first time since its inauguration .
= = Structure = =
The Parliament House consists of two blocks connected together with bridges , one of which houses the chamber of parliament . The two blocks are separate so as not to obscure views of Saint James Cavalier from Republic Street . Each block has three floors . The structure consists of a steel frame clad in Gozitan limestone . The stone slabs are carved in such a way that they seem to have been eroded by nature .
Parliament House is a zero emission building since heat energy is recovered from or given off to the mass of rock below . This is used to heat and cool the building , avoiding any cooling towers or boilers .
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= Stellar rotation =
Stellar rotation is the angular motion of a star about its axis . The rate of rotation can be measured from the spectrum of the star , or by timing the movements of active features on the surface .
The rotation of a star produces an equatorial bulge due to centrifugal force . As stars are not solid bodies , they can also undergo differential rotation . Thus the equator of the star can rotate at a different angular velocity than the higher latitudes . These differences in the rate of rotation within a star may have a significant role in the generation of a stellar magnetic field .
The magnetic field of a star interacts with the stellar wind . As the wind moves away from the star its rate of angular velocity slows . The magnetic field of the star interacts with the wind , which applies a drag to the stellar rotation . As a result , angular momentum is transferred from the star to the wind , and over time this gradually slows the star 's rate of rotation .
= = Measurement = =
Unless a star is being observed from the direction of its pole , sections of the surface have some amount of movement toward or away from the observer . The component of movement that is in the direction of the observer is called the radial velocity . For the portion of the surface with a radial velocity component toward the observer , the radiation is shifted to a higher frequency because of Doppler shift . Likewise the region that has a component moving away from the observer is shifted to a lower frequency . When the absorption lines of a star are observed , this shift at each end of the spectrum causes the line to broaden . However , this broadening must be carefully separated from other effects that can increase the line width .
The component of the radial velocity observed through line broadening depends on the inclination of the star 's pole to the line of sight . The derived value is given as <formula> , where ve is the rotational velocity at the equator and i is the inclination . However , i is not always known , so the result gives a minimum value for the star 's rotational velocity . That is , if i is not a right angle , then the actual velocity is greater than <formula> . This is sometimes referred to as the projected rotational velocity .
For giant stars , the atmospheric microturbulence can result in line broadening that is much larger than effects of rotational , effectively drowning out the signal . However , an alternate approach can be employed that makes use of gravitational microlensing events . These occur when a massive object passes in front of the more distant star and functions like a lens , briefly magnifying the image . The more detailed information gathered by this means allows the effects of microturbulence to be distinguished from rotation .
If a star displays magnetic surface activity such as starspots , then these features can be tracked to estimate the rotation rate . However , such features can form at locations other than equator and can migrate across latitudes over the course of their life span , so differential rotation of a star can produce varying measurements . Stellar magnetic activity is often associated with rapid rotation , so this technique can be used for measurement of such stars . Observation of starspots has shown that these features can actually vary the rotation rate of a star , as the magnetic fields modify the flow of gases in the star .
= = Physical effects = =
= = = Equatorial bulge = = =
Gravity tends to contract celestial bodies into a perfect sphere , the shape where all the mass is as close to the center of gravity as possible . But a rotating star is not spherical in shape , it has an equatorial bulge .
As a rotating proto @-@ stellar disk contracts to form a star its shape becomes more and more spherical , but the contraction doesn 't proceed all the way to a perfect sphere . At the poles all of the gravity acts to increase the contraction , but at the equator the effective gravity is diminished by the centrifugal force . The final shape of the star after star formation is an equilibrium shape , in the sense that the effective gravity in the equatorial region ( being diminished ) cannot pull the star to a more spherical shape . The rotation also gives rise to gravity darkening at the equator , as described by the von Zeipel theorem .
An extreme example of an equatorial bulge is found on the star Regulus A ( α Leonis A ) . The equator of this star has a measured rotational velocity of 317 ± 3 km / s . This corresponds to a rotation period of 15 @.@ 9 hours , which is 86 % of the velocity at which the star would break apart . The equatorial radius of this star is 32 % larger than polar radius . Other rapidly rotating stars include Alpha Arae , Pleione , Vega and Achernar .
The break @-@ up velocity of a star is an expression that is used to describe the case where the centrifugal force at the equator is equal to the gravitational force . For a star to be stable the rotational velocity must be below this value .
= = = Differential rotation = = =
Surface differential rotation is observed on stars such as the Sun when the angular velocity varies with latitude . Typically the angular velocity decreases with increasing latitude . However the reverse has also been observed , such as on the star designated HD 31993 . The first such star , other than the Sun , to have its differential rotation mapped in detail is AB Doradus .
The underlying mechanism that causes differential rotation is turbulent convection inside a star . Convective motion carries energy toward the surface through the mass movement of plasma . This mass of plasma carries a portion of the angular velocity of the star . When turbulence occurs through shear and rotation , the angular momentum can become redistributed to different latitudes through meridional flow .
The interfaces between regions with sharp differences in rotation are believed to be efficient sites for the dynamo processes that generate the stellar magnetic field . There is also a complex interaction between a star 's rotation distribution and its magnetic field , with the conversion of magnetic energy into kinetic energy modifying the velocity distribution .
= = Rotation braking = =
= = = During formation = = =
Stars are believed to form as the result of a collapse of a low @-@ temperature cloud of gas and dust . As the cloud collapses , conservation of angular momentum causes any small net rotation of the cloud to increase , forcing the material into a rotating disk . At the dense center of this disk a protostar forms , which gains heat from the gravitational energy of the collapse .
As the collapse continues , the rotation rate can increase to the point where the accreting protostar can break up due to centrifugal force at the equator . Thus the rotation rate must be braked during the first 100 @,@ 000 years to avoid this scenario . One possible explanation for the braking is the interaction of the protostar 's magnetic field with the stellar wind in magnetic braking . The expanding wind carries away the angular momentum and slows down the rotation rate of the collapsing protostar .
Most main @-@ sequence stars with a spectral class between O5 and F5 have been found to rotate rapidly . For stars in this range , the measured rotation velocity increases with mass . This increase in rotation peaks among young , massive B @-@ class stars . As the expected life span of a star decreases with increasing mass , this can be explained as a decline in rotational velocity with age .
= = = After formation = = =
For main @-@ sequence stars , the decline in rotation can be approximated by a mathematical relation :
<formula>
where <formula> is the angular velocity at the equator and t is the star 's age . This relation is named Skumanich 's law after Andrew P. Skumanich who discovered it in 1972 . Gyrochronology is the determination of a star 's age based on the rotation rate , calibrated using the Sun .
Stars slowly lose mass by the emission of a stellar wind from the photosphere . The star 's magnetic field exerts a torque on the ejected matter , resulting in a steady transfer of angular momentum away from the star . Stars with a rate of rotation greater than 15 km / s also exhibit more rapid mass loss , and consequently a faster rate of rotation decay . Thus as the rotation of a star is slowed because of braking , there is a decrease in rate of loss of angular momentum . Under these conditions , stars gradually approach , but never quite reach , a condition of zero rotation .
= = Close binary systems = =
A close binary star system occurs when two stars orbit each other with an average separation that is of the same order of magnitude as their diameters . At these distances , more complex interactions can occur , such as tidal effects , transfer of mass and even collisions . Tidal interactions in a close binary system can result in modification of the orbital and rotational parameters . The total angular momentum of the system is conserved , but the angular momentum can be transferred between the orbital periods and the rotation rates .
Each of the members of a close binary system raises tides on the other through gravitational interaction . However the bulges can be slightly misaligned with respect to the direction of gravitational attraction . Thus the force of gravity produces a torque component on the bulge , resulting in the transfer of angular momentum ( tidal acceleration ) . This causes the system to steadily evolve , although it can approach a stable equilibrium . The effect can be more complex in cases where the axis of rotation is not perpendicular to the orbital plane .
For contact or semi @-@ detached binaries , the transfer of mass from a star to its companion can also result in a significant transfer of angular momentum . The accreting companion can spin up to the point where it reaches its critical rotation rate and begins losing mass along the equator .
= = Degenerate stars = =
After a star has finished generating energy through thermonuclear fusion , it evolves into a more compact , degenerate state . During this process the dimensions of the star are significantly reduced , which can result in a corresponding increase in angular velocity .
= = = White dwarf = = =
A white dwarf is a star that consists of material that is the by @-@ product of thermonuclear fusion during the earlier part of its life , but lacks the mass to burn those more massive elements . It is a compact body that is supported by a quantum mechanical effect known as electron degeneracy pressure that will not allow the star to collapse any further . Generally most white dwarfs have a low rate of rotation , most likely as the result of rotational braking or by shedding angular momentum when the progenitor star lost its outer envelope . ( See planetary nebula . )
A slow @-@ rotating white dwarf star can not exceed the Chandrasekhar limit of 1 @.@ 44 solar masses without collapsing to form a neutron star or exploding as a Type Ia supernova . Once the white dwarf reaches this mass , such as by accretion or collision , the gravitational force would exceed the pressure exerted by the electrons . If the white dwarf is rotating rapidly , however , the effective gravity is diminished in the equatorial region , thus allowing the white dwarf to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit . Such rapid rotation can occur , for example , as a result of mass accretion that results in a transfer of angular momentum .
= = = Neutron star = = =
A neutron star is a highly dense remnant of a star that is primarily composed of neutrons — a particle that is found in most atomic nuclei and has no net electrical charge . The mass of a neutron star is in the range of 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 1 times the mass of the Sun . As a result of the collapse , a newly formed neutron star can have a very rapid rate of rotation ; on the order of a hundred rotations per second .
Pulsars are rotating neutron stars that have a magnetic field . A narrow beam of electromagnetic radiation is emitted from the poles of rotating pulsars . If the beam sweeps past the direction of the Solar System then the pulsar will produce a periodic pulse that can be detected from the Earth . The energy radiated by the magnetic field gradually slows down the rotation rate , so that older pulsars can require as long as several seconds between each pulse .
= = = Black hole = = =
A black hole is an object with a gravitational field that is sufficiently powerful that it can prevent light from escaping . When they are formed from the collapse of a rotating mass , they retain all of the angular momentum that is not shed in the form of ejected gas . This rotation causes the space within an oblate spheroid @-@ shaped volume , called the " ergosphere " , to be dragged around with the black hole . Mass falling into this volume gains energy by this process and some portion of the mass can then be ejected without falling into the black hole . When the mass is ejected , the black hole loses angular momentum ( the " Penrose process " ) . The rotation rate of a black hole has been measured as high as 98 @.@ 7 % of the speed of light .
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= Gilbert de Lacy =
Gilbert de Lacy ( died after 1163 ) was a medieval Anglo @-@ Norman baron in England , the grandson of Walter de Lacy who died in 1085 . Gilbert 's father forfeited his English lands in 1096 , and Gilbert initially only inherited the lands in Normandy . The younger de Lacy spent much of his life trying to recover his father 's English lands , and eventually succeeded . Around 1158 , de Lacy became a Templar and went to the Holy Land , where he was one of the commanders against Nur ad @-@ Din in the early 1160s . He died after 1163 .
= = Background and family = =
Gilbert de Lacy was the son of Roger de Lacy , who in turn was the son of Walter de Lacy who died in 1085 . Roger de Lacy was banished from England in 1096 , and his estates were confiscated . These lands , which included substantial holdings along the border with Wales , were given to Pain fitzJohn , Josce de Dinan and Miles of Gloucester . Roger de Lacy 's lands in Normandy , however , were not confiscated , as they were held of the Bishop of Bayeux in feudal tenure .
= = Stephen 's reign = =
Gilbert de Lacy had inherited his father 's lands in Normandy by 1133 , and by 1136 was in England with King Stephen of England . Although de Lacy recovered some of his father 's lands , the border lands near Wales were not recovered . Among the lands Gilbert recovered were lands about Weobley . He also was granted some lands in Yorkshire that had been in dispute .
Although de Lacy had spent time at Stephen 's court , during the civil war that occurred during Stephen 's reign , he switched sides and served Stephen 's rival , Matilda the Empress . In 1138 , he was besieged by the king at Weobley along with his cousin Geoffrey Talbot , but both men escaped when the king took the castle in June . De Lacy also led an army in an attack against Bath in the service of the Empress , along with Geoffrey Talbot , which also occurred in 1138 and which some historians have seen as the opening act of the civil war .
De Lacy witnessed charters of the Empress in 1141 . During the later 1140s , de Lacy was able to recover many of his father 's Welsh marcher lands , and one of his efforts at Ludlow was later embroidered in the medieval romance Fouke le Fitz Waryn . He and Miles of Gloucester were claimants to many of the same lands , and during Stephen 's reign were generally on opposite sides of the succession dispute . In June 1153 , de Lacy was in the company of Matilda 's son , Henry fitzEmpress , who became King Henry II of England in 1154 .
De Lacy gave land to the cathedral chapter of Hereford Cathedral . He also gave a manor at Guiting to the Knights Templar and two churches , at Weobley and Clodock to Llanthony Priory , which was a monastery founded by his family .
= = Later years and death = =
Around 1158 de Lacy surrendered his lands to his eldest son Robert when the elder de Lacy became a member of the Knights Templar . He then travelled through France to Jerusalem , where de Lacy became precentor of the Templars in the County of Tripoli . In 1163 , de Lacy was one of the crusader army commanders fighting against Nur ad @-@ Din . His year of death is unknown , but he was commemorated on 20 November at Hereford Cathedral . Robert died without children sometime before 1162 , when Gilbert 's younger son Hugh de Lacy inherited the lands .
The Gesta Stephani called de Lacy " a man of judgement and shrewd and painstaking in every operation of war " .
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= Interstate 155 ( Illinois ) =
Interstate 155 ( I @-@ 155 ) is a north – south spur of Interstate 55 that provides an interstate connection for the Illinois cities of Peoria and Lincoln . The northern terminus for the interstate is just east of Peoria , at Interstate 74 exit 101 in Morton . The southern terminus , which is northwest of Lincoln , is located on I @-@ 55 at exit 127 . The interstate is 32 @.@ 13 miles ( 51 @.@ 71 km ) long .
I @-@ 155 was created to replace Illinois Route 121 ( abbreviated IL 121 ) . Prompted by safety concerns at a major intersection near Morton , state transportation officials replaced the entire route with a limited @-@ access freeway . The interstate was built in several segments from 1970 to 1992 , a period that included a ten @-@ year delay due to a lawsuit over right @-@ of @-@ way . I @-@ 155 fully opened to traffic on October 29 , 1992 .
= = Route description = =
Interstate 155 runs north from Interstate 55 just northwest of Lincoln , intersecting U.S. Route 136 east of Emden . 5 miles ( 8 km ) north of U.S. 136 , eastbound Illinois Route 122 joins I @-@ 155 traveling north , directly east of Delavan . The two highways run concurrent for 4 miles ( 6 km ) before Illinois 122 runs east to Hopedale . Further north , the highway crosses the Mackinaw River beside a steel truss bridge serving old Illinois Route 121 .
East of Tremont , I @-@ 155 intersects Illinois Route 9 . 4 miles ( 6 km ) later is Main Street , the first of three northbound exits to Morton . ( There are only two southbound exits , at Queenwood Road and Illinois Route 98 – Birchwood Street ) . The highway passes to the west of Morton before intersecting Interstate 74 at a trumpet interchange about 8 miles ( 13 km ) southeast of downtown Peoria .
Surrounded mostly by prime land used for farming soybeans and corn , Interstate 155 is a four @-@ lane freeway through rural central Illinois . In addition to Morton , Peoria , and Lincoln , I @-@ 155 also serves a number of small farm towns located between Peoria and Lincoln . The largest city directly served by I @-@ 155 is Tremont ; however , the highway mainly carries traffic traveling to and from Peoria and Springfield .
= = History = =
I @-@ 155 was built on the right @-@ of @-@ way of former IL 121 . In the early 1960s , the department of transportation opened IL 98 , an east – west two @-@ lane highway running west from downtown Morton to Pekin . Within a few years , the intersection of IL 98 and IL 121 would be known as the " Killer Corner , " as traffic volumes increased between Springfield and Peoria on IL 121 . Between when IL 98 was opened and when the corner was closed in 1989 for construction of a full interchange , 15 people were killed as a result of automobile accidents at the corner . Led by key supporters — U.S. Representative Robert Michel , former Illinois Department of Transportation ( IDOT ) transportation engineer Jack Harland , and pro @-@ freeway organization " Route 121 by ' 91 " chairman Jim Unland — IDOT initiated plans to upgrade IL 121 to a four @-@ lane freeway . Near Hopedale , a short portion of IL 121 was reconstructed in the early 1970s to replace a bridge over the Mackinaw River . The interchange with I @-@ 55 was built , but barricaded to traffic .
In 1976 , an injunction won by Peoria attorney Timothy Swain Sr. halted further construction on the highway for ten years . The lawsuit was filed by Swain regarding the amount of right @-@ of @-@ way the freeway would consume on his 440 acre ( 178 hectare ) farm near Delavan . A U.S. District Court judge sided with IDOT on building the road , but the U.S. Seventh District Court of Appeals overturned the decision , forcing IDOT to rewrite its environmental impact statement regarding the Swain farm . In 1986 IDOT struck a deal with Swain , agreeing to reroute the road and take only 40 acres ( 16 hectares ) of land , ending the lawsuit and resuming construction activities . A portion of the road from I @-@ 55 to Hartsburg opened on December 15 , 1989 , about 7 miles ( 11 km ) in length . The freeway was opened in full on October 29 , 1992 , at a ceremony attended by Governor Jim Edgar . The total cost of construction for I @-@ 155 was US $ 130 million . Of this , $ 10 million was provided by federal funding .
Illinois initially applied for the new freeway to be designated Interstate 37 , but on December 7 , 1990 , the request was deferred by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) , pending approval by the Federal Highway Administration to add the freeway into the Interstate System . In addition , AASHTO suggested using a 3 @-@ digit number when the application was resubmitted . Later , the state submitted another application to AASHTO for the freeway to be named Interstate 155 . On June 9 , 1991 , the AASHTO application was approved and granted when Interstate 155 was completed .
= = Exit list = =
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= Dan Meyer ( first baseman ) =
Daniel Thomas Meyer ( born August 3 , 1952 in Hamilton , Ohio ) is a retired professional baseball player whose career spanned 15 seasons , 12 of which were played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) with the Detroit Tigers ( 1974 – 76 ) , the Seattle Mariners ( 1977 – 81 ) , and the Oakland Athletics ( 1982 – 85 ) . Meyer primarily played first base , but also played left field , third base , and right field . He batted left @-@ handed while throwing right @-@ handed . During his playing career , Meyer was listed at 5 feet 11 inches ( 180 cm ) and weighed 180 pounds ( 82 kg ) .
After attending the University of Arizona and Santa Ana College , Meyer was drafted by the Detroit Tigers during the 1972 Major League Baseball draft . He began his career in the minor leagues with the Bristol Tigers . Meyer made his major league debut in 1974 . Over his career in the majors , Meyer compiled a .253 batting average with 411 runs scored , 944 hits , 153 doubles , 31 triples , 86 home runs , and 459 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 1 @,@ 118 games played .
= = Early life = =
Meyer was born on August 3 , 1952 in Hamilton , Ohio . He attended Mater Dei High School in Santa Ana , California . In 1970 , Meyer was inducted into the school 's baseball hall of fame . Meyer spent one year ( 1971 ) at the University of Arizona . In 1972 , Meyer enrolled in Santa Ana College where he played second base on the school 's baseball team . He was selected by the Detroit Tigers during the fourth round of the 1972 Major League Baseball draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Detroit Tigers = = =
In 1972 , at the age of 19 , Meyer made his professional baseball debut in the Detroit Tigers minor league organization . He was assigned to play with the Bristol Tigers of the rookie @-@ level Appalachian League , where he batted .396 with 93 hits , 11 doubles , six triples , and 14 home runs in 65 games played . On defense , he played second and third base . He led the league in batting average , hits , and total bases ( 158 ) that season . During his second professional season in 1973 , Meyer was assigned to the Lakeland Tigers of the Class @-@ A Florida State League . With Lakeland , he batted .241 with 114 hits , 17 doubles , six triples , and 10 home runs in 133 games played . In the field , Meyer only played second base . It would later prove to be his last professional season playing at that position .
Meyer began the 1974 season in the minor leagues with the Evansville Triplets of the Triple @-@ A American Association . In 129 games with the Triplets , he batted .302 with 75 runs scored , 146 hits , 26 doubles , seven triples , nine home runs , 57 RBIs , and 10 stolen bases . Meyer was a September call @-@ up for the Detroit Tigers that year . On September 14 , 1974 , he made his MLB debut with the Tigers in a game against the New York Yankees , where in one at bat he went hitless . He received his first hit on September 20 , in a game against the Milwaukee Brewers . Meyer also hit two home runs in that game , the first coming in the third inning off of Brewers ' starter Bill Champion , and the second coming Brewers ' reliever Bill Travers in the seventh inning . In 13 games with Detroit that year , Meyer batted .200 with five runs scored , 10 hits , one double , one triple , three home runs , seven RBIs , and one stolen base . All of his 12 defensive games were played in left field .
In 1975 , Meyer played his first full season at the major league level . He played left field and first base in the field . During the fifth inning of a game against the Boston Red Sox on April 25 , Meyer hit a home run to break up Luis Tiant 's perfect game bid . One day after hitting the game @-@ winning home run for the Tigers against the Milwaukee Brewers on May 7 , Meyer committed a throwing error that let the deciding Texas Rangers ' run score . He batted .236 with 56 runs scored , 111 hits , 17 doubles , three triples , eight home runs , 47 RBIs , and eight stolen bases in 122 games played during the 1975 season . Meyer led the American League that year in plate appearances per strikeout with 18 @.@ 8 , which was over four points more than Mickey Rivers , who was second in the league in that statistic .
Meyer played 105 games in 1976 for the Tigers . On the year , he batted .252 with 37 runs scored , 74 hits , eight doubles , four triples , two home runs , 16 RBIs , and 10 stolen bases . His batting average was the highest it would ever be as a Tigers player , despite the decline in at @-@ bats ( 470 in 1975 , 294 in 1976 ) . During the season , Meyer played 47 games in left field , 19 at first base , and one in the designated hitter spot .
= = = Seattle Mariners = = =
During the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft , Meyer was selected by the Seattle Mariners , who chose him ninth overall . On June 9 , 1977 , in a game against the Minnesota Twins , Meyer hit two home runs . In his first season with the Mariners , Meyer batted .273 with 75 runs scored , 159 hits , 24 doubles , four triples , 22 home runs , 90 RBIs , and 11 stolen bases in 159 games played . He led the American League with 159 defensive games at first base . During the Mariners inaugural season , he led the team in hits and RBIs . Meyer also set multiple career highs in 1977 that would stand until the end of his professional tenure in games played , plate appearances ( 639 ) , at bats ( 582 ) , runs scored , hits , home runs , RBIs , walks ( 43 ) , strikeouts ( 51 ) , on @-@ base percentage ( .320 ) , and total bases ( 257 ) .
In 1978 , Meyer saw his offensive statistics decline . In 123 games played , he batted .227 with 38 runs scored , 101 hits , 18 doubles , one triple , eight home runs , 56 RBIs , and seven stolen bases . Defensively , he played 121 games at first base and two games in left field . Meyer was moved back to third base during the 1979 season , while also playing limited time at left field and first base . In June , while Meyer was having success at the plate , he attributed it to switching positions . On the season , Meyer batted .278 with 72 runs scored , 146 hits , 21 doubles , seven triples , 20 home runs , 74 RBIs , and 11 stolen bases in 144 games played .
During the 1980 season , Meyer batted .275 with 56 runs scored , 146 hits , 25 doubles , six triples , 11 home runs , 71 RBIs , and eight stolen bases in 146 games played for Seattle . Meyer spent his final season as a Mariners player in 1981 , batting .262 with 26 runs scored , 66 hits , 10 doubles , one triple , three home runs , and 22 RBIs in 83 games played . Meyer saw his playing time decrease that season due to strained abdominal muscles , which had him on the disabled list from the start of the season to April 15 .
= = = Oakland Athletics and later career = = =
In December 1981 , the Seattle Mariners traded Meyer to the Oakland Athletics in exchange for Rich Bordi . In his first season with the Athletics , Meyer batted .240 with 28 runs scored , 92 hits , 17 doubles , three triples , eight home runs , and 59 RBIs in 120 games played . With Oakland that year , Meyer was primarily used as a first baseman in the field , but did see limited time in right field , and left field . He was also the designated hitter during 38 games . During the 1983 season , Meyer batted .189 with runs scored , 32 hits , nine doubles , one home run , and 13 RBIs in 69 games played .
In 1984 , Meyer found himself starting the season in the minor league for the first time in ten years . With the Tacoma Tigers of the Triple @-@ A Pacific Coast League , Meyer batted .293 with 134 hits , 19 doubles , two triples , and seven home runs in 124 games played . Meyer was called up to the majors in September . As a member of the Athletics , Meyer batted .318 with one run scored , seven hits , three doubles , one triple , and four RBIs in 20 games played . After the season , he filed for free agency .
On January 15 , 1985 , Meyer re @-@ signed with the Athletics . With Oakland that year , Meyer went hitless in 12 at @-@ bats . He was released by the team on May 26 . For the duration of the 1985 season , Meyer played with the Triple @-@ A Nashville Sounds , who were the minor league affiliates of the Detroit Tigers . With the Sounds that year , Meyer batted .225 with 36 hits , 13 doubles , one triple , and one home run in 51 games played . During the 1986 season , Meyer was absent from professional baseball . He resurfaced in 1987 , playing three games with the Class @-@ A San Jose Bees of the California League .
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= Regency Square , Brighton =
Regency Square is a large early 19th @-@ century residential development on the seafront in Brighton , part of the British city of Brighton and Hove . Conceived by speculative developer Joshua Hanson as Brighton underwent its rapid transformation from fishing village to fashionable resort , the three @-@ sided " set piece " of around 70 houses and associated structures was designed and built over a ten @-@ year period by Brighton 's most important Regency @-@ era architects : the partnership of Charles Busby , Amon Wilds and his son Amon Henry Wilds . The site was originally Belle Vue Field — used at various times as a military camp ( mentioned in Pride and Prejudice ) , a showground and the location of a windmill .
The square was a prestigious , high @-@ class development , attracting the social elite . The square gradually lost its prestige status after the First World War as hotels started to move in . The square 's central garden , originally private , has been council @-@ owned since 1884 and is publicly accessible , and an underground car park was built beneath it in 1969 .
Most of the buildings in and around the square have been designated Listed buildings : six blocks of houses are each listed at Grade II * , the second @-@ highest designation , while five other residential buildings , a war memorial , a nearby inn and a set of bollards outside it have each been given the lower Grade II status . The house at the southwest corner is now numbered as part of King 's Road but was built as part of Regency Square , and is also Grade II * -listed .
= = History = =
= = = Belle Vue Field = = =
Regency Square was built on one of the fields surrounding the fishing village of Brighthelmstone , the predecessor of modern @-@ day Brighton . The field was named Belle Vue Field — probably in connection with the long vanished Belle Vue House , and lay to the west of the village . The field ran down to the seafront , and was a popular site for travelling shows , fairs , military parades and other gatherings . The field contained a windmill known as West Mill . A windmill was owned by Matthew Bourne in 1744 , but was not marked on Ogilby 's 1762 map . A windmill is shown on Lambert 's View of Brighthelmstone which is dated 1765 . The windmill stood in the field until 28 March 1797 , when 86 oxen dragged it 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) uphill on a sled to the nearby village of Preston . It was re @-@ erected there and renamed Preston Mill . After several more renamings , it was demolished in 1881 . Its machinery was cannibalised by the owners of nearby Waterhall Mill . A watercolour painting , now displayed at Preston Manor , shows crowds of people watching the mill 's removal to Preston .
By the late 18th century , Brighton ( as it was now known ) had begun to develop into a popular and fashionable seaside resort . Belle Vue Field became more important to the growing town in 1793 , when in response to the increased military threat from France , a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ man military encampment ( Brighton 's first ) was established there . The camp quickly gained a reputation as a place for women to find partners , and Jane Austen used it as a setting in her novel Pride and Prejudice ( written in 1796 and published in 1813 ) . The heroine Elizabeth Bennet 's sister is invited to Brighton and elopes with , and later marries , army officer George Wickham . The camp moved to another site in 1794 ; after returning to its former use as a fairground and showground , Belle Vue Field gradually lost popularity and was abandoned in 1807 , when such entertainments moved to The Level , a large expanse of grass inland north of Old Steine .
= = = Hanson builds the square = = =
A few years later , the field ( which had no common ownership ) was acquired by Joshua Flesher Hanson , a businessman . By this time , Brighton 's popularity was such that speculators were commissioning architects and builders to design and lay out large @-@ scale sea @-@ facing residential developments to attract wealthy long @-@ term visitors or permanent residents . Royal Crescent was already thriving ; Clarence Square , Russell Square , Marine Parade and New Steine were being developed , and work had started on Bedford Square . Hanson decided to follow the trend but take it in a new direction : he divided Belle Vue Field into 70 plots , leased them individually and put strict covenants in place , demanding that each house be built in a specific style in order to ensure architectural harmony . In return , the leaseholders ( mostly private builders ) would have the right to buy , and would end up with houses much larger than average for the town , with excellent sea views and with exclusive access to the large central garden . Most leaseholders bought the houses as soon as they could , which was to Hanson 's advantage as he made money and had no ongoing responsibility for the buildings . Restrictions in the covenants included the requirement to erect a façade with an iron balcony , to clad the area below the balcony in stucco , to paint the façade at least every three years , to repair any damage , and to pay towards maintenance of the central garden . No stucco was to be applied above the balcony line .
Although there is no documentary evidence confirming the architects , all sources attribute most of Regency Square 's buildings to the father @-@ and @-@ son partnership of Amon and Amon Henry Wilds , who moved to Brighton from nearby Lewes in 1815 and became two of Brighton 's most important architects ; they were extremely prolific , and were responsible for defining and developing the town 's distinctive Regency style . Although they worked extensively with fellow architect Charles Busby during the 1820s , historians agree that he was not involved in the overall design of Regency Square , at least not in its early stages : the buildings " appear to lack his distinctive flair " and are not as impressive as those at the Kemp Town estate to the east of Brighton , which all three men were involved with . Some of the later houses may have been the work of Wilds senior and Busby , however .
Building work started in 1818 and continued until 1830 , although most of the square ( except numbers 1 and 47 – 49 ) were complete by 1828 . The long construction period affected the uniformity of design hoped for by Hanson , as did the fact that building plots were sold individually and at different times : even a strict covenant could not force the owners into designing identical houses . A passageway ( Regency Colonnade ) was built at the northeast corner to connect the square to the neighbouring development of Russell Square , which was built at the same time ; the contemporary Regency Inn ( now known as the Regency Tavern ) faced both the passageway and Regency Square . St Margaret 's Church , an Anglican chapel of ease designed in the Greek Revival / Neoclassical style in 1824 by Busby , was the local place of worship .
Bands often played in the square 's central garden or on King 's Road at the southern end of the square . Meanwhile , residents were upset in 1866 when the West Pier , designed by Eugenius Birch , was built opposite the square 's central garden : its entrance booths affected their sea views . Otherwise , there was little for residents to worry about until the 1880s , by which time Hanson 's covenants were about to expire . Unusually , he had set a 71 @-@ year time limit on the covenants rather than granting them in perpetuity , and on 25 December 1889 they would expire . Residents would then lose their rights to use the gardens , among other things . Five residents , led by solicitor Somers Clarke ( unrelated to the Brighton @-@ born architect of that name ) , attempted unsuccessfully to purchase the gardens and extend the covenants by an Act of Parliament ; two years later , though , the passing of the Brighton Improvement Act 1884 achieved the same aims . Brighton Corporation took ownership of the gardens , and householders signed new deeds confirming they wished for the covenants relating to their houses to be extended indefinitely .
= = = 20th century = = =
From the beginning , Regency Square was a prestigious , high @-@ class development , and it is still considered to be " one of Brighton 's best sea @-@ facing squares " . By the mid @-@ 20th century , most of the houses had become hotels , and in early 1969 a surface @-@ level car park was planned for the Brighton Corporation owned central garden ; this was changed to a 520 @-@ space underground car park which was created using the cut and cover method in which the garden was dug up , the car park with roof constructed , and the lawns and flowerbeds restored . Richard Seifert 's 334 @-@ foot ( 102 m ) , Modernist 24 @-@ storey residential block , Sussex Heights , was built in 1968 on land immediately to the east of the square , and was criticised for affecting the character of the square because of its contrasting style and height . During the early 1970s the hotels sought permission from Brighton Corporation to erect neon signs advertising themselves ; after negotiation with the Regency Society , a Brighton @-@ wide conservation group formed in 1945 , the Corporation made the square and the surrounding area into a conservation area in 1973 . Conservation area status gives the council firmer control over planning permission and changes to buildings or street furniture , especially in respect of their effect on " the character and appearance of the area " . The original conservation area has since been enlarged twice to its present size of 80 acres ( 32 ha ) .
= = Architecture = =
Almost all buildings in and around the square have been designated Listed building : six blocks of houses are each listed at Grade II * , while the other buildings , including a set of bollards , have each been given the lower Grade II status . The house at the south west corner is now numbered as part of King 's Road but was built as part of Regency Square , and is also Grade II * -listed .
The six Grade II * parts of the square , plus the former St Albans House , were listed on 13 October 1952 . The west side was listed in two parts : the three houses at numbers 2 – 4 , and the sixteen houses from number 5 to number 20 . The northern side 's central section , numbers 26 – 37 , forms another listing . On the east side , numbers 51 – 56 , 57 – 59 and 60 – 66 are each listed at Grade II * . Apart from St Albans House , all of these listings include iron railings attached to the exterior . Numbers 38 – 46 Regency Square were listed at Grade II on 20 August 1971 , while the rest of the square 's houses were listed at the same grade on 26 August 1999 in four separate listings : numbers 22 – 25 , 46a , 46b and 47 – 49 . All listings except numbers 46a and 46b include attached railings , and the listing for numbers 38 – 46 also includes a carriage arch .
A small block of flats , Abbotts , stands at the southeast corner of the square . Built by architecture firm Fitzroy Robinson & Partners in 1961 – 62 to replace a hotel of the same name , it was considered " quite good " by architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner .
= = = Grade II * listings = = =
2 – 4 Regency Square
These three four @-@ storey houses ( now the Beach Hotel ) have double bow fronts , and were considered by Nikolaus Pevsner to be more austere in their detailing than most Brighton houses of their era . Number 2 , a former home of social reformer William King ( whose two @-@ year stay is commemorated by a blue plaque ) , is built of brick which has been painted over ; the others are stuccoed . Each house also has a basement and a dormer window . The ground floors are rusticated and have arched doorways set into Classical @-@ style porches with both Ionic and Doric columns — the latter in the form of antae . The tripartite bay windows are neither full @-@ height nor continuous : only the first three storeys have them , and they are offset to the right on the first and second floors . The first @-@ floor windows sit between a curved cast @-@ iron balcony and a verandah @-@ style canopy supported on decorative brackets . On each house , the third floor has three small flat @-@ arched sash windows ; the centre window sits below a small cornice supported on corbels .
5 – 20 Regency Square
These sixteen houses form the greater part of the square 's west side . Although there are differences in height and detail between individual houses , they were designed at the same time and maintain " the longstanding tradition of the terraced townhouse " which had been developed " by Henry Holland [ ... ] in his own speculative enterprises at Hans Town and Sloane Street , London " . Numbers 7 , 8 , 11 and 15 are entirely stuccoed ; number 18 retains its original unpainted yellow @-@ brick upper façade ; and all other houses have painted brick to their upper storeys and stuccoed ground floors with rustication . The roofs are mansard @-@ style and laid with slate . Each house has dormer windows ; numbers 5 – 13 inclusive rise to four storeys , while the other seven houses are one storey shorter . All houses except number 12 have a single bay window , mostly in tripartite form . Number 12 has three windows to each floor . The entrance porches , reached via staircases , are either Doric or Ionic in form , with columns and entablatures . They have arch @-@ headed doorways set into them . Small cast @-@ iron balconies run across the terrace at first @-@ floor level ( although number 5 's has been lost ) , and some houses have canopy @-@ style verandahs as well . A nearly continuous cornice ( absent on numbers 13 and 19 ) spans the terrace ; some houses also have a second cornice above this . Several houses have fanlights with coloured glass , and other non @-@ standard details include decorative stucco panelling at number 5 ; paterae ( circular motifs ) , triglyph @-@ decorated friezes and other Classical @-@ style ornamentation in some of the porch entablatures ; original window @-@ guards of iron ; a blocked doorway flanked by pilasters at number 20 ; and many original sash windows .
26 – 37 Regency Square
These 12 houses , arranged along the sea @-@ facing north side in the form of two wings flanking a four @-@ house centrepiece , are the focal point of the square , forming " a kind of palace front " topped with a pediment displaying Regency Square in prominent black lettering . Pevsner described this feature as " not [ being ] enough of an accent to pull the square together " . The terrace is a five @-@ part composition : the end " wings " ( formed by numbers 26 – 27 and 36 – 37 ) are of four storeys , stuccoed and with tall parapets pinched upwards to form small pediments ; the central section ( numbers 30 – 33 ) , also of four storeys and built in yellow brick , and topped with the inscribed pediment ; and numbers 28 – 29 and 34 – 35 , rising to three storeys and forming a link between the central and outer sections . Numbers 30 – 33 have a two @-@ window range , rather than the single window on each of the other houses , and have four pilasters running the full height of the façade and terminating at the parapet in circular antefixae . The entrance porches are of the Ionic order . Each house has a canopied cast @-@ iron balcony at first @-@ floor level . There is rusticated decoration at ground @-@ floor level .
51 – 56 Regency Square
The east side of Regency Square is architecturally less consistent than the west side . Numbers 51 – 56 were designed as a symmetrical composition : the two houses at the centre stand forward slightly and have a more prominent pediment . Each house has four storeys and a single bay window on the ground and first floors ; other common features include rustication on the ground floor and Ionic @-@ style porches with recessed flat @-@ arched doorways and arched fanlights . There are cast @-@ iron balconies at first @-@ floor level ; number 52 's has a canopy above it . Some windows are sashes , and numbers 52 , 53 , 54 and 56 have dormer windows in their slate roofs .
57 – 59 Regency Square
These three houses may also have been designed as a single composition , but this effect has been lost . Numbers 58 and 59 are of five storeys ; number 57 has four storeys and dormer windows . The parapet rises into an intricately decorated pediment above number 58 , with palmette scrollwork and semicircular antefixae . Each house has an Ionic @-@ columned porch with a straight @-@ headed door and semicircular fanlight . Numbers 57 and 59 have canopies and first @-@ floor balconies ; number 58 has only a balcony . The three houses are the only ones on the east side to have full @-@ height bows , and number 57 is unique on that side in retaining its original unpainted yellow @-@ brick façade .
60 – 66 Regency Square
These seven houses are also a symmetrical composition : the three in the middle are set forward and have a tall parapet topped by a very shallow pediment . Like the rest of the east side , the houses have Ionic porches with flat @-@ arched doors and round @-@ headed fanlights . The ground and first floors have three @-@ part bay windows topped with cornices . Except on number 63 , a narrow canopy sits between the first @-@ floor window and the cornice . Another cornice spans the full width of the terrace above third @-@ floor level . The slightly recessed houses on each end ( numbers 60 – 61 and 65 – 66 ) have pairs of dormer windows .
131 King 's Road
The former St Albans House was designed in 1828 by Amon Henry Wilds alone and was fitted out by William Izard . A shopfront was fitted in the early 20th century , and the ground floor has housed a restaurant since 1930 . Contemporary with the shopfront was the round @-@ headed entrance on the King 's Road elevation , with an archway supported on fluted columns , a dentil @-@ patterned cornice and ornamentation including scrollwork and a panel inscribed St Albans . The building has five storeys , three windows facing King 's Road and the sea , and a five @-@ window range to Regency Square . It is stuccoed and slate @-@ roofed . The shopfront is topped by a thin cast @-@ iron balcony . The right @-@ hand ( east ) side of the King 's Road façade has a full @-@ height tripartite segmental bay window with architraves to each window . The Regency Square elevation also has a three @-@ light full @-@ height bay window ; all other windows are blocked .
= = = Grade II listings = = =
22 – 25 Regency Square
Numbers 22 – 25 Regency Square — at the northwest corner of the square on a short road leading to Preston Street — include the building ( number 67 ) on the corner of that street , which absorbed the house built as number 21 Regency Square . Attributed to Amon and Amon Henry Wilds , these bow @-@ fronted terraced houses were built in about 1818 . Number 67 Preston Street is of three storeys and has a shopfront facing west into that street ; alongside that is a porch with rusticated decoration and an arched doorway . The Regency Square ( south ) façade has blocked windows at first- and second @-@ floor level . The four houses facing Regency Square are of three storeys , except number 25 which also has an attic storey . They are of brick faced with painted stucco . Each house has a chimney on its slate roof . Each has an entrance staircase with iron railings , a rusticated ground floor , a single bay window to each storey , an iron balcony at first @-@ floor level , a cornice and a parapet in front of the roof . At numbers 22 to 24 , dormer windows cut through the parapet .
38 – 46 Regency Square
Numbers 38 – 46 Regency Square run alongside the northeast side , and are contemporary with the houses at the northwest corner . The Wildses are believed to have designed them . A carriage arch runs between numbers 42 and 43 . Together with numbers 22 – 25 and the Grade II * -listed centrepiece of numbers 26 – 37 , the houses form an approximately symmetrical three @-@ part arrangement when viewed from the south . Each house is of stucco @-@ clad brick , and all but number 40 have slate @-@ covered roofs . All houses rise to three storeys and have dormer windows ; number 43 has two bay windows on each floor ( except the ground floor , where the space is taken up by the carriage arch ) , but the other houses have only one . Each house also has a balcony , a cornice and a parapet ( topped with a balustrade in some cases ) .
46a Regency Square
Number 46a Regency Square stands partly in the square and partly in the passageway opposite the Regency Tavern . It is a two @-@ storey stucco @-@ faced cottage with three windows on the first floor and a fourth in a recessed wing on the east side . The flat roof sits behind a parapet . The ground floor has a broad single window flanked by decorative panels . A cornice runs between the two storeys , and projects forward over the right @-@ aligned entrance .
46b Regency Square
Number 46b Regency Square is squeezed into a narrow corner between numbers 47 – 49 and the Regency Tavern . It has three storeys , a single @-@ window range and much ornamentation . The ground floor , with its wide arched window and prominent cornice , may be a 20th @-@ century alteration . Above it , pilasters with banded rustication rise to the level of the parapet . They are broken at second @-@ floor level by a small balcony with balustrades . The window above this has a round arch , a moulded archivolt , a keystone with acanthus decoration and thin pilasters topped with capitals in the form of leaves .
47 – 49 Regency Square
Numbers 47 – 49 Regency Square are believed to be the last buildings completed ; Charles Busby was probably involved in their design , as they are noticeably different from the rest of the square . All three have a single canted bay window to each of three storeys , topped with an architrave supported on pilasters with capitals . Each house also has a cornice and parapet . Number 47 's doorway is straight @-@ headed , but the other two houses have round @-@ arched entrances .
War memorial
A memorial commemorating 152 members of the Royal Sussex Regiment who died in the Second Boer War stands at the south end of Regency Square 's garden , facing King 's Road and the sea . It was erected in 1904 , and takes the form of a square pedestal topped by an entablature and pediment . Originally of Portland stone with some bronze and stucco , the bronze parts have now been obscured . A bronze trumpeter stands on top of the entablature . Local architect Sir John Simpson designed the memorial and Charles Hartwell sculpted it . The memorial 's unveiling ceremony , conducted by William Nevill , 1st Marquess of Abergavenny , was on 29 October 1904 .
Regency Tavern
The Regency Tavern 's main façade faces north into the passageway leading to Russell Square , and has a six @-@ window range . The side wall , facing into Regency Square , has two windows to each of the three storeys . The frontage is mostly original but has been augmented by modern iron columns . All but one of the windows are original sashes ; those on the first floor of the Regency Square elevation have architraves which join the sill of the second @-@ floor window directly above . There are stuccoed panels between these windows as well , and some of the north @-@ facing windows also have panelling in their spandrels . A tall parapet rises above the cornice .
Bollards
Two cast @-@ iron bollards in the passageway outside the Regency Tavern are also listed at Grade II . They were erected in the mid @-@ 19th century , and are fluted along their length . One has the name of its local founder at the bottom . On 31 December 2012 , one was broken and was replaced with a smaller plain bollard instead of a facsimile , causing controversy locally .
= = Social aspects = =
Regency Square was a prestigious , high @-@ class development , attracting the social elite . The square gradually lost its prestige status after World War I as hotels started to move in , and by the mid @-@ 20th century , most of the houses had become hotels . During World War II air @-@ raid shelters were built on the square , and an underground car park was built beneath it in 1969 .
Number 1 Regency Square , later known as St Albans House and now numbered 131 King 's Road , is " historically the most interesting house in the square " . Amon Henry Wilds designed it for the Duke and Duchess of St Albans , and William Izard laid out the interior in 1829 . The house was one of the most important social venues in Brighton between 1830 and the Duchess 's death in 1837 . She was born Harriet Mellon in 1777 , became an actress , married banker Thomas Coutts in 1815 , and inherited his fortune when he died in 1822 — thereby becoming England 's richest woman . After being courted by many men , she met and married William Beauclerk , the 9th Duke of St Albans , and they became regular visitors to Brighton . In 1830 , they moved permanently to 1 Regency Square and renamed it St Albans House . For the next seven years , it was the venue for lavish balls with hundreds of upper @-@ class guests , extensive feasts and falconry displays by the Duke , who was the Grand Falconer of England . St Albans House had an adjacent riding school which supposedly had the second largest unsupported interior space and the second largest dome in England , behind Westminster Abbey and St Paul 's Cathedral respectively . ( Part of the Bedford Hotel now occupies the site . ) Two other famous characters paid an unintentional visit to Regency Square at the end of the 19th century : Oscar Wilde and his lover Lord Alfred Douglas crashed their horse and carriage into the railings of the gardens . Local newspapers reported the story with interest , but Wilde dismissed it as " an accident of no importance " — possibly a punning allusion to one of his best @-@ known plays .
Since the 1930s , many of Regency Square 's dwellings have been converted into hotels and guest houses , either individually or across more than one house . The Beach Hotel occupies numbers 2 – 4 , the three dwellings north of St Albans House . Hotel Pelirocco occupies numbers 9 and 10 ; the Royal Pavilion Townhouse Hotel is at number 12 ; and the West Pier Hotel ( at numbers 14 – 15 ) and Topps Hotel ( numbers 16 – 18 ) also occupy the west side of the square . There are four hotels on the north side : the Regency at number 28 , the Prince Regent at number 29 , Artist Residence at number 33 and the George IV Guest House at number 34 . The east side has Adelaide House ( number 51 ) , Brighton House ( number 52 ) , Hotel Una ( numbers 55 – 56 ) , and the Queensbury Hotel ( number 58 ) . Since c . 2000 the former Keehan 's Hotel at number 57 has been the West Pier Project homeless hostel , operated by Brighton and Hove City Council and accommodating about 40 people ; it will close in late 2015 and will become a hostel for former servicemen .
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= Super Mario Sunshine =
Super Mario Sunshine ( Japanese : スーパーマリオサンシャイン , Hepburn : Sūpā Mario Sanshain ) is a platform video game developed by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis & Development and published by Nintendo for the GameCube . It was released in Japan in July 2002 , in the United States and Canada in August and September 2002 respectively , and in Europe and Australia in October 2002 . It is the second Super Mario 3D platformer , following Super Mario 64 in 1996 . Super Mario Sunshine 's successor is Super Mario Galaxy , which was released for the Wii in 2007 .
The game takes place on the tropical Isle Delfino , where Mario , Toadsworth , Princess Peach , and five Toads are taking a vacation . A villain resembling Mario , known as Shadow Mario , vandalizes the island with graffiti and Mario gets blamed for the mess . Mario is ordered to clean up Isle Delfino , using a device called FLUDD ( Flash Liquidizer Ultra Dousing Device ) , while saving Princess Peach from Shadow Mario .
Super Mario Sunshine was well received by reviewers . It sold over 5 @.@ 5 million copies , and was the tenth best @-@ selling game of 2002 in the United States . Due to the game 's commercial success , it was re @-@ released as a Player 's Choice title in 2003 .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario Sunshine shares many similar gameplay elements with its predecessor , Super Mario 64 , whilst introducing various new gameplay features . Players control Mario as he tries to obtain 120 Shine Sprites in order to bring light back to Isle Delfino and prove his innocence after Bowser Jr . ( disguised as Mario ) steals the Shine Sprites and covers the island in toxic slime . Players start off in the hub world of Isle Delfino and access various worlds via portals which become available as the game progresses . Similar to collecting Stars in Super Mario 64 , players obtain Shine Sprites by clearing various objectives given to Mario upon entering each stage , with more objectives unlocked in each level after clearing an existing one . There are also various hidden areas and challenges across Isle Delfino where more Shine Sprites can be obtained . Throughout the game , players may also find Blue Coins , which can be exchanged for more Shine Sprites in the boathouse in Delfino Plaza .
In this game , Mario is joined by a robotic backpack named FLUDD ( Flash Liquidizing Ultra Dousing Device ) , which uses the power of water to clean away goop and help Mario reach new places . Mario starts with two default nozzles for FLUDD , Squirt and Hover , which he can quickly switch between . The Squirt nozzle lets Mario spray a stream of water which he can use to clean sludge , attack enemies , and activate certain mechanisms . The Hover nozzle lets Mario hover in the air for a short period of time , allowing him to cross large gaps while simultaneously spraying things directly below him . As the game progresses , Mario unlocks two additional nozzles for FLUDD which can substituted with the Hover nozzle : the Rocket nozzle , which shoots Mario high up into the air ; and the Turbo nozzle , which moves Mario at high speeds , allowing him to run across water and break into certain areas . Each of FLUDD 's nozzles use water from its reserves , which can be refilled via water sources such as rivers or fountains . There are also some areas where FLUDD is taken away from Mario , forcing him to rely on his natural platforming abilities . At certain points in the game , Mario may come across an egg which hatches into a Yoshi after being brought a fruit he asks for . Yoshi can be ridden upon and can attack by spitting juice , which can clear certain obstacles that water cannot . Yoshi can also use his tongue to eat enemies or other pieces of fruit which change his color , depending on the type of fruit . Yoshi will disappear if he runs out of juice or falls into deep water . Juice can be replenished by eating more fruit .
= = Plot = =
The game takes place on the tropical resort of Isle Delfino , which is shaped like a dolphin and comprises ten primary locations . The island is mainly inhabited by the races of the Piantas and Nokis . All the levels either have Piantas , Nokis or both . Delfino Plaza is Isle Delfino 's largest city and the game 's main hub .
Mario sets out for Isle Delfino for a vacation with Princess Peach , and her long @-@ time steward Toadsworth . Upon a rough plane landing at the island 's airstrip , they find that the once @-@ pristine island has been polluted and plastered with graffiti . As a result of this pollution , sun @-@ shaped objects called " Shine Sprites " , the island 's sources of power , have disappeared , and the island is covered in a perpetual shadow . The culprit seen spreading the graffiti is disguised as Mario , who is named " Shadow Mario " . To help with cleaning the airstrip , Mario finds FLUDD , a powerful water cannon which is toted like a backpack and is also created by Professor E. Gadd . After Mario defeats a giant slime covered Piranha Plant and restores the airstrip , he is promptly arrested by two Pianta police officers who accuse him of vandalizing Isle Delfino with graffiti , despite the fact that he has only just arrived . He is put on trial , however it turns out to be a mere kangaroo court where the judge immediately finds Mario guilty and orders him to clean up the graffiti and recover the Shine Sprites , in spite of Princess Peach 's objection to the ruling . He is forbidden from leaving the island until he does so . The next day , after spending the night in a cell , Mario begins his adventure to find a way to clear his name and locate the real criminal , while restoring tranquility and order to Isle Delfino .
After defeating another slime @-@ covered Piranha Plant and a sunken statue rises from the ground , they see Shadow Mario on top of the statue for the first time . He jumps off the statue , grabs Peach , and runs off with her . Mario chases him and takes him down by spraying him with water from FLUDD . Shadow Mario immediately creates a graffiti portal on the restored statue and escapes through it . Mario follows him through the portal that leads to Bianco Hills , one of the other areas of Isle Delfino where he defeats another slime @-@ covered Piranha Plant and a hill , some trees and a section of wall rise up from the ground . After defeating two more slime @-@ covered Piranha Plants and restoring the disappeared boathouse and lighthouse that unlock portals from Delfino Plaza to two of Isle Delfino 's other locations , Mario follows Shadow Mario , who has kidnapped Princess Peach once again , towards Pinna Island , home of Isle Delfino 's theme park . There , Mario defeats a huge Bowser robot being controlled by Shadow Mario ( titled Mecha Bowser ) by firing water rockets at it on the roller coaster , while also shooting down the Bullet Bills that Mecha Bowswer fires.It is then revealed that Shadow Mario 's real identity is Bowser Jr . , the youngest son of Bowser who wields a magic brush that creates graffiti which , like FLUDD , was also created by E. Gadd . Bowser Jr. turns the remains of Mecha Bowser into a hot air balloon and escapes again with Princess Peach , having been told by Bowser that Peach is his mother . When learning the truth , Peach is visually upset for a second . He is last seen heading for Corona Mountain , a volcano where Bowser is holding a family vacation of his own . After Mario beats Bowser Jr. in all nine areas ( not including the Delfino airstrip ) , a flood falls upon Delfino Plaza , opening up a cave that leads into Corona Mountain that Shadow Mario disappears into . While most levels are restricted by this flood , the flood disappears after the player has entered Corona Mountain . Mario enters the volcano , and after getting through the volcano 's inner cave , defeats Bowser and Bowser Jr. by flipping over the hot tub they are in using the Rocket Nozzle and super ground pound , rescuing the princess . Mario and the princess fall from the sky while Bowser and Bowser Jr. are falling onto platforms in the ocean . While the others are plummeting down , Princess Peach puts her skirt back on . Princess Peach lands on an island beside Delfino Plaza on her feet , but on the same island , Mario gets his head stuck in the sand , but gets out . However , FLUDD becomes damaged during the landing , supposedly beyond repair . The Shine Gate 's power is restored and the Toads repair FLUDD shortly afterward and Mario , Princess Peach and the others resume their vacation , while Bowser admits to his son that Princess Peach was not really his mother . After the credits , if the player has collected less than all 120 shine sprites , a picture shows Il Piantissimo , a sprinter that Mario raced during the game , finding the brush that Bowser Jr. used to vandalize Isle Delfino . However , if the player has collected all 120 shine sprites , a picture of the entire cast with the words " Have a relaxing vacation " is displayed instead .
= = Development = =
A sequel to Super Mario 64 had been in the works for several years ; the cancelled games Super Mario 64 2 and Super Mario 128 were some ideas Nintendo had for a direct sequel . Super Mario Sunshine was first shown at Nintendo Space World 2001 . The game was later shown again at E3 2002 .
In an interview about the development of Super Mario Sunshine with producer Takashi Tezuka and directors Yoshiaki Koizumi and Kenta Usui , it was mentioned that the game 's development began with the idea of gameplay involving a water pump . However , at first the developers thought that the world was too daringly out of character with Mario . Therefore , they tried using a man @-@ type character , but thought this was too odd and that " if there was a man next to Mario , there is a sense of incongruity . " There were ten candidates for possible water nozzles , and FLUDD was chosen because of fitting in the game 's setting , despite it not being one of the favorites . They also stated that several Yoshi features were omitted , such as Yoshi vomiting water fed to him .
Koji Kondo and Shinobu Tanaka composed the score to Super Mario Sunshine . The soundtrack features various arrangements of classic Mario tunes , including the underground music and the main stage music from the original Super Mario Bros.
= = = Voice cast = = =
Super Mario Sunshine features many of the usual voice actors for the various Nintendo characters . This is the only 3D Mario game which features full English voice acting in cutscenes ( excluding the Japanese voice actors or in other countries ) . Charles Martinet voices Mario , Jen Taylor voices Princess Peach and Toad .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario Sunshine was commercially successful , having sold 5 @.@ 5 million copies as of June 2006 . In 2002 , Super Mario Sunshine was the tenth best @-@ selling game in the United States according to the NPD Group . It was re @-@ released in 2003 as part of the Player 's Choice line , a selection of games with high sales sold for a reduced price .
Super Mario Sunshine received critical acclaim by game reviewers . IGN praised the addition of the water backpack for improving the gameplay , and GameSpy commented on the " wide variety of moves and the beautifully constructed environments " . The game received a perfect score from Nintendo Power , who commended the " superb graphics , excellent music , clever layouts , funny cinema scenes and ingenious puzzles " .
GamePro also gave Super Mario Sunshine a perfect score , stating that the game was " a masterpiece of superior game design , infinite gameplay variety , creativity , and life . " The American @-@ based publication Game Informer said that the game is arguably " the best Mario game to date . " Computer and Video Games also mentioned the game is " better than Super Mario 64 . " The game placed 46th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time . Allgame gave a lower review , stating that " During the six @-@ year span between Super Mario 64 and Super Mario Sunshine , platform games have become more epic , more interactive , and prettier . Yet the core element of collecting items in a world divided into sub @-@ sections has been left unchanged . So it comes with a modicum of disappointment that Super Mario Sunshine doesn 't shake up the genre with a number of new and fresh ideas other than the usual enhancements expected from a sequel . "
Some reviewers were critical towards certain aspects of the game . GameSpot 's Jeff Gerstmann criticized the various additions , including FLUDD ( the water backpack ) and Yoshi , calling them " mere gimmicks . " He also complained about the camera system . Gerstmann felt that the game seemed somewhat unpolished and rushed , a sentiment shared by Matt Wales of Computer and Video Games .
= = Legacy = =
Super Mario Sunshine has introduced several elements which were carried over to subsequent Mario titles . Many of the characters introduced in this game have been staples in the series ever since : Petey Piranha , Cataquacks and most notably Bowser Jr. who has been one of Mario 's arch rivals ever since this initial encounter . Many of the bosses from this game and Luigi 's Mansion appeared in multiple Mario spin @-@ offs that were to follow on the GameCube , such as the unlockable Petey Piranha and King Boo in Mario Kart : Double Dash ‼ and the four unlockable characters in Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour .
This was the first game in the Mario series to introduce the Shine Sprites , which have appeared in later Mario titles such as Mario Kart DS and Paper Mario : The Thousand @-@ Year Door . This was the first game in the Mario series which included Bowser Jr .. He has since appeared in New Super Mario Bros. , Mario Kart Wii , New Super Mario Bros. Wii , New Super Mario Bros. U , Super Mario Galaxy , and Super Mario Galaxy 2 , and in later Mario spin @-@ off and sports games . The recurring character Petey Piranha , known as Boss Packun ( ボスパックン ) in Japan , was also introduced , who has later appeared in a large number of Mario titles .
This game was the first Mario platformer game to be released for the GameCube . It was also the first 3D Mario platformer which included the ability to ride Yoshi and to have him change colors . This feature reappeared in Super Mario Galaxy 2 where the Twisty Trials Galaxy in World S is another recurring theme from Super Mario Sunshine , based off one of the missions " The Secret of Ricco Tower " .
In Super Smash Bros. Brawl , Mario uses FLUDD as a new special move , it does no damage and instead pushes opponents away . Brawl also has the fighting stage Delfino Plaza , a replica of Isle Delfino 's capital city , with a platform carrying the fighters to any location of the stage on occasion . The original background music of Delfino Plaza occasionally plays on the stage , as well as the BGM for Ricco Harbor . The game also features several stickers based on artwork from Super Mario Sunshine . Most of these features were retained in Super Smash Bros. for 3DS and Wii U and the Delfino Plaza was retained in Super Smash Bros. for Wii U. Bowser Jr. himself debuted as a new playable fighter in the game , and utilizes his Magic Paintbrush and Shadow Mario form from Super Mario Sunshine in his Final Smash .
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= Mukuro Rokudo =
Mukuro Rokudo ( 六道 骸 , Rokudō Mukuro ) is a fictional character in the Reborn ! manga and anime series created by Akira Amano . Portrayed as the series ' first primary antagonist , Mukuro Rokudo is introduced as a 15 @-@ year @-@ old Mafia criminal who is the leader of the Kokuyo Gang , which consists of heinous criminals who have recently escaped from prison . However , later on in the series , after possessing the body of Chrome Dokuro , he takes on a more supportive role for the series ' main characters , becoming somewhat of an ally rather than an enemy , though he prefers to not want to associate with them . Apart from the manga and anime , Mukuro has also appeared in other media from the Reborn ! franchise including video games and novels .
Mukuro 's character has been well received by readers since his introduction , ranking as one of the most popular characters in every official Shonen Jump poll of the series . Also , his and Kyoya Hibari 's character CD entitled " Sakura addiction " , peaked at seventh place on the Oricon charts . Their performance earned each of their voice actors a Seiyu Awards ' nomination for " Best Musical Performance " , in addition to Toshinobu Iida being nominated as the " Best Rookie Actor " for his portrayal as Mukuro Rokudo . Numerous anime and manga publications have commented on Mukuro 's character , mostly receiving positive reviews . Merchandise based on his appearance has also been released including key chains and action figures .
= = Character outline = =
= = = Personality = = =
Mukuro is often seen with a playful smile and seems apathetic to the suffering of others . Appearing as the series ' first antagonist , Mukuro is not averse to disposing of those who get in his way , and is not easily intimidated , usually speaking to others in a very direct and arrogant manner . Prior to his first appearance , he , along with Ken Joshima and Chikusa Kakimoto , is mentioned to have been locked up in a high security Italian prison , which is reserved for the most dangerous of Mafia criminals , who have even committed crimes against the Mafia itself . He cares little for others , and simply considers people to be " toys " he can sacrifice in order to get to what he wants . However , despite claiming this , he seems to tolerate both Ken and Chikusa , and even protects them , as well as sacrifice himself for them , when need be , though does not do so in front of them . He also seems to care for Chrome , though hides it in front of others . To keep his identity hidden , Mukuro periodically controls several people , most notably Lancia , whom he uses as a " fake Mukuro " .
Mukuro is implied to have a strong dislike for the entire Mafia underground , due in part to the experimentations he suffered as a child at the hands of the Estraneo Mafia family . When Mukuro killed his captors , he offered Chikusa and Ken , who were also victims of experimentation , a chance to join him in his quest to destroy the world . However , not only does he want to take revenge on the Mafia by destroying it , he also wants to cleanse the world of its filth by invoking universal suffering through a world war . Even after becoming the Vongola 's Mist Guardian , Mukuro still claims to no longer be part of the Mafia , having been exiled from it , and continues to view the organization with great contempt .
= = = Weapons and abilities = = =
Known as someone who has driven both the Mafia and police into dangerous and desperate of situations , Mukuro is a deadly opponent . Though Mukuro 's main weapon is a trident , and is capable of using combative skills , he is first and foremost a master of illusions , thus he is not easily deceived by illusions that are cast by others . His abilities lie in his " Six Paths of Rebirth " ( 六道輪廻 , Rokudō rinne ) , six different skills which he claims has been carved into his memories by having had his body go through all six paths to Hades . When using his skills , a Japanese numeral , corresponding to the realm he has entered , appears in his right eye . The skills granted from the individual paths varies from enhancing his physical and mind @-@ controlling abilities , as well as his power of his illusions , to enabling him to control and summon animals .
Mukuro also possesses the Estraneo Family 's Possession Bullet , a forbidden bullet which enables a person to possess the body of another person when the possessor is shot with it . With this , Mukuro is able to possess and control the body of anyone that he has cut with his trident . He can possess several bodies simultaneously , and he is also still able to enter the Six Realms , granting him the ability to use a different skill for each body .
= = Plot overview = =
After arriving in Japan from Italy , and enrolling in Kokuyo Middle School , ten days prior to their first appearance , Mukuro , Chikusa , and Ken , started a gang made up of Mafia criminals , and began their quest to find the Vongola 's tenth generation boss . After having his subordinates attack the strongest students in Namimori Middle School , he successfully draws out the tenth boss , Tsunayoshi Sawada . During Mukuro 's fight with Tsuna , he reveals his plans of taking over Tsuna 's body in order to take revenge on the Mafia . However , he loses the battle to Tsuna and he and his friends are imprisoned by the Mafia 's guardians , the Vendicare .
They later attempt a breakout , but Mukuro uses himself as bait , and ends up being thrown into a lower level jail cell . Whilst strolling in his illusions , he comes upon Chrome Dokuro , who was on the verge of death , and possesses her , saving her life with illusionary organs . He then makes a bargain with the Vongola to become one of the ring guardians in exchange for Ken and Chikusa 's safety . Now sharing an existence with Chrome , Mukuro later helps her defeat Mammon after he emerges in his own form .
In the story 's alternate future , Millefiore member Glo Xinia gloats about having defeated him to a displaced Chrome , who had been transported into the future by the Ten @-@ Year Bazooka . However , the future Mukuro had possessed Glo 's owl and helps Chrome defeat him in battle . While spying on the Millefiore Family , Mukuro engages Byakuran in battle but is severely wounded . He reappears as an illusion during the Vongola 's battle against Byakuran in order to give the Vongola enough time to escape . He is later able to assist them in person after his apprentice , Fran , frees his body from the Vendicare 's Prison .
After Tsuna 's group returns to the past , Mukuro is lured into possessing Chrome when Daemon Spade endangers her life . Mukuro seemingly defeats Daemon , but the latter is able to take over Mukuro 's imprisoned body before Mukuro 's spirit can return to it and breaks out of prison to confront the group shortly after . He is later restored to his physical form after Tsuna defeats Daemon and expel his spirit . As the Vindice acknowledge Mukuro 's efforts in his fight with Daemon , he is freed and returns to Namimori .
Several weeks after the battle with Daemon , Mukuro leaves Chrome . He finds and recruits Fran into the group . Verde requests for Mukuro and his gang to fight for him in upcoming Arcobaleno battle , which Mukuro accepted in order to fight Tsuna and his Family . During the first day of the Representative battle , Mukuro 's team able to defeat five people within ten minutes , thanks to Verde 's machine that able to change illusion into reality . At the second day of the Representative battle , he , and his team fight Tsuna 's team and Byakuran 's team . At the third day of the Representative Battle , he reluctantly formed temporary alliance with Team Reborn to defeat the Vindice . With Chrome 's help and unleashed combined technique , they able to defeat two Vindice with the last one defeated by Tsuna . After Tsuna 's brief battle with Jager and knowing the truth about the Arcobaleno , he , along with the other remaining teams formed alliance with Tsuna as the core to defeat Team Bermuda . At the fourth day of Representative Battle , he , Dino , Squalo , Xanxus , and Byakuran confronts Jager , preventing him from helping his teammates while Tsuna , Enma , and Basil defeats them one by one .
= = Appearances in other media = =
Besides his appearance in the original manga series and its anime adaptation , Mukuro has appeared in other Reborn ! works , including all of the series ' video games . Mukuro also appears in the first light novel , Hidden Bullet : Mukuro 's Illusions , where the events of how Mukuro took over Kokuyo Middle School are revealed . Also , in the series ' character book , Vongola77 , there is a short story of how Mukuro uses his spiritual powers to control the body of a small boy in Japan in order to once again try to take over Tsuna 's body despite being imprisoned in Italy . After failing and realizing that he is incapable of residing in his host body for a long amount of time due to their unstable " connection " , he thought of later taking Chrome 's body instead .
On November 7 , 2007 , Pony Canyon released a character CD entitled " Sakura addiction " , which features both Mukuro and Hibari . It contains duets and individual songs sung by both voice actors : Toshinobu Iida and Takashi Kondō . The song " Sakura addiction " , which was sung by both voice actors , is used as the fifth ending theme for the anime series .
= = Reception = =
Mukuro has been highly popular with the Reborn ! reader base , having ranked as the most popular villain in the second official Shonen Jump poll of the series , which was divided into heroes and villains . In the third poll of the series , Mukuro ranked as the third most popular male character , losing to Tsunayoshi Sawada and Kyoya Hibari , who took second and first place , respectively . Mukuro then placed in both popularity polls the fourth time around , which was divided into current characters , where he placed fourth , and as characters who fans would most like to see in their future forms , where he placed fourteenth . In the fifth poll , he ranked as the fourth most popular overall character . The Japanese music distributor Recochoku has made two annual survey of which anime characters that people would like to marry . In both years , Mukuro ranked fourth in the category " The Character I Want to Be My Groom . " In an Animedia character popularity poll , Mukuro has been featured as the 11th most popular anime character . In the latest Animedia character popularity poll , Mukuro has been featured 21st . A plethora of merchandise has been released in Mukuro 's likeness including key chains , plush dolls , and action figures .
Mukuro and Hibari 's character CD , " Sakura addiction " , became the most successful Reborn ! character CD , debuting in ninth place in the Oricon charts . The single reached its peak at seventh place , but remained in the chart 's Top 40 till mid @-@ January 2008 . The second annual Seiyu Awards nominated both Toshinobu Iida and Takashi Kondō for " Best Musical Performance " , and Toshinobu also received a " Best Rookie Actor " nomination for his portrayal as Mukuro Rokudo , but he did not win either .
In publications focused on manga and anime reviews , Mukuro 's concept has received praise and acclaim . Leroy Douresseaux of comicbookbin.com views him as " murderous and supernaturally powerful , " as well as being a " slippery and formidable villain " by the way he attacks Tsuna and his friends . Sam Kusek of Manga Recon likes Mukuro as the enigmatic villain , though believes him to be a " big creep " . He also praises Akira Amano for the originality of Mukuro 's techniques , viewing it as " one of the most interesting ideas I 've seen , " and making him , along with Tsuna , the " real winners overall " of volume 9 . However , David Rasmussen from mangalife.com commented that the fight against Mukuro in the manga is a " long , long , DragonBall @-@ Z @-@ sized struggle " . As such , he mentioned that the fight is very likable for readers who enjoy " super @-@ powerful people " and long fights .
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= GoAir =
Not to be confused with go ! , the Hawaiian airline .
GoAir is a low @-@ cost carrier based in Mumbai , India . It is owned by the Indian business conglomerate Wadia Group . As of February 2016 , it is the fifth largest airline in India with an 8 % passenger market share . It commenced operations in November 2005 and operates a fleet of Airbus A320 aircraft in all economy configuration . As of July 2016 , the airline operates over 140 daily flights to 22 cities from its hubs at Mumbai and Delhi .
= = History = =
GoAir was founded in 2005 by Jehangir Wadia , son of Indian industrialist Nusli Wadia . The airline is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Wadia Group . GoAir commenced its operations using an Airbus A320 aircraft and operated its inaugural flight from Mumbai to Ahmedabad on 4 November 2005 . The airline initially operated with a single aircraft to four destinations including Goa and Coimbatore with plans to induct 36 aircraft by 2008 . In March 2008 , the airline announced revised plans to operate 11 aircraft and service new destinations in North East and South India by the end of the year . But increasing fuel prices forced GoAir to cut down the existing number of flights in June 2008 .
In January 2009 , British Airways was interested in buying a stake in the airline . In November 2009 , GoAir entered into talks with Indian airline SpiceJet over a possible merger which ended in a no deal . In April 2012 , GoAir became the fifth largest airline in India in terms of market share following the demise of Kingfisher Airlines . In 2013 , the airline appointed investment bank JP Morgan to scout for potential investors .
The airline 's growth has been slow compared to other airlines established at the same time such as IndiGo and SpiceJet , which have larger market share , fleet size and destinations served as of 2016 . According to the airline , it is a planned strategy due to the tough aviation environment in India and to focus on maintaining profitability rather than on capturing market share and increasing the destinations and fleet size . As of February 2016 , it remains the fifth largest carrier in the country with an 8 % market share . The airline is planning for an Initial Public Offering ( IPO ) in 2016 . The airline took delivery of its 20th aircraft in June 2016 , making it eligible to operate international flights .
= = Corporate affairs = =
The airline is headquartered in Mumbai , India . Jehangir Wadia has served as the Managing Director of the airline since its inception in November 2005 . In April 2016 , Wolfgang Prock @-@ Schauer , the CEO of the airline , also became the joint Managing Director .
= = = Livery = = =
GoAir aircraft are painted in different colour schemes such as blue and pink with the logo on the tail . In 2011 , the airline announced that all its aircraft will convert to a new grey colour scheme .
= = Destinations = =
As of July 2016 , GoAir operates to 22 destinations in India , with over 140 daily flights and 975 weekly flights . In June 2016 , GoAir became eligible for international operations but does not yet operate any .
= = Fleet = =
GoAir operates a fleet of Airbus A320 aircraft in an all economy configuration . As of June 2016 , the fleet of GoAir consists of the following aircraft .
= = = New orders = = =
In June 2011 , GoAir placed an order for 72 Airbus A320neo aircraft worth ₹ 32 @,@ 400 crore ( US $ 4 @.@ 8 billion ) . Deliveries will begin from 2016 , with an induction rate of 12 – 15 aircraft per year . In December 2015 , Airbus intimated that the deliveries will be delayed by three months due to technical issues and the aircraft will be delivered by the second quarter of financial year 2015 – 16 . GoAir received its first A320neo aircraft on 1 June 2016 .
In July 2016 , GoAir signed a memorandum of understanding with Airbus for 72 Airbus A320neo 's aircraft valued at $ 7 @.@ 7 billion taking the total no.orders to 144 . This deal was announced at Farnborough Air Show 2016 .
= = Services = =
Being a low @-@ cost airline , GoAir does not provide complimentary meals on its flights but offers options for buy on board in @-@ flight meals . The airline publishes an in @-@ flight magazine named Go @-@ getter . GoAir offers a premium service known as Go Business at a higher fare which provides extra services including seats with greater legroom , free meals , increased baggage allowance and priority boarding . In 2011 , the airline launched its frequent flyer programme called Go Club , which provided benefits such as lounge access and free upgrade to Go Business . New membership was discontinued in February 2014 .
= = Awards = =
GoAir was rated as the " Best Domestic Airline For Excellence in Quality and Efficient Service " by Pacific Area Travel Writers Association in 2008 . The airline was also awarded as the " Best Performing Airline " in Asia and Africa of all Airbus A320 operators by Airbus in 2011 based on fleet utilization and other performance metrics .
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= Tom Vilsack presidential campaign , 2008 =
After being considered as a potential Vice Presidential candidate for Senator John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election , former Iowa Governor Tom Vilsack began a campaign for the Democratic Party 's 2008 nomination for President of the United States .
On November 30 , 2006 , he became the second Democratic candidate to officially announce a presidential run . His short @-@ lived campaign was focused on his home state of Iowa but suffered low standing in national polls and a lack of name recognition . During the campaign , he emphasized the War in Iraq and his plan for ending it .
His run concluded on February 23 , 2007 , before any debates or primaries , due to funding shortfalls . He endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton after his exit , but shifted to Barack Obama after her withdrawal .
= = Early stages = =
Near the end of his eight years as Governor of Iowa , Vilsack , as head of the centrist Democratic Leadership Council , campaigned for Democratic gubernatorial candidates across the nation . While on the campaign trail he gauged support for a possible presidential run . Vilsack was inspired by the results of the 2006 mid @-@ term elections , and proclaimed that " Americans sent a clear message " that " they want leaders who share their values , understand their needs and respect their intelligence " and that that is what he would " intend to do as president " . On November 9 , Vilsack filed with the FEC and announced that he had been " put [ ting ] together the building blocks needed to run a successful national presidential campaign . " He made his formal announcement on November 30 .
= = Campaign developments = =
Vilsack made his announcement in Mount Pleasant , Iowa . He listed the themes of his campaign as energy independence , national security , and the economy . The candidate promised change in government by means of reduced partisanship and decried the Bush Administration as one " whose first impulse is to divide and to conquer . " Vilsack acknowledged his underdog status , given his low profile outside Iowa , which hampered fundraising .
In December , Vilsack embarked on a campaign tour beginning in his hometown of Pittsburgh . While there , he addressed a local Democratic Committee , reminiscing about his childhood and how his adopted mother overcame alcoholism . He also discussed his policy on the Iraq War , advocating devolving control to the Iraqi government : " It 's their country , it 's their future and they should be willing to fight for it and they certainly should be willing to die for it . " He returned to Iowa for a fundraiser later in the week .
In mid @-@ December 2006 Vilsack was interviewed by two major magazines . In U.S. News and World Report , he explained why he decided against forming an exploratory committee like many of his Democratic rivals , on the principle that he had " to get to work . " He linked the issue of energy security to global warming and national security . He advocated moving American troops from southern and central Iraq to the north , and further commented that political reconciliation must be refocused on " building local governance " rather than spending " all the time on the national government . " In an interview with Rolling Stone , he made a distinction between " experience and judgment " and emphasized the importance of the latter . Vilsack attacked Republican candidate John McCain 's planned Iraq troop surge as " making a big mistake bigger " , and denied that the military had the resources to execute it . In discounting the importance of name recognition , he said " people don ’ t have to remember my name , they only have to remember the first letter which is V. It stands for vision , it stands for victory , it stands for Vilsack . " He also expressed his satisfaction with frontrunner Hillary Clinton , calling himself " a big fan . "
In January , Vilsack toured New Hampshire , site of the first primary . There he met with middle school students , with whom he discussed his plans for rebuilding Iraq . Dismissing his Democratic opponents ' calls for caps on American troops in the nation , Vilsack advocated a troop withdrawal . He also talked about Iraq with employees of the Granite State Independent Living Group , blaming the costs of rebuilding for the lack of public funds available for domestic projects . In Iowa later in the month , Vilsack reiterated his opposition to troop caps , likening them to " staying the course " . He stated that troop capping " reflects the continuation of a failed policy " and that America " ought to be ... aggressively redeploying troops out of Iraq . "
On February 15 , before an appearance on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , Vilsack visited the Commonwealth Club in San Francisco where he gave a speech about energy . He explained that his campaign remained carbon neutral through the purchase of carbon credits . On The Tonight Show , Vilsack joked about his relative obscurity . He remarked that he was okay with Leno making jokes about him , because " when you are just below the margin of error in polls , anything anybody says about you is important . "
Vilsack officially withdrew from the race on February 23 , stating that the crowded field of Democratic candidates made it impossible for him to raise enough money to continue his campaign . In explaining his withdrawal , he stated that he " came up against something for the first time in [ his ] life that hard work and effort couldn ’ t overcome . " Bemoaning an electoral process that he saw as dominated by fundraising , he left the race proclaiming " it is money and only money that is the reason we are leaving today . " Vilsack raised $ 1 @.@ 1 million during his run and left the race with $ 396 @,@ 000 on hand .
= = Polling = =
In the race for the Democratic nomination , Gallup polls placed Vilsack at 1 % support in November and December 2006 . This fell to 0 % on January 7 , where it remained until his withdrawal in February .
A Rasmussen report published December 18 , 2006 that polled voters on their preferences in a variety of hypothetical presidential matchups showed that Vilsack was preferred to former Arkansas governor Mike Huckabee by a margin of 37 % to 29 % , but trailed former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani 56 % to 28 % . " A similar poll , published in February 2007 before Vilsack 's withdrawal , found that he trailed Republican Senator John McCain 50 % to 22 % . In a separate poll by Rasmussen , Vilsack was viewed favorably by 21 % of the electorate and unfavorably by 21 % . 58 % of voters did not have enough information about Vilsack to have an opinion . 19 % of respondents considered Vilsack a moderate , 9 % considered him a liberal and 7 % considered him a conservative . 65 % could not describe his political stands .
= = Aftermath = =
After withdrawing from the race , Vilsack endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton for the presidency on March 25 , 2007 . He hoped to build momentum for her in Iowa . The former Governor identified Clinton as the candidate with " the best ideas , the most energy , and the values and vision to lead our country . " Shortly after the endorsement , Clinton named Vilsack 's wife Christie as the co @-@ chairman of her campaign in Iowa . The Clinton campaign announced they would help Vilsack pay off his campaign 's $ 400 @,@ 000 debt . Vilsack campaigned for Clinton nationwide as national campaign co @-@ chairman , and focused on helping her win the Iowa caucuses . Despite his efforts , Clinton finished third in the caucuses behind Barack Obama and John Edwards Following Clinton 's withdrawal , Vilsack endorsed Obama for the presidency on July 15 , 2008 . He labeled Obama as the " only candidate " for voters " against partisanship " to change " the tone in Washington "
Vilsack was later nominated by President Obama to serve as the United States Secretary of Agriculture in his administration . He was confirmed for the post by the Senate on Inauguration Day .
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= Roads and freeways in metropolitan Phoenix =
The metropolitan area of Phoenix in the U.S. state of Arizona contains one of the nation 's largest and fastest @-@ growing freeway systems , boasting over 1 @,@ 405 lane miles as of 2005 .
Due to the lack of any form of mass transit besides bus prior to 2008 , the Phoenix Metropolitan Area has remained a very automobile @-@ dependent city , with its first freeway opening in 1958 — a year preceding most cities ' first freeway openings . Coupled with the explosive growth of the region and adequate funding , the result is one of the nation 's most expansive freeway networks .
The backbone of Phoenix 's freeway system is composed of three major freeways — Interstate 10 , Interstate 17 , and U.S. Route 60 . Interstate 10 , being a transcontinental route between California and Florida , is the most heavily traveled freeway in the Valley of the Sun . Interstate 17 runs down the center of Arizona , connecting Phoenix with Sedona , Prescott , Flagstaff and the Grand Canyon . U.S. Route 60 spans most of the country , but is only a controlled @-@ access highway ( i.e. freeway ) for a few short stints , one of them being in the East Valley . West of Phoenix , it shuttles travelers to cities such as Wickenburg , Kingman and Las Vegas ( by way of a connection in Wickenburg with U.S. Route 93 ) . In addition to these three freeways , three beltways , Routes 101 , 202 , and 303 loop around Phoenix , the East Valley , and the West Valley , respectively . State Route 51 connects Downtown with the northern reaches of the city , and Arizona State Route 143 is a distributor for Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport .
Phoenix freeways are funded primarily by local sales tax dollars rather than federal money , so newer freeways were , and are , given state route designation as opposed to Interstate designation . Primarily due to this , Phoenix is the largest city in the United States to have two Interstate Highways and no three @-@ digit Interstates .
= = Existing freeways = =
= = = Interstate 10 = = =
= = = = Papago Freeway = = = =
This is Arizona 's widest and most congested freeway , entering the metropolitan area on its western edge in the city of Buckeye as the Papago Freeway . It continues eastward through the cities of Goodyear , Avondale , and Tolleson ; where it has an interchange with northbound Loop 101 . Following Tolleson , I @-@ 10 reaches Phoenix 's western city limits , and as it approaches downtown , there is a four @-@ level symmetrical stack interchange with Interstate 17 known by locals as The Stack .
There are numerous construction projects along the Papago Freeway spanning both east and westbound from around Dysart Road in Avondale , to Verrado Way in Buckeye . The projects are expected to convert the current 4 lane divided freeway into a 6 to 10 lane divided freeway . The main project is complete . Along with the anticipation of the completion of State Route 801 , traffic coming in and out of Phoenix is anticipated to be less congested , and easier to manage .
= = = = Inner Loop = = = =
Beyond The Stack , Interstate 10 proceeds eastward through a tunnel underneath Downtown . The tunnel is locally called the Deck Park tunnel , as Margaret T. Hance Park is located above . Following the tunnel , it reaches the Mini Stack interchange with Loop 202 and SR 51 . Turning southward at this interchange , I @-@ 10 runs adjacent to Sky Harbor International Airport before an interchange with the southern terminus of I @-@ 17 .
= = = = Maricopa Freeway = = = =
After this second I @-@ 17 interchange , I @-@ 10 occupies the eastern leg of the Maricopa Freeway , presumably named after the Native American tribe . It regains its primary eastward direction as it crosses the Salt River , but after meeting SR 143 it turns south again via the Broadway Curve , where it enters the city of Tempe . There , an interchange with US 60 is located . The freeway enters its final city in the Valley of the Sun , Chandler , where Loop 202 intersects I @-@ 10 at another four @-@ level symmetrical stack interchange before the Interstate enters the Gila River Indian Community and continues on through the undeveloped stretch of desert between Phoenix and the fast @-@ growing town of Casa Grande before making its way towards the Tucson metropolitan area .
= = = Interstate 17 = = =
= = = = Black Canyon Freeway = = = =
I @-@ 17 enters the valley from the north as the Black Canyon Freeway , in the New River and Anthem area before a four @-@ level interchange with Loop 101 . It then continues directly southward on the 27th and 25th Avenue alignments in northern Phoenix , passing Metrocenter Mall as it heads directly for downtown . Another four @-@ level stack awaits I @-@ 17 when it meets Interstate 10 immediately northwest of downtown at The Stack .
= = = = Maricopa Freeway = = = =
At Durango Street , in the segment of freeway known as the Durango Curve , the highway turns eastward , becoming the western leg of the Maricopa Freeway , and provides a southerly bypass of downtown before meeting I @-@ 10 again near Sky Harbor and terminating ( the Maricopa Freeway , though , continues eastward with the I @-@ 10 designation ) . Interstate 17 was the Valley 's first freeway , with maps showing a road built to Interstate Highway standards route by 1961 in some segments .
= = = Arizona State Route 24 = = =
SR 24 , the Williams Gateway Freeway , is located in southeast Mesa near the Phoenix @-@ Mesa Gateway Airport ( after which the freeway was named ) . Although the plan is to connect the entire freeway to either US 60 or another highway alignment in western Pinal County , only a small portion of the freeway between Loop 202 and Ellsworth Road has been constructed and was opened in May 2014 . The rest of the freeway is to be constructed as plans are finalized and funding becomes available .
The Williams Gateway Freeway ( formerly SR 802 ) is currently under study in Pinal County ; a public hearing on the draft environmental assessment was held in Fall 2010 .
= = = Arizona State Route 51 = = =
The Piestewa Freeway begins at the Mini Stack interchange with I @-@ 10 and Loop 202 , and proceeds north through Phoenix towards Piestewa Peak ( formerly known as Squaw Peak ) . After passing near Paradise Valley , Route 51 reaches its northern terminus at Loop 101 .
This freeway was formerly known as the Squaw Peak Parkway , but since " Squaw " is regarded as a derogatory term for Native American women , the Arizona Board of Geographic and Historic Names rechristened the route " Piestewa " Freeway after Lori Piestewa , a Native American woman who died in the conflict with Iraq . The name change was controversial , with most residents still referring to both the freeway and the landmark peak as Squaw Peak .
= = = U.S. Route 60 ( Superstition Freeway ) = = =
US 60 enters the Valley of the Sun within Pinal County borders in Apache Junction . After crossing into Maricopa County and into east Mesa , a four @-@ level interchange dubbed the SuperRedTan awaits motorists . This interchange , completed in 2007 , provides access to the Red Mountain and Santan Freeway segments of Loop 202 . Continuing westward past the interchange , the freeway passes through the heart of Mesa before meeting Loop 101 and eventually duplexing with westbound I @-@ 10 near Tempe before beginning its concurrency with I @-@ 17 in Phoenix .
= = = Loop 101 = = =
= = = = Agua Fria Freeway = = = =
Loop 101 begins in the city of Tolleson as the Agua Fria Freeway at a junction with Interstate 10 . Proceeding northward through the West Valley cities of Glendale and Peoria , Loop 101 turns eastward along the Beardsley Road alignment . In the northern section of Phoenix , there is an interchange with Interstate 17 , which is where the Pima Freeway segment begins .
= = = = Pima Freeway = = = =
Remaining eastbound , the freeway meets the northern terminus of Route 51 , continues eastbound , and then turns southward , passing through the northern part of Scottsdale . It then continues south along the relatively undeveloped border between Scottsdale and the Salt River Pima @-@ Maricopa Indian Community . Loop 101 meets no freeways again until the Loop 202 four @-@ level stack , which is located partially over the Salt River to create the state 's longest bridge , at more than one mile in total length over water .
= = = = Price Freeway = = = =
Proceeding southward as the Price Freeway , Loop 101 enters Tempe and encounters a junction with US 60 before entering Chandler and terminating at Loop 202 .
= = = Arizona State Route 143 = = =
Originally signed as Business I @-@ 10 , the Hohokam Expressway is a relatively short north – south freeway that runs east of Sky Harbor International Airport , between Loop 202 and Interstate 10 . Its primary purpose is to distribute east side airport traffic from and to Eastbound Loop 202 and I @-@ 10 without utilizing stop @-@ and @-@ go surface streets .
A recently completed project added two new directional ramps for traffic directed to the airport and to southbound SR 143 destined for I @-@ 10 and reconstructed an existing loop ramp from northbound SR 143 to westbound Sky Harbor Boulevard . There are no additional plans to upgrade or reconstruct any portions of the nearly four @-@ mile expressway .
= = = Loop 202 = = =
= = = = Red Mountain Freeway = = = =
The Red Mountain Freeway begins at the Mini Stack junction with Route 51 and Interstate 10 before heading east into Tempe . Route 143 and Loop 101 intersect the Red Mountain Freeway at various points in the city prior to the road entering the northern reaches of Mesa , where it had temporarily ended at Power Road . The final segment of the Red Mountain Freeway from Power Road to University Drive is open as of July 21 , 2008 . The freeway then continues due southward towards US 60 , until it bisects it at the SuperRedTan Interchange . Loop 202 then becomes the Santan Freeway .
During the early years of planning , the segment east of the Mini Stack was designated as the " East Papago Freeway " and extended to a proposed alignment that routed the freeway through the Papago Buttes and on into south Scottsdale along McDowell Road . However , after later revisions moved the ( current ) alignment to angle southeasterly along 52nd St and then skirt the north bank of the Salt River , the freeway was renamed the Red Mountain Freeway , avoiding confusion with the I @-@ 10 Papago Freeway and helping to more consistently identify with future extension to Mesa .
= = = = Santan Freeway = = = =
The Santan Freeway segment comprises the southern half of the partial beltway and begins at US 60 , heading south into the town of Gilbert . Turning westward near Phoenix @-@ Mesa Gateway Airport , the freeway passes through Chandler with an interchange at the southern terminus of Loop 101 . Loop 202 proceeds westward , following the Pecos Road alignment until meeting its current terminus at I @-@ 10 — where an interchange was built with Loop 202 expansion westward in mind .
= = = Loop 303 = = =
The Bob Stump Memorial Parkway is a relatively new freeway in the far northwestern area of the Valley , serving cities such as Surprise , Peoria , Glendale , and northern Phoenix . Currently , there are two segments of freeway . The first one , begins at an at grade interchange with I @-@ 17 ( a stack interchange is to be constructed ) . This freeway status continues , with occasional interchanges at Lake Pleasant Parkway , Lone Mountain Parkway , and Happy Valley Parkway ( many others are planned ) , until El Mirage Road .
The second segment of freeway begins at the temporary US 60 ( Grand Avenue ) connector road . The freeway opens up to a total of 6 lanes at the Bell Road interchange . The freeway continues all the way to the newly completed stack interchange with I @-@ 10 . Along the way , there is an interchange with every arterial road ( 1 mile intervals ) with the exception of Olive Avenue , which does not have one due to the Northern Parkway interchange .
Construction of a parclo interchange with US 60 was to start in late 2014 . Construction of the El Mirage interchange is to start 2016 . The entire segment will be upgraded to a 6 lane freeway and completed by 2016 . The remaining segment which ends at the newly completed stack interchange with I @-@ 10 has already been upgraded to freeway standards .
Construction of the freeway south of its junction with Interstate 10 to Van Buren Street is to start in 2016 . Eventually it will connect to proposed Route 30 and possibly Interstate 11 .
= = = Northern Parkway = = =
The Northern Parkway is a controlled @-@ access parkway in Glendale , near Luke AFB . Beginning at an interchange with Loop 303 , it follows the Butler Drive alignment ( half a mile south of Olive Avenue ) for about 4 miles until turning southeast to align with Northern Avenue right before its current terminus at Dysart Road . It is intended to relieve heavy traffic on Northern Avenue , some being contributed by the nearby military base .
Phase II plans for construction of the route between Dysart Road and Loop 101 , including multiple grade @-@ separated intersections , with a completely controlled @-@ access interchange where it will meet with Loop 101 . Construction is projected to start in 2015 or 2016 . Phase III , which will run from Route 101 to US 60 , is currently unfunded with no construction dates set .
= = Cancelled and former highways = =
= = = Arizona State Route 50 = = =
SR 50 , the Paradise Parkway , was part of Proposition 300 in 1985 , but was removed from the system in December 1994 , when then Arizona governor Fife Symington made some funding cuts that included removal of the Paradise Parkway and Estrella Freeway from the system entirely . ( The Estrella Freeway was re @-@ added to the system when Proposition 400 was passed ten years later in 2004 . ) Route 50 will not be re @-@ added to the system , because in February 1996 the ADOT auctioned off all the right @-@ of @-@ way it had purchased for the freeway , which was to be located between Loop 101 and Route 51 in the Central Valley .
= = = Arizona State Route 153 = = =
The Sky Harbor Expressway was a small remnant of the old northern alignment of Route 143 . Beginning at Washington St. , the former expressway headed south , under the Union Pacific Railroad , to an interchange with the airport entrance , before a bridge over the Salt River parallel to and just a few hundred feet away from the bridge on Route 143 . The former expressway then ended at University Avenue with no further planned extension to Interstate 10 .
Route 153 was deleted from the Regional Transportation Plan starting in May 2007 , and much of the western half of the original alignment was re @-@ used as right @-@ of @-@ way for the Sky Train people mover at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport . It is now an extension of 44th St.
= = Other major highways = =
= = = U.S. Route 60 ( Grand Avenue ) = = =
US 60 westbound ends its duplex with I @-@ 17 at Thomas Road and heads west to the intersection with 27th Avenue , where it turns right before entering Grand Avenue , a diagonal surface street in the northwestern part of the Phoenix metro area . It continues 54 Miles NW to Wickenburg and is the only major street to not follow the Grid System of Phoenix . This road existed before the cities were heavily developed , and was the main transportation hub . The Cities of Glendale , Peoria and Surprise were founded with their centers using this as a main road .
= = = Arizona State Route 74 ( Carefree Highway ) = = =
Arizona State Route 74 is a two @-@ lane highway that connects U.S. Route 60 southeast of Wickenburg to I @-@ 17 , passing through the Lake Pleasant Regional Park area .
= = = Arizona State Route 85 = = =
Arizona State Route 85 , currently the only non @-@ freeway segment of the route connecting Phoenix with San Diego , is used as route for traffic to bypass the urban core of Phoenix , and has been identified by the state as a potential alignment of the CANAMEX Corridor through Arizona . As such , future plans include fully upgrading the roadway to freeway status by converting existing at @-@ grade intersections to controlled @-@ access intersections , and preliminary study and engineering to create a full freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange with Interstate 8 near Gila Bend is under way . However , the current Regional Transportation Plan does not include funding for these improvements .
Beginning in 2002 , work began on a phased implementation plan to upgrade Route 85 from a two @-@ lane rural highway to a four @-@ lane divided highway from its junction with Interstate 10 to just north of the town of Gila Bend . The construction plan , which included a controlled @-@ access intersection with Patterson Road and improvements to the junction with Route 238 in Gila Bend , was completed in 2010 .
= = Proposed and future freeways = =
= = = Interstate 11 = = =
Interstate 11 , the Hassayampa Freeway , is a proposed Interstate Highway in the United States to run from Casa Grande , Arizona Northwest to Las Vegas , Nevada by way of Kingman , Arizona . The highway will parallel existing U.S. 93 north of Wickenburg , Arizona ; south of Wickenburg , it will follow a new freeway near the Hassayampa River , turning Southeast near Southern Goodyear , through Casa Grande and Interstate 10 , and to its terminus with intersection of the proposed Pinal North @-@ South Freeway near Coolidge , AZ . Interstate 11 is part of a long @-@ range vision for the Valley 's future transportation needs , as defined by the Maricopa Association of Governments and ADOT . Interstate 11 was approved June 30 , 2012 as part of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act . In June 2013 , a joint draft study commissioned by the respective DOTs of Arizona and Nevada concluded that the freeway was justified , citing benefits in travel , tourism , trade , and economic growth . The conclusion of the study further clears the way for Interstate 11 's funding and implementation .
= = = Arizona State Route 30 = = =
The I @-@ 10 Reliever , a proposed east – west freeway , has been proposed in an effort to move some West Valley motorists off of I @-@ 10 in an attempt to decrease traffic along the frequently congested Interstate . Its western beginning would be at Route 85 , and it would run east to encounter proposed Loop 303 , and continue through to end at Loop 202 's proposed South Mountain Freeway segment . Construction of the proposed Route 30 ( former SR 801 ) , would , if the freeway is approved , begin sometime in the early 2020s , based on funding and planning by the Maricopa Association of Governments . Following the approval of Interstate 11 in the 2012 Surface Transportation Act , a study for a Westward extension of SR30 to I @-@ 11 will be conducted by MAG .
= = = Arizona State Route 74 ( Lake Pleasant Freeway ) = = =
Due to expected rapid growth in the northwestern reaches of the metropolitan area , long @-@ term regional highway plans include acquisition of right @-@ of @-@ way for eventual future expansion of SR 74 to a controlled @-@ access freeway .
= = = Loop 202 ( South Mountain Freeway ) = = =
The South Mountain Freeway is a planned southerly bypass of Downtown Phoenix which will cut through South Mountain Park and the southern edge of the Ahwatukee neighborhood of Phoenix . It will begin at the already complete traffic interchange of the Santan Freeway and Interstate 10 . Heading west along the Pecos Road alignment through Ahwatukee , the freeway will straddle the border with the Gila River Indian Reservation . Turning northwest and eventually north , the South Mountain Freeway will follow the 59th and 55th Avenue alignments north to its terminus with Interstate 10 in west Phoenix .
This freeway has long been considered to be the missing link by the region 's planners , who hope to better move regional traffic and provide a better option for vehicles to avoid metro Phoenix .
In March 2015 , the Federal Highway Administration issued a Record of Decision selecting a build alternative . Freeway construction will begin in early 2016 , with the Chandler Boulevard extension project to facilitate local access beginning in summer 2015 . The freeway is planned to be open to traffic in late 2019 or early 2020 .
Community opposition does exist , mainly from residents of Ahwatukee . While the Maricopa Association of Governments had considered building a limited access parkway or arterials along the South Mountain Freeway 's proposed route , the eight @-@ lane freeway concept ultimately was pushed by the region 's planners to meet the traffic needs at close to the same cost . For most of 2010 , the Gila River Indian Community , Maricopa Association of Governments , City of Phoenix , ADOT and others discussed movement of the alignment to tribal land , but no agreements were reached .
= = = Pinal North @-@ South Freeway = = =
ADOT is currently in the study phase of identifying a corridor for the planned Pinal North @-@ South Freeway to serve expected growth in the Pinal County region of the Phoenix Metro area . This future freeway would connect I @-@ 10 around Eloy with the Superstition Freeway ( US 60 ) in Apache Junction , passing through Coolidge and Florence and intersecting with planned future alignments of the Hassayampa Freeway ( I @-@ 11 ) and the Williams Gateway Freeway ( SR 24 ) .
= = = White Tank Freeway = = =
The White Tank Freeway is a new long @-@ term freeway alignment designed to address expected rapid growth in the far northwest valley around Surprise and northern Buckeye . The freeway will begin at the US 60 interchange with Loop 303 in Surprise , run concurrent with US 60 for several miles , then split off westward to connect with the planned future alignment of the Hassayampa Freeway ( Interstate 11 ) west of Buckeye .
= = Named interchanges and features = =
The table below lists commonly used colloquialisms and nicknames for several interchanges and portions within the freeway system .
= = Funding = =
Phoenix has been expanding its highway system since 1985 , when voters passed Proposition 300 , which established a half @-@ cent general sales tax to fund new urban freeways that were currently in the Regional Transportation Plan . At the time , this included the unbuilt or partially unbuilt : Sky Harbor Expressway , I @-@ 10 , Route 51 , Route 143 , Loop 101 , and Loop 202 . Most of these were completed by 2005 , with Loop 202 being in the final stage of construction .
In 1994 , voters in Maricopa County voted against Proposition 400 , which would have extended the half @-@ cent sales tax extension from 2006 through 2016 had it been passed . Half of this additional funding would have been used for improvements in mass transit as well as new freeways . But because of the defeat , there was no funding beyond fiscal year 2006 , regardless of if the Regional Transportation Plan was completed or not .
In 1996 , the Maricopa Association of Governments Regional Council passed a series of bills provided funding for a Long Range Plan between fiscal years 2007 and 2015 . The Red Mountain Freeway , Santan Freeway , and Sky Harbor Expressway segments , all of which were previously unfunded , became prioritized with construction commencing almost immediately .
In 1999 , even more funding was given to accelerate construction of the Regional Transportation Plan by the State Legislature , which passed a bill called the " 2007 Acceleration Plan " . This bill forced the State Infrastructure Bank to assist in funds , which assisted in pushing the completion of Regional Transportation Plan forward to the end of 2007 .
With the transportation tax set to expire in 2006 , a revived Proposition 400 was put before the voters of Maricopa County in 2004 , ten years after the original vote ended in failure . Proposing an identical half @-@ cent extension of the sales tax , the new proposition would extend the tax a full twenty years as opposed to the original ten . Unlike its predecessor , the proposition passed by a wide 58 @-@ 42 % margin and established funding for several future projects including highways and mass transit . A similar but much more wide @-@ reaching proposal to enact a full one @-@ cent sales tax increase over a thirty @-@ year period on a statewide level , much of which would have gone to funding Phoenix area projects , failed to qualify for the 2008 general election ballot due to issues with the petition .
However , the 1985 plan was not fully completed by 2007 due to the lingering unfinished segment of Loop 202 between University Avenue and Power Road in Mesa , where work wrapped up on July 21 , 2008 .
= = Ramp metering = =
The Phoenix freeway system heavily utilizes ramp meters , with several currently installed in the metropolitan area located on I @-@ 10 , I @-@ 17 , Loop 101 , Loop 202 ( on the Red Mountain Freeway from I @-@ 10 to Gilbert Road , as well as at Dobson and the SanTan Freeway ) , SR 51 , and US 60 . Since their implementation in the 1980s , the goal of these has remained to " break up platoons " of cars by limiting the number that can enter a freeway at a time . The Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) states that this has been " tremendously successful " .
= = Travel times program = =
On January 22 , 2008 , a test program was begun by ADOT which involved the placement of travel times to popular commuter destinations on variable message signs along inbound freeway routes during the morning peak hours and outbound routes in the evening . Initially , these signs were only activated on weekdays during peak travel hours ( 6am to 9am and 3pm to 7pm ) and did not appear if there is a more urgent message to display ; such as an Amber Alert or other emergency . In late July 2015 , the hours when travel times were displayed were extended . Travel times are now displayed from 5am to 11pm on weekdays , and 7am to 9pm on weekends .
= = Logo signing program = =
Beginning in late 2013 , several Phoenix area freeways began to receive logo signs at select exits , advertising food , lodging , gas , and attractions businesses . This program was previously restricted only to rural highways within the state until the restriction was lifted in 2013 , allowing the installation of these signs on most Phoenix area freeways and allowing increased revenue to the state . Eventually most Phoenix area freeway segments are planned to have logo signs installed at most exits , with buildout expected to be complete in May 2016 except on Loop 303 , which is planned for 2018 .
Note that I @-@ 10 from Dysart Road westward , I @-@ 17 north of the Loop 303 interchange , and US 60 east of the SuperRedTan interchange has had logo signs installed for many years , but have always been considered part of the state 's rural logo sign program . These freeway segments are planned to be transitioned to the urban program in terms of sign pricing .
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= M @-@ 72 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 72 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan , running from Lake Huron to Lake Michigan across the northern part of the Lower Peninsula . The highway connects M @-@ 22 in Empire with US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) in Harrisville . It is one of only three Michigan state trunklines that cross the Lower Peninsula , shore to shore . In between , M @-@ 72 runs across Northern Michigan woodland , agricultural areas of the Leelanau Peninsula near Traverse City , and the Au Sable River watershed . The trunkline also provides access to Camp Grayling , a National Guard training facility near the city of the same name . Traffic levels along the highway vary from approximately 800 vehicles a day on the east end to over 32 @,@ 000 vehicles near Traverse City .
M @-@ 72 was first designated as a state highway by 1919 along a segment of its current route . It was extended southward in the mid @-@ 1920s and westward in the 1940s . One section of the modern highway added to M @-@ 72 in 1940 previously existed as M @-@ 208 in the 1930s east of Grayling . Another section of highway near Empire was disconnected from the rest of M @-@ 72 until the gap was eliminated later in the decade . All of M @-@ 72 was completely paved by the early 1960s . The highway was rerouted in a few places in the 1950s , and the last new segment shifted in 1973 near Kalkaska .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 72 starts its trans @-@ peninsular journey at M @-@ 22 in the community of Empire on the shores of Lake Michigan in the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore . From there it runs easterly uphill through mixed farmland and forest to cross the base of the Leelanau Peninsula . As the highway approaches the city of Traverse City , the roadway runs downhill and weaves back and forth across the Leelanau – Grand Traverse county line . M @-@ 72 merges with M @-@ 22 to run concurrently in the section of Traverse City in Leelanau County and immediately cross the county line into Grand Traverse County . The two highways run along Grandview Parkway , a four @-@ lane boulevard on the shore of the West Arm of Grand Traverse Bay . At the intersection of Grandview Parkway and Division Street , M @-@ 22 ends . US 31 / M @-@ 37 run north along Division Street and turn east onto Grandview Parkway to join M @-@ 72 . These three highways stay merged in a triple concurrency along the length of Grandview Parkway and across the Boardman River along the bay , bypassing downtown . They then follow Front Street until reaching Garfield Avenue east of downtown . At Garfield , M @-@ 37 turns north to run up the Old Mission Peninsula which separates the west and east arms of Grand Traverse Bay . US 31 / M @-@ 72 continues east along the shores of the East Arm of Grand Traverse Bay and northward to a junction in Acme . M @-@ 72 turns east to cross rural eastern Grand Traverse County along rolling hills through the communities of Williamsburg and Barker Creek .
The highway crosses into Kalkaska County at Barker Creek and continues eastward to Kalkaska . There , M @-@ 72 meets US 131 / M @-@ 66 ( Cedar Street ) on the north side of downtown , and M @-@ 72 turns south along Cedar Street and forms another triple concurrency through downtown . South of town , the highway crosses the Boardman River again , and M @-@ 72 turns east again headed toward the city of Grayling . M @-@ 66 follows M @-@ 72 to cross a set of railroad tracks that belong to the Great Lakes Central Railroad before leaving to follow its path to Lake City . M @-@ 72 crosses the Manistee River at the Kalkaska – Crawford county line and passes the northern shore of Lake Margrethe west of town in the Camp Grayling military reservation . North of the camp gate , M @-@ 72 joins M @-@ 93 into downtown Grayling . Together they meet James Street , which carries Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) . M @-@ 93 turns north to follow BL I @-@ 75 out of town , and M @-@ 72 turns south to follow it through downtown . At South Down River Road , M @-@ 72 turns east again to leave Grayling , crossing I @-@ 75 in the process . There is no direct access to I @-@ 75 from M @-@ 72 . Instead traffic is directed to follow BL I @-@ 75 in either direction to get to the freeway .
In eastern Crawford County , M @-@ 72 runs through the Au Sable State Forest and crosses the South Branch of the Au Sable River on the Wakeley Bridge . East of the river crossing , the trunkline intersects the northern terminus of M @-@ 18 before crossing into Oscoda County . M @-@ 72 continues east through Luzerne to Mio . M @-@ 72 merges with M @-@ 33 and turns north to cross the Au Sable River a second time in Mio . The highways pick up a concurrency with F @-@ 32 north of the river . The three roadways run together until F @-@ 32 turns west while M @-@ 33 / M @-@ 72 continues east to Fairview . Fairview marks the northern and eastern end of the concurrency as M @-@ 33 turns north towards Atlanta , and M @-@ 72 continues easterly into Alcona County . North of Curran , M @-@ 72 merges southward with M @-@ 65 for approximately 7 miles ( 11 km ) before heading due east through the Barton City and Lincoln areas to Harrisville . M @-@ 72 ends at an intersection with US 23 in Harrisville , on the shores of Lake Huron .
M @-@ 72 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like all other parts of the state trunkline highway system . As a part of its maintenance duties , the department tracks the traffic volumes along its roads using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This figure is a calculation of the traffic level along a segment of roadway for any average day of the year . In 2009 , the MDOT surveys found that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 72 were the 33 @,@ 720 vehicles per day in Traverse City . The lowest AADT was 807 vehicles near Hubbard Lake Road in Alcona County near Lincoln . Commercial traffic varied between the 555 trucks a day in Graylling and the 72 trucks daily west of Harrisville . M @-@ 72 has been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) between the intersection of Division Street and Grandview Parkway in Traverse City and the southern junction with BL I @-@ 75 in Grayling . The NHS is a network of roads important to the country 's defense , mobility and economy . In addition to the NHS listing , M @-@ 72 has been included on the Lake Michigan Circle Tour along its segments concurrent with M @-@ 22 and US 31 in the Traverse City area .
= = History = =
M @-@ 72 was first designated by July 1 , 1919 , and it ran from the middle of Alcona County near Barton City east to Harrisville and then south along Lake Huron shore to Greenbush . Around 1927 , the route was extended south to Oscoda and west through Luzerne to just east of Roscommon . The section of M @-@ 72 along the shoreline between Oscoda and Harrisville became part of US 23 @.@ in 1936 . M @-@ 72 was extended westward on an earthen highway and then over the former M @-@ 208 to Grayling in 1940 . From there M @-@ 72 was extended further to just south of Kalkaska along a section of highway previously designated M @-@ 76 . A seven @-@ mile ( 11 km ) long discontinuous segment of highway some 45 miles ( 72 km ) west of Kalkaska near Empire was also redesignated as part of M @-@ 72 . The section of highway south to Roscommon became M @-@ 144 . By 1945 , the western segment was extended east into Traverse City . The two segments were joined when M @-@ 72 was routed along US 31 through Traverse City to Acme by early 1948 . From there , M @-@ 72 was routed along existing roads through Williamsburg to US 131 / M @-@ 66 north of Kalkaska where it followed the latter highways through downtown to bridge the gap . With this addition to the routing , the road extended " shore to shore " from Lake Huron to Lake Michigan .
The Michigan State Highway Department rerouted M @-@ 33 / M @-@ 72 near Fairview in late 1951 or early 1952 , turning the former route back to local control . In the middle of 1953 , the section of M @-@ 65 / M @-@ 72 in Alcona County was straightened and paved . All but the western three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of the earthen highway section opened in 1940 were paved in 1957 . By the middle of 1961 , the highway would be paved in its entirety . A new section of highway was opened in 1973 , rerouting M @-@ 66 and M @-@ 72 due west from their junction to US 131 , bypassing a former routing north into Kalkaska .
= = = M @-@ 208 = = =
M @-@ 208 was a state trunkline highway in that served as a spur route from US 27 ( current BL I @-@ 75 ) to the " Wakeley Bridge " in Crawford County in the 1930s . The highway was designated by 1936 , and it was removed from the highway system in 1939 . By the end of 1940 , the roadway was redesignated as a part of the state highway system when M @-@ 72 was extended to the bridge from the east and then over the former M @-@ 208 to Grayling . The roadway has remained a state highway since .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Society of the Song dynasty =
Chinese society during the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) was marked by political and legal reforms , a philosophical revival of Confucianism , and the development of cities beyond administrative purposes into centers of trade , industry , and maritime commerce . The inhabitants of rural areas were mostly farmers , although some were also hunters , fishers , or government employees working in mines or the salt marshes . Conversely , shopkeepers , artisans , city guards , entertainers , laborers , and wealthy merchants lived in the county and provincial centers along with the Chinese gentry — a small , elite community of educated scholars and scholar @-@ officials .
As landholders and drafted government officials , the gentry considered themselves the leading members of society ; gaining their cooperation and employment was essential for the county or provincial bureaucrat overburdened with official duties . In many ways , scholar @-@ officials of the Song period differed from the more aristocratic scholar @-@ officials of the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . Civil service examinations became the primary means of appointment to an official post as competitors vying for official degrees dramatically increased . Frequent disagreements amongst ministers of state on ideological and policy issues led to political strife and the rise of political factions . This undermined the marriage strategies of the professional elite , which broke apart as a social group and gave way to a multitude of families which provided sons for civil service .
Confucian or Legalist scholars in ancient China — perhaps as far back as the late Zhou dynasty ( c . 1046 – 256 BC ) — categorized all socio @-@ economic groups into four broad and hierarchical occupations ( in descending order ) : the shi ( scholars , or gentry ) , the nong ( peasant farmers ) , the gong ( artisans and craftsmen ) , and the shang ( merchants ) . Wealthy landholders and officials possessed the resources to better prepare their sons for the civil service examinations , yet they were often rivaled in their power and wealth by merchants of the Song period . Merchants frequently colluded commercially and politically with officials , despite the fact that scholar @-@ officials looked down on mercantile vocations as less respectable pursuits than farming or craftsmanship . The military also provided a means for advancement in Song society for those who became officers , even though soldiers were not highly respected members of society . Although certain domestic and familial duties were expected of women in Song society , they nonetheless enjoyed a wide range of social and legal rights in an otherwise patriarchal society . Women 's improved rights to property came gradually with the increasing value of dowries offered by brides ' families .
Daoism and Buddhism were the dominant religions of China in the Song era , the latter deeply impacting many beliefs and principles of Neo @-@ Confucianism throughout the dynasty . Ironically , Buddhism came under heavy criticism by staunch Confucian advocates and philosophers of the time . Older beliefs in ancient Chinese mythology , folk religion , and ancestor worship also played a large part in people 's daily lives , as the Chinese believed that deities and ghosts of the spiritual realm frequently interacted with the living realm .
The Song justice system was maintained by policing sheriffs , investigators , official coroners , and exam @-@ drafted officials who became county magistrates . Song magistrates were encouraged to apply both their practical knowledge as well as the written law in making judicial decisions that would promote societal morality . Advancements in early forensic science , a greater emphasis on gathering credible evidence , and careful recording by clerks of autopsy reports and witness testimonies aided authorities in convicting criminals .
= = Urban life = =
= = = Urban growth and management = = =
Chinese cities of the Song period became some of the largest in the world , owing to technological advances and an agricultural revolution . Kaifeng , which served as the capital and seat of government during the Northern Song ( 960 – 1127 ) , had some half a million residents in 1021 , with another half @-@ million living in the city 's nine designated suburbs . By 1100 , the civilian population within the city walls was 1 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 ; the army stationed there brought the total to 1 @.@ 4 million . Hangzhou , the capital during the Southern Song ( 1127 – 1279 ) , had more than 400 @,@ 000 inhabitants during the late 12th century , primarily due to its trading position at the southern terminus of the Grand Canal , known as the lower Yangzi 's " grain basket . " During the 13th century , the city 's population soared to approximately a million people , with the 1270 census counting 186 @,@ 330 registered families living in the city . Although not as agriculturally rich as areas like western Sichuan , the region of Fujian also underwent a massive population growth ; government records indicate a 1500 % increase in the number of registered households from the years 742 to 1208 . With a thriving shipbuilding industry and new mining facilities , Fujian became the economic powerhouse of China during the Song period . The great seaport of China , Quanzhou , was located in Fujian , and by 1120 its governor claimed that the city 's population had reached some 500 @,@ 000 . The inland Fujianese city of Jiankang was also very large at this time , with a population of about 200 @,@ 000 . Robert Hartwell states that from 742 to 1200 the population growth of North China increased by only 54 % percent in comparison to the Southeast which grew by 695 % , the middle Yangzi Valley by 483 % , the Lingnan region by 150 % , and the upper Yangzi Valley by 135 % . From the 8th to 11th centuries the lower Yangzi Valley experienced modest population growth in comparison to other regions of South China . The shift of the capital to Hangzhou did not create an immediate dramatic change in population growth until the period from 1170 to 1225 , when new polders allowed land reclamation for nearly all the arable land between Lake Tai and the East China Sea as well as the mouth of the Yangzi to the northern Zhejiang coast .
China 's newly commercialized society was evident in the differences between its northern capital and the earlier Tang capital at Chang 'an . A center of great wealth , Chang 'an 's importance as the political center eclipsed its importance as a commercial entrepôt ; Yangzhou was the economic hub of China during the Tang period . On the other hand , Kaifeng 's role as a commercial center in China was as important as its political role . After the curfew was abolished in 1063 , marketplaces in Kaifeng were open every hour of the day , whereas a strict curfew was imposed upon the two official marketplaces of Tang era Chang 'an starting at dusk ; this curfew limited its commercial potential . Shopkeepers and peddlers in Kaifeng began selling their goods at dawn . Along the wide avenue of the Imperial Way , breakfast delicacies were sold in shops and stalls and peddlers offered hot water for washing the face at the entrances of bathhouses . Lively activity in the markets did not begin to wane until about the evening meal of the day , while noodle shops remained open all day and night . People in the Song era were also more eager to purchase houses located near bustling markets than in earlier periods . Kaifeng 's wealthy , multi @-@ story houses and common urban dwellings were situated along the streets of the city , rather than hidden inside walled compounds and gated wards as they had been in the earlier Tang capital .
The municipal government of Hangzhou enacted policies and programs that aided in the maintenance of the city and ensured the well @-@ being of its inhabitants . In order to maintain order in such a large city , four or five guards were quartered in the city at intervals of about 300 yards ( 270 m ) . Their main duties were to prevent brawls and thievery , patrol the streets at night , and quickly warn the public when fires broke out . The government assigned 2 @,@ 000 soldiers to 14 fire stations built to combat the spread of fire within the city , and stationed 1 @,@ 200 soldiers in fire stations outside the city 's ramparts . These stations were placed 500 yards ( 460 m ) apart , with watchtowers that were permanently manned by 100 men each . Like earlier cities , the Song capitals featured wide , open avenues to create fire breaks . However , widespread fires remained a constant threat . When a fire broke out in 1137 , the government suspended the requirement of rent payments , alms of 108 @,@ 840 kg ( 120 tons ) of rice were distributed to the poor , and items such as bamboo , planks , and rush @-@ matting were exempt from government taxation . Fires were not the only problem facing the residents of Hangzhou and other crowded cities . Far more than in the rural countryside , poverty was widespread and became a major topic of debate at the central court and in local governments . To mitigate its effects , the Song government enacted many initiatives , including the distribution of alms to the poor ; the establishment of public clinics , pharmacies , and retirement homes ; and the creation of paupers ' graveyards . In fact , each administrative prefecture had public hospitals managed by the state , where the poor , aged , sick , and incurable could be cared for , free of charge .
In order to maintain swift communication from one town or city to another , the Song laid out many miles of roadways and hundreds of bridges throughout rural China . They also maintained an efficient postal service nicknamed the hot @-@ foot relay , which featured thousands of postal officers managed by the central government . Postal clerks kept records of dispatches , and postal stations maintained a staff of cantonal officers who guarded mail delivery routes . After the Song period , the Yuan dynasty transformed the postal system into a more militarized organization , with couriers managed under controllers . This system persisted from the 14th century until the 19th century , when the telegraph and modern road @-@ building were introduced to China from the West .
= = = Amusements and pastimes = = =
A wide variety of social clubs for affluent Chinese became popular during the Song period . A text dated 1235 mentions that in Hangzhou City alone there was the West Lake Poetry Club , the Buddhist Tea Society , the Physical Fitness Club , the Anglers ' Club , the Occult Club , the Young Girls ' Chorus , the Exotic Foods Club , the Plants and Fruits Club , the Antique Collectors ' Club , the Horse @-@ Lovers ' Club , and the Refined Music Society . No formal event or festival was complete without banquets , which necessitated catering companies .
The entertainment quarters of Kaifeng , Hangzhou , and other cities featured amusements including snake charmers , sword swallowers , fortunetellers , acrobats , puppeteers , actors , storytellers , tea houses and restaurants , and brokers offering young women who could serve as hired maids , concubines , singing girls , or prostitutes . These entertainment quarters , covered bazaars known as pleasure grounds , were places where strict social morals and formalities could be largely ignored . The pleasure grounds were located within the city , outside the ramparts near the gates , and in the suburbs ; each was regulated by a state @-@ appointed official . Games and entertainments were an all @-@ day affair , while the taverns and singing girl houses were open until two o 'clock in the morning . While being served by waiters and ladies who heated up wine for parties , drinking playboys in winehouses would often be approached by common folk called " idlers " ( xianhan ) who offered to run errands , fetch and send money , and summon singing girls .
Dramatic performances , often accompanied by music , were popular in the markets . The actors were distinguished in rank by type and color of clothing , honing their acting skills at drama schools . Satirical sketches denouncing corrupt government officials were especially popular . Actors on stage always spoke their lines in Classical Chinese ; vernacular Chinese that imitated the common spoken language was not introduced into theatrical performances until the subsequent Yuan dynasty . Although trained to speak in the erudite Classical language , acting troupes commonly drew their membership from one of the lowest social groups in society : prostitutes . Of the fifty some theatres located in the pleasure grounds of Kaifeng , four of these theatres were large enough to entertain audiences of several thousand each , drawing huge crowds which nearby businesses thrived upon .
There were also many vibrant public festivities held in cities and rural communities . Martial arts were a source of public entertainment ; the Chinese held fighting matches on lei tai , a raised platform without rails . With the rise in popularity of distinctive urban and domestic activities during the Song dynasty , there was a decline in traditional outdoor Chinese pastimes such as hunting , horseback riding , and polo . In terms of domestic leisure , the Chinese enjoyed a host of different activities , including board games such as xiangqi and go . There were lavish garden spaces designated for those wishing to stroll , and people often took their boats out on the lake to entertain guests or to stage boat races .
= = Rural life = =
In many ways , life for peasants in the countryside during the Song dynasty was similar to those living in previous dynasties . The people spent their days ploughing and planting in the fields , tending to their families , selling crops and goods at local markets , visiting local temples , and arranging ceremonies such as marriages . Cases of banditry , which local officials were forced to combat , occurred constantly in the countryside .
There were varying types of land ownership and tenure depending on the topography and climate of one 's locality . In hilly , peripheral areas far from trade routes , most peasant farmers owned and cultivated their own fields . In frontier regions such as Hunan and Sichuan , owners of wealthy estates gathered serfs to till their lands . The most advanced areas had few estates with serfs tilling the fields ; these regions had long fostered wet @-@ rice cultivation , which did not require centralized management of farming . Landlords set fixed rents for tenant farmers in these regions , while independent small farming families also owned their own lots .
The Song government provided tax incentives to farmers who tilled lands along the edges of lakes , marshes , seas , and terraced mountain slopes . Farming was made possible in these difficult terrains due to improvements in damming techniques and using chain pumps to elevate water to higher irrigation planes . The 10th century introduction of early @-@ ripening rice that could grow in varied climatic zones and topographic conditions allowed for a significantly large migration from the most productive lands that had been farmed for centuries into previously uninhabited areas in the surrounding hinterland of the Yangzi Valley and Southeast China , which experienced rapid development . The widespread cultivation of rice in China necessitated new trends of labor and agricultural techniques . An effective yield from rice paddies required careful transplanting of rows of rice seedlings , sufficient weeding , maintenance of water levels , and draining of fields for harvest . Planting and weeding often required a dirty day of work , since the farmers had to wade through the muddy water of the rice paddies on bare feet . For other crops , water buffalos were used as draft animals for ploughing and harrowing the fields , while properly aged and mixed compost and manure was constantly spread .
= = Social class = =
One of the fundamental changes in Chinese society from the Tang to the Song dynasty was the transformation of the scholarly elite , which included the scholar @-@ officials and all those who held examination degrees or were candidates of the civil service examinations . The Song scholar @-@ officials and examination candidates were better educated , less aristocratic in their habits , and more numerous than in the Tang period . Following the logic of the Confucian philosophical classics , Song scholar @-@ officials viewed themselves as highly moralistic figures whose responsibility was to keep greedy merchants and power @-@ hungry military men in their place . Even if a degree @-@ holding scholar was never appointed to an official government post , he nonetheless felt himself responsible for upholding morality in society , and became an elite member of his community .
Arguably the most influential factor shaping this new class was the competitive nature of scholarly candidates entering civil service through the imperial examinations . Although not all scholar @-@ officials came from the landholding class , sons of prominent landholders had better access to higher education , and thus greater ability to pass examinations for government service . Gaining a scholarly degree by passing prefectural , circuit @-@ level , or palace exams in the Song period was the most important prerequisite in being considered for appointment , especially to higher posts ; this was a departure from the Tang period , when the examination system was enacted on a much smaller scale . A higher degree attained through the three levels of examinations meant a greater chance of obtaining higher offices in government . Not only did this ensure a higher salary , but also greater social prestige , visibly distinguished by dress . This institutionalized distinction of scholar @-@ officials by dress included the type and even color of traditional silken robes , hats , and girdles , demarcating that scholar @-@ official 's level of administrative authority . This rigid code of dress was especially enforced during the beginning of the dynasty , although the prestigious clothing color of purple slowly began to diffuse through the ranks of middle and low grade officials .
Scholar @-@ officials and gentry also distinguished themselves through their intellectual pursuits . While some such as Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) and Su Song ( 1020 – 1101 ) dabbled in every known field of science , study , and statecraft , Song elites were generally most interested in the leisurely pursuits of composing and reciting poetry , art collecting and antiquarianism . Yet even this pursuit could turn into a scholarly one . It was the official , historian , poet , and essayist Ouyang Xiu ( 1007 – 1072 ) who compiled an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze which pioneered ideas in early epigraphy and archeology . Shen Kuo even took an interdisciplinary approach to archeological study , in order to aid his work in astronomy , mathematics , and recording ancient musical measures . The scholar @-@ official and historian Zeng Gong ( 1019 – 1083 ) reclaimed last chapters of the ancient Zhan Guo Ce , proofreading and editing the version that would become the accepted modern version . The ideal official and gentry scholars were also expected to employ these intellectual pursuits for the good of the community , such as writing local histories or gazetteers . In the case of Shen Kuo and Su Song , their pursuits in academic fields such as classifying pharmaceuticals and improving calendrical science through court work in astronomy fit this ideal .
Along with intellectual pursuits , the gentry exhibited habits and cultured hobbies which marked their social status and refinement . The erudite term of enjoying the company of the ' nine guests ' ( 九客 , jiuke ) — an extension of the Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar — was a metaphor for accepted gentry pastimes of playing the Chinese zither , playing Chinese chess , Zen Buddhist meditation , ink ( calligraphy and painting ) , tea drinking , alchemy , chanting poetry , conversation , and drinking wine . The painted artwork of the gentry shifted dramatically in style from Northern to Southern Song , due to underlying political , demographic , and social circumstance . Northern Song gentry and officials , who were concerned largely with tackling issues of national interest and not much for local affairs , preferred painting huge landscape scenes where any individuals were but tiny figures immersed within a larger context . During the Southern Song , political , familial , and social concerns became heavily embedded with localized interests ; these changes correlate with the chief style of Southern Song paintings , where small , intimate scenes with a primary focus on individuals was emphasized .
The wealthy families living on the estates of these scholar @-@ officials – as well as rich merchants , princes , and nobles — often maintained a massive entourage of employed servants , technical staffs , and personal favorites . They hired personal artisans such as jewellers , sculptors , and embroiderers , while servants cleaned house , shopped for goods , attended to kitchen duties , and prepared furnishings for banquets , weddings , and funerals . Rich families also hosted literary men such as secretaries , copyists , and hired tutors to educate their sons . They were also the patrons of musicians , painters , poets , chess players , and storytellers .
The historian Jacques Gernet stresses that these servants and favorites hosted by rich families represented the more fortunate members of the lower class . Other laborers and workers such as water @-@ carriers , navvies , peddlers , physiognomists , and soothsayers " lived for the most part from hand to mouth . " The entertainment business in the covered bazaars in the marketplace and at the entrances of bridges also provided a lowly means of occupation for storytellers , puppeteers , jugglers , acrobats , tightrope walkers , exhibitors of wild animals , and old soldiers who flaunted their strength by lifting heavy beams , iron weights , and stones for show . These people found the best and most competitive work during annual festivals . In contrast , the rural poor consisted mostly of peasant farmers . However , some in rural areas chose vocations centered chiefly around hunting , fishing , forestry , and state @-@ offered occupations such as mining or working in the salt marshes .
According to their Confucian ethics , elite and cultured scholar @-@ officials viewed themselves as the pinnacle members of society ( second only to the imperial family ) . Rural farmers were seen as the essential pillars that provided food for all of society ; they were given more respect than the local or regional merchant , no matter how rich and powerful . The Confucian @-@ taught scholar @-@ official elite who ran China 's vast bureaucracy viewed their society 's growing interest in commercialism as a sign of moral decay . Nonetheless , Song Chinese urban society was teeming with wholesalers , shippers , storage keepers , brokers , traveling salesmen , retail shopkeepers , peddlers , and many other lowly commercial @-@ based vocations .
Despite the scholar @-@ officials ' suspicion and disdain for powerful merchants , the latter often colluded with the scholarly elite . The scholar @-@ officials themselves often became involved in mercantile affairs , blurring the lines of who did and did not belong to the merchant class . Even rural farmers engaged in the small @-@ scale production of wine , charcoal , paper , textiles , and other goods . Theoretically it was forbidden for an official to partake in private affairs of gaining capital while serving and receiving a salary from the state . In order to avoid ruining one 's reputation as a moral Confucian , scholar @-@ officials had to work through business intermediaries ; as early as 955 a written decree revealed the use of intermediary agents for private business transactions with foreign countries . Since the Song government took over several key industries and imposed strict state monopolies , the government itself acted as a large commercial enterprise run by scholar @-@ officials . The state also had to contend with the merchant and artisan guilds ; whenever the state requisitioned goods and assessed taxes it dealt with guild heads , who ensured fair prices and fair wages via official intermediaries . Yet joining a guild was an immediate means to neither empowerment nor independence ; historian Jacques Gernet states : " [ the guilds ] were too numerous and too varied to allow their influence to be felt . "
From the scholar @-@ official 's view , the artisans and craftsmen were essential workers in society on a tier just below the farming peasants , and different from the merchants and traders who were considered parasitic . It was craftsmen and artisans who fashioned and manufactured all of the goods needed in Song society , such as standard @-@ sized waterwheels and chain pumps made by skilled wheelwrights . Although architects and carpenter builders were not as highly venerated as the scholar @-@ officials , there were some architectural engineers and authors who gained wide acclaim at court and in the public sphere for their achievements . This included the official Li Jie ( 1065 – 1110 ) , a scholar who was eventually promoted to high positions in government agencies of building and engineering . His written manual on building codes and procedures was sponsored by Emperor Huizong ( r . 1100 – 1126 ) for these government agencies to employ and was widely printed for the benefit of literate craftsmen and artisans nationwide . The technical written work of the earlier 10th @-@ century architect Yu Hao was also given a great amount of praise by the polymath scholar @-@ official Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088 .
Due to previous episodes of court eunuchs amassing power , they were looked upon with suspicion by scholar @-@ officials and Confucian literati . Still , their association with inner palace life and their frequent appointments to high levels of military command provided them with significant prestige . Although military officers with successful careers could gain a considerable amount of prestige , the soldier in Song society was looked upon with a bit of disdain by scholar @-@ officials and cultured people . This is best reflected in a Chinese proverb : " Good iron isn 't used for nails ; good men aren 't used as soldiers . " This attitude had several roots . Many people who enrolled themselves as soldiers in the armed forces were rural peasants in debt , many of them former workers of the salt trade who could not pay back their loans and had been reduced to flight . However , the prevailing attitude of gentry towards military servicemen stemmed largely from the knowledge of historical precedent , as military leaders in the late Tang dynasty and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907 – 960 ) period amassed more power than the civil officials , in some respects replacing them and the civilian government altogether . Song emperors expanded the civil service examination system and government school system in order to avoid the earlier scenario of domination by military strongmen over the civil order .
= = Education and civil service = =
= = = Government schools versus private academies = = =
The first nationwide government @-@ funded school system in China was established in the year 3 AD under Emperor Ping of Han ( 9 BC – 5 AD ) . During the Northern Song dynasty , the government gradually reestablished an official school system after it was heavily damaged during the preceding Five Dynasties period . Government @-@ established schools soon eclipsed the role of private academies by the mid @-@ 11th century . At the apex of higher education in the school system were the central schools located in the capital city , the Guozijian , the Taixue , and several vocational schools . The first major reform effort to rebuild prefectural and county schools was initiated by Chancellor Fan Zhongyan ( 989 – 1052 ) in the 1040s . Before this time , the bulk of funds allotted for the establishment of prefectural and county schools was left up to private financing and minimal amount of government funding ; Fan 's reform effort started the trend of greater government financing , at least for prefectural schools . Major expansion of educational facilities was initiated by Emperor Huizong , who used funds originally allotted for disaster relief and food @-@ price stabilizing to fund new prefectural and county schools and demoted officials who neglected to repair , rebuild , and maintain these government schools . The historian John W. Chaffe states that by the early 12th century the state school system had 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 100 km2 ) of land that could provide for some 200 @,@ 000 student residents living in dormitories . After the widespread destruction of schools during the Jurchen invasions from the 1120s to 1140s , Emperor Gaozong of Song ( r . 1127 – 1162 ) issued an edict to restore prefectural schools in 1142 and county schools in 1148 , although the county schools by and large were reconstructed by the efforts of local county officials ' private fundraising .
By the late 12th century , many critics of the examination system and government @-@ run schools initiated a movement to revive private academies . During the course of the Southern Song , the academy became a viable alternative to the state school system . Even those that were semi @-@ private or state @-@ sponsored were still seen as independent of the state 's influence and their teachers uninterested in larger , nationwide issues . One of the earliest academic institutions established in the Song period was the Yuelu Academy , founded in 976 during the reign of Emperor Taizu ( r . 960 – 976 ) . The Chinese scientist and statesman Shen Kuo was once the head chancellor of the Hanlin Academy , established during the Tang dynasty . The Neo @-@ Confucian Donglin Academy , established in 1111 , was founded upon the staunch teaching that adulterant influences of other ideologies such as Buddhism should not influence the teaching of their purely Confucian school . This belief hearkened back to the writings of the Tang essayist , prose stylist , and poet Han Yu ( 768 – 824 ) , who was certainly a critic of Buddhism and its influence upon Confucian values . Although the White Deer Grotto Academy of the Southern Tang ( 937 – 976 ) had fallen out of use during the early half of the Song , the Neo @-@ Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) reinvigorated it .
Zhu Xi was one of many critics who argued that government schools did not sufficiently encourage personal cultivation of the self and molded students into officials who cared only for profit and salary . Not all social and political philosophers in the Song period blamed the examination system as the root of the problem ( but merely as a method of recruitment and selection ) , emphasizing instead the gentry 's failure to take responsibility in society as the cultural elite . Zhu Xi also laid emphasis on the Four Books , a series of Confucian classics that would become the official introduction of education for all Confucian students , yet were initially discarded by his contemporaries . After his death , his commentary on the Four Books found appeal amongst scholar @-@ officials and in 1241 his writings were adopted as mandatory readings for examination candidates with the support of Emperor Lizong ( r . 1224 – 1264 ) .
= = = Examinations and elite families = = =
The number of applicants for the Imperial examinations far outmatched the actual number of jinshi , or " presented scholars " who were given official appointments in the Song dynasty . Five times more jinshi were accepted in the Song period than during the Tang , yet the larger number of degree holders did not lower the prestige of the degree . Rather , it encouraged more to enter and compete in the exams , which were held every three years . Roughly 30 @,@ 000 men took the prefectural exams in the early 11th century , increasing to nearly 80 @,@ 000 around 1100 , and finally to an astonishing 400 @,@ 000 exam takers by the 13th century . With these odds , the chances of an applicant passing the examination and becoming a graduate was 1 in 333 . Once a degree was obtained , however , this did not ensure an immediate path to office . The total number of scholar @-@ officials in the Tang was about 18 @,@ 000 , while the total number in the Song had only increased to about 20 @,@ 000 . With China 's growing population and an almost stagnant number of officials accepted into government , the degree holders who were not appointed to office fulfilled an important role on the grassroots level of society . They became the local elite of their communities , while scholar @-@ officials relied upon them for maintaining order and fulfilling various duties under their jurisdiction .
An atmosphere of intellectual competition existed between aspiring Confucian scholars . Wealthy families were eager to gather stacks of published books for their personal libraries , collecting books that covered the Confucian classics as well as philosophical works , mathematical treatises , pharmaceutical documents , Buddhist sutras , and other literature aimed at the gentry class . The advancement of widespread book manufacturing through woodblock printing and then movable type printing by the 11th century aided in the expansion of the number of educated candidates for the civil service exams . These developments also reduced the overall cost of books so that they became more accessible to those of lesser means .
Song scholar @-@ officials were granted ranks , honors , and career appointments on the basis of merit , the standards of which were codified and more objective than those in the Tang dynasty . The anonymity of exam candidates guarded against fraud and favoritism by those who could judge papers based upon handwriting and / or signature calligraphy ; a bureau of copyists was tasked with the job of recopying all the candidates ' papers before grading . After passing the prefectural , provincial , and then palace exam ( the most prestigious ) , scholarly degrees did not immediately ensure an appointment to office , but the more prestigious the degree , the more certain one 's career in higher administrative posts would be . The central government held the exclusive right to appoint or remove officials . The case for removal was always carefully examined , since the central government kept a recorded dossier of reports on each official , stored in the capital for later review .
Ebrey states that meritocracy and a greater sense of social mobility were also prevalent in the civil service examination system , as the government held a list of all examination graduates , showing that only roughly half of those who passed had a father , or grandfather , or great @-@ grandfather who served as a government official . However , Robert Hartwell and Robert P. Hymes state that this fact , first presented by Edward A. Kracke in 1947 and supported by Sudō Yoshiyuki and Ho Ping @-@ ti , emphasizes the role of the nuclear family and only demonstrates three paternal ascendants of the candidates while ignoring the demographic reality of Song China , the significant proportion of males in each generation that had no surviving sons , and the role of the extended family . Male children with fathers who were incumbents in office had the advantage of early education and experience , as they were often appointed by their father to low @-@ level staff positions . Yet with the so @-@ called ' protection ' ( yin or yin @-@ bu 荫补 / 蔭補 ) privilege this arrangement was extended to close relatives , as an elder brother , uncle , father @-@ in @-@ law , and even father @-@ in @-@ law to one 's uncle could help one secure a future in office . The Song era poet Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) wrote a poem called On the Birth of My Son , poking fun at the situation of children from affluent and politically connected backgrounds having the upper edge over bright children of lower status :
Robert Hartwell notes that in the Northern Song dynasty there were two types of elites who dominated the civil service : a founding elite and a professional elite . The founding elite consisted of the North China military governors of the 10th century , their associates , personal staffs , and bureaucrats who had served in the capitals of the administrations of the previous Five Dynasties . The professional bureaucracy consisted of elite families who had established residence in Kaifeng or subordinate capitals , claimed prestigious clan ancestry , had intermarried with other prominent families , had members in higher offices over generations , and periodically dominated Song government until the 12th century . The prominent families of this professional elite accounted for 18 of the 11th century chancellors , the highest official post . From 960 to 986 , the founding military elite from Shanxi , Shaanxi , and Hebei represented 46 % of fiscal offices , people from districts in Songzhou — the military governorship of the founding emperor — represented 22 % of fiscal offices , and those from Kaifeng and Luoyang filled 13 % of fiscal posts . In the same period , the founding elite and professional elite filled over 90 % of policy @-@ making positions . However , after 983 , when the south had been conquered and consolidated into the empire , a semi @-@ hereditary professional elite gradually replaced the founding elite . After 1086 not a single family of the founding elite had a member in either policy @-@ making or financial positions . Between 998 and 1085 , the 35 most important families of the professional elite represented only 5 % of the families that had members in policy @-@ making offices , yet they disproportionately held 23 % of these positions . By the late 11th century the professional elite began to break apart as a distinguishable status group aiming for civil service . They were replaced by a multitude of local gentry lineages who had their children pursue a slew of different professions other than official careers . Hartwell states that this shift of power was the result of the professional elite 's lineage strategies being undermined by the rise of factional partisan politics in the latter half of the 11th century .
Before the 1080s , the majority of officials drafted came from a regionally diverse background ; afterwards , intraregional patterns of drafting officials became more common . Hartwell writes that during the Southern Song , the shift of power from central to regional administrations , the localized interests of the new gentry , the enforcement of prefectural quotas in preliminary examinations , and the uncertainties of a successful political career in the factionally split capital led many civil servants to choose positions that would allow them to remain in specific regions . Hymes demonstrates how this correlated with the decline in long @-@ distance marriage alliances that had perpetuated the professional elite in the Northern Song , as the Southern Song gentry preferred local marriage prospects . It was not until the reign of Emperor Shenzong ( r . 1068 – 1085 ) that the now heavily populated regions of South China began providing a quantity of officials in policy @-@ making posts that were proportionate to their share of China 's total population . From 1125 to 1205 , about 80 % of all those who held office in one of the six ministries of the central government had spent most of their low @-@ grade official careers within the area of modern southern Anhui , southern Jiangsu , Zhejiang , and Fujian provinces . Almost 100 % of these officials were born and buried within this southeastern macroregion .
= = Government and politics = =
= = = Administrative units = = =
Within the largest political divisions of the Song known as circuits ( lu ) there were a number of prefectures ( zhou ) , which in turn were divided into the smallest political units of counties ( xian ) ; there were about 1 @,@ 230 counties during the Song period . The prefect during the early Northern Song was the prime official of local government authority , who was the lowest regional official allowed to memorialize the throne , was primary tax collector , and head magistrate over several magistrates within his jurisdiction that dealt with civil disputes and maintaining order . By the late Northern Song , the growth in the number of counties with different proportions in population under a prefect 's jurisdiction decreased the importance of the latter office , as it became more difficult for the prefect to manage the counties . This was part of a larger continuum of administrative trends from the Tang to Ming dynasties , with the gradual decline of importance of intermediate administrative units — the prefectures — alongside a shift of power from central government to large regional administrations ; the latter experienced progressively less influence of central government in their routine affairs . In the Southern Song , four semi @-@ autonomous regional command systems were established based on territorial and military units ; this influenced the model of detached service secretariats which became the provincial administrations ( sheng ) of the Yuan ( 1279 – 1368 ) , Ming ( 1368 – 1644 ) , and Qing ( 1644 – 1912 ) dynasties . The administrative control of the Southern Song central government over the empire became increasingly limited to the circuits located in closer proximity to the capital at Hangzhou , while those farther away practiced greater autonomy .
= = = Official careers = = =
After the tumultuous An Lushan Rebellion ( 755 – 763 ) , the early Tang career path of officials rising in a hierarchy of six ministries — with Works given the lowest status and Personnel the highest — was changed into a system where officials chose specialized careers within one of the six ministries . The commissions of Salt and Iron , Funds , and Census that were created to deal with immediate financial crisis after An Lushan 's insurrection were the influential basis for this change in career paths that became focused within functionally distinct hierarchies . The varied career backgrounds and expertise of early Northern Song officials meant that they were to be given specific assignment to work in only one of the ministries : Personnel , Revenue , Rites , War , Justice , or Works . As China 's population increased and regional economies became more complex the central government could no longer handle the separate parts of the empire efficiently . As a result of this , in 1082 the reorganization of the central bureaucracy scrapped the hierarchies of commissions in favor of the early Tang model of officials advancing through a hierarchy of ministries , each with different levels of prestige .
In observing a multitude of biographies and funerary inscriptions , Hymes states that officials in the Northern Song era displayed a primary preoccupation with national interests , as they did not intervene in local or central government affairs for the benefit of their local prefecture or county . This trend was reversed in the Southern Song . Since the majority of central government officials in the Southern Song came from the macroregion of Anhui , Jiangsu , Zhejiang , and Fujian , Hartwell and Hymes state that there was a great amount of ad hoc local interests represented in central government policies .
Lower @-@ grade officials on the county and prefectural levels performed the necessary duties of administration such as collecting taxes , overseeing criminal cases , implementing efforts to fight famine and natural calamity , and occasionally supervising market affairs or public works . Since the growth of China 's population far outmatched the total number of officials accepted as administrators in the Song government , educated gentry who had not been appointed to an official post were entrusted as supervisors of affairs in rural communities . It was the " upper gentry " of high @-@ grade officials in the capital — comprising mostly those who passed the palace exams — who were in a position to influence and reform society .
= = = Political partisanship and reform = = =
The high echelons of the political scene during the Song dynasty left a notorious legacy of partisanship and strife among factions of state ministers . The careers of low @-@ grade and middle @-@ grade officials were largely secure ; in the high ranks of the central administration , " reverses of fortune were to be feared , " as Sinologist historian Jacques Gernet put it . The Chancellor Fan Zhongyan ( 989 – 1052 ) introduced a series of reforms between 1043 and 1045 that received heated backlash from the conservative element at court . Fan set out to erase corruption from the recruitment system by providing higher salaries for minor officials , in order to persuade them not to become corrupt and take bribes . He also established sponsorship programs that would ensure officials were drafted on their merits , administrative skills , and moral character more than their etiquette and cultured appearance . However , the conservatives at court did not want their career paths and comfortable positions jeopardized by new standards , so they rallied to successfully halt the reforms .
Inspired by Fan , the later Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) implemented a series of reforms in 1069 upon his ascendance to office . Wang promulgated a community @-@ based law enforcement and civil order known as the Baojia system . Wang Anshi attempted to diminish the importance of landholding and private wealth in favor of mutual @-@ responsibility social groups that shared similar values and could be easily controlled by the government . Just as scholar @-@ officials owed their social prestige to their government degrees , Wang wanted to structure all of society as a mass of dependents loyal to the central government . He used various means , including the prohibition of landlords offering loans to tenants ; this role was assumed by the government . Wang established local militias that could aid the official standing army and lessen the constrained state budget expenses for the military . He set up low @-@ cost loans for the benefit of rural farmers , whom he viewed as the backbone of the Song economy . Since the land tax exacted from rural farmers filled the state treasury 's coffers , Wang implemented a reform to update the land @-@ survey system so that more accurate assessments could be gathered . Wang removed the mandatory poetry requirement in the civil service exams , on the grounds that many otherwise skilled and knowledgeable Confucian students were being denied entry into the administration . Wang also established government monopolies for tea , salt , and wine production . All of these programs received heavy criticism from conservative ministerial peers , who believed his reforms damaged local family wealth which provided the basis for the production of examination candidates , managers , merchants , landlords , and other essential members of society . Historian Paul J. Smith writes that Wang 's reforms — the New Policies — represented the professional bureaucratic elite 's final attempt to bring the thriving economy under state control to remedy the lack of state resources in combating powerful enemies to the north — the Liao and Western Xia .
Winston W. Lo argues that Wang 's obstinate behavior and inability to consider revision or annulment of his reforms stemmed from his conviction that he was a latter @-@ day sage . Confucian scholars of the Song believed that the ' way ' ( dao ) embodied in the Five Classics was known by the ancient sages and was transmitted from one sage to another in an almost telepathic manner , but after it reached Mencius ( c . 372 – c . 289 BC ) there was no one worthy of accepting the transference of the dao . Some believed that the long dormant dao could be revived if one were truly a sage ; Lo writes of Song Neo @-@ Confucianists , " it is this self @-@ image which explained their militant stand in relation to conventional ethics and scholarship . " Wang defined his life mission as restoring the unity of dao , as he believed it had not departed from the world but had become fragmented by schools of Confucian thought , each one propagating only half @-@ truths . Lo asserts that Wang , believing that he was in possession of the dao , followed Yi Zhi and the Duke of Zhou 's classic examples in resisting the wishes of selfish or foolish men by ignoring criticism and public opinion . If unflinching certitude in his sagehood and faultless reforms was not enough , Wang sought potential allies and formed a coalition that became known as the New Policies Group , which in turn emboldened his known political rivals to band together in opposition to him . Yet factional power struggles were not steeped in ideological discourse alone ; cliques had formed naturally with shifting alliances of professional elite lineages and efforts to obtain a greater share of available offices for one 's immediate and extended kinship over vying competitors . People such as Su Shi also opposed Wang 's faction on practical grounds ; for example , Su 's critical poem hinting that Wang 's salt monopoly hindered effective salt distribution .
Wang resigned in 1076 and his leaderless faction faced uncertainty with the death of its patron emperor in 1085 . The political faction led by the historian and official Sima Guang ( 1019 – 1086 ) then took control of the central government , allied with the dowager empress who acted as regent over the young Emperor Zhezong of Song ( r . 1085 – 1100 ) . Wang 's new policies were completely reversed , including popular reforms like the tax substitution for corvée labor service . When Emperor Zhezong came of age and replaced his grandmother as the state power , he favored Wang 's policies and once again instituted the reforms in 1093 . The reform party was favored during the reign of Huizong ( r . 1100 – 1125 ) while conservatives were persecuted — especially during the chancellery of Cai Jing ( 1047 – 1126 ) . As each political faction gained advantage over the other , ministers of the opposing side were labeled " obstructionist " and were sent out of the capital to govern remote frontier regions of the empire . This form of political exile was not only politically damaging , but could also be physically threatening . Those who fell from favor could be sent to govern areas of the deep south where the deadly disease malaria was prevalent .
= = Family and gender = =
= = = Familial rights , laws and customs = = =
The Chinese philosophy of Confucius ( 551 – 479 BC ) and the hierarchical social order his disciples adhered to had become embedded into mainstream Chinese culture since the reign of Emperor Wu of Han ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) . During the Song dynasty , the entire Chinese society was theoretically modelled upon this familial social order of superiors and inferiors . Confucian dogma dictated what was proper moral behavior , and how a superior should regulate rewards or punishments when dealing with an inferior member of society or one 's family . This is exemplified in the Tang law code , which was largely retained in the Song period . Gernet writes : " The family relationships supposed to exist in the ideal family were the foundation of the entire moral outlook , and even the law , in its total structure and its scale of penalties , was nothing but a codified expression of them . "
Under the Tang law code compiled in the 7th century , severe punishments were outlined for those who disobeyed or disrespected the hierarchical system of elders . Those who assaulted their parents could be put to death , those who assaulted an older brother could be put to forced labor , and those who assaulted an older cousin could be sentenced to caning . A household servant who killed his master could be sentenced to death , while a master who killed his servant would be arrested and forced into a year of hard labor for the state . Yet this reverence for elders and superiors was grounded in more than just secular Confucian discourse ; Chinese beliefs of ancestor worship transformed the identity of one 's parents into abstract , otherworldly figures . Song society was also built on social relationships governed not by abstract principles , but on the protection gained by devoting oneself to a superior .
Perpetuating the family cult with many descendants was coupled with the notion that producing more children offered the family a layer of protection , reinforcing its power in the community . More children meant better odds of extending a family 's power through marriage alliance with other prominent families , as well as better odds of having a child occupying a prestigious administrative post in government . Hymes notes that " elite families used such standards as official standing or wealth , prospects for office , length of pedigree , scholarly renown , and local reputation in choosing both sons @-@ in @-@ law and daughters @-@ in @-@ law . " Since official promotion was considered by examination degree as well as recommendation to office by a superior , a family that acquired a significant amount of sons @-@ in @-@ law of high rank in the bureaucracy ensured kinship protection and prestigious career options for its members . Those who came from noteworthy families were treated with dignity , and a wider family influence meant a better chance for an individual to secure his own fortunes . No one was better prepared for society than one who gained plenty of experience in dealing with the members of his extended family , as it was common for upper @-@ class families to have several generations living in the same household . However , one did not even have to share the same bloodline with others in order to build more social ties in their community . This could be done by accepting any number of artificial blood brothers in a ceremony assuring mutual obligations and shared loyalty .
In Song society , governed by the largely unaltered Tang era legal code , the act of primogeniture was not practiced in Chinese inheritance of property , and in fact was illegal . When the head of a family died , his offspring equally divided the property . This law was implemented in the Tang dynasty in order to challenge the powerful aristocratic clans of the northwest , and to prevent the rise of a society domineered by landed nobility . If an official family did not produce another official within a few generations , the future prospects of that family remaining wealthy and influential became uncertain . Thus , the legal issues of familial inheritance had profound effects upon the rest of society .
When a member of the family died there were varying degrees of prostration and display of piety amongst family members , each one behaving differently according to the custom of kinship association with the deceased . There was to be no flashy or colorful attire while in the period of mourning , and proper funerary rituals were observed such as cleansing and clothing the deceased to rid him or her of impurities . This was one of the necessary steps in the observance of the deceased as one of the worshipped ancestors , which in turn raised the prestige of the family . Funerals were often expensive . A geomancer had to be consulted on where to bury the dead , caterers were hired to furnish the funeral banquet , and there was always the purchase of the coffin , which was burned along with paper images of horses , carriages , and servants in order for them to accompany the deceased into the next life . Due to the high cost of burial , most families opted for the cheaper practice of cremation . This was frowned upon by Confucian officials due to beliefs in the ancestral cult . They sought to ban the practice with prohibitions in 963 and 972 ; despite this , cremation amongst the poor and middle classes persisted . By the 12th century , the government came up with the solution of installing public cemeteries where a family 's deceased could be buried on state owned property .
= = = Women : legality and lifestyles = = =
Historians note that women during the Tang dynasty were brazen , assertive , active , and relatively more socially liberated than Song women . Women of the Song period are typically seen as well educated and interested in expressing themselves through poetry , yet more reserved , respectful , " slender , petite and dainty , " according to Gernet . Evidence of foot binding as a new trend in the Southern Song period certainly reinforces this notion . However , the greater number of documents due to more widespread printing reveal a much more complex and rich reality about family life and Song women . Through written stories , legal cases , and other documents , many different sources show that Song women held considerable clout in family decision @-@ making , and some were quite economically savvy . Men dominated the public sphere , while affluent wives spent most of their time indoors enjoying leisure activities and managing the household . However , women of the lower and middle classes were not solely bound to the domestic sphere . It was common for women to manage town inns , some to manage restaurants , farmers ' daughters to weave mats and sell them on their own behalf , midwives to deliver babies , Buddhist nuns to study religious texts and sutras , female nurses to assist physicians , and women to keep a close eye on their own financial affairs . In the case of the latter , legal case documents describe childless widows who accused their nephews of stealing their property . There are also numerous mentions of women drawing upon their dowries to help their husband 's sisters marry into other prominent families .
The economic prosperity of the Song period prompted many families to provide their daughters with larger dowries in order to attract the wealthiest sons @-@ in @-@ law to provide a stable life of economic security for their daughters . With large amounts of property allotted to a daughter 's dowry , her family naturally sought benefits ; as a result women 's legal claims to property were greatly improved . Under certain circumstances , an unmarried daughter without brothers or a surviving mother without sons could inherit one @-@ half of her father 's share of undivided family property Under the Song law code , if an heirless man left no clear successor to his property and household , it was his widowed wife 's right to designate her own heir in a process called liji ( " adopting an heir " ) . If an heir was appointed by the parents ' relatives after their deaths , the " appointed " heir did not have the same rights as a biological son to inherit the estate ; instead he shared juehu ( " extinct household " ) property with the parents ' daughter ( s ) , if there were any .
Divorcing a spouse was permissible if there was mutual consent , while remarriage after the death of a spouse was common during the Song period . However , widows under post @-@ Song dynasties did not often remarry , following the ethic of the Confucian philosopher Cheng Yi ( 1033 – 1107 ) , who stated that it was better for a widow to die than lose her virtue by remarrying . Widows remarrying another after the death of a first spouse did not become common again until the late Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) , yet such an action was still regarded as morally inferior .
Despite advances in relative social freedoms and legal rights , women were still expected to attend to the duties of the home . Along with child @-@ rearing , women were responsible for spinning yarn , weaving cloth , sewing clothing , and cooking meals . Women who belonged to families that sold silk were especially busy , since their duties included coddling the silkworms , feeding them chopped mulberry tree leaves , and keeping them warm to ensure that they would eventually spin their cocoons . In the family pecking order , the dominant female of the household was the mother @-@ in @-@ law , who was free to hand out orders and privileges to the wives of her sons . Mothers often had strong ties with their grown and married sons , since these men often stayed at home . If a mother @-@ in @-@ law could not find sufficient domestic help from the daughters @-@ in @-@ law , there was a market for women to be bought as maids or servants . There were also many professional courtesans ( and concubines brought into the house ) who kept men busy in the pursuits of entertainment , relations , and romantic affairs . It was also common for wives to be jealous and conniving towards concubines that their wealthy husbands brought home . Yet two could play at this game . The ideal of the chaste , modest , and pious young woman was somewhat distorted in urban settings such as Hangzhou and Suzhou , where there were greedy and flirtatious women , as one author put it . This author stated that the husbands of these women could not satisfy them , and so took on as many as five ' complementary husbands ' ; if they lived close to a monastery , even Buddhist monks could suffice for additional lovers .
Although boys were taught at Confucian academies for the ultimate goal of government service , girls were often taught by their brothers how to read and write . By Song times , more women of the upper and educated classes were able to read due to advances in widespread printing , leaving behind a treasury of letters , poems , and other documents penned by women . Some women were educated enough to teach their sons before they were sent to an official school . For example , the mother of the statesman and scientist Shen Kuo taught him basic education and even military strategy that she had learned from her elder brother . Hu Wenrou , a granddaughter of a famous Song official Hu Su , was regarded by Shen Kuo as a remarkable female mathematician , as Shen would occasionally relay questions to Hu Wenrou through her husband in order for her to review and investigate possible errors in his mathematical work . Li Qingzhao ( 1084 – 1151 ) , whose father was a friend of Su Shi , wrote many poems throughout her often turbulent life ( only about 100 of these survive ) and became a renowned poet during her lifetime . After the death of her husband , she wrote poems profusely about poring over his paintings , calligraphy , and ancient bronze vessels , as well as poems with deep emotional longing :
= = Religion and philosophy = =
Ancient Chinese Daoism , ancestor worship , and foreign @-@ originated Buddhism were the most prominent religious practices in the Song period . Daoism developed largely from the teachings of the Daodejing , attributed to the 6th century BC philosopher Laozi ( " Old Master " ) , considered one of the Three Pure Ones ( the prime deities of Daoism ) . Buddhism in China , introduced by Yuezhi , Persian , and Kushan missionaries in the first and second centuries , gradually became more native in character and was transformed into distinct Chinese Buddhism .
Many followed the teachings of Buddha and prominent monks such as Dahui Zonggao ( 1089 – 1163 ) and Wuzhun Shifan ( 1178 – 1249 ) . However , there were also many critics of Buddhism 's religious and philosophical tenets . This included the ardent nativist , scholar , and statesman Ouyang Xiu , who called Buddhism a " curse " upon China , an alien tradition that infiltrated the native beliefs of his country while at its weakest during the Southern and Northern Dynasties ( 420 – 581 ) . The contention over Buddhism was at times a divisive issue within the gentry class and even within families . For example , the historian Zeng Gong lamented over the success of Buddhism , viewing it as a competing ideology with ' the Way of the Sages ' of Confucianism , yet on his death in 1083 was buried in a Buddhist temple that his grandfather had helped build and that his brother Zeng Bu was able to declare as a private Merit Cloister for the family . Although conservative proponents of native Confucianism were highly skeptical of the teachings of Buddhism and often sought to distance themselves from it , others used Buddhist teachings to bolster their own Confucian philosophy . The Neo @-@ Confucian philosophers and brothers Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi of the 11th century sought philosophical explanations for the workings of principle ( li ) and vital energy ( qi ) in nature , responding to the notions of highly complex metaphysics in popular Buddhist thought . Neo @-@ Confucian scholars also sought to borrow the Mahayana Buddhist ideal of self @-@ sacrifice , welfare , and charity embodied in the bodhisattva . Seeking to replace the Buddhist monastery 's once prominent role in societal welfare and charity , supporters of Neo @-@ Confucianism converted this ideal into practical measures of state @-@ sponsored support for the poor under a secular mission of ethical universalism .
Buddhism never fully recovered after several major persecutions in China from the 5th through the 10th centuries , although Daoism continued to thrive in Song China . In northern China under the Jin dynasty after 1127 , the Daoist philosopher Wang Chongyang ( 1113 – 1170 ) established the Quanzhen School . Wang 's seven disciples , known as the Seven Immortals , gained great fame throughout China . They included the prominent Daoist priestess Sun Bu 'er ( c . 1119 – 1182 ) , who became a female role model in Daoism . There was also Qiu Chuji ( 1148 – 1227 ) , who founded his own Quanzhen Daoist branch known as Longmen ( " Dragon Gate " ) . In the Southern Song , cult centers of Daoism became popular at mountain sites that were reputed to be the earthly sojourns of Daoist deities ; elite families had shrines erected in these mountain retreats in honor of the local deity thought to reside therein . Much more so than for Buddhist clergy , Daoist priests and holy men were sought when one prayed for having a son , when one was physically ill , or when there was need for change after a long spell of bad weather and poor harvest .
Chinese folk religion continued as a tradition in China , drawing upon aspects of both ancient Chinese mythology and ancestor worship . Many people believed that spirits and deities of the spirit realm regularly interacted with the realm of the living . This subject was popular in Song literature . Hong Mai ( 1123 – 1202 ) , a prominent member of an official family from Jiangxi , wrote a popular book called The Record of the Listener , which had many anecdotes dealing with the spirit realm and people 's supposed interactions with it . People in Song China believed that many of their daily misfortunes and blessings were caused by an array of different deities and spirits who interfered with their daily lives . These deities included the nationally accepted deities of Buddhism and Daoism , as well as the local deities and demons from specific geographic locations . If one displeased a long @-@ dead relative , the dissatisfied ancestor would allegedly inflict natural ailments and illnesses . People also believed in mischievous demons and malevolent spirits who had the capability to extort sacrificial offerings meant for ancestors – in essence these were bullies of the spiritual realm . The Chinese believed that spirits and deities had the same emotions and drives as the living did . In some cases the chief deity of a local town or city was believed to act as a municipal official who could receive and dispatch orders on how to punish or reward spirits . Residents of cities offered many sacrifices to their divinities in hopes that their city would be spared from disasters such as fire . However , not only common people felt the need to appease local deities . Magistrates and officials sent from the capital to various places of the empire often had to ensure the locals that his authority was supported by the local deity .
= = Justice and law = =
One of the duties of scholar @-@ officials was hearing judicial cases in court . However , the county magistrateand prefects of the Song period were expected to know more than just the written laws . They were expected to promote morality in society , to punish the wicked , and carefully recognize in their sentences which party in a court case was truly at fault . It was often the most serious cases that came before the court ; most people desired to settle legal quarrels privately , since court preparations were expensive . In ancient China , the accused in court were not viewed as fully innocent until proven otherwise , while even the accuser was viewed with suspicion by the judge . The accused were immediately put in filthy jails and nourished only by the efforts of friends and relatives . Yet the accuser also had to pay a price : in order to have their case heard , Gernet states that they had to provide an offering to the judge as " a matter of decorum . "
Gernet points out that disputes requiring arrest were mostly avoided or settled privately . Yet historian Patricia Ebrey states that legal cases in the Song period portrayed the courts as being overwhelmed with cases of neighbors and relatives suing each other over property rights . The Song author and official Yuan Cai ( 1140 – 1190 ) repeatedly warned against this , and like other officials of his time also cautioned his readers about the rise of banditry in Southern Song society and a need to physically protect self and property .
= = = Vengeance and vigilantism = = =
Chancellor Wang Anshi , also a renowned prose stylist , wrote a work on matters of state justice in the 11th century . Wang wrote that private interests , especially of those seeking vigilante justice , should in almost all circumstances never trump or interfere with public justice . In the ancient Classic of Rites , Rites of Zhou , and " Gongyang " commentary of the Spring and Autumn Annals , seeking vengeance for a violent crime against one 's family is viewed as a moral and filial obligation , although in the Rites of Zhou state intervention between the instigating and avenging parties was emphasized . Wang believed that the state of Song China was far more stable than those in ancient times and abler to dispense fair justice . Although Wang praised the classic avenger Wu Zixu ( 526 – 484 BC ) , Michael Dalby writes that Wang " would have been filled with horror if Wu 's deeds , so outdated in their political implications , had been repeated in Song times . " For Wang , a victim exacting personal revenge against one who committed an egregious criminal act should only be considered acceptable when the government and its legal system became dysfunctional , chaotic , or ceased to exist . In his view , the hallmark of a properly functioning government was one where an innocent man was never executed . If this were to occur , his or her grieving relatives , friends , and associates should voice complaints to officials of ever increasing hierarchic status until grievances were properly addressed . If such a case reached the emperor — the last and final judge — and he decided that previous officials who heard the case had erred in their decisions , he would accordingly punish those officials and the original guilty party . If even the emperor for some reason made a fault in pardoning a party which was truly guilty , then Wang reasoned that the only explanation for a lack of justice was the will of heaven and its judgment which was beyond the control of mortal men . Wang insisted that submitting to the will of heaven in this regard was the right thing to do , while a murdered father or mother could still be honored through ritual sacrifices .
= = = Court cases = = =
Many Song court cases serve as examples for the promotion of morality in society . Using his knowledge and understanding of townsmen and farmers , one Song judge made this ruling in the case of two brawling fishermen , who were labeled as Pan 52 and Li 7 by the court :
Competition in Selling Fish Resulted in Assaults
A proclamation : In the markets of the city the profits from commerce are monopolized by itinerant loiterers , while the little people from the rural villages are not allowed to sell their wares . There is not a single necessity of our clothing or food that is not the product of the fields of these old rustics . The men plow and the women weave . Their toil is extremely wearisome , yet what they gain from it is negligible , while manifold interest returns to these lazy idlers . This sort , in tens and hundreds , come together to form gangs . When the villagers come to sell things in the market place , before the goods have even left their hands , this crowd of idlers arrives and attacks them , assaulting them as a group . These idlers call this " the boxing of the community family . " They are not at all afraid to act outrageously . I have myself seen that it is like this . Have they not given thought to the foodstuffs they require and the clothing they wear ? Is it produced by these people of the marketplaces ? Or is it produced by the rural farmers ? When they recognize that these goods are produced by the farming people or the rural villages , how can they look at them in anger ? How can they bully and insult them ? Now , Pan Fifty @-@ two and Li Seven are both fishmongers , but Pan lives in the city and fishmongering is his source of livelihood . Li Seven is a farmer , who does fishmongering between busy times . Pan Fifty @-@ two at the end of the year has his profit , without having had the labor of raising the fish , but simply earning it from the selling of the fish . He hated Li and fought with him at the fish market . His lack of humanity is extreme ! Li Seven is a village rustic . How could he fight with the itinerant armed loiterers who hang around the marketplace ? Although no injuries resulted from the fight , we still must mete out some slight punishments . Pan Fifty @-@ two is to be beaten fifteen blows with the heavy rod . In addition , Li Seven , although he is a village farmer , was still verbally abusive while the two men were stubbornly arguing . He clearly is not a man of simple and pure character . He must have done something to provoke this dispute . Li Seven is to be given a suspended sentence of a beating of ten blows , to be carried out if hereafter there are further violations .
= = = Early forensic science = = =
In the Song dynasty , sheriffs were employed to investigate and apprehend suspected criminals , determining from the crime scene and evidence found on the body if the cause of death was disease , old age , an accident , or foul play . If murder was considered the cause , an official from the prefecture was sent to investigate and draw up a formal inquest , to be signed by witnesses and used in court . The documents of this inquest also included sketches of human bodies with details of where and what injuries were inflicted .
Song Ci ( 1186 – 1249 ) was a Chinese physician and judge during the Southern Song dynasty . His famous work Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified was a basis for early forensic science in China . Song 's predecessor Shen Kuo offered critical analysis of human anatomy , dispelling the old Chinese belief that the human throat had three valves instead of two . A Chinese autopsy in the early 12th century confirmed Shen 's hypothesis of two throat valves : the esophagus and larynx . However , dissection and examination of human bodies for solving criminal cases was of interest to Song Ci . His work was compiled on the basis of other Chinese works dealing with justice and forensics . His book provided a list of types of death ( strangulation , drowning , poison , blows , etc . ) and a means of physical examination in order to distinguish between murder , suicide , or accident . Besides instructions on proper ways to examine corpses , Song Ci also provided instructions on providing first aid for victims close to death from hanging , drowning , sunstroke , freezing to death , and undernourishment . For the specific case of drowning , Song Ci advised using the first aid technique of artificial respiration . He wrote of examinations of victims ' bodies performed in the open amongst official clerks and attendants , a coroner 's assistant ( or midwife in the case of women ) , actual accused suspect of the crime and relatives of the deceased , with the results of the autopsy called out loud to the group and noted in the inquest report . Song Ci wrote :
In all doubtful and difficult inquests , as well as when influential families are involved in the dispute , [ the deputed official ] must select reliable and experienced coroner ’ s assistants and Recorders of good character who are circumspect and self @-@ possessed to accompany him . [ . . . ] Call a brief halt and wait for the involved parties to arrive . Otherwise , there will be requests for private favors . Supposing an examination is held to get the facts , the clerks will sometimes accept bribes to alter the reports of the affair . If the officials and clerks suffer for their crimes , that is a minor matter . But , if the facts are altered , the judicial abuse may cost someone his life . Factual accuracy is supremely important .
Song Ci also shared his opinion that having the accused suspect of the murder present at the autopsy of his victim , in close proximity to the grieving relatives of the deceased , was a very powerful psychological tool for the authorities to gain confessions . In the earliest known case of forensic entomology , a villager was hacked to death with a sickle , which led the local magistrate to assemble all the villagers in a town square to lay down their sickles in order for blow flies to gather around which sickle still had unseen remnants of the victim 's blood ; when it became apparent which sickle was used as the murder weapon , the confessing murderer was arrested on the spot .
Although interests in human anatomy had a long tradition in the Western world , a forensic book such as Song Ci 's did not appear in Western works until Roderic de Castro 's book in the 17th century . There have been several modern books published about Song Ci 's writing and translations of it into English . This includes W.A. Harland 's Records of Washing away of Injuries ( 1855 ) , Herbert Giles ' The Hsi Yuan Lu , or Instructions to Coroners ( 1924 ) , and Dr. Brian E. McKnight 's The Washing Away of Wrongs : Forensic Medicine in Thirteenth @-@ Century China ( 1981 ) .
= = Military and warfare = =
= = = Wu and wen , violence and culture = = =
During the Song dynasty , for those without formal education , the quickest way to power and the upper echelons of society was to join the military . If a man had a successful career in the military and could boast of victorious battles , he had a sure path to success in politics . Exam @-@ drafted scholar @-@ officials came mostly from prominent families and could rely on their clan status to advance their careers and place in society . Many Song military officers did not have this advantage , and owed their status in society to the advantage that military power granted them . Many court eunuchs such as Tong Guan ( 1054 – 1126 ) were eager to enlist as officers in the central army since this was a means to elevate their position at court .
Ordinary soldiers were merely recruited or conscripted rural farmers , while surrendered bandits and mercenaries also joined the military . Soldiers were not awarded official status by Confucian scholars as belonging to one of the Four Occupations ; the scholar @-@ officials were wary of condoning or legitimizing those whose lives revolved around the uncivilized practices of wu ( violence ) . Even though the military examinations , rankings , and posts were parallel to those of the civil order , scholar @-@ officials and the gentry nonetheless viewed military pursuits as uncultivated . Despite this disdain and argument of moral high ground , scholar @-@ officials often commanded troops and wielded military power . Yet scholar @-@ officials were not at the apex of the military or even civilian order ; at the pinnacle of society was the emperor . The emperor 's use of violence was seen as a necessity to rein in rebellious elements of society and dominate violent and uncultivated Inner Asian tribes , who would then submit to the emperor and become transformed by China 's superior wen ( culture and civilization ) .
= = = Catastrophe and reforms = = =
In the year 960 the Song military had 378 @,@ 000 enlisted soldiers . Around the turn of the 11th century its size had grown to 900 @,@ 000 soldiers , increasing to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 by the year 1022 , and well over 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 by 1041 . The overall expenses of upholding a military of this size consumed three @-@ quarters of the state 's entire annual revenue . To lessen the expense , in 1069 the Chancellor Wang Anshi created the institution of local militias as supporting units . In 1073 , Wang Anshi created a new bureau of the central government called the Directorate of Weapons , which supervised the manufacture of armaments and ensured quality control .
Despite the size of the army and these beneficial reforms , the high ranks of Song military command were heavily corrupt . At the beginning of the 12th century , Song generals collected funds based on the number of troops they recorded ; instead of using the funds to benefit troops , they used this money to bolster their own salaries . Troops of the standing army , meanwhile , were given very small salaries while assigned tasks of menial labor . The scholar @-@ officials running the government often paid little attention to the plight of soldiers and even to the demands of officers , since they were seen as being on a lower tier in society . Fairbank writes that the " civilian domination of the military was part of the ruling elite 's control of the state , but it left the state military weak . "
The corruption of the high command and ineffectiveness of military strength was soon revealed once the Song made a joint effort with the Jurchen people to conquer the Khitan Liao dynasty ( 916 – 1125 ) . After the successful rebellion of the Jurchens against their Khitan masters , the Jurchen observed the weakness of the Song army and broke their pact , then attacked the Song as well . By 1127 , the capital at Kaifeng was captured and northern China overrun , while the remnants of the Song court fled south to Hangzhou and established the Southern Song . This was a crucial blow to the Song military elites , as they had been closely tied to the political structure until 1127 ; afterwards they became alienated from the emperor and the Song court . Although they had lost northern China to the new Jurchen Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) , this loss prompted the Song to make drastic and lasting military reforms . Emperor Gaozong , desperate to refill the decimated ranks of the central army , drafted men from all over the country . This had been done before , but not on the same scale . Only the most skilled soldiers became imperial guardsmen , while under Gaozong entire central army units were composed of soldiers from every region and background . The Southern Song eventually recovered their strength and commanded the loyalty of vaunted commanders such as Yue Fei ( 1103 – 1142 ) , who successfully defended the border at the Huai River . The Jurchens and Song eventually signed a peace treaty in 1141 .
In 1131 , the Chinese writer Zhang Yi noted the importance of employing a navy to fight the Jin , writing that China had to regard the sea and the river as her Great Wall , and use warships as its greatest watchtowers . Although navies had been used in China since the ancient Spring and Autumn period ( 722 – 481 BC ) , China 's first permanent standing navy was established by the Southern Song in 1132 . The Jurchen launched an invasion against the Southern Song along the length of the Yangtze River , which resulted in two crucial Song victories at the Battle of Caishi and Battle of Tangdao in 1161 . The Jin navy was defeated by the Song 's standing navy , which employed trebuchets on their ships ' top deckhouses to launch gunpowder bombs .
= = = Organization , equipment and techniques = = =
In the Song dynasty , infantry units were organized 50 men to a platoon , two platoons to a company , and those into battalions of 500 men each . During the Northern Song , half of the entire army of 1 million was stationed in and around Kaifeng . The remaining troops were posted in scattered forces along borders and near large municipalities , and in peacetime were used as means to maintain local security . Although the Song military was rife with corruption and largely ignored by civil officials , it did provide some valuable strengths to the empire . During the Song era , military drills and training were studied as a science , while elite soldiers were allocated different responsibilities based on examinations of their skills in weaponry and athletic ability . In their training , soldiers and officers were prepared for battle by following signal standards for troop movement , advancing when a flag or banner was raised , halting when the blaring sound of bells and drums rang out .
Song crossbowmen comprised their own separate units apart from the infantry , and according to the Chinese Wujing Zongyao military manuscript of 1044 , the crossbow used in mass was the most effective weapon used against northern nomadic cavalry charges . Elite crossbowmen were also valued as long @-@ range snipers ; such was the case when the Liao general Xiao Talin was picked off by a Song crossbow at the Battle of Shanzhou in 1004 . Crossbows were mass @-@ produced in state armories with designs improving as time went on , such as the use of a mulberry wood and brass crossbow in 1068 that could pierce a tree at 140 paces . Song cavalry used an array of different weapons , including halberds , swords , bows , and fire lances that discharged a gunpowder blast of flame and shrapnel . In preparation for war , government armories manufactured weapons in enormous quantities , with tens of millions of arrowheads crafted each year , along with armor components by the tens of thousands . There were sixteen known varieties of catapults in the Song period , designed to fit many different proportions and requiring work crews in sizes ranging from dozens to several hundred men .
Unlike many other Chinese dynasties throughout history , the Song dynasty did not model its military infrastructure and organization on the precedent of northern nomadic armies , such as the earlier Xianbei and later Mongols . Only twice in the Song era were non @-@ Chinese people employed in Song cavalry units : in the beginning of the dynasty with the campaigns of Emperor Taizu , and later 13th century Mongol defectors who came over to fight for the Song . With the Khitan and Tangut kingdoms possessing much of the pasture and grazing lands in the north , the Song military had a shortage of horses for cavalry . To make up for this shortage , statesmen like Wang Anshi advocated greater ties with Tibet , as the tea @-@ horse trade with Tibet was continued by the Ming dynasty . Still , the Song established considerably large navies : in the 10th century , in the war to reunite China , and then a standing navy in the 12th century . Many of the warships in the Song dynasty 's navy were paddle @-@ wheel driven crafts and some Song naval ships could carry up to 1 @,@ 000 soldiers . It was also during the Song period that naval ships were first armed with gunpowder weapons . The use of enormous pontoon bridges in the Song era on at least one occasion was essential to victory . The Song built a large floating bridge across the Yangtze River in 974 ; while troops were under attack , the pontoon bridge was used as a means of transport for troops and supplies to the other bank during the early Song conquest of the Southern Tang state .
= = Ethnic , foreign and religious minorities = =
Much like the multicultural and metropolitan atmosphere of the earlier Tang capital at Chang 'an , the Song capitals at Kaifeng and Hangzhou were home to an array of traveling foreigners and ethnic minorities . There was a great amount of contact with the outside world . Trade and tribute embassies from Egypt , Yemen , India , Korea , the Kara @-@ Khanid Khanate of Central Asia and elsewhere came to Song China in order to bolster trade relations , while the Chinese sent embassies abroad to encourage foreign trade . Song Chinese trade ships traveled to ports in Japan , Champa in southern Vietnam , Srivijaya in Maritime Southeast Asia , Bengal and South India , and the coasts of East Africa .
During the 9th century , the Tang seaport at Guangzhou had a large Muslim population . During the Song dynasty the importance of the latter seaport declined as the ports of Quanzhou and Fuzhou in Fujian province eclipsed it . This was followed by a decline of Middle Eastern sea merchants in China and an increasing amount of Chinese ship owners engaging in maritime trade . However , Middle Eastern merchants and other foreigners were not entirely absent , and some even gained administrative posts . For example , the Muslim Pu Shougeng — of either Persian or Arab descent — served as the Commissioner of Merchant Shipping for Quanzhou between the years 1250 and 1275 . There was also the Arab astronomer Ma Yize ( 910 – 1005 ) , who became the chief astronomer of the Song court under Taizu . Aside from these elites , Chinese seaports were filled with resident Arabs , Persians , and Koreans who had special enclaves designated for each of them .
Muslims represented the largest religious minority within Song China , although there were many others . There was a community of Kaifeng Jews who followed the exodus of the Song court to Hangzhou once the Jurchens invaded the north in 1126 . Manichaeism from Persia was introduced during the Tang ; during the Song , the Manichaean sects were most prominent in Fujian and Zhejiang . Nestorian Christianity in China had for the most part died out after the Tang dynasty ; however , it was revived during the Mongol invasions in the 13th century . Followers of Zoroastrianism still had temples in China as well . Prospects of studying Chinese Chan Buddhism attracted foreign Buddhists to China , such as Enni Ben 'en ( 圓爾辯圓 ; 1201 – 1280 ) of Japan who studied under the eminent Chinese monk Wuzhun Shifan ( 1178 – 1249 ) before establishing Tōfuku @-@ ji in Kyoto . Tansen Sen states that Buddhist monks traveling from India to China and vice versa during the Song surpassed that of the Tang dynasty , while " Indian texts translated under the Song dynasty outnumbered those completed under the preceding dynasties . "
There were many native ethnic groups within Song China that did not belong to the Han Chinese majority . This included the Yao people , who staged tribal uprisings against the Song in Guangdong in 1035 and Hunan in 1043 , during the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song ( r . 1023 – 1064 ) . Song authorities employed Zhuang people as local officials in what is now Guangxi and Guangdong , where the Song placed them in charge of distributing land to the Yao and other tribal groups . The Yao peoples and others on the empire 's frontier were incorporated into a feudal system , or fengjian shehui , which Ralph A. Litzinger says bypassed any possible native development of a primitive slave society , or nuli shehui , since the Yao and others lacked a sedentary tradition . Although mainland Chinese states made efforts to settle parts of Hainan Island since the 3rd century BC , it was not until the Song that a concerted effort was made to assimilate the Li people of its highlands , who at times had fought against and repelled Han Chinese settlers . During the 11th century , the Man people of Hainan wreaked havoc by joining bandit gangs of ten to several hundred men . The statesman Ouyang Xiu estimated in 1043 that there were at least several thousand Man bandits residing in a dozen or so prefectures of mainland China .
To counter powerful neighbors such as the Kingdom of Dali ( 934 – 1253 ) , the Song made alliances with tribal groups in southwest China which served as a protective buffer between their borders and Dali 's . As long as these ethnic tribal groups paid tribute to the Song court and agreed to follow the course of its foreign policy , the Song agreed to grant military protection and allow the tribal leaders hereditary , autonomous local rule . During the 1050s , the Song put down local tribal insurrections along their borders with the Lý dynasty of Đại Việt , while their relations with Tai peoples and alliances with local clan leaders in the southern frontier led to a border war with Lý from 1075 to 1077 .
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= 2015 Philadelphia Cycling Classic =
The 2015 Philadelphia Cycling Classic , known as The Parx Casino Philly Cycling Classic for sponsorship purposes , was the sixth round of the 2015 UCI Women 's Road World Cup . It was held on 7 June 2015 , in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . The event had last appeared in the Women 's Road World Cup in 2001 , as the Liberty Classic .
On a six @-@ lap course which climbed Manayunk Wall , an 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long climb with an average gradient of 8 percent , at the end of each lap , Jasmin Glaesser ( Optum – KBS ) established an early breakaway , leading for two laps before being caught by the peloton . Her breakaway earned her sufficient " Queen of the Mountain " points for her to win that title . Further attacks were made , but none were successful . On the final ascent of Manayunk Wall , Lizzie Armitstead ( Boels – Dolmans ) won in a sprint , beating Elisa Longo Borghini ( Wiggle – Honda ) and Alena Amialiusik ( Velocio – SRAM ) .
= = Entry = =
The organisers of the Philadelphia Cycling Classic indicated that they would invite the top twenty ranked UCI teams at the end of 2014 , and then any further allocations would be assigned to highly @-@ ranked national teams and other UCI teams . A list of seventeen participating teams was published in March , just over 10 weeks prior to the race . Of those teams , Astana @-@ Acca Due O , BePink @-@ La Classica and Cycling Canada did not feature in the race , while further teams were added to feature 96 riders across 19 teams .
= = Course = =
The Philadelphia Cycling Classic follows a six @-@ lap course near the Schuylkill River in northwest Philadelphia . It started and finished at the top of the Manayunk Wall , an 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long climb which peaks at a gradient of 17 percent , though it only averages around 8 percent . The course also included climbs up Lemon Hill and Strawberry Mansion Drive . Each of the six laps is 19 @.@ 71 kilometres ( 12 @.@ 25 mi ) , giving a total race length of 118 @.@ 26 kilometres ( 73 @.@ 48 mi ) . " Queen of the Mountain " points were awarded for the first rider to the top of Manayunk Wall and Lemon Hill each lap , while an intermediate sprint was located roughly halfway along the outward section of the lap , where Kelly Drive intersects with Midvale Avenue .
= = Preview = =
After five rounds of the 2015 UCI Women 's Road World Cup , there had been five different winners ; Jolien D 'Hoore at the Ronde van Drenthe , Lizzie Armitstead at the Trofeo Alfredo Binda @-@ Comune di Cittiglio , Elisa Longo Borghini at the Tour of Flanders , Anna van der Breggen at the La Flèche Wallonne Féminine , and Giorgia Bronzini at the Tour of Chongming Island . Anna van der Breggen led the World Cup standings as the racing moved to Philadelphia , with 290 points , but her Rabo @-@ Liv team had opted not to take part in the event . Annemiek van Vleuten and Jolien D 'Hoore , who were second and third in the standings , had not travelled with their teams to the event . Elisa Longo Borghini ( Wiggle – Honda ) and Lizzie Armitstead ( Boels – Dolmans ) , who entered the race placed fourth and fifth , were highlighted as possible favourites for the race , though Armitstead 's team @-@ mate , Evelyn Stevens had won the race in both 2013 and 2014 .
= = Race = =
There was no significant breakaways during the first lap , but as the riders climbed Lemon Hill on the second of six laps , Jasmin Glaesser ( Optum – KBS ) established a gap , and maintained the lead of the race for two laps , earning her the Queen of the Mountain award . She was caught during an attack by Alison Jackson ( Twenty16 p / b Sho @-@ Air ) , but the pair could not maintain their advantage , and were caught by the peloton on the climb up Manayunk Wall at the end of the third lap . Team Hitec Products attacked each of the intermediate sprints , with Kirsten Wild providing a lead @-@ out each lap for her team @-@ mate Emilie Moberg . They also attempted to make breakaways of their own , and Moberg managed to lead off the front of the peloton for around half a lap before being caught once more by the peloton . The Velocio @-@ SRAM team attacked through the fourth lap , with each of their riders riding off the front in turn , but they failed to establish a breakaway .
Entering the final lap , the peloton remained close , although a number of riders had fallen behind or dropped out , particularly through the cobbled bends at the base of the Manayunk Wall . A series of attacks were made on the final lap ; Charlotte Becker ( Team Hitec Products ) gained an advantage , but it was closed again due to work from the Boels @-@ Dolmans team . Once Becker had been caught , Dalia Muccioli ( Alé – Cipollini ) made a move , but the Twenty16 p / b Sho @-@ Air team worked to eliminate her lead . A sprint to the bottom of the Manayunk Wall was led by Loren Rowney ( Velocio – SRAM ) , but more riders struggled over the cobblestones and dropped back . Alexis Ryan ( UnitedHealthcare ) took over the lead of the peloton at the bottom of the hill , and established a fast pace up the lower slopes , leading Joëlle Numainville ( Bigla Pro Cycling Team ) and her team @-@ mate Coryn Rivera . Optum @-@ KBS also had a number of riders near the front , while Elisa Longo Borghini ( Wiggle – Honda ) and Lizzie Armitstead ( Boels – Dolmans ) were just behind . Longo Borghini attacked first , but Armitstead went with her and passed her just before the line to claim victory . Alena Amialiusik ( Velocio – SRAM ) and Shelley Olds ( Bigla Pro Cycling Team ) finished in third and fourth ; the top four were all classified with the same time .
= = Results = =
= = World Cup standings = =
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= Jim Bell =
James Dalton Bell ( born 1958 ) is an American crypto @-@ anarchist who created the idea of arranging for anonymously sponsored assassination payments via the Internet , which he called " assassination politics " . Since the publication of the " Assassination Politics " essay , Bell was targeted by the federal government of the United States . He was imprisoned on felony charges of tax evasion in 1997 . In 2001 , Wired called Bell " [ o ] ne of the Internet 's most famous essayists " and " the world 's most notorious crypto @-@ convict " .
In April 1995 , Bell authored the first part of a 10 @-@ part essay called " Assassination Politics " , which described an elaborate assassination market in which anonymous benefactors could securely order the killings of government officials or others who are violating citizens ' rights . Following an investigation by the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) , Bell was arrested and subsequently jailed for 11 months on felony charges of harassment and using false Social Security numbers .
After his April 2000 release , Bell publicly announced that he believed that there was extensive Federal Government corruption associated with his 1997 – 2000 criminal case , and that he was going to research the facts and file a lawsuit . Bell filed this lawsuit in 2003 . Bell was put under heavy surveillance and rearrested for harassment and stalking of federal agents . He was charged with intimidation and stalking and was convicted and again imprisoned , this time for a decade @-@ long sentence . Bell protested vociferously against the conduct of the trial , going so far as to file civil lawsuits against two judges , at least two prosecutors , his former probation officers , and his defense attorneys , but ultimately to no avail . He was released in December 2009 , only to be rearrested in July 2010 for violating his parole conditions . Bell 's parole violation hearing resulted in another sentence , and Bell was released on March 12 , 2012 .
= = Background = =
Bell was born in Akron , Ohio and attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he earned a degree in chemistry . After graduation , he worked for Intel as an electrical engineer before founding his own computer storage device company , SemiDisk Systems in 1982 . When his company closed in 1992 , Bell said he developed a " phobia " of financial and tax @-@ related issues . He had been a Libertarian Party member and described his political beliefs as anarcho @-@ libertarian . Bell attended three meetings of the Multnomah County Common Law Court ( possessing no judicial authority according to Federal government laws ) in Portland , Oregon , which put government officials on trial in absentia and awarded judgements against them . Bell attended these meetings in order to find government ' plants ' in that group . Bell subsequently became involved in a tax dispute with the Internal Revenue Service , which stated that he owed $ 30 @,@ 000 to the federal government .
= = " Assassination Politics " essay = =
From 1995 through early 1996 , Bell authored an essay entitled " Assassination Politics " in which he described the idea of using digital signatures through email to create an assassination market , " predicting " the deaths of government employees . Bell also speculated that some people could use these net @-@ based markets quite openly without encryption ( Part 10 of the essay ) . So there were two ways theorized to operate the scheme , one complex and secure and the other more open and potentially insecure . In effect , the arrangement would create an incentive for people to assassinate corrupt government officials , offering a reward that could be claimed by someone willing to submit an entry predicting a given person 's death at a particular time . If that person died at about that time , the correct bettor would win the pool money . Bell published his idea in a 10 @-@ part essay titled " Assassination Politics " on the alt.anarchism USENET newsgroup . Described by Wired as " an unholy mix of encryption , anonymity , and digital cash to bring about the ultimate annihilation of all forms of government " , the essay was nominated for a Chrysler Award for Innovation in Design in 1998 as " an imaginative and sophisticated prospective for improving governmental accountability " . Although the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that advocating violence against government officials is , in the absence of an " incitement to imminent lawless action " , protected by the First Amendment , the publication of " Assassination Politics " put Bell under the scrutiny of federal investigators in 1995 . The Cypherpunks list archives includes many references to , what became known as ' AP ' and ' APster ' from 1996 onwards . The name 's ' assassination politics ' and ' Jim Bell ' also cropped up in the US governments pursuit and prosecution of Carl Johnson ( The CJ Files ) . In 2001 , an Australian anarchist claimed to be acting on the ' Part 10 ' part of Assassination politics . This was covered by Declan McCullagh in Wired 's story titled " Online Cincy Cop Threats Probed " . Later , in 2003 , The Denver Post published a similar story titled " Online threats target Denver investigators - Anarchist says e @-@ mails harmless ; feds disagree " . This story was written by Jim Hughes . The essay attracted interest from theorists long before and after its author 's legal entanglements ; libertarian economist Bob Murphy criticised the assassination politics scheme in a pair of articles titled " The Politics of Destruction " in 2002 . Murphy claimed that assassination politics was both technically infeasible and ideologically undesirable – from an anarcho @-@ capitalist perspective ( crypto @-@ anarchism being a form of anarcho @-@ capitalism ) . Others , such as R. Sukumaran , argue that assassination markets as suggested by Bell are perhaps technically feasible , but because they are so revolutionary , they " threaten elites " and will be made illegal . However , Sukumaran argues that AP was revived within DARPA by Poindexter with FutureMAP , an attempt to " extrapolate the Iowa Presidential markets system to the prediction of terroristic events " under the " interest of national security . " Mike Huben has argued that were Assassination Politics ever to be accepted then governments would merely operate secretly ( critiques of libertarianism ) . Almost all commentary so far has focused on the first nine parts of the essay and there is little on part 10 .
= = Investigation , prosecution and imprisonment = =
According to testimony by a federal agent , the federal government began infiltrating the Multnomah County Common Law Court via Steven Walsh , a government agent who attended the meetings under a false name and who even began to lead the organization . According to court documents , Bell attended three meetings of the group nearly a year after Walsh 's infiltration .
In February 1997 , the Internal Revenue Service acted on Bell 's tax debt , docking his wages and seizing his automobile . Inside the car , investigators found bomb @-@ making instructions , political literature and detailed information concerning cyanide and fertilizer .
IRS officers raided Bell 's home on April 1 , 1997 . He was arrested in May of that year , and , in July , he pleaded guilty to charges of obstruction of IRS agents and the use of a false Social Security number ( officials alleged that he had used four such numbers since 1984 in order to conceal his assets ; Bell said that he did not believe anyone had a right to know his real Social Security number ) .
As part of his plea bargain , Bell pleaded guilty in July 1997 to collecting the names and home addresses of IRS employees , and the home addresses of FBI , Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco and Firearms agents and police in Clark County , Washington ; Bell also accepted responsibility for conducting a stinkbomb attack in the Vancouver IRS office . He was convicted of the two low @-@ level felonies and sentenced in December 1997 to eleven months in prison followed by three years of federal probation . As a condition of his sentence , Bell was compelled to pay , upon his release , $ 1 @,@ 359 in restitution for the stinkbomb attack . He was also subjected to three years of supervised release , during which he was barred from accessing computers and from possessing chemicals .
In Bell 's June 2003 lawsuit , Bell accused the federal government of extorting the 1997 plea agreement from him . Bell asserted that when he balked at that agreement in November 1997 , in part due to the government 's violation of the terms , government agents instructed fellow inmate Ryan Thomas Lund to assault Bell . The lawsuit alleged that Lund did this at about 6 : 00 P.M. on November 25 , 1997 , for the purpose of intimidating Bell , and to keep Bell away from his family and the news media . Later , in an ostensibly unrelated event , Lund filed a lawsuit stating that on December 14 , 1997 , two days after Bell 's December 12 , 1997 sentencing , Lund ( who was in solitary confinement at the time due to his assault on Bell ) had a " slip and fall " accident while alone in his cell , ostensibly due to a wet cell floor . Lund had also been promised a 27 @-@ month sentence for his illegal possession of firearms and methamphetamine , when the relevant federal law required a mandatory 10 @-@ year sentence . Bell alleged that the sentence reduction and lawsuit payoff were engineered to reward Lund for extorting Bell . Bell claimed that he was kept under " inhumane conditions for at least ten days " .
Bell further alleged in his 2003 lawsuit that a forged appeal case , number 99 @-@ 30210 , was entered into the court record . He stated that " Ninth Circuit Court personnel ... began corruptly falsifying , forging , and improperly adding to and deleting from the Ninth Circuit Court documentary record ... with regard to appeal # 99 @-@ 30210 . " Bell 's October 2004 amendment further alleges that , a handwritten note , " purportedly signed by Bell , but not in Bell 's handwriting style " , was forged to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals . He alleges that this notice of appeal was filed around June 20 , 1999 ( claim 505 ) , and that , " ... Ninth Circuit personnel agreed to and did continually add false records to that docket , and at various times they deleted some of those false records and substituted new false records , for the purposes of concealing the true events and for continuing to obstruct Bell ’ s access to justice and his constitutional rights . " ( Claim 510 ) In his lawsuit , Bell seeks to establish that over a dozen government employees were guilty of numerous felonies .
= = Release and conviction = =
Bell served his prison sentence at a federal medium @-@ security prison in Phoenix , Arizona , from which he was released in April 2000 . He was rearrested in June of the same year on the charge of violating several of his 36 probation conditions , and was returned in November 2000 to a federal detention center at SeaTac , Washington following a search of his home that Bell called a " disguised burglary " .
Bell had conducted sousveillance against Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco and Firearms agents , using public databases and legally obtained CD @-@ ROMs , " to let them know that surveillance can be done in both directions . " Over a six @-@ month period , Bell also compiled evidence of what he alleged was illegal surveillance of him by a government agency . In the days leading up to his arrest , he claimed that the agency had unlawfully installed a covert listening device in his home and a tracking device in his car , something the ATF admitted doing during the subsequent trial . The ATF stated that it had planted a covert GPS system in Bell 's car and that it had tracked the movements of his Nissan Maxima in real time .
Bell alleged in his 2003 lawsuit that the government employees had actually planted an illegal GPS tracking device in his car months before the one ostensibly allowed by the October 2000 warrant , at least as early as Bell 's April 2000 release from prison . The information from that prior device could not be used , however , because there was no warrant allowing it to be planted . Bell also alleged that federal government employees had also illegally planted a GPS tracking transmitter in a vehicle he drove in June 1998 , one which the government never disclosed . Bell further stated that his defense lawyers colluded to keep Bell from being able to demand disclosure of all such secretly planted devices .
Bell pleaded not guilty to violating 18 U.S.C. section 2281 , a law prohibiting the intimidation of family members of federal agents and some forms of stalking . The charges specified that Bell had performed Internet background checks on federal agents he asserted were harassing him , and Bell defended his actions by saying he was using public records to defend against what he saw as harassment by government officials . Journalist Declan McCullagh wrote , " [ Bell ] says , and a good number of observers agree , that the Feds are prosecuting him for doing what an investigative reporter does : Compiling information from publicly available databases , documenting what 's happening , and so on . This case could set a precedent that affects the First Amendment privilege of journalists . "
Declan McCullagh asserts that during the trial , the judge sealed the entire court file , forbade the defense from issuing subpoenas to witnesses , granted the prosecution significant latitude in making negative suggestions about Bell 's character , and refused requests for a mistrial . McCullagh also asserts that he was subpoenaed by two Treasury Department agents to appear before the court , without being notified ahead of time as required by federal regulations regarding subpoenas involving the media . Following the conviction , Jim Bell renewed his attempts at firing his court @-@ appointed lawyer , appealing his case to the Supreme Court , and filing civil lawsuits against those he alleges were involved in an orchestrated conspiracy to deny him a fair trial and an unbiased , court @-@ appointed defense counsel ; his targets included two judges , at least two prosecutors , and his former probation officers and defense attorneys .
= = Bell 's Isotope @-@ Modified Optical Fiber patent application = =
In February 2012 , Bell applied for a patent on an invention which would improve fibre optic communication speeds and assist in transmitting long distances . Although yet to produce any fibre , Bell states his mathematical models show the velocity of light within the fiber can be improved to from 68 % to 98 % of the speed of light with lower optical loss and dispersion which would allow light pulses to be transmitted for longer distances without being smeared together over time and distance .
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= Norwegian Police Service =
The Norwegian Police Service ( Norwegian : Politi- og lensmannsetaten ) is the Norwegian civilian police agency . It consists of a central National Police Directorate , seven specialty agencies and twenty @-@ seven police districts . The government agency is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and Public Security and has 13 @,@ 000 employees , of which 8 @,@ 000 are police officers . In addition to police powers , the service is responsible for border control , certain civil duties , coordinating search and rescue operations , counter @-@ terrorism , highway patrolling , writ of execution , criminal investigation and prosecution .
The police service dates to the 13th century when the first sheriffs were appointed . As the first city in Norway to do so , Trondheim had a chief of police appointed in 1686 , and Oslo established a uniformed police corps in 1859 . The directorate is led by National Police Commissioner Odd Reidar Humlegård . Police districts were introduced in 1894 , with the current structure dating from 2003 .
Each police district is led by a chief of police and is subdivided into several police stations in towns and cities , and sheriffs ' offices for rural areas . The Governor of Svalbard acts as chief of police for Svalbard . Norwegian police officers do not carry firearms , but keep their Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns and Heckler & Koch P30 pistols locked down in the patrol cars . The Norwegian Prosecuting Authority is partially integrated with the police .
Specialist agencies within the services include the National Criminal Investigation Service , the National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime ( Økokrim ) , the National Police Immigration Service , the National Mobile Police Service , the Norwegian Border Commissioner , the National Police Computing and Material Service and the Norwegian Police University College . Several other national responsibilities are under the command of Oslo Police District , such as the Emergency Response Unit and the two police helicopters . The Police Security Service is separate from the National Police Directorate .
= = History = =
The police force in Norway was established during the 13th century . Originally the 60 to 80 sheriffs ( lensmann ) were predominantly used for writ of execution and to a less degree police power . In the cities the duties were originally taken care of by a gjaldker . The sheriffs were originally subordinate to the sysselmann , but from the 14th century they instead became subordinate to the bailiff ( fogd ) and the number of sheriffs increased . In the cities the police authority was transferred directly to the bailiff . By the mid @-@ 17th century there were between 300 and 350 sheriffs . With the introduction of the absolute monarchy in 1660 and subsequent strengthening of the civil service , the importance of the police increased . The bailiffs as such became part of the police structure , with their superiors , the county governor , receiving a similar role as that of chief of police . The first titled chief of police was hired in Trondheim in 1686 , thus creating the first police district , although his jurisdiction only covered the city proper . Chiefs of police were hired in Bergen in 1692 , Christiania ( Oslo ) in 1744 and Christianssand in 1776 .
From the 19th century , deputies were hired in larger areas to assist the sheriffs . Following the democratization in 1814 , the Ministry of Justice was created in 1818 and has since had the primary responsibility for organizing the police force . The 19th century saw a large increase in the number of chiefs of police , reaching sixteen by the middle of the century . Christiania established the country 's first uniformed corps of constables in 1859 , which gave the force a more unified appearance . Similar structures were soon introduced in many other cities . From 1859 the municipalities would finance the wages of the deputies and constables , which made it difficult for the police to use those forces outside the municipal borders . The first organized education of police officers started in Christiania in 1889 .
In 1894 the authorities decided to abolish the position of bailiff and it was decided that some of its tasks would be transferred to the sheriffs . This resulted in 26 new chief of police positions , largely corresponding to the old bailiwicks . Some received jurisdiction over both cities and rural areas , other just rural areas . At the same time the existing police districts were expanded to include the surrounding rural areas . However , the individual bailiff were not removed from office until their natural retirement , leaving some bailiwick in place until 1919 . The reform eliminated the difference between the rural and city police forces ; yet the sheriffs were only subordinate to the chief of police in police matters — in civil matters and administration they remained under the county governors .
The police school was established in 1920 and the Governor of Svalbard was created in 1925 . To increase the police force 's flexibility , the municipal funding was cut and replaced with state funding in 1937 . That year also saw the first two specialty agencies were created , the Police Surveillance Agency ( later the Police Security Service ) and the Mobile Police Service . After a border agreement was reached between Norway and the Soviet Union in 1949 , the Norwegian Border Commission was established the following year . The Criminal Investigation Service was established in 1959 , and the search and rescue system with two joint coordination centers and sub @-@ centers for each police district was created in 1970 .
The number of police districts was nearly constant from 1894 to 2002 , although a few have been creased and closed . However , the organization in the various police districts varied considerably , especially in the cities . In particular , some cities had their civilian responsibilities taken care of by the municipality . This was confusing for the public , resulting in the police services reorganizing to a homogenous organization during the 1980s , whereby the civil tasks being organized as part of the police stations . Økokrim was established in 1988 and in 1994 the administrative responsibilities for the sheriff 's offices was transferred to police districts . Only once has the order to shoot to kill been issued , during the Torp hostage crisis in 1994 . The police school became a university college in 1993 and introduced a three @-@ year education ; in 1998 a second campus opened in Bodø . Police Reform 2000 was a major restructuring of the police force . First the National Police Directorate was created in 2001 , and from 2003 the number of police districts were reduced from 54 to 27 . The Police Computing and Material Service and the Criminal Investigation Service were both established in 2004 . Ten police officers have been killed in service since 1945 . The Gjørv Report following the 2011 Norway attacks criticized several aspects of the police force , labeling the work as " unacceptable " . National Commissioner Øystein Mæland withdrew following the criticism , in part because an internal report of the attacks had not found any criticism of the police force .
= = Structure = =
The National Police Directorate , located in Downtown Oslo , is the central administration for the Norwegian Police Service . It conducts management and supervision of the specialist agencies and police districts , including organizational development and support activities . The directorate is led by the National Police Commissioner , who , since 2012 , has been Odd Reidar Humlegård . The National Criminal Investigation Service is a national unit which works with organized and serious crime . It both works as an assistant unit for police districts , with special focus on technical and tactical investigation , in addition to being responsible on its own for organized crime . It acts as the center for international police cooperation , including participation in Interpol and Europol . The National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime is responsible for complex cases of economic crime and acts as a public prosecutor for those cases . The National Police Immigration Service registers and identifies asylum seekers and returns those which have their applications rejected . The National Mobile Police Service is based in Stavern and operates throughout the country . Their primary role is as highway patrol and manages the police reserves , although they also assist police districts in extraordinary events where extra manpower is needed or where they are in the vicinity .
The Norwegian Border Commissioner is located in Kirkenes and is responsible for managing the Norway – Russia border and upholding the border agreement . Special consideration is needed as it is the only non @-@ Schengen Area land border of Norway . Border controls are the responsibility of the respective police district . The National Police Computing and Material Service is responsible for managing the police 's information and communications technology , procurement , security and real estate . Norway has two joint rescue coordination centers , one for Northern Norway located in Bodø and on one for Southern Norway located in Sola . Their jurisdiction border goes at the 65th parallel north ( Nord @-@ Trøndelag – Nordland border ) . Organizationally they are directly subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police , although their operations are subordinate to the chiefs of police in Salten and Rogaland , respectively . The Police Security Service is Norway 's security agency ; although considered a law enforcement agency , it is not subordinate to the National Police Directorate nor part of the Norwegian Police Service .
Metropolitan Norway is divided into 27 police districts . Each district is further subdivided into local police stations and rural police districts , the latter led by a sheriff . Each police district is headquartered at a main police station and is led by a chief of police . Police districts hold a common pool of resources and personnel and have a common administration and budget . Each also has a joint operations center which also acts as an emergency call center for 112 . Many of the larger districts have their own execution and enforcement authority , while this in integrated in the smaller districts . The size of the police districts varies , from Oslo with 2 @,@ 500 employees and covering a population of 570 @,@ 000 to Eastern Finnmark which has 160 employees and 30 @,@ 000 residents .
Each districts has specially @-@ trained mobile units for armed and other challenging missions , and dog units for narcotics and search and rescue missions . The police districts also have police boats for coastal waters and selected lakes , with focus on driving under the influence , speeding and environmental monitoring . In Troms and Finnmark , the Reindeer Police are responsible for monitoring and supervising reindeer husbandry and environmental supervision . As of 2009 there were 301 rural police districts , 68 local police stations and 10 execution and enforcement authorities .
Oslo Police District has a series of special divisions and task forces which provide aid to all other police districts when necessary . It is responsible for the two police helicopters , which is mostly used for traffic motoring , search and rescue and apprehension . The Emergency Response Unit is a deployment unit for terrorism , sabotage and hostage incidents , which is separate from the crisis and hostage negotiation service . Oslo 's dog patrol service includes the national bomb squad . The departments further has a mobile deployment squad against demonstrations and riots , a Police Negotiation Unit for use against barricades and kidnapping , a mounted police , and the responsibility for protecting high @-@ ranking government and royal officials .
Svalbard is not part of the regular police districts — instead it law enforcement it handled by the Governor of Svalbard . He holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police , as well as holding other authority granted from the executive branch . Duties include environmental policy , family law , law enforcement , search and rescue , tourism management , information services , contact with foreign settlements , and abjudication in some areas of maritime inquiries and judicial examinations — albeit never in the same cases as acting as police . Jan Mayen is subordinate to Salten Police District .
= = Jurisdiction and capabilities = =
Norway has a unified police , which means that there is a single police organization and that police power and prosecutor power is not granted to other agencies within Norway . The sole exception is the military police , albeit which only has jurisdiction over military personnel and on military installations , except during martial law . The police are decentralized and generalized to allow a more flexible resource allocation , while remaining under political control . This entails that police officers have no geographical or sector limitations to their powers . The Police Act and several special laws regulate the agencies and the officer 's powers and responsibilities . The police are required to assist other public institutions , including the healthcare authorities , and can be asked by other agencies to assist when it is necessary to enact a decision by force . Conversely , the police can ask for assistance from the Coast Guard when necessary . The police are responsible for all responses against terrorism and sabotage unless Norway is under armed attack .
Responsibilities and functions related to security includes patrolling , continual emergency availability , highway patrolling , sea patrolling , coordination of search and rescue activities , embassy security and as a body guard service for members of the government , the royal family and other in need . The crime fighting responsibility is split between preventative measures , such as information , observation and controls , and consequential measures , such as investigation and prosecution . The police further have duties related to civilian court cases , such as writ of execution , evaluation of natural damage , assisting the courts after bankruptcies and functioning as a notary public .
The police have a series of functions related to public management , such as the issuing of passports , firearms licenses , police certificates , permissions for lotteries and withdrawal of driving licenses , approval of security guard companies and bouncers , recommendations to municipal councils for issuing alcohol sales licenses , approval of second @-@ hand shops and arrangements which are otherwise unlawful , dealing with unowned dogs and animals in the care of people sentenced unsuitable to hold animals .
The police also have the responsibility for prisoner transport during detention , including transport to and from court . The police serve as border guards for the outer border of the Schengen Area . The busiest are Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , which has 130 man @-@ years tied to it , Storskog on the Russian border and Sandefjord Airport , Torp . These are the only borders with designated border employees — all other are manned with regular officers . The police is not responsible for customs , which is the responsibility of the Norwegian Customs and Excise Authorities . Norway participates in a series of international police cooperation , such as Interpol , Europol , the Schengen Information System , Frontex , and the Baltic Sea Task Force on Organized Crime . Norway also has a close cooperation with the other Nordic police forces . The Norwegian Police Service occasionally participates in international operations .
In 2011 the police force had 746 @,@ 464 assignments , the most common with 180 @,@ 000 assignments being investigation cases , such as reported deaths , controls and reports of motor vehicle theft . This was followed by traffic assignments , public disturbance of peace , animal cases , theft , private disturbance of peace , and sickness and psychiatry . Seventy @-@ five percent of assignments are solved with a single patrol , while ninety percent are solved with one and two . In armed situations only twenty percent are solved with a single patrol . In 2010 the Norwegian Police Service had 13 billion Norwegian krone in costs , of which seventy percent was used on wages . It employed 13 @,@ 493 man @-@ years , or 1 @.@ 6 man @-@ years per 1000 residents . There were 394 @,@ 137 reported offenses , or 81 @.@ 1 per 1000 people , of which 46 percent were solved . There were 5 @,@ 399 debt settlements , 226 @,@ 491 applications for writ of execution , 195 @,@ 345 immigration cases and 4 @,@ 615 forced returns .
= = Investigation and prosecution = =
The Norwegian Prosecuting Authority is integrated into the Norwegian Police Service . The authority is divided into a higher and lower authority , with the higher authority ( public prosecutor ) being a separate government agency and the lower authority ( police prosecutor ) being members of the police . The latter includes chief of police , deputy chief of police , police prosecutors and deputy police prosecutors . In questions of prosecution the police districts are subordinate to the Norwegian Prosecuting Authority and in other matters subordinate to the National Police Directorate .
The higher authorities will take decisions in serious criminal charges and for appeals . The Norwegian Persecuting Authority is led by the Director General of Public Prosecutions , which since 1997 has been Tor @-@ Aksel Busch . The director general makes decisions of indictment in cases with a maximum penalty of twenty @-@ one years and certain other serious crimes . There are twelve subordinate agencies , ten regional and two supporting Kripos and Økokrim , respectively . The regional public prosecution offices take decisions regarding cases not covered by the director general or the police prosecutors .
If an offense is filed , the issue may be investigated by police on duty . Permission for search and seizure is issued by the police prosecutor on duty at the police district . Apprehended people are permitted a free defense counsel at the public 's expense . If the police wish to keep apprehended people in detention , the issue is brought to the relevant district court , a process which may be repeated several times if the custody needs to be extended . Investigations are led by a police prosecutor . During investigation , the case may be concluded as a non @-@ criminal offense , dismissed , or transferred to another police district . Minor cases with a positive finding may be resolved by police penalty notice , settlement by a conflict resolution board and withdrawal of prosecution .
Criminal cases with an assumed perpetrator are sent to the public prosecutor , who will consider issuing an indictment . If positive , the trial will take place at a district court , with a police prosecutor presiding over the case . Cases with more than six years maximum penalty will normally be carried out with public prosecutors prosecuting . Either party can , on specified terms , appeal the outcome of the case to the court of appeal and ultimately the Supreme Court of Norway .
= = Education and employment = =
Education of police officers is the responsibility of the Norwegian Police University College , which is subordinate to the National Police Directorate . The main campus is located at Majorstuen in Oslo , while the secondary campus is located at Mørkved in Bodø . In addition the college has training centers in Kongsvinger and Stavern . Police officer training is a three @-@ year bachelor 's degree , where the first and third year take place at the college and the second year is on @-@ the @-@ ground training in police districts .
In 2009 , 1990 people applied for 432 places at the college . From 2010 , admission is administrated through the Norwegian Universities and Colleges Admission Service . The college also has a three @-@ year part @-@ time master 's degree in police science . As the chief of police and deputy chief of police are part of the prosecuting authority , they must be a candidate of law to act in such a position . Although there no longer is a formal requirement for such an education , the role as prosecutor effectively hinders others from holding the position .
At the time of graduation all officers are qualified for operational service . However , each employee must undergo 40 hours of yearly training , including firearms practice , to keep their operational certification . Without this , they cannot patrol , use firearms or participate in actions . Forty @-@ four percent of police officers in 2012 lacked such certification . The main reason is that the police districts see it as a waste of resources to train investigation and administrative staff which do not participate in operative duty , and that a higher quality is achieved through specialization of tasks , such as dedicated investigation personnel .
Each police district may dictate that operational personnel have a higher amount of training , for instance 80 hours is required in Oslo . Officers are certified at five levels , of which the top four can use firearms . Level three consists of a call @-@ out unit for each police district , consisting of a combined 646 people . This requires 103 hours of special training per year . Higher levels are required for body @-@ guard service ( 55 officers ) and the Emergency Response Union ( 73 officers ) . All certification curriculum is developed by and organized by the university college .
The Norwegian Police Federation is the trade union which organizes employees from all levels within the police force . The federation is a member of the Confederation of Unions for Professionals , Norway and the European Confederation of Police . It is illegal for police officers to strike . The federation have nonetheless undertaken several actions , including collective sick leave to close a police station and by members sabotaging courses by not participating . Reports of misconduct and criminal offenses by officers during duty is investigated by the Norwegian Bureau for the Investigation of Police Affairs . Based in Hamar , it is directly subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police and is not part of the Norwegian Police Service .
= = Equipment = =
As of 2011 the police 's new patrol cars are four @-@ wheel drive Volkswagen Passat with automatic transmission . New transport cars are Mercedes @-@ Benz Vito for light transport and Mercedes @-@ Benz Sprinter for heavy transport . The police force operates two Eurocopter EC135 helicopters , which are based at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . In addition , the Emergency Response Unit can use the Royal Norwegian Air Force 's Bell 412 helicopters .
The police have two main types of uniforms , type I is used for personnel which primarily undertake indoor work , and type II is used for personnel which primarily undertakes outdoor service . Both types have summer and winter versions , and type I also has a dress uniform version . Both types use black as the dominant color with light blue shirts .
Police officers are not armed with firearms during patrolling , but have weapons locked down in the patrol cars . Arming of the locked @-@ down weapons requires permission from the chief of police or someone designated by him . The police use Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns and Heckler & Koch P30 semi @-@ automatic pistols . The Emergency Response Unit uses Diemaco C8 assault rifles . Norwegian police officers do not use electroshock weapons .
Previously the police used a decentralized information technology system developed during the mid @-@ 1990s . As late as 2012 servers were still being run with Windows NT 4 @.@ 0 from 1996 and log @-@ on times were typically twenty minutes . The new IT @-@ system D # 2 was introduced in 2011 and will have been taken into use by all divisions by 2012 . D # 2 will be operated by ErgoGroup and will have two redundant server centers . Personnel have access to the system via thin clients . The police have a system to raise a national alarm to close border crossings and call in reserve personnel . The one time it was activated the message was not received by any of the intended recipients . Since 2009 it has been possible to report criminal damage and theft of wallets , bicycles and mobile telephones without a known perpetrator ( s ) online .
The Norwegian Public Safety Radio has been installed in Oslo , Østfold , Akershus and southern Buskerud . The system is uses Terrestrial Trunked Radio and allows for a common public safety network for all emergency agencies . Features include authentication , encryption and possibilities to transmit data traffic . As the system is rolled out , central parts will receive transmission speeds of 163 kbit / s . The rest of the country uses an analog radio system specific for each police district . In addition to lack of interoperability with paramedics and fire fighters , none of the systems are encrypted , forcing police officers to rely heavily on GSM @-@ based mobile telephones for dispatch communication when transmitting sensitive information .
Police cars lack GPS navigation devices and mobile data terminal . Instead , all communication must be radioed to the dispatcher at the joint operations center , and officers must rely on printed road atlases for navigation . In contrast , GPS navigation and terminal equipment was finished installed in ambulances and fire trucks in 2003 . The Norwegian Public Safety Radio is scheduled for completion in 2015 .
= = Ranks = =
Source : Norwegian National Police
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= Cicuta =
Cicuta , commonly known as water hemlock , is a small genus of four species of highly poisonous plants in the family Apiaceae . They are perennial herbaceous plants which grow up to 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) tall , having distinctive small green or white flowers arranged in an umbrella shape ( umbel ) . Plants in this genus may also be referred to as cowbane or poison parsnip . Cicuta is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere , mainly North America and Europe , typically growing in wet meadows , along streambanks and other wet and marshy areas . These plants bear a close resemblance to other members in the family Apiaceae and may be confused with a number of other edible and poisonous plants . The common name hemlock may also be confused with poison hemlock ( Conium maculatum ) .
Water hemlock is considered one of North America 's most toxic plants , being highly poisonous to humans . Three members of the genus contain a toxin named cicutoxin which causes central nervous system stimulatory effects including seizures following ingestion . Medical treatment of poisoning may include the use of activated charcoal to decrease gastrointestinal absorption of the toxic principle along with supportive care including anticonvulsant drugs such as a benzodiazepine . High doses of anticonvulsant medicine are often required to halt seizure activity and further medical care including intubation and mechanical ventilation may be required .
= = Description = =
Cicuta spp. are perennial plants that are all similar in morphology , growing up to a maximum of 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) in height . The stem of the plant is branching , erect , smooth and hollow ( except for partitions at the junction of the leaves and stem ) , sometimes being purple @-@ striped , or mottled ( typically only C. maculata has the purple stripes or spots ) . Attached to the base of the stem is a tuberous root with thickened rootstocks . The rootstocks are multichambered and contain a yellowish oily liquid which turns reddish brown on exposure to air and emits a characteristic smell of raw parsnip . The alternate leaves are 2 or 3 pinnately compound and may reach 30 centimeters ( 12 in ) to 90 centimeters ( 35 in ) in length . The leaflets are lanceolate , serrate , 5 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) to 10 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in length , and sharply toothed . The plant flowers in spring or early summer ; the flowers are small with green or white petals clustered in an umbrella shape ( umbel ) characteristic to this family ; the umbel measures 5 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) to 10 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) across . The plants produce a cylindrical fruit which is 4 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) to 6 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) in length . The plant is spread primarily by seeds which are produced in large numbers and are small in size .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Cicuta genus is one of many genera in the Apiaceae family which is in the order Apiales . The Apiaceae family is also known as Umbelliferae and both of these family names are permitted to be used by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature . In Europe , Cicuta was not distinguished from the similar genus Conium before the year 1500 . The first mention of the genus in the United States was in the eighteenth century . Carl Linnaeus formally described three species in 1753 . The type species is Cicuta virosa . The genus is now recognized to comprise four species :
Other species names such as Cicuta bolanderi , Cicuta californica , and Cicuta curtissii are older names now recognized to be varieties of the widespread , morphologically variable Cicuta maculata . Cicuta maculata is now recognized to have four varieties : var. maculata , var. augustifolia , var. victorinii , and var. bolanderi . Phylogenetic analysis using the sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer ( ITS ) loci was not conclusive but seems to show that C. bulbifera and C. virosa are monophyletic , while C. douglasii may not be . It was also suggested a specimen from California may warrant recognition as a distinct species . Other common names for the genus in general include poison parsnip , beaver poison , wild carrot , wild parsnip , and false parsley .
= = Similar species = =
Members of the family Apiaceae bear close resemblance to each other , and have many characteristics in common . Cicuta spp. are often mistaken for edible plants such as kvanne ( Angelica archangelica ) , wild celery ( Apium graveolens ) , pignut ( Conopodium majus ) , wild carrot ( Daucus carota ) , wild parsnip ( Pastinaca sativa ) , and water parsnip ( Berula spp . ) . One of the more common misidentifications is between water hemlock and water parsnip ; both have clusters of small white flowers shaped like umbrellas , and both have the same habitat near the shore line of lakes and rivers . Differences between water parsnip and water hemlock include the water parsnip having leaves only once compound while the water hemlock has leaves which are two or three times compound . Water hemlock also has a large swelling at the stem base which water parsnip lacks . Additionally , water hemlock has bracts at the base of each small flower cluster , not at the base of the main flower head , while water parsnip has both bracts at the base of flowers and also at the main flower head .
Additionally , there can be confusion between the various water hemlock species and poison hemlock ( Conium maculatum ) as the common name hemlock is applied to both Cicuta and Conium maculatum . Both are poisonous and can be differentiated by differences in their root structure . Water hemlock has a branched root systems with tubules , while poison hemlock has a single tap root . Another reliable method to identify water hemlock is to examine the leaf veins . Water Hemlock is unique in the Apiaceae family in that it has leaf veins which terminate in the notches between the leaf tips , rather than extend to the tip of the leaf , as is found in the leaf structure of other members of this family .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Cicuta spp. are found growing across North America and Europe . Typically , they grow in wet habitats usually alongside ponds and streams , in marshes or swamps , or areas that are swampy at least part of the year . Plants can also be found growing in water . Of the four species , Cicuta maculata has the most widespread distribution occurring across the majority of North America . Cicuta bulbifera also has a relatively large distribution , found throughout Northern North America . Cicuta douglasii is found in the northwest corner of North America , while Cicuta virosa is only found in central Europe and in the far north of North America .
= = Toxicity = =
All members of Cicuta except C. bulbifera contain high levels of the poisonous principle cicutoxin , an unsaturated aliphatic alcohol that is structurally closely related to the toxin oenanthotoxin found in the plant hemlock water dropwort . Cicutoxin is present at all stages of growth and in all parts of the plant , but is most concentrated in the roots which appear to be the most toxic in the early spring . Its primary toxic effect is to act as a stimulant in the central nervous system . It is a non @-@ competitive gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) receptor antagonist . Cicutoxin acts on the GABAA receptor causing a block of the chloride channel which results in neuronal depolarization . In the presence of cicutoxin this depolarization continues unabated causing cell overactivity . The hyperactivity in brain cells results in seizures . Cicutoxin is highly poisonous and water hemlock is considered one of North America 's most toxic plants . Ingestion of Cicuta can be fatal in humans and there are reports in the medical literature of severe poisoning and death as early as 1670 . A number of people have also died following ingestion of the plant in the 20th and 21st century .
The LD50 in mice administered cicutoxin by intraperitoneal injection is 48 @.@ 3 mg per kg body weight ( mg / kg ) ; this compares with 5 @.@ 9 mg / kg for mice given potassium cyanide by intraperitoneal injection , while the LD50 for arsenic via intraperitoneal injection in mice is 46 @.@ 2 mg / kg . The exact toxic dose of plant material in humans is unknown ; it is thought ingestion of water hemlock in any quantity can result in poisoning and very small amounts may lead to death . Poisoning has been reported following children blowing whistles made from the hollow stem of water hemlock plants . Intoxication has also been reported following skin contact with the plant ; a case was reported where a family of five people rubbed the plant onto the skin and were poisoned , with two children dying . Livestock have long been the worst affected , leading to the common name " cowbane " . Poisoning in livestock is common and typically occurs following ingestion of roots of the plant . In the spring when the ground is soft , grazing animals tend to pull the entire plant out of the ground ingesting both the foiliage and the roots . Roots exposed by ploughing can also be the source of livestock poisonings . Ingestion of plant material may cause death in the animal in as little as 15 minutes .
= = = Symptoms = = =
Upon consumption , both in humans and other species , the symptoms of poisoning are mainly characterized by generalized seizures . The onset of symptoms following ingestion may be as soon as 15 minutes post ingestion . Initial symptoms reported may include nausea , vomiting , abdominal pain , tremors , confusion , weakness , dizziness , and drowsiness ; although the rapid onset of seizure activity may be the first sign presented following poisoning . Seizures are usually described as clonic or tonic – clonic . Complications of ongoing seizure activity include increased body temperature , decreases in the pH of the blood ( metabolic acidosis ) , swelling in the brain , blood coagulation disorders , muscle breakdown ( rhabdomyolysis ) , and kidney failure . Additional neurological symptoms may include hallucinations , delirium , tingling , pricking , or numbness of a person 's skin , dilated pupils , and coma . Cardiovascular symptoms include alternating slow or fast heart rate and alternating low and high blood pressure . Other cardiac effects may include ECG abnormalities such as widening of the PR interval , supraventricular tachycardia , and ventricular fibrillation . Symptoms of excess salivation , wheezing , respiratory distress , and absence of breathing have also been reported .
Deaths usually occur from respiratory failure or ventricular fibrillation secondary to ongoing seizure activity ; fatalities have occurred within a few hours of ingestion . Poisoned people who recover usually regain consciousness and seizures cease within 24 to 48 hours of poisoning , although seizures may persist for up to 96 hours . There are occasional long @-@ term effects such as retrograde amnesia of the events leading to intoxication and the intoxication itself . Other ongoing mild effects may include restlessness , muscle weakness , twitching , and anxiety . Complete resolution of symptoms may take a number of days or , in some cases , these ongoing symptoms may persist for months after poisoning .
= = = Diagnosis and treatment = = =
Water hemlock poisoning is usually diagnosed following a history of plant ingestion and symptoms of abrupt onset of seizures . Laboratory tests to determine the presence of cicutoxin in the blood such as spectrofluorimetry , high pressure liquid chromatography , thin layer chromatography , and mass spectrometry have been used to detect cicutoxin but these tests are not performed routinely in hospital laboratories . If a sample of the plant ingested has been retained , diagnosis can be confirmed by having the plant identified by a botanist .
Initial treatment of poisoning may include gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal . Decontamination is typically only performed if a potentially toxic amount of plant matter has been ingested up to one hour previously and the patient has a normal intact airway or has been intubated . There is no specific antidote for water hemlock poisoning and treatment mainly consists of supportive care . Treatment may include control of seizures with the administration of a benzodiazepines such as lorazepam or diazepam , or if seizures are refractory to this treatment , a barbiturate such as phenobarbital is administered . The anticonvulsant phenytoin is not recommended as it has not been shown to be effective for seizure control following water hemlock poisoning . Treatment with high doses of benzodiazepines or barbiturates may cause respiratory depression and respiratory support including intubation and mechanical ventilation is required in these patients . Continuous electroencephalography monitoring is recommended in symptomatic patients .
Further treatment for complications of metabolic acidosis , rhabdomyolysis , hyperthermia , or low blood pressure may be required . Metabolic acidosis is treated by administering sodium bicarbonate . Low blood pressure is usually treated with intravenous fluid replacement , but the administration of dopamine or norepinephrine may be required to restore blood pressure . The management of rhabdomyolysis includes ensuring adequate hydration and urinary alkalinization ; a complication of rhabdomyolysis is acute renal failure which may require management with hemodialysis . However , hemodialysis , hemoperfusion or other extracorporeal techniques do not remove cicutoxin from the blood and are therefore not useful in enhancing elimination .
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= Action of 28 January 1945 =
The Action of 28 January 1945 was an inconclusive naval battle of the Second World War fought between two British Royal Navy light cruisers and three Kriegsmarine ( German navy ) destroyers near Bergen , Norway . The battle was both the last of many actions between British and German warships off Norway during the war , and the second last surface engagement to fought by the Kriegsmarine . It resulted in heavy damage to one of the German destroyers and light damage to another destroyer and both British cruisers .
Shortly after midnight on the night of 27 / 28 January , as the three destroyers of the German 4th Destroyer Flotilla were sailing from northern Norway to the Baltic Sea , they were intercepted by the British cruisers HMS Diadem and Mauritius . In the resulting engagement , the destroyers Z31 and Z34 were damaged by gunfire but the German flotilla outran the slower British ships and escaped . All the German warships eventually reached the Baltic , though Z31 was delayed until repairs were completed in Norway .
= = Background = =
The Kriegsmarine 's 4th Destroyer Flotilla comprised the Narvik @-@ class destroyers Z31 , Z34 , and Z38 . By January 1945 , these ships had been stationed in northern Norwegian waters for three and a half years , but had only occasionally put to sea during 1944 . Due to Germany 's deteriorating position , the flotilla was directed in January to leave Norwegian waters and return to the Baltic . The three destroyers departed Tromsø on the 25th of the month .
The Royal Navy 's Home Fleet conducted a number of attacks on German shipping travelling off the coast of Norway during January 1945 . These included successful attacks by motor torpedo boats on three escorted ships between 6 and 8 January and the interception of a convoy by the heavy cruiser HMS Norfolk and light cruiser HMS Bellona near Egersund on the night of 11 / 12 January . On 27 January , the escort carriers HMS Campania , Nairana and Premier departed the Home Fleet 's main base at Scapa Flow to conduct a raid against shipping near Vaago which was designated Operation Winded . The carriers were escorted by the heavy cruiser HMS Berwick and six destroyers .
The British were alerted to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla 's movement by Ultra signals intelligence . The commander of the Home Fleet , Admiral Henry Moore , was informed that the destroyers had sailed on 27 January , shortly after the three carriers and their escort had put to sea . He believed that the German ships were likely to use a route between the coastal islands and the shore , as was common for the Kriegsmarine . If this route was used , it would be preferable for strike aircraft of No. 18 Group RAF to attack the destroyers as Norway 's inshore waters were protected by naval mines and coastal batteries . Alternatively , the German ships could make a high @-@ speed night passage outside of the coastal islands . In case an offshore route was used , Moore ordered Vice Admiral Frederick Dalrymple @-@ Hamilton , the commander of the 10th Cruiser Squadron , to sail with the cruisers Diadem and Mauritius and patrol off Bergen . The Home Fleet did not have any destroyers available to accompany Dalrymple @-@ Hamilton 's force , though Moore considered but decided against cancelling the carrier operation in order to make some of these ships available .
= = Battle = =
Contrary to British expectations , the commander of the 4th Destroyer Flotilla , Captain H.F. von Wangenheim , chose to take the faster route outside of the coastal islands . On the evening of 27 January , the destroyers were spotted and attacked by British aircraft whilst west of Sognefjord , but continued their voyage . Contact was made between the two naval forces at 00 : 48 am on 28 January . At this time , the 4th Destroyer Flotilla was proceeding south and was located about 15 miles ( 13 nmi ; 24 km ) southwest of the Utvær lighthouse and 35 miles ( 30 nmi ; 56 km ) northwest of Bergen . The sea was calm and visibility was excellent due to a full moon . The British and German forces spotted each another simultaneously ; at the time the cruisers were about 11 miles ( 9 @.@ 6 nmi ; 18 km ) west of the 4th Destroyer Flotilla . Upon sighting the destroyers , the British ships fired star shells to illuminate the area and turned to the south on a course parallel to that of the German ships .
Z31 suffered extensive damage early in the battle . She was struck by seven 6 in ( 152 mm ) shells , which caused her to catch fire , damaged the hydrophone compartment and torpedo transmitting stations and destroyed her forward gun turret . Z31 's speed was not affected , but casualties were heavy , with 55 sailors killed and another 24 wounded . After Z31 was damaged , Commander Karl Hetz on board Z34 assumed command of the 4th Destroyer Flotilla . Z34 made two torpedo attacks on the British cruisers in an attempt to force them to change course , but this was not successful . Z38 also tried to launch torpedoes , but had to break off this attack when her funnel caught fire and a boiler tube burst . Z34 suffered a hit on her waterline during this period .
After Z34 was damaged , Hetz decided to turn to the north and attempt to outrun the British cruisers . Z34 fired a third salvo of torpedoes as the flotilla made this turn , again without result , and the three ships laid smoke screens in an attempt to conceal their position . The two cruisers also turned north to chase the German ships . This led to a running battle in which Mauritius sustained a hit on her mess deck that did not cause any casualties and Diadem was struck on her boat deck by a shell six minutes later that killed one man and wounded three . The German destroyers were capable of making 38 knots ( 70 km / h ; 44 mph ) while Diadem had a maximum speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) and Mauritius 31 knots ( 57 km / h ; 36 mph ) . As a result , the German vessels gradually pulled ahead and came under the protection of shore batteries at about 2 : 00 am . The British ships broke off the pursuit and returned to Scapa Flow after these batteries fired on them .
= = Aftermath = =
Early in the morning of 28 January , the 4th Destroyer Flotilla resumed its journey south and put into Bergen . Z31 entered one of the town 's docks to be repaired while Z34 and Z38 departed on the evening of 28 January . The two ships were attacked from the air the next day , but did not suffer any damage and sheltered in a fjord south of Stavanger during daylight hours . They put to sea again on the evening of 29 January and eventually reached Kiel in Germany on 1 February .
At Bergen , Z31 received initial repairs , which included removing the wreckage of her forward turret . She departed the town on 8 February bound for Horten . After arriving safely in this port she received further repairs and had her anti @-@ aircraft armament upgraded . Her forward turret was not replaced , but a 4 @.@ 1 in ( 100 mm ) gun was mounted instead ; this was intended to be a temporary measure but remained in place for the remainder of her career . After these repairs were completed , Z31 eventually reached Gotenhafen on 15 March . The last German destroyer remaining in northern Norwegian waters , Z33 , sailed for Germany on 5 February 1945 but ran aground while en route and suffered further damage in the Allied " Black Friday " air raid on the ninth of the month . Following repairs , she arrived at Swinemünde on 2 April .
Both the British and German navies were dissatisfied with the results of the battle on 28 January . The British were disappointed with the action 's inconclusive result , and Admiral Moore regretted his decision to not cancel the escort carrier operation so that destroyers could be attached to the cruiser force . However , historians have judged that the combination of excellent visibility on the night of 27 / 28 January and the superior speed of the German destroyers meant that the British had no ability to force a result . In a post @-@ war assessment , First Sea Lord Admiral Andrew Cunningham endorsed the tactics Dalrymple @-@ Hamilton used during the engagement , but stated that the size of the British force was " inadequate " . The Kriegsmarine was also unsatisfied with the conduct of the battle , with German naval authorities believing that the destroyers should have taken shelter in coastal waters after they were sighted by Allied aircraft on the evening of 27 January .
The action of 28 January was the final battle between British and German warships in Norwegian waters during World War II . It was also the second last surface action fought by the Kriegsmarine , with its final engagement taking place on 18 March 1945 when a force of two torpedo boats and a destroyer was defeated by two British destroyers in the Battle of the Ligurian Sea . By this time , most of the Kriegsmarine 's remaining warships were stationed in the Baltic Sea where they supported German military operations and the evacuation of civilians until the end of the war in May .
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= Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin =
The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin , also Hungarian conquest or Hungarian land @-@ taking ( Hungarian : honfoglalás : " conquest of the homeland " ) was a series of historical events ending with the settlement of the Hungarian people in Central Europe at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries . Before the arrival of the Hungarians , three early medieval powers , the First Bulgarian Empire , East Francia and Moravia had fought each other for control of the Carpathian Basin . They occasionally hired Hungarian horsemen as soldiers . Therefore , the Hungarians who dwelt on the Pontic steppes east of the Carpathians were familiar with their future homeland when their " land @-@ taking " started .
The Hungarian conquest started in the context of a " late or ' small ' migration of peoples " . Contemporary sources attest that the Hungarians crossed the Carpathian Mountains following a joint attack in 894 or 895 by the Pechenegs and Bulgarians against them . They first took control over the lowlands east of the river Danube and attacked and occupied Pannonia ( the region to the west of the river ) in 900 . They exploited internal conflicts in Moravia and annihilated this state sometime between 902 and 906 .
The Hungarians strengthened their control over the Carpathian Basin by defeating a Bavarian army in a battle fought at Brezalauspurc on July 4 , 907 . They launched a series of plundering raids between 899 and 955 and also targeted the Byzantine Empire between 943 and 971 . However , they gradually settled in the Basin and established a Christian monarchy , the Kingdom of Hungary around 1000 .
= = = Written sources = = =
Byzantine authors were the first to record these events . The earliest work is Emperor Leo the Wise 's Tactics , finished around 904 , which recounts the Bulgarian @-@ Byzantine war of 894 – 896 , a military conflict directly preceding the Hungarians ' departure from the Pontic steppes . Nearly contemporary narration can be read in the Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk . However , De Administrando Imperio ( " On Governing the Empire " ) provides the most detailed account . It was compiled under the auspices of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in 951 or 952 .
Works written by clergymen in the successor states of the Carolingian Empire narrate events closely connected to the conquest . The Annals of Fulda which ends in 901 is the earliest among them . A letter from Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg to Pope John IX in 900 also refers to the conquering Hungarians , but it is often regarded as a fake . Abbot Regino of Prüm who compiled his World Chronicle around 908 sums up his knowledge on the Hungarians in a sole entry under the year 889 . Another valuable source is Bishop Liutprand of Cremona 's Antapodosis ( " Retribution " ) from around 960 . Aventinus , a 16th @-@ century historian provides information not known from other works , which suggests that he used now @-@ lost sources . However , his reliability is suspect .
An Old Church Slavonic compilation of Lives of saints preserved an eyewitness account on the Bulgarian @-@ Byzantine war of 894 – 896 . The first Life of Saint Naum , written around 924 , contains nearly contemporary information on the fall of Moravia caused by Hungarian invasions , although its earliest extant copy is from the 15th century . Similarly late manuscripts ( the oldest of which was written in the 14th century ) offer the text of the Russian Primary Chronicle , a historical work completed in 1113 . It provides information based on earlier Byzantine and Moravian sources .
The Hungarians themselves initially preserved the memory of the major events in " the form of folk songs and ballads " ( C. A. Macartney ) . The earliest local chronicle was compiled in the late 11th century . It exists now in more than one variant , its original version several times extended and rewritten during the Middle Ages . For instance , the 14th @-@ century Illuminated Chronicle contains texts from the 11th @-@ century chronicle .
An anonymous author 's Gesta Hungarorum ( " Deeds of the Hungarians " ) , written before 1200 , is the earliest extant local chronicle . However , this " most misleading " example " of all the early Hungarian texts " ( C. A. Macartney ) contains much information that cannot be confirmed based on contemporaneous sources . Around 1283 Simon of Kéza , a priest at the Hungarian royal court wrote the next surviving chronicle . He claims that the Hungarians were closely related to the Huns , earlier conquerors of the Carpathian Basin . Accordingly , in his narration , the Hungarian invasion is in fact a second conquest of the same territory by the same people .
= = = Archaeology = = =
Graves of the first generations of the conquering Hungarians were identified in the Carpathian Basin , but fewer than ten definitely Hungarian cemeteries have been unearthed in the Pontic steppes . Most Hungarian cemeteries include 25 or 30 inhumation graves , but isolated burials were common . Adult males ( and sometimes women and children ) were buried together with either parts of their horses or with harness and other objects symbolizing a horse . The graves also yielded decorated silver belts , sabretaches furnished with metal plates , pear @-@ shaped stirrups and other metal works . Many of these objects had close analogues in the contemporaneous multiethnic " Saltovo @-@ Mayaki culture " of the Pontic steppes . Most cemeteries from the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries are concentrated in the Upper Tisza region and in the plains along the rivers Rába and Vág , for instance , at Tarcal , Tiszabezdéd , Naszvad ( Nesvady , Slovakia ) and Gyömöre , but early small cemeteries were also unearthed at Kolozsvár ( Cluj @-@ Napoca ) , Marosgombás ( Gâmbaș ) and other Transylvanian sites .
= = Pre @-@ Conquest Hungarians = =
The Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk contains the earliest certain reference to the Hungarians . It states that Hungarian warriors intervened in a conflict between the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgarians on the latter 's behalf in the Lower Danube region in 836 or 837 . The first known Hungarian raid in Central Europe was recorded in the Annals of St. Bertin . It writes of " enemies , called Hungarians , hitherto unknown " who ravaged King Louis the German 's realm in 862 . Vajay , Victor Spinei and other historians argue that Rastislav of Moravia , at war with Louis the German , hired Hungarians to invade East Francia . Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg clearly states in his letter of around 900 that the Moravians often allied with the Hungarians against the Germans .
For many years [ the Moravians ] have in fact perpetrated the very crime of which they have only once falsely accused us . They themselves have taken in a large number of Hungarians and have shaved their own heads according to their heathen customs and they have sent them against our Christians , overcoming them , leading some away as captives , killing others , while still others , imprisoned , perished of hunger and thirst .
Porphyrogenitus mentions that the Hungarians dwelled in a territory that they called " Atelkouzou " until their invasion across the Carpathians . He adds that it was located in the territory where the rivers Barouch , Koubou , Troullos , Broutos and Seretos run . Although the identification of the first two rivers with the Dnieper and the Southern Bug is not unanimously accepted , the last three names without doubt refer to the rivers Dniester , Prut and Siret . In the wider region , at Subotsi on the river Adiamka , three graves ( one of them belonging to a male buried with the skull and legs of his horse ) are attributed to pre @-@ conquest Hungarians . However , these tombs may date to the 10th century .
The Hungarians were organized into seven tribes that formed a confederation . Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentions this number . Anonymous seems to have preserved the Hungarian " Hetumoger " ( " Seven Hungarians " ) denomination of the tribal confederation , although he writes of " seven leading persons " jointly bearing this name instead of a political organization .
The Hetumoger confederation was strengthened by the arrival of the Kabars , who ( according to Constantine ) joined the Hungarians following their unsuccessful riot against the Khazar Khaganate . The Hungarians and the Kabars are mentioned in the longer version of the Annals of Salzburg , which relates that the Hungarians fought around Vienna , while the Kabars fought nearby at Culmite in 881 . Madgearu proposes that Kavar groups were already settled in the Tisza plain within the Carpathian Basin around 881 , which may have given rise to the anachronistic reference to Cumans in the Gesta Hungarorum at the time of the Hungarian conquest .
The Hetumoger confederation was under a dual leadership , according to Ibn Rusta and Gardizi ( two Muslim scholars from the 10th and 11th centuries , respectively , whose geographical books preserved texts from an earlier work written by al @-@ Jayhani from Bukhara ) . The Hungarians ' nominal or sacred leader was styled kende , while their military commander bore the title gyula . The same authors add that the gyula commanded an army of 20 @,@ 000 horsemen , but the reliability of this number is uncertain .
Regino of Prüm and other contemporary authors portray the 9th @-@ century Hungarians as nomadic warriors . Emperor Leo the Wise underlines the importance of horses to their military tactics . Analysis of horse skulls found in Hungarian warriors graves has not revealed any significant difference between these horses and Western breeds . Regino of Prüm states that the Hungarians knew " nothing about fighting hand @-@ to @-@ hand in formation or taking besieged cities " , but he underlines their archery skills . Remains indicate that composite bows were the Hungarians ' most important weapons . In addition , slightly curved sabres were unearthed in many warrior tombs from the period . Regino of Prüm noted the Hungarians ' preference for deceptions such as apparent retreat in battle . Contemporaneous writers also recounted their viciousness , represented by the slaughter of adult males in settlement raids .
[ The Hungarians ] are armed with swords , body armor , bows and lances . Thus , in battles most of them bear double arms , carrying the lances high on their shoulders and holding the bows in their hands . They make use of both as need requires , but when pursued they use their bows to great advantage . Not only do they wear armor themselves , but the horses of their illustrious men are covered in front with iron or quilted material . They devote a great deal of attention and training to archery on horse @-@ back . A huge herd of horses , ponies and mares , follows them , to provide both food and milk and , at the same time , to give the impression of a multitude .
= = Carpathian Basin on the eve of the Conquest = =
= = = Peoples = = =
Based on the extant Hungarian chronicles , it is clear that more than one ( occasionally extended ) list existed of the peoples inhabiting the Carpathian Basin at the time of the Hungarian landtaking . Anonymous , for instance , first writes of the " Slavs , Bulgarians , Vlachs and the shepherds of the Romans " as inhabiting the territory , but later he refers to " a people called Kozar " and to the Székelys . Similarly , Simon of Kéza first lists the " Slavs , Greeks , Germans , Moravians and Vlachs " , but later adds that the Székelys also lived in the territory . According to C. A. Macartney , those lists were based on multiple sources and do not document the real ethnic conditions of the Carpathian Basin around 900 . According to Ioan @-@ Aurel Pop , Simon of Kéza listed the peoples who inhabited the lands that the Hungarian conquered and the nearby territories .
The Hungarians adopted the ancient ( Celtic , Dacian or Germanic ) names of the longest rivers in the Carpathian Basin from a Slavic @-@ speaking population . For instance , the Hungarian names of the rivers Danube ( Duna ) , Dráva , Garam , Maros , Olt , Száva , Tisza and Vág were borrowed from Slavs . The Hungarians also adopted a great number of hydronyms of Slavic origin , including Balaton ( " swamp " ) , Beszterce ( " swift river " ) , Túr ( " aurochs ' stream " ) and Zagyva ( " sooty river " ) . Place names of Slavic origin abound across the Carpathian Basin . For instance , Csongrád ( " black fortress " ) , Nógrád ( " new fortress " ) , Visegrád ( " citadel " ) and other early medieval fortresses bore a Slavic name , while the name of Keszthely preserved the Latin word for fortress ( castellum ) with Slavic mediation .
Besides the Slavs , the presence of a German @-@ speaking population can be demonstrated based on toponyms . For instance , the Hungarians adopted the Germanized form of the name of the river Vulka ( whose name is of Slavic origin ) and the document known as the Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians from around 870 lists Germanic place names in Pannonia , including Salapiugin ( " bend of the Zala " ) and Mosaburc ( " fortress in the marshes " ) . Finally , the name of the Barca , Barót and other rivers could be either Turkic or Slavic .
According to Béla Miklós Szőke 's theory , the detailed description of the Magyars by western contemporary sources and the immediate Hungarian intervention in local wars give the presumption that the Hungarians had already lived on the eastern territories of the Carpathian Basin since the middle of the 9th century . Regarding the right location of early Hungarian settlements , the Arabic geographer al @-@ Jayhani ( only snippets of his work survived in other Muslim authors ' papers ) in the 870s placed the Hungarians between Don and Danube rivers . Szőke identifies al @-@ Jayhani 's Danube with the middle Danube region , as opposed to the previously assumed lower Danube region , because following al @-@ Jayhani 's description the Christian Moravians were the western neighbors of the Magyars .
= = = Borderland of empires = = =
The Carpathian Basin was controlled from the 560s by the Avars , a Turkic @-@ speaking people . Upon their arrival in the region , they imposed their authority over the Gepids who had dominated the territories east of the river Tisza . However , the Gepids survived up until the second half of the 9th century , according to a reference in the Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians to their groups dwelling in Lower Pannonia around 870 .
The Avars initially were nomadic horsemen , but both large cemeteries used by three or four generations and a growing number of settlements attest to their adoption of a sedentary ( non @-@ nomadic ) way of life from the 8th century . The Avars ' power was destroyed between 791 and 795 by Charlemagne , who occupied Transdanubia and attached it to his empire . Archaeological investigation of early medieval rural settlements at Balatonmagyaród , Nemeskér and other places in Transdanubia demonstrate that their main features did not change with the fall of the Avar Khaganate . New settlements appeared in the former borderlands with cemeteries characterized by objects with clear analogues in contemporary Bavaria , Bulgaria , Croatia , Moravia and other faraway territories . A manor defended by timber walls ( similar to noble courts of other parts of the Carolingian Empire ) was unearthed at Zalaszabar .
Avar groups who remained under the rule of their khagan were frequently attacked by Slav warriors . Therefore , the khagan asked Charlemagne to let his people settle in the region between Szombathely and Petronell in Pannonia . His petition was accepted in 805 . The Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians lists the Avars among the peoples under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Salzburg around 870 . According to Pohl , it " simply proved impossible to keep up an Avar identity after Avar institutions and the high claims of their tradition had failed . " The growing number of archaeological evidence in Transdanubia also presumes Avar population in the Carpathian Basin at the eve of the 10th century . Archaeological findings suggesting that there is a substantial late Avar presence on the Great Hungarian Plain , however it is difficult to determine their proper chronology .
A charter issued in 860 by King Louis the German for the Mattsee Abbey may well attest that the Onogurs ( another people of Turkic origin ) were also present in the territory . The charter refers to the " Marches of the Wangars " ( marcha uuangariourum ) situated in the westernmost regions of the Carpathian Basin . The Wangar denomination seems to reflect the Slavic form of the Onogurs ' ethnonym .
The territories attached to the Frankish Empire were initially governed by royal officers and local chieftains . A Slavic prince named Pribina received large estates along the river Zala around 840 . He promoted the colonization of his lands , and also erected Mosaburg , a fortress in the marshes . Initially defended by timber walls , this " castle complex " ( András Róna @-@ Tas ) became an administrative center . It was strengthened by drystone walls at the end of the century . Four churches surrounded by cemeteries were unearthed in and around the settlement . At least one of them continued to be used up to the 11th century .
Pribina died fighting the Moravians in 861 , and his son , Kocel inherited his estates . The latter was succeeded around 876 by Arnulf , a natural son of Carloman , king of East Francia . Under his rule , Moravian troops interved into the conflict known as the " Wilhelminer War " and " laid waste from the Raab eastward " , between 882 and 884 , according to the Annals of Fulda .
Moravia emerged in the 820s under its first known ruler , Mojmir I. His successor , Rastislav , developed Moravia 's military strength . He promoted the proselytizing activities of the Byzantine brothers , Constantine and Methodius in an attempt to seek independence from East Francia . Moravia reached its " peak of importance " under Svatopluk I ( 870 – 894 ) who expanded its frontiers in all directions .
Moravia 's core territory is located in the regions on the northern Morava river , in the territory of present @-@ day Czech Republic and Slovakia . However , Constantine Porphyrogenitus places " great Moravia , the unbaptized " somewhere in the regions beyond Belgrade and Sirmium ( Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia ) . His report supported further theories on Moravia 's location . For instance , Kristó and Senga propose the existence of two Moravias ( one in the north and other one in the south ) , while Boba , Bowlus and Eggers argue that Moravia 's core territory is in the region of the southern Morava river , in present @-@ day Serbia . The existence of a southern Moravian realm is not supported by artifacts , while strongholds unearthed at Mikulcice , Pohansko and other areas to the north of the Middle Danube point at the existence of a power center in those regions .
In addition to East Francia and Moravia , the first Bulgarian Empire was the third power deeply involved in the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century . A late 10th @-@ century Byzantine lexicon known as Suda adds that Krum of Bulgaria attacked the Avars from the southeast around 803 . The Royal Frankish Annals narrates that the Abodrites inhabiting " Dacia on the Danube " ( most probably along the lower courses of the river Tisza ) sought the assistance of the Franks against the Bulgars in 824 . Bulgarian troops also invaded Pannonia , " expelled the Slavic chieftains and appointed Bulgar governors instead " in 827 . An inscription at Provadia refers to a Bulgarian military leader named Onegavonais drowning in the Tisza around the same time . The emerging power of Moravia brought about a rapprochement between Bulgaria and East Francia in the 860s . For instance , King Arnulf of East Francia sent an embassy to the Bulgarians in 892 in order " to renew the former peace and to ask that they should not sell salt to the Moravians " . The latter request suggests that the route from the salt mines of the Eastern Carpathians to Moravia was controlled around that time by the Bulgarians .
The anonymous author of the Gesta Hungarorum , instead of Svatopluk I of Moravia and other rulers known from contemporary sources , writes of personalities and polities that are not mentioned by chroniclers working at the end of the 9th century . For instance , he refers to Menumorut residing in the castle of Bihar ( Biharia , Romania ) , to Zobor " duke of Nitra by the grace of the Duke of the Czechs " , and to Gelou " a certain Vlach " ruling over Transylvania . Although early medieval fortresses were unearthed at Bihar and other places east of the Tisza , none of them definitively date to the 9th century . For instance , in the case of Doboka ( Dăbâca ) , two pairs of bell @-@ shaped pendants with analogues in sites in Austria , Bulgaria and Poland have been unearthed , but Florin Curta dates them to the 9th century , while Alexandru Madgearu to the period between 975 and 1050 .
= = The Hungarian conquest = =
= = = Prelude ( 892 – c . 895 ) = = =
Three main theories attempt to explain the reasons for the " Hungarian land @-@ taking " . One argues that it was an intended military operation , prearranged following previous raids , with the express purpose of occupying a new homeland . This view ( represented , for instance , by Bakay and Padányi ) mainly follows the narration of Anonymous and later Hungarian chronicles . The opposite view maintains that a joint attack by the Pechenegs and the Bulgarians forced the Hungarians ' hand . Kristó , Tóth and the theory 's other followers refer to the unanimous testimony provided by the Annals of Fulda , Regino of Prüm and Porphyrogenitus on the connection between the Hungarians ' conflict with the Bulgar @-@ Pecheneg coalition and their withdrawal from the Pontic steppes . An intermediate theory proposes that the Hungarians had for decades been considering a westward move when the Bulgarian @-@ Pecheneg attack accelerated their decision to leave the Pontic steppes . For instance Róna @-@ Tas argues , " [ the ] fact that , despite a series of unfortunate events , the Magyars managed to keep their heads above water goes to show that they were indeed ready to move on " when the Pechenegs attacked them .
In fact , following a break of eleven years , the Hungarians returned to the Carpathian Basin in 892 . They came to assist Arnulf of East Francia against Svatopluk I of Moravia . Widukind of Corvey and Liutprand of Cremona condemned the Frankish monarch for destroying the defense lines built along the empire 's borders , because this also enabled the Hungarians to attack East Francia within a decade .
Meanwhile Arnulf ( … ) could not overcome Sviatopolk , duke of the Moravians ( … ) ; and – alas ! – having dismantled those very well fortified barriers which ( … ) are called " closures " by the populace . Arnulf summoned to his aid the nation of the Hungarians , greedy , rash , ignorant of almighty God but well versed in every crime , avid only for murder and plunder ( … ) .
A late source , Aventinus adds that Kurszán ( Cusala ) , " king of the Hungarians " stipulated that his people would only fight the Moravians if they received the lands they were to occupy . Accordingly , Aventinus continues , the Hungarians took possession of " both Dacias on this side and beyond " the Tisza east of the rivers Danube and Garam already in 893 . Indeed , the Hungarian chronicles unanimously state that the Székelys had already been present in the Carpathian Basin when the Hungarians moved in . Kristó argues that Aventinus and the Hungarian historical tradition together point at an early occupation of the eastern territories of the Carpathian Basin by auxiliary troops of the Hungarian tribal confederation .
The Annals of Fulda narrates under the year 894 that the Hungarians crossed the Danube into Pannonia where they " killed men and old women outright and carried off the young women alone with them like cattle to satisfy their lusts and reduced the whole " province " to desert " . Although the annalist writes of this Hungarian attack after the passage narrating Svatopluk I 's death , Györffy , Kristó , Róna @-@ Tas and other historians suppose that the Hungarians invaded Pannonia in alliance with the Moravian monarch . They argue that the " Legend of the White Horse " in the Hungarian chronicles preserved the memory of a treaty the Hungarians concluded with Svatopluk I according to pagan customs . The legend narrates that the Hungarians purchased their future homeland in the Carpathian Basin from Svatopluk for a white horse harnessed with gilded saddle and reins .
Then [ Kusid ] came to the leader of the region who reigned after Attila and whose name was Zuatapolug , and saluted him in the name of his people [ ... ] . On hearing this , Zuatapolug rejoiced greatly , for he thought that they were peasant people who would come and till his land ; and so he dismissed the messenger graciously . [ ... ] Then by a common resolve [ the Hungarians ] despatched the same messenger again to the said leader and sent to him for his land a big horse with a golden saddle adorned with the gold of Arabia and a golden bridle . Seeing it , the leader rejoiced all the more , thinking that they were sending gifts of homage in return for land . When therefore the messenger asked of him land , grass and water , he replied with a smile , " In return for the gift let them have as much as they desire . " [ ... ] Then [ the Hungarians ] sent another messenger to the leader and this was the message which he delivered : " Arpad and his people say to you that you may no longer stay upon the land which they bought of you , for with the horse they bought your earth , with the bridle the grass , and with the saddle the water . And you , in your need and avarice , made to them a grant of land , grass and water . " When this message was delivered to the leader , he said with a smile : " Let them kill the horse with a wooden mallet , and throw the bridle on the field , and throw the golden saddle into the water of the Danube . " To which the messenger replied : " And what loss will that be to them , lord ? If you kill the horse , you will give food for their dogs ; if you throw the bridle on the field , their men will find the gold of the bridle when they mow the hay ; if you throw the saddle into the Danube , their fishermen will lay out the gold of the saddle upon the bank and carry it home . If they have earth , grass and water , they have all . "
Ismail Ibn Ahmed , the emir of Khorasan raided " the land of the Turks " ( the Karluks ) in 893 . Later he caused a new movement of peoples who one by one invaded the lands of their western neighbors in the Eurasian steppes . Al @-@ Masudi clearly connected the westward movement of the Pechenegs and the Hungarians to previous fights between the Karluks , Ouzes and Kimeks . Porphyrogenitus writes of a joint attack by the Khazars and Ouzes that compelled the Pechenegs to cross the Volga River sometime between 893 and 902 ( most probably around 894 ) .
Originally , the Pechenegs had their dwelling on the river [ Volga ] and likewise on the river [ Ural ] ( … ) . But fifty years ago the so @-@ called Uzes made common cause with the Chazars and joined battle with the Pechenegs and prevailed over them and expelled them from their country ( … ) .
The relationship between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire sharpened in 894 , because Emperor Leo the Wise forced the Bulgarian merchants to leave Constantinople and settle in Thessaloniki . Subsequently , Tzar Simeon I of Bulgaria invaded Byzantine territories and defeated a small imperial troop . The Byzantines approached the Hungarians to hire them to fight the Bulgarians . Nicetas Sclerus , the Byzantine envoy , concluded a treaty with their leaders , Árpád and Kurszán ( Kusan ) and Byzantine ships transferred Hungarian warriors across the Lower Danube . The Hungarians invaded Bulgaria , forced Tzar Simeon to flee to the fortress of Dristra ( now Silistra , Bulgaria ) and plundered Preslav . An interpolation in Porphyrogenitus 's work states that the Hungarians had a prince named " Liountikas , son of Arpad " at that time , which suggests that he was the commander of the army , but he might have been mentioned in the war context by chance .
Simultaneously with the Hungarian attack from the north , the Byzantines invaded Bulgaria from the south . Tzar Simeon sent envoys to the Byzantine Empire to propose a truce . At the same time , he sent an embassy to the Pechenegs to incite them against the Hungarians . He succeeded and the Pechenegs broke into Hungarian territories from the east , forcing the Hungarian warriors to withdraw from Bulgaria . The Bulgarians , according to Constantine Porphyrogenitus , attacked and routed the Hungarians .
The Pechenegs destroyed the Hungarians ' dwelling places . Those who survived the double attack left the Pontic steppes and crossed the Carpathians in search of a new homeland . The memory of the destruction brought by the Pechenegs seems to have been preserved by the Hungarians . The Hungarian name of the Pechenegs ( besenyő ) corresponds to the old Hungarian word for eagle ( bese ) . Thus the 14th @-@ century Hungarian chronicles ' story of eagles compelling the Hungarians ' ancestors to cross the Carpathians most probably refers to the Pechenegs ' attack .
The Hungarians were ( … ) driven from their home ( … ) by a neighboring people called the Petchenegs , because they were superior to them in strength and number and because ( … ) their own country was not sufficient to accommodate their swelling numbers . After they had been forced to flee by the violence of the Petchenegs , they said goodbye to their homeland and set out to look for lands where they could live and establish settlements .
[ At ] the invitation of Leo , the Christ @-@ loving and glorious emperor [ the Hungarians ] crossed over and fought Symeon and totally defeated him , ( … ) and they went back to their own county . ( … ) But after Symeon ( … ) sent to the Pechenegs and made an agreement with them to attack and destroy [ the Hungarians ] And when [ the latter ] had gone off on a military expedition , the Pechenegs with Symeon came against [ them ] and completely destroyed their families and miserably expelled thence [ those ] who were guarding their country . When [ the Hungarians ] came back and found their country thus desolate and utterly ruined , they settled in the land where they live today ( … ) .
Passing through the kingdom of the Bessi and the Cumani Albi and Susdalia and the city named Kyo , they crossed the mountains and came into a region where they saw innumerable eagles ; and because of the eagles they could not stay in that place , for the eagles came down from the trees like flies and devoured both their herds and their horses . For God intended that they should go down more quickly into Hungary . During three months they made their descent from the mountains , and they came to the boundaries of the kingdom of Hungary , that is to Erdelw [ ... ] .
= = = First phase ( c . 895 – 899 ) = = =
The date of the Hungarian invasion varies according to the source . The earliest date ( 677 ) is preserved in the 14th @-@ century versions of the " Hungarian Chronicle " , while Anonymous supplies the latest date ( 902 ) . Contemporaneous sources suggest that the invasion followed the 894 Bulgarian @-@ Byzantine war . The route taken across the Carpathians is also contested . Anonymous and Simon of Kéza have the invading Hungarians crossing the northeastern passes , while the Illuminated Chronicle writes of their arrival in Transylvania .
Regino of Prüm states that the Hungarians " roamed the wildernesses of the Pannonians and the Avars and sought their daily food by hunting and fishing " following their arrival in the Carpathian Basin . Their advance towards the Danube seems to have stimulated Arnulf who was crowned emperor to entrust Braslav ( the ruler of the region between the rivers Drava and Sava ) with the defense of all Pannonia in 896 . In 897 or 898 a civil war broke out between Mojmir II and Svatopluk II ( two sons of the late Moravian ruler , Svatopluk I ) , in which Emperor Arnulf also intervened . There is no mention of the Hungarians ' activities in those years .
The next event recorded in connection with the Hungarians is their raid against Italy in 899 and 900 . The letter of Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg and his suffragans suggests that Emperor Arnulf incited them to attack King Berengar I of Italy . They routed the Italian troops on September 2 at the river Brenta and plundered the region of Vercelli and Modena in the winter , but the Doge of Venice , Pietro Tribuno defeated them at Venice on June 29 , 900 . They returned from Italy when they learned of the death of Emperor Arnulf at the end of 899 .
According to Anonymous , the Hungarians fought with Menumorut before conquering Gelou 's Transylvania . Subsequently the Hungarians turned against Salan , the ruler of the central territories , according to this narrative . In contrast with Anonymous , Simon of Kéza writes of the Hungarians ' fight with Svatopluk following their arrival . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , the Hungarians " remained quietly in Erdelw and rested their herds " there after their crossing because of an attack by eagles .
The Hungarian chronicles preserved two separate lists of the Hungarians ' leaders at the time of the Conquest . Anonymous knows of Álmos , Előd , Künd , Ónd , Tas , Huba and Tétény , while Simon of Kéza and the Illuminated Chronicle list Árpád , Szabolcs , Gyula , Örs , Künd , Lél and Vérbulcsú . Contemporaraneous or nearly contemporaraneous sources make mention of Álmos ( Constantine Porphyrogenitus ) , of Árpád ( Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk and Constantine Porphyrogenitus ) , of Liountikas ( Constantine Porphyrogenitus ) and of Kurszán ( Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk ) .
According to the Illuminated Chronicle , Álmos , Árpád 's father " could not enter Pannonia , for he was killed in Erdelw " . The episode implies that Álmos was the kende , the sacred ruler of the Hungarians , at the time of their destruction by the Pechenegs , which caused his sacrifice . If his death was in fact the consequence of a ritual murder , his fate was similar to the Khazar khagans who were executed , according to Ibn Fadlan and al @-@ Masudi , in case of disasters affecting their whole people .
= = = Second phase ( 900 – 902 ) = = =
The emperor 's death released the Hungarians from their alliance with East Francia . On their way back from Italy they expanded their rule over Pannonia . Furthermore , according to Liutprand of Cremona , the Hungarians " claimed for themselves the nation of the Moravians , which King Arnulf had subdued with the aid of their might " at the coronation of Arnulf 's son , Louis the Child in 900 . The Annals of Grado relates that the Hungarians defeated the Moravians after their withdrawal from Italy . Thereafter the Hungarians and the Moravians made an alliance and jointly invaded Bavaria , according to Aventinus . However , the contemporary Annals of Fulda only refers to Hungarians reaching the river Enns .
One of the Hungarian contingents crossed the Danube and plundered the territories on the river 's north bank , but Luitpold , Margrave of Bavaria gathered troops and routed them between Passau and Krems an der Donau on November 20 , 900 . He had a strong fortress erected against them on the Enns . Nevertheless , the Hungarians became the masters of the Carpathian Basin by the occupation of Pannonia . The Russian Primary Chronicle may also reflect the memory of this event when relating how the Hungarians expelled the " Volokhi " who had earlier subjugated the Slavs ' homeland in Pannonia . These Volokhi , however , have also been associated either with the Romans or with the Vlachs ( Romanians ) , for instance by Cross and Spinei , respectively .
Over a long period the Slavs settled beside the Danube , where the Hungarian and Bulgarian lands now lie . From among these Slavs , parties scattered throughout the country and were known by appropriate names , according to the places where they settled . ( ... ) The [ Hungarians ] passed by Kiev over the hill now called Hungarian and on arriving at the Dnieper , they pitched camp . They were nomads like the Polovcians . Coming out of the east , they struggled across the great mountains and began to fight against the neighboring [ Volokhi ] and Slavs . For the Slavs had settled there first , but the [ Volokhi ] had seized the territory of the Slavs . The [ Hungarians ] subsequently expelled the [ Volokhi ] , took their land and settled among the Slavs , whom they reduced to submission . From that time the territory was called Hungarian .
King Louis the Child held a meeting at Regensburg in 901 to introduce further measures against the Hungarians . Moravian envoys proposed a peace between Moravia and East Francia , because the Hungarians had in the meantime plundered their country . A Hungarian army invading Carinthia was defeated in April and Aventinus describes a defeat of the Hungarians by Margrave Luitpold at the river Fischa in the same year .
= = = Consolidation ( 902 – 907 ) = = =
The date when Moravia ceased to exist is uncertain , because there is no clear evidence either on the " existence of Moravia as a state " after 902 ( Spinei ) or on its fall . A short note in the Annales Alamannici refers to a " war with the Hungarians in Moravia " in 902 , during which the " land ( patria ) succumbed " , but this text is ambiguous . Alternatively , the so @-@ called Raffelstetten Customs Regulations mentions the " markets of the Moravians " around 905 . The Life of Saint Naum relates that the Hungarians occupied Moravia , adding that the Moravians who " were not captured by the Hungarians , ran to the Bulgars " . Constantine Porphyrogenitus also connects the fall of Moravia to its occupation by the Hungarians . The destruction of the early medieval urban centers and fortresses at Szepestamásfalva ( Spišské Tomášovce ) , Dévény and other places in modern Slovakia is dated to the period around 900 .
After the death of ( ... ) [ Svatopluk I , his sons ] remained at peace for a year and then strife and rebellion fell upon them and they made a civil war against one another and the [ Hungarians ] came and utterly ruined them and possessed their country , in which even now [ the Hungarians ] live . And those of the folk who were left were scattered and fled for refuge to the adjacent nations , to the Bulgarians and [ Hungarians ] and Croats and to the rest of the nations .
According to Anonymous , who does not write of Moravia , the Hungarians invaded the region of Nyitra ( Nitra , Slovakia ) and defeated and killed Zobor , the local Czech ruler , on Mount Zobor near his seat . Thereafter , as Anonymous continues , the Hungarians first occupied Pannonia from the " Romans " and next battled with Glad and his army composed of Bulgarians , Romanians and Pechenegs from Banat . Glad ceded few towns from his duchy . Finally , Anonymous writes of a treaty between the Hungarians and Menumorut , stipulating that the local ruler 's daughter was to be given in marriage to Árpád 's son , Zolta . Macartney argues that Anonymous 's narration of both Menumorot and of Glad is basically a transcription of a much later report of the early 11th @-@ century Achtum , Glad 's alleged descendant . In contrast , for instance , Madgearu maintains that Galad , Kladova , Gladeš and other place names recorded in Banat in the 14th century and 16th century attest to the memory of a local ruler named Glad .
[ The Hungarians ] reached the region of Bega and stayed there for two weeks while they conquered all the inhabitants of that land from the Mures to the Timis River and they received their sons as hostages . Then , moving the army on , they came to the Timis River and encamped beside the ford of Foeni and when they sought to cross the Timis 's flow , there came to oppose them Glad , ( ... ) the prince of that country , with a great army of horsemen and foot soldiers , supported by Cumans , Bulgarians and Vlachs . ( ... ) God with His grace went before the Hungarians , He gave them a great victory and their enemies fell before them as bundles of hay before reapers . In that battle two dukes of the Cumans and three kneses of the Bulgarians were slain and Glad , their duke escaped in flight but all his army , melting like wax before flame , was destroyed at the point of the sword . ( ... ) Prince Glad , having fled , as we said above , for fear of the Hungarians , entered the castle of Kovin . ( ... ) [ He ] sent to seek peace with [ the Hungarians ] and of his own will delivered up the castle with diverse gifts .
An important event following the conquest of the Carpathian Basin , the Bavarians ' murder of Kurszán , was recorded by the longer version of the Annals of Saint Gall , the Annales Alamannici and the Annals of Einsiedeln . The first places the event in 902 , while the others date it to 904 . The three chronicles unanimously state that the Bavarians invited the Hungarian leader to a dinner on the pretext of negotiating a peace treaty and treacherously assassinated him . Kristó and other Hungarian historians argue that the dual leadership over the Hungarians ended with Kurszán 's death .
The Hungarians invaded Italy using the so @-@ called " Route of the Hungarians " ( Strada Ungarorum ) leading from Pannonia to Lombardy in 904 . They arrived as King Berengar I 's allies against his rival , King Louis of Provance . The Hungarians devastated the territories occupied earlier by King Louis along the river Po , which ensured Berengar 's victory . The victorious monarch allowed the Hungarians to pillage all the towns that had earlier accepted his opponent 's rule , and agreed to pay a yearly tribute of about 375 kilograms ( 827 lb ) of silver .
The longer version of the Annals of Saint Gall reports that Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg fell , along with Bishops Uto of Freising and Zachary of Säben , in a " disastrous battle " fought against the Hungarians at Brezalauspurc on July 4 , 907 . Other contemporary sources add that Margrave Luitpold of Bavaria and 19 Bavarian counts also died in the battle . Most historians ( including Engel , Makkai , and Spinei ) identify Brezalauspurc with Pressburg ( Bratislava , Slovakia ) , but some researchers ( for instance Boba and Bowlus ) argue that it can refer to Mosaburg , Braslav 's fortress on the Zala in Pannonia . The Hungarians ' victory hindered any attempts of eastward expansion by East Francia for the following decades and opened the way for the Hungarians to freely plunder vast territories of that kingdom .
= = Consequences = =
The Hungarians settled in the lowlands of the Carpathian Basin along the rivers Danube , Tisza and their tributaries , where they could continue their semi @-@ nomadic lifestyle . As an immediate consequence , their arrival " drove a non @-@ Slavic wedge between the West Slavs and South Slavs " ( Fine ) . Fine argues that the Hungarians ' departure from the western regions of the Pontic steppes weakened their former allies , the Khazars , which contributed to the collapse of the Khazar Empire .
Some decades after the Hungarian conquest , a new synthesis of earlier cultures , the " Bijelo Brdo culture " spread in all over the Carpathian Basin , with its characteristic jewellery , including S @-@ shaped earrings . The lack of archaeological finds connected to horses in " Bijelo Brdo " graves is another feature of these cemeteries . The earliest " Bijelo Brdo " assemblages are dated via unearthed coins to the rule of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the middle of the 10th century . Early cemeteries of the culture were unearthed , for instance , at Beremend and Csongrád in Hungary , at Dévény ( Devín ) and Zsitvabesenyő ( Bešenov ) in Slovakia , at Gyulavarsánd ( Varşand ) and Várfalva ( Moldoveneşti ) in Romania and at Vukovár ( Vukovar ) and Gorbonok ( Kloštar Podravski ) in Croatia .
Hungarian society experienced fundamental changes in many fields ( including animal husbandry , agriculture and religion ) in the centuries following the " Land @-@ taking " . These changes are reflected in the significant number of terms borrowed from local Slavs . About 20 % of the Hungarian vocabulary is of Slavic origin , including the Hungarian words for sheep @-@ pen ( akol ) , yoke ( iga ) and horseshoe ( patkó ) . Similarly , the Hungarian name of vegetables , fruits and other cultivated plants , as well as many Hungarian terms connected to agriculture are Slavic loanwords , including káposzta ( " cabbage " ) , szilva ( " plum " ) , zab ( " oats " ) , széna ( " hay " ) and kasza ( " scythe " ) .
The Hungarians left wide marches ( the so @-@ called gyepű ) in the borderlands of their new homeland uninhabited for defensive purposes . In this easternmost territory of the Carpathian Basin , the earliest graves attributed to Hungarian warriors — for instance , at Szék ( Sic ) , Torda ( Turda ) and Vízakna ( Ocna Sibiului ) — are concentrated around the Transylvanian salt mines in the valley of the rivers Kis @-@ Szamos ( Someșul Mic ) and Maros ( Mureş ) . All the same , warriors were also stationed in outposts east of the Carpathians , as suggested by 10th @-@ century graves unearthed at Krylos , Przemyśl , Sudova Vyshnia , Grozeşti , Probota and at Tei . The Hungarians ' fear of their eastern neighbors , the Pechenegs , is demonstrated by Porphyrogenitus 's report on the failure of a Byzantine envoy to persuade them to attack the Pechenegs . The Hungarians clearly stated that they could not fight against the Pechenegs , because " their people are numerous and they are the devil 's brats " .
Instead of attacking the Pechenegs and the Bulgarians in the east , the Hungarians made several raids in Western Europe . For instance , they plundered Thuringia and Saxony in 908 , Bavaria and Swabia in 909 and 910 and Swabia , Lorraine and West Francia in 912 . Although a Byzantine hagiography of Saint George refers to a joint attack of Pechenegs , " Moesians " and Hungarians against the Byzantine Empire in 917 , its reliability is not established . The Hungarians seem to have raided the Byzantine Empire for the first time in 943 . However , their defeat in the battle of Lechfeld in 955 " put an end to the raids in the West " ( Kontler ) , while they stopped plundering the Byzantines following their defeat in the battle of Arkadiopolis in 970 .
The Hungarian leaders decided that their traditional lifestyle , partly based on plundering raids against sedentary peoples , could not be continued . The defeats at the Lechfeld and Arkadiopolis accelerated the Hungarians ' adoption of a sedentary way of life . This process culminated in the coronation of the head of the Hungarians , Stephen the first king of Hungary in 1000 and 1001 .
= = Artistic representation = =
The most famous perpetuation of the events is the Arrival of the Hungarians or Feszty Panorama which is a large cyclorama ( a circular panoramic painting ) by Hungarian painter Árpád Feszty and his assistants . It was completed in 1894 for the 1000th anniversary of the event . Since the 1100th anniversary of the event in 1995 , the painting has been displayed in the Ópusztaszer National Heritage Park , Hungary . Mihály Munkácsy also depicted the event under the name of Conquest for the Hungarian Parliament Building in 1893 .
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= Frank Bladin =
Air Vice Marshal Francis Masson ( Frank ) Bladin , CB , CBE ( 26 August 1898 – 2 February 1978 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born in rural Victoria , he graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1920 . Bladin transferred from the Army to the Air Force in 1923 , and learned to fly at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria . He held training appointments before taking command of No. 1 Squadron in 1934 . Quiet but authoritative , he was nicknamed " Dad " in tribute to the concern he displayed for the welfare of his personnel .
Ranked wing commander at the outbreak of World War II , by September 1941 Bladin had been raised to temporary air commodore . He became Air Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in March 1942 , following the first Japanese air raids on Darwin , Northern Territory . Personally leading sorties against enemy territory , he earned the United States Silver Star for gallantry . In July 1943 , Bladin was posted to No. 38 Group RAF in Europe , where he was mentioned in despatches . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire the same year .
Promoted acting air vice marshal in 1946 , Bladin was among the coterie of senior officers who helped reshape the post @-@ war RAAF . His roles in the late 1940s and early 1950s included Chief of Staff of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan , Air Officer Commanding Eastern Area ( later RAAF Air Command ) , and Air Member for Personnel . Appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1950 , he retired to his country property in 1953 . He was active for many years in veterans ' affairs before his death in 1978 at the age of seventy @-@ nine .
= = Early career = =
Frank Bladin was born on 26 August 1898 in Korumburra , Victoria , the youngest son of engineer Frederick Bladin and his wife Ellen . Educated to junior public level at Melbourne High School , he sought to join the Australian Imperial Force during World War I. His parents refused their permission , and he instead entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1917 . Graduating in 1920 , Bladin served for the next two years in the Australian Army , including sixteen months seconded to the Royal Field Artillery in Britain . He transferred to the recently established Royal Australian Air Force as a flying officer in January 1923 . Undergoing pilot training at Point Cook , Victoria , he was one of five former Army lieutenants on the inaugural RAAF flying course — all of whom had left their original service at least partly because of poor career prospects in the post @-@ war military . One of Bladin 's other classmates on the course was a 1919 graduate of the Royal Australian Naval College , Sub @-@ Lieutenant Joe Hewitt . During 1925 – 26 , Bladin was in charge of running Citizens Air Force ( reserve ) pilots ' courses at No. 1 Flying Training School , Point Cook . Having been promoted to flight lieutenant , he married Patricia Magennis at Yass , New South Wales , on 20 December 1927 ; the couple had a son and two daughters .
Bladin was posted to Britain in 1929 to attend RAF Staff College , Andover , and wrote an article on Empire air defence in 1931 for Royal Air Force Quarterly , one of the few published pieces of work on air power produced by RAAF officers in the pre @-@ war years . Promoted to squadron leader , he took over as Commanding Officer of No. 1 Squadron from Squadron Leader Frank Lukis in April 1934 . Bladin found that the unit , flying Westland Wapitis and Hawker Demons out of RAAF Station Laverton in Victoria , " had not operated under field conditions away from its brick hangars and concrete tarmac since its inception some eight years previous " . He proceeded to change this , deploying the squadron 300 miles away to Cootamundra in rural New South Wales , where he " borrowed a portion of a sheep station from a friend so that the pilots could carry out their bombing practice " over a two @-@ week period commencing in late November 1935 . After completing his tenure with No. 1 Squadron in December , Bladin was appointed Officer Commanding Cadet Squadron at No. 1 Flying Training School . He modelled the training course on that of Duntroon , foreshadowing instruction at the Air Force 's own cadet institute , RAAF College , which would be established in 1947 . On 12 March 1937 , he was promoted to wing commander .
= = World War II = =
Bladin 's first posting following the outbreak of World War II was as Director of Operations and Intelligence at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne , in March 1940 . Promoted to group captain in June , he became Air Officer Commanding Southern Area in August 1941 and was raised to acting air commodore the following month . By 1 January 1942 , Bladin was serving as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff ( Operations ) , charged with readying air bases and putting into effect plans for the Empire Air Training Scheme . He took over as Air Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area ( AOC NWA ) on 25 March that year . Based in Darwin , his role was to conduct the air defence of Torres Strait , the Northern Territory , and north Western Australia . He also had to restore morale following the bombing of Darwin on 19 February and deal with the threat of imminent invasion , tasks complicated by the poor state of local communications , transport and early warning systems . Initiating combat training for all RAAF ground crew , Bladin proceeded to construct secondary airfields so that he could disperse his forces . He became , in the words of Air Force historian Dr Alan Stephens , " the RAAF 's outstanding area commander of the war " , and earned distinction as the first Australian decorated by the United States in the Pacific theatre of operations when he was awarded the Silver Star for gallantry . The cited action took place in June when Bladin personally led a raid by USAAF B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses on Celebes in the Dutch East Indies . As well as destroying enemy machines on the ground and damaging infrastructure , the Allied bombers managed to evade an attack by nine Japanese fighters during their return to base . Bladin 's award was recommended in September , and promulgated in the Australian Gazette on 23 November 1944 .
By December 1942 , Bladin 's strength in NWA consisted of seven RAAF squadrons operating mainly Bristol Beaufighter and P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters , Lockheed Hudson light bombers , and A @-@ 31 Vengeance dive bombers . These were soon augmented by one squadron each of Dutch East Indies B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers and USAAF B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers . As Japanese air raids continued into 1943 , Bladin placed his bombers inland , and his fighters close to the coast where they could intercept the raiders . Appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1943 , he stepped up offensive strikes against island bases and shipping in the Timor and Arafura Seas as the Allies took the fight to the Japanese . He often employed his own judgement in the selection of targets , as detailed directives from superior headquarters were not always forthcoming . On 27 February , acting on intercepted radio transmissions , he launched a pre @-@ emptive raid on Penfui airfield near Koepang , which destroyed or damaged twenty @-@ two enemy bombers that had been destined to make a major raid on Darwin . To help protect northern Australia from ongoing air attack , three squadrons of Spitfire fighters were transferred from the United Kingdom in late 1942 , becoming operational in March 1943 as No. 1 Fighter Wing . A major engagement over Darwin on 2 May resulted in eight Spitfires crashing and several others making forced landings , for the destruction of one Japanese bomber and five fighters . An adverse communiqué concerning the action was issued from General Douglas MacArthur 's headquarters and was picked up by Australian newspapers , which reported the Spitfires ' " heavy losses " and caused resentment in NWA . Bladin complained to his superior , Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , that the " alarmist tendency of the press and radio references was having a bad effect on the combat pilots " . He also ordered an immediate Beaufighter strike led by Wing Commander Charles Read against Penfui airfield , on the assumption that this was where the Japanese raiders were based ; four enemy aircraft were destroyed on the ground .
On 17 June , under the command of Group Captain Clive Caldwell , No. 1 Fighter Wing recorded NWA 's most successful interception to date , claiming fourteen Japanese raiders destroyed and ten damaged , for the loss of two Spitfires . The 380th Bombardment Group USAAF , consisting of four squadrons of Liberators , came under Bladin 's control the same month , enhancing NWA 's strategic strike capability . When Bladin handed over North @-@ Western Area to Air Vice Marshal Adrian Cole in July 1943 , the latter reported that his new command was " well organised , keen and in good shape " . Posted to England as Senior Air Staff Officer ( SASO ) of No. 38 Group RAF , Bladin was closely involved in training aircrew and planning airborne operations for Operation Overlord , the Allied invasion of France . He flew a mission on D @-@ Day , 6 June 1944 , to deliver glider @-@ borne troops to Normandy , and was mentioned in despatches two days later . Completing his RAF service on the staff of the Second Tactical Air Force in France , Bladin returned to Australia to become Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in October 1944 . On two occasions in June 1945 , he was considered for the position of AOC RAAF Command , the Air Force 's main operational formation in the South West Pacific . Bladin would have replaced Air Vice Marshal Bostock , who was facing disciplinary action for refusing to comply with directives from the Air Board , the RAAF 's controlling body , but in the end the Australian government made no change to command arrangements .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
The RAF had planned to deploy an airborne formation , No. 238 ( Airborne Assault ) Group , to the Pacific theatre and requested Bladin be released from his duties as Deputy Chief of the Air Staff to assume its command , but this was cancelled with the end of hostilities in August 1945 . His next posting was to Kure , Japan , in January 1946 , as Chief of Staff to Lieutenant General John Northcott , commander of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) . Northcott reportedly chose Bladin not only for his operational command and staff experience in the RAAF and the RAF during World War II , but for his pedigree as a Duntroon graduate rather than having a background that was confined to the Air Force alone . Promoted acting air vice marshal on 1 March 1946 , he handed over to another Duntroon graduate , Air Vice Marshal John McCauley , in June 1947 . After returning to Australia , Bladin was to figure prominently , along with such figures as McCauley , Air Vice Marshal Joe Hewitt and Air Commodore ( later Air Chief Marshal Sir ) Frederick Scherger , in reshaping the post @-@ war Air Force . His next command was Eastern Area , which would evolve over the years into Home Command , Operational Command and , finally , Air Command . Bladin 's acting rank of air vice marshal was made substantive on 1 October 1948 . As AOC Eastern Area , he was instrumental in organising acquisition of a new site for his then @-@ headquarters at Bradfield Park on Sydney 's North Shore , namely the former Lapstone Hotel at Glenbrook in the Blue Mountains . Subsequently known as Headquarters Operational Command , later Headquarters Air Command , the site was purchased in mid @-@ 1949 , and became operational at the end of the year . As well as commanding a view of the surrounding countryside , the property was within five kilometres of the City of Penrith and thirty kilometres of RAAF Base Richmond , and incorporated a disused railway tunnel that offered " complete protection from Atom Bomb attack " .
Bladin became Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) on 24 November 1948 ; this position gave him a seat on the Air Board , which consisted of the RAAF 's most senior officers and was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . He succeeded Joe Hewitt , and worked to consolidate the innovations in Air Force education and training that the latter had initiated . RAAF Staff College was opened in June 1949 at Point Cook , providing an advanced defence course aimed at squadron leaders and wing commanders ; various international facilities were also utilised to further officers ' education . In October , Bladin became involved in the push for a Junior Equipment and Administrative Training Scheme to offer apprenticeships to clerical and supply staff , which was established two years later . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the King 's Birthday Honours announced in June 1950 . In 1951 , inspired by a similar initiative in state education , he sponsored a move to have RAAF education officers augment their degree qualifications with formal teaching credentials . Over the following year , in response to increased demands for aircrew to meet Australia 's commitments to the Malayan Emergency and the Korean War , pilot training was broken out from a single all @-@ encompassing course at No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) in Point Cook , Victoria , into separate courses at the newly formed No. 1 Initial Flying Training School at Archerfield , Queensland , No. 1 Basic Flying Training School at Uranquinty , New South Wales , and No. 1 Applied Flying Training School ( re @-@ formed from No. 1 FTS ) at Point Cook .
= = Later life = =
Bladin retired from the Air Force on 15 October 1953 , and was succeeded as AMP by Air Vice Marshal Val Hancock . Shortly after leaving the Air Force , Bladin donated an eponymous trophy for the service 's best @-@ performing Avro Lincoln unit in bombing and aerial gunnery competition . He ran a grazing property , which he named Adastra , at Yass , just north of the Australian Capital Territory . Between 1951 and 1954 , and again from 1956 to 1969 , he also served as treasurer of the Returned Sailors ' , Soldiers ' and Airmen 's Imperial League of Australia , which became the Returned Services League in 1965 . In the early 1960s he helped raise funds for building the Anzac Memorial Chapel of St Paul at his old college , Duntroon . Bladin died in Melbourne on 2 February 1978 , survived by his three children . His wife , who was involved in the support of veterans ' families and other community work , had died earlier . Accorded an Air Force funeral at the Church of Our Lady of Good Counsel in Deepdene , Frank Bladin was buried at Springvale , Victoria .
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= Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment =
Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment Ltd . ( MLSE ) is a professional sports and commercial real estate company based in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . With assets that include franchises in three of the six major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada , it is the largest sports and entertainment company in Canada , and one of the largest in North America .
The primary holdings of the company are its major sports franchises , the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League , Toronto Raptors of the National Basketball Association and Toronto FC of Major League Soccer , as well as their minor league farm teams , the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , Raptors 905 of the NBA D @-@ League and Toronto FC II of the United Soccer League , respectively . In addition , it owns the Air Canada Centre , the home arena of the Maple Leafs and Raptors . MLSE also manages or has invested in several other sports facilities including BMO Field , home of Toronto FC and beginning in 2016 the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) , Ricoh Coliseum , home of the Marlies , MasterCard Centre , the practice facility of the Maple Leafs and Marlies , BioSteel Centre , the practice facility for the Raptors scheduled to open in 2016 , KIA Training Ground , practice facility for Toronto FC and Toronto FC II and home of the TFC Academy , and Lamport Stadium .
MLSE was founded by Conn Smythe in 1931 as Maple Leaf Gardens Limited ( MLGL ) to act as a holding company for the Maple Leafs and their planned new arena Maple Leaf Gardens , from which the company got its name . Smythe transferred his ownership of the Leafs to the company in exchange for shares in MLGL , and sold shares in the holding company to the public to help fund construction of the arena . While initially primarily a hockey company , with ownership stakes in a number of minor and junior hockey clubs including the Toronto Marlboros of the Ontario Hockey Association , the company later branched out to own the Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats of the CFL from the late 1970s to late 1980s , before merging with the Raptors , who were constructing the Air Canada Centre at the time , and adopting their current name in 1998 . Most recently the company launched Toronto FC in 2007 .
Over most of its 80 plus years of existence MLSE was a public company . Following the death of majority owner Harold Ballard in 1990 , Steve Stavro led a controversial bid to buy the company and take it private . Most recently , the Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan sold their 79 @.@ 53 % share of the company for $ 1 @.@ 32 billion to a joint venture between Rogers Communications and Bell Canada , two of Canada 's largest media companies , giving the company an equity value of $ 1 @.@ 66 billion and an enterprise value of $ 2 billion . ( All figures are in Canadian dollars ( CAD ) unless otherwise specified . ) Although the company has proven to be very profitable , they have had much less success at producing winning teams . Of the three major franchises they currently own ( Maple Leafs , Raptors and Toronto FC ) , only the Maple Leafs have ever won a championship , but not since their 1967 Stanley Cup .
= = Corporate history = =
= = = Founding = = =
The corporation 's roots can be traced back to 1927 , when Conn Smythe organized a group of investors to purchase Toronto 's premier hockey franchise , the Toronto St. Patricks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , which had won Stanley Cup championships in 1918 ( as the Toronto Arenas ) and 1922 , from a group headed by Charles Querrie . The club was playing poorly and minority partner Jack Bickell contacted Smythe about becoming coach of the team . However , Smythe told Bickell that he was more interested in buying a stake in the team . Not long after , with the team in trouble financially due to majority owner Querrie having lost a lawsuit to former Toronto Blueshirts owner Eddie Livingstone , Querrie put the St. Pats up for sale and agreed in principle to sell them for $ 200 @,@ 000 to a group that would move the team to Philadelphia . After Bickell contacted Smythe to inform him of the sale , Smythe persuaded Querrie that civic pride was more important than money and put together a syndicate that bought the St. Pats . Smythe himself invested $ 10 @,@ 000 of his own money and his group contributed $ 75 @,@ 000 up front and a further $ 75 @,@ 000 due 30 days later , with Bickell retaining his $ 40 @,@ 000 share in the team . The deal was finalized on Valentine 's Day , and the new owners quickly renamed the team the Toronto Maple Leafs . Later that year , Smythe bought the junior hockey Toronto Marlboros of the Ontario Hockey Association to serve as a developmental team for Maple Leafs .
In 1929 , Smythe decided , in the midst of the Great Depression , that the Maple Leafs needed a new arena . Their then home , the Arena Gardens , which they shared with the Marlboros , had been built in 1912 and seated just 8 @,@ 000 , which the Maple Leafs were regularly filling . After considering various locations , the site at the corner of Carlton and Church was purchased from The T. Eaton Co . Ltd. for $ 350 @,@ 000 , a price said to be $ 150 @,@ 000 below market value . A new 12 @,@ 473 seat ( 14 @,@ 550 including standing room ) arena was designed by the architectural firm of Ross and Macdonald . To finance construction , Smythe got backing from Sun Life for half of the expected $ 1 million cost and launched Maple Leaf Gardens Limited ( MLGL ) , a management company that would own both the Maple Leafs and the new arena , which was named Maple Leaf Gardens ( MLG ) . A public offering of shares in MLGL was made at $ 10 each ( $ 155 @.@ 00 in 2016 dollars ) , with a free common share for each five preferred shares purchased . Ownership of the hockey team was transferred to MLGL in return for shares . To fund construction of the building , workers were paid 20 % of their salary in MLG stock . Construction started on June 1 , 1931 , and MLG was opened five months and two weeks later , on November 12 , 1931 , at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 23 @.@ 2 million in 2016 dollars ) . The Marlboros also moved to the new arena .
To help fill dates at the new arena , Smythe acquired an expansion franchise in the professional International Lacrosse League on behalf of MLGL for the 1932 season , which was also given the name the Toronto Maple Leafs . A team named the Toronto Maple Leafs had competed in the first season of the ILL at the Arena Gardens , but was renamed the Tecumsehs with the arrival of Smythe 's team . Both teams played at MLG . Smythe pulled out following the season due to financial losses , and the league did not play the following year .
= = = Minor hockey expansion = = =
The company has owned numerous minor league hockey teams over the years , which have served as developmental farm teams for the Maple Leafs . A group backed by Smythe and Frank Selke of the Montreal Canadiens was awarded an American Hockey League ( AHL ) franchise for Rochester , New York in July 1956 , after a local group could not come up with the $ 150 @,@ 000 USD in capital required by the league . The Leafs and Canadiens would each own 27 @.@ 5 % of the team , with the balance sold to Rochester interests . The team was named the Rochester Americans . The Amerks were a joint affiliate of both the Canadiens and the Maple Leafs , though the club was operated by the Canadiens . In the summer of 1959 the Maple Leafs bought out the Canadiens ' ownership share of the club , giving them a 55 % controlling interest , due to concerns that with Montreal operating the club they were giving their prospects priority over those of the Leafs . They purchased most of the remaining 45 % in 1963 , boosting their ownership share to 98 % by November 1964 . In July 1966 the Maple Leafs sold the team to a group which included their then General Manager Punch Imlach for a reported $ 400 @,@ 000 .
In June 1963 the Spokane Comets Western Hockey League franchise was purchased by a group led by the Maple Leafs , who relocated them to become the Denver Invaders and act as the Leaf 's farm team . Though the league did not acknowledge that the Maple Leafs had an ownership stake in the team , they held a majority position with the Denver partners only owning roughly 36 % . Following reported losses of $ 150 @,@ 000 in their first season , Smythe announced that the team would be relocated after the team failed to reach a 2 @,@ 000 season ticket target by a league @-@ imposed deadline . The team became the Victoria Maple Leafs for the following season . In June 1967 MLGL sold the team for $ 500 @,@ 000 to a group from Phoenix , which relocated it to become the Phoenix Roadrunners .
In 1964 MLGL the Tulsa Oilers of the Central Professional Hockey League were launched . The team was owned and operated by MLGL as a developmental club for the Maple Leafs . In the spring of 1973 it was announced that the Oilers would relocate to become the Oklahoma City Blazers . Prior to the 1976 – 77 season the Maple Leafs decided to share an affiliate with the Chicago Black Hawks in an attempt to reduce costs , and pulled out of the Blazers . In 1978 the New Brunswick Hawks of the AHL were established , and were jointly operated by the Chicago Black Hawks and the Toronto Maple Leafs as their farm team . MLGL and the Black Hawks each owned half of the franchise . However , by 1980 MLGL had decided that the Leafs needed a team of their own , with a spokesperson citing the limited number of roster spots as the rationale for the move . In 1981 the Cincinnati Tigers of the old Central Hockey League were established under the ownership of MLGL , but the team averaged only 1 @,@ 500 fans and lost $ 750 @,@ 000 in their first season and folded the following spring . Shortly thereafter , with Chicago having pulled out of New Brunswick in favour of affiliating with the Springfield Indians on their own , the Leafs relocated the New Brunswick Hawks to St. Catharines , Ontario to establish the St. Catharines Saints as their farm team . The team played in St. Catharines until 1986 , and after stops in Newmarket , Ontario as the Newmarket Saints ( 1986 – 1991 ) and St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador as the St. John 's Maple Leafs ( 1991 – 2005 ) , the team moved to Toronto as the Toronto Marlies ( named after the company 's former junior team ) where they have been playing ever since .
The Toronto Marlboros served as a junior farm team for the Maple Leafs for 40 years until direct NHL sponsorship of junior clubs ended in 1967 when the NHL made the Entry Draft universal . In October 1988 , with the team losing hundreds of thousands of dollars a year , MLGL reached an agreement to sell the Marlboros for a reported $ 500 @,@ 000 , severing their ties with the Maple Leafs . However , the Leafs retained the rights to the Marlies name . The OHL team moved to Hamilton for the 1989 – 90 season , becoming the Dukes of Hamilton .
= = = Growth beyond hockey = = =
In 1967 MLGL entered into negotiations to purchase the financially struggling Toronto Maple Leafs baseball team of the minor AAA International League . The asking price was $ 60 @,@ 000 . The deal ultimately fell apart due to concerns about the team 's stadium , Maple Leaf Stadium , which needed up to $ 250 @,@ 000 in repairs and whose owner wanted $ 4 million to purchase it , and the team was sold and relocated to become the Louisville Colonels for the following season . MLGL owner Harold Ballard said that the company 's interest was due in part to help position itself to go after a Major League Baseball ( MLB ) franchise for Toronto . In early 1974 MLGL announced plans to build a new baseball stadium in Toronto , but the city ultimately decided to renovate Exhibition Stadium to make it suitable for baseball . At the time , the MLGL group , led by Lorne Duguid , vice @-@ president of Hiram Walker Distillers and MLGL executive , was one of at least four bidding for a Toronto MLB team , including competing groups led by Labatt Brewing Company , Robert Hunter , the former President of the International League Maple Leafs , and Canadian Baseball Co , led by Sydney Cooper . After negotiating with the owners of the Baltimore Orioles , Chicago White Sox , Cleveland Indians and Oakland Athletics in their attempt to acquire a team for Toronto , MLGL offered $ 15 million for the San Francisco Giants but the team 's owner decided in early 1976 to sell the club to the Labatt group for $ 13 @.@ 25 million USD . While the Giant 's relocation was ultimately rejected by a U.S. court , Labatt was awarded an expansion team in the American League that became the Toronto Blue Jays for $ 7 million USD later that year .
A team named the Toronto Maple Leafs competed in the inaugural season of the National Lacrosse Association , a professional box lacrosse league , in 1968 at MLG . MLGL owners Ballard and Stafford Smythe were two of the five founding partners of the club , but financial difficulties forced MLGL to take over ownership midway though the season . The NLA suspended operations prior to the following season .
In the early 1970s MLGL announced plans to apply for a second Toronto @-@ based Canadian Football League team , in addition to the Toronto Argonauts , which would play at Varsity Stadium , but the proposal never went anywhere . In 1974 , when his former partner John Bassett put the Argonauts up for sale for $ 3 @.@ 3 million , Ballard expressed interest in buying the team , but it was ultimately sold to William R. Hodgson . Shortly thereafter Ballard tried to buy the Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats of the CFL from owner Michael DeGroote , but this offer was also rejected . Three money @-@ losing seasons later , in February 1978 , DeGroote sold the team to MLGL for $ 1 @.@ 3 million . During his tenure as owner of the Tiger @-@ Cats , Ballard repeatedly threatened to move the franchise to Toronto 's Varsity Stadium , which was vetoed by the Argos , and claimed to have lost roughly $ 20 million over 11 seasons . MLGL sold the team in March 1989 to David Braley for $ 2 .
Ruby Richman , the former coach of Canada men 's national basketball team , working with Ballard pursued a number of existing National Basketball Association ( NBA ) and American Basketball Association ( ABA ) teams to relocate to Toronto to play at MLG in the 1970s . Richman had a tentative agreement to purchase both the Miami Floridians and Pittsburgh Condors of the ABA with a plan to merge them into a single Toronto @-@ based team , but the deal fell through . Later , Richman held negotiations with the Detroit Pistons , which were seeking $ 5 million for the franchise , but pulled out when the price was raised to $ 8 @.@ 25 million . MLGL attempted to purchase and relocate the Buffalo Braves , which had played a number of regular season games at MLG over the years , to Toronto in 1974 for $ 8 @.@ 5 million , and again several times later , but the owners eventually chose to move the team to San Diego . When Toronto was awarded an expansion NBA franchise in 1974 for the 1975 – 76 season MLGL was one of three groups to bid for the rights to the team , but the club never materialized as no group was able to secure funding for the expansion fee of $ 6 @.@ 8 million . MLGL attempted to purchase and relocate the Houston Rockets in 1975 , which were seeking $ 8 million for the team , but the team 's lease ultimately prevented a relocation . In 1976 MLGL attempted to buy the Atlanta Hawks . In 1979 a Toronto group which included Ballard again pushed for an expansion franchise , but lost out to the Dallas Mavericks . A Toronto group , which included Bill Ballard , son of Harold , and Basketball Hall of Famer Wilt Chamberlain submitted an application and $ 100 @,@ 000 USD deposit for an NBA expansion franchise for MLG in 1986 , but of the six cities to apply Toronto was not one of the four which were successful . It was not until the NBA awarded an expansion franchise to John Bitove , over a group led by future MLSE minority partner Larry Tanenbaum which had partnered with the Maple Leafs , and the Toronto Raptors joined the NBA for the 1995 – 96 season that the city would get an NBA team .
= = = Merger with the Raptors and rebranding = = =
In 1997 it was reported that the Maple Leafs were in negotiations to purchase the Toronto Shooting Stars of the National Professional Soccer League . The team had been suspended following their inaugural season playing at MLG during which the club lost nearly $ 1 million and the league was forced to take over operations after only three games when ownership pulled out . However , the team never returned to play . Following the inaugural season of the Hamilton , Ontario based Ontario Raiders of the National Lacrosse League in 1998 , in which they lost $ 250 @,@ 000 playing at Copps Coliseum , owner Chris Fritz was forced to look for partners . MLSE engaged in negotiations to purchase the team and have it play at MLG . However , a group which included Bill Watters , the then Assistant General Manager of the Toronto Maple Leafs , ultimately bought the team for $ 250 @,@ 000 and promptly moved it to MLG where they rebranded the team the Toronto Rock . MLSE held negotiations with the Arena Football League in 1998 on acquiring a $ 4 – 7 million USD expansion franchise for the following season to coincide with the opening of the ACC . The company also submitted an application for a Women 's National Basketball Association franchise , but was rejected by the league due to concerns about their readiness .
With MLG aging , MLGL began planning for a new home arena for the Maple Leafs in the 1990s . At the time , the Raptors were constructing a new arena , later to be called the Air Canada Centre ( ACC ) , which they invited the Maples Leafs to be a joint tenant at . However , MLGL reject the offer , arguing that " the footprint is too small " . When Allan Slaight took over controlling ownership of the Toronto Raptors in late 1996 , talks began again between the two groups . MLGL put forward a proposal to the city to construct a new $ 300 million shared arena just to the north , on top of the rail tracks Union Station , with the already under construction Raptors arena being converted to a bus terminal . However , the proposal died when an agreement could not reached with the City of Toronto on rent for the land . In November 1997 MLSE submitted a new proposal for a $ 250 million arena at Exhibition Place . However , after years of acrimonious negotiations MLGL purchased 100 % of the Raptors basketball club and the ACC , from Allan Slaight and the Bank of Nova Scotia on February 12 , 1998 . MLGL paid a reported $ 467 million , made up of $ 179 million for the team and $ 288 million for the arena . Richard Peddie , who had been President of the Toronto Raptors , was retained in the merger and became MLSE 's President and CEO . That July the company adopted a new name , Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment ( MLSE ) , to reflect its broader holdings . MLSE subsequently ordered major modifications to the original design of the ACC , which was basketball @-@ specific , to make it more suitable for hockey . Originally planned to cost $ 217 million , the budget was increased to $ 265 million after MLSE took control . MLG was subsequently sold to Loblaw Companies , Canada 's largest food retailer , in 2004 for $ 12 million under the condition that it not be used as a sports and entertainment facility , though MLSE eventually consented to allowing a small arena to be restored in the building to house Ryerson University 's Rams .
The Canadian Radio @-@ television and Telecommunications Commission ( CRTC ) granted MLSE two category 2 digital specialty channel licenses in 2000 for Leafs TV and Raptors NBA TV , which launched on September 7 , 2001 . The channels were used by MLSE to broadcast live games involving their teams in an attempt to increase competition for their rights and drive up the fees paid by other broadcasters .
In August 2004 MLSE announced that they would relocate their AHL farm team from St. John 's , Newfoundland to Toronto to play in the Ricoh Coliseum for the 2005 – 06 season , after the arena was left without a hockey tenant following the termination of their lease with the Toronto Roadrunners , the AHL affiliate of the Edmonton Oilers , for defaulting on their rent . MLSE agreed to a 20 @-@ year lease for the Coliseum , which had undergone a $ 38 million renovation in 2003 , that called for rent to cover debt financing charges , property taxes and generate a return to the arena investors , which exceeds $ 4 million annually .
MLSE announced in April 2005 that they would be working with Cadillac Fairview ( a wholly owned subsidiary of Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan ) and Lanterra Developments to build Maple Leaf Square , a major entertainment complex situated next to the ACC . The $ 500 million 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 square feet ( 160 @,@ 000 m2 ) complex , which was completed in 2010 , is a mixed use facility which features the Hotel St. Germain , e11ven restaurant , Real Sports Apparel , Real Sports Bar and Grill , Longo 's grocery store , office space and condominium residences . In conjunction with the construction of Maple Leaf Square was a two @-@ year , $ 48 million renovation of the ACC to connect it with the square , which added a new atrium that includes a high @-@ definition broadcast studio for Leafs TV , NBA TV Canada and GolTV Canada . The external wall of the atrium features a 30 by 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) video screen which often broadcasts games to spectators gathered in the plaza in front of the arena .
= = = Launch of Toronto FC = = =
MLSE was awarded a Major League Soccer expansion team for Toronto , which would become known as Toronto FC , in 2005 for $ 10 million USD . The company also agreed to contribute $ 8 million towards the construction of Toronto FC 's future home BMO Field , which was to cost $ 62 @.@ 9 million total , and purchased the naming rights to the stadium for $ 10 million for 20 years , which they subsequently resold to the Bank of Montreal for $ 27 million over the first 10 years . MLSE also agreed to cover any construction cost overruns . The governments of Canada , Ontario and Toronto contributed $ 27 million , $ 8 million and $ 9 @.@ 8 million respectively , with the City of Toronto also providing the land . In return , MLSE got the management rights for the stadium for 20 years . Prior to the 2010 MLS season , MLSE spent $ 3 @.@ 5 million to convert the stadium from FieldTurf to natural grass , and a further $ 2 million to expand the north end by 1 @,@ 400 seats . As part of the deal to convert the field to natural grass , MLSE spent $ 1 @.@ 2 million adding a winter bubble to Lamport Stadium and $ 800 @,@ 000 building a new artificial turf field to replace the community use hours lost at BMO Field .
MLSE partnered with Rogers Communications in 2005 to bid to host a regular season National Football League game in Toronto . On January 30 , 2008 it was announced that Rogers and Larry Tanenbaum , chairman of MLSE , had reached an agreement with the Buffalo Bills to host an annual regular @-@ season and three exhibition NFL games over five seasons at Toronto 's Rogers Centre beginning in 2008 , with the games branded the Bills Toronto Series . At the time MLSE was considering bringing a NFL team to Toronto permanently and building them a new stadium , but abandoned the idea when they concluded that the project would not generate sufficient financial return to justify the significant cost of the project . Subsequently , MLSE president Tim Leiweke said on a NFL team in Toronto : " We can 't own a team ( per NFL rules ) , but we do have more expertise on how to build ( stadiums ) than anyone ... MLSE can play a role . " It has been reported that MLSE is interested in building and managing the proposed NFL stadium , which it has already begun designing . In 2013 MLSE minority owner Tanenbaum and board member Edward Rogers III partnered with musician Bon Jovi to purchase an NFL team . Following the death of Bills ' owner Ralph Wilson in 2014 the group submitted an offer to purchase the franchise , with speculation that they would move the team to Toronto when their lease permitted it , but were outbid by the Pegulas .
The company contemplated purchasing the Argonauts of the CFL at least twice , with minority partner Tanenbaum keen to add the team to his list of franchises , but concluded that the cost and effort that would be required to make the team profitable was not worth the minimal financial upside . In 2013 it was reported that the company was again considering purchasing the team and having them play at a renovated BMO Field , with the asking price reportedly $ 20 million , but later coming down to $ 10 million . A vote by MLSE 's board on purchasing the team was called in December 2013 , but they were unable to come to an agreement on the issue . On May 20 , 2015 it was announced that two of the three ownership partners of MLSE , Bell Canada and Tanenbaum 's Kilmer Group , had acquired ownership of the Argos , with the deal to close at the end of the year , and would move the team to BMO Field for the 2016 season . It has been speculated that Rogers was not interested in investing in the team since Bell has exclusive rights to broadcast all CFL games . It is thought that control of the Argos by MLSE will enhance Toronto 's chances of acquiring an NFL franchise , with Peddie saying " the NFL is telling them that if you want an NFL team , you better make sure the Argos are okay . " Leiweke has said that moving into a renovated BMO field " will help turn [ the Argos ] around " and that " there 's no way the NFL comes here without the CFL being unbelievably successful first . "
When the nearby city of Oshawa built a new arena , known as General Motors Centre , MLSE was chosen to manage the building . However , disappointing results in the first year and a half of operations following the arena 's opening in November 2006 led MLSE to request that its contract be terminated in March 2008 . The company had been attempting to get into the business of managing facilities beyond those where their teams play but decided to withdraw , with Bob Hunter , MLSE 's Vice President of venues and entertainment , saying that managing the arena was " no longer a strategic focus for us " .
= = = Recent projects = = =
In 2008 MLSE launched the TFC Academy youth system to develop soccer players for Toronto FC by taking advantage of MLS 's new homegrown player rule which allows clubs to retain the rights to players they develop without them being subject to the MLS SuperDraft . The senior academy team originally competed in the Canadian Soccer League until pulling out in early 2013 due to the CSL losing its sanctioning from the Canadian Soccer Association . The team played that year in the Ontario Soccer League before joining League1 Ontario for the 2014 season . In November 2014 MLSE announced the establishment of Toronto FC II , their own minor league professional soccer team to play in the United Soccer League which will serve as a reserve team for TFC and a bridge between the Academy . The team began play in 2015 at a newly renovated 2 @,@ 000 seat stadium , with plans to expand it to 5 @,@ 000 by 2017 , constructed at the Ontario Soccer Centre in Vaughan , just north of Toronto . In March 2011 Downsview Park was selected as the site of Toronto FC 's new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art academy and training facility . Construction began on the KIA Training Ground in May 2011 , and the facility opened in June 2012 . It includes three grass fields , one domed turf field and a field house . MLSE spent more than $ 21 million building the facility and pays rent for the land , In July 2014 it was announced that MLSE would expand the training grounds to house a practice facility for the Argos , which would rent the facility from MLSE and practice on a nearby city owned field . The team moved in that September .
Then Raptors President and General Manager Bryan Colangelo said in 2008 that MLSE was considering launching an NBA Development League franchise in the Toronto area within a couple of years to serve as a developmental team for the Raptors . Hamilton 's Copps Coliseum and Oshawa were reportedly under consideration to host the franchise . However , a Canadian @-@ based franchise posed difficulties due to tax and visa complications , and Rochester , New York , which is just across the United States border , was considered as an alternative . In May 2015 it was announced that MLSE had purchased a D @-@ League franchise , which would be named Raptors 905 and would begin play that fall at the Hershey Centre in Mississauga , a suburb of Toronto . The franchise reportedly cost $ 6 million .
It was announced on January 23 , 2009 that MLSE would acquire the 80 @.@ 1 % interest in GolTV Canada , a digital cable soccer channel , held by MLSE owner Tanenbaum through Insight Sports . The channel operated as a localized version of GOL TV USA , which owned the remaining 19 @.@ 9 % , with focus on Toronto FC . MLSE informed the CRTC in 2015 that it had acquired full ownership of the channel , however later that year they announced that it would cease operations and the license be abandoned , effective August 31 , 2015 . In November 2009 MLSE applied to the CRTC for a Category 2 digital TV license for a general interest sports service provisionally named Mainstream Sports , which was granted in June 2010 . MLSE planned to broadcast its teams ' games on the channel , along the lines of team @-@ owned regional sports networks in the United States such as YES Network and the New England Sports Network , with the tentative name " Real Sports " ( in keeping with the branding of MLSE 's sports bar and apparel store ) . It was never revealed whether the channel would have replaced , or supplemented , MLSE 's existing digital channels . Peddie credited the threat of a Real Sports channel as a motivator for Rogers and Bell , owners of sports channels Sportsnet and TSN respectively , to purchase the company due to concerns about losing the rights to broadcast MLSE teams to the channel or having to pay huge fees for them . The acquisition of MLSE by Rogers and Bell in 2012 , and associated agreements to divide the company 's regional broadcast rights between the two , eliminated the need for the channel and its license expired after the three @-@ year deadline for launch passed in 2013 .
In September 2009 the Maple Leafs and Marlies opened their new hockey practice facility , the MasterCard Centre . The arena was a joint venture between MLSE , the City of Toronto and the Lakeshore Lions Club to replace the nearby Lakeshore Lions Arena , and was built at a cost of $ 44 million , after cost overruns drove up the cost from $ 33 @.@ 65 million . The Lions Club contributed $ 40 million to the project , with the city providing a $ 35 @.@ 5 million loan guarantee . The Toronto District School Board leased the land for the arena to the Lakeshore Lions for a 50 @-@ year term . MLSE spent a further $ 5 million on training and medical facilities , and pays $ 600 @,@ 000 annually to rent the building . The arena was originally operated by the Lakeshore Lions Club , but in June 2011 , with the arena on the verge of defaulting on its rising debt , the City of Toronto took control and assumed its $ 43 @.@ 4 million debt with the intention to return it to private management within 2 – 3 years . A city councillor has suggested that MLSE , which operates BMO Field and Ricoh Coliseum on behalf of the city , would be " the logical party " to take over the arena , and a spokesperson for the company said " while we don 't have any interest in purchasing the facility , we are open to discussing the possibility of managing the facility on behalf of the City " . MLSE 's executive vice president of venues and entertainment Bob Hunter confirmed that they would bid for the right to run the building .
At one point MLSE contemplated purchasing the Toronto Blue Jays of MLB and Sportsnet from Rogers Communications , but concerns about the viability of SkyDome as a baseball venue and the profitability of the team resulted in the company not pursuing either . The company also considered investing in an English soccer club , and in May 2012 , after the Leeds United Supporters Trust put out a request for a takeover from majority shareholder Ken Bates , it was reported that MLSE were in talks to buy the Football League Championship team . However , the company later denied that it planned to purchase the club . In 2015 reports emerged that MLSE was investigating taking over the bankrupt Parma F.C. of Italy 's Serie A.
Peddie retired as President and CEO of MLSE at the end of 2011 after 14 years on the job , having tripled the value of the company . However , he was often criticized for his inability to end the company 's long championship drought . Of the three major franchises the company currently owns ( Maple Leafs , Raptors and Toronto FC ) , only the Maple Leafs have ever won a championship , and not since their 1967 Stanley Cup . The only other major championship MLSE has won was the 74th Grey Cup in 1986 by the Tiger @-@ Cats . Though Tom Anselmi briefly took over as President , he was replaced in June 2013 by high profile executive Tim Leiweke who had previously run Anschutz Entertainment Group . On August 21 , 2014 Leiweke announced that he was stepping down , but would remain in his position until a successor was appointed . MLSE announced on October 29 , 2015 that Michael Friisdahl had been hired as Leiweke 's successor as President and CEO , and would officially assume his duties in December 2015 .
The financial success of Toronto FC led MLSE to undertake a major renovation of BMO Field . Under a two phase process , the stadium 's capacity was increased from 21 @,@ 566 to 30 @,@ 000 by May 2015 , and a canopy roof covering most permanent seating areas was added and the pitch lengthened to accommodate a Canadian football field by May 2016 . The renovations were originally budgeted to cost $ 120 million , but ended up at $ 150 million in total . In exchange for a $ 10 million contribution to the project by the City of Toronto , which owns the stadium , they receive rent from MLSE , while MLSE 's management and naming rights agreements for the stadium , which were set to expire in 2027 , were extended by 10 years . The province of Ontario also contributed $ 10 million to the financing . The City insisted that the renovations allow the Argonauts , who had to vacate their current home the Rogers Centre , to move in . The sale of the Argos in May 2015 to a new ownership group consisting of MLSE owners Bell and Tanenbaum was accompanied by an announcement that they had reached an agreement with MLSE to relocate to the stadium for the 2016 season . The Argos contributed $ 10 million to the conversion of the field to make it CFL compatible , which was matched by MLSE . MLSE financed the rest of the project , and was responsible for cost overruns . The renovated stadium can be temporarily expanded to a capacity of roughly 40 @,@ 000 for big events . The Argos purchase agreement called for two Grey Cups to played at BMO Field , the first being the 104th Grey Cup in 2016 , and the stadium was chosen to host rugby sevens at the 2015 Pan @-@ Am games and the 2017 NHL Centennial Classic .
In August 2014 , MLSE reached an agreement with the City of Toronto to build a practice facility for the Raptors , to be known as BioSteel Centre , at Exhibition Place . MLSE will pay the entire $ 30 million construction cost , and will lease the property from the city for $ 205 @,@ 000 annually , subject to reassessments for inflation , for a 20 @-@ year term , with two options to extend it by a further 10 years , following which the city would take ownership of the building . Construction is scheduled to completed in time for the team 's hosting of the NBA All @-@ Star Game in February 2016 .
In February 2015 MLSE confirmed that they were planning on launching a professional boxing series , featuring 3 @-@ 4 major fights a year co @-@ promoted with Groupe Yvon Michel . Originally planned to start with a World Boxing Council light heavyweight title fight in April at Ricoh Coliseum , this was delayed due to regulatory restrictions on the amount of gauze that can be used for wrist wraps in Ontario . MLSE and Michel joined with Lennox Lewis to promote a WBC light @-@ heavyweight title fight in September 2015 at Ricoh Coliseum .
= = = Timeline of sports franchise ownership = = =
= = Ownership = =
= = = Conn Smythe = = =
Although Conn Smythe was the face of MLGL from its founding in 1931 , he did not acquire majority ownership of the company until 1947 , following a power struggle between directors who supported him as president and those who wanted him replaced with Frank J. Selke . With the help of a $ 300 @,@ 000 loan from Toronto stockbroker and MLGL shareholder Percy Gardiner , and the support of minority partner Jack Bickell , Smythe was able to buy 30 @,@ 000 shares in MLGL from Gardiner and installed himself as president on November 19 , 1947 , replacing Edward Bickle . The loan was paid off in 1960 . In November 1961 Smythe sold 45 @,@ 000 of his 50 @,@ 000 shares to a three @-@ person partnership formed by Stafford Smythe ( Conn Smythe 's son ) , Harold Ballard and John Bassett , who at the time owned part of the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League and Toronto Telegram , for $ 2 @.@ 3 million . When combined with their own holdings , this gave them 87 @,@ 000 shares representing 60 % of the company . Ballard fronted Stafford most of the money for the purchase though a loan he obtained . According to several sources , Conn thought the sale was only to his son , and was furious when he learned that Ballard and Bassett were his partners . He had hoped that Stafford would keep MLGL for his son , Tommy . However , it is unlikely that Stafford could have raised the millions needed for the deal on his own . Stafford became president of MLGL and governor of the Maple Leafs , with Ballard executive vice president and Bassett chairman of the board .
= = = Harold Ballard , John Bassett and Stafford Smythe = = =
In March 1966 Conn sold his remaining shares and resigned from the board of directors after a Muhammad Ali boxing match was scheduled for MLG . He found Ali 's refusal to serve in the U.S. Army in the Vietnam War to be offensive , and said that by accepting the fight , MLGL owners had " put cash ahead of class . " Within three years under the new owners , profits at MLGL had tripled to just under $ 1 million . Ballard negotiated lucrative deals to place advertising throughout the building , and greatly increased the number of seats in the arena .
Following a Royal Canadian Mounted Police raid at MLG in 1968 , Stafford was charged with income tax evasion , and he and Ballard were accused of illegally taking money from MLGL to pay for renovations of their houses and other personal expenses . Just before the charges were laid , Bassett argued to the board that Stafford and Ballard should be removed from their posts . Following an 8 – 7 vote of the board of directors on June 26 , 1969 , Stafford and Ballard were both fired , and Bassett was appointed president of MLGL . However , Bassett did not force Stafford and Ballard to sell their shares , and both men remained on the board . This proved to be a serious strategic blunder ; Stafford was the largest single shareholder in MLGL , and he and Ballard controlled almost half the company 's stock between them . They were thus able to regain control of the board in 1970 and Stafford was once again appointed president . Facing an untenable situation , Bassett sold the 196 @,@ 200 shares he controlled in MLGL to Stafford and Ballard in September 1971 for $ 5 @.@ 4 million , which he used to buy out his partners in the Argos . Combined with their 306 @,@ 295 jointly controlled shares , the transaction gave the Stafford Smythe @-@ Ballard partnership 78 % of the stock . Ballard would be convicted of 47 charges and sentenced to three years in a federal penitentiary , but Stafford died in October 1971 of a bleeding ulcer at the age of only 50 just before his trial was scheduled to begin . Under the terms of Stafford 's will , of which Ballard was an executor , each partner was allowed to buy the other 's shares upon their death . Stafford 's brother and son tried to keep the shares within the family , but in February 1972 Ballard bought all 251 @,@ 545 of Stafford 's shares for $ 7 @.@ 5 million , valuing the company at $ 22 million . Stafford 's brother Hugh also sold his shares to Ballard , ending the Smythe family 's 45 @-@ year involvement in the company . Combined with Ballard 's 262 @,@ 162 shares , this gave him majority ownership of about 70 % .
= = = Harold Ballard = = =
In 1966 Ballard set up a family holding company , named Harold E. Ballard Ltd . ( HEBL ) , for his assets including his shares in MLGL as part of an estate freeze . Ballard distributed 103 common shares in HEBL , with his three children , Bill , Harold Jr . , and Mary Elizabeth , each receiving 34 which were held in trust , and his wife Dorothy receiving 1 , which Harold would inherit upon her death three years later . Harold retained 308 @,@ 000 preferred shares in HEBL . While the equity of the company was vested in the common stock , both common and preferred shares each received a single vote , ensuring that Harold retained control of the company .
After getting into financial difficulty , Harold reached an agreement with Molson Brewery in November 1980 , which at the time owned the Montreal Canadiens , for the company to cover his debt financing charges on a loan of $ 8 @.@ 8 million for 10 years in exchange for an option to purchase a 19 @.@ 9 % block of shares in MLGL from HEBL and a right of first refusal on the rest of HEBL 's shares . The NHL did not learn of the deal until the late 1980s . In 1982 he offered to sell the company for $ 50 million , with the arena alone reportedly valued at $ 11 million , though a stockholders ' report the following year placed the value of MLGL at $ 23 @.@ 5 million . When Harold transferred ownership of his personal real estate holdings , which were valued at $ 2 @.@ 52 million , to HEBL in January 1989 , he acquired 4 newly issued common shares in the company plus a promise of a further $ 896 @,@ 472 rather than cash . Mary Elizabeth sold her stake in HEBL to her father for $ 15 @.@ 5 million in January 1989 , after originally having a deal to sell the stake to Don Giffin , while Harold Jr. sold his back to HEBL for $ 21 million in June of the same year . Harold secured a loan from Molson for the full amount of his buyout of Mary Elizabeth , using the 34 acquired shares in HEBL as security . Harold Jr . ' s shares were subsequently retired . Bill sued his father for $ 170 million over HEBL 's acquisition of Harold Jr . ' s stake , claiming that he and partner Michael Cohl had acquired a right of first refusal to purchase the shares for $ 20 million that February . Shortly thereafter , HEBL issued Harold 32 common shares and $ 125 @,@ 216 in exchange for ownership of his 350 @,@ 200 personally held MLGL shares and $ 125 @,@ 000 . Two more new common shares would be granted to Harold to repay the $ 911 @,@ 000 debt HEBL owed him from his two transactions with the company . This gave Harold , who feared that Bill was positioning himself to take over the holding company , control of HEBL . Harold did not want his bickering children to inherit MLGL because he feared they would destroy it .
Though Harold ran up significant amounts of personal debt during his ownership of MLGL , he made the company very profitable , so much so that MLG became known as the " Cashbox on Carlton Street " , referring to the address of the arena . Upon Harold 's death in April 1990 , most of his estate , which was worth less than $ 50 million , was left to charitable organizations . The executors of Harold 's will were supermarket tycoon Steve Stavro , Giffin and Donald Crump . In November 1990 Molson exercised their option on 19 @.@ 9 % of the company , paying $ 10 @,@ 000 for 735 @,@ 575 of HEBL 's MLGL shares , which at the time were valued at $ 20 million . Due to restrictions against cross @-@ ownership in the NHL , the company set up a trust to hold their stake , and the league instructed them to sell the shares within an " adequate amount of time " . Shortly after the estate , which had limited income due to HEBL still owing TD Bank $ 15 @.@ 8 million on its loan to acquire Harold Jr 's HEBL stock , missed a January 1991 deadline to repay its $ 20 million loan ( including interest ) from Molson , Stavro personally loaned the estate the funds to pay off the debt . In exchange he received an option to purchase the estate 's HEBL shares before January 1996 . Bill challenged the transaction , but it was approved by the court . In early 1991 Molson offered to buy the estate 's shares for $ 40 each . In September 1991 Bill sold his HEBL stock to his father 's estate for $ 21 million , giving it ownership of the entire company . Shortly thereafter it was announced that Stavro had reached a deal with Molson on an option to purchase their MLGL shares until April 1994 and for Molson to waive their option on the estate 's shares .
= = = Steve Stavro = = =
Stavro founded MLG Ventures ( MLGV ) in March 1994 with partners Toronto @-@ Dominion Bank and Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan . MLG Holdings Ltd . ( MLGH ) , of which Stavro owned 80 % and TD Bank controlled the remaining 20 % , held a 51 % ownership stake in MLGV , with the remaining 49 % owned by Teachers ' . The following month MLGV announced that they had reached an agreement to purchase the 60 @.@ 3 % of MLGL held by Harold 's estate for $ 34 a share or $ 75 million total , valuing the company at $ 125 million . The estate still owned Stavro $ 23 million at the time . Molson also sold its 19 @.@ 9 % of MLGL to MLGV in April 1994 for $ 25 million . Larry Tanenbaum 's company Kilmer Sports purchased a 25 % share of MLGH from Stavro in 1996 for a reported $ 21 million .
MLGV subsequently purchased all the remaining shares and took MLGL private in 1998 , after acquiring more than the 90 % of stock necessary to force objecting shareholders out , and MLGL and MLGV amalgamated . The purchase was the subject of a Ontario Securities Commission ( OSC ) review , due to allegations that MLGV had engaged in insider trading by failing to disclose that broadcast revenue was expected to substantially increase , and a $ 50 million lawsuit from Bill who claimed that Stavro and others devalued MLGL and withheld information relevant to the value of the company prior to the sale of his stock . Ontario 's Office of the Public Trustee , which was charged with representing the charities named by Harold 's will as beneficiaries , argued that Stavro had a conflict of interest as both executor of the will and buyer and had not paid market value because there was no public bidding process for the shares . Several minority owners , including Harry Ornest , who held 3 @.@ 5 % of the company , and Jim Devellano also objected to MLGV 's attempts to take the company private without an auction . Stavro and his partners in MLGV reached a settlement in 1996 to pay an additional $ 23 @.@ 5 million plus interest to the charities as well as $ 2 @.@ 5 million to the minority shareholders who had sued , clearing the way for them to become the majority owner of MLGL . They also settled with the OSC in 1999 for $ 1 @.@ 6 million , which included a fine and costs . Teachers ' invested $ 44 @.@ 3 million and TD $ 9 @.@ 75 million in the deal .
Following the merger , the ownership structure of the now defunct MLGV was retained by MLGL . MLGH was the majority owner of MLGL , holding 51 % of the company . It in turn was controlled by Stavro ( 55 % ) , with minority shareholders Tanenbaum ( 25 % ) and TD Capital Group ( 20 % ) . The remaining 49 % of MLGL was owned by Teachers ' . This tiered ownership structure gave Stavro effective control of MLGL with only a net 29 % stake of the company . Teachers ' invested a further $ 50 million in the company in the form of a convertible bond in 1998 to finance the purchase of the Raptors and ACC and complete construction of the arena .
= = = Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan = = =
In 2003 an agreement was reached to restructure the company with Stavro selling his stake to Bell Globemedia for a reported $ 120 – 150 @-@ million after debt repayments , the other partners converting their debts into equity , and each partner getting a direct ownership stake in the newly named MLSE , with MLGH being dissolved . This left Teachers ' as the controlling majority owners of MLSE with 58 @.@ 4 % , and minority partners Bell Globemedia ( 15 @.@ 4 % ) , TD Capital with ( 13 @.@ 5 % ) and Tanenbaum , who took over as non @-@ executive chairman , with 13 % . Each owner of MLSE had a right of first refusal on any shares sold , in proportion to their ownership share . The same year MLSE was internally valued at over $ 1 billion by Teachers ' in its annual report . In 2008 the Toronto Star reported that a valuation commissioned by the company concluded that the company was worth $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD . On December 5 , 2008 CTVglobemedia ( the renamed Bell Globemedia ) sold half of its 15 @.@ 4 % stake to Tanenbaum for $ 100 million , making Tanenbaum the second @-@ largest stakeholder with 20 @.@ 7 % . The transaction valued the company at $ 1 @.@ 2 billion . On August 20 , 2009 Teachers ' announced that it had agreed to purchase the remaining 7 @.@ 7 % stake in MLSE owned by CTVglobemedia , bumping their stake to 66 % .
= = = Bell and Rogers = = =
In December 2010 it was reported that Rogers Communications , owner of the Toronto Blue Jays , was in negotiations to purchase the Teachers ' 66 % stake in MLSE , with the asking price set at $ 1 @.@ 3 billion , and in March 2011 Teachers ' confirmed that their share in the company was for up for sale . Tanenbaum 's right of first refusal on the shares gave him control over any sale by Teachers ' . In May 2011 Teachers ' announced that they had reached an agreement to purchase TD Capital 's 13 @.@ 5 % ownership share , giving them 79 @.@ 5 % of the company and leaving Tanenbaum as the only minority partner with 20 @.@ 5 % , simplifying a sale of their shares . In November 2011 Teachers ' announced that they were taking the company off the market . However , only a couple of weeks later , on December 9 , 2011 , Teachers ' announced the sale of its entire stake in MLSE to a partnership between Bell Canada and Rogers Communications , in a deal valued at $ 1 @.@ 32 billion , giving the company an equity value of $ 1 @.@ 66 billion and an enterprise value of $ 2 billion due to the assumption of their share of MLSE 's $ 372 million in debt and $ 66 million in leases . As part of the deal , Tanenbaum increased his stake in the company by 5 % , valued at $ 109 million , to 25 % to secure his approval . The deal required the approval of Canada 's Competition Bureau , the Canadian Radio @-@ television and Telecommunications Commission ( with regards to MLSE 's TV channels ) , as well as the NHL , the AHL , the NBA , and MLS ( with regards to each of MLSE 's main sports franchises ) .
The Competition Bureau announced in May 2012 that it would not challenge the transaction , but that it will " actively review " the situation in light of " serious concerns " expressed by various parties , reserving the right to take action at a later date . The NHL Board of Governors approved the sale at a meeting in Las Vegas on June 19 , 2012 . The final approval , that of the CRTC , was granted on August 16 , with the commission noting that it only had jurisdiction over the TV channels owned by MLSE ( the transfer of ownership from MLSE to Bell , Rogers and Kilmer directly , it decided , posed no major concerns ) , and not the broadcast rights associated with MLSE 's teams . The transaction closed on August 22 , 2012 .
As part of the sale , two numbered companies were created to jointly hold stock . Following the restructuring , the ownership hierarchy of MLSE was :
8047286 Canada Inc . ( Rogers / Bell joint holding company ) – 75 %
Rogers Communications – 50 % ( net ownership 37 @.@ 5 % )
7680147 Canada Inc . ( Bell holding company ) – 50 %
Bell Canada Enterprises – 74 @.@ 67 % ( net ownership 28 % )
BCE Master Trust Fund ( investment fund of Bell 's pension plan ) – 25 @.@ 33 % ( net ownership 9 @.@ 5 % )
Kilmer Sports ( holding company of Larry Tanenbaum ) – 25 %
This ownership structure ensures that , at the shareholder level , Rogers and Bell vote their overall 75 % interest in the company together and thus decisions on the management of the company must be made by consensus of the two . ( If Rogers and Bell owned their interests directly , either Rogers or Bell could be overruled by its competitor in combination with Tanenbaum . ) As such , Rogers and Bell have agreed that their previously four of six ( now six of eight ) directors on the MLSE board will always vote together , and thus that any disagreements between the two companies will be settled privately without the involvement of Tanenbaum . Bell has indicated that the involvement of Bell 's pension fund is , at least in part , intended to ensure Bell can retain its existing 18 % interest in the Montreal Canadiens , as NHL rules prevent any shareholder that owns more than 30 % of a team from holding an ownership position in any other team . As a result of Bell and Rogers having co @-@ ownership in MLSE , the regional broadcasts of Maple Leafs , Raptors and Toronto FC games are split between Bell 's TSN and Rogers ' Sportsnet .
In 2015 MLSE initiated a corporate restructuring , with the plan to transfer most of its assets to another holding company , named " Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment Partnership " ( MLSEP ) , which would be wholly owned , directly and indirectly , by MLSE .
= = Assets = =
= = = Sports teams = = =
Toronto Maple Leafs ( National Hockey League ) – Valued at $ 1 @.@ 15 billion USD in 2015 , 3rd in the NHL
Toronto Raptors ( National Basketball Association ) – Valued at $ 920 million USD in 2015 , 14th in the NBA
Toronto FC ( Major League Soccer ) – Valued at $ 175 million USD in 2015 , 5th in MLS
Toronto Marlies ( American Hockey League )
Toronto FC II ( United Soccer League )
TFC Academy ( League1 Ontario )
Raptors 905 ( NBA D @-@ League )
Note that the valuations done by Forbes are estimates and are not based on numbers provided by MLSE .
= = = Facilities and properties = = =
= = = = Owns = = = =
Air Canada Centre – a multi @-@ purpose indoor arena in downtown Toronto home to the Maple Leafs and Raptors which was constructed at a cost of $ 265 million
Maple Leaf Square ( 37 @.@ 5 % ) – a real estate development adjacent to the Air Canada Centre , developed in partnership with fellow OTPP subsidiary Cadillac Fairview , which includes , among other tenants , the following businesses operated by MLSE :
Real Sports Bar & Grill – a sports @-@ themed restaurant
Real Sports Apparel – a sports clothing store
e11even – an upscale restaurant on the corner of Bremner and York streets
= = = = Invested in and operates ( owned by the City of Toronto ) = = = =
BMO Field – home of Toronto FC and the Canadian men 's national soccer team ( CONCACAF )
Ricoh Coliseum – home of the Marlies
BioSteel Centre – practice facility for the Raptors
= = = = Invested in = = = =
MasterCard Centre – practice facility for the Maple Leafs and Marlies
KIA Training Ground – practice facility for Toronto FC and Toronto FC II , and home of the TFC Academy
Lamport Stadium – former home of the TFC Academy
= = = Television channels = = =
Leafs TV – a specialty channel devoted to the Maple Leafs and Marlies ( valued at $ 19 million on behalf of the CRTC in 2012 )
NBA TV Canada – a localized version of NBA TV , a US basketball channel , which also devotes part of its schedule to specific coverage of the Raptors ( valued at $ 21 million on behalf of the CRTC in 2012 )
= = Staff = =
= = = Board of Directors = = =
Larry Tanenbaum – Kilmer Sports ( Non @-@ Executive Chairman of the Board )
George A. Cope – BCE and Bell Canada
Dale Lastman – Goodmans LLP
Guy Laurence – Rogers Communications
Edward Rogers III – Rogers Communications
Anthony Staffieri – Rogers Communications
Bernard Le Duc – Bell Canada
Siim Vanaselja – Bell Canada
= = = Executive team = = =
Michael Friisdahl – President and CEO
Brendan Shanahan – President and Alternate Governor , Toronto Maple Leafs
Masai Ujiri – President and General Manager , Basketball Operations
Bill Manning – President , Toronto FC
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= José Sarria =
José Julio Sarria also known as The Grand Mere , Absolute Empress I de San Francisco , and the Widow Norton ( December 13 , 1922 – August 19 , 2013 ) was an American political activist from San Francisco , California who , in 1961 , became the first openly gay candidate for public office in the United States . He is also remembered for performing as a drag queen at the Black Cat Bar and as the founder of the Imperial Court System .
Sarria was born to Julio Sarria and Maria Dolores Maldonado . His parents did not marry and his father showed no interest in his son 's life . Maria initially raised José on her own , but when this became too difficult she placed him with another couple . Both they and his mother indulged his early interest in wearing girl 's clothing . Sarria showed an affinity for languages , which led to his first serious romance with another man . Sarria tutored Paul Kolish , an Austrian baron who had fled from the Nazis . Sarria and Kolish fell in love , and their relationship endured until Kolish and his son were killed in a car accident in 1947 .
Sarria served in the United States Army during World War II . Following his discharge , he studied to become a teacher and frequented the Black Cat . He met waiter Jimmy Moore , whom Sarria described as " the love of [ his ] life " . Sarria was hired as a cocktail waiter . Following a conviction on a morals charge , Sarria , realizing he could not now become a certified teacher , began performing in drag . He appeared regularly at the Black Cat . An early LGBT activist , Sarria co @-@ founded several homophile organizations , including the League for Civil Education , the Tavern Guild and the Society for Individual Rights . Sarria became the first openly gay candidate for public office in the United States when he ran for the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1961 . In 1964 Sarria declared himself " Empress José I , The Widow Norton " and founded the Imperial Court System , which grew to become an international association of charitable organizations .
Following the closure of the Black Cat in 1964 , Sarria went to work with restaurateur Pierre Parker . The pair operated French restaurants at World 's Fairs . While at the 1964 New York World 's Fair , Sarria learned that Jimmy Moore had committed suicide . Sarria worked at several more Fairs before retiring in 1974 . After living with Parker in Phoenix , Arizona for several years , Sarria returned to San Francisco . He continued to reign over the Courts for 43 years , before abdicating in 2007 . For his lifetime of activism , the city of San Francisco renamed a section of 16th Street in Sarria 's honor .
= = Family history = =
Sarria was born in San Francisco , California to Maria Dolores Maldonado and Julio Sarria . His family was of Spanish and Colombian origin . His mother Maria was born in Bogotá to an upper class and politically active family . During the events of the Thousand Days War and following her mother 's death , Maria sought out the protection of her mother 's friend , General Rafael Uribe Uribe , to escape Colombia . The general located Maria 's surviving uncle , who took her to the American consulate . There she was made a ward of the United States and relocated to Panama . " My mother got to Panama with directions to the home of a family called Kopp . He was the chairman of the big German beer company there " , said Sarria . " She went to work for the Kopps . ... My mother was the upstairs maid and took care of the children . " In 1919 she relocated to Guatemala City but remained there for just six months and , in 1920 , sailed to San Francisco . As Sarria reported it , " Now on the boat is where my mother met my father , Julio Sarria . He came from a large and very wealthy family , very well known . ... His grandparents came from Spain . "
Maria initially worked for the woman who sponsored her passage to the United States and then took a job as a maid with a family named Jost . Julio was the maitre d ' at the Palace Hotel . Julio courted Maria until she realized she was pregnant . Their son José was born on December 12 . His birth certificate reads 1923 but Sarria believed he was born in 1922 . Julio and Maria never married .
= = Early life = =
Sarria 's mother continued to work for the Jost family but it became increasingly difficult for her to fulfil her job responsibilities and care for an infant . Maria made arrangements for him to be raised by another couple , Jesserina and Charles Millen . Jesserina had recently lost her youngest child to diphtheria and suffered severe depression . Her doctor suggested she take in another child to raise and after meeting with her Maria agreed to let her raise José . José came to consider the Millens and their children to be his second family . Maria bought a house and moved the Millens and José into it .
Sarria did not have a relationship with his birth father , a man who showed zero interest in him and failed to provide his family with financial support . Julio Sarria was eventually arrested for failure to pay child support . A judge ordered that he pay $ 5 to be released ; this money was then turned over for Jose 's care . Julio was arrested each month until he returned to Nicaragua in around 1926 or 1927 ; each time he paid the $ 5 and was released . Julio died in Nicaragua in 1945 . Years later , José learned that his father had acknowledged him as his first @-@ born .
Sarria attended the Emerson School for kindergarten and then , because he spoke only Spanish , was sent to private schools until learning English . Sarria began dressing in female clothes at an early age and his family indulged him , allowing him occasionally to go on family outings dressed as a girl . In his youth he studied ballet , tap dancing and singing .
When Sarria was around ten years old , he asked his mother how much money they had in the bank . Maria , who gave her money to her employer Mr. Jost to invest , asked to see the books . She discovered that Jost had been embezzling from her and from the other women whom she had referred to him . Jost was arrested , convicted and deported . Maria sued Jost 's corporate partners and received a settlement but never recovered the bulk of the money . Unable to afford her house payments , Maria moved José and the Millen family to Redwood City in 1932 .
As a teenager Sarria enrolled in Commerce High School , where he took advanced classes in French and German . With his Spanish and English these brought his total languages to four . His facility with languages led to his first serious relationship with another man . Sarria tutored Paul Kolish , an Austrian baron who fled to Switzerland when the Nazis invaded Austria . He brought with him his wife and son Jonathan , each of whom suffered from asthma and tuberculosis . When his wife died , he brought Jonathan to America . Kolish found himself falling in love with his tutor and Sarria 's family welcomed him and his son . Sarria graduated from high school and enrolled in college to study home economics .
= = Military service = =
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , Sarria became determined to join the military , despite being , at just under five feet tall , too short to meet the Army 's height requirement . He seduced a major who was attached to the San Francisco recruiting station on the condition that the major approve Sarria 's enlistment . Sarria was approved and entered the Army Reserve , continuing his studies as he waited to be called up to active duty . Shortly before he was scheduled for induction in the regular Army , his beloved second father , Charles Millen , died of a heart attack . Sarria 's induction was delayed a month , then he was sworn in and ordered to Sacramento , California , for basic training with the Signal Corps .
Because of his fluency in several languages , Sarria was assigned to Intelligence School . However , following a routine background check for security clearance , he was advised that he would no longer be in the program . Sarria assumed that it was because investigators discovered his homosexuality . " I mean I had no lisp , but I wasn 't the most masculine guy in town ... So I think that they figured that I was a little bit gay . " Sarria officially remained attached to the Signal Corps but was ordered to Cooks and Bakers School and trained as a cook . After graduating from cooking school , he was assigned to train as a scout , but deliberately failed the training because of the dangerous nature of the assignment . He was then assigned to the motor pool .
Through his work at the motor pool , Sarria met a young officer named Major Mataxis . He became the major 's orderly , eventually running an officers ' mess in occupied Germany where he cooked for Mataxis and about ten other officers . He was discharged from the Army in 1947 , at the rank of Staff Sergeant .
Upon Sarria 's return from overseas , Kolish began to worry about their future . The United States had no legal recognition for same @-@ sex relationships and Kolish looked for a way to provide for Sarria after Kolish 's death . He proposed marriage to Sarria 's mother Maria . Maria was willing , but José refused to allow it . Given no other choice , Kolish contacted his only remaining adult relative , a brother who lived in Hollywood , and left instructions for the care of Sarria and his family .
On Christmas Day 1947 , Kolish and his son were struck by a drunk driver while driving to spend the holiday with Sarria and his family . Both were killed . The coroner determined that Jonathan died first , meaning that Paul 's brother inherited everything . The brother ignored Paul 's wishes regarding Sarria . " I would have gotten one of the houses " , Sarria claimed , " but he only gave me a little money and one ring . He claimed that was all Paul wanted me to have . He was so evil . He said afterwards , ' If you expect anything else , you 're not going to get it . ' "
= = The Nightingale of Montgomery Street = =
Following his military service , Sarria returned to San Francisco . He enrolled in college with plans of becoming a teacher . He and his sister Teresa began frequenting the Black Cat Bar , a center of the city 's Beat and bohemian scene . Sarria and Teresa both became smitten with a waiter named Jimmy Moore and bet as to which of them could get him into bed first . José won the bet and soon Moore and he were lovers . Sarria began covering for Moore when he was unable to work and soon Black Cat owner Sol Stoumen hired him as a cocktail waiter .
At around this time , Sarria was arrested for solicitation in a sting operation at the St. Francis Hotel . Sarria maintained his innocence , stating that the arresting officer knew him personally . " But they had to make an example of somebody ... I was in the wrong place at the wrong time . " Nonetheless , he was convicted and subjected to a large fine . Sarria , understanding that his conviction meant he could never become certified as a teacher , dropped out of college . Unsure of how to find work , he took the advice of a drag performer named Michelle and entered a drag contest at an Oakland bar called Pearl 's . Sarria took second place , winning a two @-@ week performance contract at the bar at $ 50 a week . " I decided then to be the most notorious impersonator or homosexual or fairy or whatever you wanted to call me – and you would pay me for it . " Returning to San Francisco , he picked up some small singing jobs while still cocktail waiting at the Black Cat .
One night at the Black Cat , Sarria recognized the piano player 's rendition of Bizet 's opera Carmen and began singing arias from the opera while he delivered drinks . This quickly led to a schedule of three to four shows a night , along with a regular Sunday afternoon show . Sarria was billed as " The Nightingale of Montgomery Street " . Initially he focused on singing parodies of popular torch songs . Soon , however , Sarria was performing full @-@ blown parodic operas in his natural high tenor . His specialty was a re @-@ working of Carmen set in modern @-@ day San Francisco . Sarria as Carmen would prowl through the popular cruising area Union Square . The audience cheered " Carmen " on as she dodged the vice squad and made her escape .
Sarria encouraged patrons to be as open and honest as possible . " People were living double lives and I didn 't understand it . It was persecution . Why be ashamed of who you are ? " He exhorted the clientele , " There 's nothing wrong with being gay – the crime is getting caught " , and " United we stand , divided they catch us one by one " . At closing time he would call upon patrons to join hands and sing " God Save Us Nelly Queens " to the tune of " God Save the Queen " . Sometimes he would bring the crowd outside to sing the final verse to the men across the street in jail , who had been arrested in raids earlier in the night . Speaking of this ritual in the film Word is Out , gay journalist George Mendenhall said :
It sounds silly , but if you lived at that time and had the oppression coming down from the police department and from society , there was nowhere to turn ... and to be able to put your arms around other gay men and to be able to stand up and sing ' God Save Us Nelly Queens ' ... we were really not saying ' God Save Us Nelly Queens . ' We were saying ' We have our rights , too.'
Sarria fought against police harassment , both of gays and of gay bars . Raids on gay bars were routine , with everyone inside the raided bar taken into custody and charged with such crimes as being " inmates in a disorderly house " . Although the charges were routinely dropped , the arrested patrons ' names , addresses and workplaces were printed in the newspapers . When charges were not dropped , the arrested men usually quietly pleaded guilty . Sarria encouraged men to plead not guilty and demand a jury trial . Following Sarria 's advice , more and more gay men began demanding jury trials , so many that court dockets were overloaded and judges began expecting that prosecutors have actual evidence against the accused before going to trial . One favored harassment technique , employed especially on Halloween after midnight , was to arrest drag queens under an old city ordinance that made it illegal for a man to dress in women 's clothing with an " intent to deceive " . In consultation with attorney Melvin Belli , Sarria countered this tactic by distributing labels to his fellow drag queens ( hand @-@ made , in the shape of a black cat 's head ) that read " I am a boy " . If confronted , the queen would simply display the tag to prove that there was no intent to deceive . Sarria 's actions helped bring an end to Halloween police raids . Along with Guy Strait , Sarria formed the League for Civil Education ( LCE ) in 1960 or 1961 . The LCE ran educational programs on the topic of homosexuality and provided support for men being ostracized for being gay and for those caught in police raids .
= = Political candidacy = =
During an intensive period of police pressure after the 1959 San Francisco mayoral election , in which the supposed leniency of city government toward homosexuals became an issue , Sarria ran for the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1961 , becoming the first openly gay candidate for public office in the United States . Although Sarria never expected to win he almost did win by default . On the last day for candidates to file petitions , city officials realized that there were fewer than five candidates running for the five open seats , which would have guaranteed Sarria a seat . By the end of the day , a total of 34 candidates had filed . LCE co @-@ founder Strait began printing the LCE News in part to support Sarria 's candidacy . Sarria garnered some 6 @,@ 000 votes in the city @-@ wide race , finishing ninth . This was not enough to win a seat but was enough to shock political pundits and set in motion the idea that a gay voting bloc could wield real power in city politics . " [ He ] put the gay vote on the map " , said Terence Kissack , former executive director of the GLBT Historical Society . " He made it visible and showed there was a constituency . " As Sarria put it , " From that day on , nobody ran for anything in San Francisco without knocking on the door of the gay community . "
In 1962 , Sarria along with bar owners and employees formed the Tavern Guild , the country 's first gay business association . The Guild raised money for legal fees and bail for people arrested at gay bars and helped bar owners coordinate their response to the harassment by the California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control and the police .
Sarria continued to perform and agitate at the Black Cat until , after some 15 years of unrelenting police pressure , the bar lost its liquor license in 1963 . The Black Cat stayed open as a luncheonette for a few more months before finally closing for good in February 1964 .
= = José I , The Widow Norton = =
With the demise of the Black Cat , Sarria helped found the Society for Individual Rights ( SIR ) in 1963 . SIR grew out of a split between Sarria and Strait over the direction that LCE was heading . Strait and his supporters wanted to focus more on publishing the group 's newsletter , while Sarria and his backers wanted to maintain focus on street @-@ level organizing . SIR sponsored both social and political functions , including bowling leagues , bridge clubs , voter registration drives and " Candidates ' Nights " and published its own magazine , Vector . In association with the Tavern Guild , SIR printed and distributed " Pocket Lawyers " . These pocket @-@ sized guides offered advice on what to do if arrested or harassed by police . SIR lasted for 17 years .
Crowned Queen of the Beaux Arts Ball in 1964 by the Tavern Guild , Sarria , stating that he was " already a queen " , proclaimed himself " Her Royal Majesty , Empress of San Francisco , José I , The Widow Norton " . Sarria devised the name " Widow Norton " as a reference to the much @-@ celebrated citizen of 19th century San Francisco , Joshua Norton , who had declared himself Emperor of the United States and Protector of Mexico in 1859 . Sarria organized elaborate annual pilgrimages to lay flowers on Norton 's grave in the Woodlawn Cemetery in Colma , California . He purchased a plot adjacent to Norton 's where he is now interred .
Sarria 's assumption of the title of Empress led to the establishment of the Imperial Court System , a network of non @-@ profit charitable organizations throughout the United States , Canada and Mexico that raises money for various beneficiaries . Sarria is much revered within the hierarchy of the Imperial Court System and is affectionately and informally known as " Mama " or " Mama José " among Imperial Court members . The " José Honors Awards " are presented to Imperial Court dignitaries and others in a bi @-@ annual banquet held in Sarria 's honor .
= = Restaurateur = =
In 1964 , Sarria went into business with restaurateur Pierre Parker , who owned restaurants called " Lucky Pierre " in Carmel , California and New York City . They met when Parker wandered into the Black Cat one night and they struck up a friendship . In addition to his restaurants , Parker held the French food concession for the World 's Fair . He invited Sarria to join him at the 1964 New York World 's Fair .
While working at the Fair , Sarria learned that his longtime companion , Jimmy Moore , had died . Moore had been a frequent drinker throughout their relationship and had been arrested a number of times for public drunkenness . A judge finally told Moore that the next time he was arrested he would be given the maximum sentence . Moore was arrested again and , scared of a long prison term , hanged himself in jail . Although devastated , Sarria could not come home from the exposition . At the end of the season he returned and he and Moore 's father consoled each other . " And so , that ended my big romance . The great love of my life . It carried on for nine years . "
Sarria and Parker worked together through both seasons of the New York fair , Expo 67 in Montreal , HemisFair ' 68 in San Antonio , Texas and Expo ' 74 in Spokane , Washington , after which Sarria retired . He and Parker moved to Phoenix , Arizona , where Sarria lived until returning to San Francisco in 1977 . He remained politically active , endorsing the candidacies of Harvey Milk for the Board of Supervisors . In 1977 , Milk would win the board seat that Sarria had sought in 1961 .
= = Later life = =
Sarria and members of the Imperial Court appeared along with other notable drag queens in the 1995 film To Wong Foo , Thanks for Everything ! Julie Newmar . They played the judges of the " Drag Queen of the Year Contest " that opened the film .
In 2005 , Sarria found himself at the center of a legal controversy over his role on the jury in the 1991 murder trial of Clifford Bolden . Bolden had been sentenced to death in 1991 for the 1986 murder of Henry Michael Pederson , whom Bolden allegedly picked up in a bar in San Francisco 's Castro district . Bolden 's attorneys claimed that Sarria , who was not on the jury that convicted Bolden but was seated as an alternate for the penalty phase , had known Bolden 's lover , Pederson and another of the jurors . They alleged that he had concealed this knowledge in order to remain on the jury and push for a death sentence . Sarria acknowledged having spoken occasionally with the other juror but denied the rest of the allegations . Sarria was cleared of wrongdoing in February 2008 .
Sarria was honored in 2005 with the San Francisco LGBT Pride Celebration Committee 's Lifetime Achievement Grand Marshal Award . On May 25 , 2006 , Sarria 's lifetime of activism was commemorated when the city of San Francisco renamed a section of 16th Street in the Castro to José Sarria Court . A plaque outlining Sarria 's accomplishments is embedded in the sidewalk in front of the Harvey Milk Memorial Branch of the San Francisco Public Library , which is located at 1 José Sarria Court . In 2009 , the California State Assembly honored Sarria during an official celebration of LGBT Pride Month on June 21 .
Sarria reigned over the Imperial Court System until February 17 , 2007 , abdicating the throne in favor of his first heir apparent , Nicole Murray @-@ Ramirez , who assumed the title Empress Nicole the Great , Queen Mother of the Americas .
Sarria left San Francisco in 1996 , settling in the Palm Springs , California , area for more than a decade before moving to Los Ranchos de Albuquerque , New Mexico , a suburb of Albuquerque . On granting Sarria its Lifetime Achievement Award in March 2012 , Albuquerque Pride noted that he was living in Los Ranchos in " a cute little casita and is enjoying his time raising chickens . " The " casita " was the guest house adjacent to the home of Tony Ross and his husband PJ Sedillo ( also known as Fontana DeVine , Imperial Dowager Empress VI of the United Court of the Sandias ) ; Ross and Sedillo served as Sarria 's caregivers in the last three years of his life .
= = Death = =
Sarria died of adrenal cancer at the age of 89 or 90 on August 19 , 2013 , at his home in Los Ranchos de Albuquerque . Obituaries and tributes appeared around the United States in media including The Advocate , KALW Public Radio ( San Francisco ) , The New York Times and the San Francisco Chronicle . Media outside the United States that reported the death include Gay Star News , an online newspaper based in London ; Replika , a monthly LGBT magazine in Warsaw , Poland ; Roze Golf , a regional LGBT radio program and online magazine based in Enschede , Netherlands ; the website of RTVE , the Spanish national public television network ; and Svenska Dagbladet , a daily newspaper in Stockholm , Sweden .
Sarria 's imperial @-@ drag @-@ themed funeral was held on September 6 , 2013 at Grace Cathedral of San Francisco , with the Right Rev. Marc Handley Andrus , bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of California , presiding ; some 1 @,@ 000 mourners attended the service . Various local and state elected officials participated , including California State Sen. Mark Leno , former San Francisco mayor Art Agnos , San Francisco Treasurer Jose Cisneros , and members of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors . Leaders of the Imperial Court System and the Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence attended in full regalia , with the formal mourning dress for the court dictated by Sarria in advance . Other dignitaries at the funeral included Stuart Milk , nephew of politician Harvey Milk and head of the Harvey Milk Foundation .
Immediately following the funeral , a cortege of approximately 500 mourners accompanied Sarria 's body to Woodlawn Memorial Park in Colma , where he was buried with full military honors in a plot he had previously purchased at the foot of the grave of Joshua Norton .
= = Archives & memorabilia = =
Sarria documented his public and private activities throughout his life , amassing an extensive collection of archival materials and artifacts . He donated the majority of his papers and memorabilia , along with a sampling of his costumes , to the GLBT Historical Society , an archive and research center in San Francisco . An initial donation came in 1996 followed by another substantial body of material in 2012 .
In addition , Sarria gave a small selection of costumes , accessories and documents to the Oakland Museum of California — including a cape and headdress that he wore in performances of his comic version of Aida at The Black Cat . Sarria continued to own a smaller collection of art , artifacts and documentation ; he had said that he expected to eventually donate those materials to the GLBT Historical Society . An article published in The Atlantic in 2011 asserted that Sarria had also donated materials to the Smithsonian Institution . This claim appears to be erroneous , as Sarria stated in 2012 that he declined the Smithsonian 's request .
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= Robert Garran =
Sir Robert Randolph Garran GCMG KC ( 10 February 1867 – 11 January 1957 ) was an Australian lawyer and the first Australian public servant , an early leading expert in Australian constitutional law , the first employee of the Government of Australia and the first Solicitor @-@ General of Australia . Garran spent thirty @-@ one years as permanent head of the Attorney @-@ General 's Department , providing advice to ten different Prime Ministers ( from Barton to Lyons ) . He played a significant behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role in the Australian federation movement , as adviser to Edmund Barton and chair of the Drafting Committee at the 1897 – 1898 Constitutional Convention .
In addition to his professional work , Garran was also an important figure in the development of the city of Canberra during its early years . He founded several important cultural associations , organised the creation of the Canberra University College , and later contributed to the establishment of the Australian National University . Garran published at least eight books and many journal articles throughout his lifetime , covering such topics as constitutional law , the history of federalism in Australia , and German language poetry .
= = Early life = =
Garran was born in Sydney , New South Wales , the only son ( among seven children ) of journalist and politician Andrew Garran and his wife Mary Isham . His parents were committed to social justice , Mary campaigning for issues such as the promotion of education for women , and Andrew advocating Federation and covering reformist movements as editor of The Sydney Morning Herald and later promoting them as a member of the New South Wales Legislative Council .
The family lived in Phillip Street in central Sydney . Garran 's mother " had a deep distrust , well justified in those days , of milkman 's milk " and so she kept a cow in the backyard , which would walk on its own to The Domain each day to graze and return twice a day to be milked . The Garrans later lived in the suburb of Darlinghurst , just to the east of the centre of the city .
Garran attended Sydney Grammar School from the age of ten , starting in 1877 . He was a successful student , and became School Captain in 1884 . He then studied arts and law at the University of Sydney , where he was awarded scholarships for classics , mathematics and general academic ability . Garran graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree with first @-@ class honours in 1888 , winning the University 's Medal in Philosophy , and a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1889 .
After graduating , Garran began to study for the Bar examination . He was employed for a year with a firm of Sydney solicitors , and the next year served as associate to Justice William Charles Windeyer of the Supreme Court of New South Wales . Windeyer had a reputation for being a harsh and inflexible judge , particularly in criminal cases , where he was said to have " a rigorous and unrelenting sense of the retribution that he believed criminal justice demanded , [ and ] a sympathy verging on the emotional for the victims of crime . " Garran however offered a different view , saying that " those who knew him well knew that under a brusque exterior he was the kindest of men " , and his reputation had to some degree been created by misrepresentation . In 1891 , Garran was admitted to the New South Wales Bar , where he commenced practice as a barrister , primarily working in equity .
= = Federation movement = =
Garran , like his father , was strongly involved in the Australian Federation movement , the movement which sought to unite the British colonies in Australia ( and , in early proposals , New Zealand ) into one federated country . The first Constitutional Convention was held in 1891 in the chamber of the Legislative Council of New South Wales in Macquarie Street , Sydney , around the corner from Garran 's chambers in Phillip Street ; Garran regularly attended and sat in the public gallery to see " history ... in the making under my very eyes . " Garran would later recall with approval that the 1891 convention was the first with the courage to face the " lion in the path " , the issue of customs duties and tariffs , which had previously divided states such as Victoria , who were in favour of protectionism , and states such as New South Wales , who were in favour of free trade . In Garran 's view a clause proposed at the convention , which allowed for tariffs against international trade while ensuring free trade domestically ( the predecessor to the final section 92 of the Constitution of Australia ) , " expressed the terms on which New South Wales was prepared to face the lion . "
Garran became involved with the work of Edmund Barton , who would later be the first Prime Minister of Australia but at the time was the de facto leader of the federation movement in New South Wales as Sir Henry Parkes declined into poor health . Garran , along with others such as Atlee Hunt , worked essentially as secretaries to Barton 's federation campaign , drafting correspondence and planning meetings . At one late night meeting , planning a speech Barton was to give in the Sydney suburb of Ashfield , Barton coined the phrase " For the first time , we have a nation for a continent , and a continent for a nation " ; Garran recalled that the now famous phrase " would have been unrecorded if I had not happened to jot it down . "
In June 1893 , when the Australasian Federal League was formed at a meeting in the Sydney Town Hall , Garran joined immediately and was made a member of the executive committee . He was one of the League 's four delegates to the 1893 Corowa Conference and a League delegate to the 1896 Bathurst Conference , informal conferences held between members of the League ( primarily based in Sydney ) , the Australian Natives ' Association ( mainly Victorian ) and other pro @-@ federation groups . At Corowa he was part of an impromptu group organised by John Quick which drafted a resolution , passed at the Conference , calling on the colonial parliaments to hold a directly elected Constitutional Convention to be charged with drafting the Bill for the Constitution of Australia . The proposal , which came to be known as the Corowa Plan , was later accepted at the 1895 Premiers ' Conference and formed the basis for the federation process over the following five years .
In 1897 , Garran published The Coming Commonwealth , an influential book on the history of the Federation movement and the debate over the 1891 draft of the Constitution of Australia . The book was based on material he prepared for a course on federalism and federal systems of government , which he had planned to give at the University of Sydney , but which failed to attract a sufficient number of students . Nevertheless , the book was both unique and popular , as one of the few books on the topic at the time , with the first edition quickly selling out . Soon after its publication the Premier of New South Wales George Reid , who had been elected as a New South Wales delegate to the 1897 – 1898 Constitutional Convention , invited Garran to be his secretary . At the Convention , Reid appointed him secretary of the Drafting Committee , at Barton 's request ; he was also a member of the Press Committee .
Garran recorded in a letter to his family during the convention 's Melbourne sitting that :
The committee professes to find me very useful in unravelling the conundrums sent down by the finance committee ... The last two nights I have found the drafting committee fagged [ tired ] and despairing , and now they have pitched the conundrums at me and gone out for a smoke ; and then I worked out algebraic formulas to clear the thing up , drafted clauses accordingly , and when the committee returned we had plain sailing .
Garran joked that the long work of the drafting committee breached the Factory Acts , the group ( primarily Barton , Richard O 'Connor , John Downer and Garran ) often working late into the night preparing drafts for the convention to consider and debate the next morning . On the evening before the convention 's last day , Barton had gone to bed exhausted in the small hours , Garran and Charles Gavan Duffy finishing the final schedule of amendments at breakfast time . The convention concluded successfully , approving a final draft which would ultimately , aside from a small amendment arranged at the last minute in London , become the Constitution of Australia .
Throughout 1898 , following the completion of the proposed Constitution , Garran participated in the campaign promoting Federation leading up to the referendums at which the people of the colonies voted whether or not to approve the Constitution . He contributed a daily column to the Evening News , and had humorous poems critiquing opponents of federation published in The Bulletin . The following year , he began working with Quick on the Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth , a reference work on the Constitution including a history , and detailed discussion of each section analysing its meaning and its development at the Conventions . Published in 1901 , the Annotated Constitution , commonly referred to simply as " Quick & Garran " , soon became the standard work on the Constitution and is still regarded as one of the most important works on the subject .
= = Public service = =
On the day that Federation was completed and Australia created , 1 January 1901 , Garran was made a Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( CMG ) " in recognition of services in connection with the Federation of Australian Colonies and the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia " , and was appointed secretary and Permanent Head of the Attorney @-@ General 's Department by the first Attorney @-@ General of Australia , Alfred Deakin . Garran was the first , and for a time the only , public servant employed by the Government of Australia . Garran later said of this time that :
I was not only the head [ of the department ] , but the tail . I was my own clerk and messenger . My first duty was to write out with my own hand Commonwealth Gazette No. 1 proclaiming the establishment of the Commonwealth and the appointment of ministers of state , and to send myself down with it to the government printer .
In this role , Garran was responsible for organising the first federal election in March 1901 , and for organising the transfer of various government departments from the states to the federal government , including the Department of Defence , the postal and telegraphic services ( now part of the Department of Communications , Information Technology and the Arts ) and the Department of Trade and Customs ( now part of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade ) . As parliamentary drafter , Garran also developed legislation to administer those new departments and other important legislation .
Garran and his fellow staff aimed for a simple style of legislative drafting , a goal enabled by the fact that there was no pre @-@ existing federal legislation on which their work would have to be based . In Garran 's opinion the approach , which was put into practice many years before the similarly principled plain English movement became popular in government in the 1970s , was intended " to set an example of clear , straightforward language , free from technical jargon . " Subsequent parliamentary drafters have noted that Garran was unusual in this respect for deliberately setting out to achieve and improve a particular drafting style , and that it was not until the early 1980s that such discipline among drafters re @-@ emerged .
However , Garran himself admitted that his drafting could be overly simplistic , citing the first customs and excise legislation ( the Customs Act 1901 and the Excise Act 1901 ) , developed with the Minister for Trade and Customs Charles Kingston , as an example of the style taken to excess . The style was also once parodied by foundation High Court Justice Richard O 'Connor as follows :
Every man shall wear –
( a ) Coat
( b ) Vest
( c ) Trousers
Penalty : £ 100 .
In 1902 , Garran married Hilda Robson . Together they would have four sons , Richard ( born 1903 ) , John ( 1905 ) , Andrew ( 1906 ) and Isham Peter ( 1910 ) . At this time the family lived in Melbourne , and the boys all attended Melbourne Grammar School and later studied at the University of Melbourne , attending Trinity College there .
The Attorney @-@ General 's Department also managed litigation on behalf of the government . Initially the department contracted private law firms to actually conduct the litigation , but in 1903 the office of the Commonwealth Crown Solicitor was established , with Charles Powers the first to hold the job . The other Crown Solicitors that Garran worked with included Gordon Castle ( with whom he had also worked as a drafter ) and William Sharwood .
Garran worked with several Attorneys @-@ General as Permanent Head of the Department . Garran regarded the first Attorney @-@ General , Alfred Deakin , as an excellent thinker and a natural lawyer , and on occasion " [ spoke ] of Deakin as the Balfour of Australian politics . " He was also very much impressed with the fifth Attorney @-@ General , Isaac Isaacs , who was an extremely diligent worker , and two time Attorney @-@ General Littleton Groom , who was " probably one of the most useful Ministers the Commonwealth has had . "
In 1912 , Garran was considered as a possible appointee to the High Court , following the expansion of the bench from five seats to seven and the death of Richard O 'Connor . Billy Hughes , Attorney @-@ General in the Fisher government at the time , later said Garran would have been appointed " but for the fact that he is too valuable a man for us to lose . We cannot spare him . "
= = = Solicitor @-@ General = = =
In 1916 , Garran was made the first Solicitor @-@ General of Australia ( the office was then known as Commonwealth Solicitor @-@ General ) by Billy Hughes , who had since become Prime Minister . The creation of the office and Garran 's appointment to it was to some degree recognition of his existing role as Permanent Head of the Attorney @-@ General 's Department , in which Garran gave legal advice to several successive governments , but it also represented a formal delegation of many of the powers and functions formerly exercised by the Attorney @-@ General .
Garran developed a strong relationship with Hughes , giving him legal advice on the World War I conscription plebiscites and on the range of regulations which were made under the War Precautions Act 1914 . The War Precautions Regulations had a broad scope , and were generally supported by the High Court , which adopted a much more flexible approach to the reach of the Commonwealth 's defence power during wartime . A substantial amount of Garran 's work during the war involved preparing and carrying out the regulations . Many of them were directed at maximising the economic aspect of the war effort and ensuring supplies of goods to Australian troops ; others were directed at controlling citizens or former citizens of the enemy Central Powers living in Australia . On one occasion , when Hughes had been informed that at a party hosted by a German man , the band had played " Das Lied der Deutschen " , Hughes asked Garran " By the way , what is this tune ? " to which Garran replied that it was Haydn 's melody to " Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser " , and as it was used as the tune to several hymns " it was probably sung in half a dozen churches in Sydney last Sunday . " Hughes then said " Good Heavens ! I have played that thing with one finger hundreds of times . "
The partnership between Garran and Hughes is regarded by some as unusual , given that Garran was " tall , gentlemanly , wise and scholarly " , and patient with his staff , whereas Hughes was " short of stature [ and ] renowned for bursts of temper . " Nevertheless , the partnership was a successful one , with Hughes recognising the importance of Garran 's constitutional expertise , remarking once about the World War I period that " the best way to govern Australia was to have Sir Robert Garran at [ my ] elbow , with a fountain pen and a blank sheet of paper , and the War Precautions Act . " Likewise , Garran respected Hughes ' strong leadership style , which had been important in guiding the country through the war , although in describing the Nationalist Party 's loss in the 1922 federal election , Garran later said that " Hughes also overestimated his own hold on Parliament [ although ] his hold on the people was probably undiminished . "
Garran accompanied Hughes and Joseph Cook ( then the Minister for the Navy ) to the 1917 and 1918 meetings of the Imperial War Cabinet in London , United Kingdom , and was also part of the British Empire delegation to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference in Paris , France . There he was on several of the treaty drafting committees , and contributed to many provisions , notably the portions of the League of Nations Covenant relating to League of Nations mandates . Though focusing mainly on League of Nations matters , Garran and John Latham ( the head of Australian Naval Intelligence ) had the status of technical advisers to Hughes and Cook , and so could attend the main conference and any of the associated councils . Observing the proceedings , Garran admired the " moral and physical courage " of French premier Georges Clemenceau , whom he regarded as determined to protect France from Germany but in a measured and temperate way ; in Garran 's words , Clemenceau " always withstood the excessive demands of the French chauvinists , of the French army , and of Foch himself . " Garran viewed some similarities between British Prime Minister David Lloyd George and United States President Woodrow Wilson where others saw only differences , since Lloyd George " also had a strong vein of idealism in his character " , and Wilson could be pragmatic when the situation called for it , such as in discussions relating to American interests . Garran also met other political and military leaders at the conference , including T. E. Lawrence , " an Oxford youth of 29 – he looks 18 " , who was modest and " without any affectation ... in a company of two or three [ he ] could talk very interestingly , but at a larger gathering he was apt to be dumb . "
Following the war , Garran worked with Professor Harrison Moore of the University of Melbourne and South Australian judge Professor Jethro Brown on a report about proposed constitutional amendments which ultimately became the referendum questions put forward in the 1919 referendum . Garran had been made a Knight Bachelor in 1917 and was appointed as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( KCMG ) in 1920 . Garran attended two Imperial Conferences , accompanying Prime Minister Stanley Bruce in 1923 and in 1930 joining Prime Minister James Scullin and Attorney @-@ General Frank Brennan , chair of the Drafting Committee which prepared drafts of agreements on various topics , such as merchant shipping . He also attended the eleventh League of Nations conference that year with them in Geneva , Switzerland . At the Royal Commission on the Constitution in 1927 , Garran was invited to give evidence by Prime Minister Bruce , where he discussed the history and origins of the Constitution and the evolution of the institutions established under it .
Through the 1920s and early 1930s , Garran prepared annual summaries of legislative developments in Australia , highlighting important individual pieces of legislation for the Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law ( now known as the International and Comparative Law Quarterly ) published by Oxford University Press .
Towards the end of his time as Solicitor @-@ General , Garran 's work included the preparation of the Debt Conversion Agreement between the Government of Australia and the governments of the states , which involved the federal government taking over and managing the debts of the individual states , following the 1928 referendum .
In 1927 , Garran had moved from his home in Melbourne , Victoria to the newly established capital Canberra , one of the first public officials to do so ( many government departments and their public servants did not move to Canberra until after World War II ) . He also worked within the Government to facilitate housing in Canberra for officials moving from other cities , and was involved in establishing cultural organisations in the city . In 1928 he was the inaugural President of the Canberra Rotary Club . In 1929 , he formed the Canberra University Association in order to promote the formation of a university in Canberra , and in 1930 organised the establishment of Canberra University College ( essentially a campus of the University of Melbourne ) which taught undergraduate courses , chairing its council for its first twenty @-@ three years . Throughout the 1920s and 1930s , Garran " consistently advocated the establishment of what he prophetically called ' a National University at Canberra ' " , which would be primarily for specialist research and postgraduate study , in areas particularly relating to Australia , such as foreign relations with Asia and the Pacific region . This vision was evidently influential on the establishment of the Australian National University ( ANU ) in 1946 , the only research @-@ only university in the country ( although in 1960 it amalgamated with Canberra University College to offer undergraduate courses ) .
= = Retirement = =
Garran retired from his governmental positions on 9 February 1932 , a fixed retirement date on the day before his sixty @-@ fifth birthday . He soon returned to practise as a barrister , and within a month he was made a King 's Counsel ( KC ) . However , he occasionally carried out more prominent work . In 1932 , he was selected on the advice of now Attorney @-@ General John Latham to chair the Indian Defence Expenditure Tribunal , to advise on the dispute between India and the United Kingdom regarding the costs of the military defence of India . In 1934 , along with John Keating , William Somerville and David John Gilbert , he formed a committee which prepared The Case for Union , the Government of Australia 's official reply to the secessionist movement in the state of Western Australia .
Garran was also involved with the arts ; he was the vice @-@ president of the Canberra Musical Society , where he sang and played the clarinet , and in 1946 won a national song competition run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Garran also published translations of Heinrich Heine 's 1827 work Buch der Lieder ( " Book of Songs " ) in 1924 , and of the works of Franz Schubert and Robert Schumann in 1946 .
In 1937 , Garran was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George ( GCMG ) , the third time he had been knighted . Shortly after the establishment of the ANU in 1946 , Garran became its first graduate when he was awarded an honorary doctorate of laws . He had already been awarded such an honorary doctorate from the University of Melbourne in 1937 and later receiving one from his alma mater , the University of Sydney in 1952 . Garran served on ANU 's council from 1946 until 1951 . Garran 's influence on Canberra is remembered by the naming of the suburb of Garran , Australian Capital Territory , and his link with ANU is remembered by the naming of a chair in the university 's School of Law , by the naming of the hall of residence Burton & Garran Hall and by the naming of Garran house at Canberra Grammar School for his work with that school .
Garran died in 1957 in Canberra . He was granted a state funeral , the first given to a public servant of the Government of Australia . He was survived by his four sons ; his wife Hilda had died in 1936 . His memoirs , Prosper the Commonwealth , were published posthumously in 1958 , having been completed shortly before his death .
= = Legacy = =
Garran 's " personality , like his prose , was devoid of pedantry and pomposity and , though dignified , was laced with a quizzical turn of humour . " His death " marked the end of a generation of public men for whom the cultural and the political were natural extensions of each other and who had the skills and talents to make such connections effortlessly . " At his death , Garran was one of the last remaining of the people involved with the creation of the Constitution of Australia .
Former Prime Minister John Howard , in describing Garran , said :
" I wonder though if we sometimes underestimate the changes , excitements , disruptions and adjustments previous generations have experienced . Sir Robert Garran knew the promise and reality of federation . He was part of the establishment of a public service which , in many ways , is clearly recognisable today . "
Garran 's friend Charles Daley , a long time civic administrator of the Australian Capital Territory , emphasised Garran 's contribution to the early development of the city of Canberra , particularly its cultural life , remarking at a celebratory dinner for Garran in 1954 that :
" There has hardly been a cultural movement in this city with which Sir Robert has not been identified in loyal and inspiring support , as his constant aim has been that Canberra should be not only a great political centre but also a shrine to foster those things that stimulate and enrich our national life ... his name will ever be inscribed in the annals , not only of Canberra , but of the Commonwealth as clarum et venerabile nomen gentibus .
However Garran is perhaps best remembered as an expert on constitutional law , more so than for his other contributions to public service . On his experience of Federation and the Constitution , Garran was always enthusiastic :
" I 'm often asked ' has federation turned out as you expected ? ' Well yes and no . By and large the sort of thing we expected has happened but with differences . We knew the constitution was not perfect ; it had to be a compromise with all the faults of a compromise ... But , in spite of the unforeseen [ sic ] strains and stresses , the constitution has worked , on the whole , much as we thought it would . I think it now needs revision , to meet the needs of a changed world . But no @-@ one could wish the work undone , who tries to imagine , what , in these stormy days , would have been the plight of six disunited Australian colonies . "
= = = Memorials = = =
The Canberra suburb of Garran , established in 1966 , was named after him .
In 1983 , the former Patent Office building - now occupied by the Federal Attorney General 's Department - was renamed Robert Garran Offices . The art deco building is within the Parliamentary Triangle of Canberra , and was constructed in 1932 at the corner of Kings Avenue and National Circuit , in Parkes , Australian Capital Territory .
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= Tropical Storm Cyprien =
Severe Tropical Storm Cyprien ( JTWC designation : 08S ) was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that caused minor damage in Madagascar . Forming on December 30 , 2001 , Cyprien quickly strengthened in a slightly favorable environment . By January 2 , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) according to Météo @-@ France and 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . Later that day the storm made landfall in Morombe , at a weaker intensity , and dissipated early on January 3 . Throughout the affected areas , Cyprien destroyed 957 structures , leaving 1 @.@ 16 billion Malagasy franc ( 2002 MGF ; US $ 181 @,@ 000 ) in damages . No fatalities were reported ; however two people were listed as missing .
= = Meteorological history = =
On December 26 , a cold front exited Mozambique in southeastern Africa into the Mozambique channel . Upon reaching open waters , the front developed an area of convection and later a circulation just inland from the coast on December 27 . The front dissipated but the circulation remained as a distinct low pressure area . Although there was high wind shear in the area , good divergence allowed for convection to continue developing . On December 30 , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , designated the system as a tropical disturbance . Over the next two days , convection became increasingly organized , with banding features developing by December 31 . That day , MFR upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression , and around 0900 UTC , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Decreasing wind shear and moderate outflow would allow the system to intensify into a tropical storm .
On January 1 , 2002 , the JTWC classified the depression as a tropical storm , designating it as Tropical Cyclone 08S . The system rapidly organized shortly after and was further upgraded to a moderate tropical storm by Météo @-@ France at 0600 UTC , at which time the Meteorological Service of Madagascar gave it the name Cyprien . In response to a mid to upper @-@ level subtropical high pressure area , the storm tracked in a general eastward direction at 16 km / h ( 10 mph ) . Several hours after being named , the JTWC assessed Cyprien to have reached its peak winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . QuickSCAT satellite passes indicated areas of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) winds early on January 2 , prompting Météo @-@ France to upgrade Cyprien to a severe tropical storm , with winds peaking at 100 km / h ( 65 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) . By this time , the central barometric pressure fell to 980 hPa ( mbar ) .
Later on January 2 , the combination of the subtropical ridge to the north , an approaching mid @-@ latitude trough and moderate to strong westerlies caused Severe Tropical Storm Cyprien to turn towards the southwest . Slight weakening took place shortly before the storm made landfall in Morombe ; maximum winds decreased to 50 mph ( 85 km / h 10 @-@ minute winds ) . Increased wind shear and interaction with land caused the deep convection to become substantially displaced to the east from the center of circulation . Early on January 3 , Cyprien was downgraded to a tropical depression by both agencies ; however , some areas were still reporting gale @-@ force winds . It turned to the northeast over land , dissipating late on January 3 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
The precursor to Cyprien dropped heavy rainfall in Mozambique , including 92 mm ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) in Beira .
Due to the low @-@ intensity of the storm , damages in southwestern Madagascar were moderate . Cyprien produced wind gusts as strong as 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Heavy rains also fell throughout the region , peaking at 232 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) . The hardest hit area was the city of Morombe ; a total of 900 people in the city were affected by the storm and two people were reportedly missing . Following an assessment of the storm 's impact , 180 homes and 16 administrative buildings were found to have been destroyed by Cyprien . Damages in the area amounted to 1 @.@ 1 billion Malagasy franc ( 2002 MGF ; US $ 172 @,@ 507 ) . North of Morombe , the city of Morondava also sustained significant damage ; roughly 1 @,@ 000 people were affected and 661 homes were destroyed . Numerous homes were inundated by floodwaters . Officials reported that floodwaters persisted until January 9 . Damages in the city amounted to 60 million MGF ( 2002 MGF ; US $ 9 @,@ 287 ) . In all , damages from the storm amounted to 1 @.@ 16 billion MGF ( 2002 MGF ; ~ US $ 181 @,@ 000 ) .
Following Cyprien , the Government of Madagascar did not request international assistance in post @-@ storm recovery . By January 10 , a cargo plane carrying 65 million MGF ( 2002 MGF ; US $ 10 @,@ 062 ) worth of relief supplies was deployed to the affected regions . The supplies , consisting of medical supplies , tents , and one tonne of rice , were given to local authorities to be distributed to the affected population . Sanitary items were also distributed by the government to avoid an outbreak of water @-@ borne diseases such as diarrhea and cholera .
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= HMS Warrior ( 1905 ) =
HMS Warrior was a Warrior @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She was stationed in the Mediterranean when the First World War began and participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . Warrior was transferred to the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and remained there for the rest of her career . She was heavily damaged during the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , after which she withdrew and was later abandoned and sank in a rising sea .
= = Description = =
Warrior displaced 13 @,@ 550 long tons ( 13 @,@ 770 t ) as built and 14 @,@ 500 long tons ( 14 @,@ 700 t ) fully loaded . The ship had an overall length of 505 feet 4 inches ( 154 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She was powered by four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 23 @,@ 650 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 640 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 @.@ 3 knots ( 43 @.@ 2 km / h ; 26 @.@ 8 mph ) . The engines were powered by 19 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 050 long tons ( 2 @,@ 080 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 7 @,@ 960 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 740 km ; 9 @,@ 160 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Her main armament consisted of six BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk X guns in single Mk V turrets distributed in two centerline turrets ( one each fore and one aft ) and four turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . Her secondary armament of four BL 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk II or Mk V guns in single Mk II turrets was carried amidships , between the wing 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns . Twenty @-@ six Vickers QF 3 @-@ pounders were fitted , ten on turret roofs and eight each on the forward and aft superstructures . The last four ships of the Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruisers had a secondary armament of turreted 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns rather than the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns in casemates of the first two ships ; these latter four were sometimes referred to as the Warrior class . Because of the extra topweight of the turrets in comparison to their half @-@ sisters their stability was reduced which made them very good seaboats and steady gun platforms . The ship also mounted three submerged 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes , one of which was mounted in the stern .
= = Service = =
Warrior was ordered as part of the 1903 – 04 naval construction programme as the first of four armoured cruisers . She was laid down on 5 November 1903 at Pembroke Dockyard , launched on 25 November 1905 and completed on 12 December 1906 . On completion , Warrior was assigned to the 5th Cruiser Squadron in the Channel Fleet until 1909 , when she was transferred to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron . In 1913 the ship was transferred to the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet . She was involved in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau at the outbreak of World War I , but was ordered not to engage them . Warrior participated in the Allied sweep which led to the sinking of the Austro @-@ Hungarian light cruiser SMS Zenta during the Battle of Antivari in August 1914 . A few days later she was ordered to Suez to defend the Suez Canal against any Turkish attack and remained there until 6 November when she was ordered to Gibraltar to join a squadron of French and British ship to search for German warships still at sea off the African coast . This was cancelled on 19 November after the location of the German East Asia Squadron was revealed by survivors of the Battle of Coronel .
Warrior joined the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and was assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Robert Keith Arbuthnot . At the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 , the 1st Cruiser Squadron was in front of the Grand Fleet , on the right side . At 5 : 47 p.m. , the squadron flagship , HMS Defence , and Warrior spotted the German II Scouting Group and opened fire . Their shells felt short and the two ships turned to port in pursuit , cutting in front of the battlecruiser HMS Lion , which was forced to turn away to avoid a collision . Shortly afterwards they spotted the disabled German light cruiser SMS Wiesbaden and closed to engage . When the two ships reached a range of 5 @,@ 500 yards ( 5 @,@ 000 m ) from Wiesbaden they were spotted in turn at 6 : 05 by the German battlecruiser SMS Derfflinger and four battleships who were less than 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) away . The fire from the German ships was heavy and Defence blew up at 6 : 20 . Warrior was hit by at least fifteen 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) and six 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) shells , but was saved when the German ships switched their fire to the battleship HMS Warspite when its steering jammed and caused Warspite to make two complete circles within sight of much of the High Seas Fleet .
Warrior was heavily damaged by the German shells , which caused large fires and heavy flooding , although her engines continued running for long enough to allow her to withdraw to the west . She was taken in tow by the seaplane tender HMS Engadine who took off her surviving crew of 743 . She was abandoned in a rising sea at 8 : 25 a.m. on 1 June when her upper deck was only 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above the water , and subsequently foundered .
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= HMS Black Prince ( 1861 ) =
HMS Black Prince was the third ship of that name to serve with the Royal Navy . She was the world 's second ocean @-@ going , iron @-@ hulled , armoured warship , following her sister ship , HMS Warrior . For a brief period the two Warrior @-@ class ironclads were the most powerful warships in the world , being virtually impregnable to the naval guns of the time . Rapid advances in naval technology left Black Prince and her sister obsolete within a short time , however , and she spent more time in reserve and training roles than in first @-@ line service .
Black Prince spent her active career with the Channel Fleet and was hulked in 1896 , becoming a harbour training ship in Queenstown , Ireland . She was renamed Emerald in 1903 and then Impregnable III in 1910 when she was assigned to the training establishment in Plymouth . The ship was sold for scrap in 1923 .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Black Prince was 380 feet 2 inches ( 115 @.@ 9 m ) long between perpendiculars and 420 feet ( 128 @.@ 0 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 58 feet 4 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 26 feet 10 inches ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . The ship displaced 9 @,@ 137 long tons ( 9 @,@ 284 t ) . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 92 compartments and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Warrior @-@ class ships had one 2 @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine made by John Penn and Sons driving a single 24 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) propeller . Ten rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 20 psi ( 138 kPa ; 1 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced a total of 5 @,@ 772 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 304 kW ) during Black Prince 's sea trials in September 1862 and the ship had a maximum speed of 13 @.@ 6 knots ( 25 @.@ 2 km / h ; 15 @.@ 7 mph ) under steam alone . The ship carried 800 long tons ( 810 t ) of coal , enough to steam 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .
The ironclads were ship rigged and had a sail area of 48 @,@ 400 square feet ( 4 @,@ 497 m2 ) . Black Prince could only do 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) under sail , 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) slower than her sister Warrior .
= = = Armament = = =
The armament of the Warrior @-@ class ships was intended to be 40 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 68 @-@ pounder guns , 19 on each side on the main deck and one each fore and aft as chase guns on the upper deck . This was modified during construction to ten rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns , twenty @-@ six 68 @-@ pounders , and four rifled breech @-@ loading 40 @-@ pounder guns .
The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . The shell of the 40 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading gun was 4 @.@ 75 inches ( 121 mm ) in diameter and weighed 40 pounds ( 18 @.@ 1 kg ) . The gun had a maximum range of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) . In 1863 – 64 the 40 @-@ pounder guns were replaced by a heavier version with the same ballistics . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
Black Prince was rearmed during her 1867 – 68 refit with twenty @-@ four 7 @-@ inch and four 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The ship also received four 20 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns for use as saluting guns . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The sides of Black Prince were protected by an armour belt of wrought iron , 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , that covered the middle 213 feet ( 64 @.@ 9 m ) of the ship . The ends of the ship were left entirely unprotected which meant that the steering gear was very vulnerable . The armour extended 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) above the waterline and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below it . 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads protected the guns on the main deck . The armour was backed by 16 inches ( 406 mm ) of teak .
= = Construction and service = =
Black Prince was ordered on 6 October 1859 from Robert Napier & Sons in Govan , Glasgow for the price of £ 377 @,@ 954 . The ship was laid down on 12 October 1859 and launched 27 February 1861 . Her completion was delayed by a drydock accident at Greenock while fitting out , which damaged her masts . She steamed to Spithead in November 1861 with only jury @-@ rigged fore and mizzenmasts . The ship was commissioned in June 1862 , but was not completed until 12 September 1862 . Black Prince was assigned to the Channel Fleet until 1866 , then spent a year as flagship on the Irish coast . Overhauled and rearmed in 1867 – 68 , she became guardship on the River Clyde . The routine of that duty was interrupted in 1869 when she and Warrior towed a large floating drydock from Madeira to Bermuda .
Black Prince was again refitted in 1874 – 75 , gaining a poop deck , and rejoined the Channel Fleet as flagship of Rear Admiral Sir John Dalrymple @-@ Hay , second @-@ in @-@ command of the fleet . In 1878 Captain H.R.H. Duke of Edinburgh took command and the ship crossed the Atlantic to participate in the installation of a new Governor General of Canada . Upon her return Black Prince was placed in reserve at Devonport , and , reclassified as an armoured cruiser , she was reactivated periodically to take part in annual fleet exercises . Black Prince was hulked in 1896 as a harbour training ship , stationed at Queenstown , and was renamed Emerald in 1903 . In 1910 the ship was moved to Plymouth and renamed Impregnable III when she was assigned to the training school HMS Impregnable before she was sold for scrap on 21 February 1923 .
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= Phil H. Bucklew =
Phil Hinkle Bucklew ( December 18 , 1914 – December 30 , 1992 ) was a professional American football player who went on to become a United States Navy officer . He served in one of the Navy 's first special warfare units during World War II . While serving in the European Theater , he was twice awarded the Navy Cross , the second highest decoration in the United States Military .
After World War II , Bucklew completed his PhD at Columbia University and went on to command SEAL Team One . In the early stages of the Vietnam War he authored a report in which he predicted the Vietcong would make use of the intercoastal waterways and rivers as routes for supplies and personnel . Although it was initially dismissed , this report was later used as a source to increase the use of Navy SEALs in direct action missions . In 1969 Bucklew retired as a Captain and worked as a consultant for a shipbuilding company in the private sector .
Bucklew died in 1992 after a series of strokes . He is known as the " Father of Naval Special Warfare " and the Phil Bucklew Naval Special Warfare Center in Coronado , California bears his name .
= = Early life = =
Bucklew was born and raised in Columbus , Ohio where he attended Columbus North High School . He went on to attend Xavier University in Cincinnati , where he earned fame as a football player ( fullback , punter , and tight end ) . After college , Bucklew played for the Cleveland Rams in 1937 and 1938 . In 1939 , Bucklew left the Rams and founded the Columbus Bullies ; he was their coach for two years , until the United States entered World War II in 1941 .
= = Naval career = =
= = = World War II = = =
Bucklew volunteered for military service in the Naval Reserve on December 8 , 1941 , the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . He reported to Norfolk , Virginia for his training and commission as an Ensign . He soon joined the Navy Scouts and Raiders , an elite force of combat swimmers who scouted beaches for amphibious landings . As an Ensign , he served with the Scouts and Raiders in Operation Torch ( the invasion of North Africa ) in November 1942 . In July 1943 , he commanded a " Scout Boat " during the landings on Sicily ( Operation Husky ) and was awarded his first Navy Cross . Bucklew participated in the landings at Salerno , Italy ( Operation Avalanche ) , where he was awarded the Silver Star .
Bucklew and his unit were transferred to England to support the imminent invasion of Normandy . In January 1944 , Bucklew and another S & R officer , Grant Andreasen , swam ashore at night to collect sand samples from the target beach , which would be later referred to as Omaha Beach . The mission planners needed to know whether the sand would support heavy vehicles . On another occasion , Bucklew and Andreasen were brought within 300 yards of the beach by a kayak paddled by a British Commando . They swam the rest of the way and hid in the water to watch and time sentry patrols , before going ashore to collect more sand samples and other useful intelligence .
On D @-@ Day , June 6 , 1944 , Bucklew commanded a scout boat , assigned to lead the first wave of tank @-@ carrying landing craft to Omaha Beach . The landing craft were accompanied by DD tanks . While he was still out at sea , Bucklew saw that the sea conditions were too dangerous for launching the DD tanks . Unfortunately , his radio report was ignored and most of the DD tanks foundered . Bucklew was awarded a second Navy Cross while leading the first wave of tank @-@ carrying landing craft to the beach in his scout boat . On that occasion he had to combat both heavy surf and enemy fire . He remained on station as a guide boat all day , directing assault waves and giving supporting fire against German positions . He rescued many soldiers , whose landing craft were destroyed , from drowning . Bucklew laid down in the bow of his boat and pulled the drowning men from the water using the strength of his arms .
Bucklew 's final assignment during World War II took him to China , where he scouted the Chinese coast and later moved inland to help train and equip Chinese guerrillas to fight the Japanese . Bucklew moved from one partisan group to another , gathering intelligence on the Japanese along the way . Due to his large size and inability to speak Chinese , the partisans disguised him as a deaf mute . The Japanese learned of this " American Spy " and labeled him " Big Stoop " . When his mission was complete he was debriefed in Calcutta , India .
Three of his closest friends in the Scouts also had athletic backgrounds : John Tripson , formerly a Detroit Lions all @-@ pro tackle , Robert Halperin , who had played quarterback for Knute Rockne 's Notre Dame football team and in the NFL , and Jerry Donnell , a football player who was killed in action at the Battle of Anzio .
= = = Post World War II = = =
In 1946 , Bucklew married his fiancée , Helen Nagel , and left active duty for two years to complete his Ph.D. in Education at Columbia University . At Columbia , Bucklew worked as a Navy ROTC instructor and coached the football team . He returned to active duty in 1948 before completing his Ph.D , serving at various bases in the United States , Korea , and Vietnam . In June 1951 , LCDR Bucklew was assigned as commanding officer of Beach Jumper Unit 2 , at the Naval Amphibious Base , Little Creek , Virginia and served in that capacity until late 1955 . In 1952 the U.S. Navy turned its PT boats over to the South Korean Navy . These boats flew under the Korean flag but were manned by American sailors under the command of Bucklew . In 1955 , then @-@ Lieutenant Commander Bucklew was assigned to a Naval Advisory Group in Korea , operating from a base off Inchon . This group , with the help of the CIA , conducted infiltration , harassment , and psychological operations against North Korea .
In 1962 , after 20 years of service , Bucklew was facing mandatory retirement due to staff reductions within the Navy . However , with the creation of the SEAL Teams under President John F. Kennedy , Bucklew was selected to command Naval Special Warfare Group One , which consisted of SEAL Team 1 , Underwater Demolition Teams 11 and 12 , and BSU @-@ 1 ( Boat Support Unit ) . Ironically , Bucklew never qualified at BUD / S himself .
= = = Vietnam = = =
In early 1964 , before American forces became actively engaged in South Vietnam , Captain Bucklew , at the behest of CINCPAC Admiral Harry D. Felt , took part in an exploratory mission to determine what could be done to counter waterborne infiltration of South Vietnam . Bucklew and his staff traveled the Mekong Delta , interviewing dozens of Vietnamese military personnel and their American advisors . At the Cambodian border , Bucklew witnessed the Vietcong openly moving supplies by sampan inside Cambodia , despite its neutrality . In his report to CINCPAC , Bucklew described the totality of the Communist infiltration effort , criticized the South Vietnamese response as inefficient and inadequate , and suggested that halting the Vietcong would require a coastal blockade augmented by extensive patrolling of the internal rivers along the Cambodian frontier , in addition to the Mekong and Bassac . The " Bucklew Report " further recommended that the Navy establish " a viable means of controlling the rivers by implementing barricades , curfews , checkpoints , and patrols . "
The Navy initially disregarded Bucklew 's conclusion , placing emphasis on seaborne infiltration of South Vietnam by the North Vietnamese and the Vietcong . After the Navy launched Operation Market Time , it refused to consider the implications of the Bucklew report . Ironically the effectiveness of Market Time caused the North Vietnamese and Vietcong to do what Bucklew predicted in greater force : make use of the rivers along the Cambodian frontier to move logistics into a region where countermeasures were nonexistent . Hence , the Vietcong was able to conclude the build @-@ up necessary to launch the attacks of early 1968 . Bucklew 's report was , however , used as the impetus to deploy SEAL Teams for direct action missions in 1966 .
After relinquishing command of SEAL Team One in 1967 , Bucklew was assigned to the Department of the Navy at the Pentagon , where he served until his retirement in 1969 .
= = Post @-@ military life and legacy = =
After retirement , Bucklew remained in the D.C. area . From 1974 to 1984 , he served as the D.C. representative for Swiftships , a Louisiana boat @-@ building company .
Bucklew is often called " The Father of Naval Special Warfare " by members of the Naval Special Warfare community and military authors . His written memoirs were published in 1982 . In 1987 , wheelchair @-@ bound from a stroke , Bucklew attended the ceremony in which the Naval Special Warfare Center in Coronado , California was named for him . In October 1989 , he was inducted as the 34th member of the Columbus Hall of Fame , and his photograph hangs in City Hall . Bucklew died at Fairfax Hospital in Fairfax , Virginia , in 1992 after suffering more strokes . He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery .
= = Navy Cross citations = =
= = = First Navy Cross citation = = =
Citation :
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Cross to Lieutenant , Junior Grade [ then Ensign ] Phil Hinkle Bucklew , United States Naval ( Reserve ) , for extraordinary heroism and distinguished service in the line of his profession as a Scout Boat Officer in action against enemy forces during the amphibious assault on the Island of Sicily on July 10 , 1943 . Achieving a high degree of success in his capable and resourceful training of scout boat crews for the entire attack force , Lieutenant , Junior Grade , Bucklew participated in the actual invasion with outstanding courage . Undeterred by glaring searchlight illumination and withering blasts of hostile weapons , he proceeded through hazardous waters , located the designated beach and directed the assault boat wave . Utterly disregarding shore battery and machine @-@ gun fire which repeatedly struck his vessel , Lieutenant , Junior Grade , Bucklew persevered in guiding subsequent waves to the proper beach . The conduct of Lieutenant , Junior Grade , Bucklew throughout this action reflects great credit upon himself , and was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
= = = Second Navy Cross citation = = =
Citation :
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting a Gold Star in lieu of a Second Award of the Navy Cross to Lieutenant , Junior Grade Phil Hinkle Bucklew , United States Naval ( Reserve ) , for extraordinary heroism and distinguished service in the line of his profession as Officer in Charge of an LCT Scout Boat during the amphibious assault on the Normandy Coast of France on June 6 , 1944 . Embarked in one of the first craft to approach the strongly defended cost , Lieutenant , Junior Grade , Bucklew successfully accomplished his highly important mission of locating the designated beaches and , despite rough surf and continuous harassing enemy fire , skillfully led the first wave of DD tanks , going in close to the beach and taking his station as guide . Firing his boat 's rockets over the tanks at target objectives in support of the landings , he moved in closer to direct his guns at suspected hostile machine @-@ gun nests in houses along the beach and subsequently , in the face of heavy enemy opposition , rescued wounded personnel from burning landing craft and regulated the flow of traffic throughout the morning and afternoon of D @-@ Day . The conduct of Lieutenant , Junior Grade , Bucklew throughout this action reflects great credit upon himself , and was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
= = Military awards and decorations = =
Navy Cross with one Gold Star
Silver Star
Bronze Star
Meritorious Service Medal
Navy Achievement Medal
Presidential Unit Citation
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation
Navy Good Conduct Medal
China Service Medal
American Defense Medal
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic Pacific Campaign Medal
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Service Medal
National Defense Service Medal with one Bronze Star
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal
Vietnam Campaign Medal
Croix de guerre with palm
Korean Presidential Unit Citation
United Nations Korean Medal
Vietnam Campaign Medal
= = Quote = =
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= Vic Aldridge =
Victor " Vic " Aldridge ( October 25 , 1893 – April 17 , 1973 ) , nicknamed the " Hoosier Schoolmaster " , was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for the Chicago Cubs , Pittsburgh Pirates and New York Giants , and was known to be an excellent curveball pitcher . Before his playing career he was a schoolmaster , hence his nickname . His most significant actions as a player occurred during the 1925 World Series , where Aldridge completed and won games two and five , only to have the most disastrous first inning in the seventh game of the World Series ever . After his retirement from baseball , he served as a state senator in the Indiana General Assembly . Aldridge is a member of the Indiana Baseball Hall of Fame , inducted in 2007 .
= = Personal life = =
Born in the small country town of Cale , Indiana , Vic Aldridge attended the Tempy primary school in Cale , Indiana which was a short walk from his home . He attended high school in Trinity Springs , Indiana where he played baseball on the Trinity Springs team . He graduated from Trinity Springs , Indiana . He then attended Central Normal College in Danville , Indiana . In 1914 – 1915 he taught school at the Pea Ridge School in Trinity Springs , Indiana . He also taught school in Miami County Indiana . He was married to Cleta B. Wadsworth of Indian Springs , Indiana .
= = Early career = =
Aldridge was a dependable second or third starter throughout most of his career . He was known for his curveball and pinpoint accuracy . Aldridge batted and threw right @-@ handed . He began his pro career by signing a contract with Indianapolis of the American Association in 1915 , but first played for Denver of the Western League and then Erie of the Central League . He played for Indianapolis in 1916 where he was scouted for the Chicago Cubs . He was sold to the Cubs on August 28 , 1916 .
Aldridge spent 1917 and 1918 with the Chicago Cubs , serving in the bullpen . In 1917 Aldridge played in thirty games , winning six games and losing six , with a 3 @.@ 12 earned run average and two saves . In 1918 he played only three games , pitching only twelve innings , before joining the United States Navy during the final year of World War I. After returning from the war , he played for the Los Angeles Angels , an affiliate of the Cubs , in the Pacific Coast League . Aldridge returned to the Cubs for the 1922 season . He played the next three years for Chicago , with consistent performances . In 1922 , 1923 and 1924 he played 36 , 30 and 32 games respectively , with 16 , 16 and 15 wins in the three seasons , with respective earned run averages of 3 @.@ 52 , 3 @.@ 48 and 3 @.@ 50 . During this time his son Vic Aldridge , Jr. served unofficially as the Cubs batboy and even had a uniform donated by Mordecai Brown so he would look the part . In 1923 he was ejected from a game .
= = 1925 = =
Vic Aldridge was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates after the 1924 season on October 27 , 1924 , along with George Grantham and Al Niehaus , for Wilbur Cooper , Charlie Grimm and Rabbit Maranville . The change in stadiums prompted him to rely more on his fastball than his curveball , as he felt he needed to protect himself from home runs in Wrigley Field and its smaller field , thus using the curveball to reduce the risk of being homered against , but the larger field in Pittsburgh made fastballs safer to use , and thus a better pitch to rely upon . The next year , Aldridge won fifteen games ( ninth highest total in the National League in 1925 ) and lost seven , for a .682 winning percentage that was the fourth highest for any NL pitcher that year . His finest moments were in the postseason that year when he pitched two complete game victories against the Washington Senators as the Pirates won the World Series . He won Game 2 of the series 3 – 2 on October 8 , and Game 5 by a score of 6 – 3 , the first two Pirates wins of the Series . Aldridge used the money from the World Series to buy a home in Terre Haute , Indiana .
Aldridge also started the seventh game on October 15 . It had been raining for a week in Pittsburgh , and the sixth game had been rainy . The weather for the seventh was even worse , and the game was played in thick pea soup fog and drizzle , with a very wet pitching mound . It was hoped that Aldridge would continue his success in the first two games to the seventh , but it was not to be . Although noted for his consistency , in this game Aldridge was very wild ; he had had only two days rest and he kept slipping on the slick pitcher 's plate . Sam Rice was the first batter , and he hit a single . Then Bucky Harris came out , whose fly out was the only success Aldridge had during the game . Goose Goslin was walked after a wild pitch . Joe Harris was walked after a wild pitch advanced the baserunners . After a full count , Joe Judge was walked , scoring in one run . Then Ossie Bluege hit a single . Pirates manager Bill McKechnie had seen enough and relieved Aldridge . In total , Aldridge gave up three walks , two hits and two wild pitches , resulting in the Senators having a 4 – 0 lead in the first inning . The Pirates would rally to win the game and the World Series by a score of 9 – 7 , the first time a team won the World Series after a 3 – 1 deficit . It was the worst start of the seventh game for a pitcher in Series history .
= = Late career = =
The 1925 proved to be the pinnacle of Aldridge 's career . In 1926 he suffered a record of 10 wins and 13 losses , with a 4 @.@ 07 earned run average . The year 1927 was better for Aldridge . He won fifteen games , losing only ten , with a 4 @.@ 25 earned run average . Aldridge also played in the 1927 World Series , losing the second game of the series 6 – 2 as Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig led the New York Yankees to a sweep of the Pirates in four games . He gave up all six runs in the 7 ⅓ innings he pitched . After several other players had ghostwritten newspaper articles for the Christy Walsh Syndicate , he wrote an article for a Pittsburgh newspaper , who bragged that it was Aldridge himself who wrote it .
After winning 15 games again in 1927 , Aldridge expected a raise , but instead Pittsburgh owner Barney Dreyfuss traded him to the New York Giants on February 11 , 1928 , for Burleigh Grimes , citing Aldridge 's 4 @.@ 25 ERA in 1927 as a reason not to give him a raise . He held out for much of the year ; by the time he returned , he was out of shape and pitched poorly . During the time Aldridge refused to report , Giants manager John McGraw threatened Aldridge with less pay , and at one point tried to trade him to the Cincinnati Reds . After the season , in which Aldridge 's record was four wins and seven losses with a 4 @.@ 83 earned run average after 119 innings pitched , he was sent to the Brooklyn Dodgers . However , Aldridge refused to report and retired from baseball instead . His final game was on August 29 , 1928 .
In total , Aldridge pitched 1 @,@ 601 innings , won 97 games and lost 80 , had 102 complete games and a combined earned run average of 3 @.@ 76 . Rogers Hornsby said that Aldridge had one of the three best curveballs he had ever seen , a curveball described by the Baseball Magazine as a " hard , sharp @-@ breaking curve " that was one of the best curveballs in all of baseball . He also threw a screwball . His batting average was .229 , a respectable average for a pitcher . Aldridge twice attempted to steal a base , once each in 1922 and 1926 , and succeeded both times .
= = Post career = =
After his playing career ended , Aldridge attended law school at the Voorhees School of Law and served in the Indiana State Senate from 1937 to 1948 . He was first elected on November 4 , 1936 , as a Democrat . He served as a schoolmaster full @-@ time before his baseball career , hence his nickname " The Hoosier Schoolmaster " .
Aldridge died in Terre Haute at age 79 , and is buried in the New Trinity Springs Cemetery of Trinity Springs , Indiana . He was inducted into the Indiana Baseball Hall of Fame on January 19 , 2007 , as its 131st member ; his granddaughter , Mary Turner , and grandson , Vic Aldridge III , accepted the award on his behalf .
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= Grandma Moses =
Anna Mary Robertson Moses ( September 7 , 1860 – December 13 , 1961 ) , known by her nickname Grandma Moses , was a renowned American folk artist . Having begun painting in earnest at the age of 78 , she is often cited as an example of an individual successfully beginning a career in the arts at an advanced age . Her works have been shown and sold in the United States and abroad and have been marketed on greeting cards and other merchandise . Moses ' paintings are among the collections of many museums . The Sugaring Off was sold for US $ 1 @.@ 2 million in 2006 .
Moses has appeared on magazine covers , television , and in a documentary of her life . She wrote her autobiography , won numerous awards and was awarded two honorary doctoral degrees .
The New York Times said of her : " The simple realism , nostalgic atmosphere and luminous color with which Grandma Moses portrayed simple farm life and rural countryside won her a wide following . She was able to capture the excitement of winter 's first snow , Thanksgiving preparations and the new , young green of oncoming spring ... In person , Grandma Moses charmed wherever she went . A tiny , lively woman with mischievous gray eyes and a quick wit , she could be sharp @-@ tongued with a sycophant and stern with an errant grandchild . "
Starting at 12 years of age and for a total of 15 years , she was a live @-@ in housekeeper . One of the families that she worked for , who noticed her appreciation for their prints made by Currier and Ives , supplied her with art materials to create drawings . Moses and her husband began their married life in Virginia , where they worked on farms . In 1905 they returned to the Northeastern United States and settled in Eagle Bridge , New York . The couple had five children who survived infancy . Her interest in art was expressed throughout her life , including embroidery of pictures with yarn , until arthritis made this pursuit too painful .
= = Early life = =
Born in Greenwich on September 7 , 1860 , Anna Mary Robertson was the third of Margaret Shanahan Robertson and Russell King Robertson 's ten children . She was raised with four sisters and five brothers . Her father ran a flax mill and was a farmer . Moses attended a one @-@ room school for a short period of time as a child . That school is now the Bennington Museum in Vermont which has the largest collection of her works in the United States.She got inspired to paint from taking art lessons at school . Moses first painted as a child , using lemon and grape juice to make colors for her " landscapes " . Other natural materials that she used to create works of art included ground ochre , grass , flour paste , slack lime and sawdust .
She left home and began to work for a wealthy neighboring family at 12 years of age , performing chores on their farm . She continued to keep house , cook and sew for wealthy families for 15 years . One of the families that she worked for , the Whitesides , noticed her interest in their Currier and Ives prints and purchased chalk and wax crayons so that she could create her own artwork .
= = Marriage and children = =
She was 27 when she worked on the same farm as Thomas Salmon Moses , a " hired man . " They were married and established themselves near Staunton , Virginia where they spent nearly two decades , living and working in turn on four separate local farms . To supplement the family income , Moses made potato chips and churned butter from the milk of a cow that she purchased with her savings . Later , the couple bought a farm .
Five of the ten children born to them survived infancy . Although she loved living in the Shenandoah Valley , in 1905 Anna and Robert moved to a farm in Eagle Bridge , New York at her husband 's urging . Thomas Moses died in 1927 of a heart attack , after which her son Forrest helped her operate the farm . She retired and moved to a daughter 's home in 1936 . Anna Mary was known as either " Mother Moses " or " Grandma Moses , " and although she first exhibited as " Mrs. Moses , " the press dubbed her " Grandma Moses , " and the nickname stuck .
= = Decorative arts = =
As a young wife and mother , Moses had been creative in her home by , for example , using housepaint to decorate a fireboard in 1918 . Moses made embroidered pictures of yarn for friends and family beginning in 1932 . She also created beautiful quilted objects , a form of " hobby art " as defined by Lucy R. Lippard .
Moses had developed arthritis by the age of 76 , which made embroidery painful . It was suggested to her by Celestia , her sister , that painting would be easier for her , which spurred Moses 's painting career in her late 70s.when her right hand hurt she switch to her left hand .
= = Art career = =
= = = Style = = =
Moses painted scenes of rural life from earlier days , which she called " old @-@ timey " New England landscapes . Moses said that she would " get an inspiration and start painting ; then I 'll forget everything , everything except how things used to be and how to paint it so people will know how we used to live . " She omitted features of modern life , like tractors and telephone poles , from her works of art .
Her early style is less individual and more realistic or primitive , despite her lack of knowledge of , or perhaps rejection of , basic perspective . Initially she created simple compositions or copied existing images . As her career advanced she created complicated , panoramic compositions of rural life .
She was a prolific painter , generating over 1 @,@ 500 canvasses in three decades . Initially Moses charged $ 3 to $ 5 for a painting , depending upon its size , and as her fame increased her works were sold for $ 8 @,@ 000 to $ 10 @,@ 000 . Her winter paintings are reminiscent of some such of the known winter paintings of Pieter Bruegel the Elder , although she had never seen his work . A German fan of her work said , " There emanates from her paintings a light @-@ hearted optimism ; the world she shows us is beautiful and it is good . You feel at home in all these pictures , and you know their meaning . The unrest and the neurotic insecurity of the present day make us inclined to enjoy the simple and affirmative outlook of Grandma Moses . "
= = = Initial exhibitions = = =
During a visit to Hoosick Falls in 1938 , Louis J. Caldor , who collected art and worked as an engineer in the state of New York , discovered paintings made by Moses in the window of a drug store . He bought their supply and ten more from her Eagle Bridge house for $ 3 or $ 5 each . The next year , three Grandma Moses paintings were included in New York 's Museum of Modern Art exhibition entitled " Contemporary Unknown American Painters " . Her first solo exhibition , " What a Farm Wife Painted , " opened in the same city in October 1940 at Otto Kallir 's Galerie St. Etienne . A meet @-@ and @-@ greet with the artist and an exhibition of 50 paintings at Gimbel 's Department Store was held next on November 15 . Her art displays included samples of her baked goods and preserves that won Moses prizes at the county fair . Her third solo show in as many months , was held at the Whyte Gallery , Washington , D.C. In 1944 she began to be represented by the American British Art Center and the Galerie St. Etienne , which increased her sales . Her paintings were exhibited throughout Europe and the United States over the next 20 years . Otto Kallir established the Grandma Moses Properties , Inc. for her .
Grandma Moses 's paintings were used to publicize American holidays , including Thanksgiving , Christmas and Mother 's Day . During the 1950s , Grandma Moses 's exhibitions broke attendance records around the world . Art historian Judith Stein noted : " A cultural icon , the spry , productive nonagenarian was continually cited as an inspiration for housewives , widows and retirees . " Her paintings were reproduced on Hallmark greeting cards , tiles , fabrics , and ceramics . They were also used to market products , like coffee , lipstick , cigarettes , and cameras .
= = = Acclaim = = =
In 1950 , the National Press Club cited her as one of the five most newsworthy women and the National Association of House Dress Manufacturers honored her as their 1951 Woman of the Year . At age 88 , Mademoiselle magazine named Grandma Moses a “ Young Woman of the Year . ” She was awarded two honorary doctoral degrees . The first was bestowed in 1949 from Russell Sage College and the second two years later from the Moore College of Art and Design .
President Harry S. Truman presented her with the Women 's National Press Club trophy Award for outstanding accomplishment in art in 1949 . Jerome Hill directed the 1950 documentary of her life , which was nominated for an Academy Award . In 1952 , she published My Life 's History , her autobiography . In it she said " I look back on my life like a good day 's work , it was done and I feel satisfied with it . I was happy and contented , I knew nothing better and made the best out of what life offered . And life is what we make it , always has been , always will be . " In 1955 , she appeared as a guest on See It Now , a television program hosted by Edward R. Murrow .
= = Later years and death = =
She was a member of the Society of Mayflower Descendants and Daughters of the American Revolution . Her 100th birthday was named by New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller as " Grandma Moses Day " . LIFE magazine celebrated her birthday by featuring her on its September 19 , 1960 , cover . The children 's book " Grandma Moses Story Book " was published in 1961 .
Grandma Moses died on December 13 , 1961 at 101 years of age in Hoosick Falls , New York at the Health Center . She is buried there at the Maple Grove Cemetery . President John F. Kennedy memorialized her : " The death of Grandma Moses removed a beloved figure from American life . The directness and vividness of her paintings restored a primitive freshness to our perception of the American scene . Both her work and her life helped our nation renew its pioneer heritage and recall its roots in the countryside and on the frontier . All Americans mourn her loss . " After her death , her work was exhibited in several large traveling exhibitions in the United States and abroad .
= = Legacy = =
A 1942 piece , The Old Checkered House , 1862 was appraised at the Memphis 2004 Antiques Roadshow . It was not as common as her winter landscapes . Originally purchased in the 1940s for under $ 10 , the piece was assigned an insurance value of $ 60 @,@ 000 by the appraiser , Alan Fausel .
In November 2006 , her 1943 work Sugaring off became her highest @-@ selling work at US $ 1 @.@ 2 million .
The White House owns and displays her painting , Fourth of July . It also appears on a U.S. commemorative stamp that was issued in her honor in 1969 .
The character Granny on the popular 1960s rural comedy television series The Beverly Hillbillies was named Daisy Moses as an homage to Grandma Moses , who died shortly before the series began .
Norman Rockwell and Grandma Moses were friends who lived over the Vermont @-@ New York state border from each other . Moses lived in Eagle Bridge , New York and after 1938 the Rockwells had a house in nearby Arlington , Vermont . Grandma Moses appears on the far left edge in the Norman Rockwell painting Christmas Homecoming , which was printed on The Saturday Evening Post 's December 25 , 1948 cover .
= = Collections = =
Some of the public collections of her work are :
Bennington Museum in Bennington , Vermont , holds the largest public collection of Moses 's paintings
Brooklyn Museum , New York City
Figge Art Museum , Davenport , Iowa
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden , Washington D.C.
Lauren Rogers Museum of Art , Laurel , Mississippi
Maier Museum of Art at Randolph @-@ Macon Woman 's College , Virginia
Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester , New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York City
National Museum of Women in the Arts , Washington D.C.
The Phillips Collection , Washington D.C.
Phoenix Art Museum , Arizona
University of Iowa Museum of Art , Iowa City
= = Works = =
Some of her works are :
Autumn in the Berkshires
Black Horses , 1942
Bondsville Fair , 1945
Catching the Thanksgiving Turkey , San Diego Museum of Art
Dividing of the Ways , 1947 , oil and tempera on masonite , Collection American Folk Art Museum , New York
English Cottage Flower Garden , embroidery
Get Out the Sleigh , 1960 , oil on pressed wood
Haying Time , 1945
Home of the Hezekiah King , 1776 , 1943 , Phoenix Art Museum
Home for Thanksgiving , 1952
Hoosick Falls , 1944 , Southern Vermont Arts Center
Jack ' n Jill
July Fourth , 1951
My Hills of Home , Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester , New York
Out for Christmas Trees
Rockabye , 1957 , Grandma Moses with her grandchildren
The Childhood Home of Anna Mary Robertson Moses , 1942
Thanksgiving Turkey
The Daughter 's Homecoming , oil on pressed wood
The Old Checkered House
The Old Covered Bridge , The Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art , Hartford , Connecticut
The Old Oaken Bucket
The Red Checkered House
Turkey in the Straw , c . 1940 , private collection
White Christmas
Winter is Here , 1945
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= 50 euro note =
The fifty euro note ( € 50 ) is one of the middle value euro banknotes and has been used since the introduction of the euro ( in its cash form ) in 2002 . The note is used daily by some 332 million Europeans and in the 23 countries which have the euro as their sole currency ( with 22 legally adopting it ) .
It is the fourth smallest note , measuring 140 mm × 77 mm , and has an orange colour scheme . The note depicts bridges and arches / doorways in the Renaissance era ( 15th and 16th centuries ) .
The € 50 note contains several complex security features such as watermarks , invisible ink , holograms and microprinting that document its authenticity . In January 2016 , there were about 8 @,@ 170 @,@ 123 @,@ 315 fifty euro banknotes in circulation in the eurozone . It is by far the most widely circulated denomination , compromising over 44 % of the total banknotes .
The full design of the Europa series € 50 banknote was revealed on 5 July 2016 ; it is due to be launched in April 2017 .
= = History = =
The euro was founded on 1 January 1999 , when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe . For the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency , only used in accounting . Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002 , when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the 12 countries in the eurozone , such as the Dutch guilder and the Portuguese escudo . Today , the € 50 note is used daily by some 332 million Europeans and in the 22 countries which have it as their sole currency ( with 20 legally adopting it ) .
Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007 , Cyprus and Malta in 2008 , Slovakia in 2009 , Estonia in 2011 , Latvia in 2014 , and Lithuania in 2015 .
= = = The changeover period = = =
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months , from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002 . The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state . The earliest date was in Germany , where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001 , though the exchange period lasted for two months more . Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender , they continue to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from ten years to forever .
= = = Changes = = =
Notes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank , Wim Duisenberg . He was succeeded on 1 November 2003 by Jean @-@ Claude Trichet , whose signature appears on issues from November 2003 to March 2012 . Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank , incumbent Mario Draghi .
Until now there has been only one series of euro notes ; however a new series , similar to the current one , is planned to be released . The European Central Bank will announce when banknotes from the first series lose legal tender status .
As of June 2012 , current issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union , as Cyprus is not depicted on current notes as the map does not extend far enough east , and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series ' minimum size for depiction . Since the European Central Bank plans to redesign the notes every seven or eight years after each issue , a second series of banknotes is already in preparation . New production and anti @-@ counterfeiting techniques will be employed on the new notes , but the design will be on the same theme ( bridges and arches ) and will use colours identical to the previous series . However , they would still be recognisable as a new series .
= = Design = =
The fifty euro note is the fourth smallest note , measuring 140 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) × 77 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) , with an orange colour scheme . Each euro banknote depicts bridges and arches / doorways in a different historical European style ; the € 50 note shows the Renaissance era ( 15th and 16th centuries ) . Although Robert Kalina 's original designs were intended to show real monuments , for political reasons the bridge and the window are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era .
Like all euro notes , the € 50 note shows the denomination , the EU flag , the signature of the president of the ECB , the initials of the ECB in the different EU languages , a depiction of EU territories overseas , the stars from the EU flag and various security features .
= = = Security features ( First series ) = = =
The fifty euro note contains the following security features :
Colour changing ink used on the numeral located on the back of the note , that appears to change colour from purple to brown , when the note is tilted .
A see through number printed in the top corner of the note , on both sides , appear combine perfectly to form the value numeral when held against the light .
A hologram , used on the note which appears to see the hologram image change between the value and a window or doorway , but in the background , it appears to be rainbow @-@ coloured concentric circles of micro @-@ letters moving from the centre to the edges of the patch .
A EURion constellation ; the EURion constellation is a pattern of symbols found on a number of banknote designs worldwide since about 1996 . It is added to help software detect the presence of a banknote in a digital image .
Watermarks , which appear when held up to the light .
Raised printing in the main image , the lettering and the value numerals on the front of the banknotes will be raised .
Ultraviolet ink ; the paper itself does not glow , fibres embedded in the paper do appear , and be coloured red , blue and green , the EU flag is green and has orange stars , the ECB President 's , currently Mario Draghi 's , signature turns green , the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map , a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow .
Microprinting , on various areas of the banknotes there is microprinting , for example , inside the " ΕΥΡΩ " ( EURO in Greek characters ) on the front . The micro @-@ text is sharp , but not blurred .
A security thread , embedded in the banknote paper . The thread will appear as a dark stripe when held up to the light . The word " EURO " and the value is embedded in tiny letters on the thread .
Perforations in the hologram which will form the euro symbol . There are also small numbers showing the value .
A matted surface ; the note paper is made out of pure cotton , which feels crisp and firm , but not limp or waxy .
Barcodes ,
A serial number .
= = = Security features ( Europa series ) = = =
Watermark : When the note is held under a normal light source , a portrait of Europa and an electrotype denomination appear on either side .
Portrait Window : When the note is held against the light , the window in the hologram becomes transparent and reveals a portrait of Europa which is visible on both sides of the note .
Portrait Hologram : When the note is tilted , the hologram – the silver @-@ colored stripe on the right of the note – reveals a portrait of Europa as well as the " € " symbol , the main image and the value of the banknote .
Emerald Number : When the note is tilted , the number " 50 " on the bottom left corner of the note displays an effect of the light that moves up and down . The number " 50 " also changes color from emerald green to deep blue .
Security Thread : When the note is held to the light , the security thread appears as a dark line . The " € " symbol and the value of the note can be seen in tiny white lettering in the stripe .
Microprinting : Some areas of the banknote feature a series of tiny letters . The microprinting can be read with a magnifying glass . The letters are sharp , not blurred .
= = Circulation = =
As of May 2013 , there are approximately 6 @,@ 383 @,@ 487 @,@ 700 € 50 banknotes in circulation around the Eurozone . The 50 euro note is the most commonly used banknote . The total value of the notes in circulation is approximately € 319 @,@ 173 @,@ 835 @,@ 100 ( as of May 2013 ) . The European Central Bank monitors the circulation and stock of the euro coins and banknotes . The Eurosystem has been tasked with ensuring an efficient and smooth supply of euro notes .
= = Legal information = =
Legally , both the European Central Bank and the central banks of the eurozone countries have the right to issue the 7 different euro banknotes . In practice , only the national central banks of the zone physically issue and withdraw euro banknotes . The European Central Bank does not have a cash office and is not involved in any cash operations .
= = Tracking = =
There are several communities of people at European level , most of which is EuroBillTracker , that , as a hobby , it keeps track of the euro banknotes that pass through their hands , to keep track and know where they travel or have traveled . The aim is to record as many notes as possible in order to know details about its spread , like from where and to where they travel in general , follow it up , like where a ticket has been seen in particular , and generate statistics and rankings , for example , in which countries there are more tickets . EuroBillTracker has registered over 155 million notes as of May 2016 , worth more than € 2 @.@ 897 billion .
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= Allan Walters =
Air Vice Marshal Allan Leslie Walters , CB , CBE , AFC ( 2 November 1905 – 19 October 1968 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born in Victoria and raised in Western Australia , he graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon , before transferring to the RAAF in 1928 . He was considered one of the service 's leading flying instructors and aerobatic pilots between the wars , and was appointed to his first squadron command in 1937 . Over the course of World War II , Walters led No. 1 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron in Singapore , No. 1 ( Fighter ) Wing in Darwin , Northern Territory , No. 72 Wing in Dutch New Guinea , and Northern Command in Papua New Guinea . He was decorated with the Air Force Cross in 1941 for his work with No. 1 Squadron , and mentioned in despatches in 1944 for his service with No. 72 Wing .
Walters was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1946 for his service with Northern Command . Already marked out for senior roles in the post @-@ war RAAF , his positions during the 1950s included Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Southern Area Command , AOC RAAF Overseas Headquarters in London , Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff in Washington , D.C. , AOC Home Command , Air Member for Personnel , and AOC Support Command . He was promoted acting air vice marshal in 1952 ( substantive in 1954 ) , and appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1956 . Popularly known as " Wally " , he was twice a candidate for Chief of the Air Staff , and twice passed over . He retired from the RAAF in 1962 and made his home in Melbourne , where he died in 1968 at the age of sixty @-@ two .
= = Early career = =
Allan Leslie Walters was born on 2 November 1905 in Ascot Vale , Victoria , to schoolteacher Ferdinand Walters and his wife Edith . The family soon moved to Perth , Western Australia , and Allan completed his education at Perth Modern School , where he joined the cadets . After leaving school and spending eight months in the militia , he entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in February 1924 . At Duntroon he specialised in field artillery , and excelled at athletics . Graduating as a lieutenant in December 1927 , he transferred to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) on 1 February 1928 . Walters ' preferred career path in the military was engineering , and it was only when he failed to gain selection for this field after his graduation that he applied to transfer to the Air Force , which , having no cadet college of its own , had arranged with Duntroon to take one of its artillery specialists each year for secondment as a pilot . He commenced his course at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , in mid @-@ 1928 , and graduated as a flying officer in March 1929 . Walters showed an aptitude for instruction , and after further training was graded an ' A1 ' flight instructor , a rare distinction . Posted to No. 3 Squadron at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , operating Westland Wapitis , he also made a name for himself performing aerobatics at air shows throughout the country . Walters put this particular talent to use in pursuit of his wife @-@ to @-@ be , Jean Manning , stunt flying above All Saints Church , North Parramatta , where her father was rector . Reverend Manning married the couple there on 30 June 1930 ; their daughter Robin was born in Richmond .
Walters was granted a permanent commission in the Air Force in 1930 . On 5 January 1931 , by now promoted flight lieutenant , he won a trophy in an air obstacle race at the Cootamundra Air Pageant . In May the following year , he took out the NSW Air Derby and Evening News Cup . He temporarily commanded No. 3 Squadron during October 1933 , in the absence of Squadron Leader Bill Bostock . At the time , the commanding officer of No. 3 Squadron also held command of RAAF Station Richmond . Walters was posted to Britain in 1936 to attend the Royal Air Force Staff College , Andover , and was promoted to squadron leader in March 1937 , while still overseas . He also undertook a naval reconnaissance course at RAF Manston . Returning to Australia in May , he took command of No. 22 Squadron in June , flying Hawker Demons and Avro Ansons out of Richmond until February 1938 .
Between 6 and 23 February 1938 , Walters piloted the first overseas flight in an aeroplane designed and built in Australia when he flew the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal Richard Williams , to Singapore in a Tugan Gannet . He returned to Richmond in May 1938 to lead No. 3 Squadron , operating Demons , and again took part in aerobatic displays . On 25 October 1938 , his Demon crashed in scrub at Tumbi Umbi , New South Wales , when the engine failed shortly after taking off for Richmond , but he was not injured . Completing his Richmond appointment in May 1939 , Walters transferred to Melbourne as Director of Staff Duties at RAAF Headquarters . Later that month , he joined Group Captain Henry Wrigley as an expert assessor on the panel of an inquiry into a recent series of three Anson accidents ; the full report handed down in October found human error the likely explanation for at least one crash and that training on the type followed the syllabus laid down , but that pilots needed more practical experience in dealing with potential in @-@ flight incidents .
= = World War II = =
Walters ' first operational appointment following the outbreak of World War II was as commanding officer of No. 1 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron , which he led to Sembawang , Singapore , in July 1940 . His promotion to temporary wing commander was announced the same month . He had earlier travelled incognito to Singapore on a Qantas Empire flying boat , which had been specifically requested to deviate from its normal flight path so that he could reconnoiter airfields in the Dutch East Indies . Deployed in response to fears of Japanese expansion in Malaya , No. 1 Squadron was the first Australian unit equipped with Lockheed Hudson light bombers , which were employed primarily for maritime patrol work . Walters was awarded the Air Force Cross for his " very active part in all operations " and for training his unit to " a particularly high standard " ; the honour was gazetted in the 1941 King 's Birthday Honours . He succeeded Frank Lukis as commanding officer of RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , in May the same year , and was promoted acting group captain . In May 1942 , he joined Allied Air Forces Headquarters , South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , in Melbourne as Assistant Director of Operations . He was made a temporary group captain in September , and transferred to Headquarters RAAF Command as senior air staff officer .
On 7 October 1942 , Walters took command of a new formation , No. 1 ( Fighter ) Wing , at RAAF Station Richmond . Established to boost the air defence capability of Australia 's North @-@ Western Area , the wing comprised three Supermarine Spitfire squadrons that had been transferred from Europe : No. 54 Squadron RAF , No. 452 Squadron RAAF and No. 457 Squadron RAAF . With Wing Commander Clive Caldwell , Australia 's top @-@ scoring flying ace of the war , as his wing leader , Walters began deploying aircraft and men to Darwin , Northern Territory , in December , providing a filip for morale in the region . Proudly declaring himself Australia 's oldest fighter pilot , Walters was reported as taking every opportunity to join his men in the air . He flew as Caldwell 's wingman in No. 1 Wing 's first major action against the Japanese over Darwin on 2 May 1943 . Eight Spitfires crashed and several others made forced landings , for the destruction of one Japanese bomber and five fighters . Walters himself narrowly avoiding being shot down when he warned Caldwell of an attacking enemy fighter , to the detriment of his own safety . After they landed , Caldwell chided his commander , " You silly old so @-@ and @-@ so . You want to look after your own skin instead of worrying about someone else 's ! " On 20 June , Walters participated in the wing 's most successful combat against the Japanese to that time , personally accounting for one of fourteen raiders claimed by the Spitfires , for the loss of two of their own number . He posted out of Darwin a few days later , having earned the admiration of Caldwell and the rest of the wing 's personnel .
Walters assumed command of No. 5 Service Flying Training School in Uranquinty , New South Wales , on 30 June 1943 , but the next month was posted to Merauke in Dutch New Guinea to take over No. 72 Wing following reassignment of its original commander , Group Captain Charles Eaton . Comprising No. 84 Squadron ( flying CAC Boomerang fighters ) , No. 86 Squadron ( Curtiss P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters ) , and No. 12 Squadron ( Vultee A @-@ 31 Vengeance dive bombers ) , No. 72 Wing came under the control of RAAF North @-@ Eastern Area Command , and undertook air defence and patrol tasks in and around western New Guinea . Group Captain Bill Hely assumed command of No. 72 Wing in May 1944 , and Walters was appointed Director of Staff Policy and Plans at RAAF Headquarters . He was mentioned in despatches on 28 October 1944 for his " Gallant & distinguished service " in North @-@ Eastern Area , the award being promulgated on 9 March 1945 .
In February 1945 , Walters was promoted to acting air commodore and took over from Air Commodore Lukis as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Northern Command , directing its operations in New Guinea , New Britain and Bougainville until the end of the war . Headquartered at Madang in Papua New Guinea , Northern Command had previously been a large mobile formation known as No. 9 ( Operational ) Group but had evolved into a garrison force , its mobile function supplanted by No. 10 ( Operational ) Group ( later First Tactical Air Force ) . Northern Command 's operational formations included No. 71 Wing in northern New Guinea , No. 74 Wing at Port Moresby , and No. 84 Wing on Bougainville . No. 71 Wing , commanded by Group Captain Val Hancock , supported the Australian 6th Division during the Aitape – Wewak Campaign , despite ordnance deficiencies that at one stage led to its squadrons arming their Bristol Beauforts with captured Japanese bombs . No. 84 Wing suffered shortages in pilots and equipment during the Bougainville Campaign , and morale problems following the end of the war owing to inactivity and the uncertainties of demobilisation ; as a result , the wing 's commanding officer sent Northern Command headquarters a frank report , the tone of which earned a rebuke from Walters . In September , Walters represented the RAAF at the Japanese surrender ceremonies in Wewak .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Walters was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the King 's Birthday Honours on 25 June 1946 , for his " conspicuous service in operations against the Japanese " while leading Northern Command during the war . After completing his term as AOC Northern Command that year , Walters again became Director of Staff Plans and Policy at RAAF Headquarters . He attended the Imperial Defence College , London , in 1947 . Walters was among a small coterie of highly regarded operational commanders , including Air Commodores John McCauley , Fred Scherger and Val Hancock , earmarked by the Australian Air Board for senior leadership roles in the post @-@ war RAAF . In the short term , he remained a temporary air commodore — with the substantive rank of group captain from May 1947 — as the officer corps shrank drastically with demobilisation . He was selected as AOC Southern Area Command , hub of the RAAF 's training organisation , in March 1948 . The following month , he flew to Morotai to preside over a court @-@ martial for an RAAF airman accused of killing an officer of the Dutch merchant marine ; the airman was acquitted .
In January 1951 , Walters was appointed AOC RAAF Overseas Headquarters in London . That December , he was part of the Australian contingent at the Commonwealth Air Forces Conference , where an RAAF presence was sought in the Middle East ; this eventually resulted in No. 78 Wing being re @-@ formed and deployed to Malta in July 1952 . Although Walters was keen to use the opportunity to acquire the RAAF 's first North American F @-@ 86 Sabres , political realities led him to negotiate a deal whereby the wing was equipped with leased British de Havilland Vampire FB.9s. In October 1952 , Walters was promoted to acting air vice marshal and posted to Washington , D.C. , to head up the Australian Joint Services Staff as successor to Air Vice Marshal Scherger . Walters ' rank was made permanent in January 1954 , when he succeeded Air Vice Marshal McCauley to become AOC Home Command . Walters held this post , responsible for directing the RAAF 's combat units , for three years . His tenure witnessed the introduction of the CAC Sabre to operational service with the Air Force , when No. 3 Squadron took delivery of its first machine in March 1956 .
Walters was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in the 1956 New Year Honours . In March 1957 , he was one of three candidates , along with Air Vice Marshals Scherger and Hancock , touted as possible successors to Air Marshal Sir John McCauley as Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) , the RAAF 's senior position . Though Walters was considered to be very able , Scherger had long been regarded as outstanding and was " easily the best material on offer " according to a former CAS , Air Marshal Sir Donald Hardman . Scherger gained the appointment , and Walters became Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) on 21 October . As AMP he occupied a seat on the Air Board , the service 's controlling body that comprised its senior officers and was chaired by the CAS . In this role Walters endorsed the recommendations of a review by the AOC Training Command , Air Vice Marshal Ian McLachlan , that led to a policy of RAAF College cadets undertaking academic degrees , in line with similar institutions in the other armed services ; the college was subsequently renamed RAAF Academy . Walters served as AMP until August 1959 . The following month he was appointed AOC Support Command , a new organisation created by merging the RAAF 's former Training and Maintenance Commands . When Scherger 's term as CAS was due to complete in May 1961 , Walters and Hancock were once more put forward to the Minister for Air as potential replacements . " Walters was again unlucky " , in the words of Air Force historians Alan Stephens and Keith Isaacs , Hancock 's " professional ability , operational experience and personal qualities " being deemed more appropriate for the role .
= = Retirement = =
Walters left the RAAF on 16 May 1962 , after completing his posting at Headquarters Support Command . His pending retirement and succession by Air Vice Marshal Douglas Candy had been announced the previous November . Walters followed horse racing in private life . Survived by his wife and daughter , he died from cardiorenal failure in Heidelberg , Melbourne , on 19 October 1968 . He was accorded an Air Force funeral at The Scots Church , Melbourne , and cremated . His pall bearers included two former CASs , Air Marshals Sir Richard Williams and Sir George Jones , along with Air Vice Marshals Henry Wrigley , Joe Hewitt , Colin Hannah , and Douglas Candy .
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= Typhoon Ma @-@ on ( 2011 ) =
Typhoon Ma @-@ on , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Ineng , was a powerful typhoon that affected southern Japan in July 2011 . It was the sixth named storm and second typhoon of the 2011 Pacific typhoon season . Originating from an area of low pressure near Wake Island on July 9 , the precursor to Ma @-@ on gradually developed as it moved westward . By July 11 , it had become sufficiently organized to be declared a tropical depression , although the cyclone 's circulation remained broad . Over the following days , Ma @-@ on gradually intensified and attained typhoon status on July 14 . Favorable environmental conditions allowed for additional strengthening , and the storm ultimately attained peak ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) on July 16 . After turning northward in response to a weakening subtropical ridge , the typhoon underwent a series of eyewall replacement cycles that caused it to weaken . On July 19 , the typhoon struck Shikoku before turning southeastward and moving back over water . Slow weakening continued as Ma @-@ on succumbed to the effects of high wind shear . The system ultimately became extratropical on July 24 , and was last noted by the Japan Meteorological Agency a week later near the Kamchatka Peninsula .
Initially , Ma @-@ on posed a slight threat to the Mariana Islands and prompted the issuance of tropical storm warnings . However , the system remained far away from the area and only produced scattered rainfall . In Japan , hundreds of people evacuated from mudslide @-@ prone areas . Torrential rains produced by the storm , estimated at more than 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 48 in ) , led to widespread and damaging floods . Five people perished as a result of Ma @-@ on , and damage reached ¥ 3 @.@ 9 billion ( 2011 JPY , $ 50 million 2011 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the typhoon were from an area of convection that meandered near Wake Island on July 9 . The disturbance slowly consolidated and developed a low @-@ level circulation . Based on the presence of low wind shear and generally favorable environmental conditions , tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated that the system would develop into a tropical cyclone . Early on July 11 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , and a few hours later the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) reported the formation of a tropical depression about halfway between Wake Island and the Northern Marianas Islands . The JTWC followed suit and initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 08W .
The depression tracked westward due to a ridge to its north . Its circulation was initially broad and ill defined , with patches of disorganized convection due to dry air . The depression was able to intensify due to generally favorable conditions , and the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Ma @-@ on at 0600 UTC on July 12 . Gradually the thunderstorms became concentrated around the center , despite restricted outflow to the north and west . Ma @-@ on intensified at a slower than climatological rate , although an eye feature became evident by early on July 13 . At 0000 UTC that day , the JMA upgraded Ma @-@ on to a severe tropical storm , and 24 hours later the storm intensified into a typhoon to the northeast of the Northern Marianas . By that time , it was also located about 970 km ( 575 mi ) southeast of Iwo Jima . A ragged eye became apparent on satellite imagery , and after developing an anticyclone aloft , its outflow became much better defined .
By July 15 , Typhoon Ma @-@ on had a well @-@ defined eye with the strongest convection in its southern periphery . It continued intensifying , and the JTWC estimated 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 220 km / h ( 135 mph ) . Late on July 15 , Ma @-@ on weakened slightly due to stronger wind shear , which caused its eyewall to break apart in the northwest quadrant . It re @-@ intensified the next day after an eyewall replacement cycle commenced . At 0600 UTC on July 16 , the JMA estimated peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) while the typhoon was located about 1185 km ( 735 mi ) southeast of Okinawa . Around that time , Ma @-@ on began a motion to the northwest due to a weakening of the subtropical ridge , and it briefly entered the area warned by the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) ; the agency gave it the local name Ineng .
Late on July 17 , Ma @-@ on underwent another eyewall replacement cycle and weakened , despite developing improved outflow and convection in the northern quadrant . The typhoon 's large size prevented re @-@ intensification – gale force winds extended 370 km ( 200 mi ) east of the center . In addition , the intrusion of dry air diminished thunderstorms in the western periphery . By July 18 , Ma @-@ on reached the western extent of the ridge and began a motion to the north toward Japan . The next day , it turned to the northeast as it paralleled the Japan coastline just offshore . At around 1400 UTC on July 19 , Ma @-@ on made landfall on Shikoku as a minimal typhoon . Turning to the east , the typhoon weakened to a severe tropical storm before moving over the southern tip of the Kii Peninsula early on July 20 . After emerging from the country , Ma @-@ on turned to the southeast . Increased wind shear displaced the convection to the east , although slight re @-@ intensification was expected . However , the JTWC downgraded Ma @-@ on to a tropical depression on July 21 after the storm lost much of its convection . The circulation became ill @-@ defined , and the JTWC discontinued advisories on July 22 , noting the system was in the process of dissipation . However , the JMA maintained Ma @-@ on as a severe tropical storm until July 23 , by which time the storm had turned to the northeast . The storm became extratropical on July 24 near the Kuril Islands , lasting another seven days before dissipating east of the Kamchatka Peninsula .
= = Preparations and impact = =
After Ma @-@ on attained tropical storm status , the Tiyan , Guam National Weather Service office issued a tropical storm watch for Agrihan , Pagan , and Alamagan . It was later upgraded to a tropical storm warning after Ma @-@ on became a typhoon , which was canceled after the storm passed the islands to the north . The typhoon produced high waves in Guam , as well as gusty winds and precipitation in an outer feeder band .
High waves in advance of the typhoon capsized a boat in the East China Sea , although the six passengers were rescued . Moisture from the storm extended west to Taiwan , where over 600 mm ( 24 in ) of rainfall was reported . The heavy rainfall caused flooding and mudslides that blocked roadways and forced evacuations .
In Japan , the typhoon was forecast to strike areas affected by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster . Officials prepared by installing a cover to prevent rain contamination . Ultimately , there still was rain contamination , and Ma @-@ on 's passage produced 2 @,@ 000 tons of radioactive water . Before the storm struck Japan , officials in Miyakonojō , Miyazaki advised the evacuation of about 900 people in areas prone to mudslides . At least 300 airline flights were canceled due to the storm . The typhoon also caused delays in the nation 's rail system . Nippon Oil stopped shipping oil during the storm . As Ma @-@ on moved across Japan , it produced winds of 108 km / h ( 68 mph ) , along with heavy rainfall of up to 1200 mm ( 48 in ) . Rainfall in a 24 ‑ hour period reached 860 mm ( 38 @.@ 5 in ) in Umaji , Kōchi , which set a 24 ‑ hour rainfall record and exceeded the average July precipitation by 265 @.@ 5 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) . The rains flooded houses and roads in the region . High rains closed several expressways , and in Shizuoka Prefecture , a blocked road stranded 96 mountain climbers . Strong winds left about 11 @,@ 000 people without power on Shikoku Island . The combination of winds and rain damaged the 385 ‑ year ‑ old Nijō Castle in Kyoto . The typhoon injured 60 people , and killed five people . One of the deaths was from a man who drowned while checking on his boat during the storm . Damage was estimated at ¥ 3 @.@ 9 billion ( 2011 JPY , $ 50 million 2011 USD ) .
Following Ma @-@ on 's passage , temperatures decreased across Japan , which led to a marked decrease in heat stroke deaths . Throughout the month , heat stroke deaths were 70 % less than in July 2010 .
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= Cyclone Glenda =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Glenda ( JTWC designation : 20S , also known as simply Cyclone Glenda ) of March 2006 was among the strongest tropical cyclones to threaten Western Australia , though it weakened considerably before landfall and moved ashore in a lightly populated region . It began as a tropical low on 15 March in the Gulf of Carpentaria . The precursor disturbance drifted over Top End and later across the northeastern portion of Western Australia , and after emerging into the Indian Ocean it strengthened into a tropical storm . Aided by favourable environmental conditions , Glenda rapidly intensified to reach Category 5 status on the Australian cyclone scale , and with a peak intensity of 910 mbar it was among the strongest cyclones on record within the Australia region . On 30 March it moved ashore near Onslow as a Category 3 cyclone , and the next day it degenerated into a remnant tropical low over land .
The precursor disturbance produced heavy rainfall in the Kimberley region of Western Australia , causing record flooding and some road damage . Minor damage was reported at the final landfall of Glenda . Due to the sparse population and preparations made , the cyclone was not responsible for any deaths or injuries . However , its name was later retired from the list of tropical cyclone names .
= = Meteorological history = =
On 15 March , a tropical disturbance developed in the south @-@ western Gulf of Carpentaria . It moved westward , drifting across Top End , and it exited into the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf on 22 March . The Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) office in Darwin , which is the local Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre , began issuing advisories on the system late on 23 March while it was located about 85 km ( 50 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Wyndham , Western Australia . Environmental conditions favored intensification as an anticyclone developed over the storm , which provided good outflow and low vertical wind shear . Initially , the primary inhibiting factor was land interaction . After executing a small loop over water , the disturbance continued westward , crossing over the northern portion of Western Australia before emerging into the Indian Ocean on 26 March . It began tracking west @-@ southwestward just offshore of the Kimberley coastline , and its convection quickly concentrated . At 0000 UTC on 27 March , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified it as Tropical Cyclone 20S . Three hours later , the BoM office in Perth upgraded the storm to Tropical Cyclone Glenda about 260 km ( 160 mi ) north of Derby , Western Australia .
Upon reaching open waters , Glenda quickly intensified , and midday on 27 March the BoM upgraded it to tropical cyclone status , or the equivalence of a minimal hurricane . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC followed suit by upgrading it to cyclone status just 12 hours after first warning on the storm . A wind gust of 113 km / h ( 70 mph ) was reported on Adele Island as the cyclone passed nearby . The track turned south westward around a steering ridge over Australia , aided by a mid @-@ latitude trough . By 27 March , Glenda had developed a banding eye , and subsequently began rapid deepening , with warm water temperatures of over 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) and a very favourable upper @-@ level environment . At 1200 UTC on 28 March , the JTWC classified Glenda with peak winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) about 235 km ( 145 mi ) west @-@ north @-@ west of Broome , or about 455 km ( 280 mi ) north @-@ north @-@ east of Port Hedland ; however , in a subsequent analysis , the JTWC lowered their intensity estimate to 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) . At the same time the BoM estimated the cyclone attained peak winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) with gusts to 300 km / h ( 185 mph ) , or a Category 5 on the Australian cyclone scale . Its peak intensity of 910 mbar was tied for the fifth most intense tropical cyclone on record in the Australian basin .
Initially , Cyclone Glenda was forecast to intensify further . However , a gradual increase in vertical shear caused the eye to become disorganised , with land interaction contributing to further weakening . The BoM maintained Glenda as a Category 5 cyclone until 29 March , and initially it was forecast to turn southward to move ashore near the populated region of Karratha at high tide . It retained its south west track and passed over several weather stations , one of which recorded sustained winds of 176 km / h ( 109 mph ) . Glenda made landfall near the less populated town of Onslow at around 10pm WST ( 1400 UTC ) on 30 March . The cyclone had weakened to a marginal Category 3 at the time of landfall . The JTWC issued its final warning on Glenda shortly after it moved ashore . The cyclone turned south and south @-@ south @-@ eastward and rapidly weakened over land in an area of increasing wind shear , and early on 31 March the BoM downgraded Glenda to a tropical low .
= = Preparations , impact and aftermath = =
The precursor system dropped heavy rainfall on 23 March in the eastern Kimberley in the state of Western Australia . The rainfall led to record flooding in the area ; the flooding washed out several roads near Kununurra , including a portion of the Great Northern Highway . Six people were evacuated due to the flooding .
Offshore , the threat of Glenda prompted officials to close oil , representing a lack of production of 154 @,@ 000 barrels of oil . Additionally , natural gas fields were closed , and several ports along the coastline were shut down during the passage of the storm . Prior to the storm 's landfall , officials issued a Red Alert for several communities . Storm shelters were opened in Karratha and Onslow , while a few hundred people evacuated along the coastline .
Glenda made landfall near Onslow , where sustained winds reached 117 km / h ( 72 mph ) . There , the storm produced a 24 ‑ hour rainfall total of 206 mm ( 8 @.@ 11 in ) , which is the sixth greatest daily precipitation on record in the town . Several other locations reported over 200 mm ( 8 in ) , though overall precipitation was less than a usual landfalling tropical cyclone . The rainfall flooded several roads . The winds downed several trees and power lines , which left about 2 @,@ 000 people in Karratha without electricity ; the power outage was quickly repaired . Several windows at the hospital in Onslow were broken , resulting in some minor water damage . Overall damage was minor , and no deaths or injuries were reported , which was credited to the storm 's weakening and preparations in the landfall area . In all , damages from the storm amounted to A $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 965 @,@ 000 ) . The disruption to shipping companies resulted in economic losses of A $ 30 million ( US $ 24 @.@ 1 million ) . Oil companies reported a loss of 500 tonnes during the economic quarter due to the cyclone . The Onslow Salt company reported upwards of A $ 20 million ( US $ 16 million ) in lost revenue .
Following the storm , residents and companies affected by the storm were allowed to file insurance claims . About A $ 240 @,@ 000 ( US $ 193 @,@ 000 ) was filed in repair claims for council buildings and A $ 69 @,@ 000 ( US $ 55 @,@ 000 ) in airport insurance . About A $ 99 @,@ 000 ( US $ 79 @,@ 000 ) and A $ 300 @,@ 000 ( US $ 241 @,@ 000 ) was provided in financial support for television and broadcasting infrastructure and aerodrome infrastructure respectively .
The Bureau of Meteorology retired the name Glenda following its usage .
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= Édifice Price =
The Édifice Price ( English : Price Building ) is an 18 @-@ floor ( originally 16 ) skyscraper in Quebec City , Canada . Built in 1930 @-@ 1931 amid controversy for Price Brothers ltd . , it is the tallest building in the Old Quebec historical district , and one of the oldest skyscrapers in Canada . The building is the property of the Quebec City municipal administration , but is leased to and used by the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec . A memorial is attached to the building . In 2001 , it became the location of an official residence for the Premier of Quebec , which occupies two of the upper floors .
= = History = =
In 1927 , John Herbert and Arthur Clifford Price , having inherited the prosperous Price Brothers Limited after the 1924 death of their father , Sir William Price III , decided to build a new headquarters for the company in Quebec City . They did not find anything to their liking on Saint @-@ Pierre street , at the time Quebec 's main financial district , so decided on Saint @-@ Anne street close to the City Hall . The design for the 16 @-@ floor building was awarded to Ross and Macdonald , a prestigious firm of architects based in Montreal .
The city , eager to demonstrate a progressive ethos , gave assent to the project despite heavy criticism that the administration was proving unable to protect Québec 's historic area because the building replaced two historic houses . Sources conflict as to exactly when construction started : one cites June 1929 to May 1930 , while another says the construction permit was delivered in December 1929 and construction began in June 1930 ; a third gives only years : 1928 @-@ 1930 . The building 's cornerstone bears an inscription reading " This stone was laid Oct. XXIX MCMXXIX [ October 29 , 1929 ] " . However , all sources agree that construction was rapid , and the building was finished within a year . It was inaugurated in 1931 .
Although completed successfully , the building turned out to be little more than an extravagant nail in Price Brothers ' coffin . The Great Depression pushed the company to the brink of bankruptcy , and the Price Family lost both control of the company and most of its fortune . Various restoration work was undertaken during the 1950s and ' 60s , mostly to the interior of the building .
In 1983 , it was acquired by the city of Quebec , which largely used it for its civil engineering division , echoing a similar situation in New York City where the Manhattan Municipal Building is an extension of New York City Hall . Soon afterwards a long term lease placed the Price Building under the management of the Société immobilière Trans @-@ Québec ( SITQ , now Ivanhoé Cambridge ) , the real estate arm of the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec ( CDP ) . Further extensive renovation began that lasted until 2005 , and included the addition of two extra floors on the inside , a terrace on the 16th floor and the installation of elevators .
In 2001 , the 16th and 17th floor became the Premier of Quebec 's official residence . Between 1997 and 2002 , a high @-@ end psychiatric clinic occupied floor 2 and 3 of the building . The administration has strongly affirmed the timing of this move with the Premier 's installation to be a complete coincidence . On July 12 , 2009 , tightrope walker Ramon Kelvink Jr. walked 230 metres ( 755 ft ) from the 13th floor of the building to the Château Frontenac 's 15th floor as part of the celebrations of the 400th anniversary of Quebec City .
The construction of the Édifice Price was heavily criticized in the 1920s , both because it showed disrespect for Price Sr. ' s intention of relocating the Price Brothers company 's operations to its original business centre of Kénogami ( now Jonquière ) , and because the monumental construction was perceived as out of proportion in a mixed commercial and residential area where few buildings exceeded four or five floors . Criticism continued after the construction , and a few years later the city council passed a by @-@ law limiting building heights in the old town to 65 feet ( 19 @.@ 8 m ) — a size only exceeded by one other building at the time : the then seven @-@ floor Hôtel @-@ Dieu de Québec . Nowadays , however , the building is considered an architectural monument in the capital and a defining element of the city 's skyline .
When the project for the construction of the Le Phare Québec project for a major skyscraper in the Sainte @-@ Foy area began attracting criticism , parallels with the major controversies that surrounded Édifice Price 's construction were drawn .
= = Architecture = =
Édifice Price , despite the original criticism , is considered to be very well integrated with its surroundings , and well adapted to a lot only 24 metres ( 79 ft ) wide . Of its 18 floors , 15 are used as corporate space , two constitute the Premier 's suite , and on top is a mechanical floor . This leads to conflicting numbers quoted for its floors ( 16 , 17 and 18 have been variously reported ) , compounded by the fact the retrofitted extra floors are not visible from outside the building . Two elevators , one of which is used as a freight elevator , provide access to all floors .
Édifice Price was constructed in the art deco style of the time , as was the neighbouring Clarendon Hotel , whose extension was completed a few years earlier . The design uses setbacks to gradually taper floor area down , yielding the typical elongated " wedding cake " shape which contributes in reducing loads and softens the building 's visual impact on the city 's skyline . The upper setbacks were later used to build balconies . Because the building is deeper than it is wide , it appears much bulkier when viewed from the side . This is reminiscent of Finnish art nouveau architect Eliel Saarinen 's work , and is the stylistic opposite of other buildings in the city such as the Château Frontenac , whose cantilever construction widens as it gets taller . Geometric motifs are carved in the Price Building 's stone cladding , especially over the first few levels . The building is topped by a more classical , specifically Châteauesque , steepled copper roof , the final composition showing Beaux @-@ Arts influences . The main exterior decorative themes are pilasters topped with palm motifs , pinnacles and a large vaulted arch with extrados over the main entrance .
At ground level and inside the lobby , bas @-@ reliefs depict the origins of the Price company . During the 1920s John M. Lyle , an influential architect of the Beaux @-@ arts school , was developing a uniquely Canadian fusion of French and English colonial styles , and his ideas were applied by designers Ross and Macdonald to the construction of the Price Building . Each floor is symmetrically divided in two by a hallway , and a projection at the end of the building references the bow of a ship .
The building 's structural steel frame was also a first for the city . It was covered in grey limestone from Saint @-@ Marc @-@ des @-@ Carrières and Queenston . Due to the rapid construction , Saint @-@ Marc @-@ des @-@ Carrières was unable to supply enough stone to keep up with demand on the building site , resulting in the use of Queenston as an additional source . Saint @-@ Marc @-@ des @-@ Carrières limestone is a pearly grey , and becomes a pale beige with age , while Queenston limestone has pink calcite streaks from crinoid fossils and takes a chamois tint as it ages .
= = Price Memorial = =
In 2002 , a memorial was unveiled on Sainte @-@ Anne between the Price Building and its right @-@ hand neighbour ( 67 – 71 Sainte @-@ Anne Street , a set of rowhouses ) . The memorial ( French : Mémorial Price ) is in the form of a sculpture , entitled " L 'Homme @-@ Rivière " ( " The River @-@ man " ) . It was sponsored by the CDP and the Virginia Parker Foundation , and designed by Quebec City artists Lucienne Cornet and Catherine Sylvain .
L 'Homme @-@ Rivière is a statue representing a log driver at work . The logs are heavily stylized , reduced to little more than cylinders . The driver and his hook , however , are shown as transforming into a wooden plant . Its location , in a tight space between two tall buildings , gives the sculpture the appearance of travelling down a river gorge . L 'Homme @-@ Rivière is highly dynamic , and has been described as looking as though it is about to spill onto the sidewalk . The log driver is a symbolic figure in the history and culture of Quebec , thanks notably to Félix @-@ Antoine Savard 's famous novel Menaud , maître draveur .
= = Quebec Premier official residence = =
An apartment on the 16th and 17th floors has been the official residence of the premier of Quebec since 2001 . These two floors , the highest habitable ones since the 18th floor is taken up by machinery , had originally been reserved for a CDP executive suite . There had been a previous attempt at offering the premier an official residence . In 1994 , the Quebec City Chamber of Commerce had bought a large residence at 1080 rue des Braves and donated it to then premier Jacques Parizeau . There were issues of security and neighbour relationships , however , and Lucien Bouchard declined to use it . He lived in a small apartment on Parliament Hill for most of his mandate .
In May 2001 , Bouchard 's successor Bernard Landry , who had until then lived in a three @-@ room apartment , announced that he would accept the SITQ offer of the Édifice Price apartment , and took up occupancy in November . The choice , although praised for its symbolic location , attracted criticism that the apartment , rather small and poorly lit , could not accommodate a family ( Landry was widowed from his first wife at the time ) . Some also noted that the former Lieutenant @-@ Governor 's residence , located at 1010 Chemin Saint @-@ Louis and sold in 1996 for a fraction of its estimated value , would have made an excellent choice . From 1997 an exclusive psychiatric clinic had occupied the Price Building 's second and third floors . This was moved out in 2002 ; the administration strongly affirmed the timing with the Premier 's installation to be a complete coincidence .
The 2 @,@ 800 sq ft ( 260 m2 ) apartment cost $ 195 @,@ 000 to build and decorate . It includes a 14 @-@ guest dining room , two bedrooms and all the associated facilities . The Premier also has access to a reception hall on the 14th floor if need be . The apartment is richly appointed with maple hardwood floors , granite and limestone ; its furnishings reproduce traditional Quebec styles , and is decorated with paintings by local artists on loan from the Musée du Québec .
In 2006 , renewed criticism regarding current Premier Jean Charest 's limited use of the apartment led to another proposal for a proper official residence . Charest , who heads a family of five and lives in Montreal , saw little reason to move them across the province . These proposal were never taken further , and Charest 's successor , Pauline Marois , made regular use of the apartment .
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= U.S. Route 40 Alternate ( Keysers Ridge – Cumberland , Maryland ) =
U.S. Route 40 Alternate ( Alt US 40 ) is the U.S. Highway designation for a former segment of U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) through Garrett and Allegany counties in Maryland . The highway begins at US 40 near exit 14 on Interstate 68 ( I @-@ 68 ) and runs 31 @.@ 80 miles ( 51 @.@ 18 km ) eastward to Cumberland , where it ends at exit 44 on I @-@ 68 . Alt US 40 is maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) .
The highway is known as National Pike because it follows the original alignment of the historic National Road . As a result , there are many historic sites along Alt US 40 , including the Casselman Bridge in Grantsville and the last remaining National Road toll gate house in Maryland , located in LaVale .
When the National Freeway was built in western Maryland paralleling the old National Road , parts of US 40 were bypassed . The part of the bypassed road between Keyser 's Ridge and Cumberland became Alt US 40 , and other bypassed sections east of Cumberland became Maryland Route 144 ( MD 144 ) and U.S. Route 40 Scenic . Although Alt US 40 has diminished in importance from its original status as the National Road with the construction of I @-@ 68 , it remains an important route for local traffic and serves as the Main Streets of Grantsville and Frostburg .
= = Route description = =
Alt US 40 runs from Keyser 's Ridge to Cumberland , following part of the route of the National Road through some of Maryland 's most mountainous terrain in Garrett and Allegany counties . The highway is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from the eastern junction with MD 36 in Frostburg to the intersection of Mechanic Street and Henderson Avenue in Cumberland .
= = = Garrett County = = =
Alt US 40 branches from US 40 near exit 14 on I @-@ 68 at Keysers Ridge . It runs parallel to I @-@ 68 through northern Garrett County as a two @-@ lane road with truck lanes on some uphill sections . The annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) — that is , the number of cars that use the road per day , averaged over the course of one year — is 1 @,@ 831 at the western end of Alt US 40 . For comparison , the parallel section of I @-@ 68 has an AADT of 14 @,@ 271 . Alt US 40 passes through some of the most mountainous terrain in Maryland . The route runs perpendicular to the mountain ridges in Garrett County , and as a result much of the section of the road in Garrett County runs uphill or downhill . The first mountain encountered by the highway east of Keysers Ridge is Negro Mountain . The road passes over the mountain at an elevation of 3 @,@ 075 feet ( 937 m ) , which is the highest point on Alt US 40 , and was also the highest point along the National Road . East of Negro Mountain , the highway enters Grantsville , where traffic increases , with the AADT increasing to 3 @,@ 711 , the highest traffic density on Alt US 40 in Garrett County . In Grantsville , Alt US 40 meets MD 669 , which connects with Pennsylvania Route 669 toward Salisbury , Pennsylvania . A short distance east of this intersection , the highway meets MD 495 , which junctions with I @-@ 68 and continues southward toward Oakland . East of Grantsville , Alt US 40 passes over the Casselman River on a steel bridge built in 1933 . Downstream from this bridge is the Casselman River Bridge State Park , centered on the stone arch bridge which originally carried the National Road over the Casselman River .
Continuing eastward from Grantsville , Alt US 40 intersects US 219 a short distance north of exit 22 on I @-@ 68 , where US 219 leaves the freeway . East of this intersection , traffic decreases , with an AADT of 1 @,@ 681 , the lowest traffic density along the entire route . The US 219 intersection is at the top of a hill known as Chestnut Ridge .
East of Chestnut Ridge , the highway passes over Meadow Mountain at a height of 2 @,@ 789 feet ( 850 m ) . In eastern Garrett County , traffic on the route gradually increases to an AADT of 2 @,@ 232 . Alt US 40 passes under MD 546 , which runs north from I @-@ 68 , through Finzel , to the Pennsylvania border . Although Alt US 40 does not directly intersect MD 546 , it is connected to MD 546 by way of access road MD 546F , and also by MD 946 , which intersects Alt US 40 near the top of Little Savage Mountain . Just east , the route crosses the larger Big Savage Mountain at an elevation of 2 @,@ 847 feet ( 868 m ) before entering Allegany County .
= = = Allegany County = = =
After continuing into Allegany County , Alt US 40 descends Savage Mountain into Frostburg , where it passes through the town as Main Street . Main Street in Frostburg has the highest traffic density on the route , with an AADT of 15 @,@ 022 . For comparison , the parallel section of I @-@ 68 between exits 33 and 34 has an AADT of 20 @,@ 931 . In west Frostburg , the highway intersects MD 36 , which then follows the same road as Alt US 40 for about a mile , separating from Alt US 40 in east Frostburg . In central Frostburg , Main Street intersects MD 936 , an old alignment of MD 36 . Continuing eastward from Frostburg , traffic density decreases , to an AADT of 13 @,@ 585 at the MD 55 intersection , staying between 13 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 for the remainder of the highway . Alt US 40 passes through Eckhart Mines , where it intersects MD 638 , which connects with MD 36 north of Frostburg . In the eastern part of Eckhart Mines , the highway intersects MD 743 , which is an old alignment of US 40 which was bypassed by the roadway which became Alt US 40 .
East of Eckhart Mines , Alt US 40 passes through Clarysville , where it intersects MD 55 . It is near Clarysville that the terrain followed by Alt US 40 changes : from Clarysville westward to the summit of Savage Mountain , the road runs uphill , while east of Clarysville , the road follows valleys , first following the valley around Braddock Run to Cumberland , and then following the valley around Wills Creek into Cumberland . Near the MD 55 intersection is a stone arch bridge which was initially built in 1812 and rebuilt in the 1830s , and carried the National Road over Braddock Run , a tributary to Wills Creek . East of Clarysville , the highway passes through a gap carved by Braddock Run between Piney Mountain and Dan 's Mountain . I @-@ 68 , having been built later , is located on the hillside above Alt US 40 , on the Dan 's Mountain side of the gap . Alt US 40 then descends Red Hill into LaVale . At the bottom of Red Hill is the La Vale toll gate house . Built in 1836 , tolls were collected there until the early 1900s , and it is the last original National Road toll gate house standing in Maryland . In LaVale , the route intersects MD 53 , which serves as a truck bypass for US 220 to Cresaptown . Alt US 40 interchanges with westbound I @-@ 68 at exit 39 , but eastbound access is only available via MD 53 and MD 658 , which intersects Alt US 40 east of the exit 39 interchange . The highway expands to a four @-@ lane road near its intersection with MD 53 , then narrows to a two @-@ lane road near its intersection with MD 658 . East of the intersection with MD 658 , Alt US 40 turns northward , passing through LaVale toward the Narrows , bypassing Haystack Mountain to the north , as opposed to I @-@ 68 , which passes directly over Haystack Mountain , paralleling Braddock Road ( MD 49 ) .
Northeast of LaVale , Alt US 40 intersects MD 36 at the northern terminus of MD 36 . Alt US 40 then passes through the Narrows , a gap between Haystack Mountain and Wills Mountain carved by Wills Creek , into Cumberland , where it follows Henderson Avenue and Baltimore Avenue to exit 44 on I @-@ 68 , where Alt US 40 ends . The roadway continues eastward as MD 639 .
= = History = =
The roadway which became Alt US 40 in Garrett and Allegany counties is , with some realignments , the route followed by the National Road through western Maryland . Various historic sites associated with the National Road can be found along Alt US 40 , including a toll @-@ gate house ( La Vale Tollgate House ) and mile @-@ marker in LaVale . The toll @-@ gate house in LaVale is the last remaining toll @-@ gate house on the National Road in Maryland . Several historic bridges from the National Road , since bypassed by newer bridges , are still present along the route of Alt US 40 , including the Casselman Bridge over the Casselman River in Grantsville and a bridge in Clarysville .
= = = Braddock Road and the National Road = = =
In 1755 , during the French and Indian War , British troops under the command of General Edward Braddock completed the arduous task of building a road westward from Fort Cumberland . They largely followed an Indian trail known as Nemacolin 's Path , expanding it to a 12 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) road using only hand tools . The road construction was part of the Braddock Expedition , which was the British campaign to seize Fort Duquesne from the French and Indian forces . Although the military expedition was a failure , the road continued to be used afterwards . However , with little maintenance being done on the road , it decayed over time until by the early nineteenth century little remained of the road . The route followed by Alt US 40 today is very similar to the route followed by Braddock 's Road , with the exceptions of various realignments that have been done to the road over the years . For example , Braddock 's Road crossed directly over Haystack Mountain west of Cumberland rather than following the Cumberland Narrows as later roads did .
The National Road , the first road funded by the U.S. federal government , was authorized by the United States Congress in 1806 , and ran from Cumberland , Maryland , to Vandalia , Illinois . Construction started in 1811 , and by 1837 the road reached Vandalia . Many sites from the National Road remain along Alt US 40 , in particular the LaVale toll gate house , built in 1836 . Following the completion of the National Road in 1837 , the federal government ceded the road to the states to operate as a toll road , and toll gate houses such as the one in LaVale were built along its path in preparation for the transfer . Tolls continued to be collected along the National Road at the LaVale toll house until the late nineteenth century . The LaVale toll house is the first of its kind to be built along the National Road , and it is the last standing toll house along the National Road in Maryland . The LaVale toll house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977 .
= = = Realignments = = =
Multiple realignments of the road that is now Alt US 40 have occurred since it was originally built as the National Road . Most such realignments are minor , such as to bypass an old bridge , but some have significantly affected the path of the road . One such realignment occurred in 1834 , when a new route for the National Road was built through the Cumberland Narrows . The previous route had followed the Braddock Road , a route which is now followed by MD 49 . The route following Braddock Road passed over Haystack Mountain and was much steeper than the newer route through the Narrows . The route through the Narrows allowed the road to bypass this steep mountain ascent . The stone arch bridge built across Will 's Creek for the new alignment remained in service until 1932 , when a new bridge which is the present bridge across Will 's Creek replaced it . The old bridge was torn down during the construction of the Will 's Creek flood control system in the 1950s .
Another realignment of Alt US 40 occurred in Eckhart Mines , where in 1969 the road , then designated as US 40 , was realigned to the north , bypassing the section of the highway through Eckhart Mines , which has a lower speed limit and sharp curves . The speed limit on the old alignment is 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) , and the new alignment has a speed limit of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) along most of the bypass . The new alignment intersects the old alignment , designated as MD 743 , on the east end between MD 638 and MD 55 . The west end of the old alignment meets MD 36 just south of its intersection with Alt US 40 . MD 638 , which prior to the realignment ended at US 40 , was not truncated , and thus ends at MD 743 .
= = = Historic bridges = = =
There are several historic bridges along the National Road that are still present near the current route of Alt US 40 . Among them are the Casselman River bridge in Grantsville , and the bridge over Braddock Run , a tributary of Wills Creek , in Clarysville . The original National Road bridge over the Casselman River was a stone arch bridge constructed in 1813 . The 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) span was built to be the largest bridge of its type in the United States at the time , and during its construction it was believed that the bridge could not stand on its own . The bridge was constructed in this manner in the hopes that the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal would eventually pass under it , though construction on the canal was stopped at Cumberland in 1850 . When US 40 was first designated in 1925 , it crossed the Casselman River on the original stone bridge . In 1933 , a new steel bridge was constructed to replace the National Road bridge , and it is this bridge that Alt US 40 now follows . The original bridge was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964 , and is now part of the Casselman River Bridge State Park .
Another historic bridge stands in Clarysville , near the intersection of Alt US 40 and MD 55 . This bridge , which crosses Braddock Run , was built in 1812 , with later work being done in 1843 . The stone arch bridge , located just south of the current alignment of Alt US 40 , was restored in 1976 .
= = = Origins of Alt US 40 = = =
Prior to the construction of I @-@ 68 , US 40 followed the route currently designated as U.S. Route 40 Alternate . The first segment of what would become I @-@ 68 was built in Cumberland in the mid @-@ 1960s . The freeway , first designated as US 48 , was extended westward through the 1970s , reaching West Virginia in 1976 . The portions of US 40 that were bypassed between Cumberland and Keysers Ridge became U.S. Route 40 Alternate , which first appeared on MDSHA maps in the early 1980s . At this time , US 40 was realigned to follow the US 48 freeway , sharing the freeway with US 48 . In 1991 the freeway was completed from Hancock to Morgantown , West Virginia . The US 48 designation was retired , and on August 2 , 1991 , the freeway became I @-@ 68 .
= = Junction list = =
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= The Generous Mr. Lovewell =
The Generous Mr. Lovewell is the sixth studio album by Christian rock band MercyMe . Released in May 2010 , the album is a concept record revolving around a fictional character , ' Mr. Lovewell ' , and the overall theme of love . Produced by Brown Bannister and Dan Muckala , the album met with positive critical and commercial reception . The album sold over 88 @,@ 000 copies its first week and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 and at number one on the Christian Albums chart .
Three singles were released in promotion of the album , all of them reaching number one on Billboard 's Christian Songs chart . Lead single " All of Creation " spent ten weeks at the top of the Christian Songs chart , also peaking at No. 14 on the Heatseekers Songs chart and No. 2 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . " Beautiful " and " Move " also reached number one on the Christian Songs chart , holding the top spot for one and nine weeks , respectively , with " Move " also peaking at No. 20 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart .
= = Background , concept , and recording = =
The idea for the character of " Mr. Lovewell " and the album came up while the band was attempting to figure out concepts for the record . According to lead singer Bart Millard " we [ MercyMe ] were trying to come up with the concept for our next record . For some reason , the words ' love well ' got stuck in my head " . Millard elaborated that " we 're very good , as a nation , at loving well when a massive tragedy takes place ... We all of a sudden become very unified , which is a great , great thing . But on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis , we pass up opportunities . We look the other way , or we try to ignore . So the idea of loving well is almost a kind of ' pay it forward ' that revolves around the cross " . With that general idea , MercyMe was going to name the album Love Well . However , the band decided to make a character that personifies the idea of ' loving well ' , and came up with the character of ' Mr. Lovewell ' , partly inspired by The Beatles ' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . Because of the character and the more diverse sound the album was going to have , the band felt the original name didn 't fit and changed the album name to reflect the character of ' Mr. Lovewell ' . Millard has described the character of ' Mr. Lovewell ' as " like Buddy the Elf meets Forrest Gump . He sees the good in everyone and knows his neighbors enough to know their needs . Mr. Lovewell may not be the next Billy Graham , but he ’ s changing the world each day in every little word and deed . ”
The concept of ' loving well ' was further developed when the band made a trip to the Dominican Republic and were inspired by the resilient spirits of people living in poverty on the island . When the band started to write the songs for the album , they joined the character of ' Mr. Lovewell ' and the concept of ' loving well ' , creating the overall message of love that is present in the album . Millard stated the band 's dream for the album was " to inspire others to ‘ pay it forward ’ to the cross . It doesn ’ t have to be about major sacrifices . Just let your life become such that people know what you stand for " .
The album was recorded mostly by Reid Shippen at Sonic Ranch in El Paso , Texas , with the exceptions of " Won 't You Be My Love " and " All of Creation " , which were recorded by Steve Bishir at Quad Studios .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
MercyMe wanted to get out of their comfort zone with the overall sound of the album , and brought in producer Dan Muckala . Millard has said that he initially wrote the songs on the album as poems and then the band worked on the music , meaning the band didn 't think much about the overall length of the songs . MercyMe further developed the sound of the album by looking to the work of The Beatles for inspiration .
The songs on the album often vary in genre , with many falling outside of MercyMe 's usual adult contemporary sound . Songs on the album take influences from many genres , including electronic rock on " This Life " and dance music / dance @-@ rock on " Move " . " All of Creation " , " Only You Remain " , and " Won 't You Be My Love " have a more general worship or Adult Contemporary feel , while the title track takes a musical feel similar to that of The Beatles .
= = = Lyrics = = =
The album 's lyrical content generally revolves around a theme of unconditional love and a concept MercyMe has called ' loving well ' . Other lyrical themes include worship and selflessness .
Individual songs vary on the overall theme of love . " Beautiful " was written for the daughters of the band members , expressing the Christian viewpoint that Jesus saw something beautiful , something worth dying for , in everyone . " This So Called Love " expresses the belief that all good deeds done absent of Jesus are in vain .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
Critical reception to The Generous Mr. Lovewell was generally positive . Giving the album four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , Allmusic reviewer Jared Johnson stated " If you only know MercyMe for their 2001 ubiquitous AC crossover hit " I Can Only Imagine , " you 've missed out on some of the Christian genre 's most accessible and well @-@ known hits – which means you might not fully appreciate the full artistic statement that the band makes on The Generous Mr. Lovewell , a daring reinvention that drove the band far outside its comfort zone and sparked a national social trend in the process , " also noting that " the band 's collaboration with Brown Bannister and Dan Muckala delivers the messages with authenticity and contemporary new sounds that make it perfectly believable to envision a world in which Lovewell 's considerate and genuine actions are manifest in the lives of real everyday people " . Kevin Davis of Christian Music Review , giving the album an A + , opined that the album reminds him " of a classic theme album like Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band by The Beatles or Songs For Jane [ sic ] by Maroon 5 , both in musical diversity and with the challenging lyrics " and " truly establishes MercyMe as the premier artist in all of Christian music " .
Kevin McNeese of NewReleaseTuesday gave the album five out of five stars , opining that " [ The Generous Mr. Lovewell ] takes the formula that MercyMe has perfected and drop kicks it out of Mr. Lovewell 's window " . Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout was even less positive , opining that " MercyMe is still on top of their game ... however , The Generous Mr. Lovewell is undeniably a pretty forgettable record , and while there are a few gems to be found , it 's only going to appeal to the already @-@ existent fanbase MercyMe has garnered after all these years " , also stating that " MercyMe still has great things to say and their musical progression has been adequate enough , but it 's hard to see their sixth record as anything extraordinary and more desirable than their previous material . " Billboard reviewer Deborah Evans Price commented that " from the buoyant opener " This Life " to the brief but eloquent closer " This So Called Love , " MercyMe 's sixth studio album , " The Generous Mr. Lovewell , " is a beautifully executed set that celebrates how the power of love can change the world ... Music with a message has never sounded lovelier " .
At the 2011 Billboard Music Awards , The Generous Mr. Lovewell was nominated for Top Christian Album and " All of Creation " was nominated for Top Christian Song . At the 42nd GMA Dove Awards , " All of Creation " was nominated for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year .
= = Release and promotion = =
" The Generous Mr. Lovewell " debuted at number 3 on the Billboard 200 with 88 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release . This marked both a record sales week for the band as well as their highest chart peak to date . 80 % of the album 's sales came from Christian retailers . The album also debuted at number 1 on the Christian Albums chart . The high first week sales totals were led by a lengthy pre @-@ order campaign . Accordingly , album sales slid sharply in its second week , with the album selling 18 @,@ 000 units ( an 80 % sales drop ) and sliding 20 spots , to number 23 on the Billboard 200 . The Generous Mr. Lovewell spent a total of six weeks atop the Christian Albums chart during its run . It ranked as the sixth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2010 , the seventh best @-@ selling Christian album of 2011 , and the 47th best @-@ selling Christian album of 2012 . It was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on May 15 , 2015 , signifying shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies .
Three singles were released from The Generous Mr. Lovewell . The album 's first single , " All of Creation " , was released to radio of January 29 , 2010 . On March 2 , 2010 it was released as a digital download on iTunes and as a CD single at select Walmart locations . It spent nine weeks atop the Billboard Christian Songs chart and peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . " All of Creation " was ranked by Billboard at the top spot on the 2010 year @-@ end Christian Songs chart . " Beautiful " , was released on September 17 , 2010 as the album 's second single , and spent one week atop the Christian Songs chart . " Move " was released as the album 's third single . It spent nine weeks atop the Christian Songs chart and peaked at number 20 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart .
= = Track listing = =
( Writing credits lifted from the inner notes of the album )
= = Personnel = =
( Credits lifted from Allmusic )
= = Charts = =
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= Billy DeBeck =
William Morgan DeBeck ( April 15 , 1890 – November 11 , 1942 ) , better known as Billy DeBeck , was an American cartoonist . He is most famous as the creator of the comic strip Barney Google , later retitled Barney Google and Snuffy Smith . The strip was especially popular in the 1920s and 1930s , and featured a number of well @-@ known characters , including the title character , Bunky , Snuffy Smith , and Spark Plug the race horse . Spark Plug was a merchandising phenomenon , and has been called the Snoopy of the 1920s .
DeBeck drew with a scratchy line in a " big @-@ foot " style , in which characters had giant feet and bulbous noses . His strips often reflected his love of sports . In 1946 , the National Cartoonists Society inaugurated the Billy DeBeck Memorial Awards ( or the Barney Awards ) , which became the Reuben Award in 1954 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
William Morgan DeBeck was born on April 15 , 1890 on the South Side of Chicago , where his father , Louis DeBeck , was a newspaperman employed by the Swift Company . The elder DeBeck was French , and the name DeBeck was originally spelled DeBecque . His Irish @-@ Welsh mother , Jessie Lee Morgan , had lived on a farm and was a schoolteacher .
= = = Early career = = =
After graduating from Hyde Park High School in 1908 , DeBeck attended the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts . He sold cartoon drawings during this time to finance himself , at first in 1908 for the Chicago Daily News . His caricatures of models drew the attention of his fellow students , and though he had intended to become a painter in the Flemish tradition , he quit the Academy after two years after he got a cartooning job with the weekly paper Show World in 1910 . His cartoons showed the influence of John T. McCutcheon and Clare Briggs , whom he had admired in his youth ; he also had the skill to draw in the more fastidiously cross @-@ hatched style of a Charles Dana Gibson , copies of whose drawings he sold as originals .
DeBeck soon left Show World for better opportunities at Youngstown Telegram in Ohio as a editorial cartoonist , then again at the Pittsburgh Gazette @-@ Time in late August 1912 . He later contributed cartoons to the New York City humor magazines Life and Judge . While living in Pittsburgh , he traveled to New York to show comic strip samples to Arthur Brisbane , an editor working for William Randolph Hearst 's newspaper empire ; Brisbane rejected the work . DeBeck later stated the examples " were terrible " as he " had been doing political cartoons for the Pittsburgh Gazette , and the comics were new " to him . He returned to Youngstown and married Marian Louise Shields there in 1914 . Some time later they divorced , remarried in 1921 , and eventually divorced again .
In May 1915 , DeBeck and a partner named Carter launched a newspaper syndicate and correspondence cartooning course ; DeBeck 's advice to his correspondence students was : " First learn how to draw — then go to a good art school and get a firm foundation in the arts " . The school was not a success , and DeBeck returned to Chicago and joined the Chicago Herald in December 1915 . He worked on a strip called Finn an ' Haddie for the Adams Newspaper Service on the side . On December 9 , immediately after starting at the Herald , he began a strip called Married Life that so caught the attention of Hearst ; legend says that , to acquire DeBeck , Hearst bought the Herald and merged it with the Chicago Examiner , as DeBeck had refused to join the Hearst empire after the Examiner raised his monthly salary from $ 35 to $ 200 . DeBeck 's creations were first adapted to film when an animated version of Married Life appeared in a Seattle Sunday Times newsreel in 1917 . DeBeck created a number of other features , especially for the sports section , while his antics made him something of a local celebrity .
= = = Barney Google = = =
On July 17 , 1919 , a new comic strip by DeBeck in the vein of Married Life on the sports page ; Take Barney Google , For Instance differed in that it was about a henpecked , sports @-@ obsessed husband and his travails defying his wife . Google was interested in non @-@ fictional sports stories , such as the heavyweight championship between Jess Willard and Jack Dempsey . It was not long before DeBeck refigured the tall , thin Google into the short , squat character he was to be remembered as , and the title too was soon shortened to Barney Google . It was not popular until DeBeck had Google acquire a race horse named Spark Plug ( nicknamed " Sparky " ) in a strip dated July 17 , 1922 . The dilapidated , blanket @-@ covered horse became such a marketing and merchandising phenomenon that the character has been called the Snoopy of the 1920s — toys , balloons , and games were among the popular items adorned with Sparky 's image . When DeBeck introduced the horse , he also introduced a little @-@ used technique into the strip : continuity . Barney Google went from being a gag @-@ a @-@ day strip to one in which both humor and suspense kept readers coming back each day , as Google desperately tried to get his horse to win a race . The sequence in which Spark Plug was introduced into the strip was republished in the October 1922 issue of Comic Monthly — likely the earliest newsstand comics periodical .
DeBeck kept readers on the edges of their seats with uncertain suspense : sometimes Spark Plug actually won a race . While DeBeck resisted at first , Hearst demanded a pretty girl be introduced into the strip . DeBeck brought in Sweet Mama , which initially created a stir , and certain papers dropped the strip , but after the phrase swept the nation , the strip 's popularity only increased . Over the years , DeBeck was credited with introducing more neologisms and catchphrases , such as " heebie @-@ jeebies " , " horsefeathers " , " balls of fire " and " time 's a @-@ wastin ' " . In 1923 , Billy Rose penned a Tin Pan Alley pop hit called " Barney Google ( with the Goo @-@ Goo @-@ Googly Eyes ) " . A series of Barney Google live @-@ action films starring Barney Hellum appeared in 1928 and 1929 .
DeBeck had included a topper called Bughouse Fables ( signed " Barney Google ) " with his main strip since 1921 , though he soon handed it off to assistant Paul Fung . On May 16 , 1926 , he replaced Bughouse Fables with Parlor , Bedroom & Sink Starring Bunky , a strip that was popular enough on its own to survive until 1948 .
According to later Barney Google and Snuffy Smith scripter Brian Walker , DeBeck had become " one of the highest @-@ paid cartoonists in America " at this point . In the early 1920s , DeBeck moved to Riverside Drive in New York City , and in 1927 remarried Mary Louise Dunne . The couple spent the next two years in Europe , after which they settled down again in New York . DeBeck 's active lifestyle sometimes caused him to miss deadlines . He enjoyed traveling , deep sea fishing , golf and playing bridge . As a golfer since 1916 , DeBeck spent time on courses with such notables as Harold Lloyd , Walter Huston , Rube Goldberg , Fontaine Fox , Clarence Budington Kelland and bridge authority P. Hal Sims . He was also acquainted with such celebrities as Babe Ruth , Lowell Thomas and Damon Runyon . His best friend was the cartoonist Frank Willard , who also attended the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts .
= = = Snuffy Smith = = =
Barney Google 's popularity persisted into the Depression era ; in 1933 , Fortune magazine reported DeBeck 's weekly earnings at $ 1200 . In the spring of 1934 , DeBeck hired 17 @-@ year @-@ old Fred Lasswell as an assistant after seeing his work on a poster . He wanted a letterer for Barney Google , and Lasswell 's lettering impressed him . Lasswell started by doing chores for DeBeck , as well as taking on lettering and other duties on the strip . DeBeck undertook educating Lasswell in cartooning , having him attend schools , copy the works of masters like Gibson and May , and copy line @-@ for @-@ line the artwork from DeBeck 's own comics . Lasswell moved in with the DeBecks , and would tag along with them wherever they moved . He would take over his mentor 's strip after his death and continue it into the 21st century .
DeBeck gained a growing interest into the culture of Appalachia in the 1930s and amassed a library on the subject that he later donated to Virginia Commonwealth University . Among the books he admired were those featuring Sut Lovingood by George Washington Harris ; inside Sut Lovingwood Yarns ( 1867 ) DeBeck produced his first sketch of Snuffy Smith , a character that grew from talking with and sketching the Appalachian hillbilly locals . Just as the strip 's circulation was starting to flag , DeBeck introduced Snuffy in a storyline in which Barney inherited an estate in the mountains of North Carolina . After dodging the ornery hillbilly 's bullets , the two became fast friends . The strip was eventually renamed Barney Google and Snuffy Smith , and Snuffy would take over from Barney Google as the central character . Lasswell , with his own country roots , provided much of the inspiration for Snuffy and his Appalachian environment . Especially , he provided a source for the locals ' dialect . Hillbilly culture enjoyed much popularity in the 1930s ; Snuffy Smith appeared the same year as Al Capp 's Li 'l Abner . By 1940 , DeBeck 's strip appeared in 210 newspapers with a combined circulation of ten million .
The Charles Mintz studios produced four full @-@ color animated Barney Google and Snuffy Smith shorts in 1935 . The series had two more live @-@ action adaptations in 1942 : Bud Duncan starred as Snuffy Smith in Private Snuffy Smith and co @-@ starred with Cliff Nazarro as Barney Google in Hillbilly Blitzkrieg .
= = = Later life and death = = =
DeBeck had a studio apartment on Park Avenue in New York , and homes in Great Neck in New York and St. Petersburg in Florida . In the early 1940s , he developed cancer and found it increasingly difficult to work . Sensing his end was near , he made a special trip to see Marian Shields . His last signed daily strip appeared July 4 , 1942 , and his last Sunday the following August 2 . With Lasswell contributing to the war effort , the strip continued under an assistant , Joe Musial . On November 11 , 1942 , DeBeck died at the age of 52 in New York City , with his wife at his bedside . They had no children . Barney Google appeared in 206 newspapers at the time , and Musial continued the strip until Lasswell took it on full @-@ time in 1945 . Over time , Barney faded from the strip , and the title contracted to Snuffy Smith .
In 1943 , Mary DeBeck donated to the Ringling School of Art all of her husband 's art supplies , including drawing tables , reams of drawing paper , hundreds of colored pencils , lamps , drawing boards , inks , drawing pens , artist smocks , etching plates , and an etching press . Mary remarried , and she died February 14 , 1953 , aboard a DC @-@ 6 from National Airlines which plummeted into the Gulf of Mexico during a thunderstorm on a flight from Tampa , Florida to New Orleans .
= = Style = =
DeBeck 's drawing style falls in the " big @-@ foot " tradition of American comic strips such as The Katzenjammer Kids , Hägar the Horrible , and Robert Crumb . It had a scratchy line and characters with bulbous noses and giant feet . Though he often procrastinated , DeBeck could work quickly and make it just in time for his deadlines .
DeBeck put Barney Google through great changes throughout his twenty @-@ three @-@ year run on the strip , changing situations and characters frequently . The storylines reflected the outlook of the 1920s boom years , the Great Depression , and World War II .
= = Legacy = =
DeBeck 's main strip continued in the hands of Fred Lasswell long after its creator 's death . The number of newspaper that carried it had been flagging in the years leading to DeBeck 's passing , partly because the hillbilly dialect in the dialogue was difficult to read for many . The syndicate informed Lasswell that if many more newspapers dropped the strip , it would be canceled . Lasswell refocused on Snuffy Smith , dropped much of the dialect , and moved away from continuity to a gag @-@ a @-@ day format . The strip 's popularity once again increased , and by 1989 it was running in 900 newspapers in 21 countries . It has continued in different hands since Lasswell 's death in 2001 .
Debeck 's hillbilly depictions , though stereotyped and distorted , had a higher degree of accuracy that those of Al Capp or other contemporary cartoonists , and painted hillbillies in a better light . DeBeck included authentic expressions such as " plime @-@ blank " ( " exactly " ) and " a lavish of " ( " a lot of " ) , and included explanations of dialect unfamiliar to his readers . Some such as country singer Roy Acuff objected that the strip perpetuated stereotypes of hillbilly culture .
DeBeck is credited with introducing or popularizing a number of neologisms and catchphrases via Barney Google , including " heebie @-@ jeebies " , " horsefeathers " , " hotsy totsy " , " balls of fire " , " time 's a @-@ wastin ' " , " touched in the head " , and " bodacious " .
Charles M. Schulz , creator of the Peanuts comic strip , was nicknamed " Sparky " after DeBeck 's racehorse character , and DeBeck 's drawing style has been an influence on contemporary cartooning and popular culture , and on such later cartoonists as Robert Crumb and Bobby London . The Barney Google Sunday page for September 18 , 1938 was placed in the time capsule at the 1939 World 's Fair .
The National Cartoonists Society 's annual award was originally named the Billy DeBeck Memorial Award . Created by Mary DeBeck Bergman in 1946 , these were known as the Barney Awards . She also made the annual presentation of engraved silver cigarette cases , with DeBeck 's characters etched on the cover , to the winners ( Milton Caniff , Al Capp , Chic Young , Alex Raymond , Roy Crane , Walt Kelly , Hank Ketcham and Mort Walker ) . In 1954 , after her death , the DeBeck Award was renamed the Reuben Award after Rube Goldberg , and all of the earlier winners were re @-@ awarded Reuben statuettes .
= = List of comic strips = =
Finn an ' Haddie ( 1916 )
Married Life ( 1916 )
Olie Moses and Mara , Inc
Take Barney Google , F 'rinstance ( 1919 ) , later Barney Google , then Barney Google and Snuffy Smith
Bughouse Fables , soon taken over by DeBeck 's assistant , Paul Fung
Parlor , Bedroom & Sink ( 1926 ) , later Bunky
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= Reginald Heber =
Reginald Heber ( 21 April 1783 – 3 April 1826 ) was an English bishop , traveller , man of letters and hymn @-@ writer who , after working as a country parson for 16 years , served as the Bishop of Calcutta until his sudden death at the age of 42 .
The son of a wealthy landowner and cleric , Heber gained an early reputation at Oxford University as a poet . After graduation he expanded his view of the world by undertaking , at the height of the Napoleonic Wars , an extended tour of Scandinavia , Russia and central Europe . He was ordained in 1807 , and took over his father 's old parish of Hodnet in Shropshire . He combined his pastoral duties with other church offices , hymn @-@ writing , and more general literary work which included a critical study of the complete works of the 17th @-@ century cleric Jeremy Taylor .
Heber was consecrated Bishop of Calcutta in October 1823 . During his short episcopate he travelled widely in the areas of India within his diocese , and worked hard to improve the spiritual and general living conditions of his flock . A combination of arduous duties , hostile climate and indifferent health brought about his collapse and death while visiting Trichinopoly ( now Tiruchirappalli ) , after less than three years in India . Monuments were erected in his memory in India and in St Paul 's Cathedral , London . A collection of his hymns was published shortly after his death ; one of these , " Holy , Holy , Holy " , is a popular and widely known hymn for Trinity Sunday .
= = Early life = =
= = = Background and childhood = = =
The surname " Heber " is probably derived from " Haybergh " , a hill in the Craven district of Yorkshire in north @-@ eastern England , where the Heber family originated . The family held the lordship of the manor of Marton , and was granted a coat of arms during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. In 1752 one of the family , Richard Heber , received the manor and estate of Hodnet Hall in Shropshire as a bequest from a cousin of his wife . The bequest included patronage of the parish of Hodnet . On Richard Heber 's death in 1766 his brother , named Reginald , who had taken Holy Orders and was co @-@ rector of the parish of Malpas in Cheshire , inherited the Shropshire estate . He then became rector of Hodnet , in addition to his share of the Malpas living . This Reginald married twice ; the first union , to Mary Baylie , produced a son , Richard Heber , who became a distinguished book collector and was Member of Parliament for Oxford University . The second marriage , after Mary Baylie 's death , was to Mary Allanson ; it produced two further sons , the elder of whom , born at Malpas on 21 April 1783 , was named Reginald after his father .
At the age of eight the younger Reginald began attending the local grammar school at Whitchurch , where he remained for five years . In 1796 he was sent to Bristow 's , a small private school in Neasden a few miles north of Central London . This establishment provided intensive learning for around a dozen boys , preparing them for eventual entry to Oxford or Cambridge universities . At Bristow 's Reginald met John Thornton , who became a lifelong friend . The pair shared a lively interest in church history and beliefs ; a lengthy letter , written by Heber to Thornton , is described by Heber 's biographer Arthur Montefiore as being worthy of a learned theologian . In October 1800 Heber entered Brasenose College , Oxford ; Thornton 's decision to go to Cambridge was a matter for Heber 's considerable regret .
= = = Oxford = = =
There were strong family connections with Brasenose ; Heber 's brother Richard was at the time a fellow of the college , and his father was a former fellow . The Master of Brasenose was William Cleaver , a close friend of Reginald senior and a frequent visitor to Hodnet Hall . In his first year at Oxford Heber acquired distinction by winning the University Prize for Latin Verse . He began to develop a local reputation as a Romantic poet , and in 1803 successfully entered his long poem " Palestine " for the Newdigate Prize . He had been helped in this composition by Walter Scott , a family friend , before the future novelist 's years of fame . When Heber declaimed the poem at that year 's Encaenia ceremony at the Sheldonian Theatre , it was given an enthusiastic reception . The poem was later published , and was set to music by the composer William Crotch , who had been professor of music at Oxford since 1797 . Montefiore , writing in 1902 , described the poem as " the most successful and popular piece of religious verse of the first half of the [ 19th ] century " . Heber 's later biographer Derrick Hughes finds its contemporary acclaim puzzling : " It is not a good , not even a mediocre poem ; it is leaden " .
In February 1804 Reginald senior died , leaving the living of the parish of St Luke , Hodnet vacant ; this may have prompted Heber 's own decision to seek ordination , though he delayed this for some years . In his degree examinations he acquitted himself honourably rather than brilliantly ; Montefiore quotes a contemporary 's view that Heber 's main contribution to university life was in fields outside formal academic success , particularly as a thinker , a poet and an orator : " Reginald Heber was a star whose lustre was as steady as it was clear " . He took his bachelor 's degree in the summer of 1804 , and was elected to a fellowship of All Souls College , Oxford . He also won the University 's Bachelor 's Prize for an English prose essay .
= = = European journey = = =
Heber and Thornton had planned to follow their graduation with a Grand Tour of Europe . However , in 1804 the Napoleonic Wars made much of Europe inaccessible , so the pair delayed their departure until the summer of 1805 and organised a route through Sweden , Norway and Finland to Russia , instead of the traditional journey through France and Italy . In July 1805 , they sailed for Gothenburg in Sweden , then travelled northward by stagecoach , via Vänern and Uddevalla , to Kristiania ( Oslo ) in Norway . After a short stay in the city they moved further north , through the wild Dovre Region to Trondheim , where they observed the practice of skiing for the first time ( Heber referred to it as " skating " ) .
The two travellers then turned south @-@ east , re @-@ entered Sweden and travelled through Uppsala to Stockholm . Towards the end of September they crossed the Gulf of Bothnia to Åbo ( Turku ) , the site of Europe 's most northerly university , in the part of Finland then under Swedish sovereignty . They proceeded eastwards to the Russian border , and reached St Petersburg at the end of October . They spent two months in the city ; through influential contacts at the British Embassy they visited places generally inaccessible to the public , including Tsar Alexander 's private quarters in the Winter Palace . They experienced Muslim worship at first hand , as the city 's large Muslim population observed Ramadan ; Heber described the crowds gathered for prayer in an improvised mosque as " the most decent and attentive congregation [ he ] had seen since leaving England " .
Heber and Thornton had intended to remain in St Petersberg until after the new year and then , if the circumstances of the war permitted , to return home through Germany . Napoleon 's victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805 , and the treaties which followed it , led them to alter this plan . They decided to extend their stay in Russia , with a visit to the ancient Muscovy capital , Moscow , before going on to the regions of the south . On 31 December 1805 they left St Petersberg by sledge for the 500 @-@ mile journey to Moscow , where they arrived on 3 January . They found it a hospitable city — in a letter home Heber refers to it as an " overgrown village " — and the pair formed friendships with many of its leading citizens and clergy . They left by stagecoach on 13 March , heading south towards the Crimea and the Black Sea . This journey took them through the Cossack country of the Don River Basin . Heber sent home a vivid account of the night celebrations for Easter at Novo Tcherkask , the Cossack capital : " The soft plaintive chaunt of the choir , and their sudden change at the moment of daybreak to the full chorus of ' Christ is risen ' were altogether what a poet or a painter would have studied with delight " .
In the Crimea , Heber encountered the region 's large Muslim community , and observed eastern manners and practices for the first time . He expressed particular pleasure at being greeted with the oriental salaam . The course of the war in Europe had meanwhile shifted , so that Heber and Thornton were able , on the final stages of their journey , to pass through Poland , Hungary , Austria and Germany to reach the port of Hamburg . On the way they visited Austerlitz , where they heard accounts of the recent battle from the local population . In the course of his enquiries , which included making sketches of the scene , Heber was briefly mistaken for a French spy by local farmers . At Hamburg the two travellers boarded Lord Morpeth 's private yacht and sailed for England , arriving at Great Yarmouth on 14 October 1806 .
= = Rector of Hodnet = =
= = = Parish priest = = =
On his return to England , Heber prepared for Holy Orders at Oxford , where he found time for literary pursuits , was active in university politics and led a busy social life . He was ordained as deacon at the end of February 1807 and received full priest 's orders from the Bishop of Oxford on 24 May 1807 . He was then inducted into the family living , as rector of Hodnet ; he was later to describe his role as " a half @-@ way station between a parson and a squire " . At first he divided his time between his parish and Oxford , where he continued working for his M.A. degree and fulfilled duties at All Souls . He had not at this time determined his own doctrinal position ; writing to Thornton he admitted that he was still searching : " Pray for me , my dear friend , that I may have my eyes open to the truth ... and if it please God that I persevere in his ministry I may undertake the charge with a quiet mind and a good conscience " . A High churchman by upbringing , Heber was a strong opponent of factional rivalry ; he eventually found a place around the midpoint of the Anglican spectrum between the High Church and evangelical wings , with perhaps a slight inclination towards the evangelicals .
On 9 April 1809 Heber married Amelia Shipley , the youngest daughter of the Dean of St Asaph . He withdrew from Oxford , having secured his M.A. , and set himself up permanently in the Hodnet rectory ; finding this too small for his wife 's liking he had the house demolished and a larger replacement built . In September 1813 Heber preached a sermon in Shrewsbury to the British and Foreign Bible Society , a missionary organisation of which he had been a member since his undergraduate days . The sermon ended with what Hughes describes as Heber 's first public declaration in support of the work of overseas missions . He refused an appointment as a canon at Durham , preferring to continue his work in Hodnet in which , after 1814 , he was assisted by his younger brother , the Revd Thomas Heber , who served as his curate until his death , at the age of 31 , in 1816 . The employment of a curate enabled Heber to devote more time to his literary pursuits , and to accept an invitation , in 1815 , to deliver the Bampton Lectures at Oxford . He chose as his subject " The Personality and the Office of the Christian Comforter " ; the series was published in 1822 .
In 1817 Heber accepted the post of canon at St Asaph , the relative proximity of which enabled the extra duties to be carried out without interfering with his parish work . His main literary task during these years was a biography and critical study of the complete works of the 17th @-@ century cleric Jeremy Taylor ; the works , with Heber 's critique , were published in 15 volumes between 1820 and 1822 . This period of Heber 's life was saddened by the death , on 24 December 1818 , of his infant daughter after a short illness . Two more daughters were born later , in 1821 and 1824 respectively ; both lived to adulthood . In 1822 Heber was elected to the church office of Preacher of Lincoln 's Inn , which would require a regular term of residence in London . He saw this both as an extension of his service to the Church and as a means of renewing contact with old friends .
= = = Hymn writer = = =
At the start of the 19th century the Anglican authorities officially disapproved of the singing of hymns in churches , other than metrical psalms , although there was considerable informal hymn @-@ singing in parishes . Heber , according to the poet John Betjeman , was a professed admirer of the hymns of John Newton and William Cowper , and was one of the first High Church Anglicans to write his own . In all he wrote 57 , mainly between 1811 and 1821 . Heber wished to publish his hymns in a collection , in which he proposed to include some by other writers . In October 1820 he sought help from the Bishop of London , William Howley , in obtaining official recognition of his collection from the Archbishop of Canterbury . In a noncommittal reply Howley suggested that Heber should publish the hymns , although he proposed to withhold episcopal approval until public reaction could be gauged . Heber began preparing the publication , but was unable to complete arrangements before his departure for India in 1823 . The collection was eventually published in 1827 , after Heber 's death , as Hymns Written and Adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the Year .
Betjeman characterised Heber 's style as consciously literary , with careful choices of adjectives and vivid figures of speech : " poetic imagery was as important as didactic truth " . A more recent analysis by J. R. Watson draws attention to Heber 's tendency to deliver what he terms " a rather obvious sermon " , and to his mixing of powerful description with " a rather trite moralism " . A handful of Heber 's hymns have survived into popular use into the 21st century . One whose popularity has waned is the missionary hymn " From Greenland 's Icy Mountains " , written in 1819 as part of a country @-@ wide campaign on behalf of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel ( SPG ) . Watson describes this as " a conspicuous example of that fervent belief to convert the world to Christianity which led Heber and others to lay down their lives in the mission field " , and while widely sung until the second half of the 20th century , it was for instance omitted from the 1982 revision of the Episcopal Church hymnal . Betjeman felt that in the modern world , the words of this hymn seem patronising and insensitive to other beliefs , with references to " ... every prospect pleases and only man is vile " , and to " the heathen in his blindness [ bowing ] down to wood and stone " . These phrases and the assumptions behind them offended Gandhi , who drew attention to them in a speech to the YMCA in Calcutta ( Kolkata ) in 1925 : " My own experience in my travels throughout India has been to the contrary ... [ Man ] is not vile . He is as much a seeker after truth as you and I are , possibly more so " . Other Heber texts remain popular , and the Dictionary of North American Hymnology noted that most of his hymns remain in use .
= = Bishop of Calcutta = =
= = = Appointment = = =
The see of Calcutta had been established in 1814 . It covered much of the Indian subcontinent and Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ) , together with Australia and parts of southern Africa . The first bishop , Thomas Middleton , who had been consecrated in 1814 , died in office in July 1822 . At the time the head of the Indian Board of Control was Charles Watkin Williams @-@ Wynn , an old Oxford friend of Heber 's . In December 1822 Williams @-@ Wynn wrote to Heber , not directly offering his friend the post — the wording appeared to anticipate a refusal — but nevertheless leaving Heber the opportunity to claim the office , should he wish . Heber had a longstanding interest in the work of overseas missions ; he supported not only the SPG but also its more recently formed evangelical sister @-@ body , the Church Missionary Society ( CMS ) , and while still at Oxford had helped to found the British and Foreign Bible Society ( BFBS ) .
Heber was attracted to the post , his interest in distant places having been stimulated by his early travels , but his initial response to the implied offer was cautious . He first asked Williams @-@ Wynn whether there was a suitable local man for the appointment and he was told there was not . His next concern was whether his wife and infant daughter should be exposed to the rigours of the Indian climate , and also if his own health was adequate . After consultation with doctors and discussion with his family , Heber wrote to Williams @-@ Wynn on 2 January 1823 , refusing the post . Within days he had written again , regretting the refusal and asking if the post was still available , at which Williams @-@ Wynn quickly obtained the formal approval of King George IV to the appointment . Heber spent the next few months at Hodnet preparing for his departure ; during this period he gave a farewell sermon at Oxford , after which the degree of Doctor of Divinity ( D.D. ) was conferred on him . On 1 June 1823 Heber was formally consecrated as Bishop of Calcutta at Lambeth Palace , by the Archbishop of Canterbury . Two weeks later he departed for India with Amelia and his daughter Emily .
= = = In office = = =
The new bishop arrived in Calcutta on 10 October 1823 . After his ceremonial installation by the Governor General , Lord Amherst , Heber preached his first sermon as bishop on Sunday 12 October , in St John 's Cathedral Church . He faced many challenges arising from tasks unfinished at the time of his predecessor 's death and from the long hiatus without a bishop . A major area of concern was Bishop 's College , a training school for local clergy founded by Middleton in 1820 , the development of which had stalled due to financial and management problems . Heber reinvigorated the project by extensive fundraising , by persuading the government to increase its grant of land , and by restarting the building programme ; within a few months the college boasted a library and a new chapel . In June 1824 Heber , using a power provided to him by recent Act of Parliament , ordained as deacon the first native Indian to receive Holy Orders .
Heber was interested in all aspects of Indian life and quickly made friends , both with the local population and with the representatives of non @-@ Anglican churches . Occasionally his easy manner and lavish hospitality clashed with the principles of the more puritan and evangelical of his clergy ; one such , Isaac Wilson of the CMS , used a sermon to mount a direct attack on the bishop after what he considered were excessive celebrations following a baptismal service . Wilson was forced to apologise after Heber threatened him with a Consistory court .
= = = Travels = = =
On 15 June 1824 Heber set out on a tour of northern India , accompanied by his personal chaplain , Martin Stowe , and Daniel Corrie , the Archdeacon of Calcutta . Amelia remained in Calcutta ; earlier in the year she had given birth to her third daughter , Harriet . The general plan was to travel by boat to the upper waters of the River Ganges , then overland into the foothills of the Himalayas before turning south and west , crossing Rajputana to reach Bombay . The journey was almost aborted near to its beginning when Stowe fell ill in Dacca and died there ; after some hesitation , Heber decided that the tour should continue . Early in August the party reached Benares ( now Varanasi ) , the largest of the cities in the Ganges plain , where Heber spent several weeks . It was a wholly Indian city without a European population , sacred to Hindus , Sikhs and Buddhists but with a well @-@ established CMS school and a substantial Christian minority . Heber consecrated a new church , and when he conducted a Holy Communion service in both English and Hindustani , a large congregation of Christians and Hindus thronged the church .
The party left Benares in mid @-@ September . After reaching Allahabad they continued overland , accompanied by an armed troop of sepoys . On 28 November they reached their farthest northerly point , at Almora in the Kumaon region . Their subsequent path southward took them to Delhi , the ancient Mughal capital , where Heber was presented to the ageing emperor Akbar Shah II in his dilapidated palace ; Heber wrote of the emperor as " the venerable ruin of a mighty stock " . In the final stages of the journey to Bombay , at Nadiad , Heber met with Sahajanand Swami , the region 's leading Hindu religious leader . Heber had hopes of converting the Swami to Christianity , but was disappointed in the meeting and finally dismissed the Swami as a worshipper of images . On 19 April Heber arrived in Bombay , to be greeted a week later by Amelia and his daughters , who had arrived by sea from Calcutta .
Heber remained in Bombay for four months , and then decided that , instead of sailing directly for Calcutta , he would visit Ceylon on the way . He arrived at Galle on 25 August and spent five weeks touring the main cities before departing for Calcutta where he arrived on 19 October 1825 after an absence of 16 months .
= = = Final months = = =
Heber wished to pass on to the Governor General , Lord Amherst , much of what he had learned and observed on his long voyage , and on his return to Calcutta busied himself with a series of detailed reports . He also wrote to Williams @-@ Wynn in London , strongly criticising the East India Company 's stewardship of its Indian territories . He was concerned that few Indians were promoted to senior posts , and noted the " bullying , insolent manner " towards Indians that was typically adopted by the British . Many local matters also demanded Heber 's attention : the next phase in the development of Bishop 's College , the preparation of a Hindustani dictionary , and a series of ordinations including that of Abdul Masih , an elderly Lutheran whose reception into Anglican orders had earlier been resisted by Bishop Middleton , on unspecified grounds
In spite of the pressures on his time , Heber set out again on 30 January 1826 , this time heading south for Madras ( now Chennai ) , Pondicherry , Tanjore ( Thanjavur ) and ultimately Travancore . One reason for the tour was to examine the issue of caste , which persisted in the church in South India . In Tanjore on Easter Day , 26 March 1826 , Heber preached to more than 1300 , and on the following day conducted a confirmation service for a large Tamil congregation . On 1 April he moved on to Trichinopoly ( Tiruchirappalli ) where , next day , he confirmed 42 people . On 3 April , after attending an early @-@ morning service at which he gave a blessing in the Tamil language , Heber returned to his bungalow for a cold bath . Immediately after plunging into the water he died , possibly from the shock of the cold water in the intense heat . Watson records that a contemporary engraving shows his body " being carried from the bath by his servant and chaplain , the latter immaculately attired in a frock coat and top hat " . His funeral was held the next day at St John 's church , where he had preached his final sermon ; he was buried within the church , on the north side of the altar .
= = Memorials and legacy = =
Although Heber 's episcopate had been brief he had made a considerable impression , and news of his death brought many tributes from around India . Sir Charles Grey , an old Oxford friend who was serving as Calcutta 's Chief Justice , spoke of Heber 's cheerfulness , his lack of self @-@ importance , his good humour , patience and kindness . Flags were flown at half @-@ mast in Madras and Calcutta , and the Governor @-@ General ordered a salute of 42 guns — one for each completed year of the bishop 's life . In several cities public subscriptions were opened to raise funds for monuments . In St John 's church in Trichinopoly , initially a simple plaque above the grave recorded the date and place of Heber 's death ; this was in due course made much more elaborate . In St George 's church , Madras , a large sculpture by Francis Chantrey was erected , depicting Heber ministering to members of his flock . Reflecting Heber 's interest in the training of local ordinands , further funds were raised to provide Heber scholarships at Bishop 's College ; in Trichinopoly a school founded by the German missionary Christian Friedrich Schwarz became the Heber Memorial School .
It took four months for reports of Heber 's death to reach England . At Oxford , representatives of Brasenose and All Souls opened a fund for an appropriate memorial ; this idea was taken over by Williams @-@ Wynn , who wanted a national rather than an Oxford @-@ based monument . From the large sum collected , Chantrey was paid £ 3 @,@ 000 for a huge marble sculpture that was placed in St Paul 's Cathedral , London . More modest memorials were raised in the parish churches at Hodnet and Malpas .
Heber was soon commemorated in print ; as well as the publication of his hymns collection in 1827 , the journal that he had kept during his northern India tour of 1824 – 25 was published in 1828 and proved a great commercial success . Less popular was the three @-@ volume biography and letters collection that Amelia published in 1830 . In the ensuing years various collections of Heber 's poetry appeared . Hughes observes that although some of the lighter verses are neat and amusing , the general quality is such that had Heber been only a poet , he would quickly have been forgotten . He achieved a more lasting niche as a hymn @-@ writer ; according to Hughes , among his hymns with enduring appeal are the Epiphany hymn " Brightest and best of the sons of the morning " ; " The Son of God Goes Forth to War " , dedicated to the church 's saints and martyrs , and the Trinity Sunday hymn " Holy , Holy , Holy , Lord God Almighty " . The last one is probably the most widely known of all Trinity hymns and owes a great deal of its popularity to John Bacchus Dykes 's tune " Nicea " : Watson observes that the tune 's " magnificent grandeur carries the long lines effortlessly " . Hughes mentions two more Heber hymns that , he says , deserve to be better known : " God that madest earth and heaven " and " By cool Siloam 's shady rill " .
Heber 's pioneering commitment to the mission fields was expressed , half a century after his death , by the author Charlotte Mary Yonge : " Heber was one of the first English churchmen who perceived that to enlarge her borders and strengthen her stakes was the bounden duty of the living Church " . He led through example , and through his writings which " did much to spread knowledge of , and therefore interest in , the field of labour in which he died " . The Anglican Church of Canada commemorates Heber on 4 April each year .
In July 1830 Amelia Heber married Count Demetrius Valsamachi , a Greek diplomat who became a British subject and was later knighted by Queen Victoria . Amelia lived until 1870 . Her daughter Emily married Algernon Percy , the son of the Bishop of Carlisle , and the younger daughter Harriet married a son of Heber 's friend John Thornton .
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= Kathy Dunderdale =
Kathleen Mary Margaret " Kathy " Dunderdale , MHA ( née Warren ; February 1952 ) is a Canadian politician who served as the tenth Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador , Canada , from December 3 , 2010 , to January 24 , 2014 . Dunderdale was born and raised in Burin ; before entering politics she worked in the fields of community development , communications , fisheries and social work . Her first foray into politics was as a member of the Burin town council , where she served as deputy mayor . She was also a Progressive Conservative Party ( PC ) candidate in the 1993 general election and served as President of the PC Party .
In the 2003 general election , Dunderdale was elected as Member of the House of Assembly ( MHA ) for Virginia Waters . She was re @-@ elected as MHA in the 2007 and 2011 general elections and resigned her post on February 28 , 2014 . She served in the cabinets of Danny Williams — at various times holding the portfolios of Innovation , Trade and Rural Development , Natural Resources and Deputy Premier — where she developed a reputation as one of the most high @-@ profile members of Williams ' cabinets . Dunderdale became premier upon the resignation of Williams and after becoming the PC leader she led the party to victory in the October 2011 election . Dunderdale was the first female premier in the province 's history and the sixth woman to serve as a premier in the history of Canada .
= = Background = =
Kathleen Mary Margaret Warren was born and raised in Burin , Newfoundland and Labrador by her mother Alice and father Norman , she was one of 11 children . Dunderdale received a High School diploma in 1970 . After attending Memorial University of Newfoundland for social work , she dropped out of university to get married . She met her late husband , Captain Peter Dunderdale , in 1972 while she was home from university for the summer . Captain Dunderdale was a British master mariner whose boat was in dry dock undergoing repairs . The couple had a son , Tom , and daughter , Sarah , together and Dunderdale was a stay @-@ at @-@ home mom during their formative years , while her husband sailed the world . When her children grew older , she worked away from home in many different volunteer roles .
In the early 1980s , Dunderdale was on an action committee that successfully lobbied Fishery Products International to reverse a decision to shut down its Burin fish plant . The committee was successful and the plant remains in operation . She worked as a social worker with the provincial Department of Social Services , and accepted an offer to be part of an appeals board for inshore fishers after the cod moratorium .
Dunderdale served on the Burin town council and worked with an array of organizations , including the local school board and the Status of Women . She was president of the Progressive Conservative Party of Newfoundland and Labrador and after her husband retired from the sea and her children moved away for university , she became heavily involved in the consulting company her husband had started . She help found Women in Resource Development Corporation ( WRDC ) in 1997 , an organization that works to get women involved in the trades and technology sector in Newfoundland and Labrador .
In 1995 , she and her husband moved to St. John 's , where Dunderdale currently lives within her district of Virginia Waters . Her husband was diagnosed with prostate cancer and died in 2006 at age 56 .
= = Politics = =
Dunderdale was elected to the Burin town council in 1985 , and served as deputy mayor from 1989 to 1993 . She got involved in the provincial Federation of Municipalities , she served as their first female president and is the organization 's only honorary member , Dunderdale was also director of the Canadian Federation of Municipalities .
Dunderdale was the Progressive Conservative Candidate in the district of Fortune @-@ Hermitage in the 1993 provincial election . Dunderdale ran against Liberal cabinet minister Oliver Langdon , and while she knew she would not win the election she felt she had to send premier Clyde Wells a message about the way he was treating municipalities . In the 1995 Progressive Conservative leadership election Dunderdale served as co @-@ chair of Lynn Verge 's successful campaign .
= = = MHA and minister = = =
Dunderdale was elected to the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly in the 2003 general election defeating Liberal cabinet minister Walter Noel by 1 @,@ 835 votes , taking 58 percent of the popular vote . Following the election she was brought into cabinet as Minister of Innovation , Trade and Rural Development , and Minister Responsible for the Rural Secretariat .
In a July 5 , 2006 , cabinet shuffle Williams appointed Dunderdale as the Minister of Natural Resources and the Minister Responsible for the Forestry and Agrifoods Agency . She was re @-@ elected in the 2007 general election taking 73 % of the popular vote against three other candidates . Dunderdale remained as Natural Resources Minister following the 2007 election and on October 31 , 2008 , Williams appointed her to serve as Deputy Premier and Minister Responsible for the Status of Women , while continuing to serve in her previous portfolios .
From February 1 , 2010 , to March 15 , 2010 , Dunderdale assumed the duties as acting Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador , while Williams took a leave of absence to undergo heart surgery in Florida .
= = = Minister of Natural Resources = = =
During her time as the Minister of Natural Resources she negotiated and signed several multibillion @-@ dollar development deals .
On August 20 , 2008 , Dunderdale , Premier Williams and a consortium of oil companies led by Chevron Canada signed a deal to develop the Hebron oil field . The Hebron oil field is the second largest oil field off the coast of the province with an estimated 700 million barrels of oil reserves . The province expects to gain at least $ 20 billion in royalties and up to 3 @,@ 500 jobs from the project . Less than a year later , on June 16 , 2009 , the government announced they had negotiated an agreement with oil companies to expand the Hibernia oil field . The province negotiated a 10 percent equity stake in the " Hibernia South " extension and it is projected to add $ 13 billion to the province 's coffers .
On November 18 , 2010 , Dunderdale and Premier Williams were joined by Nova Scotia Premier Darrell Dexter in announcing a $ 6 @.@ 2 billion agreement to develop the first phase of the Lower Churchill Project . Nalcor Energy , a Newfoundland and Labrador Crown corporation , signed a partnership agreement with Emera Inc. of Nova Scotia to develop the 824 megawatts Muskrat Falls . The hydro development would see power from the falls transferred from Labrador to the island of Newfoundland via an underwater transmission link through the Strait of Belle Isle . Another underwater transmission link across the Gulf of St. Lawrence would bring power to Nova Scotia . Newfoundland and Labrador will use 40 percent of the hydro power itself and will be able to shut down the oil @-@ burning Holyrood Thermal Generating Station . Emera Inc. will get 20 % of the power for $ 1 @.@ 2 billion to sell to customers in Nova Scotia . The remaining 40 percent will be sold by Nalcor Energy to markets in Atlantic Canada and the Northeastern United States .
= = Premier = =
On December 3 , 2010 , Dunderdale was sworn in as Newfoundland and Labrador 's tenth Premier , taking over for Williams who retired from politics the same day . Dunderdale is the first female Premier in the province 's history and only the sixth female in Canada to lead a province or territory . On December 6 , 2010 , Dunderdale held a minor cabinet shuffle to replace herself as the Minister of Natural Resources . Innovation , Trade and Rural Development Minister Shawn Skinner took over Dunderdale 's duties as Minister of Natural Resources and he was replaced by Susan Sullivan .
= = = Party leadership = = =
After being sworn in as premier , Dunderdale announced that she would not be seeking the leadership of the Progressive Conservative Party and therefore would only serve in the role of premier until a leadership election was held in the spring of 2011 . However , on December 17 , 2010 , Dunderdale announced that she was reconsidering running for the leadership of the party and that she would make a final decision after Christmas .
On December 22 , 2010 , cabinet ministers Jerome Kennedy and Darin King , who were both seen as likely leadership candidates , announced they would not seek the leadership of the party . Both men said they were encouraging Dunderdale to run and that they would endorse her campaign if she entered the race . On December 23 , 2010 , Dunderdale garnered support from two other cabinet ministers when Finance Minister Tom Marshall and Municipal Affairs Minister Kevin O 'Brien opted out of running for the leadership and threw their support behind her entering the race .
Dunderdale announced her candidacy for the PC Party leadership on December 30 , 2010 , and was endorsed by her entire caucus . While she originally stated she would step down as premier if she decided to run for the leadership after announcing her candidacy Dunderdale said she will only step down if someone challenges her for the leadership . On January 10 , 2011 , an hour before nominations were set to close in the leadership election Brad Cabana , a blogger and a former mayor in Saskatchewan , filed his nomination papers becoming Dunderdale 's only challenger . The next day however the PC Party 's credentials committee announced that Cabana was ineligible from entering the race because he was unable to collect the 50 signatures needed by PC party members to be nominated . Cabana appealed the party 's decision but it was announced on January 27 , 2011 , that the rules committee upheld the previous ruling by the credentials committee . With Cabana being ineligible to run Dunderdale was officially named the leader @-@ designate , she was sworn in as leader at the party 's convention on April 2 , 2011 .
= = = 2011 general election = = =
On September 19 , 2011 , Dunderdale met with Lieutenant Governor John Crosbie and requested a dissolution of the 46th General Assembly with an election to follow on October 11 , 2011 . With an overwhelming lead in public opinion polls , for both Dunderdale and her party , and with roughly $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in the bank , pundits considered the election hers to lose . Dunderdale released her party 's platform in Grand Falls @-@ Windsor on September 22 , 2011 . While Dunderdale stressed the need for fiscal restraint , the platform included $ 135 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in new spending a year . The platform included continuing the freeze on post @-@ secondary tuition and eventually eliminating loans in favour of needs @-@ based grants , phasing out the payroll tax over six years , investing a third of any surplus into unfunded public pension funds , reviewing the province 's income tax rates to ensure they are progressive and competitive , continuing to make payments on the province ’ s direct debt , creating a population growth strategy , moving forward with the Muskrat Falls hydro development , and improving health care wait times .
On election night the Progressive Conservatives won 37 of the province 's 48 seats , six fewer seats then the party held before the election . The Liberal Party won six seats , while the NDP were elected in five . With this win Dunderdale became only the third female in Canadian history to lead a party to victory in a general election , after Catherine Callbeck in Prince Edward Island and Pat Duncan in the Yukon .
On October 28 , 2011 , Dunderdale 's new cabinet was sworn in at Government House . Through the elimination and restructuring of government departments she reduced her cabinet to 16 members , including herself , down from 19 . Dunderdale created the Department of Advanced Education and Skills , which takes on the majority of the responsibilities of the now defunct Department of Human Resources , Labour and Employment . She eliminated the Department of Business and merged it with the Department of Innovation , Trade and Rural Development to create the Department of Innovation , Business and Rural Development . She also restructured the former departments of Labrador and Aboriginal Affairs and Intergovernmental Affairs to create the Department of Intergovernmental and Aboriginal Affairs .
= = = Labour disputes = = =
Upon entering the premier 's chair Dunderdale was faced with an ongoing dispute between the province 's doctors and government over contract negotiations . In November , 14 doctors announced their resignations over the government 's latest offer of a 31 percent wage increase that they felt was not enough . At her swearing in as premier Dunderdale stated that earlier that week she had asked Health Minister Jerome Kennedy and Finance Minister Tom Marshall to meet with the Newfoundland and Labrador Medical Association ( NLMA ) later that day to work out a resolution to the dispute . After the meeting Dunderdale announced she hoped to have a deal signed with the province 's doctors before Christmas .
Dunderdale also announced soon after being sworn in that she wanted to end a year @-@ long strike on the Burin Peninsula that involved 15 home care workers . The government had been called on to settle the dispute but had refused to get involved seeing the workers are not direct employees of provincial government . Within 5 days of taking office Dunderdale 's government reached an agreement with the workers which they unanimously accepted ending the 377 @-@ day strike .
On December 15 , 2010 , Dunderdale along with Ministers Kennedy and Marshall joined the NLMA president to announce that a tentative agreement between the provincial government and doctors had been reached . The offer included 100 percent Atlantic Canadian parity within the first two years of the agreement , pay equity for salaried specialists , and retention bonuses for fee @-@ for @-@ service rural physicians . As a result of the new deal , the 13 of the 14 doctors who tendered their resignations en masse in November rescinded their resignations .
On September 17 , 2013 , the government announced that a four @-@ year tentative agreement had been reached with the Newfoundland and Labrador Association of Public and Private Employees ( NAPE ) , the province 's largest public sector union . The deal between the two was reached after 18 months of negotiations , during at which point NAPE released radio and television advertisements criticizing the government for saying the province 's economy was booming while they laid off employees and told unions to expect a modest increase in pay . The tentative deal included a wage freeze during the first two years of the deal , a two per cent increase in pay during year three and a three per cent wage increase in year four . Full @-@ time employees will also receive a $ 1 @,@ 400 signing bonus , while temporary , seasonal and part @-@ time workers will get a pro @-@ rated bonus . As well a new job evaluation system would see significant monetary benefits for some employees . Two weeks after reaching an agreement with NAPE , the government announced tentative agreements with the Canadian Union of Public Employees ( CUPE ) and the Association of Allied Health Professionals ( AAHP ) . Both agreements had a similar structure as the one government reached with NAPE .
= = = Energy policy = = =
= = = = Muskrat Falls = = = =
One of the major focuses of Dunderdale 's premiership has been the development of the first phase of the Lower Churchill Project — Muskrat Falls . Several weeks before becoming premier , Dunderdale along with Williams and Premier Dexter of Nova Scotia , signed a partnership agreement to develop the multibillion @-@ dollar hydro development . During her first official meeting with Prime Minister Stephen Harper on February 1 , 2011 , Dunderdale asked for his government 's support with a loan guarantee for Muskrat Falls . The loan guarantee would reduce the cost of the project by millions , resulting in lower electricity rates for consumers . Dunderdale 's first throne speech as premier was read out by Lieutenant Governor Crosbie on March 21 , 2011 , and there was significant focus placed on the Lower Churchill development . During a campaign stop in St. John 's during the 2011 federal election Dunderdale endorsed Harper and his Conservative Party while Harper committed to the loan guarantee . On August 19 , 2011 , Canada 's Natural Resources Minister Joe Oliver announced a Memorandum of Agreement for the loan guarantee . While Oliver stated the loan guarantee would be in place by the end of November 2011 , it was not until November 30 , 2012 that the loan guarantee was finalized . In a simultaneous news conference held in St. John 's and Halifax on December 17 , 2012 , Dunderdale and Emera Inc. announced they had both officially sanctioned the Muskrat Falls hydro development .
= = = = Nation energy plan = = = =
During her time as Natural Resources Minister Dunderdale promoted the need for a national energy plan , which would include an east @-@ west power grid spanning the country . At the Council of the Federation meeting in July 2012 , Dunderdale was selected as one of three premiers to help draft a national energy strategy on behalf of the Council . At the same meeting she compared a conflict between British Columbia Premier Christy Clark and Alberta Premier Allison Redford , regarding the Northern Gateway pipeline , to the conflicts Newfoundland and Labrador has had dealing with the province of Quebec regarding hydroelectricity . Dunderdale was one of the few premiers to wade into that conflict and stated that " I don 't agree that provinces should be able to use their geographical location to hold off economic development for their sister provinces - that 's not in the best interests of the country " . She went on to say that there would need to be difficult conversations but that they are needed to find resolutions that work for all .
= = = Education = = =
As part of a reorganization of government departments , the post @-@ secondary education portfolio was removed from the Department of Education and became part of the new Department of Advanced Education and Skills . Along with post @-@ secondary education the new department would be responsible for apprentices , advanced studies and take over much of the responsibilities of the former Department of Human Resources , Labour and Employment . The Department of Education would be responsible for K @-@ 12 education , early childhood learning and the province 's libraries .
= = = = K @-@ 12 education = = = =
As part of the 2013 budget the Dunderdale government announced that the province 's four English school boards would be consolidated into one , while the one French school board would remain as is . The number of school boards in the province had been reduced in 2004 , from 10 boards to five . Since that time student enrolment in Newfoundland and Labrador had declined by 14 @,@ 000 , or 17 per cent . The government faced criticism for the amalgamation from people in the education system but despite this Minister Clyde Jackman announced the appointment of a transition team for the amalgamation on April 24 , 2013 , with a plan to have the new school board in place for September of that year . The budget also saw reductions in the Department of Education that would affect areas such as administration , learning resources support and district @-@ based numeracy supports . However , the minister said there would be no reduction in the allocation of regular classroom teachers , and Jackman stated that Newfoundland and Labrador had the best student @-@ teacher ratio in the country .
= = = = Post @-@ secondary education = = = =
Since 2003 , the Progressive Conservative government have froze tuition fees at the province 's public post @-@ secondary institutions , the freeze has led to the province having the lowest tuition fees in the country . In her party 's 2011 election platform Dunderdale announced that a re @-@ elected PC government would continue with the tuition freeze and would gradually phase out student loans and replace them with up @-@ front needs @-@ based grants .
The 2013 provincial budget included a 10 @-@ year sustainability plan , which announced that in 2014 the government would review both Memorial University and the College of the North Atlantic ( CNA ) . However , the 2013 budget did include a $ 15 million budget cut to CNA and changes to the college 's programming . The budget announced that the Adult Basic Education ( ABE ) program - a high school equivalency program designed for adults who did not complete high school - would be removed from the CNA curriculum and be privatized . The program is already administered through the private sector and through non @-@ profit organizations , with the government stating that only 40 per cent of people enrolled in ABE attended CNA . In a letter to the editor , Advanced Education and Skills Minister Joan Shea wrote " it costs approximately $ 5 @,@ 000 more to provide ABE to a student at College of the North Atlantic than at a private school , and the average cost of ABE per student in this province is about three times the cost in other Atlantic provinces . " College of the North Atlantic President and CEO also announced the elimination of a number of programs at campuses where there was low enrolment . Vaughan later announced the addition of new programs that are considered in demand .
= = = Fiscal policy = = =
During Danny Williams ' time as premier the province experienced a major economic expansion , mainly as a result of the offshore oil industry . After years of sluggish growth and annual deficits the province started recording large surpluses , starting in 2006 . While billions of dollars were paid down on the province 's debt , government spending increased considerably . In his 2011 report Auditor General John Noseworthy noted that spending had increased by 47 @.@ 4 percent over a five @-@ year period . Finance Minister Tom Marshall defended the spending practises by saying that the province had to play catchup after decades of deficits , and that the global recession forced all governments to hike spending to keep economies afloat .
Despite warnings from Noseworthy to control spending , Dunderdale 's first budget saw spending increase by 4 @.@ 9 percent . Spending was focused on infrastructure , health care , social programs , Nalcor Energy as well as other areas . The budget included tax credits for child care , volunteer fire fighters as well as an 8 percent Residential Energy Rebate on home heating fuel , which is equal to the provincial portion of the Harmonized Sales Tax ( HST ) . The budget raised the threshold on the payroll tax exemption from $ 1 million to $ 1 @.@ 2 million . Despite a $ 598 million surplus for the previous year and a $ 59 surplus forecasted for the coming year , the province 's net debt was expected to increase from $ 8 @.@ 2 billion to $ 8 @.@ 67 billion due to unfunded liabilities . However , on November 16 , 2011 , Dunderdale 's government released their Fall economic update and announced that the surplus for the 2011 @-@ 2012 , fiscal year was now projected to be $ 755 @.@ 8 million , with the added surplus going towards the debt . In the audited financial statements released in January 2013 , the surplus for the 2011 @-@ 2012 was $ 882 @.@ 8 million , with the overall debt falling to $ 7 @.@ 8 billion .
At a luncheon with the St. John 's Board of Trade in February 2012 , Dunderdale delivered a speech which laid out a more fiscally conservative course . She stated that the days of big spending were over and that it was time to rein in public spending . Dunderdale said that there would be virtually no new spending in the upcoming provincial budget , that government departments were told to find savings and that she had ordered an audit of all government programs . She also said that her goal in the next decade is to radically decrease Newfoundland and Labrador 's debt load and to achieve the same per capita debt as the Canadian average . Fiscal restraint was again the key message in the March 5 , 2011 , speech from the throne . The speech announced that all government departments and programs were under review . Dunderdale later stated that her government was looking for $ 100 million in savings for the upcoming fiscal year and that key services were exempt from cuts .
The 2012 budget was delivered by Finance Minister Marshall on April 24 , 2012 , and was a stark contrast from the austerity budget that Dunderdale and her ministers had been warning of for months . Only 45 temporary positions were cut from the public service and a review of programs found $ 38 @.@ 8 million in savings , much lower than the $ 100 million Dunderdale had previously mentioned . Government spending actually increased in the budget by 1 @.@ 7 per cent , though this was below the rate of inflation .
The government estimated that oil would average $ 124 a barrel for the year but as a result of lower oil production , caused by maintenance of two of the three offshore oil rigs , the province would record a deficit of $ 258 million . Marshall stated that while he could have eliminated the deficit in one year through cuts , the government decided that they would run a deficit for two years before going back to surpluses . The government also announced that over the next 10 years they would embark on a “ core mandate analysis ” to restrain growth in program spending to the rate of inflation , and reduce Newfoundland and Labrador ’ s debt level to the all @-@ province average . Just three months after the budget was delivered Dunderdale announced that the government would cut back on travel and leave some vacant positions unfilled due to a drop in oil prices . On the day of her news conference brent crude , a close reference point for oil produced offshore Newfoundland , stood at $ 103 a barrel , which was up from $ 90 the previous month . For every $ 1 drop in the price of oil below government estimates results in nearly $ 20 million less being funnelled into the provincial treasury , which meant the deficit for the year was expected to climb by several hundred million dollars . By the time Finance Minister Marshall released his mid @-@ year economic update on December 13 , 2012 , it was estimated that the deficit would total $ 726 million for that fiscal year .
During this same time , Dunderdale was named the best fiscal performer of Canada 's premiers by the Fraser Institute . The institute measured the performance of all premiers for their time in office , which was the 2011 @-@ 2012 fiscal year for Dunderdale , and looked at their performance on three core components of fiscal policy : government spending , taxes , and debt and deficits . Dunderdale received a score of 71 @.@ 4 out of a possible 100 @.@ 0 , though the report did mention that her strong performance with regards to government spending was in part due to the province ’ s significant economic growth and not her ability to restrain growth in spending .
On January 16 , 2013 , Dunderdale held a surprise cabinet shuffle that saw Minister Marshall shuffled out of Finance and appointed as Minister of Natural Resources . He was replaced by Jerome Kennedy , who had served as Natural Resources Minister since October 2011 . With contract negotiations underway with public sector unions Minister Kennedy 's appointment was called a warning shot to the union leaders by the opposition . Minister Kennedy is considered a tough negotiator , and was Minister of Finance in 2008 during the last round of contract negotiations .
Prior to announcing the 2013 provincial budget Kennedy warned that if expediters were not brought under control the province could face a $ 1 @.@ 6 billion deficit for the coming fiscal year and that the province 's debt could increase by $ 4 billion in three years . These figures were much lower when the budget was brought down on March 26 , 2013 , but the Dunderdale government was still projecting a deficit of $ 563 @.@ 8 million for the 2013 fiscal year . Roughly 1 @,@ 200 public sector jobs were eliminated , due to spending cuts totalling over $ 300 million .
= = = Fishery policy = = =
During Dunderdale 's tenure as premier the Fisheries portfolio has seen a significant overturn at the ministerial level . In less than three years Dunderdale had appointed her fourth Minister of Fisheries and Aquaculture . Keith Hutchings became that fourth minister after his appointment on October 9 , 2013 . Following his appointment a representative with the Fish , Food and Allied Workers union said he hoped to see the minister stay in his portfolio for a longer period of time , as he was the seventh minister in the portfolio in ten years . Dunderdale 's first Fisheries minister was Clyde Jackman , who had been the minister when Dunderdale succeeded Williams as premier . Jackman remained minister until after the 2011 provincial election , when Darin King took over the portfolio . Eleven months later King was succeeded by Derrick Dalley who was minister for the next year . Opposition parties criticized government after Hutchings appointment saying the overturn in ministers showed that there was no plan for the fishery .
In February 2011 , Dunderdale 's government rejected a report prepared by an independent committee that called for a massive downsizing of the fishing industry . The report by the Steering Committee for Fishing Industry Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) was released by the province , and called for $ 450 million to be spent to achieve substantial cuts in the industry . At the time Minister Jackman dismissed the report almost immediately , saying the $ 450 million price tag was too expensive . Opposition parties and union leaders were highly critical of the government for dismissing the report , with NDP leader Lorraine Michael calling for Minister Jackman to resign .
During the October 2011 , provincial election , Dunderdale said " We 've got too many people chasing too few fish , and these plants are going to collapse and fail because they 're not on sound economic models " . She said there was overcapacity in the fishing industry and that fish processing plants would need to close . Minister Jackman , who represents a district that relies heavily on the fishing industry , continued to face much criticism for his performance in the fisheries portfolio and was re @-@ elected by just 40 votes . The day after winning a majority government , Dunderdale stated in an interview that tough decisions were looming in the industry . She again stated there was overcapacity and structural problems in the fishery and that her government was ready to make the tough decisions that were long overdue . Dunderdale swore in her new cabinet weeks after the election and shuffled Jackman to the Department to Education , Darin King succeeded him as the Minister of Fisheries and Aquaculture .
On February 28 , 2012 , the government announced that they would stop providing funding to the FFAW . In a five @-@ year period the provincial government had provided roughly $ 1 @.@ 3 million in grant money for things like research , seafood marketing and fisheries technology programs . Minister King cited the union 's criticism of the provincial government as the reason for the move , stating ' No matter what we do in this province , the FFAW are more concerned with their own self @-@ interest than they are with the interests of the industry.'
= = = = Minimum processing requirements = = = =
Fish caught off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador are required to have a minimal level of processing done in provincial fish plants . The objective is to ensure that the province ’ s fishery generates the maximum economic and employment benefits for the province.These requirements are known as minimum processing requirements , or MPRs . These requirements have been an issue in province over the years for numerous reasons including ; the cost of processing , labour availability and because some markets are interested in less processed fish . The Minister of Fisheries and Aquaculture can grant a company exemptions from minimum processing requirements .
In November 2011 , provincial government @-@ appointed auditors backed up claims by Ocean Choice International ( OCI ) that they were losing millions of dollars each year operating the Marystown fish plant . On December 2 , 2011 , the company announced that they would permanently close their Marystown and Port Union fish processing plants and invest money into other plants throughout the province . The following week OCI asked the provincial government for an exemption to export unprocessed fish in return for nearly doubling the workforce at the company 's plant in Fortune . Minister King reacted positively to the proposed idea and said the government would consider it . Negotiations on a deal would become tense , with the minister criticizing the company for using ' pressure tactics ' to try to get a deal . OCI said that they were in damage control all around the world because of Minister King 's comments . In February 2012 , the government rejected a proposal to drop MPRs for the company , saying that it was not in the best interest of the province . In mid October 2012 , workers at the Fortune fish plant voted unanimously in favour of allowing OCI to ship out raw fish to China for processing , in return for 110 full @-@ time jobs at their plant . The FFAW , which represented the workers , opposed the move to ship out the raw product . Dunderdale held a cabinet shuffle on October 19 , 2012 , and appointed Tourism Minister Derrick Dalley as the new Minister of Fisheries and Aquaculture . In a news conference held on December 21 , 2012 , Minister Dalley announced the government would allow Ocean Choice International to ship 75 per cent of its yellowtail flounder quota overseas for processing , along with 100 per cent of its redfish quota . In return a total of 236 year @-@ round jobs , between the Fortune fish plant and on company vessels at sea , for at least five years .
= = = = = CETA = = = = =
Minimum processing requirements also became an issue in the Canada @-@ European Union Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement ( CETA ) . Dunderdale announced in a speech to the St. John 's Board of Trade in May 2013 , that the loan guarantee for the Muskrat Falls project nearly fell apart because of MPRs . She said that the federal government tried to pressure her into eliminating MPRs at the eleventh hour of the loan guarantee negotiations to help secure the trade deal . Dunderdale said that while she was willing to look at minimum processing requirements , she was not willing to tie it to the loan guarantee .
On October 18 , 2013 , Charlene Johnson , the minister responsible for trade , along with Fisheries minister Keith Hutchings announced that the government supported the agreement in principle for CETA , that had been announced early that day . The ministers said the trade agreement would a game changer for the fishing industry . The agreement would eliminate MPRs for the European Union three years after the ratification of the deal , which is expected to occur in 2015 . In return for eliminating minimum processing requirement , high tariffs and import restrictions on almost all fish would be eliminated on the first day that CETA comes into effect . Currently only 13 @.@ 1 per cent of seafood is duty @-@ free . But by 2022 , all seafood would be 100 per cent duty @-@ free . Following the conclusion of the CETA negotiations Dunderdale said that other provinces and the federal government had been pressuring her to accept a deal that would eliminate minimum processing requirements on fish right away , in exchange for concessions on tariffs later . Dunderdale said they refused that deal and were eventually able to negotiate the current arrangement . Her government also felt that eliminating MPRs was a safe trade away because they did not feel European countries could compete with Newfoundland and Labrador fish plants , due to higher operating costs in those countries .
On October 29 , 2013 , Dunderdale held a major news conference regarding the fishery at The Rooms in St. John 's . Along with cabinet ministers and industry officials , Dunderdale announced that the federal and provincial governments would be investing $ 400 million , over three years , into the fishery . The federal government portion of the money totalled $ 280 million while the provincial portion was $ 120 million . The money is compensation for the province eliminating minimum processing requirements for the European Union . Although the premier said that her government plans to work with industry officials on how the money would be spent , she said it would be invested into such things as research and development , new marketing initiatives and infrastructure .
= = = Access to information = = =
= = = = Bill 29 = = = =
In June 2012 , Dunderdale 's government brought forth controversial legislation , known as Bill 29 , that reformed the province 's Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act . The amendments to the act expanded the government 's ability to deny access to information by keeping ministerial briefings secret , ignoring requests for information that cabinet ministers deem to be " frivolous , " and barring the auditor general from a wider array of records . Deadlines to respond to requests were pushed back , and fees were increased from $ 15 to $ 25 . The opposition leaders immediately condemned the bill and said they would team up to filibuster the bill . An expert on international access @-@ to @-@ information laws , Toby Mendel , called key changes to the act “ breathtaking , ” and said the province will rank lower than some third world countries with the new legislation . As well 75 people also assembled outside the Confederation Building to protest the bill . However , Newfoundland and Labrador 's information commissioner , Ed Ring , said bill 29 was not a bad thing and that it would not stop the Access to the Information and Protection of Privacy Act from doing its job . Bill 29 led to a four @-@ day filibuster in the House of Assembly , which eventually ended when the government invoked closure to the debate . NDP leader Lorraine Michael 's accusation that the government was being racist , when referring to Mendel 's criticism of the bill , was cited by the government as reasons to end debate .
On September 13 , 2012 , long time Tory MHA and former cabinet minister Tom Osborne announced he was leaving the PC Party to sit as an independent . He cited Dunderdale 's leadership as the reason for his defection and said that the turning point for him was the debate over Bill 29 . Osborne said that while he voted in favour of the new legislation he did not support it . On October 19 , 2012 , Dunderdale shuffled her cabinet and Justice Minister Felix Collins , who was responsible for Bill 29 , was shuffled out of the Justice portfolio and became Minister of Intergovernmental and Aboriginal Affairs . Though the portfolio change was considered to be a demotion Dunderdale stated that Collins ' handling of Bill 29 was not connected to his move . At the time of the cabinet shuffle Dunderdale also created the Office of Public Engagement , which will bring together different departments to aid in communications efforts . The new office will also be responsible for access to information .
= = = = Office of Public Engagement = = = =
The Office of Public Engagement was established on October 19 , 2012 , and includes the Rural Secretariat , the Voluntary and Non @-@ Profit Secretariat , the Youth Engagement office , the Strategic Partnership Initiative , and the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Office . Innovation , Business and Rural Development Minister Keith Hutchings was appointed as the minister responsible for the office , while Steve Kent was appointed parliamentary secretary for the office . Several days after his appointment Hutchings announced that the government was looking at putting restaurant inspection reports online for the public viewing . The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) had spent $ 457 obtaining inspection reports earlier the year , which had been criticized by former Service NL Minister Paul Davis during the debate on Bill 29 . On November 22 , 2012 , Hutchings and Service NL Minister Nick McGrath announced that the public could now go on the government 's website and see recent health and sanitation inspection reports for restaurants . While both opposition parties agreed with the government 's decision to make the reports available online , Liberal MHA Andrew Parsons said that “ I have no doubt that this is a response to the Bill 29 criticism " .
A CBC investigation , intended to test access to information following Bill 29 , discovered that some departments and agencies were refusing to release previously available details about how much public employees take home above their base salaries . When the media was briefed on Bill 29 the @-@ then Deputy Minister of Justice , Donald Burrage , said that the provisions of the act which enabled the public to see bonuses offered to public service employees had not been changed . Minister Hutchings confirmed that only the base salary , or a salary range , plus a range of possible bonuses , are now available . However , he said that this was not a change due to Bill 29 and that the information on salaries is only voluntary .
= = = Personal security = = =
On February 7 , 2011 , the premier ’ s office announced that due to several incidents since Dunderdale became premier in December that police bodyguards were protecting her . After her office contacted the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary ( RNC ) to report the incidents the RNC felt it was necessary to take precaution and assign security to the premier . Dunderdale spoke on the issue the following day , she said that due to privacy reasons she was partially reluctant to take on a bodyguard but respects the RNC ’ s decision . Dunderdale also said that the police had asked her not to comment on the issue and therefore she would stay mum about what led to the need for security .
= = = Public opinion = = =
During her premiership support for Dunderdale , her government and the PC Party saw a steady decline . A Corporate Research Associates ( CRA ) poll released days after Dunderdale became premier , and conducted before she took office , showed that 90 per cent of the population were satisfied with the PC government . 75 per cent would vote for the Progressive Conservative Party in an election and 76 percent chose Williams as the best leader to be premier . A CRA poll conducted throughout February 2011 , showed that support for Dunderdale , her government and the PC Party remained high . Satisfaction with government was at 82 per cent , while 73 per cent of respondents said they would vote for the PC Party in an election . 64 per cent of respondents stated Dunderdale was the best choice for premier , compared to 18 per cent for Liberal leader Yvonne Jones and 5 per cent for Lorraine Michael . An Angus Reid Public Opinion ( Angus Reid ) poll conducted around the same time listed Dunderdale as the second most popular premier in Canada with a 55 percent approval rating . 10 percent of respondents disapproved of her performance while 35 percent were not sure if they approved or disapproved of her performance .
By the time the provincial election was called in September 2011 , support for Dunderdale , her government and the Progressive Conservatives had fallen in public opinion polls . However , her party entered the campaign with support levels in the high fifties and Dunderdale remained the top choice for premier . On October 11 , 2011 , Dunderdale led her party to victory winning 56 per cent of the popular vote , which was consistent with polling throughout the campaign . After an initial bounce in the polls following the election , support for Dunderdale would decline right up until her resignation as premier in 2014 . Throughout 2012 , Dunderdale saw her personal numbers take a big hit , while PC Party support and government satisfaction would also decline . In November 2012 , 36 per cent of respondents to a CRA poll thought Dunderdale was the best choice for premier , down from 59 per cent a year earlier . Although the Progressive Conservatives still remained in first place their support had fallen 14 points over the year to 46 per cent . While government satisfaction had fallen it remained high , with 58 percent of respondents either being completely or mostly satisfied . An Angus Reid poll released in December 2012 , also showed declining support for Dunderdale over the year . Just 37 per cent of those polled approved of the job Dunderdale was doing as premier , while 55 per cent disapproved .
In March 2013 , a CRA poll showed that the Progressive Conservatives had fallen below the NDP , with 39 per cent indicating they supported the New Democrats and 38 per cent supporting the PC Party . The Liberal Party were third with 22 per cent support . Michael also surpassed Dunderdale when asked who would make the best premier , Michael was at 33 per cent and Dunderdale was at 32 per cent . This was also the first poll to show that more people were dissatisfied with government 's performance then satisfied . An Angus Reid poll released on April 8 , 2013 , rating the performance of provincial premiers , showed that Dunderdale was the most unpopular premier in the country . Her approval rating was tied with British Columbia 's Christy Clark at 25 per cent , while 73 per cent of respondents said they disapproved of Dunderdale 's performance as premier .
A CRA poll conducted throughout May 2013 continued to show declining support for Dunderdale , her government , and the PC Party . Only 21 per cent of those surveyed felt Dunderdale was the best choice for premier , behind both Michael and Ball . Dissatisfaction with her government increased to 65 per cent , compared to 33 per cent who indicated they were dissatisfied a year earlier . Support for the Progressive Conservatives also fell to just 27 per cent . This was below both the NDP and Liberals who were statistically tied for first , at 37 per cent and 36 per cent respectively . The poll also showed that 35 per cent of respondents were undecided or did not plan to vote , a significant increase from 14 per cent in November 2011 . Towards the end of 2013 , satisfaction for the Dunderdale administration saw a significant increase , though support for her and the PC Party saw little change from the poll in May . According to a November CRA poll , satisfaction with the Dunderdale government was up 10 points from May to 42 per cent , while dissatisfaction was at 52 per cent . A quarter of decided voters thought Dundedale was the best choice for premier , this was above Michael but 14 points below Ball . Due to a large drop in NDP support , down to 19 percent , the PC Party moved back into second place with 29 per cent of decided voters indicating that they would vote for the party in an election . The Liberal Party opened up a wide lead with 52 per cent of decided voters saying they would vote for the party in an election .
= = = Resignation = = =
On January 22 , 2014 , and initially reported by media outlets the day before , Dunderdale announced that she would be resigning as Premier on January 24 , 2014 . In her speech Dunderdale stated " Just as you know when it 's time to step up , you also know when it is time to step back , and that time for me is now . " The announcement followed the defection of PC MHA Paul Lane to the Liberal Party , and months of poor performance in opinion polls . Dunderdale 's Finance Minister Tom Marshall was sworn in as premier and became the interim party leader on January 24 . Marshall will hold the post until the PC Party selects a permanent leader . On February 28 , 2014 , Dunderdale sent out a news releasing announcing she was resigning as the MHA for Virginia Water by the end of the day , ending a ten and a half year career in provincial politics .
= = Electoral record = =
= = = As MHA = = =
= = = As party leader = = =
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= Greenlandic language =
Greenlandic is an Eskimo – Aleut language spoken by about 57 @,@ 000 Greenlandic Inuit in Greenland . It is closely related to the Inuit languages in Canada such as Inuktitut . The main variety , Kalaallisut or West Greenlandic , has been the official language of the Greenlandic autonomous territory since June 2009 ; this is a move by the Naalakkersuisut ( government of Greenland ) to strengthen the language in its competition with the colonial language , Danish . The second variety is Tunumiit oraasiat or East Greenlandic . The Thule Inuit of Greenland , Inuktun or Polar Eskimo , is a recent arrival and a dialect of Inuktitut .
Greenlandic is a polysynthetic language that allows the creation of long words by stringing together roots and suffixes . Its morphosyntactic alignment is ergative , meaning that it treats ( i.e. case @-@ marks ) the argument ( " subject " ) of an intransitive verb like the object of a transitive verb , but distinctly from the agent ( " subject " ) of a transitive verb .
Nouns are inflected for one of the eight cases and for possession . Verbs are inflected for one of the eight moods and for the number and person of its subject and object . Both nouns and verbs have complex derivational morphology . Basic word order in transitive clauses is subject – object – verb . Subordination of clauses is done by the use of special subordinate moods . A so @-@ called fourth @-@ person category enables switch @-@ reference between main clauses and subordinate clauses with different subjects . Greenlandic is notable for its lack of a system of grammatical tense , as temporal relations are normally expressed through context , through the use of temporal particles such as " yesterday " or " now " or sometimes through the use of derivational suffixes or the combination of affixes with aspectual meanings with the semantic aktionsart of different verbs . However , some linguists have suggested that Greenlandic does mark future tense obligatorily . Another question is whether the language has noun incorporation , or whether the processes that create complex predicates that include nominal roots are derivational in nature .
When adopting new concepts or technologies , Greenlandic usually constructs new words made from Greenlandic roots , but modern Greenlandic has also taken many loans from Danish and English . The language has been written in the Latin script since Danish colonization began in the 1700s . The first orthography was developed by Samuel Kleinschmidt in 1851 , but within a hundred years already differed substantially from the spoken language because of a number of sound changes . An extensive orthographic reform undertaken in 1973 that made the script easier to learn resulted in a boost in Greenlandic literacy , which is now among the highest in the world .
= = History = =
The Greenlandic language was brought to Greenland with the arrival of the Thule people in the 1200s . It is unknown which languages were spoken by the earlier Saqqaq and Dorset cultures in Greenland .
The first descriptions of Greenlandic date from the 1600s , and with the arrival of Danish missionaries in the early 1700s , and the beginning of Danish colonialism in Greenland , the compilation of dictionaries and description of grammar began . The missionary Paul Egede wrote the first Greenlandic dictionary in 1750 , and the first grammar in 1760 .
From the Danish colonization in the 1700s to the beginning of Greenlandic home rule in 1979 , Greenlandic experienced increasing pressure from the Danish language . In the 1950s , Denmark 's linguistic policies were directed at replacing Greenlandic with Danish . Of primary significance was that post @-@ primary education and official functions were conducted in Danish .
From 1851 to 1973 , Greenlandic was written in a complicated orthography devised by the missionary linguist Samuel Kleinschmidt . In 1973 , a new orthography was introduced , intended to bring the written language closer to the spoken standard , which had changed considerably since Kleinschmidt 's time . The reform was effective and in the years following it , Greenlandic literacy received a boost .
Another development that strengthened the Greenlandic language has been the policy of " greenlandization " of Greenlandic society which began with the homerule agreement of 1979 . This policy has worked to reverse the former trend towards marginalization of the Greenlandic language by making it the official language of education . The fact that Greenlandic has become the only language used in primary schooling has meant that today monolingual Danish @-@ speaking parents in Greenland are raising children bilingual in Danish and Greenlandic . Today Greenlandic has several dedicated news media : the Greenlandic National Radio , Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa , which provides television and radio programming in Greenlandic . The newspaper Sermitsiaq , has been published since 1958 , and in 2010 merged with the other newspaper Atuagagdliutit / Grønlandsposten , which was established already in 1861 to form a single large Greenlandic language publishing house .
Before June 2009 , Greenlandic shared its status as the official language in Greenland with Danish . Since then , Greenlandic has become the sole official language . This has made Greenlandic a unique example of an indigenous language of the Americas that is recognized by law as the only official language of a semi @-@ independent country . Nevertheless , it is still considered to be in a " vulnerable " state by the UNESCO Red Book of Language Endangerment . The country has a 100 % literacy rate . As the Western Greenlandic standard has become dominant , a UNESCO report has labelled the other dialects as endangered , and measures are now being considered to protect the Eastern Greenlandic dialect .
= = Classification = =
Kalaallisut and the other Greenlandic dialects belong to the Eskimo – Aleut family and are closely related to the Inuit languages of Canada and Alaska . Illustration 1 shows the locations of the different Eskimoan languages , among them the three main dialects of Greenlandic .
The most prominent Greenlandic dialect is West Greenlandic ( Kalaallisut ) , which is the official language of Greenland . The name Kalaallisut is often used as a cover term for all of Greenlandic . The northern dialect , Inuktun ( Avanersuarmiutut ) , spoken in the vicinity of the city of Qaanaaq ( Thule ) , is particularly closely related to Canadian Inuktitut . The eastern dialect ( Tunumiit oraasiat ) , spoken in the vicinity of Ammassalik Island and Ittoqqortoormiit , is the most innovative of the Greenlandic dialects , having assimilated consonant clusters and vowel sequences to a greater extent than West Greenlandic . Kalaallisut is further divided into four subdialects . One that is spoken around Upernavik has certain similarities to East Greenlandic , possibly because of a previous migration from eastern Greenland . A second dialect is spoken in the region of Uummannaq and the Disko Bay . The standard language is based on the central Kalaallisut dialect spoken in Sisimiut in the north , around Nuuk and as far south as Maniitsoq . Southern Kalaallisut is spoken around Narsaq and Qaqortoq in the south . Table 1 shows the differences in the pronunciation of the word for " humans " in the three main dialects . It can be seen that Inuktun is the most conservative , maintaining the " gh " which has been elided in Kalaallisut , and Tunumiisut is the most innovative , having further simplified the structure by eliding the / n / .
Michael Fortescue , a specialist in Eskimo – Aleut as well as in Chukotko @-@ Kamchatkan , argues for a link between Uralic , Yukaghir , Chukotko @-@ Kamchatkan , and the Eskimo – Aleut languages in Language Relations Across Bering Strait ( 1998 ) . He calls this proposed grouping the Uralo @-@ Siberian languages .
= = Phonology = =
Letters between slashes / / indicate phonemic transcription , letters in square brackets [ ] indicate phonetic transcription and letters in triangular brackets 〈 〉 indicate standard Greenlandic orthography .
= = = Vowels = = =
The Greenlandic three vowel system , composed of / i / , / u / , and / a / , is typical for an Eskimo – Aleut language . Double vowels are analyzed as two morae , so they are phonologically a vowel sequence and not a long vowel ; they are also written as two vowels in the orthography . The only diphthong in the language is / ai / , which occurs only at the ends of words . Before a uvular consonant ( [ q ] or [ ʁ ] ) , / i / is realized allophonically as [ e ] , [ ɛ ] or [ ɐ ] , and / u / is realized allophonically as [ o ] or [ ɔ ] , and the two vowels are written e , o respectively ( as in Quechua and Aymara ) . / a / becomes retracted to [ ɑ ] in the same environment . / i / is rounded to [ y ] before labial consonants . / u / is fronted to [ ʉ ] between two coronal consonants .
The allophonic lowering of / i / and / u / before uvular consonants is shown in the modern orthography by writing / i / and / u / as 〈 e 〉 and 〈 o 〉 respectively before uvulars 〈 q 〉 and 〈 r 〉 . For example :
/ ui / " husband " pronounced [ ui ] .
/ uiqarpuq / " she has a husband " pronounced [ ueqaʁpɔq ] and written 〈 ueqarpoq 〉 .
/ illu / " house " pronounced [ iɬːu ] .
/ illuqarpuq / " he has a house " pronounced [ iɬːoqaʁpɔq ] and written 〈 illoqarpoq 〉 .
= = = Consonants = = =
Greenlandic has consonants at five points of articulation : labial , alveolar , palatal , velar and uvular . It does not have phonemic voicing contrast , but rather distinguishes stops from fricatives . It distinguishes stops , fricatives , and nasals at the labial , alveolar , velar , and uvular points of articulation . The earlier palatal sibilant [ ʃ ] has merged with [ s ] in all but a few dialects . The labiodental fricative [ f ] is only contrastive in loanwords . The alveolar stop [ t ] is pronounced as an affricate [ t ͡ s ] before the high front vowel / i / . Often Danish loanwords are written with Danish letters for voiced stops 〈 b d g 〉 , for example 〈 baaja 〉 " beer " and 〈 Guuti 〉 " God " , but in Greenlandic these stops are pronounced exactly as / p t k / , i.e. [ paːja ] and [ kuːtˢi ] .
= = = Phonological constraints = = =
The Kalaallisut syllable is simple , allowing syllables of ( C ) ( V ) V ( C ) , where C is a consonant and V is a vowel and VV is a double vowel or word @-@ final / ai / . Native words may only begin with a vowel or / p , t , k , q , s , m , n / ; they may end only in / p , t , k , q / or rarely / n / . Consonant clusters only occur over syllable boundaries and their pronunciation is subject to regressive assimilations that convert them into geminates . All non @-@ nasal consonants in a cluster are voiceless .
= = = Prosody = = =
Greenlandic prosody does not include stress as an autonomous category ; instead , prosody is determined by tonal and durational parameters . Intonation is influenced by syllable weight : heavy syllables are pronounced in a way that may be perceived as stress . Heavy syllables include syllables with long vowels and syllables before consonant clusters . The last syllable is stressed in words with fewer than four syllables and without long vowels or consonant clusters . The antepenultimate syllable is stressed in words with more than four syllables that are all light . In words with many heavy syllables , syllables with long vowels are considered heavier than syllables before a consonant cluster .
Geminate consonants are pronounced long , almost exactly with the double duration of a single consonant .
Intonation in indicative clauses usually rises on the antepenultimate syllable , falls on the penult and rises on the last syllable . Interrogative intonation rises on the penultimate and falls on the last syllable .
= = = Morphophonology = = =
Greenlandic phonology distinguishes itself phonologically from the other Inuit languages by a series of assimilations .
Greenlandic phonology allows clusters , but it does not allow clusters of two different consonants unless the first one is / r / . The first consonant in a cluster is always assimilated to the second one resulting in a geminate consonant . Geminate / tt / is pronounced [ ts ] and written 〈 ts 〉 . Geminate / ll / is pronounced [ ɬː ] . Geminate / ɡɡ / is pronounced [ çː ] . Geminate / ʁʁ / is pronounced [ χː ] . Geminate / vv / is pronounced [ fː ] and written 〈 ff 〉 . / v / is also pronounced and written [ f ] after / r / .
These assimilations mean that one of the most recognizable Inuktitut words , iglu ( " house " ) , is illu in Greenlandic , where the / ɡl / consonant cluster of Inuktitut is assimilated into a voiceless alveolar lateral affricate . And the word Inuktitut itself , when translated into Kalaallisut , becomes Inuttut . The Old Greenlandic diphthong / au / has assimilated to / aa / .
The consonant / v / has disappeared when between / u / and / i / or / a / . This means that affixes beginning with -va or -vi have forms without [ v ] when suffixed to stems ending in / u / .
The vowel / i / of modern Greenlandic is the result of an historic merger of the Proto @-@ Eskimo – Aleut vowels * i and * ɪ . The fourth vowel was still present in Old Greenlandic as attested by Hans Egede . In modern West Greenlandic the difference between the two original vowels can only be discerned morphophonologically in certain environments . The vowel that was originally * ɪ has the variant [ a ] when preceding another vowel and sometimes disappears before certain suffixes .
The degree to which the assimilation of consonant clusters has taken place is an important dialectal feature separating Polar Eskimo , Inuktun , which still allows some ungeminated consonant clusters , from West and East Greenlandic . East Greenlandic has shifted some geminate consonants , e.g. [ ɬː ] to [ tː ] . In Tunumiit oraasiat , for example , the name of a particular town is Ittoqqortoormiit , which would appear as Illoqqortoormiut in Kalaallisut .
= = Grammar = =
The morphology of Greenlandic is highly synthetic and exclusively suffixing , with the exception of a single highly limited and fossilized demonstrative prefix . It creates very long words by means of adding strings of suffixes to a stem . In principle there is no limit to the length of a Greenlandic word , but in practice words with more than half a dozen derivational suffixes are not so frequent , and the average number of morphemes per word is 3 to 5 . The language employs around 318 inflectional suffixes and between four and five hundred derivational ones .
There are few compound words , but lots of derivations . The grammar employs a mixture of head and dependent marking : both agent and patient are marked on the predicate and the possessor is marked on nouns , while dependent noun phrases inflect for case . The morphosyntactic alignment of Kalaallisut is ergative .
The language distinguishes four persons ( 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 4th or 3rd reflexive ( see Obviation and switch @-@ reference ) , two numbers ( singular and plural ; no dual as in Inuktitut ) , eight moods ( indicative , participial , imperative / optative , interrogative , past subjunctive , future subjunctive and habitual subjunctive ) and eight cases ( absolutive , ergative , equative , instrumental , locative , allative , ablative and prolative ) . Verbs carry a bipersonal inflection for subject and object . Possessive noun phrases inflect for their possessor , as well as for case .
In this section the examples are written in Greenlandic standard orthography except that morpheme boundaries are indicated by a hyphen .
= = = Syntax = = =
Greenlandic distinguishes three open word classes : nouns , verbs and particles . Verbs inflect for person and number of subject and object as well as for mood . Nouns inflect for possession and for case . Particles do not inflect .
The verb is the only word required to build a sentence . Since verbs inflect for number and person of both subject and object , the verb is in fact a clause itself . Therefore , clauses where all participants are expressed as free @-@ standing noun phrases are rather rare . The following examples show the possibilities of leaving out these verbal arguments :
Intransitive clause with no subject noun phrase :
Sini @-@ ppoq " ( S ) he sleeps "
sleep @-@ 3p / IND
Intransitive clause with subject noun phrase :
Angut sinippoq " the man sleeps "
man.ABS sleep @-@ 3p / IND
Transitive clause with no overt arguments :
Asa @-@ vaa " ( S ) he loves him / her / it "
love @-@ 3p / 3p
Transitive clause with agent noun phrase :
Angut @-@ ip asa @-@ vaa " the man loves him / her / it "
man @-@ ERG love @-@ 3p / 3p
Transitive clause with patient noun phrase :
Arnaq asa @-@ vaa " ( S ) he loves the woman "
woman.ABS love @-@ 3p / 3p
= = = = Morphosyntactic alignment = = = =
The Greenlandic language uses case to express grammatical relations between participants in a sentence . Nouns are inflected with one of the two core cases or one of the six oblique cases .
Greenlandic is an ergative language . This means that , instead of treating the grammatical relations as in most European languages where grammatical subjects are marked with nominative case and objects with accusative , the grammatical roles are defined differently . In Greenlandic the ergative case is used for agents of transitive verbs and for possessors . Absolutive case is used for patients of transitive verbs and subjects of intransitive verbs . Research into Greenlandic as used by the younger generation has shown that the use of ergative alignment in Kalaallisut may be becoming obsolete , converting the language into a nominative – accusative language .
Intransitive :
Anda sini @-@ ppoq " Anda sleeps "
Anda.ABS sleep @-@ 3p / IND
Transitive with agent and object :
Anda @-@ p nanoq taku @-@ aa " Anda sees a bear "
Anda.ERG bear @-@ ABS see @-@ 3p / 3p
= = = = Word order = = = =
In transitive clauses where both object and subject are expressed as free noun phrases , basic , pragmatically neutral word order is AOXV / SXV , where X is a noun phrase in one of the oblique cases . This order is fairly free , though . Topical noun phrases occur at the beginning of a clause whereas new or emphasized information generally come last . This is usually the verb , but it can also be a focal subject or object as well . In spoken language also " afterthought " material or clarifications may follow the verb , usually in a lowered pitch .
On the other hand , the noun phrase is characterized by a rigid order where the head of the phrase precedes any modifiers and the possessor precedes the possessum .
In copula clauses the order is usually Subject @-@ Copula @-@ Complement .
Andap tujuuluk pisiaraa " Anda bought the sweater "
Anda sweater bought
A O V
An attribute appears after its head noun .
Andap tujuuluk tungujortoq pisiaraa " Anda bought the blue sweater "
Anda sweater blue bought
A O X V
An attribute of an incorporated noun appears after the verb :
Anda sanasuuvoq pikkorissoq " Anda is a skilled carpenter "
Anda carpenter.IS skilled
S V APP
= = = = Coordination and Subordination = = = =
Syntactic coordination and subordination is done by combining predicates in the superordinate moods ( indicative , interrogative , imperative , optative ) with predicates in the subordinate moods ( conditional , causative , contemporative and participial ) . The contemporative has both coordinative and subordinative functions depending on context . The relative order of the main clause and its coordinate or subordinate clauses is relatively free , and mostly subject to pragmatic concerns .
= = = = Obviation and switch @-@ reference = = = =
The Greenlandic pronominal system includes a distinction known as obviation or switch @-@ reference . There is a special so @-@ called fourth person used to denote a third person subject of a subordinate verb or the possessor of a noun that is coreferent with the third person subject of the matrix clause . Below are examples of the difference between third and fourth person :
illu @-@ a taku @-@ aa " he saw his ( the other man 's ) house "
house @-@ 3POSS see @-@ 3p / 3p
illu @-@ ni taku @-@ aa " he saw his own house "
house @-@ 4POSS see @-@ 3p / 3p
Ole oqar @-@ poq tillu @-@ kkiga " Ole said I had hit him ( the other man ) "
Ole say @-@ 3p hit @-@ I / 3p
Ole oqar @-@ poq tillu @-@ kkini " Ole said I had hit him ( Ole ) "
Ole say @-@ 3p hit @-@ I / 4p
Eva iser @-@ uni sini @-@ ssaa @-@ q " When Eva comes in she 'll sleep "
Eva come.in @-@ 4p sleep @-@ expect @-@ 3p
Eva iser @-@ pat sini @-@ ssaa @-@ q When Eva comes in ( s ) he 'll sleep ( someone else ) .
Eva come.in @-@ 3p sleep @-@ expect @-@ 3p
= = = = Indefiniteness construction = = = =
There is no category of definiteness in Greenlandic , so the information whether participants are already known to the listener or new in the discourse is encoded by other means . According to some authors , morphology related to transitivity such as the use of the construction sometimes called antipassive or intransitive object conveys such meaning , along with strategies of noun incorporation of non @-@ topical noun phrases . This view , however , is controversial .
Active :
Piitap arfeq takuaa " Peter saw the whale "
Peter @-@ ERG whale see
Antipassive / intransitive object :
Piitaq arfermik takuvoq " Peter saw ( a ) whale "
Peter @-@ ABS whale @-@ INSTR see
= = = Verbs = = =
The morphology of Greenlandic verbs is enormously complex . The two main processes are inflection and derivation . Inflectional morphology includes the processes of obligatory inflection for mood , person , and voice ( tense / aspect is not an inflectional category in Kalaallisut ) . Derivational morphology modifies the meaning of verbs in a way similar to that expressed by adverbs in English . Derivational suffixes of this kind number in the hundreds . Many of these suffixes are so semantically salient that they are often referred to as postbases rather than suffixes , particularly in the American tradition of Eskimo grammar . Such semantically " heavy " suffixes may express concepts such as " to have " , " to be " , " to say " , or " to think " . The Greenlandic verb word consists of a root + derivational suffixes / postbases + inflectional suffixes . Tense and aspect is marked by optional suffixes that appear between the derivational and inflectional suffixes .
= = = = Inflection = = = =
Greenlandic verbs inflect for agreement with agent and patient , for mood and for voice . There are eight moods , of which four are used in independent clauses and four in subordinate clauses . The four independent moods are : indicative , interrogative , imperative , optative . The four dependent moods are causative , conditional , contemporative , and participial . Verbal roots can take transitive , intransitive or negative inflections , so that all eight mood suffixes have these three forms . The inflectional system is further complicated by the fact that transitive suffixes encode both agent and patient in a single morpheme , requiring up to 48 different suffixes to cover all possible combinations of agent and patient for each of the eight transitive paradigms . As some moods do not have forms for all persons ( imperative only has 2nd person , optative only 1st and 3rd person , participial mood has no 4th person and contemporative has no 3rd person ) , the total number of verbal inflectional suffixes is about 318 .
= = = = = Indicative and interrogative moods = = = = =
The indicative mood is used in all independent expository clauses . The interrogative mood is used for posing questions . Questions with the question particle immaqa " maybe " cannot use the interrogative mood .
napparsima @-@ vit ? " Are you sick ? " ( interrogative mood )
be.sick @-@ YOU / INTERR
naamik , napparsima @-@ nngila @-@ nga . " No , I am not sick " ( indicative mood )
no , be.sick @-@ NEG @-@ I / IND
Table 5 shows the intransitive indicative inflection for patient person and number of the verb neri- " to eat " in the indicative and interrogative moods ( question marks mark interrogative intonation — questions have falling intonation on the last syllable as opposed to most Indo @-@ European languages in which questions are marked by rising intonation ) . The indicative and the interrogative mood each have a transitive and an intransitive inflection , but here only the intransitive inflection is given . Interestingly , consonant gradation like that in Finnish appears to show up in the verb conjugation ( with strengthening to pp in the 3rd person plural and weakening to v elsewhere ) .
Table 6 shows the transitive indicative inflection for patient person and number of the verb asa- " to love " ( an asterisk means that this form does not occur as such but would have to use a different reflexive inflection ) .
= = = = = Imperative and Optative moods = = = = =
The imperative mood is used to issue orders . It is always combined with the second person . The optative is used to express wishes or exhortations and is never used with the second person . There is a negative imperative form used to issue prohibitions . Both optative and imperative have transitive and intransitive paradigms . There are two transitive positive imperative paradigms : a standard one , and one that is considered rude and is usually used to address children .
sini @-@ git ! " Sleep ! "
sleep @-@ IMP
sini @-@ llanga " Let me sleep ! "
sleep @-@ 1p.OPT
sini @-@ nnak ! " Don 't sleep ! "
sleep @-@ NEG.IMP
= = = = = Conditional mood = = = = =
The conditional mood is used to construct subordinate clauses with the meaning " if " or " when " .
seqinner @-@ pat Eva ani @-@ ssaa @-@ q " If the sun shines , Eva will go out "
Sunshine @-@ COND Eva go.out @-@ expect / 3p
= = = = = Causative mood = = = = =
The causative mood is used to construct subordinate clauses with the meaning " because " or " since " or " when " ; it is also sometimes used with the meaning of " that " . The causative is also used in main clauses to imply some underlying cause .
qasu @-@ gami innar @-@ poq " He went to bed because he was tired "
be.tired @-@ CAU / 3p go.to.bed @-@ 3p
matta @-@ ttor @-@ ama " I 've eaten blubber ( that 's why I 'm not hungry ) "
blubber @-@ eat @-@ CAU / I
ani @-@ guit eqqaama @-@ ssa @-@ vat teriannia @-@ qar @-@ mat " If you go out , remember that there are foxes "
go.out @-@ COND / YOU remember @-@ fut @-@ IMP fox @-@ are @-@ CAUS
= = = = = Contemporative mood = = = = =
The contemporative mood is used to construct subordinate clauses with the meaning of simultaneity . It is only used if the subject of the subordinate clause and of the main clause are identical . If they differ , the participial mood or causative mood are used . The contemporative can also be used to form complement clauses for verbs of speaking or thinking .
qasu @-@ llunga angerlar @-@ punga " Being tired , I went home "
be.tired @-@ CONT / I go.home @-@ I
98 @-@ inik ukio @-@ qar @-@ luni toqu @-@ voq " Being 98 years old , he / she died / he / she was 98 when he died "
98 @-@ INSTR / PL year @-@ have @-@ CONT / 3p die @-@ 3p
Eva oqar @-@ poq kami @-@ it akiler @-@ lugit " Eva said she had paid for the boots "
Eva say @-@ 3p boot @-@ PL pay @-@ CONT / 3p
= = = = = Participial mood = = = = =
The participial mood is used to construct a subordinate clause describing its subject in the state of carrying out an activity . It is used when the matrix clause and the subordinate clause have different subjects . It is often used in appositional phrases such as relative clauses .
atuar @-@ toq taku @-@ ara " I saw her read / I saw that she read "
read @-@ PART / 3p see @-@ I / 3p
neriu @-@ ppunga tiki @-@ ssa @-@ soq " I hope he is coming / I hope he 'll come "
hope @-@ I come @-@ expect @-@ PART / 3p
= = = = Derivation = = = =
Verbal derivation is extremely productive , and Greenlandic employs many hundreds of derivational suffixes . Often a single verb will use more than one derivational suffix , resulting in very long words . Below are given some examples of how derivational suffixes can change the meaning of verbs .
-katap- " be tired of "
taku @-@ katap @-@ para " I am tired of seeing it / him / her "
see @-@ tired.of @-@ I / 3p
-ler- " begin to / be about to "
neri @-@ ler @-@ pugut " We are about to eat "
eat @-@ begin @-@ WE
-llaqqip- " be proficient at "
erinar @-@ su @-@ llaqqip @-@ poq " She is good at singing "
sing @-@ HAB @-@ proficiently @-@ 3p
-niar- " plans to / wants to "
aallar @-@ niar @-@ poq " He plans to travel "
travel @-@ plan @-@ 3p
angerlar @-@ niar @-@ aluar @-@ punga " I was planning to go home though "
go.home @-@ plan @-@ though @-@ I
-ngajappoq- " almost "
sini @-@ ngajap @-@ punga " I had almost fallen asleep "
sleep @-@ almost @-@ I
-nikuu @-@ nngila- " has never "
taku @-@ nikuu @-@ nngila @-@ ra " I have never seen it "
see @-@ never @-@ NEG @-@ I / 3p
-nnitsoor- " not anyway / afterall "
tiki @-@ nngitsoor @-@ poq " He hasn 't arrived after all "
arrive @-@ not.afterall @-@ 3p
= = = = Time reference and aspect = = = =
Greenlandic grammar has morphological devices to mark a distinction between , for example , recent and distant past , but the use of these is not obligatory , and they should therefore rather be understood as parts of Greenlandic 's extensive derivational system than as a system of tense markers . Rather than by morphological marking , fixed temporal distance is expressed by temporal adverbials :
toqo @-@ riikatap @-@ poq " He died long ago "
die @-@ long.ago @-@ 3p / IND
nere @-@ qqammer @-@ punga " I ate recently "
eat @-@ recently @-@ I / IND
ippassaq Piitaq arpap @-@ poq " Yesterday Peter was running . "
yesterday Peter @-@ ABS run @-@ 3p / IND
All other things being equal and in the absence of any explicit adverbials , the indicative mood will be interpreted as complete or incomplete depending on the verbal aktionsart .
Piitaq arpap @-@ poq " Peter runs "
Peter @-@ ABS run @-@ 3p / IND
Piitaq ani @-@ voq " Peter was gone out "
Peter @-@ ABS go.out @-@ 3p / IND
But if a sentence containing an atelic verbal phrase is embedded within the context of a past time narrative , it would be interpreted as past .
Greenlandic has several purely derivational devices of expressing meaning related to aspect and aktionsart , e.g. sar expressing " habituality " and ssaar expressing " stop to " . Next to these , there are at least two major perfect markers : sima and nikuu. sima can occur in several positions with obviously different function Rightmost position indicates evidential meaning , but this can be determined only if a number of suffixes are present .
tiki ( t ) -nikuu @-@ sima @-@ voq " Apparently , she had arrived "
arrive @-@ NIKUU @-@ SIMA @-@ 3p / INT
With atelic verbs , there is a regular contrast between indirective evidentiality marked by sima and witnessed evidentiality marked by nikuu . Due to its evidential meaning , the combination of first person and sima sometimes is marked .
qia @-@ sima @-@ voq " He cried ( his eyes are swollen ) "
cry @-@ SIMA @-@ 3p / IND
qia @-@ nikuu @-@ voq " He cried ( I was there ) "
cry @-@ NIKUU @-@ 3p / IND
In the written language and more recently also in the spoken language especially of younger speakers , sima and nikuu can be used together with adverbials referring to a particular time in the past . That is , they might arguably mark time reference , but not yet systematically .
Just as Greenlandic does not systematically mark past tense , the language also does not have a future tense . Rather , it employs three different strategies to express future meaning :
suffixes denoting cognitive states that show an attitude about prospective actions .
e.g. Ilimaga @-@ ara aasaq manna Dudley qujanar @-@ tor @-@ si @-@ ffigi @-@ ssa @-@ llugu " I expect to get some fun out of Dudley this summer . "
expect @-@ I / 3p / IND summer this Dudley be.fun @-@ cn @-@ get.from @-@ expect @-@ CONTEMPORATIVE / 3p
inchoative suffixes creating telic actions which can then be understood as already having begun by virtue of the indicative mood .
e.g. Aggiuti @-@ ler @-@ para " I 've started to bring him . "
bring @-@ begin @-@ I / 3p / IND
moods that mark the speech act as a request or wish .
e.g. Qimmi @-@ t nirukkar @-@ niar @-@ nigik " Let us feed the dogs , ok ? " dog @-@ PL feed @-@ please @-@ we / them / IMP
While the status of the perfect markers as aspect is not very controversial , some scholars have claimed that Greenlandic has a basic temporal distinction between future and non @-@ future . Especially , the suffix -ssa and handful of other suffixes have been claimed to be obligatory future markers . However , at least for literary Greenlandic , these suffixes have been shown to have other semantics that can be used to refer to the future via the strategies just described .
= = = = Noun incorporation = = = =
There is also a debate in the linguistic literature whether Greenlandic has noun incorporation . This is because Greenlandic does not allow the kind of incorporation common in many languages in which a noun root can be incorporated into almost any verb to form a verb with a new meaning . On the other hand , Greenlandic does often form verbs that include noun roots . The question then becomes whether to analyse these verb formations as incorporation or as denominal derivation of verbs . Greenlandic has a number of morphemes that require a noun root as their host and which form complex predicates that correspond closely in meaning to what is often seen in languages that have canonical noun incorporation . Linguists who propose that Greenlandic does have incorporation argue that these morphemes are in fact verbal roots that must obligatorily incorporate nouns to form grammatical clauses . This argument is supported by the fact that many of the derivational morphemes that form denominal verbs work almost identically to canonical noun incorporation . They allow the formation of words with a semantic content corresponding to an entire English clause with verb , subject and object . Another argument is that the morphemes used to derive denominal verbs come from historical noun incorporating constructions that have become fossilized . Other linguists maintain that the morphemes in question are simply derivational morphemes that allow the formation of denominal verbs . This argument is supported by the fact that the morphemes cannot occur without being latched on to a nominal element . The examples below illustrate how Greenlandic forms complex predicates including nominal roots .
qimmeq " dog " + -qar- " have " ( + -poq " 3p " )
qimme @-@ qar @-@ poq " She has a dog "
illu " house " + - ' lior- " make "
illu @-@ lior @-@ poq " She builds a house "
kaffi " coffee " + -sor- " drink / eat "
kaffi @-@ sor @-@ poq " She drinks coffee "
puisi " seal " + -nniar- " hunt "
puisi @-@ nniar @-@ poq " She hunts seal "
allagaq " letter " + -si- " receive "
allagar @-@ si @-@ voq " She has received a letter "
anaana " mother " + -a- " to be "
anaana @-@ a @-@ voq " She is a mother "
= = = Nouns = = =
Nouns are obligatorily inflected for case and number and optionally for number and person of possessor . Singular and plural are distinguished and 8 cases used : absolutive , ergative ( relative ) , instrumental , allative , locative , ablative , prosecutive ( also called vialis or prolative ) , and equative . Case and number are marked by a single suffix . Nouns can be derived from verbs or from other nouns by a number of suffixes , e.g. atuar- " to read " + -fik " place " becomes atuarfik " school " and atuarfik + -tsialak " something good " becomes atuarfitsialak " good school " .
The fact that the possessive agreement suffixes on nouns and the transitive agreement suffixes on verbs in a number of instances have similar or identical shapes has even resulted in the theory that Greenlandic has a distinction between transitive and intransitive nouns , parallel to the same distinction in the verbs .
= = = = Pronouns = = = =
There are personal pronouns for first- , second- , and third @-@ person singular and plural . These pronouns are optional as subjects or objects , but only when the verbal inflection refers to such arguments .
Personal pronouns are , however , necessary in the oblique case :
ilin @-@ nut niri @-@ qu @-@ aa
thou all. eat tell @-@ to 3s @-@ 3s @-@ indic .
'He told you to eat it'
= = = = Case = = = =
The two grammatical core cases Ergative and Absolutive are used to express grammatical and syntactical roles of participant noun phrases . The oblique case expresses information related to movement and manner .
angu @-@ t neri @-@ voq " The man eats "
man @-@ ABS eat @-@ 3p
angu @-@ tip puisi neri @-@ vaa " The man eats the seal "
man @-@ ERG seal @-@ ABS eat @-@ 3p / 3p
The instrumental case is versatile . It is used for the instrument with which an action is carried out , for oblique objects of intransitive verbs ( also called antipassive verbs ) and for secondary objects of transitive verbs .
nano @-@ q savim @-@ mi @-@ nik kapi @-@ vaa " He stabbed the bear with his knife "
polar bear @-@ ABS knife @-@ his.own @-@ INSTR stab @-@ 3p / 3p
kaffimik tor @-@ tar @-@ poq " She usually drinks coffee "
coffee @-@ INSTR drink @-@ usually @-@ 3p
Piitaq savim @-@ mik tuni @-@ vara " I gave Peter a knife "
Peter @-@ ABS knife @-@ INSTR give @-@ I / 3p
It is also used to express the meaning of " give me " and for forming adverbs from nouns :
imer @-@ mik ! " ( give me ) water "
water @-@ INSTR
sivisuu @-@ mik sinip @-@ poq " He slept late "
late @-@ INSTR sleep @-@ 3p
The allative case describes movement towards something .
illu @-@ mut " towards the house "
It is also used with numerals and the question word qassit to express the time of the clock , and in the meaning " amount per unit " :
qassi @-@ nut ? – pingasu @-@ nut . " When ? " – " At three o 'clock "
when @-@ ALL three @-@ ALL
kiilu @-@ mut tivi krone @-@ qar @-@ poq " It costs 20 crowns per kilo "
kilo @-@ ALL twenty crown @-@ have @-@ 3p
The locative case describes spatial location :
illu @-@ mi " in the house "
The ablative case describes movement away from something or the source of something :
Rasmussi @-@ mit allagarsi @-@ voq " He got a letter from Rasmus "
Rasmus @-@ ABL receive.letter @-@ 3p
tuttu @-@ mit nassuk " ( antler ) horn from a rein @-@ deer "
rein.deer @-@ ABL horn
The prosecutive case describes movement through something as well as the medium of writing or a location on the body . It is also used to describe a group of people such as a family as belonging to the modified noun .
matu @-@ kkut iser @-@ poq " He entered through the door "
door @-@ PROS enter @-@ 3p
su @-@ kkut tillup @-@ paatit ? " Where ( on the body ) did he hit you ? "
where @-@ PROS hit @-@ 3p / YOU
palasi @-@ kkut " the priest and his family "
priest @-@ PROS
The equative case describes similarity of manner or quality . It is also used for deriving language names from nouns denoting nationalities , i.e. " like a person of x nationality [ speaks ] " .
nakorsatut suli @-@ sar @-@ poq " he works as a doctor "
doctor @-@ EQU work @-@ HAB @-@ 3p
Qallunaa @-@ tut " Danish language ( like a Dane ) "
dane @-@ EQU
= = = = Possession = = = =
In Greenlandic possession is marked on the noun which agrees with the person and number of its possessor . The possessor is in the ergative case . There are different possessive paradigms for all of the different cases . Table 4 gives the possessive paradigm for the absolutive case of illu " house " . Below are given examples of the use of the possessive inflection , the use of the ergative case for possessors and the use of fourth person possessors .
Anda @-@ p illu @-@ a " Anda 's house "
Anda @-@ ERG house @-@ 3p / POSS
Anda @-@ p illu @-@ ni taku @-@ aa " Anda sees his own house "
Anda @-@ ERG house @-@ 4p / POSS see @-@ 3p / 3p
Anda @-@ p illu @-@ a taku @-@ aa " Anda sees his ( the other man 's ) house "
Anda @-@ ERG house @-@ 3p / POSS see @-@ 3p / 3p
= = Vocabulary = =
Greenlandic vocabulary is mostly inherited from Proto @-@ Eskimo – Aleut , but it has also taken a large number of loans from other languages , especially from Danish . Early loans from Danish have often become acculturated to the Greenlandic phonological system , for example the Greenlandic word palasi " priest " is a loan from the Danish " præst " . But since Greenlandic has an enormous potential for the derivation of new words from existing roots , many modern concepts have Greenlandic names that have been invented rather than borrowed , e.g. qarasaasiaq " computer " which literally means " artificial brain " . This potential for complex derivations also means that Greenlandic vocabulary is built on very few roots which combined with affixes come to form large word families . For example the root for " tongue " oqaq is used to derive the following words :
oqarpoq ' says'
oqaaseq ' word'
oqaluppoq ' speaks'
oqaasilerisoq ' linguist'
oqaasilerissutit ' grammar'
oqaluttualiortoq ' author'
oqaasipiluuppaa ' harangues him'
oqaloqatigiinneq ' conversation'
oqaatiginerluppaa ' speaks badly about him'
Lexical differences between dialects are often considerable . This is due to the earlier cultural practice of imposing taboo on words which had served as names for a deceased person . Since people were often named after everyday objects , many of these have changed their name several times because of taboo rules , causing dialectal vocabulary to diverge further .
= = Orthography = =
Greenlandic is written with the Latin script . The alphabet :
A E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V
To spell loanwords from other languages , especially from Danish and English , the additional letters B , C , D , X , Y , Z , W , Æ , Ø and Å are used . Greenlandic uses the symbols " ... " and » ... « as quotation marks .
From 1851 and until 1973 Greenlandic was written in the alphabet invented by Samuel Kleinschmidt . This alphabet employed the special character kra ( Κʻ / ĸ ) which was replaced by q in the 1973 reform . In the Kleinschmidt alphabet , long vowels and geminate consonants were indicated by means of diacritics on the vowels ( in the case of consonant gemination , the diacritics were placed on the vowel preceding the affected consonant ) . For example , the name Kalaallit Nunaat was spelled Kalâdlit Nunât . This scheme uses a circumflex accent ( ˆ ) to indicate a long vowel ( e.g. , ât / ît / ût , modern : aat , iit , uut ) , an acute accent ( ´ ) to indicate gemination of the following consonant : ( i.e. , á , í , ú modern : a ( kk ) , i ( kk ) , u ( kk ) ) ] and , finally , a tilde ( ˜ ) or a grave accent ( ` ) , depending on the author , indicates vowel length and gemination of the following consonant ( e.g. , ãt , ĩt , ũt or àt , ìt , ùt , modern : aatt , iitt , uutt ) . The letters ê and ô , used only before r and q , are now written er / eq and or / oq in Greenlandic . The spelling system of Nunatsiavummiutut , spoken in Nunatsiavut in northeastern Labrador , is derived from the old Greenlandic system .
Technically , the Kleinschmidt orthography focused upon morphology : the same derivational affix would be written in the same way in different contexts , despite its being pronounced differently in different contexts . The 1973 reform replaced this with a phonological system : Here , there was a clear link from written form to pronunciation , and the same suffix is now written differently in different contexts . The differences are due to phonological changes . It is therefore easy to go from the old orthography to the new ( cf. the online converter ) whereas going the other direction would require a full lexical analysis .
= = = Sample text = = =
Inuit tamarmik inunngorput nammineersinnaassuseqarlutik assigiimmillu ataqqinassuseqarlutillu pisinnaatitaaffeqarlutik . Silaqassusermik tarnillu nalunngissusianik pilersugaapput , imminnullu iliorfigeqatigiittariaqaraluarput qatanngutigiittut peqatigiinnerup anersaavani .
" All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights . They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood . " ( Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights )
= = Cited literature = =
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= Battersea Power Station =
Battersea Power Station is a decommissioned coal @-@ fired power station located on the south bank of the River Thames , in Nine Elms , Battersea , an inner @-@ city district of South West London . It comprises two individual power stations , built in two stages in the form of a single building . Battersea A Power Station was built in the 1930s , with Battersea B Power Station to the east in the 1950s . The two stations were built to a nearly identical design , providing the long @-@ recognized four @-@ chimney layout . The station ceased generating electricity in 1983 , but over the past 50 years it has become one of the best known landmarks in London and is Grade II * listed . The station 's celebrity owes much to numerous popular culture references , which include the cover art of Pink Floyd 's 1977 album Animals and its appearance in the 1965 Beatles ' film , Help ! .
The station is one of the largest brick buildings in the world and is notable for its original , lavish Art Deco interior fittings and decor . The building has remained largely unused since its closure and the condition of the structure has been described as " very bad " by English Heritage , which included it in its Heritage at Risk Register . The site was also listed on the 2004 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund .
Since the station 's closure numerous redevelopment plans were drawn up from successive site owners . In 2004 , when a redevelopment project by Parkview International stalled , the site was sold to the administrators of Irish company Real Estate Opportunities ( REO ) , who bought it for £ 400 million in November 2006 with plans to refurbish the station for public use and build 3 @,@ 400 homes across the site . This plan fell through due to REO 's debt being called in by its creditors , the state @-@ owned banks in the UK and Ireland , and the site was subsequently placed on sale in December 2011 to the open property market through commercial estate agent Knight Frank . It has received interest from a variety of overseas consortia , most seeking to demolish or partly @-@ demolish the structure . The combination of an existing debt burden of some £ 750 million , the need to make a £ 200 million contribution to a proposed extension to the London Underground , requirements to fund conservation of the derelict power station shell and the presence of a waste transfer station and cement plant on the river frontage made a commercial development of the site a significant challenge .
On 7 June 2012 , Knight Frank announced that administrators Ernst & Young had entered into an exclusivity agreement with Malaysia ’ s SP Setia and Sime Darby and were working towards a timely exchange and completion of the site and associated land . Completion of the £ 400 million sale took place in September 2012 , and the redevelopment intends to implement the Rafael Vinoly design which had gained planning consent from Wandsworth Council in 2011 . In January 2013 the first residential apartments went on sale . Construction on Phase 1 was due to commence in 2013 , with completion due in 2016 / 17 .
= = History = =
Until the late 1930s electricity was supplied by municipal undertakings . These were small power companies that built power stations dedicated to a single industry or group of factories , and sold any excess electricity to the public . These companies used widely differing standards of voltage and frequency . In 1925 Parliament decided that the power grid should be a single system with uniform standards and under public ownership . Several of the private power companies reacted to the proposal by forming the London Power Company . They planned to heed parliament 's recommendations and build a small number of very large stations .
The London Power Company 's first of these super power stations was planned for the Battersea area , on the south bank of the River Thames in London . The proposal was made in 1927 , for a station built in two stages and capable of generating 400 megawatts ( MW ) of electricity when complete . The site chosen was a 15 @-@ acre ( 61 @,@ 000 m2 ) plot of land which had been the site of the reservoirs for the former Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company . The site was chosen for its proximity to the River Thames for cooling water and coal delivery , and because it was in the heart of London , the station 's immediate supply area .
The proposal sparked protests from those who felt that the building would be too large and would be an eyesore , as well as worries about the pollution damaging local buildings , parks and even paintings in the nearby Tate Gallery . The company addressed the former concern by hiring Sir Giles Gilbert Scott to design the building 's exterior . He was a noted architect and industrial designer , famous for his design of the red telephone box , and of Liverpool Anglican Cathedral . He would go on to design another London power station , Bankside , which now houses Tate Modern art gallery . The pollution issue was resolved by granting permission for the station on the condition that its emissions were to be treated , to ensure they were " clean and smokeless " .
Construction of the first phase , the A Station , began in March 1929 . The main building work was carried out by John Mowlem & Co , and the structural steelwork erection carried out by Sir William Arrol & Co . Other contractors were employed for specialist tasks . Most of the electrical equipment , including the steam turbine turbo generators , was produced by Metropolitan @-@ Vickers in Trafford Park , Manchester . The building of the steel frame began in October 1930 . Once completed , the construction of the brick cladding began , in March 1931 . Until the construction of the B Station , the eastern wall of the boiler house was clad in corrugated metal sheeting as a temporary enclosure . The A Station first generated electricity in 1933 , but was not completed until 1935 . The total cost of its construction was £ 2 @,@ 141 @,@ 550 . Between construction beginning in 1929 and 1933 , there were six fatal and 121 non @-@ fatal accidents on the site .
After the end of the Second World War , construction began on the second phase , the B Station . The station came into operation gradually between 1953 and 1955 . It was nearly identical to the A Station from the outside and was constructed directly to its east as a mirror to it , which gave the power station its now familiar four @-@ chimney layout . The construction of the B Station brought the site 's generating capacity up to 509 megawatts ( MW ) , making it the third largest generating site in the UK at the time , providing a fifth of London 's electricity needs ( with the remainder supplied by 28 smaller stations ) . It was also the most thermally efficient power station in the world when it opened .
The A Station had been operated by the London Power Company , but by the time the B Station was completed , the UK 's electric supply industry had been nationalised , and ownership of the two stations had passed into the hands of the British Electricity Authority in 1948 . In 1955 , this became the Central Electricity Authority , which in turn became the Central Electricity Generating Board in 1957 .
On 20 April 1964 , the power station was the site of a fire that caused power failures throughout London , including at the BBC Television Centre , which was due to launch BBC Two that night . The launch was delayed until the following day at 11 am .
= = Design and specification = =
Both of the stations were designed by a team of architects and engineers . The team was headed by Dr. Leonard Pearce , the chief engineer of the London Power Company , but a number of other notable engineers were also involved , including Henry Newmarch Allott , and T. P. O 'Sullivan who was later responsible for the Assembly Hall at Filton . J. Theo Halliday was employed as architect , with Halliday & Agate Co. employed as a sub @-@ consultant . Halliday was responsible for the supervision and execution of the appearance of the exterior and interior of the building . Architect Sir Giles Gilbert Scott was involved in the project much later on , consulted to appease public reaction , and referred to in the press as " architect of the exterior " . The station was designed in the brick @-@ cathedral style of power station design , which was popular at the time . Battersea is one of a very small number of examples of this style of power station design still in existence in the UK , others being Uskmouth and Bankside . The station 's design proved popular straightaway , and was described as a " temple of power " , which ranked equal with St Paul 's Cathedral as a London landmark . In a 1939 survey by The Architectural Review a panel of celebrities ranked it as their second favourite modern building .
The A Station 's control room was given many Art Deco fittings by architect Halliday . Italian marble was used in the turbine hall , and polished parquet floors and wrought @-@ iron staircases were used throughout . Owing to a lack of available money following the Second World War , the interior of the B Station was not given the same treatment , and instead the fittings were made from stainless steel .
Each of the two connected stations consists of a long boiler house with a chimney at each end and an adjacent turbine hall . This makes a single main building which is of steel frame construction with brick cladding , similar to the skyscrapers built in the United States around the same time . The station is the largest brick structure in Europe . The building 's gross dimensions measure 160 metres ( 520 ft ) by 170 metres ( 560 ft ) , with the roof of the boiler house standing at over 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . Each of the four chimneys is made from concrete and stands 103 metres ( 338 ft ) tall with a base diameter of 28 ft tapering to 22 ft at the top . The station also had jetty facilities for unloading coal , a coal sorting and storage area , control rooms and an administration block .
The A Station generated electricity using three turbo alternators ; two 69 megawatt ( MW ) Metropolitan @-@ Vickers British Thomson @-@ Houston sets , and one 105 MW Metropolitan @-@ Vickers set , totalling 243 MW . At the time of its commissioning , the 105 MW generating set was the largest in Europe . The B Station also had three turbo alternators , all made by Metropolitan @-@ Vickers . This consisted of two units which used 16 MW high pressure units exhausting to a 78 MW and associated with a 6 MW house alternator , giving these units a total rating of 100 MW . The third unit consisted of a 66 MW machine associated with a 6 MW house alternator , giving the unit a rating of 72 MW . Combined , these gave the B station a generating capacity of 260 MW , making the site 's generating capacity 503 MW . All of the station 's boilers were made by Babcock & Wilcox , fuelled by pulverised coal from pulverisers also built by Babcock & Wilcox . There were nine boilers in the A station and six in the B station . The B station 's boilers were the largest ever built in the UK at that time . The B station also had the highest thermal efficiency of any power station in the country for the first twelve years of its operation .
= = Operations = =
= = = Coal transportation = = =
The station had an annual coal consumption of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 tonnes . The majority of this coal was delivered to the station from coal ports in South Wales and North East England by coastal collier ships . The ships were " flat @-@ irons " with a low @-@ profile superstructure , fold @-@ down funnel and masts to fit under bridges over the Thames above the Pool of London . The LPC and its nationalised successors owned and operated several of its own " flat @-@ irons " for this service .
The jetty facilities used two cranes to offload coal , with the capacity of unloading two ships at one time , at a rate of 480 tonnes an hour . Coal was also delivered by rail to the east of the station using the Brighton Main Line which passes near the site . Coal was usually delivered to the jetty , rather than by rail . A conveyor belt system was then used to take coal to the coal storage area or directly to the station 's boiler rooms . The conveyor belt system consisted of a series of bridges connected by towers . The coal storage area was a large concrete box capable of holding 75 @,@ 000 tonnes of coal . This had an overhead gantry with a conveyor belt attached to the conveyor belt system , for taking coal from the coal store to the boiler rooms .
= = = Water system = = =
Water is essential to a thermal power station , as it is used to condense steam from the steam turbines before it is returned to the boiler . Water cycled through Battersea Power Station 's systems was taken from the River Thames , upon whose banks it had been built . The station would extract an average of 1 @.@ 5 gigalitres ( 340 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ) of water from the river each day . Once the water had been through the station 's systems , the water was cooled and discharged back into the river .
After the end of World War II , the London Power Company took the opportunity to use the waste heat to supply the Pimlico District Heating Undertaking , which started operating in 1950 .
= = = Scrubbers = = =
The reduction of sulphur emissions had been an important factor since the station was in the design stages , as it was one of the main worries of those who protested the construction of the station . The London Power Company began developing an experimental technique for washing the flue gases in 1925 . It used water and alkaline sprays over scrubbers of steel and timber in the flue ducts . The gases were subject to continuous washing , and with the presence of the catalyst iron oxide , sulphur dioxide was converted into sulphuric acid . Battersea Power Station was one of the first commercial applications of this technique in the world . This method of washing was stopped in the B Station in the 1960s , when it was discovered that the discharge of these products into the Thames was more harmful to the river than the gases would be to the atmosphere .
= = Closure and redevelopment = =
= = = Closure = = =
The fact that the station 's output continued to fall , coupled with increased operating costs , such as flue gas cleaning , led to Battersea 's demise . On 17 March 1975 , the A Station was closed after being in operation for 40 years . By this time the A Station was co @-@ firing oil and its generating capacity had declined to 228 MW .
Three years after the closure of the A Station , rumours began to circulate that the B Station would soon follow . A campaign was then launched to try to save the building as part of the national heritage . As a result , the station was declared a heritage site in 1980 , when the Secretary of State for the Environment , Michael Heseltine , awarded the building Grade II listed status . ( This was upgraded to Grade II * listed in 2007 . ) On 31 October 1983 production of electricity at Station B also ended , after nearly 30 years of operation . By then the B Station 's generating capacity had fallen to 146 MW . The closure of the two stations was put down largely to the generating equipment becoming outdated , and the preferred choice of fuel for electricity generation shifting from coal toward oil , gas and nuclear power . Since the station ceased generating electricity , there have been numerous proposals and attempts to redevelop the site .
= = = Theme park proposal = = =
Following the station 's closure , the Central Electricity Generating Board had planned to demolish the station and sell the land for housing , but because of the building 's then Grade II listed status , they had to pay the high cost of preserving the building . In 1983 they held a competition for ideas on the redevelopment of the site . It was won by a consortium including Alton Towers Ltd , which proposed an indoor theme park , based around Britain 's industrial history . At an estimated cost of £ 35 million , the scheme was risky and would require over 2 million visitors a year to make any profit . The scheme received planning approval in May 1986 and the site was purchased by John Broome for £ 1 @.@ 5 million in 1987 . Work on converting the site began the same year .
The project was halted in March 1989 , for lack of funding , after costs had quickly escalated that January , from £ 35 million to £ 230 million . By this point huge sections of the building 's roof had been removed , so that machinery could be taken out . Without a roof , the building 's steel framework has been left exposed and its foundations have been prone to flooding .
In March 1990 , the proposal was changed to a mixture of offices , shops and a hotel . This proposal was granted planning permission in August 1990 , despite opposition from 14 independent organisations , including English Heritage . Despite permission being granted , no further work took place on the site between 1990 and 1993 .
= = = Parkview proposal = = =
In 1993 , the site and its outstanding debt of £ 70 million were bought from the Bank of America by Hong Kong @-@ based development company , Parkview International , for £ 10 million . Following resolution of creditors ' claims , it acquired the freehold title in May 1996 . In November 1996 plans for the redevelopment of the site were submitted and outline consent was received in May 1997 . Detailed consent for much of the site was granted in August 2000 , and the rest in May 2001 . The company received full possession of the site in 2003 . Having purchased the site , Parkview started work on a £ 1 @.@ 1 billion project to restore the building and to redevelop the site into a retail , housing and leisure complex .
Parkview 's project plan , called simply " The Power Station " , was masterminded by architect Nicholas Grimshaw . The scheme proposed a shopping mall , with 40 to 50 restaurants , cafés and bars , 180 shops , as well as nightclubs , comedy venues and a cinema . Cosmopolitan shops would have been sited in the A Station 's turbine hall , and label name shops in the B Station 's turbine hall . The boiler house would have been glazed over and used as a public space for installations and exhibitions . A riverside walkway would also be created , running continuously along the riverside from Vauxhall to Battersea Park .
Parkview claimed that 3 @,@ 000 jobs would be created during the construction of the project , and 9 @,@ 000 would be employed once completed , with an emphasis on local recruitment . The Battersea Power Station Community Group campaigned against the Parkview plan and argued for an alternative community @-@ based scheme to be drawn up . The group described the plans as " a deeply unattractive project that has no affordable housing anywhere on the 38 @-@ acre ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) site , no decent jobs for local people and no credible public transport strategy " . They also criticised how appropriate the project was in its location , and proposal of other large buildings on the site . Keith Garner of the group said " I feel that there ’ s a real problem of appropriateness . They need a completely different kind of scheme , not this airport @-@ lounge treatment . What you see now is a majestic building looming up from the river . If you surround it with buildings 15 storeys high , you don ’ t have a landmark any more . "
In 2005 Parkview , English Heritage and the London Borough of Wandsworth claimed that the reinforcement inside the chimneys was corroded and irreparable . Wandsworth Council granted permission for them to be demolished and rebuilt . However , the Twentieth Century Society , the World Monuments Fund and the Battersea Power Station Company Ltd commissioned an alternative engineers ' report that claimed that the existing chimneys could be repaired . In response , Parkview claimed to have given a legally binding undertaking to the council to provide certainty that the chimneys will be replaced " like for like " , in accordance with the requirements of English Heritage and the planning authorities .
= = = REO proposal = = =
On 30 November 2006 , it was announced that Real Estate Opportunities , led by Irish businessmen Richard Barrett and Johnny Ronan of Treasury Holdings , had purchased Battersea Power Station and the surrounding land for € 532 million ( £ 400 million ) . REO subsequently announced that the previous plan by Parkview had been dropped and that it had appointed the practice of the Uruguayan @-@ born architect Rafael Viñoly , of New York as the new master planner for the site . The engineers Roger Preston & Partners and Buro Happold were retained on the design team . REO announced its £ 4 billion plan in 2008 , later revised . Jersey law firms , Ogier , Carey Olsen and Mourant Oxannes helped REO to raise funds for the new Battersea Power Station redevelopment . On 30 November 2011 , it was officially announced that the REO scheme had collapsed with the debt called in by its lenders and creditors , putting the site in administration .
London Underground extension
A proposed part of the regeneration is an extension of the London Underground to serve the area . Although the site is close to Battersea Park and Queenstown Road stations , it appears to be considered that trains from these stations to Victoria and Waterloo respectively are already heavily loaded . The proposed 2 @-@ mile tunnelled extension would branch from the Northern line at Kennington and travel west to Nine Elms and Battersea . The proposed extension would cost at least £ 500 million in 2008 terms before inflation and optimism bias ( extra contingency amounts ) and would be part funded by REO and , possibly , other significant land owners in the Nine Elms area . The 2010 planning consent for the site includes a phased contribution of approximately £ 200 million to the Underground extension , which adds another financial hurdle to the many difficulties in developing the site .
Biomass power station
They include reusing part of the station building as a power station , fuelled by biomass and waste . The station 's existing chimneys would be utilised for venting steam . The former turbine halls would be converted to shopping spaces , and the roofless boiler house used as a park . An energy museum would also be housed inside the former station building . The restoration of the power station building would cost £ 150 million .
Eco @-@ dome
A plastic built " eco @-@ dome " was to be built to the east of the power station . This building was originally planned to have a large 300 metres ( 980 ft ) chimney , but this has now been abandoned in favour of a series of smaller towers . The eco @-@ dome would house offices , and aim to reduce energy consumption in the buildings by 67 % compared to conventional office buildings , by using the towers to draw cool air through the building . 3 @,@ 200 new homes would also be built on the site to house 7 @,@ 000 people .
Consultation process
In June 2008 a consultation process was launched , which revealed that 66 % of the general public were in favour of the plans . At an event at the station on 23 March 2009 , it was announced that REO were to submit the planning application for their proposal to Wandsworth Council . These plans have now been shelved due to the latest financial crisis to hit the site .
Planning consent
The Council gave planning consent on 11 November 2010 . REO hoped for construction to begin in 2011 , but this has now been delayed to 2012 . The station structure itself is expected to be repaired and secure by 2016 , with completion of the whole project by 2020 . Plans now include the construction of 3 @,@ 400 apartments and 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 330 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space . Approximately 28 @,@ 000 inhabitants and 25 @,@ 000 workers are expected to occupy the space once complete .
Lenders allow more time
Reuters reported on 1 September 2011 that lenders would allow more time for a new equity partner to be found :
" Lenders to the owner of Battersea Power Station in London waived a debt maturity deadline yesterday while talks with potential new equity partners for its redevelopment continued , a source close to the process told Reuters . AIM @-@ listed Real Estate Opportunities is seeking a partner for the 5 @.@ 5 billion pound ( $ 9 billion ) development , and its senior lenders Lloyds and Ireland 's National Asset Management Agency have already extended a deadline once relating to the 400 million pounds REO paid for the site in 2006 . ' The banks have nothing to gain by calling the debt in . Talks with new equity partners continue , and an announcement may come in the next few weeks , ' the source said " .
However , in November 2011 , Lloyds and NAMA called in the debt and the REO scheme collapsed into administration . A new buyer is now being sought for the site .
Controversy
On 19 September 2011 , the Irish Independent reported concern over an alleged donation of 23 @,@ 000 Euro by a developer to Britain 's Conservative Party .
= = = Farrell and Partners Urban Park proposal = = =
In February 2012 , Sir Terry Farrell 's architectural firm put forward a proposal to convert the power station site into an " urban park " with an option to develop housing at a later date . In this vision , Farrells propose to demolish all but the central boiler hall and chimneys and display the switching equipment from the control rooms in ' pods ' . However , this plan is unlikely to bear fruit due to the Grade 2 listing status of the site . The bid failed to make the shortlist of final bidders considered by the administrators .
= = = Chelsea F.C. Interest = = =
On 9 November 2008 , Chelsea Football Club were reported to be considered moving to a new purpose built stadium at the power station . The proposed stadium was to hold between 65 @,@ 000 and 75 @,@ 000 fans and feature a retractable roof . The proposals were designed by HOK Sport , the same company who designed Wembley Stadium . However , the Chelsea FC scheme was seriously in doubt due to concerns for the preservation of the site and the collapse of the REO scheme in late November 2011 .
= = = 2012 redevelopment plans = = =
Following the failure of the REO bid to develop the site , in February 2012 , Battersea Power Station was put up for sale on the open market for the first time in its history . The sale was conducted by commercial estate agent Knight Frank on behalf of the site 's creditors . In May 2012 , several bids were received for the landmark site , which was put on the market after Nama and Lloyds Banking Group called in loans held by Treasury Holdings ' Real Estate Opportunities ( REO ) . Bids were received from Chelsea F.C. with other interested parties including a Malaysian interest , SP Setia , London & Regional , a company owned by the London @-@ based Livingstone brothers and housebuilder Berkeley . If sold , the new owner would have to pay £ 500 million for the power station , including £ 325 million to cover the debts held by Nama and Lloyds , and a £ 100 million contribution to the Northern line extension . If the sale is unsuccessful , the agent would have a duty to maintain and preserve the site in line with its listed status .
On 7 June 2012 , Knight Frank announced that administrators Ernst & Young had entered into an exclusive agreement with Malaysian developers SP Setia and Sime Darby , who were given 28 days to conduct due diligence and agree the final terms of the deal . Completion of the sale to the Malaysian consortium took place in September 2012 . The redevelopment of the site will use the existing Vinoly master plan which intends to position the Power Station as the central focus of the regenerated 40 @-@ acre site , housing a blend of shops , cafes , restaurants , art and leisure facilities , office space and residential accommodation . The plan includes the restoration of the historic Power Station itself , the creation of a new riverside park to the north of the Power Station and the creation of a new High Street which is designed to link the future entrance to Battersea Power Station tube station with the Power Station . The redevelopment is hoped to bring about the extension of the existing riverside walk and facilitate access directly from the Power Station to Battersea Park and Chelsea Bridge .
Restoration of the Grade II * listed Power Station is an early priority in the development . Work commenced in 2013 and plans include the restoration of the art deco structure internally and externally , reconstruction of the chimneys , and refurbishment of the historic cranes and jetty as a new river taxi stop . The plan includes over 800 homes of varying sizes , and sales of residential apartments in Phase 1 of the redevelopment began in January 2013 with around 75 per cent of townhouses and apartments being sold within four days . Construction work on Phase 1 , called Circus West , is being undertaken by Carillion and commenced in 2013 alongside work on the Power Station . The full redevelopment consists of seven main phases , some of which are planned to run concurrently . Phase 1 is due to complete in 2016 / 17 with the Northern line extension and requisite new Battersea Power Station terminal anticipated to complete in 2020 .
In October 2013 , Frank Gehry was appointed joint architect with Foster + Partners to design " Phase 3 " of the scheme , which will provide " the gateway to the entire development and the new Northern line extension " .
= = In popular culture = =
Battersea Power Station has become an iconic structure , being featured in or used as a shooting location for many films , television programmes , music videos and video games . One of the station 's earliest appearances on film was in Alfred Hitchcock 's 1936 film Sabotage , which shows the station before the construction of the B station . The interior of the A station 's control room was used for the " Find The Fish " segment of Monty Python 's 1983 film The Meaning of Life .
It also appears during the first daylight attack on London sequence in the 1969 movie , Battle of Britain , in the movie as in real life used as a navigational landmark by the attacking Luftwaffe bombers . More recently in October 2007 , the power station was used as a filming location for the Batman movie , The Dark Knight . The station 's stripped , empty interior was used as a setting for a burnt out warehouse . A closeup of the station can be seen as stand @-@ in for the exterior of a London railway station in the Michael Radford 's 1984 film Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four . The station appears repurposed as the Ministry of Arts in the film Children of Men , in which a floating pig appears , an homage done for the amusement of its proprietor .
The station has appeared numerous times in the long @-@ running British science fiction series Doctor Who . It appeared briefly in the episode The Dalek Invasion of Earth in 1964 , which saw the station in the 22nd century with two chimneys demolished , and a nearby nuclear reactor dome . It appeared again in the 2006 Doctor Who episodes " Rise of the Cybermen " and " The Age of Steel " as the base to which Londoners are drawn to be converted into Cybermen .
The Battersea Power Station Community Group think one of the main reasons for the power station 's worldwide recognition is that it appeared on the cover of Pink Floyd 's 1977 album Animals , on which it was photographed with the group 's inflatable pink pig floating above it . The photographs were taken in early December 1976 and the inflatable pig was made by the German company Ballon Fabrik and Australian artist Jeffrey Shaw . The inflatable pig was tethered to one of the power station 's southern chimneys , but broke loose from its moorings and , to the astonishment of pilots in approaching planes , drifted into the flight path of Heathrow Airport . Police helicopters tracked its course , until it landed in Kent . Video footage of the photoshoot was used in the promotional video for the song " Pigs on the Wing " . The album was officially launched at an event at the power station .
In recent years , the power station has been used for various sporting , cultural and political events . Since 22 August 2009 , the station has been used as a venue on the Red Bull X @-@ Fighters season . On 13 April 2010 the station was used as the venue for the launch of the Conservative Party 's 2010 general election manifesto . Between 6 and 7 May 2010 , the station site was used by Sky News in their coverage of the election .
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= Constitution of Virginia =
The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia is the document that defines and limits the powers of the state government and the basic rights of the citizens of the U.S. Commonwealth of Virginia . Like all other state constitutions , it is supreme over Virginia 's laws and acts of government , though it may be superseded by the United States Constitution and U.S. federal law as per the Supremacy Clause .
The original Virginia Constitution of 1776 was enacted in conjunction with the Declaration of Independence by the first thirteen states of the United States of America . Virginia was an early state to adopt its own Constitution on June 29 , 1776 , and the document was widely influential both in the United States and abroad . In addition to frequent amendments , there have been six major subsequent revisions of the constitution ( by Conventions for the constitutions of 1830 , 1851 , 1864 , 1870 , 1902 , and by commission for 1971 amendments ) . These new constitutions have been part of , and in reaction to , periods of major regional or social upheaval in Virginia . For instance , the 1902 constitution included provisions to disfranchise African Americans , who in 1900 made up nearly 36 % of the state 's population . They did not regain suffrage until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in the mid @-@ 1960s .
= = Historic constitutions = =
= = = 1776 = = =
The preparation of the first Virginia Constitution began in early 1776 , in the midst of the early events of the American Revolution . Among those who drafted the 1776 Constitution were George Mason and James Madison . Thomas Jefferson was Virginia 's representative to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia at the time , and his drafts of the Virginia constitution arrived too late to be incorporated into the final document . James Madison 's work on the Virginia Constitution helped him develop the ideas and skills that he would later use as one of the main architects of the United States Constitution .
The 1776 Constitution declared the dissolution of the rule of Great Britain over Virginia and accused England 's King George III of establishing a " detestable and insupportable tyranny " . It also established separation of governmental powers , with the creation of the bicameral Virginia General Assembly as the legislative body of the state and the Governor of Virginia as the " chief magistrate " or executive . The accompanying Virginia Declaration of Rights , written primarily by Mason , focuses on guarantees of basic human rights and freedoms and the fundamental purpose of government . It , in turn , served as a model for a number of other historic documents , including the United States Bill of Rights .
Critically , the 1776 Constitution limited the right to vote primarily to property owners and men of wealth . This effectively concentrated power in the hands of the landowners and aristocracy of Southeastern Virginia . Dissatisfaction with this power structure would come to dominate Virginia 's constitutional debate for almost a century .
= = = 1830 = = =
By the 1820s , Virginia was one of only two states that limited voting to landowners . In addition , because representation was by county rather than population , the residents of increasingly populous Western Virginia ( the area that would become West Virginia in 1863 ) had grown discontented at their limited representation in the legislature . Pressure increased until a constitutional convention was convened in 1829 – 1830 . This convention became largely a contest between eastern Virginia planters of the slaveholding elite and the less affluent yeomen farmers of Western Virginia . Issues of representation and suffrage dominated the debate . Delegates to the convention included such prominent Virginians as James Madison , James Monroe , John Tyler , and John Marshall .
The convention ultimately compromised by loosening suffrage requirements . It also reduced the number of delegates and senators to the Virginia General Assembly . The resulting constitution was ratified by a popular majority , though most of the voters in the western part of the state ended up voting against it . Thus , the underlying intrastate tensions remained , and would have to be addressed later .
= = = 1851 = = =
As of the 1840 census , the majority of the white residents of the state lived in western Virginia , but they were underrepresented in the legislature because of the continued property requirement for voting ; not all held sufficient property to vote . This compounded their dissatisfaction with the apportionment scheme adopted in 1830 , which was based on counties rather than population , thus giving disproportionate power to the fewer , but propertied whites who lived in the eastern part of the state and kept a grip on the legislature . As the state legislature also elected the governor and lieutenant governor , and the United States senators , Western Virginians felt they had little influence on state leadership . Their attempts to win electoral reform in the Virginia legislature were defeated each time . Some began to openly discuss the abolition of slavery or secession from the state . Ultimately , the eastern planters could not continue to ignore their discontent , and a new constitutional convention was called to resolve the continuing tensions .
The most significant change adopted in the 1851 Constitution was elimination of the property requirement for voting , resulting in extension of the suffrage to all white males of voting age . The 1851 Constitution established popular election for the governor , the newly created office of lieutenant governor , and all Virginia judges , rather than the election of the top two state officers by the legislature , or political appointment for judges . Because of these changes , the 1851 Virginia Constitution became known as the " Reform Constitution " .
= = = 1864 = = =
When in 1861 , the Virginia legislature voted for secession in the events leading up to the American Civil War , all of the western and several of the northern counties dissented They set up a separate government with Francis H. Pierpont as governor . During the Civil War , this separate or " restored " government approved the creation of West Virginia as a separate state ( which was admitted to the Union in 1863 ) and in 1864 it approved a new Constitution . The constitution was the product of a divided state and government ; it was the first since the original 1776 Constitution to be adopted by the legislature without a popular vote .
The 1864 Constitution abolished slavery in Virginia , disfranchised men who had served in the Confederate government , recognized the creation of the State of West Virginia , and adjusted the number and terms of office of the members of the Virginia Assembly .
The foreword to the current Virginia Constitution does not include the 1864 Constitution in its list of previous constitutions . It notes that the 1864 Constitution was drafted under wartime conditions and was of uncertain legal status .
= = = 1870 = = =
After the end of the Civil War , Virginia came briefly under military rule during Reconstruction , with the district commanded by John M. Schofield . Pursuant to federal Reconstruction legislation , Schofield called for a new constitutional convention to meet in Richmond from December 1867 to April 1868 . In protest of freedmen 's suffrage , many of Virginia 's conservative whites refused to participate in voting for delegates . As a result , Republicans led by Judge John Curtiss Underwood dominated the convention . Opponents called the result the " Underwood Constitution " or the " Negro Constitution " , as it gave freedmen suffrage .
Significant provisions included expanding the suffrage to all male citizens over the age of 21 , which included freedmen ; establishing a state public school system for the first time , with mandatory funding and attendance ; and providing for judges to be elected by the General Assembly rather than by popular vote . Controversy over clauses that continued the temporary disfranchisement of former Confederate government members delayed the adoption of the Constitution . An eventual compromise provided for separate voting on the disfranchisement clauses and the rest of the Constitution ; the former failed to win approval . The remainder of the Underwood Constitution was ratified by a popular vote of 210 @,@ 585 to 9 @,@ 136 , and went into effect in 1870 .
= = = 1902 = = =
In the late nineteenth century , white Democrats regained power in state legislatures across the South . They passed Jim Crow laws establishing racial segregation in public facilities and restricting the lives of blacks . Beginning with Mississippi in 1890 , legislatures began to ratify new constitutions , amendments or electoral laws that disfranchised African @-@ American voters , devising means such as poll taxes , literacy tests and residential requirements that passed Supreme Court review but worked against poor blacks and many poor whites . By the turn of the 20th century , six Southern states had essentially eliminated the black vote , and pressure mounted among whites in Virginia to do the same , ostensibly as a way to stop electoral fraud and corruption . The 1901 constitutional convention met in this climate . Members were focused on restricting black voting rights without violating the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution or disfranchising poor whites . Led by the future Senator Carter Glass , the convention created requirements that all prospective voters had to pay poll taxes or pass a literacy test administered by white registrars . An exemption was granted , in a kind of grandfather clause , for military veterans and sons of veterans , who were virtually all white . The changes effectively disfranchised black voters , though many illiterate whites were also unable to meet the new requirements . In 1900 blacks made up nearly 36 % of the population . In succeeding elections , the Virginia electorate was reduced by nearly half as a result of the changes . Voter turnout would not return to 1904 levels until 1952 within a statewide population almost twice the size . The small electorate was key to maintaining the dominant Democratic Organization in power for sixty years .
Other significant provisions of the 1902 Constitution imposed racial segregation in public schools ( which already existed on a de facto basis ) and abolished the county court system . The Constitution provided for the creation of the State Corporation Commission to regulate the growing power of the railroads . Because of concern over African @-@ American opposition , the convention did not honor its pledge to have the proposed constitution put to popular vote . Like the 1864 Constitution by the Loyalist government during the Civil War , the legislature adopted the 1902 Constitution without ratification by the electorate . It was in effect far longer than any previous Virginia constitution .
= = Current constitution ( 1971 ) = =
As a result of the Civil Rights Movement challenging the restrictions and discrimination practiced against blacks exercise of constitutional rights , a series of US Supreme Court cases , beginning with Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 , the 24th Amendment , and federal legislation : the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 had overturned the most controversial aspects of the 1902 Constitution – the provisions restricting voting by African Americans and mandating school segregation . Combined with the election of Governor Mills Godwin in 1965 , there was impetus for governmental change . Godwin strongly advocated the loosening of the strict constitutional restrictions on state @-@ issued bonds and borrowing , and used his power and popularity to push for a new constitution . In 1968 a joint resolution of the Virginia General Assembly approved a new commission , chaired by former Governor Albertis Harrison , to revise the constitution .
The Commission on Constitutional Revision presented its report and recommendations to Governor Godwin and the General Assembly in January 1969 , and continued to work with them to draft a final consensus version . The proposed Constitution was overwhelmingly approved by the voters of Virginia ( who by then included African @-@ American men and women , following passage of federal civil rights legislation in the mid @-@ 1960s ) and took effect on July 1 , 1971 .
The current Constitution of Virginia consists of twelve Articles :
= = = Article I – Bill of Rights = = =
Article I contains the entire original Virginia Declaration of Rights from the 1776 Constitution . Several of the sections have been expanded to incorporate concepts from the United States Bill of Rights , including the right to due process , the prohibition against double jeopardy , and the right to bear arms . Like the Federal Constitution , the Virginia Bill of Rights , in § 17 , states that the listing of certain rights is not to be construed to exclude other rights held by the people .
In 1997 , a Victims ' Rights Amendment was added to the Virginia Bill of Rights as § 8 @-@ A. In Nobrega v. Commonwealth , the only case so far to interpret this amendment , the Virginia Supreme Court used the Victims ’ s Rights Amendment to support its ruling that an alleged rape victim could not be compelled to submit to a psychiatric evaluation .
On November 7 , 2006 , Virginia voters ratified an amendment , previously approved by the General Assembly , prohibiting same @-@ sex marriage , to be added to the Bill of Rights . This amendment also prohibits the recognition of any " union , partnership , or other legal status " between unmarried people that intends to approximate marriage or which confers the " rights , benefits , obligations , qualities , or effects of marriage . " The Virginia Attorney General issued an opinion stating that the amendment does not change the legal status of documents such as contracts , wills , or Advanced Medical Directives between unmarried people . The amendment was declared to be in violation the United States Constitution by a U.S. District Court Judge on February 13 , 2014 . ( In 2015 , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that the failure to provide for same @-@ sex marriage by any U.S. state had the effect of violating the rights of homosexuals to equal protection of law required under the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . )
= = = Article II – Franchise and Officers = = =
The second Article of the Constitution sets out the procedures and mechanisms for voting , elections and holding office . Pursuant to Section 1 , any Virginia resident over age 18 may vote in state elections ; the voting age was reduced from 21 by a 1972 amendment to the federal constitution . However , § 1 denies the vote to people who have been determined to be mentally incompetent or anyone convicted of a felony . Disfranchising convicted felons has been found to be consistent with the Equal Protection Clause of the U.S. Constitution . The General Assembly , pursuant to § 4 , is given wide power to regulate the time place and manner of all elections .
Section Five establishes that the only qualifications to hold office in Virginia are that a person must have been a Virginia resident for at least one year and eligible to vote . Any statute or rule requiring other qualifications is constitutionally invalid under this section . But , the General Assembly can impose local residency requirements for election to local governmental bodies or for election to the Assembly in representation of particular districts .
= = = Article III – Division of Powers = = =
Article III has one section , confirming the principle of separation of powers between the legislative , executive and judicial branches of government . Unlike the U.S. federal Constitution , the Virginia Constitution explicitly provides that no branch may exercise powers that properly belong to the others . Separation between the branches of government is also listed as a right of the people in § 5 of Article I.
= = = Article IV – Legislature = = =
Article IV establishes the basic structure and authority of the Virginia legislature . The legislative power of the state is vested in the Virginia General Assembly , which consists of the Virginia Senate and the Virginia House of Delegates . § 17 of Article IV gives the legislature the power to impeach members of the executive and judicial branches .
The original § 14 of Article IV forbade the incorporation of churches , though the Virginia Commission on Constitutional Revision , in its 1969 report , had recognized that the prohibition was probably invalid . The federal district court for the Western District of Virginia ruled in April 2002 that this provision of the Virginia Constitution was in fact unconstitutional , because it violates the federal constitutional right to the free exercise of religion . The court found that it is unconstitutional to deny a church the option to incorporate under state law when other groups can incorporate . An amendment striking the ban on church incorporation was approved by Virginia voters in November 2006 .
= = = Article V – Executive = = =
The fifth Article similarly defines the structure and powers of the executive branch . The Governor of Virginia is invested as the chief executive , though § 1 of Article V , provides that the governor may not run for successive terms . The offices of lieutenant governor and attorney general are established as supporting elected constitutional positions .
The constitutional powers of the governor include the ability to sign legislation , veto bills ( which veto may then be overridden by a two @-@ thirds majority of both houses of the assembly ) , and issue pardons .
= = = Article VI – Judiciary = = =
Article VI vests judicial power in the Supreme Court of Virginia , along with the subordinate courts created by the General Assembly . Judges are appointed by a majority vote in the General Assembly to terms of 12 years for Supreme Court Justices and 8 years for other judges . The Supreme Court , pursuant to § 5 , has the authority to make rules governing the practice of law and procedures in the courts of the commonwealth ( see rules ) , and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is established as the administrative head of the Virginia judicial system .
= = = Article VII – Local Government = = =
Article VII of the Constitution sets up the basic framework for the structure and function of local government in Virginia . Local government may be established at the town ( population over 1000 ) , city ( population over 5000 ) , county or regional government level . Article VII gives the General Assembly the power to create general laws for the organization and governing of these political subdivisions , except that regional governments cannot be created without the consent of the majority of the voters in the region .
Section 4 establishes the constitutional offices of treasurer , sheriff , Commonwealth 's Attorney , clerk of court and Commissioner of the Revenue to be elected within each city and county in Virginia .
= = = Article VIII – Education = = =
A compulsory and free primary and secondary public education for every Virginia child is the focus of Article VIII . The General Assembly is empowered to determine the funding for the educational system and apportion the cost between state and local government . A state Board of Education is established to create school divisions and effectuate the overall educational policies . Supervision of the individual schools is delegated to local school boards , provided for in § 7 .
= = = Article IX – Corporations = = =
The primary purpose of Article IX is to create the Virginia State Corporation Commission , which is charged with administering the laws that regulate corporations . The State Corporation Commission also issues charters for Virginia corporations and licenses to do business for “ foreign ” ( non @-@ Virginia ) corporations . Section 5 of Article IX prohibits such foreign corporations from doing anything in Virginia that a Virginia corporation could not do .
= = = Article X – Taxation and Finance = = =
Article X establishes the basic structure for taxation of personal property in Virginia . Pursuant to this Article , all non @-@ exempt real and personal property is subject to taxation at its fair market value . Section 6 sets out a lengthy list of exempt property , which includes church property , cemeteries , and non @-@ profit school property .
Significant additions to Article X include § 7 , a budget amendment , which became effective in 1986 , and § 7 @-@ A , which establishes the " Lottery Proceeds Fund " , requiring that all proceeds from the lottery be set aside for educational purposes .
= = = Article XI – Conservation = = =
Article XI states that it is the general policy of the Commonwealth to preserve , protect and conserve the state ’ s natural and historic resources . The General Assembly is permitted to further these policies by entering into public @-@ private partnerships or partnerships with federal agencies .
A 2001 amendment added § 4 , which establishes hunting and fishing as constitutional rights of Virginians , though the legislature may enact appropriate regulations and restrictions on these rights .
= = = Article XII – Future changes = = =
The last Article creates the mechanism for future changes to the Constitution . Any amendment to the Constitution must first be passed by a majority in each of the two legislative houses . The proposed amendment must then be held over for consideration by the succeeding elected legislature , where it must again be passed by a majority in each house . The amendment then goes on the general ballot and becomes enacted into the Constitution if approved by a majority of the voters .
Alternatively , a two @-@ thirds majority of both Virginia houses may call for the creation of a constitutional convention . Any revisions or amendments proposed by the constitutional convention are presented to the citizens of Virginia and become law upon approval by a majority of voters .
= = Subsequent amendments = =
Since 1971 , additional amendments have been passed by the General Assembly and approved by the voter to conform to provisions in the U.S. Constitution , rulings from the U.S. Supreme Court and Congressional statute . The voting age is reduced to eighteen , voting residency requirements are removed , and voter registration conforms to the Motor Voter Act . Additionally , the Virginia Constitution now provides for a General Assembly session following a governor ’ s veto , and the right of the people to hunt , fish and harvest game is guaranteed .
In 2006 , Virginians passed an amendment limiting marriage to “ unions between one man and one woman ” . That has since been overturned by Obergefell v. Hodges ( 2015 ) .
There is a perennial discussion over Virginia ’ s unique Constitutional status restricting its governor to one consecutive term , and its distinctive method of selecting both trial and appellate judges by state legislature , shared only with South Carolina .
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= The Red Sea Sharks =
The Red Sea Sharks ( French : Coke en stock ) is the nineteenth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was initially serialised weekly in Belgium 's Tintin magazine from October 1956 to January 1958 before being published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1958 . The narrative follows the young reporter Tintin , his dog Snowy , and his friend Captain Haddock as they travel to the ( fictional ) Middle Eastern kingdom of Khemed with the intention of aiding the Emir Ben Khalish Ezab in regaining control after a coup d 'état by his enemies , who are financed by slave traders .
Following on from the previous volume in the series , The Calculus Affair , The Red Sea Sharks was created with the aid of Hergé 's team of artists at Studios Hergé . Influenced by Honoré de Balzac 's The Human Comedy , Hergé used the story as a vehicle in which to reintroduce a wide range of characters who had first appeared in earlier installments of the series . The story dealt with the ongoing trade in enslaved Africans across the Arab world , however in the 1960s the story would generate controversy as Hergé was repeatedly accused of having portrayed the Africans in a racist manner . He was upset by these claims , and made alterations to the depiction of the Africans in later reprints . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with Tintin in Tibet , and the series as a whole became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . The Red Sea Sharks was critically well @-@ received , with various commentators describing it as one of the best Tintin adventures . The story was adapted for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana .
= = Synopsis = =
In Brussels , Tintin and Captain Haddock bump into an old acquaintance , General Alcazar . Returning to Marlinspike Hall , they find that another acquaintance , the Emir of Khemed , Mohammed Ben Kalish Ezab , has been overthrown by his nemesis Sheikh Bab El Ehr , and that the Emir has accordingly sent his son , the disobedient Abdullah , to stay at Marlinspike for his own protection . The police detectives Thomson and Thompson visit , informing Tintin that Alcazar is seeking to purchase military aircraft from J. M. Dawson .
Investigating further , Tintin discovers that Dawson has also sold military aircraft to Bab El Ehr . Realising that the only way to be rid of Abdullah is to restore the Emir 's control of Khemed , Tintin , Haddock , and their dog Snowy travel to the Middle Eastern country . However the trio narrowly survive a bomb planted aboard the plane to kill them , and are able to slip into the city of Wadesdah unobserved . There they meet an old friend , the Portuguese merchant Oliveira da Figueira , who helps them to escape the city and ride on horseback to the Emir 's hideout . During the journey armoured cars and fighter planes are ordered to intercept them by " Mull Pasha " , who is actually Tintin 's old antagonist , Dr. Müller . The pursuit ends when a mix @-@ up in Muller 's order causes the fighter planes to destroy the armoured cars .
The Emir welcomes Tintin and Haddock , revealing that there is an ongoing slave trade through Khemed that is operated by the international businessman the Marquis di Gorgonzola , who falsely offers transport to African Muslims on the pilgrimage to Mecca and then sells them into slavery . Tintin , Haddock and Snowy leave for the Red Sea coast and board a sambuk for Mecca ; they are attacked by fighter planes before Tintin shoots one down and rescues its mercenary Estonian pilot , Piotr Skut . The four are picked up by di Gorgonzola 's yacht , the Scheherazade , but are soon offloaded onto the SS Ramona , a tramp steamer . Di Gorgonzola turns out to be another of Tintin 's old adversaries , Roberto Rastapopoulos . The Ramona is one of Rastapopoulos ' slave trading ships , and when a fire breaks out aboard it during the night , the ship 's commander Allan and his crew flee , leaving Tintin , Haddock , Snowy and Skut aboard along with a consignment of African slaves .
With Haddock taking on the ship 's captaincy , they are successfully able to put out the fire . However , Rastapopoulos sends a U @-@ Boat to destroy the Ramona , with the ship taking evasive manoeuvres to survive , ultimately being rescued by the cruiser USS Los Angeles . The Los Angeles chases down the Scheherazade and attempts to capture di Gorgonzola , but he fakes his own death and escapes via a mini @-@ submarine . Tintin , Haddock and Snowy return to Belgium and learn that the Emir has recaptured Khemed and that Abdullah can return home . Their relaxation is cut short by Jolyon Wagg , who has arranged to use Marlinspike for an auto rally .
= = History = =
= = = Background and publication = = =
Hergé was inspired to develop the plot for The Red Sea Sharks after reading a magazine article detailing the continued existence of the slave trade within the Arab world , in which it was claimed that African pilgrims headed to Mecca were being enslaved during the journey . Hergé included a reference to this slave trade in the story 's original French title , Coke en Stock ( " Coke on Board " ) , which referred to the slave smuggler 's use of " coke " as a codeword for the enslaved people .
Prior to writing the story , Hergé had read Balzac et son monde ( " Balzac and His World " ) , a 1955 book written by his friend Félicien Marceau . Intrigued by the work of Honoré de Balzac , Hergé was inspired by the way in which Balzac had introduced an array of characters from his earlier work into The Human Comedy , and he subsequently adopted this trait for The Red Sea Sharks , in which a wide range of characters from The Adventures of Tintin make a reappearance . Hergé also introduced a new character , the Estonian pilot Piotr Skut , who would later reappear in Flight 714 .
To produce accurate illustrations for the Ramona , Hergé and his assistant Bob de Moor traveled aboard a Swedish cargo vessel , the MS Reine Astrid , from Antwerp to Gothenburg and back , during which they took photographs and drew sketches . Hergé had also collected press clippings depicting the Christina , a motor yaught owned by the Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis , and used them as the basis for his depiction of Rastapopoulos ' ship , the Sheherezade . The aircraft , cars , and machinery that appear in the story were drawn by Roger Leloup , one of the members of the Studios Hergé . In one scene in the latter part of the story , Hergé included a frogman , whose depiction was drawn from a press clipping of Lionel Crabb . His depiction of the Emir 's hideaway palace cut from the rock was based on the Al Khazneh in Petra , Jordan , which he had seen in an issue of National Geographic .
Hergé 's growing interest in art was reflected in the story , as he included a copy of Alfred Sisley 's Le Canal du Loing at Marlinspike Hall . He also included paintings by Pablo Picasso and Joan Miró aboard Rastapopolous ' Scheherazade . Muller 's pseudonym in the story , Mull Pasha , was based upon the British soldier Glubb Pasha . In the final scene , Hergé included cameos of both himself and his friend and colleague Edgar P. Jacobs .
The story began serialisation in Belgium 's Tintin magazine in October 1956 , before being serialised in the French edition of the magazine from December 1956 . It was then published in book form by Casterman in 1958 . Upon the story 's British publication in 1960 , Coke en Stock was renamed The Red Sea Sharks .
= = = Racism and alterations = = =
Hergé had been accused of exhibiting a racist attitude toward Africans in an earlier story , Tintin in the Congo , and potentially hoped to exonerate himself from such criticism by depicting Tintin and Haddock freeing African slaves in The Red Sea Sharks . In preparing the latter story he had consulted a colleague who worked for an African @-@ themed magazine , L 'Afrique et le Monde ( " Africa and the World " ) ; they translated some of the passages that Hergé wished to include in the story into Yoruba . However , in January 1962 an article in the magazine Jeune Afrique criticised Hergé for a racist depiction of Africans in the story , an accusation that would be echoed in other publications . These claims focused on the African characters ' simplistic use of pidgin language , which was similar to the speech patterns used in Tintin in the Congo .
African : " You speak well , Effendi . Wicked Arab , very wicked . Poor black men not want to be slaves . Poor black men want to go to Mecca . "
Haddock : " Naturally , I realise that . But I repeat if you go there , you 'll be sold as slaves . Is that what you want ? "
African : " We not slaves , Effendi . We good Muslims . We want to go to Mecca . "
Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters expressed the view that " for the most part these attacks were extremely unfair " . Hergé was emotionally affected by the accusations , and made changes to the book for its 1967 reprint accordingly ; here he changed the Africans ' speech patterns , giving them improved grammar . However , he left Haddock speaking pidgin in response to the Africans .
For this version he also made changes to the Emir 's letter to Tintin ; the former version had been formal in its prose , stating " Most esteemed and well @-@ beloved friend , I entrust to you my son Abdullah , to improve his English . Here the situation is serious . Should any misfortune befall me I count on you , my friend , to care for Abdullah " . In Hergé 's revised edition , he adopts a more florid prose style : " This is to tell you , oh highly esteemed friend , that I entrust to you Abdullah , my adored son . Because here the situation is serious . Should misfortune descend on me like the hawk on an innocent gazelle ( for the world is made of life and death ) I am sure that Abdullah will find you with warmth and affection , refuge and peace . And in doing this you will be performing a fragrant act before Allah . "
He also expressed regret that he depicted the death of a shark in the story , later stating that " I still believed that sharks were big evil beasts " when writing The Red Sea Sharks .
= = Critical analysis = =
Commenting on the inclusion of a wide range of characters from The Adventures of Tintin , Harry Thompson referred to the story as " a Tintin family reunion " , commenting that it was " a story unusually full of the type of people Captain Haddock liked to avoid " . Michael Farr believed that in reviving so many older characters , Hergé had given The Red Sea Sharks " a marked retrospective quality " . Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier thought that the story was too crowded , leaving little room for series regulars Professor Calculus or Thomson and Thompson , and leaving the introduced figure of Skut as " a nice supporting character , but nothing more " . The Lofficiers stated that " Hergé was doing some house @-@ cleaning of his past works and characters before embarking on something more serious and with more personal resonance " , Tintin in Tibet .
Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters described The Red Sea Sharks as a " complex , ambiguous , even labyrinthine " story which was " undoubtedly the book in which Hergé ventured furthest into the creation of his own universe . " He thought that " Hergé enters a new phase " with The Red Sea Sharks , as its author " seems to know his family of characters better and better , and he enjoys playing with them and his readers . " Peeters noted that the book was " in some respects a continuation " of Land of Black Gold , an assessment shared by Thompson , the Lofficiers , and Farr , all of whom described it as a partial sequel to the earlier book . Thompson added that The Red Sea Sharks " atoned for the relative failure " of Land of Black Gold , believing that although it had a " rather hasty finish " , it was " a first @-@ rate thriller " . The Lofficiers awarded it four out of five , stating that it was " very effective as a modern political thriller and far more believable than The Calculus Affair " . They also opined that it provided an effective political commentary on the West 's relationship with the Arab world . In their analysis , Tintin and Haddock seek to aid the Emir not because he is a good leader , but for their own selfish purposes ( to get Abdullah out of Marlinspike ) , just as Western governments and corporations build alliances with Arab leaders guilty of human rights abuses in order to benefit their own interests .
Thompson felt that the inclusion of slavery as a key theme led to this book being " one of Hergé 's more adult @-@ oriented adventures " . Nevertheless , Farr noted that the story contained " a good measure of humour " to balance out these darker elements . Farr drew comparisons with Anthony Powell 's A Dance to the Music of Time , a series of novels that was contemporary to The Red Sea Sharks and which was similarly inspired by Balzac 's The Human Comedy . Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline believed that The Red Sea Sharks represented " the culmination of his golden age " , which had begun with The Blue Lotus . He also commented that " it almost seemed as if Hergé had regained the pace and rhythm of his most creative period " with this story .
In his psychoanalytical study of The Adventures of Tintin , the literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès expressed the view that The Red Sea Sharks reflected a world in which traditional values have been degraded and everything – including human life – has become a commodity . He added that Rastapopoulos becomes " the embodiment of the global market " in this story , tying together all of the other characters and therefore replacing Tintin as the figure " at the centre of the universe " . Apostolidès opined that The Red Sea Sharks amplifies " the theme of the general equivalence of everything " that is present in the series , serving as " a kind of retrospective " by introducing old characters and establishing new relationships between them . He believed that the theme of the mirage pervaded the story , appearing repeatedly in such forms as Abdullah 's cuckoo clock which concealed a water squirter and the pseudonyms employed by the various characters throughout the narrative . The literary critic Tom McCarthy stated that The Red Sea Sharks exhibited a number of themes that recurred throughout The Adventures of Tintin . He believed that a scene in which one of Bab El Ehr 's men spies on the Emir in his mountain hideaway reflected a wider theme of eavesdropping that features throughout the series . McCarthy also highlighted Tintin 's actions in returning Abdullah to Khemed , expressing the view that it is part of a wider running theme throughout the series in which the hero takes an abandoned children to their home ; other instances included Tintin 's discovery of an adoptive family for the orphan Chang Chong @-@ Chen in The Blue Lotus and the delivery of the lost gypsy child Miarka to her family in The Castafiore Emerald .
= = Adaptations = =
In 1991 , a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories – among them The Red Sea Sharks – into a series of episodes , each 42 minutes long . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book .
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= Mollusca =
The molluscs or mollusks / ˈmɒləsks / compose the large phylum of invertebrate animals known as the Mollusca . Around 85 @,@ 000 extant species of molluscs are recognized . Molluscs are the largest marine phylum , comprising about 23 % of all the named marine organisms . Numerous molluscs also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats . They are highly diverse , not just in size and in anatomical structure , but also in behaviour and in habitat . The phylum is typically divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes , of which two are entirely extinct . Cephalopod molluscs , such as squid , cuttlefish and octopus , are among the most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates — and either the giant squid or the colossal squid is the largest known invertebrate species . The gastropods ( snails and slugs ) are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species , and account for 80 % of the total . The scientific study of molluscs is called malacology .
The three most universal features defining modern molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion , the presence of a radula ( except for bivalves ) , and the structure of the nervous system . Other than these things , molluscs express great morphological diversity , so many textbooks base their descriptions on a " hypothetical ancestral mollusc " ( see image below ) . This has a single , " limpet @-@ like " shell on top , which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate , and is secreted by a mantle covering the whole upper surface . The underside of the animal consists of a single muscular " foot " . Although molluscs are coelomates , the coelom tends to be small . The main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood circulates ; their circulatory systems are mainly open . The " generalized " mollusc 's feeding system consists of a rasping " tongue " , the radula , and a complex digestive system in which exuded mucus and microscopic , muscle @-@ powered " hairs " called cilia play various important roles . The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords , or three in bivalves . The brain , in species that have one , encircles the esophagus . Most molluscs have eyes , and all have sensors to detect chemicals , vibrations , and touch . The simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization , but more complex variations occur . All produce eggs , from which may emerge trochophore larvae , more complex veliger larvae , or miniature adults .
Good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods , cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 541 to 485 @.@ 4 million years ago . However , the evolutionary history both of molluscs ' emergence from the ancestral Lophotrochozoa and of their diversification into the well @-@ known living and fossil forms are still subjects of vigorous debate among scientists .
Molluscs have been and still are an important food source for anatomically modern humans , but with a risk of food poisoning from toxins that accumulate in molluscs under certain conditions , and many countries have regulations to reduce this risk . Molluscs have , for centuries , also been the source of important luxury goods , notably pearls , mother of pearl , Tyrian purple dye , and sea silk . Their shells have also been used as money in some preindustrial societies . Mollusc species can also represent hazards or pests for human activities . The bite of the blue @-@ ringed octopus is often fatal , and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last for over a month . Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill , but their sophisticated , though easily produced , venoms have become important tools in neurological research . Schistosomiasis ( also known as bilharzia , bilharziosis or snail fever ) is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts , and affects about 200 million people . Snails and slugs can also be serious agricultural pests , and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems .
= = Etymology = =
The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque , which originated from the Latin molluscus , from mollis , soft . Molluscus was itself an adaptation of Aristotle 's τα μαλακά ta malaká , " the soft things " , which he applied to cuttlefish .
The name Molluscoida was formerly used to denote a division of the animal kingdom containing the brachiopods , bryozoans , and tunicates , the members of the three groups having been supposed to somewhat resemble the molluscs . As it is now known these groups have no relation to molluscs , and very little to one another , the name Molluscoida has been abandoned .
= = Definition = =
The most universal features of the body structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion , and the organization of the nervous system . The most abundant metallic element in molluscs is calcium .
Molluscs have developed such a varied range of body structures , it is difficult to find synapomorphies ( defining characteristics ) to apply to all modern groups . The most general characteristic of molluscs is they are unsegmented and bilaterally symmetrical . The following are present in all modern molluscs :
The dorsal part of the body wall is a mantle ( or pallium ) which secretes calcareous spicules , plates or shells . It overlaps the body with enough spare room to form a mantle cavity .
The anus and genitals open into the mantle cavity .
There are two pairs of main nerve cords .
Other characteristics that commonly appear in textbooks have significant exceptions :
= = Diversity = =
Estimates of accepted described living species of molluscs vary from 50 @,@ 000 to a maximum of 120 @,@ 000 species . In 1969 David Nicol estimated the probable total number of living molluscs at 107 @,@ 000 of which were about 12 @,@ 000 fresh @-@ water gastropods and 35 @,@ 000 terrestrial . The Bivalvia would comprise about 14 % of the total and the other five classes less than 2 % of the living molluscs . In 2009 , Chapman estimated the number of described living species at 85 @,@ 000 . Haszprunar in 2001 estimated about 93 @,@ 000 named species , which include 23 % of all named marine organisms . Molluscs are second only to arthropods in numbers of living animal species — far behind the arthropods ' 1 @,@ 113 @,@ 000 but well ahead of chordates ' 52 @,@ 000 . About 200 @,@ 000 living species in total are estimated , and 70 @,@ 000 fossil species , although the total number of mollusc species ever to have existed , whether or not preserved , must be many times greater than the number alive today .
Molluscs have more varied forms than any other animal phylum . They include snails , slugs and other gastropods ; clams and other bivalves ; squids and other cephalopods ; and other lesser @-@ known but similarly distinctive subgroups . The majority of species still live in the oceans , from the seashores to the abyssal zone , but some form a significant part of the freshwater fauna and the terrestrial ecosystems . Molluscs are extremely diverse in tropical and temperate regions , but can be found at all latitudes . About 80 % of all known mollusc species are gastropods . Cephalopoda such as squid , cuttlefish , and octopuses are among the neurologically most advanced of all invertebrates . The giant squid , which until recently had not been observed alive in its adult form , is one of the largest invertebrates , but a recently caught specimen of the colossal squid , 10 m ( 33 ft ) long and weighing 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) , may have overtaken it .
Freshwater and terrestrial molluscs appear exceptionally vulnerable to extinction . Estimates of the numbers of nonmarine molluscs vary widely , partly because many regions have not been thoroughly surveyed . There is also a shortage of specialists who can identify all the animals in any one area to species . However , in 2004 the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species included nearly 2 @,@ 000 endangered nonmarine molluscs . For comparison , the great majority of mollusc species are marine , but only 41 of these appeared on the 2004 Red List . About 42 % of recorded extinctions since the year 1500 are of molluscs , consisting almost entirely of nonmarine species .
= = A " generalized mollusc " = =
Because of the great range of anatomical diversity among molluscs , many textbooks start the subject of molluscan anatomy by describing what is called an archi @-@ mollusc , hypothetical generalized mollusc , or hypothetical ancestral mollusc ( HAM ) to illustrate the most common features found within the phylum . These species reproduce through binary fission , much like a sea star . The depiction is rather similar to modern monoplacophorans , and some suggest it may resemble very early molluscs .
The generalized mollusc is bilaterally symmetrical and has a single , " limpet @-@ like " shell on top . The shell is secreted by a mantle covering the upper surface . The underside consists of a single muscular " foot " . The visceral mass , or visceropallium , is the soft , nonmuscular metabolic region of the mollusc . It contains the body organs .
= = = Mantle and mantle cavity = = =
The mantle cavity , a fold in the mantle , encloses a significant amount of space . It is lined with epidermis , and is exposed , according to habitat , to sea , fresh water or air . The cavity was at the rear in the earliest molluscs , but its position now varies from group to group . The anus , a pair of osphradia ( chemical sensors ) in the incoming " lane " , the hindmost pair of gills and the exit openings of the nephridia ( " kidneys " ) and gonads ( reproductive organs ) are in the mantle cavity . The whole soft body of bivalves lies within an enlarged mantle cavity .
= = = Shell = = =
The mantle edge secretes a shell ( secondarily absent in a number of taxonomic groups , such as the nudibranchs ) that consists of mainly chitin and conchiolin ( a protein hardened with calcium carbonate ) , except the outermost layer in almost all cases is all conchiolin ( see periostracum ) . Molluscs never use phosphate to construct their hard parts , with the questionable exception of Cobcrephora . While most mollusc shells are composed mainly of aragonite , those gastropods that lay eggs with a hard shell use calcite ( sometimes with traces of aragonite ) to construct the eggshells .
The shell consists of three layers : the outer layer ( the periostracum ) made of organic matter , a middle layer made of columnar calcite , and an inner layer consisting of laminated calcite , often nacreous .
= = = Foot = = =
The underside consists of a muscular foot , which has adapted to different purposes in different classes . The foot carries a pair of statocysts , which act as balance sensors . In gastropods , it secretes mucus as a lubricant to aid movement . In forms having only a top shell , such as limpets , the foot acts as a sucker attaching the animal to a hard surface , and the vertical muscles clamp the shell down over it ; in other molluscs , the vertical muscles pull the foot and other exposed soft parts into the shell . In bivalves , the foot is adapted for burrowing into the sediment ; in cephalopods it is used for jet propulsion , and the tentacles and arms are derived from the foot .
= = = Circulatory system = = =
Molluscs ' circulatory systems are mainly open . Although molluscs are coelomates , their coeloms are reduced to fairly small spaces enclosing the heart and gonads . The main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood and coelomic fluid circulate and which encloses most of the other internal organs . These hemocoelic spaces act as an efficient hydrostatic skeleton . The blood contains the respiratory pigment hemocyanin as an oxygen @-@ carrier . The heart consists of one or more pairs of atria ( auricles ) , which receive oxygenated blood from the gills and pump it to the ventricle , which pumps it into the aorta ( main artery ) , which is fairly short and opens into the hemocoel .
The atria of the heart also function as part of the excretory system by filtering waste products out of the blood and dumping it into the coelom as urine . A pair of nephridia ( " little kidneys " ) to the rear of and connected to the coelom extracts any re @-@ usable materials from the urine and dumps additional waste products into it , and then ejects it via tubes that discharge into the mantle cavity .
= = = Respiration = = =
Most molluscs have only one pair of gills , or even only one gill . Generally , the gills are rather like feathers in shape , although some species have gills with filaments on only one side . They divide the mantle cavity so water enters near the bottom and exits near the top . Their filaments have three kinds of cilia , one of which drives the water current through the mantle cavity , while the other two help to keep the gills clean . If the osphradia detect noxious chemicals or possibly sediment entering the mantle cavity , the gills ' cilia may stop beating until the unwelcome intrusions have ceased . Each gill has an incoming blood vessel connected to the hemocoel and an outgoing one to the heart .
= = = Eating , digestion , and excretion = = =
Members of the mollusk family use intracellular digestion to function . Most molluscs have muscular mouths with radulae , " tongues " , bearing many rows of chitinous teeth , which are replaced from the rear as they wear out . The radula primarily functions to scrape bacteria and algae off rocks , and is associated with the odontophore , a cartilaginous supporting organ . The radula is unique to the molluscs and has no equivalent in any other animal .
Molluscs ' mouths also contain glands that secrete slimy mucus , to which the food sticks . Beating cilia ( tiny " hairs " ) drive the mucus towards the stomach , so the mucus forms a long string called a " food string " .
At the tapered rear end of the stomach and projecting slightly into the hindgut is the prostyle , a backward @-@ pointing cone of feces and mucus , which is rotated by further cilia so it acts as a bobbin , winding the mucus string onto itself . Before the mucus string reaches the prostyle , the acidity of the stomach makes the mucus less sticky and frees particles from it .
The particles are sorted by yet another group of cilia , which send the smaller particles , mainly minerals , to the prostyle so eventually they are excreted , while the larger ones , mainly food , are sent to the stomach 's cecum ( a pouch with no other exit ) to be digested . The sorting process is by no means perfect .
Periodically , circular muscles at the hindgut 's entrance pinch off and excrete a piece of the prostyle , preventing the prostyle from growing too large . The anus , in the part of the mantle cavity , is swept by the outgoing " lane " of the current created by the gills . Carnivorous molluscs usually have simpler digestive systems .
As the head has largely disappeared in bivalves , the mouth has been equipped with labial palps ( two on each side of the mouth ) to collect the detritus from its mucus .
= = = Nervous system = = =
The cephalic molluscs have two pairs of main nerve cords organized around a number of paired ganglia , the visceral cords serving the internal organs and the pedal ones serving the foot . Most pairs of corresponding ganglia on both sides of the body are linked by commissures ( relatively large bundles of nerves ) . The ganglia above the gut are the cerebral , the pleural , and the visceral , which are located above the esophagus ( gullet ) . The pedal ganglia , which control the foot , are below the esophagus and their commissure and connectives to the cerebral and pleural ganglia surround the esophagus in a circumesophageal nerve ring or nerve collar .
The acephalic molluscs ( bivalves ) also have this ring but it is less obvious and less important . The bivalves have only three pairs of ganglia — cerebral , pedal , and visceral — with the visceral as the largest and most important of the three functioning as the principal center of " thinking " . Some such as the scallops have eyes around the edges of their shells which connect to a pair of looped nerves and which provide the ability to distinguish between light and shadow .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The simplest molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization , but with more complex variations . All produce eggs , from which may emerge trochophore larvae , more complex veliger larvae , or miniature adults . Two gonads sit next to the coelom , a small cavity that surrounds the heart , into which they shed ova or sperm . The nephridia extract the gametes from the coelom and emit them into the mantle cavity . Molluscs that use such a system remain of one sex all their lives and rely on external fertilization . Some molluscs use internal fertilization and / or are hermaphrodites , functioning as both sexes ; both of these methods require more complex reproductive systems .
The most basic molluscan larva is a trochophore , which is planktonic and feeds on floating food particles by using the two bands of cilia around its " equator " to sweep food into the mouth , which uses more cilia to drive them into the stomach , which uses further cilia to expel undigested remains through the anus . New tissue grows in the bands of mesoderm in the interior , so the apical tuft and anus are pushed further apart as the animal grows . The trochophore stage is often succeeded by a veliger stage in which the prototroch , the " equatorial " band of cilia nearest the apical tuft , develops into the velum ( " veil " ) , a pair of cilia @-@ bearing lobes with which the larva swims . Eventually , the larva sinks to the seafloor and metamorphoses into the adult form . While metamorphosis is the usual state in molluscs , the cephalopods differ in exhibiting direct development : the hatchling is a ' miniaturized ' form of the adult .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Feeding = = =
Most molluscs are herbivorous , grazing on algae or filter feeders . For those grazing , two feeding strategies are predominant . Some feed on microscopic , filamentous algae , often using their radula as a ' rake ' to comb up filaments from the sea floor . Others feed on macroscopic ' plants ' such as kelp , rasping the plant surface with its radula . To employ this strategy , the plant has to be large enough for the mollusc to ' sit ' on , so smaller macroscopic plants are not as often eaten as their larger counterparts . Filter feeders are molluscs that feed by straining suspended matter and food particle from water , typically by passing the water over their gills . Most bivalves are filter feeders .
Cephalopods are primarily predatory , and the radula takes a secondary role to the jaws and tentacles in food acquisition . The monoplacophoran Neopilina uses its radula in the usual fashion , but its diet includes protists such as the xenophyophore Stannophyllum . Sacoglossan sea @-@ slugs suck the sap from algae , using their one @-@ row radula to pierce the cell walls , whereas dorid nudibranchs and some Vetigastropoda feed on sponges and others feed on hydroids . ( An extensive list of molluscs with unusual feeding habits is available in the appendix of GRAHAM , A. ( 1955 ) . " Molluscan diets " . Journal of Molluscan Studies 31 ( 3 – 4 ) : 144 . . )
= = Classification = =
Opinions vary about the number of classes of molluscs ; for example , the table below shows eight living classes , and two extinct ones . Although they are unlikely to form a clade , some older works combine the Caudofoveata and solenogasters into one class , the Aplacophora . Two of the commonly recognized " classes " are known only from fossils .
Classification into higher taxa for these groups has been and remains problematic . A phylogenetic study suggests the Polyplacophora form a clade with a monophyletic Aplacophora . Additionally , it suggests a sister taxon relationship exists between the Bivalvia and the Gastropoda .
= = Evolution = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
Good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods , cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 541 to 485 @.@ 4 million years ago . However , the evolutionary history both of the emergence of molluscs from the ancestral group Lophotrochozoa , and of their diversification into the well @-@ known living and fossil forms , is still vigorously debated .
Debate occurs about whether some Ediacaran and Early Cambrian fossils really are molluscs . Kimberella , from about 555 million years ago , has been described by some paleontologists as " mollusc @-@ like " , but others are unwilling to go further than " probable bilaterian " . There is an even sharper debate about whether Wiwaxia , from about 505 million years ago , was a mollusc , and much of this centers on whether its feeding apparatus was a type of radula or more similar to that of some polychaete worms . Nicholas Butterfield , who opposes the idea that Wiwaxia was a mollusc , has written that earlier microfossils from 515 to 510 million years ago are fragments of a genuinely mollusc @-@ like radula . This appears to contradict the concept that the ancestral molluscan radula was mineralized .
However , the Helcionellids , which first appear over 540 million years ago in Early Cambrian rocks from Siberia and China , are thought to be early molluscs with rather snail @-@ like shells . Shelled molluscs therefore predate the earliest trilobites . Although most helcionellid fossils are only a few millimeters long , specimens a few centimeters long have also been found , most with more limpet @-@ like shapes . The tiny specimens have been suggested to be juveniles and the larger ones adults .
Some analyses of helcionellids concluded these were the earliest gastropods . However , other scientists are not convinced these Early Cambrian fossils show clear signs of the torsion that identifies modern gastropods twists the internal organs so the anus lies above the head .
Volborthella , some fossils of which predate 530 million years ago , was long thought to be a cephalopod , but discoveries of more detailed fossils showed its shell was not secreted , but built from grains of the mineral silicon dioxide ( silica ) , and it was not divided into a series of compartments by septa as those of fossil shelled cephalopods and the living Nautilus are . Volborthella 's classification is uncertain . The Late Cambrian fossil Plectronoceras is now thought to be the earliest clearly cephalopod fossil , as its shell had septa and a siphuncle , a strand of tissue that Nautilus uses to remove water from compartments it has vacated as it grows , and which is also visible in fossil ammonite shells . However , Plectronoceras and other early cephalopods crept along the seafloor instead of swimming , as their shells contained a " ballast " of stony deposits on what is thought to be the underside , and had stripes and blotches on what is thought to be the upper surface . All cephalopods with external shells except the nautiloids became extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period 65 million years ago . However , the shell @-@ less Coleoidea ( squid , octopus , cuttlefish ) are abundant today .
The Early Cambrian fossils Fordilla and Pojetaia are regarded as bivalves . " Modern @-@ looking " bivalves appeared in the Ordovician period , 488 to 443 million years ago . One bivalve group , the rudists , became major reef @-@ builders in the Cretaceous , but became extinct in the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event . Even so , bivalves remain abundant and diverse .
The Hyolitha are a class of extinct animals with a shell and operculum that may be molluscs . Authors who suggest they deserve their own phylum do not comment on the position of this phylum in the tree of life
= = = Phylogeny = = =
The phylogeny ( evolutionary " family tree " ) of molluscs is a controversial subject . In addition to the debates about whether Kimberella and any of the " halwaxiids " were molluscs or closely related to molluscs , debates arise about the relationships between the classes of living molluscs . In fact , some groups traditionally classified as molluscs may have to be redefined as distinct but related .
Molluscs are generally regarded members of the Lophotrochozoa , a group defined by having trochophore larvae and , in the case of living Lophophorata , a feeding structure called a lophophore . The other members of the Lophotrochozoa are the annelid worms and seven marine phyla . The diagram on the right summarizes a phylogeny presented in 2007 .
Because the relationships between the members of the family tree are uncertain , it is difficult to identify the features inherited from the last common ancestor of all molluscs . For example , it is uncertain whether the ancestral mollusc was metameric ( composed of repeating units ) — if it was , that would suggest an origin from an annelid @-@ like worm . Scientists disagree about this : Giribet and colleagues concluded , in 2006 , the repetition of gills and of the foot 's retractor muscles were later developments , while in 2007 , Sigwart concluded the ancestral mollusc was metameric , and it had a foot used for creeping and a " shell " that was mineralized . In one particular branch of the family tree , the shell of conchiferans is thought to have evolved from the spicules ( small spines ) of aplacophorans ; but this is difficult to reconcile with the embryological origins of spicules .
The molluscan shell appears to have originated from a mucus coating , which eventually stiffened into a cuticle . This would have been impermeable and thus forced the development of more sophisticated respiratory apparatus in the form of gills . Eventually , the cuticle would have become mineralized , using the same genetic machinery ( engrailed ) as most other bilaterian skeletons . The first mollusc shell almost certainly was reinforced with the mineral aragonite .
The evolutionary relationships ' within ' the molluscs are also debated , and the diagrams below show two widely supported reconstructions :
Morphological analyses tend to recover a conchiferan clade that receives less support from molecular analyses , although these results also lead to unexpected paraphylies , for instance scattering the bivalves throughout all other mollusc groups .
However , an analysis in 2009 using both morphological and molecular phylogenetics comparisons concluded the molluscs are not monophyletic ; in particular , Scaphopoda and Bivalvia are both separate , monophyletic lineages unrelated to the remaining molluscan classes ; the traditional phylum Mollusca is polyphyletic , and it can only be made monophyletic if scaphopods and bivalves are excluded . A 2010 analysis recovered the traditional conchiferan and aculiferan groups , and showed molluscs were monophyletic , demonstrating that available data for solenogastres was contaminated . Current molecular data are insufficient to constrain the molluscan phylogeny , and since the methods used to determine the confidence in clades are prone to overestimation , it is risky to place too much emphasis even on the areas of which different studies agree . Rather than eliminating unlikely relationships , the latest studies add new permutations of internal molluscan relationships , even bringing the conchiferan hypothesis into question .
= = Human interaction = =
For millennia , molluscs have been a source of food for humans , as well as important luxury goods , notably pearls , mother of pearl , Tyrian purple dye , sea silk , and chemical compounds . Their shells have also been used as a form of currency in some preindustrial societies . A number of species of molluscs can bite or sting humans , and some have become agricultural pests .
= = = Uses by humans = = =
Molluscs , especially bivalves such as clams and mussels , have been an important food source since at least the advent of anatomically modern humans , and this has often resulted in overfishing . Other commonly eaten molluscs include octopuses and squids , whelks , oysters , and scallops . In 2005 , China accounted for 80 % of the global mollusc catch , netting almost 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 long tons ; 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 short tons ) . Within Europe , France remained the industry leader . Some countries regulate importation and handling of molluscs and other seafood , mainly to minimize the poison risk from toxins that can sometimes accumulate in the animals .
Most molluscs with shells can produce pearls , but only the pearls of bivalves and some gastropods , whose shells are lined with nacre , are valuable . The best natural pearls are produced by marine pearl oysters , Pinctada margaritifera and Pinctada mertensi , which live in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Pacific Ocean . Natural pearls form when a small foreign object gets stuck between the mantle and shell .
The two methods of culturing pearls insert either " seeds " or beads into oysters . The " seed " method uses grains of ground shell from freshwater mussels , and overharvesting for this purpose has endangered several freshwater mussel species in the southeastern USA . The pearl industry is so important in some areas , significant sums of money are spent on monitoring the health of farmed molluscs .
Other luxury and high @-@ status products were made from molluscs . Tyrian purple , made from the ink glands of murex shells , " ... fetched its weight in silver " in the fourth century BC , according to Theopompus . The discovery of large numbers of Murex shells on Crete suggests the Minoans may have pioneered the extraction of " imperial purple " during the Middle Minoan period in the 20th – 18th centuries BC , centuries before the Tyrians . Sea silk is a fine , rare , and valuable fabric produced from the long silky threads ( byssus ) secreted by several bivalve molluscs , particularly Pinna nobilis , to attach themselves to the sea bed . Procopius , writing on the Persian wars circa 550 CE , " stated that the five hereditary satraps ( governors ) of Armenia who received their insignia from the Roman Emperor were given chlamys ( or cloaks ) made from lana pinna . Apparently , only the ruling classes were allowed to wear these chlamys . "
Mollusc shells , including those of cowries , were used as a kind of money ( shell money ) in several preindustrial societies . However , these " currencies " generally differed in important ways from the standardized government @-@ backed and -controlled money familiar to industrial societies . Some shell " currencies " were not used for commercial transactions , but mainly as social status displays at important occasions , such as weddings . When used for commercial transactions , they functioned as commodity money , as a tradable commodity whose value differed from place to place , often as a result of difficulties in transport , and which was vulnerable to incurable inflation if more efficient transport or " goldrush " behavior appeared .
= = = = Bioindicators = = = =
Bivalve molluscs are used as bioindicators to monitor the health of aquatic environments in both fresh water and the marine environments . Their population status or structure , physiology , behaviour or the level of contamination with elements or compounds can indicate the state of contamination status of the ecosystem . They are particularly useful since they are sessile so that they are representative of the environment where they are sampled or placed . A typical project is the Mussel Watch Programme but today they are used worldwide .
= = = = Stings and bites = = = =
A risk of food poisoning from toxins that accumulate in molluscs occurs under certain conditions , and many countries have regulations that aim to minimize this risk . Blue @-@ ringed octopus bites are often fatal , and the bite of other octopuses can cause unpleasant symptoms . Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill . However , the sophisticated venoms of these cone snails have become important tools in neurological research and show promise as sources of new medications .
When handled alive , a few species of molluscs can sting or bite and , with some species , this can present a serious risk to the human handling the animal . To put this into perspective , though , deaths from mollusc venoms are less than 10 % of the number of deaths from jellyfish stings .
All octopuses are venomous , but only a few species pose a significant threat to humans . Blue @-@ ringed octopuses in the genus Hapalochlaena , which live around Australia and New Guinea , bite humans only if severely provoked , but their venom kills 25 % of human victims . Another tropical species , Octopus apollyon , causes severe inflammation that can last for over a month even if treated correctly , and the bite of Octopus rubescens can cause necrosis that lasts longer than one month if untreated , and headaches and weakness persisting for up to a week even if treated .
All species of cone snails are venomous and can sting when handled , although many species are too small to pose much of a risk to humans . These carnivorous gastropods feed on marine invertebrates ( and in the case of larger species , on fish ) . Their venom is based on a huge array of toxins , some fast @-@ acting and others slower but deadlier ; they can afford to do this because their toxins require less time and energy to be produced compared with those of snakes or spiders . Many painful stings have been reported , and a few fatalities , although some of the reported fatalities may be exaggerations . Only a few larger species of cone snails which can capture and kill fish are likely to be seriously dangerous to humans . The effects of individual cone @-@ shell toxins on victims ' nervous systems are so precise as to be useful tools for research in neurology , and the small size of their molecules makes it easy to synthesize them .
The traditional belief that a giant clam can trap the leg of a person between its valves , thus causing drowning , is a myth .
= = = = Parasites = = = =
Schistosomiasis ( also known as bilharzia , bilharziosis or snail fever ) is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts , and affects about 200 million people . A few species of snails and slugs are serious agricultural pests ; in addition , accidental or deliberate introduction of various snail species into new territory has resulted in serious damage to some natural ecosystems .
Schistosomiasis , a disease caused by the fluke worm Schistosoma , is " second only to malaria as the most devastating parasitic disease in tropical countries . An estimated 200 million people in 74 countries are infected with the disease – 100 million in Africa alone . " The parasite has 13 known species , two of which infect humans . The parasite itself is not a mollusc , but all the species have freshwater snails as intermediate hosts .
= = = = Pests = = = =
Some species of molluscs , particularly certain snails and slugs , can be serious crop pests , and when introduced into new environments , can unbalance local ecosystems . One such pest , the giant African snail Achatina fulica , has been introduced to many parts of Asia , as well as to many islands in the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean . In the 1990s , this species reached the West Indies . Attempts to control it by introducing the predatory snail Euglandina rosea proved disastrous , as the predator ignored Achatina fulica and went on to extirpate several native snail species , instead .
Despite its name , Molluscum contagiosum is a viral disease , and is unrelated to molluscs .
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= Baldur 's Gate II : Shadows of Amn =
Baldur 's Gate II : Shadows of Amn is a role @-@ playing video game developed by BioWare and published by Black Isle Studios . It is the sequel to Baldur 's Gate ( 1998 ) , and was released for Microsoft Windows in September 2000 . Like Baldur 's Gate , the game is set in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting , based on the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition rule set .
Baldur 's Gate II opens shortly after the events of Baldur 's Gate and continues the story of the protagonist , Gorion 's Ward , whose unique heritage has now gained them the attention of Jon Irenicus . The game 's plot revolves around the protagonist 's encounters with Irenicus , and is set south of the events in Baldur 's Gate in the country of Amn , mainly in and around the city of Athkatla .
The game received critical acclaim upon its release ; GameSpy , GameSpot , and IGN awarded Baldur 's Gate II their " Role @-@ Playing Game of the Year " awards for 2000 , and the game has sold more than two million units . An expansion pack , entitled Baldur 's Gate II : Throne of Bhaal , was released on June 21 , 2001 . Besides adding a large dungeon and enhancements to the game , it concluded the Child of Bhaal saga . Baldur 's Gate II : Enhanced Edition , an enhanced version of Baldur 's Gate II , was released on November 15 , 2013 .
= = Gameplay = =
Baldur 's Gate II : Shadows of Amn is an Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition computer role @-@ playing game . The central quest of the game consists of about sixty hours of play , while the full game , including all side quests , totals around 300 hours . The player controls a party of up to six characters , one of whom is the protagonist ; if the protagonist dies , a saved @-@ game must be loaded , or a new game begun . The game begins with character creation , where , through a series of configuration screens , the player creates a player character protagonist , choosing such things as class , ability scores , appearance and alignment . Alternatively , an existing character from Baldur 's Gate or Tales of the Sword Coast can be imported . Once in the game world , the player may recruit certain non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) to travel with him or her , though only five may do so at a time ; depending on who is present in the group , bickering , romance , and side quests can result . NPCs in the party often converse with the player or with one another , and at times interject into the player 's conversations with others .
The game is played from an isometric perspective , and the screen , which does not need to remain centered on the protagonist , can be scrolled with the mouse or the keyboard . Areas are revealed as they are explored by the player 's characters . A fog of war effect hides explored areas when the player 's characters move away from them . The player can also change the formation in which the party moves . Clicking an area exit , such as a doorway or staircase , causes another area to be loaded . Clicking on the edge of an outside area causes the party to travel there ; the game then presents the player with the World Map , from which the player may select a destination .
The player interacts with characters and objects by clicking on them . Clicking on the ground causes the player 's selected characters to move . The gameplay , though in real @-@ time , can be paused , whereupon commands may be issued to controllable characters , who will attempt to execute them when the game is unpaused . The game can also be set to pause automatically at certain times . Dialogue is started by NPCs at certain scripted times , or by the player 's clicking on NPCs who are not immediately hostile . When speaking to an NPC , the player must often choose what to say from a list of responses . Dialogue may lead to quests or important information . When the player clicks on a hostile being , the currently selected characters will advance to attack it . Information about characters , creatures , items , and buildings in the game environment is shown on a tool tip , which appears when the mouse pointer is held over game elements .
When a character in the group gains the necessary experience points , he or she gains a level . Experience points are awarded for certain player actions , such as killing enemies or completing quests . The party also has a reputation , which is affected by the player 's moral actions , and which , along with the party leader 's charisma attribute , influences how NPCs in the game world react to the player . The characters in the party will also complain if the party 's reputation conflicts with their alignment . Resting heals the characters in the party and refreshes those who are fatigued ; also , resting allows a character to memorize spells . The game contains over 300 spells available for memorization . With the exception of sorcerers , magic @-@ users must memorize spells before they can be cast . Spell @-@ casting takes time and may be disrupted by attacks or other spells .
The player can access sub @-@ screens through the interface : area and world maps ; the journal , which tracks important information , such as quests and the game 's plot ; the inventory page , which is used to manage and equip items ; the record screen , which is used to view information about , as well as level up , characters in the party ; the mage book and priest scroll screens , where spells can be inspected and memorized ; and the options screen , where settings may be altered , saved @-@ games loaded , or the game saved or quit .
= = = Classes and kits = = =
During character creation , the player chooses a class : fighter , ranger , paladin , thief , bard , mage , cleric , druid , barbarian , monk , or sorcerer ; the last three are new for the sequel . Different classes have different special abilities and restrictions ; a thief character , for instance , can find and remove traps , but thieves have limitations on which weapons and armor they may use , and cannot be of lawful good alignment . Most classes also have a subset of kits , or specializations within a class , from which to choose . Kits have special advantages and usually , disadvantages ; one of the kits of the paladin class , the cavalier , for example , specializes in fighting monsters such as dragons and demons , but cannot use missile weapons . At some point in the game , the player may join or take over a stronghold . The type of stronghold is determined by the protagonist 's class .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
The game also has a multiplayer mode , in which up to six human players can adventure through the game , controlling player @-@ made characters as well as recruited NPCs . The content of the game is otherwise the same , and one of the players controls the protagonist .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The Forgotten Realms , the high fantasy campaign setting in which Baldur 's Gate II is set , is a fictional world similar to a medieval Earth , but with its own peoples , geography , and history . In the Realms , as its inhabitants call it , fantastic creatures and magic are common .
Baldur 's Gate II takes place mainly in Amn , a country on the subcontinent of Faerûn . This country , known commonly as the Merchant Kingdom , lies south of Baldur 's Gate ; wealth and trade are the chief concerns of the region . The capital city of Athkatla , around which a fair portion of the game revolves , is the most important in Amn , and is ruled by the anonymous Council of Six . The local thieves ' guild , the Shadow Thieves , also has considerable power . The group , which operates all along the Sword Coast , is based in Athkatla . Another powerful organization in Amn are the Cowled Wizards , who regulate the use of magic in the region . The Shadow Thieves , the Cowled Wizards , and the Harpers , a semi @-@ secret conglomeration of good organizations , all factor prominently into the story and provide side quests .
Besides Athkatla , other places the player will pass through include : an island , on which stands both the port town of Brynnlaw and the asylum Spellhold ; the Underdark ; the city of Suldanessellar ; and the Astral Plane . There are also other places , which may be explored : the Umar Hills , where people have been disappearing ; a temple ruins , fallen under the shadow of the Shade Lord ; the de 'Arnise Keep , home of the de 'Arnises but recently overrun by trolls ; the town of Trademeet , under attack by animals ; a druid grove connected to Trademeet 's woes ; the Windspear Hills , where the player becomes entangled in the intrigues of Firkraag , a dragon ; the underwater Sahuagin city ; and the Planar Prison .
Baldur 's Gate II is set in the year 1369 DR ( Dale Reckoning ) , and thus takes place not long after the Time of Troubles ( 1358 DR ) , when the Tablets of Fate , powerful magic items which maintain a balance between good and evil , were stolen . Lord Ao , the Overdeity , forced the gods to become mortal until the Tablets were found ; some gods died while in this mortal state .
= = = Characters = = =
Bhaal , the God of Murder , was one such god , slain by an adventurer named Cyric , who himself became a god . But Bhaal foresaw his destruction , and walked the land before the other gods . He left behind him " a score of mortal progeny , " whose later deaths , when they were slain by heroes , would fuel his rebirth . The game 's protagonist is one of these offspring ; but , through the choices of the player , may be either good or evil . The character grew up in the library fortress of Candlekeep , watched over by the mage Gorion . Imoen , who grew up there as well , became a close friend . The story of the first Baldur 's Gate follows their adventure along the Sword Coast , where the hero learns of their heritage , and defeats their half @-@ brother Sarevok , a fellow child of Bhaal .
Some notable characters in Shadows of Amn include : Gaelan Bayle , who offers the party the help of the Shadow Thieves ; Aran Linvail , the leader of the Shadow Thieves ; Saemon Havarian , who sails the party to an island ; Adalon , a silver dragon whose eggs have been stolen and given to drow ; Elhan ; and Queen Ellesime , the ruler of Suldanessellar . Jon Irenicus and his sister Bodhi are the chief antagonists , with Irenicus the game 's main villain . Drizzt Do 'Urden also makes an appearance ; and if the player solicits his aid , he and his companions will later help the player .
In Baldur 's Gate II , several characters from the first game reappear , of which the following can join the player 's party : Imoen , who grew up with the protagonist in Candlekeep ; Jaheira , who , with her husband Khalid , was a friend of Gorion 's ; Minsc , a warrior who carries with him a hamster named Boo ; Edwin , a Red Wizard of Thay ; and Viconia , a dark elf cleric . There are also many new NPCs who may join the party : Aerie , a winged elf who has lost her wings and was sold to the circus by slavers at a young age ; Keldorn , an older paladin and a powerful and respected member of the Most Noble Order of the Radiant Heart ; Mazzy , an honorable halfling fighter and " the nearest thing to a paladin that a halfling can aspire to " ; Nalia , who is of the upper class , but , though conscious of class distinction , tries to help those less fortunate than herself ; Valygar , who is of a family noted for its talented magic @-@ users , but hates the art ; Anomen , a member of the Most Noble Order of the Radiant Heart , and whose wish is to become a full knight ; Cernd , a druid ; Haer 'Dalis , a tiefling bard and one of the actors of an acting troupe ; Jan , a gnome , of the Jansen family ; Yoshimo , a thief from the land of Kara @-@ Tur ; and Korgan , an evil dwarven fighter .
= = = Story = = =
Shortly after the events of Baldur 's Gate , the hero and companions are overcome and taken captive . When the game opens , the hero awakens in a cage , and is shortly thereafter experimented upon by a wizard named Jon Irenicus . Irenicus is distracted as his complex is attacked by thieves , and disappears to fight them . The hero uses this opportunity to escape from the complex with a few other companions , including Imoen , and emerges into the city of Athkatla . As soon as the hero and his party have entered the city proper , they see Irenicus fighting off some of his attackers . After he has destroyed his attackers , he notices the hero and his companions . An argument ensues , during which Imoen angrily attacks Irenicus using magic . Immediately Cowled Wizards appear , after a fight arrest both Irenicus and Imoen for the unsanctioned use of magic , and teleport both of them away .
In the slums of Athkatla , a man named Gaelan Bayle offers the party the help of a powerful organization , who can find Imoen or Irenicus for the large sum of 20 @,@ 000 gold pieces . The party is approached by and offered the help of another rival guild headed by Bodhi ; it is the player 's choice whom to side with .
Imoen and Irenicus are removed to an asylum called Spellhold situated on an island . Irenicus soon breaks his bonds and prepares to experiment on Imoen . In Athkatla , the party raises the money necessary and receives assistance from whichever organization it has decided to work with , and gains passage to the island on a ship sailed by Saemon Havarian . The heroes enter Spellhold , but are captured by Irenicus , who has taken control of the prison and had planned all along to bring the protagonist there . Irenicus subjects the protagonist to a ritual which takes the protagonist 's soul . Imoen , who is revealed to also be a Child of Bhaal , has already been subjected to Irenicus 's ritual , and her soul has gone to Irenicus 's sister Bodhi . Bodhi then abandons the party to the maze beneath Spellhold so she may hunt them . When they face her , the now soulless protagonist loses self @-@ control and transforms into a creature called the Slayer , one of the avatar forms of Bhaal , which scares off Bodhi . The hero returns to their normal self , and the party battles Irenicus , forcing him to retreat . The party follows , and reaches the surface via the Underdark .
Upon reaching the surface , the party encounters the army of the elven city of Suldanessellar . The elves cannot return to the city , for Irenicus has magically hidden it . To gain access to it , the party secures the Rhynn Lanthorn from Bodhi , who has stolen the artifact ; upon Bodhi 's death , Imoen 's soul is restored . The Rhynn Lanthorn lights the way to Suldanessellar , which has been invaded by Irenicus and his minions . The party proceeds through the city and , at the Tree of Life , learns Irenicus is draining the power of the Tree , which will doom Suldanessellar . The heroes defeat him , but because Irenicus still has the protagonist 's soul , they and the rest of the party , are dragged into Hell with the wizard . When they defeat Irenicus , they return to life , and are honored by the elves of Suldanessellar .
= = Development = =
Baldur 's Gate II was developed by BioWare and published by Black Isle Studios and released for Windows in September 2000 . The game uses the same Infinity Engine as Baldur 's Gate . BioWare dedicated the game to Daniel Walker , the company 's second employee , who died in 1999 .
Baldur 's Gate was the first role @-@ playing game designed by BioWare , and they applied what they learned in the process to Baldur 's Gate II . They also felt they did not have enough time to reach their design goals with the first game , due to developing both the content of the game and the Infinity Engine at the same time . In Baldur 's Gate II , it was determined that the designers should be allowed " adequate time to allow the game to reach its full potential . " Throughout its development , they focused " on ensuring that Baldur 's Gate II is significantly better than Baldur 's Gate in every way possible , and to make it appeal not only to fans of the original game but also to make it accessible to new fans who never played the original game . "
Development of Baldur 's Gate II began in January 1999 . From the suggestions of fans on message boards and newsgroups , reviews of Baldur 's Gate , and internal suggestions , a list of constructive criticism was compiled ; from this list , a slightly shorter one of features to be added to the game was made . Some of the items on this list were : support for higher resolutions , such as 800 by 600 pixels and above ; 3D support ; non @-@ pausing dialogue in multiplayer ; drop off panels in the interface ; character kits ; dual @-@ wielding of weapons ; a streamlined journal and annotable map ; deathmatch ; and inclusion of famous AD & D monsters such as the dragon . Not many features had to be cut , and they kept as many as they could . Because of the engine 's mature state of development , most features were fairly easy to add . Ben Smedstad , the producer of the game , said , " The engine was up and running since day one , which is a huge morale booster . When a monster is complete , we put it into the ' override ' directory and it appears in the game ! This is a huge change from working on the original . " Late in the project , deathmatch was removed , while non @-@ pausing dialogue , which proved " the most problematic feature " , was removed early on before being reintroduced in early 2000 .
To avoid some of the design mistakes made in Baldur 's Gate , guidelines were drawn up for each department ; the level designers had the longest set of guidelines . These lists continually changed and evolved as the development progressed . The main design guidelines for the entire project were that the players should feel like their actions have an effect on the game world , and good versus evil options should be available depending on which path the player takes . Guidelines for the story were to keep the focus on the player 's character , keep the player updated on the activities on the game 's villain , add a significant plot twist , and make the ending of the game open enough so that there would be room for more sequels . Environment guidelines were to break the game into chapters , make some locations key to the central plot , keep areas interesting and easy to quickly navigate , and showcase areas before they were available to explore to capture player interest . For the game systems , guidelines focused on character customization and a well @-@ crafted reward system . The writing guidelines were concerned mainly with dialogue : limiting the number of sentences NPCs spoke at a time , keeping the number of player response choices at three as often as possible , avoiding profanity and accents , and having a small set of random dialogue for unimportant NPCs . Many early design decisions did not follow the guidelines , and programming constraints were not always followed by other departments , such as design and art , leading to slowdowns in some parts of the game that were difficult or impossible to fix .
The process for creating levels was long and complicated . It began with the creation of a general layout of the area to be built by designers . They would pass this concept map to the artists , who added models to it , beginning with the largest objects and ending with small items such as individual pieces of furniture . After everything was put in place by the art team , designers took over again , inserting graphical enhancements , effects , and collision detection code . With a functional level , creatures , items , traps , and triggers were added last , then scripts were written for everything to control behavior . The team found it quite difficult to keep track of changes made to levels , and there were sometimes communication problems between different parts of the team , such as the artists and designers , resulting in inconsistencies between their work . Ray Muzyka , the co @-@ executive producer , wrote , " We learned to make sure all elements of the team are talking to each other and working as a group , rather than as a bunch of individuals ! " They did feel they had done a good job automating the level creation process , as levels were rapidly designed . " A designer , " wrote Muzyka , " might submit a level description and receive it , art complete , a month later ready for scripting , but missing some key features ( almost always a door ) . We would then have to determine whether the omission was important enough to have the art piece redone , or whether we could simply tweak the design of the level to fit the finished art . "
During the game 's development , a quality assurance department was added to BioWare , and the game 's publishers lent their assistance in testing . Muzyka said , " because of its immense size , Baldur 's Gate II was a tester 's nightmare , " and " this was compounded by the fact that we didn 't do enough testing as areas were being developed . " The game contained about 290 quests , each of which had to be tested in both single player and multiplayer modes . BioWare used a method , introduced to them by Feargus Urquhart , Douglas Avery , and Chris Parker of Black Isle Studios , in which the game 's quests were listed on white @-@ boards , with a cross placed beside each quest . Pairs consisting of a developer and a tester were allotted each a quest , and upon their believing the quest to be stable , its cross was deleted .
Muzyka wrote :
In the final days of working on BG2 there was a strangely serene feeling in the office . We didn 't experience the headlong panic that is sometimes prevalent while finishing a game , but we certainly did experience considerable stress as we built 21 final candidates in 3 days . After a few long nights with the whole team playing the game over and over again , we reached a point where we built a good final candidate . Then it was sent to the duplicators !
The game 's music was composed by Michael Hoenig , a German composer who played with Tangerine Dream . He also composed the music for the first Baldur 's Gate .
= = Release = =
Baldur 's Gate II went gold on September 14 , 2000 ; and was released in North America on September 24 , 2000 , and in Europe on September 29 , 2000 . A Collector 's Edition was also released . It included the game , an additional CD , which contained unique armor and weapons and music from the soundtrack , a cloth map , eight character trading cards , and a Black Isle Studios writing tablet . According to BioWare , the game had sold over two million units by February 2008 .
= = = Expansion pack = = =
An expansion pack for Shadows of Amn , entitled Baldur 's Gate II : Throne of Bhaal , also developed by BioWare and published by Black Isle , was released on June 21 , 2001 . Throne of Bhaal added a variety of features to the base game : a new dungeon called Watcher 's Keep ; new features and enhancements , such as the Wild Mage character class ; a higher experience point cap and high @-@ level class abilities ; and new spells , such as Wish , Bigby 's Crushing Hand , and Dragon 's Breath . Throne of Bhaal also takes the protagonist 's history further , and , being the final chapter , concludes the Baldur 's Gate saga . Throne of Bhaal was well received ; it won the " PC Role @-@ Playing " award at the 2002 Interactive Achievement Awards and has a Metacritic score of 88 .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
Shadows of Amn was re @-@ released , along with its expansion , Throne of Bhaal , as Baldur 's Gate II : The Collection in 2003 . In 2004 , they were bundled with the original Baldur 's Gate and Icewind Dale as Black Isle Compilation Part Two . In 2006 , they were re @-@ released with Baldur 's Gate and Tales of the Sword Coast as Baldur 's Gate : 4 in 1 Boxset . They were also included in The Forgotten Realms Deluxe Edition , and Ultimate Dungeons & Dragons . In November 2010 , Baldur 's Gate II Complete was released in digital format on GOG.com. This version includes both Shadows of Amn and the Throne of Bhaal expansion pack . Bundled with it are the game manuals in PDF format , high definition wallpapers , artwork , avatars , and the soundtracks of Shadows of Amn and Throne of Bhaal .
= = = Enhanced Edition = = =
On March 15 , 2012 , Baldur 's Gate II : Enhanced Edition was announced . Developed by Overhaul Games , it is an enhanced version of Baldur 's Gate II , and uses an updated version of the Infinity Engine . The game was released on November 15 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
Baldur 's Gate II met with worldwide critical acclaim upon its release , and Metacritic lists it as the sixth highest @-@ scoring PC game on the site as of June 27 , 2015 . GameSpot said that , while it is a very long game , its fine points are what make it so great , and said the game was in a class by itself . IGN also called the game incomparable and peerless . GameSpot later called the game " a towering achievement in the history of role @-@ playing games . " Computer Gaming World 's reviewer felt though the game was worthy being called the best game of the year , and as good as games such as Fallout , Planescape : Torment , and Betrayal at Krondor , " I won 't trap myself with the ' best RPG ever ' phrase . " He also felt the game 's story was somewhere between Planescape : Torment and Icewind Dale in terms of depth . In a 2007 Gamasutra article on the " Platinum and Modern Ages " of computer role @-@ playing games ( CRPGs ) , Matt Barton noted contemporary reviewers ' universal praise for the game , and said , " I consider it the finest CRPG ever designed . " According to GameSpy , " this is easily one of the finest CRPGs ever made and an experience that no RPG fan should miss " .
Baldur 's Gate II 's gameplay was called " addicting " by GamePro . RPGamer said that while the game was generally the same as the original Baldur 's Gate , the combat was much improved , with less frustration and more strategic options . Computer Gaming World agreed , saying players would put more consideration into designing and implementing combat plans . Some reviewers , however , felt the non @-@ player characters in the game were not as powerful as player @-@ made characters . GameSpy said the game is much more difficult than Baldur 's Gate , and requires more strategy and planning than the original does . GameSpot felt the opening level of the game " falls flat , " but that it gets much better once the player reaches Athkatla . IGN also noted that the introductory section of the game , while good , was nowhere near as fun as the adventures in Athkatla .
The game 's plot was met positively by most reviewers , with GameSpy calling it " epic " . IGN praised the clarity of the quests and ease of moving from one goal to the next . RPGamer 's reviewer , on the other hand , felt the plot was lackluster , but approved of the side quests , which he said could turn into " minor epics " of their own .
The game 's graphics were well received . GamePro praised them , saying , " the backdrops are stunning and the spell effects are impressive " . IGN echoed this statement , calling the difference between Baldur 's Gate and Shadows of Amn " like looking at a still oil painting , and then turning to see the scene in living motion on a big screen TV . " GameSpot thought both the pre @-@ rendered backgrounds and the animations for characters and monsters were well done . FiringSquad said the game 's artwork surpassed that of Planescape : Torment , and called the background artwork " fantastic . " FiringSquad also praised the voice acting of Baldur 's Gate II , saying , " Characters sound alive and vivacious ( or depressed , crazy — whatever suits them ) " and adding that the quality of the voices drew the player more deeply into the game . IGN called the voice acting " outstanding " and said the variety of personalities would cause players to become " attached " to the characters , only noting with disapproval the dearth of new voices for the player 's protagonist . Reviewers generally found the game 's music to be well @-@ done ; though RPGamer felt it was " inoffensive but unimpressive . "
Gameplanet criticized the game 's poor support for online multiplayer , saying it was " unstable and quite frustrating . " Jakub Wojnarowicz of FiringSquad felt the lack of communication between players in combat during online games was problematic , but that Local Area Network play would be more satisfying . PC Zone said multiplayer was as unimpressive as it had been in the first game in the series , and said the game needed multiplayer maps . IGN , however , felt multiplayer play was solidly implemented and fun . Criticism was also directed at bugs in the game , such as frequent crashes when trying to access certain locations . According to Tim McConnaughy from GameSpy , Baldur 's Gate II is " not 100 % stable . " GameSpot noted that the game 's loading times were somewhat long and that the game crashed on occasion , but said these problems are not significant . IGN , though noting that the game slowed down during combat when a lot of animations were happening simultaneously due to spells or " dazzling backgrounds " , said there were almost no other technical problems . GameSpot also felt the small number of character portraits to choose from was a disappointment , and was displeased that the game reused special effects , audio , and graphics from the first game .
= = = Awards = = =
Baldur 's Gate II was inducted into GameSpot 's " Greatest Games of All Time " list and won their Readers ' Choice Game of the Year award for 2000 . It received three " Gaming Globe " awards from Eurogamer in 2001 : Best Game , Best Art Direction , and Best Male Supporting Character ( for Minsc ) . GameSpy , GameSpot , and IGN all awarded Baldur 's Gate II their " Role @-@ Playing Game of the Year " awards in 2000 . The game won the " Character or Story Development " award at the 2001 Interactive Achievement Awards , and was also nominated for " Game of the Year , " " Game Play Engineering , " " PC Game of the Year , " and " PC Role @-@ Playing . " IGN placed it at No. 25 on their 2005 " Top 100 Games of All Time " list . In 2006 , though not ranking in the top five games , it earned an " honorable mention " in Gamasutra 's Quantum Leap Awards . In 2009 , Game Informer put Baldur 's Gate II at No. 88 on their list of " The Top 200 Games of All Time , " calling it " the best Dungeons & Dragons game ever made . " This is up one place from their top 100 list in 2001 . At the end of 2009 , Baldur 's Gate II , though not quite making the Top 12 list , received an honorable mention in Gamasutra 's Game of the Decade , where readers voted for their best game of the 2000s . In 2010 , on IGN 's Top 25 Modern PC Games , Baldur 's Gate II was ranked No. 2 .
= = Novel = =
There is a novelization of the game by Philip Athans . Published in 2000 by Wizards of the Coast , it focuses solely on Abdel , the last of the Bhaalspawn . The novel is the second in the series ; the first , also by Athans , is a novelization of Baldur 's Gate , and the third , by Drew Karpyshyn , of the Throne of Bhaal expansion .
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= Impressive Instant =
" Impressive Instant " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna from her 2000 studio album Music . Originally intended to be the fourth single of the album , the release was cancelled due to a disagreement between Madonna and her recording company . Finally Warner Bros. released it in the United States as a promotional single on September 18 , 2001 . Written and produced by Madonna and Mirwais Ahmadzaï , the track is bright and uplifting in its content and composition . It was the first song that Madonna and Ahmadzaï worked on and recorded . The producer had to work separately on his laptop to generate the sound elements which Madonna wanted in the song , since it was difficult to generate the music in the recording studio . " Impressive Instant " has been described as a club @-@ savvy stomper containing futuristic keyboard lines , with Madonna 's vocals being distorted and robotic . Backed by laser noises and synths , the song 's lyrics deal with love at first sight , and contains nonsense lyrics .
" Impressive Instant " was met with positive critical reception . Many reviewers called it a highlight of the album and praised Ahmadzaï 's production of the track . Released only in the US , it was a popular dance hit , reaching the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart , and staying atop for two consecutive weeks . The track became Madonna 's 27th number @-@ one song on this chart , the most for any artist . It was her 36th top @-@ ten song on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play tally and her seventh consecutive chart topper . During the promotional tours for Music , Madonna performed the song in a neo @-@ Western setting at New York and London . It was further performed at the 2001 Drowned World Tour as part of the punk section , with Madonna accompanied by dancers wearing gas masks . The performance was generally received as a highlight of the concert .
= = Background and development = =
By the year 2000 , Madonna was dating director Guy Ritchie , and was pregnant with their child . Wanting to distract herself from the media frenzy surrounding this news , Madonna concentrated on the development of her eighth studio album , Music . Buoyed up by the commercial success of 1998 's Ray of Light album , she was keen on getting back to the studio and start recording . Madonna was well disposed towards William Orbit , producer of Ray of Light , but by 2000 , his production and sound had become ubiquitous . Also , the music scene was being dominated by younger generation of singers like Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera , prompting Madonna to look for a distinctive sound in this market . It was then that she was introduced to French DJ and producer Mirwais Ahmadzaï , through some common friends . Madonna instantly liked his pitch @-@ shifting , pulverizing rhythms and his utilization of acid bass in his songs . Ahmadzaï always preferred taking musical risks and hence he wanted the collaborations with Madonna to get out the best from the artist . " The challenge was to make something current appear , something hidden in her personality . Everybody knows [ Madonna ] as a chameleon , as a businesswoman . I wanted to show her potential as a musician , " Ahmadzaï noted .
One of their collaborations was the song " Impressive Instant " and like most songs on Music , it is bright and uplifting in its composition , and was described by Madonna as " downright silly " . She explained that they " were working on that song and I thought , ' Oh , fuck it , let 's just have fun ' , Life would be such a drag if we were deep and probing all the time . " The song was intended to be released as the fourth single off Music but Warner Bros. , Madonna 's recording company , wanted " Amazing " to be the next single . Madonna felt that " Amazing " was too similar to her previous single " Beautiful Stranger " ( 1999 ) , and wanted the more eclectic and futuristic " Impressive Instant " so they were deadlocked . In an interview with Russian channel Radio Monte Carlo 102 @.@ 1 FM , remixer Peter Rauhofer explained that Warner Bros. did plan to move forward with the release of " Amazing " without Madonna 's help since she was too busy preparing for her next tour . They planned to promote the single with a music video cut from the live version of " Amazing " from Madonna 's Drowned World Tour , but Madonna scrapped the song from the set list to be sure that Warner Bros. could not promote it , and the fourth single idea was over .
= = Recording and mixing = =
The recording sessions for Music began in January 2000 at Sarm West Studios , Notting Hill , London . The first song that Madonna and Ahmadzaï worked on was " Impressive Instant " , since it was the most complete among all the demos that he had sent to the singer . The song was an instrumental and was not supposed to be included in Ahmadzaï 's own album , Production . But Madonna had different ideas for the track and its lyrics , which she explained to the producer . Feeling that Madonna 's vision about the song 's composition would be difficult to create in Sarm West , Ahmadzaï wanted to return to Paris and work there on his own computer . " There are a lot of chopped vocal tracks on ' Impressive Instant ' ... That was impossible to do in the studio . It doesn 't make sense to rent a place like Sarm just to have me work on ten seconds of music all day , using only the one computer , " he added . Within the first ten days , they had recorded the backing vocals , acoustic guitars etc. on a Sony 48 @-@ track and transferred it to Logic Audio workstation , using the converters of the TC Electronic Finalizer ; Ahmadzaï then went back to Paris with the recordings .
In Paris , Ahmadzaï worked obsessively to complete the recording of " Impressive Instant " , applying his characteristic sound mangling . He used the Antares Auto @-@ Tune plug @-@ in set for the pitch correction . Explaining that the audio processor kept the characteristic of the voice , he recalled that Madonna was not afraid to use it , unlike other artists ; she just had to sing a little out of tune and vibrato . The song had LFO sweeps at its beginning , panning from its left and right , which created the backdrop of the track . To achieve this , Ahmadzaï used a Nord Lead synthesizer , passed through an audio filter . The bass used in the song was subdued , and did not contain any music in high or mid @-@ range . Instead of using a Minimoog synthesizer , Ahmadzaï used a Korg Prophecy analog output which added a different synth to the song . Audio filters were used for the first appearance of a melody and Madonna 's voice was processed through an Eventide 3000 harmonizer , finally adding effects from filters and E6400 emulator . Also , Ahmadzaï added his characteristic stuttering sounds to the song , explaining :
" I did all that stuttering in Logic . It 's very , very complicated , slice by slice . You have to experiment a lot to make it work . I put Auto @-@ Tune on individual syllables . Sometimes I use 40 tracks of audio just on one vocal track . Each has a different level and treatment , and then I do a composite . I couldn 't do this with a normal analog studio setup . The starting and stopping thing , it 's an idea I 've had for awhile [ sic ] . Normally , it takes about six months to a year for people I 'm working with to understand my ideas . With Madonna , the first time she heard it , she loved it . She had a chemical reaction to it . She listened to it and she said , ' Okay , let 's do it . ' It 's because of this that I love to work with her . You don 't have to spend six months explaining things . "
The final thing that he did was to create a breakdown using Auto @-@ Tune and the Nord Lead synthesizer , applying its echo function . In total Ahmadzaï worked for 15 days on the track , finally handing it to mixing engineer Mark " Spike " Stent . He explained in an interview with Keyboard magazine that the version that he created was almost same to the final track present in Music . On most of the other tracks , Stent tried to add a lot of mixing effects to Ahmadzaï 's production . But for " Impressive Instant " , they tried to mix it first from the Sony digital tracks and failed get the original sound of the demo , since the compression present in the track was the actual sound to be produced . So Stent took the sound from Ahmadzaï 's Yamaha 02R mixer , including the bass , loops , and the kick . Along with mixing the track at Olympic Studios , London , the mastering was done by Tim Young at Metropolis Studio . Other engineers working on the track included Mark Endert , Sean Spuehler , Tom Hannen and Tim Lambert .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Larry Flick from Billboard called it a club @-@ savvy stomper containing futuristic keyboard lines . Madonna 's vocals in the number change from distorted , robotic lines to playful , child like chants . Author Lucy O 'Brien wrote in her book , Madonna : Like an Icon , that the song is a mixture of acid techno and pop trance . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , " Impressive Instant " is set in the time signature of common time with a moderately fast tempo of 123 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C major with Madonna 's vocals ranging from A3 to A4 . The song follows a basic sequence of Am – G – Am – G – Am as its chord progression .
Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , explained that " Impressive Instant " began with the equalizer on higher frequencies turned down , so that the amount of treble is very less initially . Madonna 's vocals are heavily processed and is accompanied by a crackling sound , which has a " tactile roughness " therefore making the mix sound " like a musical sandpaper " , Rooksby wrote . The vocals are often isolated and are backed by laser noises and an octave bass . A " burbling " synth arrives at the 2 : 30 mark , and then the chorus of " I 'm in a trance " is repeated , ending the song with the cliché solo vocal phrase .
The buoyant song has lyrics like " I like to singy , singy , singy , Like a bird on a wingy , wingy , wingy " , as electronic keyboard riffs and dance beats swirl the whole composition . Lyrically , " Impressive Instant " deals with love at first sight ( " You 're the one that I 've been waiting for / I don 't even know your name " ) and according to O 'Brien , is " an abstract world of nonsense lyrics , disco balls and glitz " . It also talks about being in a trance and comparison with various cosmic phenomena in lines like " Cosmic systems in a twine , astral bodies drip like wine " , but ultimately returns to the subject of dance . Remixes were commissioned by Warner Bros. Records in April 2001 , featuring mixes by DJ Peter Rauhofer , who transformed the track from techno to progressive house .
= = Critical reception = =
Critical reaction has been positive towards the song . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic named it a " track pick " from the album . In a review of the album , Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani hailed it as " a joyous composition " . Michael Hubbard of musicOMH called it " pure pop genius , " saying the track " steals the show " . Gary Crossing from Dotmusic described the song as a " Sexy , bass @-@ heavy monster of a floor @-@ filler with cheesy synths , robotic voices and whispers aplenty " while complimenting the " I like to singy singy singy " . This view was shared by Victoria Segal from NME who complimented Ahmadzaï 's production technique and blending disco sounds with vocoder effects . She added that the song is " so heavily distorted , the macho disco bassline is so quick to get its shirt off and the baby oil on , it somehow sounds cool . " Barry Walters from Rolling Stone called the song " improvisional " , and described it as " [ roaring ] like a rock rocket ship , then [ purring ] while a digitally tweaked [ Madonna ] squeaks " . David Browne from Entertainment Weekly called the verses of " Impressive Instant " as Madonna 's " dippiest lyrics in ages " , and also complimented Ahmadzaï 's fusion of hard disco beats and contorting Madonna 's vocals . Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune credited Madonna for paying homage to dance music with " Impressive Instant " and explaining that :
Though Madonna is often overshadowed by her producers , she has her moments , and she is never more inspired than on the so @-@ silly @-@ it 's @-@ great ' Impressive Instant ' , yet another homage to the music that leaves her and legions of followers ' spinning , baby , out of control ' . She deserves credit for allowing her latest interpretation of that music to be bent , folded and so lovingly mutilated by her collaborators , and when she chirps , ' I like to singy singy singy / Like a bird on a wingy wingy wingy ' , I can envision discos from Stockholm to Sacramento going bonkers with her .
Gary Mullholland from The Guardian felt that Madonna 's indomitable persona was mostly hidden beneath the layers of electronic and vocoder effects , except in songs like " Impressive Instant " with the lines like " " I like to singy singy singy " , making the first half of Music interesting . BBC 's John Hand noticed Ahmadzaï 's " quirky " influence in the production of the track ; he also called it a club and dancey song . Michael Paoletta from Billboard called it " vibrant and uplifting in tone " calling it a trippy / trance disco romp . Alex Pappademas from Spin noted the difference of Madonna 's endeavors with Ray of Light and its introspective mood and the fun @-@ filled , joyous nature of songs like " Impressive Instant " in Music.The Village Voice 's Ben Dellio complimented the alliteration and the elastic bassline of the song , saying that it would have been a better album opener than the title song . Ben Greenbank from Sputnikmusic gave a mixed review , saying that although " Impressive Instant " and " Runaway Lover " from Music were decent songs , they did not have anything special about them to make the reviewer feel that they would be dancefloor staples , or were listenable a second time round . In 2011 , MSN Music Canada listed the song at number three on their countdown of " 10 famous lyrics that make absolutely no sense " . Tom Townshend from the website said that the lyrics were " word abuse . We can 't read it . It burns the skin from our eyes ! "
= = Chart performance = =
" Impressive Instant " was not released commercially and was not promoted to radio as well , hence did not appear on any sales or airplay charts of Billboard . It was released to dance clubs as a promo @-@ only single with remixes by Peter Rauhofer on September 18 , 2001 . The song debuted on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart at number 25 on the issue dated October 27 , 2001 , becoming the " hot shot debut " of the week . The next week , it moved 13 places to number 12 on the chart . The following week , the number moved further up and entered the top @-@ ten at number four . On the Billboard issue dated November 17 , 2001 , " Impressive Instant " reached the top of the chart , becoming Madonna 's 27th number @-@ one song on this chart , the most for any artist . It was the artist 's 36th top @-@ ten song on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play tally and her seventh consecutive chart topper , dating from " Nothing Really Matters " in 1999 , followed by " Beautiful Stranger " ( 1999 ) , " American Pie " and " Music " in 2000 , and " Don 't Tell Me " and " What It Feels Like for a Girl " in 2001 . It remained on the top for another week , before being replaced by Ben Shaw 's single " So Strong " . The last week for " Impressive Instant " on the Dance chart was on January 12 , 2002 , where it climbed down to number 48 , before dropping off the chart .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna first performed " Impressive Instant " during the promotional tours for Music . The first of these , was on November 5 , 2000 , at Roseland Ballroom in New York City , and the other on November 29 , 2000 , at Brixton Academy in London . Accompanying musicians performing with Madonna were ; Mirwais Ahmadzaï on guitar and longtime backing singers Niki Haris and Donna DeLory . During the performance of New York , she wore a black tank top with " Britney Spears " written on it , along with cowboy hats and boots . The costumes for the show and the set was designed by Dolce & Gabbana . Roseland 's secondary stage was used for the performance and was decked as a neo @-@ Western wonderland , with bales of hay , yellow @-@ lit horseshoes and silver cacti throughout the lobby and entrance . Dancers dressed as cowboys vogued during the pre @-@ show in provocative poses , lassoing each other and skating around the passersby . The stage was draped in an American flag . As the music started , the flag lifted to reveal a white Ford pickup truck from which Madonna emerged , singing " Impressive Instant " . Bare @-@ chested male dancers encircled her , as she posed on the hood of the truck and danced through the song . The vocoder effects on Madonna 's voice was removed for the live performance , which Jennifer Vineyard from Rolling Stone felt made the singer 's vocals sound " less ridiculous " . By the end of the performance , she as transported onto the main stage of Roseland , with the help of the audience member 's hands . A similar performance was done at Brixton Academy ; Madonna wore a different T @-@ shirt , with her son Rocco and daughter Lourdes ' names printed on it . Around 3 @,@ 000 fans attended the concert in London , which was streamed over the internet . More than nine million people watched the concert according to Nicky Price , a representative for Microsoft 's MSN , the webcast 's producer . It became the most @-@ viewed webcast of all time , beating Paul McCartney 's performance of " 50s rock and roll classics " at Liverpool 's The Cavern Club in December 1999 , which was viewed by an audience of about three million .
When Madonna embarked on her Drowned World Tour in 2001 , " Impressive Instant " was added as the second song in the setlist . The costumes were designed by Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier , and had varied accessories like spiked dog collars , Swarovski crystal @-@ encrusted bracelets and tattered tops . Michael Schimdt was responsible for the accessroies ; he was sought out by Madonna and her stylist Arianne Phillips , to help with finishing touches for many of the outfits . Madonna opened the show with the punk section , wearing tattered black garments and a tartan kilt and belting out the first song , " Drowned World / Substitute for Love " . As the song ended , Madonna started with " Impressive Instant " , accompanied by her dancers wearing gas masks and encased in rolls of black mesh , chasing the singer around the stage . In the middle of the song , she was carried around by her dancers . According to Stuart Lenig , author of the book The Twisted Tale of Glam Rock , Madonna merged choreography with narrative in the performance , as she and her dancers crossed the stage . The 1984 @-@ style robotic movements denoted fascism with the dancers stalking and then trying to grope Madonna ; in the end one dancer dressed as a robot grabbed a big hosepipe and thrust it between Madonna 's legs , as it emitted fog towards the audience . Lenig deduced that this could denote both an act of achieving orgasm or urination towards the crowd . Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández , one of the authors of the book , Madonna 's Drowned Worlds , found similarities with Madonna 's exploration of lesbian cultural references from her earlier works , with the performance of " Impressive Instant " . The placement of the fogging machine between Madonna 's legs were seen as symbols for the phallus and ejaculation , and was deduced as an example of the singer 's insistence on masculinity as " performance " . The dancers ultimately get subdued by Madonna , who finish off singing the song and takes up a Gibson Les Paul electric guitar to perform the next track , " Candy Perfume Girl " .
Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , gave a positive review of the performance saying that " defiance being a rock attitude , and one embraced by Madonna , she didn 't hesitate in wanting her public to know that she hasn 't mellowed over the years " , evident by her unsmiling facial expressions . Casper Llewellyn Smith from The Daily Telegraph felt that with the performance of the song , the Drowned World show " picked up pace . " In a review in Los Angeles Times , critic Greg Kot said that the " ballistic " response of the audience to the performance of " Impressive Instant " and another song " Candy Perfume Girl " confirmed the crowd 's satisfaction regarding the show . A similar review was given by Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani , who described the performance as a " virulent and possessive dance routine " , and felt it set the tone for the whole show . Alex Needham from NME compared the performance with those by The Royal Ballet , suggesting that if the group performed in rubber @-@ fetish , they would be similar to Madonna 's theatrics . Todd Ramlow from PopMatters criticized Madonna 's vocals during the performance , saying that she sounded flat during the lower notes of the song . The electronic effects used in the song was received negatively by Ramlow , who felt that Madonna should have opted for the addition of backing vocalists . The performance of the song on August 26 , 2001 , at The Palace of Auburn Hills , outside of Madonna 's hometown of Detroit was recorded and released in the live video album , Drowned World Tour 2001 on November 13 , 2001 .
= = Track listing and formats = =
US promo vinyl single
" Impressive Instant " ( Peter Rauhofer 's Universal Club Mix ) – 9 : 39
" Impressive Instant " ( Peter Rauhofer 's Drowned World Dub ) – 8 : 25
US promo 12 " vinyl single
" Impressive Instant " ( Peter Rauhofer 's Universal Dub ) – 6 : 41
" Impressive Instant " ( Peter Rauhofer 's Universal Radio Mixshow Mix ) – 5 : 32
" Impressive Instant " ( Peter Rauhofer 's Drowned World Dub Part 2 ) – 7 : 25
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Recorded at Sarm West Studios , Notting Hill , London
Mixed at Olympic Studios , London
Mastered at Metropolis Studios , London
Webo Girl Publishing , Inc . , Warner Bros. Music Corp ( ASCAP ) , 1000 Lights Music Ltd , Warner @-@ Tamerlane Publishing Corp. ( BMI )
Personnel
Madonna – songwriter , vocalist , producer
Mirwais Ahmadzaï – songwriter , producer , programming , keyboards
Mark " Spike " Stent – recording , mixing
Tim Young – mastering
Jake Davis – Pro Tools
Mark Endert – engineer
Sean Spuehler – engineer
Tom Hannen – assistant engineer
Tim Lambert – assistant engineer
Credits and personnel adapted from Music album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Icelandic horse =
The Icelandic horse is a breed of horse developed in Iceland . Although the horses are small , at times pony @-@ sized , most registries for the Icelandic refer to it as a horse . Icelandic horses are long @-@ lived and hardy . In their native country they have few diseases ; Icelandic law prevents horses from being imported into the country and exported animals are not allowed to return . The Icelandic displays two gaits in addition to the typical walk , trot , and canter / gallop commonly displayed by other breeds . The only breed of horse in Iceland , they are also popular internationally , and sizable populations exist in Europe and North America . The breed is still used for traditional sheepherding work in its native country , as well as for leisure , showing , and racing .
Developed from ponies taken to Iceland by Norse settlers in the 9th and 10th centuries , the breed is mentioned in literature and historical records throughout Icelandic history ; the first reference to a named horse appears in the 12th century . Horses were venerated in Norse mythology , a custom brought to Iceland by the country 's earliest settlers . Selective breeding over the centuries has developed the breed into its current form . Natural selection has also played a role , as the harsh Icelandic climate eliminated many horses through cold and starvation . In the 1780s , much of the breed was wiped out in the aftermath of a volcanic eruption at Laki . The first breed society for the Icelandic horse was created in Iceland in 1904 , and today the breed is represented by organizations in 19 different nations , organized under a parent association , the International Federation of Icelandic Horse Associations .
= = Breed characteristics = =
Icelandic horses weigh between 330 and 380 kilograms ( 730 and 840 lb ) and stand an average of 13 and 14 hands ( 52 and 56 inches , 132 and 142 cm ) high , which is often considered pony size , but breeders and breed registries always refer to Icelandics as horses . Several theories have been put forward as to why Icelandics are always called horses , among them the breed 's spirited temperament and large personality . Another theory suggests that the breed 's weight , bone structure and weight @-@ carrying abilities mean it can be classified as a horse , rather than a pony . The breed comes in many coat colors , including chestnut , dun , bay , black , gray , palomino , pinto and roan . There are over 100 names for various colors and color patterns in the Icelandic language . They have well @-@ proportioned heads , with straight profiles and wide foreheads . The neck is short , muscular , and broad at the base ; the withers broad and low ; the chest deep ; the shoulders muscular and slightly sloping ; the back long ; the croup broad , muscular , short and slightly sloping . The legs are strong and short , with relatively long cannon bones and short pasterns . The mane and tail are full , with coarse hair , and the tail is set low . The breed is known to be hardy and an easy keeper . The breed has a double coat developed for extra insulation in cold temperatures .
Characteristics differ between various groups of Icelandic horses , depending on the focus of individual breeders . Some focus on animals for pack and draft work , which are conformationally distinct from those bred for work under saddle , which are carefully selected for their ability to perform the traditional Icelandic gaits . Others are bred solely for horsemeat . Some breeders focus on favored coat colors .
Members of the breed are not usually ridden until they are four years old , and structural development is not complete until age seven . Their most productive years are between eight and eighteen , although they retain their strength and stamina into their twenties . An Icelandic mare that lived in Denmark reached a record age of 56 , while another horse , living in Great Britain , reached the age of 42 . The horses are highly fertile , and both sexes are fit for breeding up to age 25 ; mares have been recorded giving birth at age 27 . The horses tend to not be easily spooked , probably the result of not having any natural predators in their native Iceland . Icelandics tend to be friendly , docile and easy to handle , although also enthusiastic and self @-@ assured . As a result of their isolation from other horses , disease in the breed within Iceland is mostly unknown , except for some kinds of internal parasites . The low prevalence of disease in Iceland is maintained by laws preventing horses exported from the country being returned , and by requiring that all equine equipment taken into the country be either new and unused or fully disinfected . As a result , native horses have no acquired immunity to disease ; an outbreak on the island would be likely to be devastating to the breed . This presents problems with showing native Icelandic horses against others of the breed from outside the country , as no livestock of any species can be imported into Iceland , and once horses leave the country they are not allowed to return .
= = = Gaits = = =
The Icelandic is a " five @-@ gaited " breed , known for its sure @-@ footedness and ability to cross rough terrain . As well as the typical gaits of walk , trot , and canter / gallop , the breed is noted for its ability to perform two additional gaits . Although most horse experts consider the canter and gallop to be separate gaits , on the basis of a small variation in the footfall pattern , Icelandic breed registries consider the canter and gallop one gait , hence the term " five @-@ gaited " .
The first additional gait is a four @-@ beat lateral ambling gait known as the tölt . This is known for its explosive acceleration and speed ; it is also comfortable and ground @-@ covering . There is considerable variation in style within the gait , and thus the tölt is variously compared to similar lateral gaits such as the rack of the Saddlebred , the largo of the Paso Fino , or the running walk of the Tennessee Walking Horse . Like all lateral ambling gaits , the footfall pattern is the same as the walk ( left hind , left front , right hind , right front ) , but differs from the walk in that it can be performed at a range of speeds , from the speed of a typical fast walk up to the speed of a normal canter . Some Icelandic horses prefer to tölt , while others prefer to trot ; correct training can improve weak gaits , but the tölt is a natural gait present from birth . There are two varieties of the tölt that are considered incorrect by breeders . The first is an uneven gait called a " Pig 's Pace " or " Piggy @-@ pace " that is closer to a two @-@ beat pace than a four @-@ beat amble . The second is called a Valhopp and is a tölt and canter combination most often seen in untrained young horses or horses that mix their gaits . Both varieties are normally uncomfortable to ride .
The breed also performs a pace called a skeið , flugskeið or " flying pace " . It is used in pacing races , and is fast and smooth , with some horses able to reach up to 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) . Not all Icelandic horses can perform this gait ; animals that perform both the tölt and the flying pace in addition to the traditional gaits are considered the best of the breed . The flying pace is a two @-@ beat lateral gait with a moment of suspension between footfalls ; each side has both feet land almost simultaneously ( left hind and left front , suspension , right hind and right front ) . It is meant to be performed by well @-@ trained and balanced horses with skilled riders . It is not a gait used for long @-@ distance travel . A slow pace is uncomfortable for the rider and is not encouraged when training the horse to perform the gait . Although most pacing horses are raced in harness using sulkies , in Iceland horses are raced while ridden .
= = History = =
The ancestors of the Icelandic horse were probably taken to Iceland by Viking Age Scandinavians between 860 and 935 AD . The Norse settlers were followed by immigrants from Norse colonies in Ireland , the Isle of Man and the Western Isles of Scotland . These later settlers arrived with the ancestors of what would elsewhere become Shetland , Highland , and Connemara ponies , which were crossed with the previously imported animals . There may also have been a connection with the Yakut pony , and the breed has physical similarities to the Nordlandshest of Norway . Other breeds with similar characteristics include the Faroe pony of the Faeroe Islands and the Norwegian Fjord horse . Genetic analyses have revealed links between the Mongolian horse and the Icelandic horse . Mongolian horses are believed to have been originally imported from Russia by Swedish traders ; this imported Mongol stock subsequently contributed to the Fjord , Exmoor , Scottish Highland , Shetland and Connemara breeds , all of which have been found to be genetically linked to the Icelandic horse .
About 900 years ago , attempts were made to introduce eastern blood into the Icelandic , resulting in a degeneration of the stock . In 982 AD the Icelandic Althing ( parliament ) passed laws prohibiting the importation of horses into Iceland , thus ending crossbreeding . The breed has now been bred pure in Iceland for more than 1 @,@ 000 years .
The earliest Norse people venerated the horse as a symbol of fertility , and white horses were slaughtered at sacrificial feasts and ceremonies . When these settlers arrived in Iceland , they brought their beliefs , and their horses , with them . Horses played a significant part in Norse mythology , and several horses played major roles in the Norse myths , among them the eight @-@ footed pacer named Sleipnir , owned by Odin , chief of the Norse gods . Skalm , a mare who is the first Icelandic horse known by name , appeared in the Book of Settlements from the 12th century . According to the book , a chieftain named Seal @-@ Thorir founded a settlement at the place where Skalm stopped and lay down with her pack . Horses also play key roles in the Icelandic sagas Hrafnkel 's Saga , Njal 's Saga and Grettir 's Saga . Although written in the 13th century , these three sagas are set as far back as the 9th century . This early literature has an influence today , with many riding clubs and horse herds in modern Iceland still bearing the names of horses from Norse mythology .
Horses were often considered the most prized possession of a medieval Icelander . Indispensable to warriors , war horses were sometimes buried alongside their fallen riders , and stories were told of their deeds . Icelanders also arranged for bloody fights between stallions ; these were used for entertainment and to pick the best animals for breeding , and they were described in both literature and official records from the Commonwealth period of 930 to 1262 AD . Stallion fights were an important part of Icelandic culture , and brawls , both physical and verbal , among the spectators were common . The conflicts at the horse fights gave rivals a chance to improve their political and social standing at the expense of their enemies and had wide social and political repercussions , sometimes leading to the restructuring of political alliances . However , not all human fights were serious , and the events provided a stage for friends and even enemies to battle without the possibility of major consequences . Courting between young men and women was also common at horse fights .
Natural selection played a major role in the development of the breed , as large numbers of horses died from lack of food and exposure to the elements . Between 874 and 1300 AD , during the more favorable climatic conditions of the medieval warm period , Icelandic breeders selectively bred horses according to special rules of color and conformation . From 1300 to 1900 , selective breeding became less of a priority ; the climate was often severe and many horses and people died . Between 1783 and 1784 , around 70 % of the horses in Iceland were killed by volcanic ash poisoning and starvation after the 1783 eruption of Lakagígar . The eruption lasted eight months , covered hundreds of square miles of land with lava , and rerouted or dried up several rivers . The population slowly recovered during the next hundred years , and from the beginning of the 20th century selective breeding again became important . The first Icelandic breed societies were established in 1904 , and the first breed registry in Iceland was established in 1923 .
Icelandics were exported to Great Britain before the 20th century to work as pit ponies in the coal mines , because of their strength and small size . However , those horses were never registered and little evidence of their existence remains . The first formal exports of Icelandic horses were to Germany in the 1940s . Great Britain 's first official imports were in 1956 , when a Scottish farmer , Stuart McKintosh , began a breeding program . Other breeders in Great Britain followed McKintosh 's lead , and the Icelandic Horse Society of Great Britain was formed in 1986 . The number of Icelandic horses exported to other nations has steadily increased since the first exports of the mid @-@ 19th century . Since 1969 , multiple societies have worked together to preserve , improve and market these horses under the auspices of the International Federation of Icelandic Horse Associations . Today , the Icelandic remains a breed known for its purity of bloodline , and is the only horse breed present in Iceland .
The Icelandic is especially popular in western Europe , Scandinavia , and North America . There are about 80 @,@ 000 Icelandic horses in Iceland ( compared to a human population of 317 @,@ 000 ) , and around 100 @,@ 000 abroad . Almost 50 @,@ 000 are in Germany , which has many active riding clubs and breed societies .
= = Uses = =
Icelandic horses still play a large part in Icelandic life , despite increasing mechanization and road improvements that diminish the necessity for the breed 's use . The first official Icelandic horse race was held at Akureyri in 1874 , and many races are still held throughout the country from April through June . Both gallop and pace races are held , as well as performance classes showcasing the breed 's unique gaits . Winter events are often held , including races on frozen bodies of water . In 2009 such an event resulted in both horses and riders falling into the water and needing to be rescued . The first shows , focused on the quality of animals as breeding stock , were held in 1906 . The Agricultural Society of Iceland , along with the National Association of Riding Clubs , now organizes regular shows with a wide variety of classes . Some horses are still bred for slaughter , and much of the meat is exported to Japan . Farmers still use the breed to round up sheep in the Icelandic highlands , but most horses are used for competition and leisure riding .
= = Registration = =
Today , the Icelandic horse is represented by associations in 19 countries , with the International Federation of Icelandic Horse Associations ( FEIF ) serving as a governing international parent organization . The FEIF was founded on May 25 , 1969 , with six countries as original members : Austria , Denmark , Germany , Iceland , the Netherlands , and Switzerland . France and Norway joined in 1971 , and Belgium and Sweden in 1975 . Later , Finland , Canada , Great Britain , USA , Faroe Islands , Luxembourg , Italy , Slovenia and Ireland became members , but Ireland subsequently left because of a lack of members . New Zealand has been given the status of " associate member " as its membership base is small . In 2000 , WorldFengur was established as the official FEIF registry for Icelandic horses . The registry is a web database program that is used as a studbook to track the history and bloodlines of the Icelandic breed . The registry contains information on the pedigree , breeder , owner , offspring , photo , breeding evaluations and assessments , and unique identification of each horse registered . The database was established by the Icelandic government in cooperation with the FEIF . Since its inception , around 300 @,@ 000 Icelandic horses , living and dead , have been registered worldwide . The Islandpferde @-@ Reiter- und Züchterverband is an organization of German riders and breeders of Icelandic horses and the association of all Icelandic horse clubs in Germany .
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= George Wilkes =
George Wilkes ( 1817 – September 23 , 1885 ) was an American journalist and newspaper editor . A native of New York , Wilkes became a journalist and after losing a libel case was imprisoned in New York City 's jail ; his imprisonment led him to write a pamphlet on the jail 's conditions in 1844 . The next year , Wilkes and a friend started publishing National Police Gazette , a newspaper dealing with crime reporting and other sensationalistic topics . In 1856 Wilkes bought a sporting newspaper called The Spirit of the Times , which he had previously worked for . After selling the Gazette , Wilkes continued to publish and edit the Spirit until his death in 1885 . Wilkes also wrote a couple of books on non @-@ sporting topics as well as introducing parimutuel betting into the United States .
= = Early life = =
Wilkes was born in 1817 in the state of New York in the United States . It is not sure who his parents were , although they may have been George Wilkes , a cabinet maker , and Helen . Little is known of his upbringing before he became a law clerk for Enoch E. Camp . But Wilkes left the legal profession for journalism , first working for a series of short @-@ lived newspapers in New York City , the Flash , the Whip , and the Subterranean . He lost a libel case and was sentenced to a term in the city jail , The Tombs . From his experiences there , Wilkes wrote a pamphlet entitled The Mysteries of the Tombs : A Journal of Thirty Days Imprisonment in the N. Y. City Prison , which came out in 1844 .
= = Early writings = =
In 1845 Wilkes joined forces with Camp and began the National Police Gazette . The Gazette quickly became popular and within a few weeks of its founding had a circulation of 15 @,@ 000 . Collier 's Magazine once called the Gazette a most interesting record of " horrid murders , outrageous robberies , bold forgeries , astounding burglaries , hideous rapes , vulgar seductions , and recent exploits of pickpockets and hotel thieves . " Because of Wilkes ' and Camp 's efforts to combat crime in New York through the Gazette , the offices of the newspaper were the subject of attacks by mobs stirred up by criminals .
Also in 1845 , Wilkes wrote a History of Oregon , Geographical and Political , which was inaccurate . Notwithstanding this , an extract from the work was published as Project for a National Railroad from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean , also in 1845 . It was popular , and was in its fourth edition by 1847 . Around 1849 Wilkes went to California , either with or shortly after his friend David Colbreth Broderick . Wilkes was a political advisor of Broderick 's , but they quarreled over water issues in 1853 and Wilkes left California . Wilkes then traveled to Europe , turning the experience into another book , this one entitled Europe in a Hurry . Returning to California after Europe , he reunited with Broderick in late 1853 but another quarrel in 1854 over Wilkes ' appointment to a judicial post led to Wilkes ' leaving California permanently . The two men reconciled in 1859 during a visit by Broderick to New York shortly before Broderick 's death . Wilkes was the recipient of Broderick 's estate , and Wilkes wrote a long eulogy to his friend that appeared in the Spirit in October 1859 .
In 1866 , Wilkes and Camp sold the Gazette to George W. Matsell , who had previously been Chief of Police for New York City .
= = Spirit of the Times = =
When Wilkes returned from California to New York City , he began to work for William T. Porter at Porter 's newspaper The Spirit of the Times . Porter sold the paper in 1856 to Wilkes , who retained Porter on the newspaper 's staff until Porter 's death in 1858 . Wilkes , however , renamed the paper to Porter 's Spirit of the Times , a title it retained until 1859 . In September 1859 , Abraham C. Dayton , who had previously worked for the Spirit , left the paper and because he had purchased a share of the paper at one point from Porter , began publishing a paper he called Porter 's Spirit of the Times . Dayton got a court order preventing Wilkes from using Porter 's name , so Wilkes changed the name of his paper to Wilkes ' Spirit of the Times , while Dayton continued to publish Porter 's Spirit of the Times . Dayton was only able to publish until August 1861 , however , as Wilkes drove the other paper out of business . Wilkes owned the surviving paper until his death in 1885 .
Under Wilkes ' ownership , the Spirit , which previously had covered mainly sporting events , expanded its coverage to include political matters . When the American Civil War began in 1861 , Wilkes covered the battles also . He was present at the First Battle of Bull Run and wrote an account of it . He continued to serve as a correspondent throughout the war and contracted the kidney disease which he later died from during his war journalism . Wilkes also used literary feuds with other newspapers , both in and out of the sporting press , to help his subscription rates . After the Civil War , Wilkes ' Spirit was one of the three leading newspapers in New York City . Two , including the Spirit , of the three were mainly devoted to horse racing — the other being The Turf , Field and Farm by Sanders D. Bruce .
= = Later life = =
Wilkes was active in Republican Party political affairs and ran for the United States Congress against James Brooks , losing the race in 1870 , with Brooks receiving 12 @,@ 845 votes and Wilkes 7149 votes . Wilkes , along with John Chamberlain and Marcus Cicero Stanley , introduced parimutuel betting in the United States . Wilkes also was active in promoting boxing , acting as the promoter for some prizefights . Wilkes also became involved in an effort to colonize Baja California , becoming trustee of a colonizing company in 1867 . In 1877 he published his last work , Shakespeare from an American Point of View , which reflected his lifelong interest in William Shakespeare . This work was revised twice , with the third edition appearing in 1882 .
Married twice , Wilkes had two adopted children , George and Alicia . He also had a sister , Catherine , and a brother , Henry . He died on September 23 , 1885 in New York City , and was buried on September 26 , 1885 . It is claimed that Tsar Alexander II of Russia in 1870 inducted him into the Order of St Stanislas for Wilkes ' promotion of a railroad route from Russia through India to China . The writer of his Dictionary of American Biography entry described him as a " master of a vigorous style that exactly suited his hard truculent disposition " .
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= Anderson Street ( NJT station ) =
Anderson Street is a New Jersey Transit rail station on the Pascack Valley Line . The station is one of two rail stations in Hackensack ( the other being Essex Street ) and located at Anderson Street near Linden Street . All normal scheduled trains service this station seven days a week except for the Metro @-@ North Railroad Express trains to Spring Valley , New York .
The station house was built in 1869 ( and opened on September 9 , 1869 ) by the Hackensack and New York Railroad on a track extension from Passaic Street in Hackensack . The station was turned over to the Erie Railroad in 1896 and New Jersey Transit in 1983 . The next year , the station was listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The station building , which was 139 years old , was destroyed in a three @-@ alarm fire and explosion at 5 : 55 a.m. on January 10 , 2009 . At the time the station house was the second @-@ oldest ( active service ) in New Jersey ( second to Ramsey 's Main Street station ) . The station building was also the site for the Green Caboose Thrift Shop , a charity gift shop maintained by a branch of the Hackensack University Medical Center from 1962 until the station depot burned in 2009 .
= = Layout and service = =
The Anderson Street station is located at the intersection with Anderson Street and Linden Avenue in Hackensack . The station has one track running through it , with one lone asphalt side platform appearing on the northbound side . The station has a nearby parking lot at the same intersection , with fifty parking spaces maintained by Park America ( under lease from New Jersey Transit ) . Two of these fifty parking spaces are handicap accessible , although the station itself is not . These parking spots are permit @-@ only , but are free to use on evenings and weekends . The station is located in New Jersey Transit 's fifth fare zone , tickets may be purchased at the station . Except for the Metro @-@ North Railroad Express routes to Spring Valley , all trains serve the Anderson Street station , and there is nearby access to the 175 and 770 New Jersey Transit bus lines . The station is 18 minutes from Secaucus Junction , 21 minutes from Hoboken Terminal , and 39 minutes from Spring Valley .
= = History = =
= = = Hackensack and New York Railroad = = =
The original alignment of the Anderson Street station dates back to the chartering of the Hackensack and New York Railroad in 1856 by David P. Patterson and other investors . Their intent in creating the rail line was to help maintain a steam @-@ powered train line in the Pascack Valley and have future ambitions to build the system northward . Construction on the new 21 @-@ mile ( 34 km ) long line began in 1866 , with trains heading from New York City to the Passaic Street station in Hackensack . Although Hackensack was not a large hub , there were several rail lines serving the city , including the New Jersey Midland Line ( now the New York , Susquehanna and Western Railroad ) with stops at Main Street ( at the Mercer Street intersection ) and at Prospect Avenue . During the 1860s , service was extended to north , terminating at Essex Street . Residents from the Anderson Street area donated $ 2 @,@ 600 ( 1869 USD ) to have a new station depot constructed along new tracks heading northward . Although most Hackensack and New York trains ended at Passaic Street , service was extended northward on September 5 , 1869 , when that stop was abandoned in replacement for Anderson Street . Just next year , service was extended northward on the Hackensack and New York Railroad Extension Railroad to Cherry Hill ( now North Hackensack / New Bridge Landing ) and onto Hillsdale .
The Anderson Street Station had a wood siding with a shingled roof , two brick chimneys off the roof and two asphalt platforms in both directions . The station also had a garage door on the southern side of the building . No official style of architecture was mentioned for Anderson Street in the 1920 Final Engineering Report due to lack of design . Nearby , a wooden watchman 's shanty was constructed near the team track . The station had two tracks run through it ( one main track and a team track ) and had a rail crossing between tracks . By 1870 , the tracks had been extended northward to Hillsdale , and public service began on the line on March 4 of that year . Trains terminated at Hillsdale with fare of only $ 0 @.@ 75 ( 1870 USD ) , but just one year later , the extension northward . The service was extended northward to the community of Haverstraw , New York , and in 1896 , the rail line was leased by the private company to the Erie Railroad .
= = = Erie Railroad station and restoration = = =
After the leasing of the New Jersey and New York Railroad to the Erie Railroad , the history of Anderson Street station remained rather quiet , with minor changes to the station building and site occurring over the next sixty years . The Erie had repainted the station to a common green and white Erie Railroad paint scheme . By 1964 , there were new asphalt pavement platforms on both the northbound main track and the southbound team track , crossing gates had been installed and the paint scheme was fading to a darker green . By September 1966 , the Erie Lackawanna ( a merge of the Erie Railroad and Delaware , Lackawanna and Western ) sold off the station building to become the site of the Green Caboose Thrift Shop , and repainted a teal green color . The nearby watchman 's shanty , closed on Sundays , were repainted to tan and green with a red roof . The team track was also being dismantled by this point . Later , in 1972 , the station experienced minor changes , with the Green Caboose Thrift Shop remaining in service the station building being repainted by the Erie Lackawanna a dark green ( with the Erie Lackawanna 's red doors ) . The nearby watchman 's shanty was not repainted , remaining the railroad 's common red color and the team track had been long removed , with no remains were noticeable .
In 1976 , the Erie Lackawanna was combined with several other railroads to create the Consolidated Rail Corporation , who continued maintenance of the New Jersey and New York Line for the next seven years , until the newly formed New Jersey Transit took over the station in 1983 . On March 17 , 1984 , the station building , now 114 years old , was added to the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and by that June , the station was added to the National Register of Historic Places . The station building was restored in 2001 by contractors from Jablonski Building Conservation Incorporated in Midtown Manhattan , who had experience restoring train stations . The building conservation repainted the old station 's wooden siding yellow and the bay windows to a brand new brown on the station 's ground @-@ level platform .
= = = Station building fire and explosion = = =
At approximately 5 : 55 a.m. on January 10 , 2009 , the station building for Anderson Street caught fire and ruptured two propane tanks , which caused the building to explode . Two nearby cars were damaged as well . The three @-@ alarm fire destroyed the building , and causing damage to nearby apartment complex . Twelve fire companies were called to battle the blaze , including fire stations from Teaneck , Ridgefield Park , Bogota and South Hackensack . Service on the Pascack Valley Line had to be stopped indefinitely until they could demolish the unsafe site of the former station building and inspect the area to allow train usage . Hackensack city manager Stephen Lo Iacono was notified of the fire and deemed it a " devastating loss for the community . " At 11 a.m. , city officials were digging up the area around the station to stop the gas line near the new station . The Green Caboose Thrift Shop , a charity gift shop run by a ladies auxiliary of the Hackensack University Medical Center which was housed in the station , received a major blow after the explosion , which destroyed all their merchandise . The Green Caboose has since moved to Orchard Street in Hackensack . On February 7 , 2011 an application was filed to remove the destroyed structure from both the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places , to prevent a person from constructing a new station that would not be considered " historic " . On May 18 , 2011 , the station was removed from the National Register and its listing with the 51 other stations in the original 1984 package .
= = = New train station = = =
In March 2013 , construction began on a new station . The cost of the new station is $ 571 @,@ 061 . The new building will have a waiting room with three walls and ticket machines .
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= Casper Shafer =
Casper Shafer ( c . 1712 – 17 December 1784 ) was among the first settlers of the village of Stillwater along the Paulins Kill in Sussex County , New Jersey in the United States . A successful miller and early tavern owner , Shafer later served in the first sessions of the New Jersey Legislature during the American Revolution . During these sessions , New Jersey had become a newly independent state , established the first state constitution , ordered the state 's last Royal Governor deposed and arrested , and actively supported and financed the Continental Army .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and emigration = = =
Shafer was born in 1712 in the Rheinland @-@ Pfalz in present @-@ day Germany . He was among tens of thousands of German Palatines who escaped conditions of war and poverty in southwestern Germany throughout the eighteenth century and journeyed up the Rhine River to Rotterdam seeking passage to the New World . From Rotterdam , Shafer emigrated to the American colonies aboard the ship Queen Elizabeth commanded by Alexander Hope , and entered Philadelphia on 16 September 1738 . At some time after 1741 , Shafer married Maria Catrina Bernhardt ( 1722 – 1794 ) , the daughter of Johan Peter Bernhardt ( d . 1748 ) . Shafer , his father @-@ in @-@ law , Johan Peter Bernhardt , his brother @-@ in @-@ law John George Wintermute ( 1711 @-@ 1782 ) , and their families settled along the Paulins Kill in northwestern New Jersey circa 1742 . Over the next few decades , more German Palatine families settled here , and this settlement became the village of Stillwater .
= = = In New Jersey = = =
During the first year the conditions were spartan , and the settlers shared a log cabin located over a large stump which served as the family 's table . Shafer 's four children were all born in Stillwater — Peter ( 1744 – 1799 ) , Margaretta ( 1745 – 1815 ) , Abraham ( 1754 – 1820 ) and Isaac ( 1760 – 1800 ) .
A few years after settling , Shafer erected a rudimentary grist mill along the Paulins Kill approximately 900 yards north of the site of the surviving larger mill he built in 1764 . This first mill ground out three @-@ to @-@ five bushels of flour per day . " In later years , Shafer built a saw mill , oil @-@ mill and tannery at the site . To assist in the agricultural and industrial work , he acquired several African @-@ American slaves , many of whom remained property of his descendants well into the 19th century . Shafer also established large orchards on his property in Stillwater , mostly of apple trees that were later described as growing to " a majestic size , some of them attaining to over three feet in diameter at the butt . " When Sussex County was established in 1753 , the first session of the Court of General Sessions granted licenses to Shafer and a few other early residents to operate taverns .
Each year , Shafer would navigate down the Paulins Kill and Delaware River by flatboat " carrying flour and other produce down to the Philadelphia market " and returning with " such goods as the wants of the country in its primitive state seemed to demand . " , The pattern of trade in the region was focused toward Philadelphia , and for several years Shafer did not have any knowledge of English coastal cities in Newark Bay . The local Munsee ( a Lenape phratry ) informed him of a town they called Lispatone — that is , Elizabethtown ( present @-@ day Elizabeth , New Jersey ) — which he had not heard of . According to Schaeffer , " he journeyed in that direction some fifty miles over the mountains and through the almost trackless wilderness , until he finally arrived at the veritable town ... where he commenced trading in his small way . And thus he was the pioneer in opening a profitable and important commercial intercourse between the south eastern sea @-@ board , and that part of New Jersey . " It was not until 1756 @-@ 1757 that a military supply road built by Jonathan Hampton during the French & Indian War opened up a connection for trade between Elizabeth and Morristown with the northwestern frontier .
In 1775 , Shafer was a member of the Committee of Safety for Sussex County , and was charged with raising £ 10 @,@ 000 to " purchase arms and ammunition and for other exigencies of the Province . " The following year , Shafer , Thomas Peterson and Abia Brown represented the County in the Provincial Congress whose session began at Burlington on 10 June 1776 establishing the government as the former colony became an independent state , deposed and imprisoned the Royal Governor , William Franklin , and established the state 's first constitution . In August , the Provincial Congress met in Princeton and transformed into the state 's first Legislature . According to Snell , on several occasions Shafer would rise to his feet exclaiming his dissent in German , saying " Das ist nicht recht ! Das ist nicht recht ! " ( trans . " That is not right ! That is not right ! " ) and positing his argument in his adopted English . He represented the county for the next three years , and was described as " faithful in his attendance at the various meetings at Princeton , Trenton , Burlington and Haddonfield . His vote is recorded on almost every question , and always in favor of the most vigorous and aggressive measures for carrying on the war . "
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Casper Shafer died on 7 February 1784 in Stillwater . Shafer disagreed on matters of doctrine with the German Reformed and Lutheran clergy who supplied the local church , the " Dutch Meeting House " ( now a presbyterian congregation ) , and in his last years became cordially acquainted with Presbyterian clergyman Rev. Ira Condict ( 1764 – 1811 ) . Condict , who would later become President of Queen 's College ( now Rutgers University ) had been called to serve the nearby Presbyterian congregations at Upper Hardwick ( now Yellow Frame Presbyterian Church ) and at Sussex Court House ( now Newton ) . Shafer requested that Condict perform his burial service , but because the German clergy objected to Condict using the church building , Condict eulogized Shafer from the church 's front steps . Casper Shafer was buried in the churchyard at Stillwater . His tombstone reads :
On 10 December 2009 , the grist mill built by Casper Shafer , and operated after his death by his son Abraham , was listed as the Casper and Abraham Shafer Grist Mill Complex on the state and National Register of Historic Places . The site is currently maintained by the Ridge and Valley Conservancy , a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to local environmental protection and historic preservation . It is frequently open for public visitation and educational events .
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= Chad =
Chad ( / tʃæd / ; Arabic : تشاد Tshād ; French : Tchad ) , officially the Republic of Chad ( Arabic : جمهورية تشاد Jumhūrīyat Tshād ; French : République du Tchad ) , is a landlocked country in northern Central Africa . It is bordered by Libya to the north , Sudan to the east , the Central African Republic to the south , Cameroon and Nigeria to the southwest and Niger to the west . It is the fifth largest country in Africa in terms of area .
Due to its harsh arid desert climate , it is often known as " the Dead Heart of Africa . "
Chad has several regions : a desert zone in the north , an arid Sahelian belt in the centre and a more fertile Sudanian Savanna zone in the south . Lake Chad , after which the country is named , is the largest wetland in Chad and the second @-@ largest in Africa . N 'Djamena , the capital , is the largest city . Chad is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups . Arabic and French are the official languages . Islam and Christianity are the most widely practiced religions .
Beginning in the 7th millennium BC , human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers . By the end of the 1st millennium BC , a series of states and empires had risen and fallen in Chad 's Sahelian strip , each focused on controlling the trans @-@ Saharan trade routes that passed through the region . France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa . In 1960 , Chad obtained independence under the leadership of François Tombalbaye . Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long @-@ lasting civil war in 1965 . In 1979 the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the south 's hegemony . However , the rebel commanders fought amongst themselves until Hissène Habré defeated his rivals . He was overthrown in 1990 by his general Idriss Déby . Since 2003 the Darfur crisis in Sudan has spilt over the border and destabilised the nation , with hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees living in and around camps in eastern Chad .
While many political parties are active , power lies firmly in the hands of President Déby and his political party , the Patriotic Salvation Movement . Chad remains plagued by political violence and recurrent attempted coups d 'état . Chad is one of the poorest and most corrupt countries in the world ; most inhabitants live in poverty as subsistence herders and farmers . Since 2003 crude oil has become the country 's primary source of export earnings , superseding the traditional cotton industry .
= = History = =
In the 7th millennium BC , ecological conditions in the northern half of Chadian territory favored human settlement , and the region experienced a strong population increase . Some of the most important African archaeological sites are found in Chad , mainly in the Borkou @-@ Ennedi @-@ Tibesti Region ; some date to earlier than 2000 BC .
For more than 2 @,@ 000 years , the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary people . The region became a crossroads of civilizations . The earliest of these were the legendary Sao , known from artifacts and oral histories . The Sao fell to the Kanem Empire , the first and longest @-@ lasting of the empires that developed in Chad 's Sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD . Two other states in the region , Baguirmi and Wadai Empire emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries . The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the trans @-@ Saharan trade routes that passed through the region . These states , at least tacitly Muslim , never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves . In Kanem , about a third of the population were slaves .
French colonial expansion led to the creation of the Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad in 1900 . By 1920 , France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa . French rule in Chad was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies .
The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton ; France introduced large @-@ scale cotton production in 1929 . The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service . Only the Sara of the south was governed effectively ; French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal . The educational system was affected by this neglect .
After World War II , France granted Chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the French National Assembly and a Chadian assembly . The largest political party was the Chadian Progressive Party ( PPT ) , based in the southern half of the colony . Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960 with the PPT 's leader , a Sara people François Tombalbaye , as its first president .
Two years later , Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one @-@ party system . Tombalbaye 's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated interethnic tensions . In 1965 Muslims began a civil war . Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in 1975 , but the insurgency continued . In 1979 the rebel factions conquered the capital , and all central authority in the country collapsed . Armed factions , many from the north 's rebellion , contended for power .
The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France 's position in the country . Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in Chad 's civil war . Libya 's adventure ended in disaster in 1987 ; the French @-@ supported president , Hissène Habré , evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil .
Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule . The president favoured his own Daza ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies , the Zaghawa . His general , Idriss Déby , overthrew him in 1990 . Attempts to prosecute Habré led to his placement under house arrest in Senegal in 2005 ; in 2013 , Habré was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule . In May 2016 , he was found guilty of human @-@ rights abuses , including rape , sexual slavery , and ordering the killing of 40 @,@ 000 people , and sentenced to life in prison .
Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics . Chadians approved a new constitution by referendum , and in 1996 , Déby easily won a competitive presidential election . He won a second term five years later . Oil exploitation began in Chad in 2003 , bringing with it hopes that Chad would at last have some chances of peace and prosperity . Instead , internal dissent worsened , and a new civil war broke out . Déby unilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two @-@ term limit on the presidency ; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties .
In 2006 Déby won a third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted . Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased ; the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has warned that a genocide like that in Darfur may yet occur in Chad . In 2006 and in 2008 rebel forces have attempted to take the capital by force , but have on both occasions failed . An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan , signed 15 January 2010 , marked the end of a five @-@ year war . The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home , the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure , and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border . In May 2013 , security forces in Chad foiled a coup against the President Idriss Deby that had been in preparation for several months .
In 2016 , former ruler Hissène Habré was sentenced to life in prison in Senegal for crimes against humanity .
= = Geography , climate and environment = =
At 1 @,@ 284 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 496 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , Chad is the world 's 21st @-@ largest country . It is slightly smaller than Peru and slightly larger than South Africa . Chad is in north central Africa , lying between latitudes 7 ° and 24 ° N , and 13 ° and 24 ° E.
Chad is bounded to the north by Libya , to the east by Sudan , to the west by Niger , Nigeria and Cameroon , and to the south by the Central African Republic . The country 's capital is 1 @,@ 060 kilometres ( 660 mi ) from the nearest seaport , Douala , Cameroon . Because of this distance from the sea and the country 's largely desert climate , Chad is sometimes referred to as the " Dead Heart of Africa " .
The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north and east by the Ennedi Plateau and Tibesti Mountains , which include Emi Koussi , a dormant volcano that reaches 3 @,@ 414 metres ( 11 @,@ 201 ft ) above sea level . Lake Chad , after which the country is named ( and which in turn takes its name from the Kanuri word for " lake " ) , is the remains of an immense lake that occupied 330 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 130 @,@ 000 sq mi ) of the Chad Basin 7 @,@ 000 years ago . Although in the 21st century it covers only 17 @,@ 806 square kilometres ( 6 @,@ 875 sq mi ) , and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations , the lake is Africa 's second largest wetland .
The region 's tall grasses and extensive marshes make it favourable for birds , reptiles , and large mammals . Chad 's major rivers — the Chari , Logone and their tributaries — flow through the southern savannas from the southeast into Lake Chad .
= = = Climate = = =
Each year a tropical weather system known as the intertropical front crosses Chad from south to north , bringing a wet season that lasts from May to October in the south , and from June to September in the Sahel . Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones . The Sahara lies in the country 's northern third . Yearly precipitations throughout this belt are under 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) ; only the occasional spontaneous palm grove survives , and the only ones to do so are south of the Tropic of Cancer .
The Sahara gives way to a Sahelian belt in Chad 's centre ; precipitation there varies from 300 to 600 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 6 in ) per year . In the Sahel , a steppe of thorny bushes ( mostly acacias ) gradually gives way to the south to East Sudanian savanna in Chad 's Sudanese zone . Yearly rainfall in this belt is over 900 mm ( 35 @.@ 4 in ) .
= = = Wildlife = = =
Chad 's animal and plant life correspond to the three climatic zones . In the Saharan region , the only flora is the date @-@ palm groves of the oasis . Palms and acacia trees grow in the Sahelian region . The southern , or Sudanic , zone consists of broad grasslands or prairies suitable for grazing . As of 2002 , there were at least 134 species of mammals , 509 species of birds ( 354 species of residents and 155 migrants ) , and over 1 @,@ 600 species of plants throughout the country .
Elephants , lions , buffalo , hippopotamuses , rhinoceroses , giraffes , antelopes , leopards , cheetahs , hyenas , and many species of snakes are found here , although most large carnivore populations have been drastically reduced since the early 20th century . Elephant poaching , particularly in the south of the country in areas such as Zakouma National Park , is a severe problem . The small group of surviving West African crocodiles in the Ennedi Plateau represents one of the last colonies known in the Sahara today .
Extensive deforestation has resulted in loss of trees such as acacias , baobab , dates and palm trees . This has also caused loss of natural habitat for wild animals ; one of the main reasons for this is also hunting and livestock farming by increasing human settlements . Animals like lions , leopards and rhino have been almost decimated .
Efforts have been made by the Food and Agricultural Organization to improve relations between farmers , agro @-@ pastoralists and pastoralists in the Zakouma National Park ( ZNP ) , Siniaka @-@ Minia , and Aouk reserve in southeastern Chad to promote sustainable development . As part of the national conservation effort , more than 1 @.@ 2 million trees have been replanted to check the advancement of the desert , which incidentally also helps the local economy by way of financial return from acacia trees , which produce gum arabic , and also from fruit trees .
Poaching is a serious problem in the country , particularly of elephants for the profitable ivory industry and a threat to lives of rangers even in the national parks such as Zakouma . Elephants are often massacred in herds in and around the parks by organized poaching . The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers .
= = Demographics = =
Chad 's national statistical agency projected the country 's 2015 population between 13 @,@ 630 @,@ 252 and 13 @,@ 679 @,@ 203 , with 13 @,@ 670 @,@ 084 as its medium projection ; based on the medium projection , 3 @,@ 212 @,@ 470 people lived in urban areas and 10 @,@ 457 @,@ 614 people lived in rural areas . The country 's population is young : an estimated 47 @.@ 3 % is under 15 . The birth rate is estimated at 42 @.@ 35 births per 1 @,@ 000 people , the mortality rate at 16 @.@ 69 . The life expectancy is 47 @.@ 2 years .
Chad 's population is unevenly distributed . Density is 0 @.@ 1 / km2 ( 0 @.@ 26 / sq mi ) in the Saharan Borkou @-@ Ennedi @-@ Tibesti Region but 52 @.@ 4 / km2 ( 136 / sq mi ) in the Logone Occidental Region . In the capital , it is even higher . About half of the nation 's population lives in the southern fifth of its territory , making this the most densely populated region .
Urban life is concentrated in the capital , whose population is mostly engaged in commerce . The other major towns are Sarh , Moundou , Abéché and Doba , which are considerably smaller but growing rapidly in population and economic activity . Since 2003 , 230 @,@ 000 Sudanese refugees have fled to eastern Chad from war @-@ ridden Darfur . With the 172 @,@ 600 Chadians displaced by the civil war in the east , this has generated increased tensions among the region 's communities .
Polygamy is common , with 39 % of women living in such unions . This is sanctioned by law , which automatically permits polygamy unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage . Although violence against women is prohibited , domestic violence is common . Female genital mutilation is also prohibited , but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition ; 45 % of Chadian women undergo the procedure , with the highest rates among Arabs , Hadjarai , and Ouaddaians ( 90 % or more ) . Lower percentages were reported among the Sara ( 38 % ) and the Toubou ( 2 % ) . Women lack equal opportunities in education and training , making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal @-@ sector jobs . Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women , local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men , according to traditional practice .
= = = Urbanization = = =
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups , which create diverse social structures . The colonial administration and independent governments have attempted to impose a national society , but for most Chadians the local or regional society remains the most important influence outside the immediate family . Nevertheless , Chad 's peoples may be classified according to the geographical region in which they live .
In the south live sedentary people such as the Sara , the nation 's main ethnic group , whose essential social unit is the lineage . In the Sahel sedentary peoples live side @-@ by @-@ side with nomadic ones , such as the Arabs , the country 's second major ethnic group . The north is inhabited by nomads , mostly Toubous .
= = = Languages = = =
Chad 's official languages are Arabic and French , but over 100 languages and dialects are spoken . Due to the important role played by itinerant Arab traders and settled merchants in local communities , Chadian Arabic has become a lingua franca .
= = = Religion = = =
Chad is a religiously diverse country . The 1993 census found that 54 % of Chadians were Muslim ( of these , according to a Pew report 48 % professed to be Sunni , 21 % Shia , 4 % Ahmadi and 23 % just Muslim ) . Of the others , 20 % were Roman Catholic , 14 % Protestant , 10 % animist , while 3 % did not profess any religion . None of these religious traditions are monolithic . Animism includes a variety of ancestor and place @-@ oriented religions whose expression is highly specific . Islam is expressed in diverse ways ; for example , according to the Pew report mentioned earlier 55 % of Muslim Chadians belong to Sufi orders . Christianity arrived in Chad with the French and American missionaries ; as with Chadian Islam , it syncretises aspects of pre @-@ Christian religious beliefs . Muslims are largely concentrated in northern and eastern Chad , and animists and Christians live primarily in southern Chad and Guéra . The constitution provides for a secular state and guarantees religious freedom ; different religious communities generally co @-@ exist without problems .
The majority of Muslims in the country are adherents of a moderate branch of mystical Islam ( Sufism ) . Its most common expression is the Tijaniyah , an order followed by the 35 % of Chadian Muslims which incorporates some local African religious elements . A small minority of the country 's Muslims hold more fundamentalist practices , which , in some cases , may be associated with Saudi @-@ oriented Salafi movements .
Roman Catholics represent the largest Christian denomination in the country . Most Protestants , including the Nigeria @-@ based " Winners ' Chapel " , are affiliated with various evangelical Christian groups . Members of the Bahá 'í and Jehovah 's Witnesses religious communities also are present in the country . Both faiths were introduced after independence in 1960 and therefore are considered to be " new " religions in the country .
Chad is home to foreign missionaries representing both Christian and Islamic groups . Itinerant Muslim preachers , primarily from Sudan , Saudi Arabia , and Pakistan , also visit . Saudi Arabian funding generally supports social and educational projects and extensive mosque construction .
= = Government and politics = =
Chad 's constitution provides for a strong executive branch headed by a president who dominates the political system . The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the cabinet , and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges , generals , provincial officials and heads of Chad 's para @-@ statal firms . In cases of grave and immediate threat , the president , in consultation with the National Assembly , may declare a state of emergency . The president is directly elected by popular vote for a five @-@ year term ; in 2005 constitutional term limits were removed , allowing a president to remain in power beyond the previous two @-@ term limit . Most of Déby 's key advisers are members of the Zaghawa ethnic group , although southern and opposition personalities are represented in government .
= = = Legal system = = =
Chad 's legal system is based on French civil law and Chadian customary law where the latter does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality . Despite the constitution 's guarantee of judicial independence , the president names most key judicial officials . The legal system 's highest jurisdictions , the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Council , have become fully operational since 2000 . The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice , named by the president , and 15 councillors , appointed for life by the president and the National Assembly . The Constitutional Court is headed by nine judges elected to nine @-@ year terms . It has the power to review legislation , treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption .
= = = Parliament = = =
The National Assembly makes legislation . The body consists of 155 members elected for four @-@ year terms who meet three times per year . The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year , starting in March and October , and can hold special sessions when called by the prime minister . Deputies elect a National Assembly president every two years . The president must sign or reject newly passed laws within 15 days . The National Assembly must approve the prime minister 's plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no confidence . However , if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch 's programme twice in one year , the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections . In practice , the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through his party , the Patriotic Salvation Movement ( MPS ) , which holds a large majority .
= = = Political parties = = =
Until the legalisation of opposition parties in 1992 , Déby 's MPS was the sole legal party in Chad . Since then , 78 registered political parties have become active . In 2005 , opposition parties and human rights organisations supported the boycott of the constitutional referendum that allowed Déby to stand for re @-@ election for a third term amid reports of widespread irregularities in voter registration and government censorship of independent media outlets during the campaign . Correspondents judged the 2006 presidential elections a mere formality , as the opposition deemed the polls a farce and boycotted them .
= = = Internal opposition and foreign relations = = =
Déby faces armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but united in their intention to overthrow him . These forces stormed the capital on 13 April 2006 , but were ultimately repelled . Chad 's greatest foreign influence is France , which maintains 1 @,@ 000 soldiers in the country . Déby relies on the French to help repel the rebels , and France gives the Chadian army logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability . Nevertheless , Franco @-@ Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the American Exxon company in 1999 .
= = = Corruption = = =
Chad is listed as a failed state by the Fund for Peace ( FFP ) . In 2007 Chad had the seventh highest score on the failed state index . Since then the trend has been upwards each year . Chad had the fourth highest score ( behind Sudan ) on the Failed State Index of 2012 and as of 2013 , is ranked fifth .
Corruption is rife at all levels ; Transparency International 's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2005 named Chad ( tied with Bangladesh ) as the most corrupt country in the world . Chad 's ranking on the index has improved only marginally in recent years . Since its first inclusion on the index in 2004 , Chad 's best score has been 2 / 10 for 2011 . Critics of President Déby have accused him of cronyism and tribalism .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Since 2012 Chad has been divided into 23 regions . The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process , when the government abolished the previous 14 prefectures . Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor . Prefects administer the 61 departments within the regions . The departments are divided into 200 sub @-@ prefectures , which are in turn composed of 446 cantons .
The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by communautés rurales , but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed . The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development . To this end , the constitution declares that each administrative subdivisions be governed by elected local assemblies , but no local elections have taken place , and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed .
= = = Military = = =
The army has over 30 @,@ 350 active personnel and 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 fit for military service . Military spending has fluctuated widely in recent history in response to local conditions , especially the 2005 @-@ 2010 civil war and instability in neighboring countries . In 2009 , while in civil war , Chad spent 4 @.@ 2 % of GDP on defense , which fell to 1 @.@ 6 % of GDP in 2011 before rising to 2 @.@ 0 % of GDP in 2013 , when Chad began its military intervention in Northern Mali , as it worked with France and other African nations to bring back Mali 's sovereignty over territory in the North .
= = = = Rebel groups = = = =
There have been numerous rebel groups in Chad throughout the last few decades . In 2007 , a peace treaty was signed that integrated United Front for Democratic Change or FUC soldiers into the Chadian Army . The Movement for Justice and Democracy in Chad or MDJT also clashed with government forces in 2003 in an attempt to overthrow President Idriss Déby . In addition , there have been various conflicts with Khartoum 's Janjaweed rebels in Eastern Chad who killed civilians by use of helicopter gunships . Presently , the Union of Resistance Forces or UFR are a rebel group that continues to battle with the government of Chad . In 2010 , the UFR reportedly had a force estimating 6 @,@ 000 men and 300 vehicles .
= = = Law enforcement = = =
In Chad , the Gendarmerie Nationale serves as the national police force for the country .
= = Economy = =
The United Nations ' Human Development Index ranks Chad as the seventh poorest country in the world , with 80 % of the population living below the poverty line . The GDP ( Purchasing power parity ) per capita was estimated as US $ 1 @,@ 651 in 2009 . Chad is part of the Bank of Central African States , the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa ( UDEAC ) and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa ( OHADA ) .
Chad 's currency is the CFA franc . In the 1960s , the Mining industry of Chad produced sodium carbonate , or natron . There have also been reports of gold @-@ bearing quartz in the Biltine Prefecture . However , years of civil war have scared away foreign investors ; those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country 's future . In 2000 major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began , boosting the country 's economic prospects .
Over 80 % of Chad 's population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood . The crops grown and the locations of herds are determined by the local climate . In the southernmost 10 % of the territory lies the nation 's most fertile cropland , with rich yields of sorghum and millet . In the Sahel only the hardier varieties of millet grow , and these with much lower yields than in the south . On the other hand , the Sahel is ideal pastureland for large herds of commercial cattle and for goats , sheep , donkeys and horses . The Sahara 's scattered oases support only some dates and legumes . Chad 's cities face serious difficulties of municipal infrastructure ; only 48 % of urban residents have access to potable water and only 2 % to basic sanitation .
Before the development of oil industry , cotton dominated industry and the labour market had accounted for approximately 80 % of export earnings . Cotton remains a primary export , although exact figures are not available . Rehabilitation of Cotontchad , a major cotton company weakened by a decline in world cotton prices , has been financed by France , the Netherlands , the European Union , and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) . The parastatal is now expected to be privatised .
If Chad can maintain a semblance of stability foreign investments will eventually return , but even 24 years after the last successful coup that brought President Idris Deby to power , investors are still wary of investing in Chad .
= = = Humanitarian situation = = =
According to the United Nations , Chad has been affected by a humanitarian crisis since at least 2001 . As of 2008 , the country of Chad hosts over 280 @,@ 000 refugees from the Sudan 's Darfur region , over 55 @,@ 000 from the Central African Republic , as well as over 170 @,@ 000 internally displaced persons .
In February 2008 in the aftermath of the battle of N 'Djamena , UN Under @-@ Secretary @-@ General for Humanitarian Affairs John Holmes expressed " extreme concern " that the crisis would have a negative effect on the ability of humanitarians to deliver life @-@ saving assistance to half a million beneficiaries , most of whom – according to him – heavily rely on humanitarian aid for their survival . UN spokesperson Maurizio Giuliano stated to The Washington Post : " If we do not manage to provide aid at sufficient levels , the humanitarian crisis might become a humanitarian catastrophe " . In addition , organizations such as Save the Children have suspended activities due to killings of aid workers .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transport = = =
Civil war crippled the development of transport infrastructure ; in 1987 , Chad had only 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) of paved roads . Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network to 550 kilometres ( 340 mi ) by 2004 . Nevertheless , the road network is limited ; roads are often unusable for several months of the year . With no railways of its own , Chad depends heavily on Cameroon 's rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the seaport of Douala .
= = = = Airports = = = =
An international airport serves the capital and provides regular nonstop flights to Paris and several African cities .
= = = = Railways = = = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , a railway system was in development near Lake Chad . In the 21st century , Chad and the China Civil Engineering Construction Corp agreed to a $ 7 billion contract to build additional railway infrastructure . Presently , there are rail links to Libya and Sudan .
= = = Energy = = =
Chad 's energy sector has had years of mismanagement by the parastatal Chad Water and Electric Society ( STEE ) , which provides power for 15 % of the capital 's citizens and covers only 1 @.@ 5 % of the national population . Most Chadians burn biomass fuels such as wood and animal manure for power .
ExxonMobil leads a consortium of Chevron and Petronas that has invested $ 3 @.@ 7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at one billion barrels in southern Chad . Oil production began in 2003 with the completion of a pipeline ( financed in part by the World Bank ) that links the southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon . As a condition of its assistance , the World Bank insisted that 80 % of oil revenues be spent on development projects . In January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan programme when the Chadian government passed laws reducing this amount . On 14 July 2006 , the World Bank and Chad signed a memorandum of understanding under which the Government of Chad commits 70 % of its spending to priority poverty reduction programmes .
= = = Telecommunications = = =
The telecommunication system is basic and expensive , with fixed telephone services provided by the state telephone company SotelTchad . Only 14 @,@ 000 fixed telephone lines serve all of Chad , one of the lowest telephone density rates in the world .
Gateway Communications , a pan @-@ African wholesale connectivity and telecommunications provider also has a presence in Chad . In September 2013 , Chad 's Ministry for Posts and Information & Communication Technologies ( PNTIC ) announced that the country will be seeking a partner for fiber optic technology .
= = = = Mobile phones = = = =
In September 2010 the penetration rate was estimated at 24 @.@ 3 % over a population estimate of 10 @.@ 7 million .
Chad is ranked last in the World Economic Forum 's Network Readiness Index ( NRI ) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country 's information and communication technologies . Chad ranked number 148 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking , down from 142 in 2013 .
= = Media = =
Chad 's television audience is limited to N 'Djamena . The only television station is the state @-@ owned Télé Tchad . Radio has a far greater reach , with 13 private radio stations . Newspapers are limited in quantity and distribution , and circulation figures are small due to transportation costs , low literacy rates , and poverty . While the constitution defends liberty of expression , the government has regularly restricted this right , and at the end of 2006 began to enact a system of prior censorship on the media .
= = Education = =
Educators face considerable challenges due to the nation 's dispersed population and a certain degree of reluctance on the part of parents to send their children to school . Although attendance is compulsory , only 68 percent of boys attend primary school , and more than half of the population is illiterate . Higher education is provided at the University of N 'Djamena . At 33 percent , Chad has one of the lowest literacy rates of Sub @-@ Saharan Africa .
In 2013 , the U.S. Department of Labor 's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor in Chad reported that school attendance of children aged 5 to 14 was as low as 39 % . This can also be related to the issue of child labor as the report also stated that 53 % of children aged 5 to 14 were working children , and that 30 % of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school . A more recent DOL report listed cattle herding as a major agricultural activity that employed underage children .
= = Culture = =
Because of its great variety of peoples and languages , Chad possesses a rich cultural heritage . The Chadian government has actively promoted Chadian culture and national traditions by opening the Chad National Museum and the Chad Cultural Centre . Six national holidays are observed throughout the year , and movable holidays include the Christian holiday of Easter Monday and the Muslim holidays of Eid ul @-@ Fitr , Eid ul @-@ Adha , and Eid Milad Nnabi .
= = = Music = = =
The music of Chad includes a number of unusual instruments such as the kinde , a type of bow harp ; the kakaki , a long tin horn ; and the hu hu , a stringed instrument that uses calabashes as loudspeakers . Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethnic groups : the Sara prefer whistles , balafones , harps and kodjo drums ; and the Kanembu combine the sounds of drums with those of flute @-@ like instruments .
The music group Chari Jazz formed in 1964 and initiated Chad 's modern music scene . Later , more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition . Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on sai , a traditional style of music from southern Chad . The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music . However , in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists . Piracy and a lack of legal protections for artists ' rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Millet is the staple food throughout Chad . It is used to make balls of paste that are dipped in sauces . In the north this dish is known as alysh ; in the south , as biya . Fish is popular , which is generally prepared and sold either as salanga ( sun @-@ dried and lightly smoked Alestes and Hydrocynus ) or as banda ( smoked large fish ) . Carcaje is a popular sweet red tea extracted from hibiscus leaves . Alcoholic beverages , though absent in the north , are popular in the south , where people drink millet beer , known as billi @-@ billi when brewed from red millet , and as coshate when from white millet .
= = = Literature = = =
As in other Sahelian countries , literature in Chad has seen an economic , political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers . Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse . Since 1962 , 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction . Among the most internationally renowned writers are Joseph Brahim Seïd , Baba Moustapha , Antoine Bangui and Koulsy Lamko . In 2003 Chad 's sole literary critic , Ahmat Taboye , published his Anthologie de la littérature tchadienne to further knowledge of Chad 's literature internationally and among youth and to make up for Chad 's lack of publishing houses and promotional structure .
= = = Film = = =
The development of a Chadian film industry was hampered by the devastations of civil war and from the lack of cinemas , of which there is only one in the whole country . The first Chadian feature film , the docudrama Bye Bye Africa , was made in 1999 by Mahamat Saleh Haroun . His later film Abouna was critically acclaimed , and his Daratt won the Grand Special Jury Prize at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival . The 2010 feature film A Screaming Man won the Jury Prize at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival , making Haroun the first Chadian director to enter , as well as win , an award in the main Cannes competition . Issa Serge Coelo directed Chad 's two other films , Daresalam and DP75 : Tartina City .
= = = Sports = = =
Football is Chad 's most popular sport . The country 's national team is closely followed during international competitions and Chadian footballers have played for French teams . Basketball and freestyle wrestling are widely practiced , the latter in a form in which the wrestlers put on traditional animal hides and cover themselves with dust .
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= Albert Pujols =
José Alberto Pujols Alcántara ( born January 16 , 1980 ) , better known as Albert Pujols ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈalβert puˈxols ] ) , is a Dominican American professional baseball first baseman for the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He previously played for the St. Louis Cardinals , where he received three National League ( NL ) MVP awards ( 2005 , 2008 , 2009 ) and was a nine @-@ time MLB All @-@ Star ( 2001 , 2003 , 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ) . He was also an All @-@ Star with the Angels in 2015 .
Pujols was born in the Dominican Republic and moved to the United States in 1996 . After one season of college baseball , he was selected by the Cardinals in the 13th round of the 1999 MLB draft . As a rookie for the Cardinals in 2001 , he was unanimously voted the NL Rookie of the Year . Pujols played for the Cardinals for 11 seasons , contributing to two World Series championships in 2006 and 2011 . After the 2011 season , Pujols became a free agent and later signed a 10 @-@ year contract with the Angels .
Pujols is a highly regarded hitter who has shown a " combination of contact hitting ability , patience , and raw power " . He is a six @-@ time Silver Slugger who has twice led the NL in home runs , and he has also led the NL once each in batting average , doubles and RBI . He is significantly above @-@ average in career regular season batting average ( .312 ) , walk rate ( 12 @.@ 1 percent ) , and Isolated Power ( .217 ) . Pujols is considered a strong future candidate for the Hall of Fame .
= = Early life and career = =
Born on January 16 , 1980 , Pujols was raised in Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic , mostly by his grandmother America Pujols and 10 of his uncles and aunts . He was an only child . His father , Bienvenido Pujols , was a softball pitcher , but he was also an alcoholic . Albert often had to take his father home when his father got drunk following the games . Growing up , Pujols practiced baseball using limes for balls and a milk carton for a glove . Pujols , his father , and his grandmother immigrated to New York City in 1996 , where Albert witnessed a shooting at a grocery store . Partly because of the shooting , they moved to Independence , Missouri , two months later to join some relatives .
Pujols played baseball at Fort Osage High School in Independence and was named an All @-@ State athlete twice . As a senior , he was walked 55 times in protest because opposing coaches believed he was older than 18 , but he still hit eight home runs in 33 at bats . One of his home runs travelled 450 feet . After graduating from high school a semester early in December 1998 , he was given a baseball scholarship to Maple Woods Community College . Pujols hit a grand slam and turned an unassisted triple play in the first game of his only college season . Playing shortstop , he batted .461 with 22 home runs as a freshman before deciding to enter the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) draft .
= = Professional baseball career = =
= = = Minor league career = = =
Few teams were interested in Pujols because of uncertainty about his age , which position he would play , and his build . Tampa Bay Rays scout Fernando Arango recommended that his team sign Pujols , and quit his job when Tampa Bay failed to do so . Pujols was not drafted until the 13th round of the 1999 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft , when the St. Louis Cardinals selected him with the 402nd overall pick . Pujols initially turned down a $ 10 @,@ 000 bonus and spent the summer playing for the Hays Larks of the Jayhawk Collegiate League ( a summer league in the National Baseball Congress ) ; his total of 48 runs batted in ( RBIs ) with the team was tied for ninth with Tyler Wasserman in Larks ' history . When the Cardinals increased their bonus offer to $ 60 @,@ 000 , he signed .
Pujols began his minor league career in 2000 playing third base with the Peoria Chiefs of the single @-@ A Midwest League . He batted .324 with 128 hits , 32 doubles , six triples , 17 home runs , and 84 RBIs in 109 games . He finished second in the league in batting ( behind Ryan Gripp ) , tied for ninth in doubles ( with Andrew Beattie and Justin Leone ) , tied for fourth in triples ( with six other players ) , tied for sixth in home runs ( with Shawn McCorkle and Lance Burkhart ) , and sixth in RBIs . He was voted the league 's Most Valuable Player and named to the All @-@ Star team . Pujols also played 21 games with the Potomac Cannons in the high @-@ A Carolina League that year , batting .284 with 23 hits , eight doubles , one triple , two home runs , and 10 RBIs . He finished the season with the Memphis Redbirds in the AAA Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) , and after appearing in three regular season games with them , he batted .367 in the playoffs and was named the postseason Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) as the Redbirds won their first PCL title .
= = = St. Louis Cardinals ( 2001 – 2011 ) = = =
= = = = Early career ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = = =
During spring training in 2001 , Mark McGwire told Cardinals manager Tony La Russa that if he did not put Pujols on the roster , " it might be one of the worst moves you make in your career . " La Russa later recounted the " myth " that Pujols only made the Opening Day roster in 2001 because Bobby Bonilla was injured . According to La Russa , he and the rest of Cardinals management were impressed enough by Pujols that they decided to promote him to the big league club even before Bonilla 's injury . Although the team did not need Pujols to fill any particular position , the Cardinals put him on their Opening Day roster , and he started all season at either third base , right field , left field , or first base . On Opening Day against the Colorado Rockies on April 2 , he got his first career hit , a single against pitcher Mike Hampton in an 8 – 0 loss . Four days later , he had three hits and three RBIs – including his first home run – against the Arizona Diamondbacks ' Armando Reynoso in a 12 – 9 win . Through 2015 , he was one of three players to hit 20 or more home runs in their rookie year before July , along with Wally Berger ( 1930 ) and Joc Pederson .
At midseason , Pujols became the first Cardinals ' rookie since Luis Arroyo in 1955 to make the All @-@ Star Game . He finished the season batting .329 ( sixth in the league ) with 194 hits ( fifth in the league ) , 47 doubles ( fifth in the league ) , 37 home runs , and 112 runs . His 37 home runs led the Cardinals , topping Jim Edmonds 's 30 and McGwire 's 29 . He was named the National League ( NL ) Silver Slugger Award winner for the third base position , and he finished fourth in NL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) voting , behind Barry Bonds , Sammy Sosa , and Luis Gonzalez . He was unanimously named the NL Rookie of the Year after setting an NL rookie record with 130 RBIs ( fifth in the league ) and becoming the fourth MLB rookie to hit .300 with 30 home runs , 100 runs , and 100 RBIs .
The Cardinals finished the 2001 season with a 93 – 61 record and advanced to the playoffs as a wild card team . The team won the NL wild card round and advanced to the NL Division Series ( NLDS ) . In Game 2 on October 10 , Pujols hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Diamondbacks pitcher Randy Johnson in a 4 – 1 victory . The Cardinals , however , were eliminated in five games , and Pujols had just two hits in 18 at @-@ bats .
After playing several positions in 2001 , Pujols spent most of 2002 in left field . He began the season batting cleanup but was moved in May to the third spot in the lineup , where he remained for the rest of his Cardinals career . Pujols hit his 30th home run and got his 100th RBI of the season in a 5 – 4 loss to the Cincinnati Reds in August , making him the sixth Cardinal to have back @-@ to @-@ back 30 @-@ home @-@ run seasons and the second Cardinal ( the other was Ray Jablonski ) to start his career with back @-@ to @-@ back 100 @-@ RBI seasons . The following month , Pujols hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run single against Pete Munro in a 9 – 3 victory over the Houston Astros that gave the Cardinals the NL Central title . Pujols finished the year batting .314 ( seventh in the NL ) with 185 hits ( tied for fourth in the NL ) , 40 doubles ( eighth in the NL ) , 34 home runs ( 10th in the NL ) , 118 runs scored ( second in the NL to Sosa 's 122 ) , and 127 RBIs ( second in the NL ) . He became the first player in major league history to hit over .300 with at least 30 home runs , 100 runs scored , and 100 RBIs in his first two seasons . Pujols finished second in MVP voting to Bonds , becoming the first Cardinal since Stan Musial to finish in the top four in MVP voting for consecutive seasons . At the end of the 2002 season , Chris Haft of MLB.com called him " an outstanding hitter . "
Pujols 's contributions helped the Cardinals finish third in home runs and second in batting average and RBI ; the Cardinals ' pitching staff also finished fourth in ERA . The Cardinals again reached the playoffs , and Pujols had three hits and three RBIs in a three @-@ game sweep of the Diamondbacks in the 2002 NLDS . The team advanced to the 2002 NL Championship Series ( NLCS ) , but lost in five games to the San Francisco Giants . Pujols had five hits , one home run , and two RBIs in the series .
Five Cardinals were named to the All @-@ Star Game in 2003 , but Pujols led the NL in votes . It was the first of eight straight seasons that Pujols would reach the All @-@ Star Game . From July 12 to August 16 , Pujols had a 30 @-@ game hitting streak , tied for the second @-@ longest in Cardinals ' history with Musial and behind only Rogers Hornsby 's 33 @-@ game streak . On July 20 , Pujols hit his 100th career home run , a game @-@ winner in a 10 – 7 victory over the Dodgers . He became the fourth major leaguer to hit his 100th home run in his third season ( along with Ralph Kiner , Eddie Mathews , and Joe DiMaggio ) . Pujols hit his 114th home run on September 20 in a game against the Astros , which tied him with Kiner for most home runs by a player in his first three seasons . In 157 games , Pujols hit 43 home runs ( fourth in the league , behind Jim Thome , Richie Sexson , and Bonds ) and had 124 RBIs ( tied with Sexson for fourth and behind Preston Wilson , Gary Sheffield , and Thome ) . He became the youngest player since Tommy Davis in 1962 to win the NL batting title after batting .359 , and he led the league in runs ( 137 ) , hits ( 212 ) , and doubles ( 51 ) . Pujols joined Rogers Hornsby as the only players in Cardinals ' history to record more than 40 homers and 200 hits in the same season . Though his stellar play had Cardinals ' fans chanting " M @-@ V @-@ P ! " during home games as early as June , Pujols again finished second to Bonds in MVP voting . He won his second Silver Slugger Award in 2003 . He also won the Sporting News Player of the Year Award . Pujols 's contributions helped the Cardinals rank second in batting average and third in home runs in the NL ; however , the pitching staff posted a 4 @.@ 60 ERA , which was below the league average , and the Cardinals missed the playoffs .
= = = = New contract ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = = =
After receiving many awards in his first three seasons , Pujols was rewarded monetarily for his accomplishments on February 20 , 2004 , when he signed a seven @-@ year , $ 100 million contract extension with a $ 16 million club option for 2011 with no @-@ trade provisions . He was moved to first base in 2004 after the Cardinals traded Tino Martinez in the offseason . On June 16 , he hit a walk @-@ off home run against Reds pitcher Mike Matthews in the 10th inning of a 4 – 3 victory .
Pujols 's highlights later in the season included a July game in which he hit five RBIs and three home runs and another in which he broke up a no @-@ hitter by Giants pitcher Dustin Hermanson . During a September game against the Rockies , he earned his 500th RBI , joining DiMaggio and Ted Williams as the only players to have 500 RBIs in their first four seasons . He said he was confident there was going to be " a lot more " . Although Pujols was diagnosed with plantar fasciitis during the second half of the season , he finished the season with a .331 average ( fifth in the league ) , 196 hits ( fifth ) , 51 doubles ( second to Lyle Overbay 's 53 ) , 46 home runs ( tied with Adam Dunn for second behind Adrián Beltré 's 48 ) and 123 RBIs ( third , behind Vinny Castilla 's 131 and Scott Rolen 's 124 ) in 154 games . He also led the league in runs scored , with 133 . He finished third in MVP voting ( behind Bonds and Beltré ) , joining Musial as the only Cardinals to finish in the top five in voting for at least four years in a row . He won the Silver Slugger Award at first base , the third position he won the award at . Pujols , along with teammates Edmonds and Rolen , earned the nickname " MV3 " for their phenomenal seasons ; Pujols led the three in home runs and batting average .
The Cardinals won the NL Central , aided by the MV3 and pitcher Chris Carpenter , who won 15 games and had a 3 @.@ 46 ERA his first season with the team . In Game 4 of the NLDS against the Dodgers , Pujols hit a three @-@ run home run against Wilson Álvarez and had four RBIs as the Cardinals won 6 – 2 and took the series three games to one . In Game 6 of the NLCS , Pujols had three hits , scored three runs ( including the winning run ) , and hit a two @-@ run home run off Munro in a 12 @-@ inning , 6 – 4 victory . The Cardinals won the series in seven games , advancing to the World Series for the first time since 1987 . Pujols was named the NLCS MVP after batting .500 with four home runs and nine RBIs . He was one of three Cardinals to bat over .250 in the series against the Boston Red Sox ( after batting .333 ) as the Cardinals were swept by Boston in four games .
By 2005 , many baseball fans thought that Pujols was the best Cardinal since Musial . Pujols picked up his 100th RBI of the season on August 31 , joining Williams , DiMaggio , and Al Simmons as the only players with 100 RBIs in their first five seasons . Pujols hit his 200th career home run in a game against the Reds on September 30 , making him the third @-@ youngest major league player to reach that milestone ( behind Mel Ott and Eddie Mathews ) and the second @-@ fastest to reach it ( behind Kiner ) . In 161 games , Pujols batted .330 ( second to Derrek Lee 's .335 average ) with 195 hits ( fourth behind Lee , Miguel Cabrera , and Jimmy Rollins ) , 38 doubles , 41 home runs ( third , behind Andruw Jones 's 51 and Lee 's 46 ) , 117 RBIs ( tied with Burrell for second behind Jones 's 128 ) , and 129 runs scored ( first in the league ) . For the first time in his career , he won the NL MVP award as Bonds was limited to 14 games due to an injury .
Pujols returned to the playoffs as the Cardinals won the NL Central for the second year in a row . He had five hits in nine at @-@ bats with four runs scored and two RBIs in the NLDS as the Cardinals swept the Padres . In Game 5 of the NLCS against the Astros , with the Cardinals trailing by two runs and only one out from elimination in the ninth inning , Pujols hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Brad Lidge that landed on the train tracks in the back of Minute Maid Park . The Cardinals won 5 – 4 . MLB.com writer Matthew Leach later called it " one of the most famous playoff home runs in recent years . " Nevertheless , the Cardinals were eliminated in Game 6 by the Astros . Pujols batted .304 with two home runs and six RBIs in the series .
= = = = Continued success and first World Series ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
Over two games in April 2006 , Pujols hit home runs in four consecutive plate appearances , making him the 20th player to accomplish the feat . Pujols maintained after the game that he was more concerned with winning than the numbers : " I don 't look at numbers " , he said . " I don 't know . I didn 't know anything about [ the record ] until you guys brought it up . Because that 's not me . I don 't get locked in on numbers . I don 't get locked in on anything like that . I get locked in on seeing the ball and helping my team out to win and hopefully doing some damage out there . "
Pujols had three hits and four RBIs , including his 1,000th career hit ( a home run against Jerome Williams ) , as the Cardinals beat the Cubs 9 – 3 on April 21 , 2006 . On June 4 , he was placed on the disabled list ( DL ) for the first time in his career with a strained right oblique that kept him out for three weeks .
On August 22 , Pujols hit a three @-@ run home run and a grand slam against John Maine in an 8 – 7 loss to the Mets . On September 28 , with the Cardinals trailing 2 – 1 to the Padres in the eighth inning , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Cla Meredith , helping the Cardinals win 4 – 2 and end a seven @-@ game losing streak . The win preserved the Cardinals ' 1 @.@ 5 game division lead ; La Russa said afterward that it was " the most huge of the huge ones he 's hit . "
Pujols finished the season with a .331 average ( third to Freddy Sanchez 's .344 and Cabrera 's .339 ) , 177 hits , 33 doubles , 49 home runs ( second to Ryan Howard 's 58 ) , 137 RBIs ( second to Howard 's 149 ) , and 119 runs scored ( tied with Matt Holliday , Hanley Ramírez , and Alfonso Soriano for fifth ) . Of his 49 home runs , 20 accounted for a game @-@ winning RBI , breaking Willie Mays ' single @-@ season record set in 1962 . He finished second to Howard in MVP voting and won the NL Gold Glove Award for first base . He won his first of four consecutive Fielding Bible Awards for the first base position .
Led by Pujols and Carpenter , the Cardinals won the NL Central and reached the playoffs for the third year in a row . In Game 1 of the NLDS against the Padres , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Jake Peavy as the Cardinals won 5 – 1 . He had a game @-@ winning RBI against David Wells and had three hits in Game 2 as the Cardinals won 2 – 0 . He batted .333 with a home run and an RBI in the series as the Cardinals defeated the Padres in four games . In Game 2 of the NLCS against the Mets , Pujols scored three runs as the Cardinals won 9 – 6 . He batted .318 with one home run and one RBI in the series as the Cardinals defeated the Mets in seven games .
In Game 1 of the World Series against the Detroit Tigers , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Justin Verlander as the Cardinals won 4 – 2 . In Game 5 , he made a sprawling , flip @-@ from @-@ his @-@ back play to rob Plácido Polanco of a hit as the Cardinals clinched the series giving Pujols his first career World Series ring .
Near the beginning of the 2007 season in an April 22 game against the Cubs , Pujols hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Ryan Dempster in the 10th inning of a 12 – 9 victory , tying Ken Boyer for second all @-@ time on the Cardinals ' home run list with his 255th . Pujols finished the season with 185 hits , 38 doubles and 103 RBIs ( a career @-@ low ) . He was among the league leaders in batting average ( .327 , sixth ) and home runs ( 32 , tied with Carlos Lee and Chris Young ) for tenth . He scored 99 runs , ending his streak of seasons with at least 30 home runs , a .300 average , 100 runs scored , and 100 RBIs at six . He finished ninth in MVP voting , the first year he had finished outside the top five in his career .
Pujols began 2008 by reaching base in 42 straight games , the longest streak to open a season since Derek Jeter reached base in the first 53 games of 1999 . On June 11 , he was placed on the DL with a strained left calf muscle . Although he was expected to miss three weeks , he was activated from the DL on June 26 . Pujols hit his 300th home run against Bob Howry on July 4 in a 2 – 1 loss to the Cubs . He said after the game that to him it was " just another homer that goes out of the park . I 'm happy to do it in front of our fans — they were waiting for it . "
On September 11 , in a 3 – 2 loss to the Cubs , Pujols hit his 100th RBI of the season against Rich Harden , making him the third player in major league history to start his career with eight seasons of at least 100 RBIs ( along with Simmons and Williams ) . He regretted that the milestone came in a loss , saying , " I wish it would have come with a great win . It would have been more special . " In 148 games in 2008 , Pujols batted .357 ( second to Chipper Jones 's .364 average ) with 187 hits ( third , behind Reyes 's 204 and David Wright 's 189 ) , 44 doubles ( tied with Stephen Drew and Aramis Ramírez for fourth in the league behind Berkman and Nate McLouth 's 46 and Corey Hart 's 45 ) , 37 home runs ( tied with Ryan Braun and Ryan Ludwick for fourth in the league behind Howard 's 48 , Dunn 's 40 , and Delgado 's 38 ) , 116 RBIs ( fourth , behind Howard 's 146 , Wrights 124 , and Adrian Gonzalez 's 119 ) , and 100 runs scored . Pujols won his second NL MVP Award , and he won the Silver Slugger Award for the fourth time in his career . He was named The Sporting News Player of the Year for the second time in his career . For his work off the field , he was named the 2008 winner of the Roberto Clemente Award . He considered having Tommy John surgery after the season but underwent nerve transposition surgery on his right elbow instead to ease discomfort .
= = = = Later career and second World Series ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = = =
On April 25 , 2009 , Pujols picked up his 1,000th career RBI with a 441 @-@ foot grand slam against David Patton in an 8 – 2 victory over the Cubs . " I hit that ball as good as I can hit a ball " , he said after the game . On July 3 , he hit his 10th career grand slam against Weathers in a 7 – 4 victory over the Reds , breaking Musial 's record for most grand slams by a Cardinal . The grand slam was also his 350th career home run , making him the third @-@ fastest player to reach 350 home runs ( behind Alex Rodriguez and Ken Griffey , Jr . ) . He received the highest number of votes in NL history for the All @-@ Star Game that year .
Pujols had four hits , three runs scored , and five RBIs on August 4 , including a grand slam against Sean Green which tied the NL record for most grand slams in a season ( five ) , in a 10 @-@ inning , 12 – 7 victory over the Mets . In 160 games , Pujols batted .327 ( third , behind Ramírez 's .342 and Pablo Sandoval 's .330 ) with 186 hits ( sixth ) , 45 doubles ( second to Miguel Tejada 's 46 ) , 47 home runs ( first ) , 135 RBIs ( third behind Fielder and Howard 's 141 ) , and 124 runs scored ( first ) . He was unanimously named the NL MVP for the third time , tying Musial as the Cardinals ' leader in that category . For the fifth time in his career , he won the Silver Slugger Award . He won the Sporting News MLB Player of the Year award for the second consecutive year , joining Williams and Joe Morgan as the only players to win it in back @-@ to @-@ back years . For the fourth year in a row , he won the Fielding Bible Award for first base .
Aided by the midseason acquisition of Matt Holliday ( who replaced Ryan Ludwick as the cleanup hitter ) and the emergence of Adam Wainwright ( who led the NL in wins ) , the Cardinals returned to the playoffs after a two @-@ year hiatus . In the NLDS against the Dodgers , Pujols batted .300 with one RBI as the Cardinals were swept in three games . Following the postseason , Pujols had surgery to remove five bone spurs from his right elbow . The Cardinals called the surgery a " success " , and Dr. James Andrews decided that Pujols did not need Tommy John surgery at that time .
On June 29 , 2010 , in an 8 – 0 victory over the Diamondbacks , Pujols had five RBIs and hit two home runs against Dontrelle Willis for his 37th career multihomer game , which tied Musial 's franchise record for multihomer games . " It 's pretty special " , he said of tying Musial . " I 'm blessed to have the opportunity to be compared sometimes with him . "
On August 26 , he hit his 400th career home run against Jordan Zimmermann in a 13 @-@ inning , 11 – 10 loss to the Nationals . He became the third @-@ youngest player to reach the milestone ( behind Griffey , Jr. and Rodriguez ) , and he became the fourth @-@ quickest player by at bats to reach the milestone ( behind McGwire , Babe Ruth , Harmon Killebrew , and Thome ) . On September 11 , in a 12 @-@ inning 6 – 3 loss to Atlanta , Pujols had three RBIs and reached 100 RBIs for the 10th consecutive year with a two @-@ run double against Tommy Hanson . Only Simmons has a longer streak of 100 RBI seasons at the beginning of a career , with 11 . Pujols joined Jimmie Foxx , Lou Gehrig , and Rodriguez in having 10 consecutive seasons of 100 or more RBIs at any time in their career . Foxx and Rodriguez are the only two players besides Pujols to have 10 consecutive years of 30 home runs and 100 RBIs . The next day , in a 7 – 3 victory over the Braves , he passed Musial to be the all @-@ time Cardinals ' leader in multi @-@ home run games when he hit two home runs against Tim Hudson for the 38th time in a game .
In 159 games , Pujols batted .312 ( sixth ) with 183 hits ( fifth ) and 39 doubles ( tied for eighth with Marlon Byrd ) ; he led the league in runs scored ( 115 ) , home runs ( 42 ) , and RBIs ( 118 ) . He won his second Gold Glove Award for first base , and he won the NL First Base Silver Slugger Award for the sixth time . He finished second in the NL MVP voting to Joey Votto , who said he was " shocked " that Pujols only got one first @-@ place vote .
Pujols and the Cardinals set a deadline for the start of 2011 spring training for contract extension negotiations but failed to agree on an extension . After Pujols struggled in his first 30 games of the season ( batting .231 ) , he batted .316 with 30 home runs in his final 117 games . Against the Cubs , he hit consecutive extra @-@ inning walk @-@ off home runs on June 4 and 5 for the first time since Albert Belle in 1995 . Carpenter noted after the game that Pujols 's slump earlier in the year was over : " He continues to do great things , there 's no doubt about it " , he said . " The things that he 's done the last few days have been just like the old Albert . "
On June 19 against the Royals , Wilson Betemit collided with Pujols , causing a small fracture in Pujols ' left wrist which kept Pujols inactive until July 5 . On July 30 , in a 9 – 2 victory over the Cubs , he got his 2,000th career hit against Carlos Mármol . He became the fifth Cardinal to reach 2 @,@ 000 hits and 12th quickest major leaguer by games to get to the milestone . In the Cardinals ' final game of the season , against the Astros on September 28 , he had the game @-@ winning RBI against Brett Myers in the 8 – 0 victory , helping the Cardinals overcome a 10 @.@ 5 game deficit to Atlanta to win the Wild Card . Pujols finished the season with 173 hits ( tied for ninth with Aramis Ramírez ) , 29 doubles ( a career @-@ low ) , and 105 runs scored ( tied for third with Justin Upton behind Ryan Braun 's 109 and Matt Kemp 's 115 ) . He saw his streak of seasons batting at least .300 with 30 home runs and 100 RBIs snapped when he hit 37 home runs ( third , behind Fielder 's 38 and Kemp 's 39 ) but batted .299 with 99 RBIs ( seventh ) ; however , only three other players in the major leagues matched him in those categories ( José Bautista , Fielder , and Kemp ) , causing Tyler Kepner of The New York Times to write , " Even when Pujols struggles , he excels . " He was fifth in MVP voting .
In Game 2 of the NLDS against the Phillies on October 2 , Pujols had a game @-@ winning RBI single against Cliff Lee in the 5 – 4 victory . He batted .350 with one RBI in the series as the Cardinals defeated the Phillies in 5 games . In Game 2 of the NLCS against the Brewers , he had four hits , three runs scored , one home run , and five RBIs in a 12 – 3 victory . He batted .478 with two home runs and nine RBIs in the series as the Cardinals defeated the Brewers in six games .
On October 22 , in Game 3 of the World Series , Pujols became the first player to get at least four hits , two home runs , and five RBIs in a World Series game in a 16 – 7 victory over the Rangers . Pujols had five hits , three home runs , four runs scored , and six RBIs in the game . He joined Babe Ruth and Reggie Jackson as the only players in baseball history to hit three home runs in a World Series game ( Pablo Sandoval would also accomplish the feat the following year ) , became the first player in series history to have hits in four consecutive innings , and tied records for most hits and most RBIs in a World Series game . He had one hit and no RBIs the other six games of the series but became a World Series champion for the second time as the Cardinals defeated the Rangers in seven games . After the season , he became a free agent for the first time in his career .
= = = Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim ( 2012 – present ) = = =
= = = = Contract signing = = = =
Three teams were reported to be interested in Pujols during the offseason : the Cardinals , the Miami Marlins , and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . The Cardinals offered Pujols a 10 @-@ year , $ 210 million deal ( with $ 30 million deferred ) , but Pujols rejected it . His wife explained on a radio talk show that they were " insulted " and " confused " that the Cardinals had initially offered Pujols a five @-@ year deal . The Marlins reportedly offered Pujols a 10 @-@ year contract too , but on December 8 he signed a 10 @-@ year deal with the Angels worth around $ 254 million . The contract offered by the Marlins was reportedly around the value as that offered by the Angels . However , the Marlins ( who have a history of fire sales ) refused to include a no trade clause in the contract .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
Pujols did not perform very well to begin the 2012 season , batting .217 with no home runs and four RBIs in the month of April . Soon after the Angels called up top prospect Mike Trout and fired hitting coach Mickey Hatcher , Pujols 's numbers began to rise , as he batted .323 with 13 home runs from May 15 through the All @-@ Star Break . On July 31 , he hit two home runs against Derek Holland in a 6 – 2 victory over the Rangers . After the game , Holland observed that Pujols had ended his early @-@ season struggles : " He 's definitely turned it around , no doubt about it " , he said . " He is what he is . He had a slow start , but he 's picked it up . He 's a great hitter . He and Trout are doing a great job picking [ the Angels ] up . " On August 14 , Pujols had four RBI , including a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Ubaldo Jiménez in a 9 – 6 victory over the Cleveland Indians . In 153 games , Pujols batted .285 with 173 hits , 50 doubles ( second to Alex Gordon 's 51 ) , 30 home runs , 105 RBI ( 7th in AL ) , and 85 runs scored .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
On August 18 , 2013 , Pujols was ruled out for the remainder of the 2013 season after suffering a knee injury . Pujols had by far the worst season of his career in 2013 , failing to play at least 100 games for the first time in his career . Pujols also posted career worsts in hits , runs scored , doubles , home runs , RBI , walks , batting average , on base percentage , slugging percentage , and OPS . Overall in 99 games , Pujols batted .258 with 101 hits , 19 doubles , 17 home runs , 64 RBI , and 49 runs scored .
In August 2013 , former Cardinals player Jack Clark accused Pujols of using performance @-@ enhancing drugs on his radio show on WGNU in St. Louis . Clark served as the Cardinals ' hitting coach during the early part of Pujols ' tenure in St. Louis . On the morning of August 9 , Pujols issued a statement adamantly denying that he had ever taken PEDs . He denounced Clark 's allegations as " irresponsible and reckless " and threatened to sue Clark and WGNU over the allegations . Partly due to legal threats from Pujols , InsideSTL Enterprises , which owns WGNU 's weekday airtime under a time brokerage agreement , cut ties with Clark . On October 4 , 2013 , Pujols filed a defamation lawsuit against Clark . In response on October 14 , Clark challenged Pujols to both take polygraph tests to resolve who is telling the truth . However , on February 10 , 2014 , Clark apologized and retracted his accusations against Pujols , saying he had " no knowledge whatsoever " that Pujols ever used PEDs . " During a heated discussion on air , I misspoke " , Clark said . In return , Pujols dropped the suit .
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
On April 22 , 2014 , Pujols hit his 499th and 500th home run of his career off of Taylor Jordan in a game versus the Washington Nationals at Nationals Park . Pujols became the 26th player ever to reach the 500 home run mark , as well as the third youngest to reach it . He also became the first player to hit career home runs 499 and 500 in the same game . Nationals Park is the same ballpark where he hit his 400th career home run in the 2010 season . Participating in the longest game of the year in MLB , and the longest in the history of Angel Stadium , Pujols ended a 19 @-@ inning , 6 : 31 contest against the Red Sox with a solo home run for a 5 – 4 final score . It was also his first walk @-@ off home run as an Angel and first since June 2011 . On September 6 , 2014 against the Minnesota Twins , Pujols collected his 2,500th career hit , a two @-@ run go @-@ ahead double off of Jared Burton in the 9th inning . He also passed the 1 @,@ 500 run mark in the same game . In the process , he became the fifth player in major league history with 2 @,@ 500 hits and 500 home runs while maintaining a .310 lifetime batting average ( the others are Babe Ruth , Jimmie Foxx , Ted Williams and Manny Ramirez ) . Pujols leads all active players in doubles , with 561 .
After the season , Pujols traveled to Japan to join a team of MLB All @-@ Stars playing against All @-@ Stars of Nippon Professional Baseball in the 2014 Major League Baseball Japan All @-@ Star Series .
= = = = 2015 season = = = =
Before the 2015 season , Pujols was enjoying his first offseason in which he was not injured or recovering from injury while with the Angels . However , his offensive production was slow through the first month of the season . By the end of April , Pujols was batting .208 with 3 homers and nine RBIs in 86 plate appearances . While it was suggested that this was because of older age , or his recent poor health while with the Angels , it seemed to be simply due to bad luck . By May 2015 , Pujols offensive production had started to come around . Between May 28 , 2015 and June 22 , 2015 , Pujols batted .356 with 15 homers , 30 RBI 's and posted a 1 @.@ 326 OPS . At this time , Pujols was leading the American League in home runs with 23 , and was on pace to hit more than 50 . On July 6 , it was announced that Pujols was selected to the 2015 All Star Game , as a reserve for the American League , but due to an injury just days back with Tigers slugger Miguel Cabrera , he would instead start at first base . It was his 10th selection to the midsummer classic , and first as a member of the Angels .
On September 22 , 2015 , Pujols hit his 556th career home run to pass Ramirez for sole possession of 14th place on the all @-@ time career home run leaderboard . On October 4 , 2015 , in the last game of the season , Pujols hit his 40th home run of the season , the seventh time he hit 40 home runs in a season throughout his career . This was the most times any active MLB player had reached the mark in as many times , only trailing Alex Rodriguez , who has done it eight times .
= = = = 2016 season = = = =
On April 25 , 2016 , Pujols hit his 564th career home run , passing Reggie Jackson for 13th on the all @-@ time list . On April 30 , Pujols became the 85th player to make 10 @,@ 000 career plate appearances . On May 2 , Pujols became the 20th player all time to amass 5 @,@ 000 career total bases . On May 27 , Pujols hit his 570th career home run , passing Rafael Palmeiro for 12th on the all @-@ time list . On June 25 , Pujols hit his 574th career home run , passing Harmon Killebrew for 11th all time .
= = Playing style = =
Pujols 's swing has been praised for its consistency . " It 's the same swing every time " , former teammate Lance Berkman once said . " He has the ability to repeat his swing over and over and over , which leads to him being very consistent " , Cardinals ' video coordinator Chad Blair said . Sports Illustrated writer Daniel G. Habib described the swing as " quick " and " quiet . " Pujols uses a 32 @.@ 5 @-@ ounce bat against right @-@ handed pitchers , but he uses a 33 @-@ ounce bat against left @-@ handers to avoid trying to pull the ball when he swings . Defensively , Pujols has won two Gold Glove Awards since moving to first base in 2004 . He has credited his hitting ability partly to guessing what pitchers will do :
= = Personal life = =
Pujols married his wife , Deidre , on January 1 , 2000 . They have five children : Isabella ( Deidre 's daughter from a previous relationship ) , Albert , Jr . , Sophia , Ezra , and Esther Grace . During the offseason , they live in St. Louis . Albert and his wife are supporters of people with Down syndrome , a condition Isabella was born with . In 2007 , Pujols became a U.S. citizen , scoring a perfect 100 on his citizenship test .
Pujols is close friends with third baseman Plácido Polanco , a former teammate with the Cardinals . Polanco has called Pujols his " closest friend in baseball " , and Pujols is the godfather to Polanco 's son , Ishmael . Pujols is also friends with Robinson Canó , who selected Mark Trumbo for the 2012 Home Run Derby after Pujols asked him to .
In 2009 , Pujols donated money to the Mike Coolbaugh Memorial Tournament , allowing the event to occur after a sponsor backed out . On August 28 , 2010 , Pujols and La Russa attended Glenn Beck 's Restoring Honor rally in Washington , D.C. , after being assured by Beck that the rally was not political . During the rally , Pujols was presented with a medal for his off @-@ the @-@ field efforts .
= = = Business ventures = = =
In 2006 , Pujols and the Hanon family opened Pujols 5 Westport Grill , a restaurant located in Westport Plaza of Maryland Heights , Missouri . A 10 @-@ foot , 1 @,@ 100 @-@ lb. statue of Pujols was dedicated on November 2 , 2011 , outside the restaurant . An anonymous donor commissioned sculptor Harry Weber to create the statue , which belongs to the Pujols Family Foundation . After Pujols signed with the Angels , the restaurant was renamed the St. Louis Sports Hall of Fame Grill .
In 2008 , Pujols teamed up with St. Louis Soccer United , a group looking to bring a Major League Soccer ( MLS ) franchise to the St. Louis area . However , the group 's bid for a franchise was unsuccessful , and a minor league soccer team was created instead .
= = = Christianity = = =
Pujols and his wife are Christians . He became a Christian on November 13 , 1998 , influenced in part by Deidre and his grandmother . One of his writings on his family 's foundation 's website states , " In the Pujols family , God is first . Everything else is a distant second . " He writes ,
" My life 's goal is to bring glory to Jesus . My life is not mostly dedicated to the Lord , it is 100 % committed to Jesus Christ and His will . God has given me the ability to succeed in the game of baseball . But baseball is not the end ; baseball is the means by which my wife , Dee Dee , and I glorify God . Baseball is simply my platform to elevate Jesus Christ , my Lord and Savior . "
During his tenure with the Cardinals , Pujols and his family attended West County Community Church , a Southern Baptist church in Wildwood , Missouri .
= = = Pujols Family Foundation = = =
In 2005 , Albert and Deidre Pujols launched the Pujols Family Foundation , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non @-@ profit dedicated to their " commitment to faith , family and others . " The organization promotes awareness of Down syndrome and works to support those who have it and their families , aids the poor in the Dominican Republic , and supports people with disabilities and / or life @-@ threatening illnesses . Among other activities , the foundation hosts events for people with Down syndrome . The foundation gave the Down Syndrome Association of Greater St. Louis the resources to open an office and hire staff . In 2009 , the Albert Pujols Wellness Center for Adults with Down Syndrome opened in Chesterfield , Missouri ; Pujols was present at the opening on November 18 .
Pujols has taken several trips to the Dominican Republic , by taking supplies as well as a team of doctors and dentists to the poor who need medical care . The Pujols Family Foundation also holds an annual golf tournament to raise money to send dentists to the Dominican Republic .
= = Accomplishments = =
Through 2012 , Pujols ranked in the top 10 players in major league history in three statistical categories : slugging percentage ( fifth ) , on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ; sixth ) , and OPS + ( tied for ninth with Ty Cobb ) . At the end of the 2012 season , he led all active players in batting average ( .325 ) , slugging percentage ( .608 ) , and OPS ( 1 @.@ 022 ) . Through 2012 , he ranked among the top 10 active players in doubles ( ninth ) , home runs ( fourth , behind Rodriguez , Thome , and Manny Ramirez ) , RBIs ( sixth ) , and runs scored ( ninth ) . Pujols has a .994 fielding percentage at first base ( through 2012 ) , and he set the major league single @-@ season record for assists with 185 in 2009 .
Pujols is in the top 10 in several Cardinals ' statistics . He is second to Musial in doubles ( 455 ) , home runs ( 445 ) , and RBIs ( 1 @,@ 329 ) . He is seventh in games ( 1 @,@ 705 ) , seventh in batting average ( .328 ) , third in runs scored ( 1 @,@ 291 , behind Musial and Lou Brock ) , and fourth in hits ( 2 @,@ 073 , behind Musial , Brock and Hornsby ) . He also is in the top 10 in several single @-@ season Cardinals ' records . His 137 runs scored in 2003 are tied for seventh with Tommy McCarthy , his 51 doubles in 2003 and 2004 are tied with Musial for sixth , he holds five of the top 10 Cardinals ' home run totals , and his 137 RBIs in 2006 are tied for seventh with Jim Bottomley , Johnny Mize , and Joe Torre .
Pujols has earned praise from many of his fellow players and coaches . In 2008 , he was named the most feared hitter in baseball in a poll of all 30 MLB managers . La Russa has called him " the best player I 've ever managed . " Votto referred to him as " one of the greatest hitters of all time . " Larry Walker called him " a great hitter , " and Brendan Ryan said , " He 's the best there is . " Fernando Viña said , while Pujols was with the Cardinals , " He 's the face of the Cardinals . "
Pujols has said he does not play solely for the numbers . " I don 't play for numbers . I play first of all to glorify God and to accomplish in this game what everybody wants to accomplish , which is getting to the World Series and coming up with a win at the end . Those are the things that I really try to focus on and try to make sure that I do every day for the rest of my career . "
= = = Awards and honors = = =
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= Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych =
The Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych ( or Diptych with Calvary and Last Judgement ) consists of two small painted panels attributed to the Early Netherlandish artist Jan van Eyck , with areas finished by unidentified followers or members of his workshop . This diptych is one of the early Northern Renaissance oil on panel masterpieces , renowned for its unusually complex and highly detailed iconography , and for the technical skill evident in its completion . It was executed in a miniature format ; the panels are just 56 @.@ 5 cm ( 22 @.@ 2 in ) high by 19 @.@ 7 cm ( 7 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The diptych was probably commissioned for personal and private devotion .
The left @-@ hand wing depicts the Crucifixion . It shows Christ 's followers grieving in the foreground , soldiers and spectators milling about in the mid @-@ ground and a portrayal of three crucified bodies in the upper @-@ ground . The scene is framed against an azure sky with a view of Jerusalem in the distance . The right @-@ hand wing portrays scenes associated with the Last Judgement : a hellscape at its base , the resurrected awaiting judgement in the centre @-@ ground , and a representation of Christ in Majesty flanked by a Great Deësis of saints , apostles , clergy , virgins and nobility in the upper section . Portions of the work contain Greek , Latin and Hebrew inscriptions . The original gilt frames contain Biblical passages in Latin drawn from the books of Isaiah , Deuteronomy and Revelation . According to a date written in Russian on their reverse , the panels were transferred to canvas supports in 1867 .
The earliest surviving mention of the work appears in 1841 , when scholars believed the two panels were wings of a lost triptych . The Metropolitan Museum of Art acquired the diptych in 1933 . At that time , the work was attributed to Jan 's brother Hubert because key areas formally resembled pages of the Turin @-@ Milan Hours , which were then believed to be of Hubert 's hand . On the evidence of technique and the style of dress of the figures , the majority of scholars believe the panels are late works by Jan van Eyck , executed in the early 1430s and finished after his death . Other art historians hold that van Eyck painted the panels around the early 1420s and attribute the weaker passages to a younger van Eyck 's relative inexperience .
= = Format and technique = =
Along with Robert Campin and later Rogier van der Weyden , Van Eyck revolutionised the approach towards naturalism and realism in Northern European painting during the early to mid 15th century . He was the first to manipulate oils to give the close detailing that infused his figures with the high degree of realism and complexity of emotion seen in this diptych . He coupled this with a mastery of glaze to create luminous surfaces with a deep perspective — most noticeable in the upper portion of the Crucifixion panel — which had not been achieved before .
In the 1420s and 1430s , when oil and panel painting were still in their infancy , vertical formats were often used for depictions of the Last Judgement , because the narrow framing particularly suited a hierarchical presentation of heaven , earth and hell . By contrast , depictions of the Crucifixion were usually presented in a horizontal format . To fit such expansive and highly detailed representations onto two equally small and narrow wings , van Eyck was forced to make a number of innovations , redesigning many elements of the Crucifixion panel to match the vertical and condensed presentation of the Judgement narrative . The result is a panel with the crosses rising high into the sky , an unusually packed crowd scene in the mid @-@ ground , and the moving spectacle of the mourners in the foreground , all rendered in a continuous slope from bottom to top in the style of medieval tapestries . Art historian Otto Pächt says it " is the whole world in one painting , an Orbis Pictus " .
In the Crucifixion panel , van Eyck follows the early 14th @-@ century tradition of presenting the biblical episodes using a narrative technique . According to art historian Jeffrey Chipps Smith , the episodes appear as " simultaneous , not sequential " events . Van Eyck condenses key episodes from the gospels into a single composition , each placed so as to draw the viewer 's eye upward in a logical sequence . This device allowed van Eyck to create a greater illusion of depth with more complex and unusual spatial arrangements . In the Crucifixion panel , he uses different indicators to show the relative closeness of particular groupings of figures to Jesus . Given the size of the mourners in the foreground relative to the crucified figures , the soldiers and spectators gathered in the mid @-@ ground are far larger than a strict adherence to perspective would allow . In the Last Judgement the damned are placed in hell in the lower mid @-@ ground while the saints and angels are positioned higher in the upper foreground . Pächt writes of this panel that the scene is " assimilated into a single spatial cosmos " , with the archangel acting as a divider in the pictorial space between heaven and hell .
Art historians are unsure as to whether the panels were meant to be a diptych or a triptych . They may have formed the outer wings of a triptych , with a since @-@ lost panel representing the Adoration of the Magi at the centre , or , as the German art historian J.D. Passavant speculated in 1841 , the lost centre panel may have been a Nativity . It is now thought unlikely that a lost panel could be the postulated original companion to the outer wings ; such a coupling would have been very odd to painters of the 1420s and 1430s . It has also been proposed that a central piece was added later , or as Albert Châtelet writes , the central panel may have been stolen . Art historian Erwin Panofsky believed the Crucifixion and Last Judgement panels were intended as a diptych . He argued that it would have been unusual for mere outer wings to have been given the " sumptuous treatment " afforded these two panels . This approach is reminiscent of the medieval reliquaries . Others have observed that triptychs were usually much larger works intended for public display , and they tended towards gilded and heavily inscribed frames ; typically only the central panel would have been as lavishly decorated as these panels . Contemporary diptychs , in contrast , were usually produced for private devotion and were typically ungilded . There is no documentary evidence for an original central panel , however , and technical examination suggests the two works were intended as wings of a diptych , then an emerging format . Pächt believes there is not enough evidence to determine whether a third panel existed .
= = The diptych = =
= = = Crucifixion panel = = =
The Crucifixion panel comprises three horizontal planes , each representing different moments from the Passion . The upper third shows the crucifixion before a view of Jerusalem ; the lower two thirds detail the crowds and Jesus ' followers at Golgotha ( Place of the Skull ) . Located outside the city walls amongst rock tombs and gardens , in the first century Golgotha was Jerusalem 's place of execution , and the visible patches of hill highlight the area 's " stony , forbidding , and lifeless " nature . The atmosphere of bleakness is reinforced by the random figures in the upper ground that scramble for a better view . The gospels tell of Jesus ' followers and relatives , as well as his prosecutors and assorted spectators , attending the crucifixion at Golgotha . In van Eyck 's panel the former are represented in the foreground , while the latter , including High Priests and Temple Elders , are shown in the mid @-@ ground .
The centre foreground shows a group of five mourners , with three other figures set to the right and left . In the center group , John the Evangelist supports the Virgin Mary , surrounded by three women . Mary 's dramatic swoon in grief pushes her forward in the pictorial space , and according to Smith , places her " closest to the viewer 's presumed position " . Dressed in an enveloping blue robe that hides most of her face , she collapses and is caught by John , who supports her by her arms . Mary Magdalene kneels to the right , dressed in a white @-@ trimmed green robe and red sleeves . Raising her arms aloft , she clenches her fingers in a distraught , agonised manner . She is the only figure from this group shown to look directly at Christ and serves as one of the key painterly devices to direct the viewer 's gaze upwards towards the crosses . The fourth and fifth mourners have been identified as prophesying sibyls , and stand to the far left and right of the centre group . The sibyl to the left faces the cross with her back to the viewer while the turbaned mourner on the right faces the group and is either the Erythraean or the Cumaean sibyl , both of whom are attributed in Christian tradition with warning the occupying Romans of the cult of redemption that would develop around Christ 's death and resurrection . She has an almost indifferent expression that has been interpreted both as satisfaction at seeing her prophesies realised , and as compassionate contemplation of the other women 's grief .
The mid @-@ ground shows a crowd scene above the group of mourners , separated by two soldiers who stand between the two groupings . The mourners from the foreground are reflected in the shield carried on the hip of the lance @-@ bearing Roman soldier who leans on the man to his right wearing a red turban . Smith believes this serves to highlight the mourners ' emotional and physical separation from the assorted figures gathered in the mid @-@ ground . Art historian Adam Labuda sees these two figures , positioned full @-@ length between the chief mourners and mid @-@ ground spectators , as a pictorial device that along with the Magdalene 's upward gaze draws viewers ' eyes upwards through the panel 's dramatic sequence .
Van Eyck 's depiction lays particular emphasis on the brutishness and indifference of the crowd witnessing Christ 's suffering . They comprise a mixture of Roman legionaries , judges and various hangers @-@ on arriving to witness the spectacle . A number are dressed in rich , brightly coloured clothes , a mixture of oriental and northern European styles , while several are mounted on horseback . Some openly jeer and taunt the condemned , others gape stupefied at " just another " execution , while others talk amongst themselves . The exception is the armoured centurion , seated on a white horse at the extreme right edge of the panel , who looks up at Christ , arms spread wide , head thrown back , at " the very moment of his illumination " in recognition of Christ 's divinity . The horsemen closely resemble both the Soldiers of Christ and Righteous Judges from the lower inner panels of van Eyck 's c . 1432 Ghent Altarpiece . Art historian Till @-@ Holger Borchert observes that these figures are given " greater dynamism by being seen in rear rather than profile view " , and that this vantage point draws the observer 's eye upwards towards the mid @-@ ground and the crucifixion .
Van Eyck extends the height of the crosses to an unrealistic degree to allow the crucifixion to dominate the upper third of the panel . Christ faces the viewer directly , while the crosses of the two thieves are set at angles to either side . The thieves are each bound with cords of rope rather than nails . The body of the thief to the right — the repentant thief mentioned in the Gospel of Luke — is lifeless . The " bad " thief to his left is dying twisted in pain , and according to art historian James W.H. Weale , depicted as " struggling desperately , but in vain " . Both men 's hands have turned black from a lack of blood flow . A placard prepared by Pilate or Roman soldiers placed above Jesus ' head reads " Jesus of Nazareth , King of the Jews " in Hebrew , Latin and Greek .
The panel captures the instant of Christ 's death , traditionally the moment after the breaking of the thieves ' legs ( although this is not depicted ) . Christ is naked except for a transparent veil , with some of his pubic hair visible . His hands and feet are nailed to the timber ; the blood from the nail holding his feet to the cross stains its wooden base . His arms strain under the weight of his upper body , and in his final agony , his jaw has fallen slack ; his mouth is open with his teeth exposed in the grimace of death . In the mid @-@ ground , at the base of the cross , Longinus , on horseback , wearing a fur @-@ trimmed hat and green tunic , guided by an assistant , stretches to pierce Jesus ' side with a lance , as deep @-@ red blood pours from the wound . To the right of Longinus , a mostly obscured Stephaton holds high a sponge soaked with vinegar on the tip of a reed .
The first generation of Early Netherlandish painters did not usually pay much attention to landscape backgrounds . They were often included , showing strong influence from the Italian painters , but typically as minor elements of the composition , seen in the far distance and lacking any real observation of nature . This diptych , however , contains one of the most memorable landscape backgrounds in Northern 15th @-@ century art . The panoramic view of Jerusalem extends upwards in the distance to the mountainous peaked range in the background . The sky , which continues to the upper part of the right hand panel , is rendered in deep blues and lined with cumulus clouds . These clouds are similar to those in the Ghent Altarpiece and , as in that work , are included to give depth to and enliven the background skyscape . The sky seems to have just darkened , in keeping with the idea that the panel captures the moment of Jesus ' death . Faint cirrus clouds can be seen in the far high @-@ ground , with the presence of the sun is suggested by a shadow falling on the top left area of the panel .
= = = Last Judgement panel = = =
The right hand wing , as with the Crucifixion wing , is divided horizontally into three areas . Here they represent , from top to bottom heaven , earth and hell . Heaven contains a traditional Great Deësis with clergy and laity ; earth , in the mid @-@ ground , is dominated by the figures of Archangel Michael and a personification of Death ; while in the lower ground the damned fall into hell , where they are tortured and eaten by beasts . Describing the hell passage , art historian Bryson Burroughs writes that " the diabolical inventions of Bosch and Brueghel are children 's boggy lands compared to the horrors of the hell [ van Eyck ] has imagined . "
Pächt compares the scene to a medieval bestiary , comprising a " whole fauna of zoomorphic fiends " . Van Eyck 's hell is inhabited by demonic monsters whose only visible features are often " their glittering eyes and the white of their fangs " . The sinners fall head first into their torment , at the mercy of devils taking recognisable forms such as rats , snakes and pigs , as well as a bear and a donkey . Daringly , van Eyck shows kings and members of the clergy among those condemned to hell .
The earth is represented by the narrow area between heaven and hell . The passage shows the resurrection of the dead as the fires of the last day rage . The dead rise from their graves to the left and from the stormy sea to the right . The Archangel Michael stands on death 's shoulders , the largest figure in the painting , whose body and wings span the entire pictorial space . Michael wears jewel @-@ studded golden armour and has curly blond hair and multicoloured wings similar to those seen in the donor panel of van Eyck 's 1437 Dresden Triptych of the Virgin and Child . Michael appears , according to Smith , " like a giant on the earth , whose crust is revealed to be the wings of the skeletal figure of Death . The damned are excreted though Death 's bowels into the dark slime of hell . " The bat @-@ like death figure , with skull extruding up to earth and skeletal arms and legs reaching down into hell , is the protagonist of the narrative according to Pächt , but death is vanquished by the slim and youthful looking archangel standing between the horrors of hell and the promise of heaven .
The upper portion of the panel shows the second coming as recorded in Matthew 25 : 31 : " But when the Son of Man comes in his glory , and all the holy angels with him , then he will sit on the throne of his glory . " Christ , who was naked , frail and almost lifeless in the Crucifixion panel , is now resurrected and triumphant in heaven . He is dressed in a long red mantle and is barefoot . His hands and feet are surrounded by circles of yellow light . The Holy Wounds are visible on his palms held open ; the puncture mark left by Longinus ' spear is visible on his side through the opening in his robe , as are the nail holes on his feet .
Christ is seated at the centre of a large array of angels , saints and holy elders . According to Pächt , in this scene in heaven that " all is sweetness , gentleness and order . " Mary and John the Baptist kneel in prayer to his immediate right and left . Both have halos and are rendered at a far larger scale than the surrounding figures , over whom they seem to tower . Mary holds her right hand at her breast , while her left is raised as if to ask for mercy for the smaller naked figures sheltered by her cloak , evoking the conventional pose of the Virgin of Mercy . A choir of virgins gather directly under Christ 's feet . They face outwards towards the viewer and sing Christ 's praise .
Headed by Saint Peter , the Apostles are dressed in white robes and sit on two facing benches set below Christ and to the right and left of the choir of virgins . Two angels attend to the groups gathered at each side of the benches . A further two angels are positioned immediately above Christ . They hold his cross and are dressed in white amice and albs , with the right hand angel wearing an outer blue dalmatic vestment . They are flanked on either side by angels playing long wind instruments , probably trumpets . The two angels on either side of Christ bear the symbols of the crucifixion already represented on the left hand panel . The angel on the left holds a lance and crown of thorns , the angel on the right a sponge and nails .
Van Eyck was a central influence on Petrus Christus and the younger painter is thought to have studied the panels while they were still in van Eyck 's workshop . He made a much larger and adapted paraphrase of the panel in 1452 , as part of a monumental altarpiece , now in Berlin . Although there are significant differences between the two works , the influence of van Eyck on Christus ' work is most evident in the vertical , narrow format and in the central figure of Saint Michael , who also divides the scene between heaven and hell .
= = = Iconography = = =
Art historian John Ward highlights the rich and complex iconography and symbolic meaning van Eyck employed to bring attention to what he saw as the co @-@ existence of the spiritual and material worlds . In his paintings , iconographical features are typically subtly woven into the work , as " relatively small , in the background , or in the shadow [ details ] " . The significance of the imagery is often so densely and intricately layered that a work has to be viewed multiple times before even the most obvious meanings become apparent . According to Ward , the iconographical elements are commonly positioned " initially to overlook , and eventually to discover " . Writing about the Last Judgement panel , Burroughs notes that " each of its several scenes requires attention for itself alone . " According to Ward , van Eyck forces the viewer to search for the meaning in the iconography , creating a multi @-@ layered surface which rewards the attentive viewer with deeper understanding of both the painting and its symbols . Much of van Eyck 's iconography intends to convey the idea of " the promised passage from sin and death to salvation and rebirth " .
= = = Inscriptions = = =
Both the frames and pictorial areas of the diptych are heavily inscribed with lettering and phrases in Latin , Greek and Hebrew . Van Eyck 's early works display a predilection for inscriptions , which serve a dual purpose . They are decorative while also functioning in a manner similar to the commentaries often seen on the margins of medieval manuscripts which set in context the significance of the accompanying imagery . Diptychs were usually commissioned for private devotion , and van Eyck would have expected the viewer to contemplate text and imagery in unison .
In this work , the inscriptions are in Roman capitals or Gothic miniature , and in some places seem to contain misspellings , making interpretation difficult . Its gold @-@ lined frame and Latin inscriptions , with their subtle references to various passages in the two panels , indicate that the donor was wealthy and educated . The sides of each frame are lined with inscriptions from the Book of Isaiah ( 53 : 6 – 9 , 12 ) , Revelations ( 20 : 13 , 21 : 3 – 4 ) or the Book of Deuteronomy ( 32 : 23 – 24 ) . In the right hand panel , the wings of the figure of death contain Latin inscriptions on either side ; on the left are the words CHAOS MAGNVM ( " great chaos " ) , with UMBRA MORTIS ( " shadow of death " ) inscribed to the right . A warning from Matthew 25 : 41 is written on both sides of death 's head and wings , and extends from earth down into the hell section . It reads , Ite vos maledicti in ignem eternam ( " Go , ye cursed , into everlasting fire " ) . In this way , van Eyck dramatically aligns the biblical extract in diagonal dual beams of light seemingly hurled from the heavens . Also in the section are letters reading ME OBVLIVI .
In the mid @-@ ground , the Archangel Michael 's armour is heavily inscribed with esoteric and often difficult to source phrases . Letters on his breast plate read VINAE ( X ) while his jewel @-@ encrusted oval buckler displays the cross and is decorated with Greek script reading ADORAVI TETGRAMMATHON AGLA . The meaning of this phrase has not been conclusively identified ; some art historians believe it contains misspellings and has been misread . Friedländer transcribed the first word as ADORAVI while the final word AGLA is thought be taken from the first four letters of the Hebrew words for " Thou Art Mighty " , and thus may signify God ; the word also appears in a floor tile in the Ghent Altarpiece . In the upper portion , gilded inscriptions running vertically across the edges of Christ 's mantle read VENITE BENEDICTI PATRIS MEI ( " Come , ye blessed of my father " ) .
= = Attribution and dating = =
Over the years the panels have been attributed to both Jan and Hubert van Eyck as well as Petrus Christus . In 1841 , Passavant attributed the diptych jointly to Hubert and Jan van Eyck ; by 1853 , he had revised his opinion and gave attribution exclusively to Jan. Gustav Waagen , the first director of the Gemäldegalerie , Berlin , attributed them to Petrus Christus in the mid 19th @-@ century , based on the left hand panel 's similarity in composition to a 1452 Last Judgement signed by Christus now in Berlin . This view was rejected in 1887 , and they once more became associated with Jan. The panels came into the possession of the Hermitage Gallery in 1917 , credited to Jan.
Bryson Burroughs , writing for the Metropolitan at the time of their acquisition in 1933 , attributed the works to Hubert . Burroughs saw in the panels the hand of an expressive artist , " all nerves and sensibilities " , overcome with sympathy for the plight of the central figures in the panels , but who was nonetheless weak in drawing line . This profile , he believed , was incompatible with the aloof and impassive master craftsman Jan is known to have been . Yet Burroughs acknowledged there was " no certain documented proof for the attribution [ to Hubert ] . " He admitted his evidence was " limited , inevitably incomplete " , and thus " circumstantial and presumptive " . More recent scholarship tends to agree Jan painted the panels based on the evidence that they are stylistically closer to Jan than Hubert , who died in 1426 ; and that Jan , who travelled across the Alps to Italy that year , painted the mountain range .
The paintings have often been compared to the seven pages of the Turin @-@ Milan Hours illuminated manuscript attributed to the unidentified artist " Hand G " , generally thought to have been Jan van Eyck . The closeness is seen to lie both in the miniaturist technique and the particular painterly style . The similarity of a Turin drawing of the crucified Christ to the figure in the New York diptych has led some art historians to conclude they were , at least , painted near the same time , during the 1420s and early 1430s . Most believe both the drawing and diptych panel at least originated from a prototype designed by Jan van Eyck . Panofsky attributed the New York panels to " Hand G " . When the Turin @-@ Milan Hours miniatures were discovered they were at first believed to have been painted before the Duke of Berry 's death in 1416 , an idea that was quickly rejected with the date extended to sometime in the early 1430s .
Pächt writes of the diptych that it reflects the " personal style and unique scenic imagination " of " Hand G " ( whom he believed to be either Hubert or Jan ) . Until Hans Belting and Dagmar Eichberger 's 1983 Jan van Eyck als Erzähler , academics tended to focus exclusively on the diptych 's dating and attribution , with little attention paid to its source influences and iconography . Borchert estimates a completion of c . 1440 , while Paul Durrieu suggests a dating as early as 1413 . In 1983 , Belting and Eichberger suggested a date of c . 1430 based on specific characteristics of the work : the " birds @-@ eye view " perspective and horizon , the densely packed figures and , especially , a pictorial narrative that moves logically across the areas of the image in the Crucifixion panel . Belting and Eichberger believe this style was employed during the early panel works , but was largely abandoned by the 1430s .
The 1430s dating is supported by the style of the underdrawing , which is consistent with known signed works by van Eyck from that time . In addition , the figures are dressed in clothes fashionable in the 1420s with the exception of one of the possible donors , tentatively identified as Margaret of Bavaria , who is depicted as the sybil standing in the right foreground of the crucifixion panel and wears clothes in style in the early 1430s .
The upper portions of the Last Judgement panel are generally considered as the work of a weaker painter with a less individual style . It is thought that van Eyck left the panels unfinished with completed underdrawings , and the area was finished by workshop members or by followers after he died . Maryan Ainsworth of the Metropolitan takes a different view . She highlights the close relationship known to have existed between contemporary workshops in the Low Countries and France , and speculates that a French miniaturist or illuminator , perhaps from the workshop of the Bedford Master , travelled to Bruges to assist van Eyck on the right hand panel .
= = Provenance = =
Nothing is known of the work 's provenance before the 1840s . Given the panels ' diminutive size — which is typical of early diptychs — it seems probable that the work was commissioned for private rather than public devotion . The notion of a well @-@ educated patron , with knowledge of and appreciation for the art of earlier centuries , is reinforced by both the classical language inscriptions and the abundant detail found across all areas of the panels .
Writing in 1841 in the journal Kunstblatt , Passavant gave an account of how the panels were bought at auction from either a Spanish monastery or convent . The Russian diplomat Dmitry Tatishchev acquired the panels , possibly from a Spanish convent or monastery near Madrid or Burgos , while living in Spain between 1814 and 1821 . Tatishchev left his pictures to Tsar Nicholas I in 1845 , and they came into the possession of the Hermitage Gallery in Saint Petersburg in 1917 .
The panels were included in the Soviet sale of Hermitage paintings , which included another important van Eyck work , the 1434 – 1436 Annunciation . They were purchased by Charles Henschel of New York art dealer M. Knoedler & Company for $ 185 @,@ 000 , significantly less than the asking price of $ 600 @,@ 000 when the works were offered in 1931 . The panels were shipped from Saint Petersburg to the Matthiesen Gallery in Berlin before M. Knoedler & Company sold them on to the Metropolitan in New York that year .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Left panel = = =
= = = Right panel = = =
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= Mac Pro =
The Mac Pro line is a series of Intel Xeon – based workstation and server computers manufactured by Apple Inc . The Mac Pro , in most configurations and in terms of speed and performance , is the most powerful computer that Apple offers . It is the high @-@ end model of the three desktop computers in the current Mac lineup , the other two being the iMac and Mac Mini .
The first @-@ generation Mac Pro has a rectangular tower case which outwardly resembles the last version of the Power Mac G5 , and has similar expansion capabilities . The first Mac Pro has dual Dual @-@ core Xeon Woodcrest processors . It was replaced by a dual Quad @-@ core Xeon Clovertown model on April 4 , 2007 , and again on January 8 , 2008 by a dual Quad @-@ core Xeon Harpertown model . The 2012 Mac Pro is largely based on a model that was announced on July 27 , 2010 . It features Nehalem / Westmere architecture Intel Xeon processors . These CPUs offer optionally twelve processing cores . The machine itself at its most evolved is able to accommodate up to four 2 TB hard disk drives or 512 GB solid state drives , as well as the ATI Radeon HD 5770 / 5870 GPU units , one per slot .
The second @-@ generation design of Mac Pro was announced at the 2013 Apple Worldwide Developers Conference ( WWDC ) opening keynote on June 10 , 2013 . Apple states that the new Mac Pro achieves twice the overall performance of the last model . The redesigned Mac Pro takes up less than one eighth the volume of immediately previous model , being shorter ( 9 @.@ 9 inches ( 25 cm ) ) , thinner ( 6 @.@ 6 inches ( 17 cm ) ) and less massive ( 11 pounds ( 5 @.@ 0 kg ) ) . The machine supports one central processing unit ( CPU ) ( up to a 12 @-@ core Xeon E5 CPU ) , four 1866 MHz DDR3 slots , dual AMD FirePro D series GPUs ( up to D700 with 6 GB VRAM each ) , and PCIe @-@ based flash storage . There is updated wireless communication and support for six displays . Reviews have been generally positive , with caveats .
= = 1st generation = =
Apple stated that an Intel @-@ based replacement for the PowerPC @-@ based Power Mac G5 machines had been expected for some time before the Mac Pro was formally announced on August 7 , 2006 at the annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference ( WWDC ) . The iMac , Mac Mini , MacBook , and MacBook Pro had moved to an Intel @-@ based architecture starting in January 2006 , leaving the Power Mac G5 as the only machine in the Mac lineup still based on the PowerPC processor architecture Apple had used since 1993 . Apple had dropped the term " Power " from the other machines in their lineup , and started using " Pro " on their higher @-@ end laptop offerings . As such , the name " Mac Pro " was widely used before the machine was announced . The Mac Pro is in the Unix workstation market . Although the high @-@ end technical market has not traditionally been an area of strength for Apple , the company has been positioning itself as a leader in non @-@ linear digital editing for high @-@ definition video , which demands storage and memory far in excess of a general desktop machine . Additionally , the codecs used in these applications are generally processor intensive and highly threadable , which Apple 's ProRes whitepaper describes as scaling almost linearly with additional processor cores . Apple 's previous machine aimed at this market , the Power Mac G5 , has up to two dual @-@ core processors ( marketed as " Quad @-@ Core " ) , but lacks the storage expansion capabilities of the newer design .
Original marketing materials for the Mac Pro generally referred to the middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line model with 2 × dual @-@ core 2 @.@ 66 GHz processors . Previously , Apple featured the base model with the words " starting at " or " from " when describing the pricing , but the online US Apple Store listed the " Mac Pro at $ 2499 " , the price for the mid @-@ range model . The system could be configured at US $ 2299 , much more comparable with the former base @-@ model dual @-@ core G5 at US $ 1999 , although offering considerably more processing power . Post revision , the default configurations for the Mac Pro includes one quad @-@ core Xeon 3500 at 2 @.@ 66 GHz or two quad @-@ core Xeon 5500s at 2 @.@ 26 GHz each . Like its predecessor , the Power Mac G5 , the pre @-@ 2013 Mac Pro was Apple 's only desktop with standard expansion slots for graphics adapters and other expansion cards .
Apple received criticism after an incremental upgrade to the Mac Pro line following the 2012 WWDC . The line received more default memory and increased processor speed but still used Intel 's older Westmere @-@ EP processors instead of the newer E5 series . The line also lacked then @-@ current technologies like SATA III , USB 3 , and Thunderbolt , the last of which had been added to every other Macintosh at that point . An email from Apple CEO Tim Cook promised a more significant update to the line in 2013 . Apple stopped shipping the first @-@ generation Mac Pro in Europe on March 1 , 2013 after an amendment to a safety regulation left the professional Mac non @-@ compliant . The last day to order was February 18 , 2013 . The first generation Mac Pro was removed from Apple 's online store following unveiling of the redesigned second generation Mac Pro at a media event on October 22 , 2013 .
= = = CPU = = =
The 2010 and later Mac Pro systems were available with one or two central processing units ( CPU ) with options giving four , six , eight , or twelve cores . As an example , the eight core standard configuration Mac Pro uses two Quad core × 8 Intel E5620 Xeon CPUs at 2 @.@ 4 GHz , but could be configured with two Hexa Core Intel Xeon X5670 CPUs at 2 @.@ 93 GHz . Since the CPUs are socketed , the CPUs can be removed and replaced with compatible 64 @-@ bit Intel Xeon CPUs .
= = = Memory = = =
The original Mac Pro 's main memory uses 667 MHz DDR2 ECC FB @-@ DIMMs ; the early 2008 model uses 800 MHz ECC DDR2 FB @-@ DIMMS , the 2009 and onward Mac Pro use 1066 MHz DDR3 ECC DIMMs for the standard models , and 1333 MHz DDR3 ECC DIMMs for systems configured with 2 @.@ 66 GHz or faster CPUs . In the original and 2008 models , these modules are installed in pairs , one each on two riser cards . The cards have 4 DIMM slots each , allowing a total of 32 GB of memory ( 8 × 4 GB ) to be installed . Notably , due to its FB @-@ DIMM architecture , installing more RAM in the Mac Pro will improve its memory bandwidth , but may also increase its memory latency . With a simple installation of a single FB @-@ DIMM , the peak bandwidth is 8 GB / s , but this can increase to 16 GB / s by installing two FB @-@ DIMMs , one on each of the two buses , which is the default configuration from Apple . While electrically the FB @-@ DIMMs are standard , for pre @-@ 2009 Mac Pro models Apple specifies larger @-@ than @-@ normal heatsinks on the memory modules . Problems have been reported by users who have used third party RAM with normal size FB @-@ DIMM heatsinks . ( see notes below ) . 2009 and later Mac Pro computers do not require memory modules with heatsinks .
= = = Hard drives = = =
The Mac Pro had room for four internal 3 @.@ 5 " SATA @-@ 300 hard drives in four internal " bays " . The hard drives were mounted on individual trays ( also known as " sleds " ) by captive screws . A set of four drive trays was supplied with each machine . Adding hard drives to the system did not require cables to be attached as the drive was connected to the system simply by being inserted into the corresponding drive slot . A case lock on the back of the system locked the disks trays into their positions . The Mac Pro also supported Serial ATA solid @-@ state drives ( SSD ) in the 4 hard drive bays via an SSD @-@ to @-@ hard drive sled adapter ( mid @-@ 2010 models and later ) , and by third @-@ party solutions for earlier models ( e.g. , by an adapter / bracket which plugged into an unused PCIe slot ) . Various 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch SSD drive capacities and configurations were available as options . The Mac Pro was also available with an optional hardware RAID card . With the addition of a SAS controller card or SAS RAID controller card , SAS drives could be directly connected to the system 's SATA ports . Two optical drive bays were provided , each with a corresponding SATA port and an Ultra ATA / 100 port . The Mac Pro had one PATA port and could support two PATA devices in the optical drive bays . It had a total of six SATA ports – four were connected to the system 's drive bays , and two were not connected . The extra SATA ports could be put into service through the use of after @-@ market extender cables to connect internal optical drives , or to provide eSATA ports with the use of an eSATA bulkhead connector . However , the two extra SATA ports were unsupported and disabled under Boot Camp . A built @-@ to @-@ order Mac Pro could be configured with up to 8 TB of storage ( 4 × 2 TB disks ) or 2 TB ( 4 × 512 GB SSD ) .
= = = Expansion cards = = =
The 2008 model had two PCI Express ( PCIe ) 2 @.@ 0 expansion slots and two PCI Express 1 @.@ 1 slots , providing them with up to 300 W of power in total . The first slot was double wide and intended to hold the main video card , arranged with an empty area the width of a normal card beside it to leave room for the large coolers modern cards often use . In most machines , one slot would be blocked by the cooler . Instead of the tiny screws typically used to fasten the cards to the case , in the Mac Pro a single " bar " held the cards in place , which is itself held in place by two " captive " thumbscrews that can be loosened by hand without tools and will not fall out of the case . On the original Mac Pro introduced in August 2006 , the PCIe slots can be configured individually to give more bandwidth to devices that require it , with a total of 40 " lanes " , or 13 GB / s total throughput . When running Mac OS X , the Mac Pro did not support SLI or ATI CrossFire , limiting its ability to use the latest " high @-@ end gaming " video card products ; however , individuals have reported success with both CrossFire and SLI installations when running Windows XP , as SLI and CrossFire compatibility is largely a function of software . The bandwidth allocation of the PCIe slots can be configured via the Expansion Slot Utility included with Mac OS X only on the August 2006 Mac Pro . The Early @-@ 2008 and later Mac Pros had PCIe slots hardwired as follows :
= = = External connectivity = = =
For external connectivity , the Mac Pro included five USB 2 @.@ 0 ports , two FireWire 400 and two FireWire 800 ( Late 2006 until Early 2008 ) , respectively four FireWire 800 ( Early 2009 until Mid 2012 ) ports . Networking was supported with two built @-@ in Gigabit Ethernet ports . 802 @.@ 11 a / b / g / n Wi @-@ Fi support ( AirPort Extreme ) required an optional module in the Mid 2006 , Early 2008 and Early 2009 models , whereas in the 2010 model and later Wi @-@ Fi was standard . Bluetooth also required an optional module in the Mid 2006 model , but was standard in the Early 2008 and newer models . Displays were supported by one or ( optionally ) more PCIe graphics cards . More recent cards featured two Mini DisplayPort connectors and one dual @-@ link Digital Visual Interface ( DVI ) port , with various configurations of on @-@ card graphics memory available . Digital ( TOSlink optical ) audio and analog 3 @.@ 5 mm stereo mini jacks for sound in and out were included , the latter becoming available on both the front and back of the case . Unlike other Mac computers , the Mac Pro did not include an infrared receiver ( required to use the Apple Remote ) . In Mac OS X Leopard , Front Row could be accessed on the Mac Pro ( and other Macs ) using the Command ( ⌘ ) -Escape keystroke .
= = = Case = = =
From 2006 through 2012 , the exterior of the Mac Pro 's aluminum case was very similar to that of the Power Mac G5 , with the exception of an additional optical drive bay , and a new arrangement of I / O ports on both the front and the back . The G5 has the added feature of plastic covering that protects the internal hardware . You can also remove the exterior covering to display the interior , as the plastic will keep everything inside protected . . The case could be opened by operating a single lever on the back , which unlocked one of the two sides of the machine , as well as the drive bays . All of the expansion slots for memory , PCIe cards and drives could be accessed with the side panel removed and no tools were required for installation . The Xeon processors generated much less heat than the previous dual @-@ core G5s , so the size of the internal cooling devices had been reduced significantly . This allowed the interior to be re @-@ arranged , leaving more room at the top of the case and doubling the number of internal drive bays . Less heat also meant less air to move out of the case for cooling during normal operations ; the Mac Pro was very quiet in normal operation , quieter than the much noisier Power Mac G5 , and proved difficult to measure using common sound pressure level meters .
= = = Operating systems = = =
The Mac Pro comes with EFI 1 @.@ 1 , a successor to Apple 's use of Open Firmware and the wider industry 's use of BIOS .
Apple 's Boot Camp provides BIOS backwards compatibility , allowing dual and triple boot configurations . These operating systems are installable on Intel x86 based Apple computers :
Mac OS X 10 @.@ 4 @.@ 7 and later
Microsoft Windows XP , Vista , and Windows 7 32 @-@ bit & 64 @-@ bit ( hardware drivers are included in Boot Camp )
Other x86 operating systems such as Linux x86 , Solaris , and BSD
This is made possible by the presence of an x86 Intel architecture as provided by the CPU and the BIOS emulation which Apple has provided on top of EFI . Installing any additional operating system other than Windows is not supported directly by Apple . Though Apple 's Boot Camp drivers are only for Windows , it is often possible to achieve full or nearly full compatibility with another OS by using third @-@ party drivers .
= = = Specifications = = =
= = = Reception = = =
Ars Technica reviewed the 2006 Mac Pro , rating it 9 out of 10 .
= = 2nd generation = =
Apple Senior Vice President of Marketing Phil Schiller presented a " sneak peek " of the completely redesigned Mac Pro during the 2013 Worldwide Developers Conference keynote . The video revealed an overhauled case design , a polished reflective aluminum cylinder built around a central thermal dissipation core and vented by a single fan , which pulls air from under the case , through the core , and out the top of the case . Apple states that the second generation Mac Pro achieves twice the performance of the last model . The model is assembled in Austin , Texas , on a highly automated line . Apple released the new Mac Pro on December 19 , 2013 .
= = = Hardware = = =
The redesigned Mac Pro occupies less than one eighth the volume of immediately previous model , being shorter ( 9 @.@ 9 inches ( 25 cm ) ) , thinner ( 6 @.@ 6 inches ( 17 cm ) ) and lighter ( 11 pounds ( 5 @.@ 0 kg ) ) . It supports one central processing unit ( CPU ) ( up to a 12 @-@ core Xeon E5 CPU ) , four 1866 MHz DDR3 slots , dual AMD FirePro D series GPUs ( up to D700 with 6 GB VRAM each ) , and PCIe @-@ based flash storage . There is a 3x MIMO antenna system for the unit 's 802.11ac WiFi networking interface , Bluetooth 4 @.@ 0 to facilitate close @-@ range wireless functions such as music transfer , keyboards , mice , tablets , speakers , security , cameras , and printers . The system can simultaneously support six Apple Thunderbolt Displays , or three 4K resolution computer monitors .
The second generation Mac Pro has a redesigned configuration of ports . It has a HDMI 1 @.@ 4 port , dual Gigabit Ethernet ports , six Thunderbolt 2 ports , four USB 3 ports , and combined digital Mini @-@ TOSlink optical / analog 3 @.@ 5 mm stereo mini jack for sound out , as well as a dedicated headphones mini jack ( the two are distinctly selectable within the Sound System Preference panel , Output tab ) . There is no Sound in port ; the system has a low @-@ fidelity internal mono speaker . The Thunderbolt 2 ports support up to thirty @-@ six Thunderbolt devices ( six per port ) and can support up to three simultaneous 4K displays . This design requires two GPUs to support the seven display outputs ( HDMI and six Thunderbolt ) . The I / O panel is illuminated when the unit senses it has been moved to make it easier for the user to see the ports . Unlike the previous model , it has no FireWire 800 ports , dedicated digital audio in / out ports , a SuperDrive , DVI port , 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch drive bays for replaceable storage drives , or changeable internal PCIe slots . Instead , there are six Thunderbolt 2 ports to connect high @-@ speed external peripherals , including enclosures for internal PCIe cards .
Apple 's website mentions only RAM as user @-@ serviceable , though third party tear @-@ downs show nearly all components can be removed and replaced . A lock switch on the aluminum casing allows for easy access to the internals , as well as fitting a security lock with its own cable , and components are secured with standard screws . The flash storage and GPUs use proprietary connectors and are specially sized to fit into the enclosure . Unlike the rest of the Macintosh line the CPU is not soldered to the logic board and can be replaced with another LGA 2011 socket processor , including processor options not offered by Apple . The type of RAM modules that Apple supplies with the late @-@ 2013 Mac Pro are either ECC unbuffered ( UDIMM ) on the up to 8 GB modules ( shown on each module as PC3 @-@ 14900E ) . The optional 16 GB modules are ECC registered ( RDIMM ) modules ( shown on each module as PC3 @-@ 14900R ) . The higher @-@ capacity 32 GB modules that some third @-@ party vendors offer are also RDIMM . The UDIMM and RDIMM module types cannot be mixed . Apple publishes recommended configurations to use .
= = = Specifications = = =
= = = Reception = = =
Reception of the new design has been generally positive , at times with caveats . The performance has been widely lauded , especially handling video tasks on the dual GPU units , with some reviewers noting the ability to apply dozens of filters to realtime 4K resolution video in Final Cut Pro X. Drive performance , connected via PCIe , is also widely mentioned as a strong point . Technical reviewers praised the OpenCL API under which the machine 's powerful twin GPUs and its multi @-@ core CPU can be treated as a single pool of computing power . However , in late 2013 through early 2014 , some reviewers have noted the lack of internal expandability , second CPU , serviceability , and questioned the then @-@ limited offerings via Thunderbolt 2 ports .
= = Mac Pro Server = =
On November 5 , 2010 , Apple introduced the Mac Pro Server , which officially replaced the Xserve line of Apple servers as of January 31 , 2011 . The Mac Pro Server includes an unlimited Mac OS X Server license and an Intel Xeon 2 @.@ 8 GHz Quad @-@ Core processor , with 8 GB of DDR3 RAM . In mid @-@ 2012 , the Mac Pro Server was upgraded to an Intel Xeon 3 @.@ 2 GHz Quad @-@ Core processor . The Mac Pro Server was discontinued on October 22 , 2013 , with the introduction of the second @-@ generation Mac Pro . However , the OS X Server software package can be purchased from the Mac App Store .
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= 1976 UEFA Cup Final =
The 1976 UEFA Cup Final were association football matches played over two @-@ legs between Liverpool of England and Club Brugge of Belgium on 28 April 1976 and 19 May 1976 at Anfield , Liverpool and the Olympiastadion , Brugge . It was the final of the 1975 – 76 season of Europe 's secondary cup competition , the UEFA Cup . Liverpool were appearing in their second final ; they had won the competition in 1973 . Brugge were appearing in their first European final and were the first Belgian team to reach the final of a European competition .
Each club needed to progress through five rounds to reach the final . Matches were contested over two legs , with one at each team 's home ground . Liverpool 's ties varied from comfortable victories to close affairs . They beat Spanish team Real Sociedad 9 – 1 on aggregate in the second round , while they beat Spanish team Barcelona 2 – 1 in the semi @-@ finals . The majority of Brugge 's ties were close . Their biggest margin of victory was by two goals , which occurred in both the first and third round against Lyon of France and Italian team Roma , respectively .
Watched by a crowd of 50 @,@ 188 at Anfield , Brugge took a two @-@ goal lead in the first half of the first leg when Raoul Lambert and Julien Cools scored . Liverpool recovered in the second half ; three goals in seven minutes from Ray Kennedy , Jimmy Case , and Kevin Keegan secured a 3 – 2 victory in the first leg for Liverpool . A crowd of 29 @,@ 423 at the Olympiastadion saw Brugge take the lead in the 11th minute of the second leg . Liverpool equalised four minutes later when Keegan scored . The scores remained the same throughout the remainder of the match , resulting in a 1 – 1 draw . Thus , Liverpool won the final 4 – 3 on aggregate to secure their second UEFA Cup .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool qualified for the UEFA Cup by finishing as runners @-@ up in the 1974 – 75 Football League . Their opponents in the first round were Scottish team Hibernian . Liverpool lost the first leg at Hibernian 's home stadium Easter Road 1 – 0 , but recovered in the second leg at their home ground , Anfield , winning 3 – 1 courtesy of a John Toshack hat @-@ trick . They thus won the round 3 – 2 on aggregate . For the second round Liverpool were drawn against Spanish team Real Sociedad ; they won the first game 3 – 1 in Spain . A 6 – 0 victory in the second leg meant Liverpool won the tie 9 – 1 on aggregate .
Liverpool 's opponents in the third round were Śląsk Wrocław of Poland . The first leg at Wrocław 's home ground the Stadion Oporowska was won 2 – 1 by Liverpool courtesy of goals from Ray Kennedy and Toshack . A Jimmy Case hat @-@ trick in the second leg at Anfield secured a 3 – 0 victory for Liverpool , which meant they progressed to the quarter @-@ finals with a 5 – 1 aggregate victory . Liverpool 's next opponents were East German team Dynamo Dresden . The first leg in East Germany ended in a 0 – 0 draw , after Liverpool goalkeeper Ray Clemence saved a penalty from Peter Kotte . A 2 – 1 victory in the second leg courtesy of goals from Case and Kevin Keegan meant Liverpool progressed to the semi @-@ finals courtesy of a 2 – 1 aggregate victory .
Spanish team Barcelona were the opposition in the semi @-@ finals . The first leg was held at Barcelona 's home ground the Camp Nou . Liverpool won the match 1 – 0 , after Toshack scored in the 13th minute . The second leg at Anfield saw Liverpool go ahead in the 50th minute when Phil Thompson scored . Barcelona equalised a minute later but were unable to score again before the final whistle . The match ended 1 – 1 ; Liverpool progressed to their second UEFA Cup final courtesy of their 2 – 1 aggregate victory .
= = = Club Brugge = = =
Club Brugge gained entry to the UEFA Cup by finishing fourth in the 1974 – 75 Belgian First Division . Lyon of France were the opposition in the first round . The first leg , at Lyon 's home ground Stade de Gerland , ended in a 4 – 3 defeat for Brugge . They won the second leg at their home stadium , the Olympiastadion , 3 – 0 to secure their place in the next round courtesy of a 6 – 3 aggregate victory .
Their opponents in the second round were English team Ipswich Town . The first leg , at Ipswich 's home ground Portman Road , was won 3 – 0 by the English team . Brugge needed to score at least three goals to have any chance of staying in the competition . They won the second leg 4 – 0 , to win the tie 4 – 3 on aggregate and progress to the third round .
Roma were the opposition in the third round . Brugge won the first leg in Belgium 1 – 0 courtesy of a Julien Cools goal . Another 1 – 0 in the second leg at Roma 's home ground , the Stadio Olimpico meant Brugge progressed to the quarter @-@ finals courtesy of a 2 – 0 aggregate victory . Brugge were drawn against another Italian team , Milan in the quarter @-@ finals . They won the first leg 2 – 0 in Belgium thanks to goals from Ulrik le Fevre and Eduard Krieger . Brugge lost the second leg 2 – 1 , at Milan 's home ground the San Siro , but still qualified for the semi @-@ finals as a result of a 3 – 2 aggregate victory .
Brugge 's opposition in the semi @-@ finals were German team Hamburg . The first leg , at Hamburg 's home ground the Volksparkstadion , ended in a 1 – 1 draw . This gave the advantage to Brugge , as they had an away goal . A 1 – 0 victory in the second leg in Belgium secured a 2 – 1 aggregate victory , which meant Brugge progressed to their first European final .
= = Background = =
Liverpool were appearing in their second UEFA Cup final . They had previously won the competition in 1973 when they beat Borussia Mönchengladbach 3 – 2 . Club Brugge were appearing in their first European final and were the first Belgian team to reach the final of a European competition . The furthest they had progressed in previous European competitions was the quarter @-@ finals of the 1970 – 71 European Cup Winners ' Cup , where they were beaten by eventual winners Chelsea of England .
Liverpool had won the 1975 – 76 Football League between the first and second legs of the UEFA Cup Final ; a 3 – 1 victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers on the final day of the league season ensured they became champions . As a result of their league success , Liverpool qualified for the 1976 – 77 European Cup as English champions . Brugge had won the 1975 – 76 Belgian First Division ; they won the competition by four points from second @-@ place Anderlecht . Their success meant that they would also be competing in next season 's European Cup as Belgian champions .
= = First leg = =
= = = Summary = = =
Brugge started the match the better of the two sides and took the lead in the 5th minute . A headed back @-@ pass by Phil Neal fell short of Liverpool goalkeeper Ray Clemence allowing Brugge midfielder Raoul Lambert to take control of the ball and lob it over Clemence and into the Liverpool goal . Seven minutes later Brugge extended their lead when Julien Cools scored . The Belgians kept attacking , but the Liverpool defence of Emlyn Hughes and Tommy Smith were able to repel the Belgians until half @-@ time .
Liverpool manager Bob Paisley decided that a change to his team had to be made during the interval . Paisley decided to replace striker John Toshack with midfielder Jimmy Case . The change made a difference as Case 's runs down the right hand side of the pitch unsettled the Belgians . The full effect came in the 59th minute when Liverpool scored ; Steve Heighway passed to Ray Kennedy who scored from 20 yards ( 18 m ) . Liverpool leveled the score two minutes later ; a shot from Kennedy rebounded off the post to Case who scored from close range .
Three minutes later Liverpool were ahead ; Heighway was upended in the penalty area , and Kevin Keegan scored the subsequent penalty to give Liverpool a 3 – 2 lead . Liverpool had chances to increase their lead afterwards , but failed to do so ; Brugge failed to score further as well . The final score when the referee blew for full @-@ time was 3 – 2 .
= = = Details = = =
= = Second leg = =
= = = Summary = = =
Liverpool entered the second leg with a one @-@ goal lead , although Brugge needed to score only one clear goal to win the competition by virtue of the away goals rule . The Belgians scored the goal they needed in the 11th minute . Liverpool defender Smith was adjudged to have handled the ball in the Liverpool penalty area and Brugge were awarded a penalty kick . Lambert converted the opportunity to give Brugge a 1 – 0 lead and level the aggregate tie at 3 – 3 . Responding to the setback , Liverpool equalised four minutes later . They were awarded a free @-@ kick outside the Brugge penalty area . Hughes rolled the ball to Keegan whose right @-@ footed shot went into the Brugge goal to level the scores at 1 – 1 and give Liverpool a 4 – 3 aggregate lead . The goal incidentally was the first Brugge had conceded at home in the UEFA Cup all season .
Brugge needed to score again to keep the tie alive , and pushed their players forward in search of an equaliser . This forced Liverpool to pull all their players , except Keegan , into defensive positions to try to preserve their lead . Despite this Liverpool had a chance to take the lead in the 34th minute . Smith 's volley from a Kennedy free @-@ kick went wide of the Brugge goal . Brugge 's pressure almost paid off five minutes into the second half . Ulrik le Fevre and Roger van Gool combined to split the Liverpool defence , leaving Lambert with the ball . His subsequent shot beat Liverpool goalkeeper Clemence but hit the post . Brugge kept attacking in an effort to find the goal they needed ; their best chance came four minutes from the end . Brugge breached the Liverpool defence , but Cools ' shot was denied by a diving save from Clemence . No more goals were scored ; the final score was 1 – 1 .
The second @-@ leg draw meant Liverpool won the tie , 4 – 3 on aggregate , to win their second UEFA Cup after their first victory in 1973 . They also completed a League and UEFA Cup double for a second time . Liverpool manager Bob Paisley was delighted with players after their performance in the second leg : " The second half was the longest 45 minutes of my life . There was an awful lot of pride in this game because we came representing England . We did not let the country down and we are proud of our lads . "
= = = Details = = =
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= Friday Night Lights ( TV series ) =
Friday Night Lights is an American drama television series about a high school football team in the fictional town of Dillon , Texas . It was developed by Peter Berg and executive produced by Brian Grazer , David Nevins , Sarah Aubrey , and Jason Katims , based on the 1990 nonfiction book by H. G. Bissinger , adapted as the 2004 film of the same name . The series ' primary setting , Dillon , is a small , close @-@ knit community in rural Texas . Team coach Eric Taylor ( Kyle Chandler ) and his family , Tami , Julie , and Grace are featured . The show uses this small town backdrop to address many issues facing contemporary American culture , including family values , school funding , racism , drugs , abortion , and lack of economic opportunities .
Produced by NBCUniversal , Friday Night Lights premiered on October 3 , 2006 and aired for two seasons on NBC . Although the show had garnered critical acclaim and passionate fans , the series suffered low ratings and was in danger of cancellation after the second season . To save the series , NBC struck a deal with DirecTV to co @-@ produce three more seasons ; each subsequent season premiered on DirecTV 's 101 Network , with NBC rebroadcasts a few months later . The series ended its run on The 101 Network on February 9 , 2011 after five seasons .
Though Friday Night Lights never garnered a sizable audience , it was a critical success , lauded for its realistic portrayal of Middle America and deep exploration of its central characters . The show appeared on a number of best lists and was awarded a Peabody Award , a Humanitas Prize , a Television Critics Association Award , and several technical Primetime Emmy Awards . At the 2011 Primetime Emmy Awards , the show was nominated for Outstanding Drama Series . Kyle Chandler and Connie Britton also scored multiple nominations for the Outstanding Lead Actor and Actress awards for a drama series . Executive producer Jason Katims was nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series . Chandler and Katims each won the Emmy in 2011 .
= = Production = =
= = = Inspiration = = =
Friday Night Lights was inspired by H.G. " Buzz " Bissinger 's non @-@ fiction book Friday Night Lights : A Town , a Team , and a Dream ( 1990 ) and the 2004 film based on it . The book , which explores the 1988 season of the Permian Panthers , a high school football team in Odessa , Texas , was a factual work of documentary journalism . The people featured were not renamed in the book . The Universal Pictures film , which stars Billy Bob Thornton and was directed by Peter Berg , Bissinger 's second cousin , based its characters on the residents of Odessa c . 1988 .
= = = Conception = = =
Once filming on the movie was completed , Berg began to explore adapting the story for television . Berg later said that he had regretted having to jettison many of the interpersonal topics from the book because of the time constraints of a feature film . Creating a TV series , particularly one based on fictional characters , allowed him to address many of those elements in @-@ depth .
He decided to set the series in a fictional town of Dillon , Texas , with some characteristics of Odessa . The football team was given the Panthers name . Berg deliberately carried elements from the film to the series , particularly for the pilot , which was closely related to the film . He cast Connie Britton as the wife of Head Coach Eric Taylor and Brad Leland as Buddy Garrity , a major businessman and football booster , in roles similar to those they played in the film .
= = Production = =
Filming for the show 's pilot began in February 2006 in Austin , Texas . Berg said that he required filming the pilot and eventually the show in Texas as " a deal breaker " in order to agree to participate weekly in the project . The show features homages to its Texas heritage . In the pilot , Berg featured Texas Longhorns football coach Mack Brown as a Dillon booster and had a caller to the fictional Panther Radio compare Panthers ' coach Eric Taylor to Brown . The pilot referred to much of the surrounding area in its scenes . Football scenes were filmed at Pflugerville High School 's Kuempel Stadium and at the RRISD Complex . The Dillon Panther football team and coaches ' uniforms were based on the uniforms of the Pflugerville Panthers . Some of the scenes were filmed at Texas School for the Deaf .
Berg 's observation of local high school students while preparing to film the movie inspired his development of some of the characters . For example , Jason Street , the character whose promising football career is ended by a spinal injury in the pilot , was inspired by a local event . David Edwards , a football player from San Antonio ’ s Madison High , was paralyzed during a November 2003 game . Berg was at the game when this accident occurred ; he was profoundly affected by Edwards ' injury and how it overturned his life . Berg set up a similar incident in the pilot .
= = = Performances = = =
While relying on a script each week , the producers decided at the outset to allow the cast leeway in what they said and did on the show . Their decisions could affect the delivery of their lines and the blocking of each scene . If the actors felt that something was untrue to their character or a mode of delivery didn 't work , they were free to change it , provided they still hit the vital plot points .
This freedom was complemented by filming without rehearsal and without extensive blocking . Camera operators were trained to follow the actors , rather than having the actors stand in one place with cameras fixed around them . The actors knew that the filming would work around them . Executive producer Jeffrey Reiner described this method as " no rehearsal , no blocking , just three cameras and we shoot . "
Working in this fashion profoundly influenced everyone involved with the show . Series star Kyle Chandler said : " When I look back at my life , I 'm going to say , ' Wow , [ executive producer ] Peter Berg really changed my life . ' " Executive producer and head writer Jason Katims echoed this sentiment , saying : " When I first came on [ the FNL ] set , I thought , it ’ s interesting – this is what I imagined filmmaking would be , before I saw what filmmaking was . "
= = = Filming = = =
All five seasons of Friday Night Lights were filmed in Austin and Pflugerville . With the show yielding roughly $ 33 million a year in revenue , other states courted the production company after the State of Texas failed to pay all of the rebates it had promised to the show 's producers . The Texas legislature authorized funding to match the offers of other states , and the production company preferred to stay near Austin , so the show remained in Texas .
Friday Night Lights is unusual for using actual locations rather than stage sets and sound stage . These factors together with reliance on filming hundreds of locals as extras , gives the series an authentic feel and look .
The producers used a documentary @-@ style filming technique . Three cameras were used for each shoot and entire scenes were shot in one take . In contrast , most productions film a scene from each angle and typically repeat the scene several times while readjusting lighting to accommodate each shot . The first takes usually made the final cut . By filming a scene all at once , the producers tried to create an environment for the actors that was more organic and allowed for the best performances .
The series borrowed the uniforms , cheerleaders , fans , and stadium of the Pflugerville Panthers . Producers shot Pflugerville games and used them as game footage in the series . University of Southern California football announcers Peter Arbogast and Paul McDonald provided off @-@ screen commentary during the football game sequences . The facilities , colors , and bobcat logos of Texas State University in San Marcos , Texas were used as the setting and creative inspiration for the fictional Texas Methodist University . The show features the fictional ' Herrmann Field , ' named for George Herrmann , the head coach of the Pflugerville Panthers .
Some scenes were filmed outside Texas . On June 20 , 2010 , scenes were filmed at Temple University , which was to portray the fictional Braemore College . An episode from Julie 's senior year in high school was filmed in the Boston area , at Boston College , Boston University , and Tufts University .
Some scenes at fictional Oklahoma Tech University were filmed at Gregory Gym at The University of Texas at Austin .
= = = Marketing = = =
Initially targeted at the youth market , the show emphasized the football element . NBC teamed with social networking site Bebo to create a site that allowed students to upload video and photos , as well as create blogs about their local football teams . Students who participated were eligible for one of ten $ 5 @,@ 000 scholarships . NBC had negotiated with Bebo for network and series promotion on Bebo ’ s network of youth @-@ oriented sites including Piczo , Hi5 , Tickle , Ringo , and FastWeb .
To complement this promotion , NBC sent out “ School Spirit ” kits to 1 @,@ 000 high schools around the country . These kits included posters , pom @-@ poms , mini @-@ footballs , and disposable cameras , all bearing the show ’ s logo . The kits also contained copies of the show ’ s pilot episode on DVD . The network repeated this promotion for its second season promotion , when it teamed with HouseParty.com to send out 1 @,@ 000 " Party Kits , " which contained advance copies of the Season 2 opener along with other promotional material .
NBC also paired with Toyota to create the " Hometown Sweepstakes " , in which students could earn cash grants of up to $ 50 @,@ 000 for their school ’ s athletic program . It was open to high school students ages 14 to 18 and was designed to draw people to the show ’ s official web site , where they could download AOL Instant Messenger icons , screensavers , and desktop wallpaper . Students who registered could also download free movie theater passes to special early screenings of the pilot episode . These movie theater screenings took place in 50 cities nationwide and ran until a week before the show premiered on NBC .
In the later part of the season , NBC chose to switch course and pursue the female demographic . The network designed a strategy based on the personal elements of the show , giving the show the tagline , " It ’ s about life " . NBC Marketing President Vince Manze stressed that the goal was to ensure viewers that the show was family and relationships as well as athletics . The network ran 30 @-@ second spots in movie theaters that featured cast members and fans being interviewed about the show .
= = Cast and characters = =
As a show about the community of Dillon , Texas , Friday Night Lights has an ensemble cast . The show features Panthers ' football coach Eric Taylor ( Kyle Chandler ) , who strives to balance his work , family , status in a sometimes confrontational community , and his personal ambitions . His family – wife Tami Taylor ( Connie Britton ) , a guidance counselor turned principal at Dillon High , and teenage daughter Julie Taylor ( Aimee Teegarden ) – are also central to the show . Coach Taylor and Tami are the only two characters to appear in every episode .
Outside of the Taylor family , the show explores the lives of the Dillon high school football players . In the pilot , Coach Taylor 's protege and star quarterback Jason Street ( Scott Porter ) , suffers a spinal injury that ends his football career . He faces life as a paraplegic . At first , Street struggles with these disabilities and the upturn of his life . Gradually , he copes with his new reality . Lyla Garrity ( Minka Kelly ) , his girlfriend , undergoes her own changes , making a transition from a Panthers cheerleader to a Christian youth leader .
Because of Street 's injury , sophomore Matt Saracen ( Zach Gilford ) , who is quiet and reserved , becomes the Panthers ' starting quarterback . He eventually dates the coach 's daughter , Julie . Viewers learn that Saracen 's father is serving as a soldier in Iraq , and Saracen is the sole caretaker for his grandmother Lorraine Saracen ( Louanne Stephens ) . Saracen receives little help , except from his best friend Landry Clarke ( Jesse Plemons ) and eventual live @-@ in nurse and love interest Carlotta Alonso ( Daniella Alonso ) . Star running back Brian " Smash " Williams ( Gaius Charles ) works to get a college football scholarship . Fullback Tim Riggins ( Taylor Kitsch ) struggles with alcoholism and complicated family problems . His brother Billy Riggins ( Derek Phillips ) , while not his legal guardian , serves as Tim 's caretaker . Tyra Collette ( Adrianne Palicki ) stars as a town vixen who wants to leave Dillon for a better life . Involved with Riggins , Tyra eventually develops a complicated relationship with Landry Clarke .
= = Plot = =
= = = Season one = = =
Season one revolves around two main events : Coach Eric Taylor beginning as head coach and the injury and paralysis of star quarterback Jason Street in the first game of the season . Coach Taylor 's career depends on his ability to get the Dillon Panthers to the state championship , despite the loss of Street . If the team suffers a losing streak , he knows his family will no longer be welcome in Dillon .
His wife Tami Taylor begins work as a guidance counselor at the local high school . Over the course of the season , she becomes a support and a mentor to many of the students , and her position plays a pivotal role in the season finale .
Jason Street and Matt Saracen each struggle within extremely difficult conditions . Street must learn to live with his disability in a town that worships athletics . Saracen has to face new challenges as a lead athlete . As Street 's friendship with Herc , his rehab roommate and wheelchair rugby teammate , grows stronger , so do his will and independence . For the quiet Matt , who seldom plays football , his new role of QB1 calls for a different part of him . Motherless , he also cares for his grandmother while his father is fighting in Iraq . Matt falls in love with Coach Taylor 's daughter , Julie , who loathes Texas small town life and dislikes football . She falls for Matt and their relationship slowly blossoms over the season .
Also explored is the pressure on the cocky , driven Brian " Smash " Williams . Easily the most promising player on the Panthers ' roster , he works hard to achieve excellence and sees his future career as instrumental in gaining a better life for him and his family . Since his father was killed in a car accident , his mother Corrina has taken multiple jobs to keep the family afloat . Smash decides to take performance @-@ enhancing drugs to ensure he can gain a college football scholarship .
Tim Riggins is struggling with alcoholism and absentee parents , with few prospects beyond high school . He is portrayed as a loyal friend with a good heart .
Tyra Collette also comes from a broken home ; her mother suffers abusive relationships with men . Tyra begins the season as Riggins ’ girlfriend . Thanks to counselor Tami Taylor and Landry Clarke – the school math geek and Saracen ’ s best friend – Tyra starts to see hope that she might get out of Dillon and break the cycle of women in her family .
Meanwhile , Lyla Garrity undergoes significant changes . Faced with Jason 's injury , she begins seeing Riggins for some comfort . Jason begins growing closer to another woman . Lyla learns about her father 's many adulterous affairs and begins to establish her independence .
= = = Season two = = =
Season two begins with Coach Taylor living and working in Austin as an assistant coach at fictional TMU , while wife Tami remains in Dillon with daughter Julie and newborn baby Gracie . Tami is struggling with the demands of the new baby and Julie 's rebellious behavior . The Panthers ' new coach , Bill McGregor , creates friction between Smash and Matt by showing blatant favoritism to Smash , drives Tim so hard he passes out during practice from dehydration and is hospitalized , alienates assistant coach Jason Street by his condescending manner , and alienates Boosters president Buddy Garrity by barring him from team practices . When Smash and Matt actually come to blows on the field and a crucial game is won by Smash , Buddy engineers the firing of the new coach and persuades Taylor that both the team and his family are suffering in his absence . Taylor agrees to return .
Julie continues to act out . She ends her romantic relationship with Matt , whom she sees as turning into a replica of her father , and pursues an older man , " the Swede , " who works with her as a lifeguard at the local pool . When she finds the Swede has no interest in a serious relationship , she begins a friendship with a young teacher that her mother feels is inappropriate . Tami confronts the teacher at school , but some students overhear the conversation and spread rumors about Julie ; Julie is mortified and furious at her mother .
Meanwhile , Coach Taylor attempts to win games with the Panthers but faces a number of issues .
Tim is kicked off the team after missing a week of practice when he leaves on the spur of the moment to go with Jason Street to Mexico to look for a treatment for Jason 's paralysis . On returning to Dillon , Tim finds that a neighbor woman , with whom he had a brief affair , is now seeing his brother Billy and has all but moved into their house . Tim moves out but has trouble finding another place to live and ultimately returns . Coach Taylor allows him to rejoin the team after he shows up at practice and on his own initiative apologizes to everyone on the team for his lack of commitment .
Lyla Garrity becomes increasingly involved in an organization for young Christians . As part of a religious outreach program , she befriends a young convict , Santiago Herrera , who is released from juvenile detention shortly after they first meet . She gets him a job at her father Buddy 's car dealership . Buddy encourages Santiago to try out for football after noticing his superior speed and coordination . When Taylor expresses interest in the boy , it is discovered that his legal guardian has left town and he has no adult in his life . Buddy agrees to take legal responsibility for him .
Smash is courted by a number of college recruiters . He makes it clear his priority is a quick route to the NFL , leading to tension between him and his mother , who insists his priority should be getting an education . Smash accepts a scholarship to the prestigious TMU . However , Smash punches a white teenager who sexually harasses his sister when they 're at the movies . This turns into a blown @-@ out @-@ of @-@ proportion racial incident , and Smash is deemed someone who has " character issues . " His scholarship to TMU is revoked . He later commits to Whitmore University , a smaller historically black college that is more highly regarded for its academics than its athletic programs . The football coach at Whitmore has a strong relationship with Coach Taylor , and had been scouting Smash since he was in middle school .
Matt begins a relationship with a cheerleader before leaving her for his grandmother 's new live @-@ in nurse , Carlotta .
Additionally , the early season follows an arc where Landry kills and hides the body of a man who attempted to rape Tyra , leading to a romance between the two . Eventually , guilt builds within Landry and he confesses . Charges are not pressed , although tension between him and Tyra remains .
Jason Street impregnates a woman in what was supposed to be a one @-@ night stand at the end of season two . Jason pleads with the woman to keep the child and promises to take care of the two .
This season ends on a cliffhanger due to the Writers ' Strike . The show 's head writer and executive producer , Jason Katims , stated that this last episode was “ not in any way viewed as the season finale ... If we were leading to the end of the season [ under normal circumstances ] , we would have most likely brought the story around to the coach and his family again , ” and there would have been a strong football element as well , Katims said . Seven of the 22 episodes NBC ordered for Season 2 weren ’ t made .
= = = Season three = = =
The season began with Coach Taylor failing to lead the Panthers to another State championship the year before , creating new pressure for him . Quarterback Matt Saracen 's position is threatened by the arrival of freshman J.D. McCoy , an amazing natural talent who comes from a rich family with an overbearing father , Joe . Matt moves to wide receiver after Taylor names J.D. starting quarterback . Tyra starts dating a cowboy named Cash , leading to complications in her relationship with Landry . Tim and Lyla start dating . Tami Taylor becomes the principal of Dillon High School and fights with Buddy Garrity about the allocation of funds toward a Jumbotron .
Smash Williams , who injured his knee during the previous year 's playoffs , rediscovers his love for the game . Billy , Tim , Herc , and Jason decide to flip Buddy Garrity 's house for a profit . Matt and Julie reconcile and rekindle their romance . Smash gets a tryout with Texas A & M , and succeeds in winning a spot on their team . Lyla helps Tim pursue a college football scholarship . Tim initially puts off the recruiter and is concerned Lyla is trying to turn him into someone he 's not by encouraging him to pursue college , but he sees she 's looking out for his best interests . Buddy loses money , which is Lyla 's college fund , in a bad business deal and he retaliates by trashing the strip club , The Landing Strip . Lyla wants to attend Vanderbilt University and after Buddy loses the money , she considers going to San Antonio State University , the school that gives Tim a scholarship . Lyla moves in with Tim after she and her father have a fight . Billy Riggins gets engaged to Tyra 's older sister Mindy . Mindy is pregnant at the time of their engagement . Jason Street eventually finds a job at a sports agency in New York City , after visiting a former Panthers player who is now playing professionally , and moves to the northeast to be close to his girlfriend and newborn baby .
Matt is pushed back into his former football role in the playoffs . While Eric Taylor and Buddy Garrity were making a visit to a possible recruit who just moved into town , the coach learns of a plot to have him replaced as head coach of the Dillon Panthers . They learn that Joe McCoy wants Taylor replaced with Wade Aikman , J.D. ' s personal coach . After the school 's administration meets to decide who gets the coaching job , Aikman is offered the job at Dillon High School , while Taylor is offered the job of coaching at recently reopened East Dillon High School . Billy and Mindy 's wedding ends the season .
= = = Season four = = =
Season 4 kicks off with Eric Taylor struggling as the East Dillon High coach . The team , field and conditions are a complete change from the privileged and sparkling conditions at West Dillon .
As Coach begins putting together his new Lion team , he realizes he 's in for more than he bargained for . The players who try out are less than desirable , but Coach gets a lucky break with a couple of new faces . The first is Vince Howard , a student who has gotten in trouble with the law too many times . He is given one last chance if he plays football for the East Dillon Lions . Although he has no prior football experience , he has natural talent and becomes the team 's first star quarterback . The second break comes to the Lions when Buddy Garrity reveals to Eric that the address on file for the Panthers new prodigy running back , Luke Cafferty , is nothing more than a mailbox in front of an empty lot , and Luke is really zoned for East Dillon . Tami is faced with a struggle as the principal of West Dillon . A new character on the show , Becky , is introduced when Tim Riggins rents a trailer on her mother 's property . Although she is in love with Tim , she and Luke are both shopping at a convenience store and she allows Luke to drive her home . The two have sex and Becky becomes pregnant . Even though she is a student at East Dillon , she seeks out Tami 's help with the situation . Tami discusses all of the options with her and Becky decides to get an abortion . Her mother goes with her to the procedure . Parents find out about this and led by Luke 's mother , seek Mrs. Taylor 's dismissal as principal . When Tami refuses to apologize , as she followed procedure , she is put on leave . She decides to return to her role as a guidance counselor , but at East Dillon .
The football season is one focused on growth and reestablishing a sense of Lion pride . The culmination of their hard work is tested in their last game of the season as they play the Dillon Panthers led by J.D. McCoy . In an amazing show of perseverance , the East Dillon Lions defeat the Dillon Panthers , ruining the Panthers ' playoff chances .
In season four , Matt Saracen struggles with staying in Dillon and living as a townie . He turned down an art school in Chicago and is instead studying art at the local technical college . After returning from a hunting trip with Tim Riggins , he finds out that his father was killed in Iraq . The episode " The Son " shows Matt going through the five stages of grief as he comes to accept the death of his father , a man he claims to hate . This episode garnered much buzz online and resulted in a failed campaign for Zach Gilford to get an Emmy nomination in the guest actor category ; however , the episode did get an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series . After this emotionally charged episode , Matt abruptly moves to Chicago without saying goodbye to his girlfriend or best friend . He returns briefly in the finale and makes amends with both Julie and Landry , who ends up flying back to Chicago with Matt .
The character of Tim Riggins has developed over time from an unfocused and moody alcoholic to a young man of character and dependability . Sometimes that dependability is reflected in his uncanny ability to make the wrong choices for the right reasons , which usually involve his brother . Even though he has proven his ability to help others correct their misguided choices , unfortunately there is no one who does this for Tim . In this season , his irresponsible , headstrong , but lovable brother again entices Tim into another wrong choice by convincing Tim that the only way they can make any money is by transforming their newly opened garage into a chop shop . Just as they finally end this side business and Tim has enough for the down payment on a large amount of land he 's been dreaming about , the police show up to arrest him at the garage . The police officers recognize Tim as " number 33 " giving Tim no chance to deny that it 's his chop shop . True to his character , he makes the decision to take the rap and allows his brother to be with his new wife and child . The season ends as Tim walks toward the jail .
= = = Season five = = =
Season 5 , the final season , opens with summer wrapping up in Dillon : Billy Riggins joins Coach Taylor as a special teams coach for the East Dillon Lions . Tami is the new guidance counselor at East Dillon , where she is faced with the challenge of a particularly difficult student named Epyck . Landry is departing for Rice University , and Tim Riggins has three more months in jail . Becky experiences turmoil in her living situation and moves in with Billy and Mindy and develops a family of her own with them , while also developing a closer relationship with Luke . With Vince leading the Lions , along with Luke Cafferty , new recruit Hastings Ruckle , and the rest of the team standing strong behind him , Eric Taylor has strong hopes for the team to go to state . But as Vince 's past comes back to haunt him , it seems that the team will have to deal with struggles off the field , as well as on . Vince 's troubles also cause his relationship with Jess to take a hit . Julie 's college experience is nothing like she imagined and after she experiences a difficulty situation involving her history TA , she is forced to take a good look at what she wants . Buddy Garrity becomes a father again when Buddy Jr . , who developed problems in California , is sent back to Dillon to get help from his father . He 's pleased when his son becomes a Lions football player .
Julie looks for support first from her parents , and then from her old boyfriend Matt Saracen , who is living in Chicago and attending art school . Julie drives up to spend some time with him , but leaves still confused about her future . Tim is up for parole , and with the help of Coach Taylor and Buddy Garrity , is approved for early release . Buddy gives him a job as a bartender at his bar . Tim is angry with his brother Billy and threatens to move to Alaska to work on a pipeline but Tyra Collette comes back for a visit to Dillon and tells him he needs to repair his relationship with Billy . After they spend the night together , she asks Tim to show her his land , and the episode closes with Tyra asking , " Alaska , Tim ? " to which Tim smiles a guilty smile .
In the last episode , East Dillon wins the state championship after Coach Taylor and Vince share a moment of respect for each other . Coach Taylor then moves with his wife to Philadelphia as she accepts the job as Dean of Admissions at a prestigious school , and the show ends showing them living happily . Tim and Tyra talk about their dreams and a potential future at his new home site . Julie is engaged to Matt and lives with him in Chicago . Vince is the quarterback of the " Superteam " of East / West Dillon , joined by Hastings , Buddy Jr . , and Tinker . Jess is living in Dallas , and helping to student coach a team and is following her dreams . Billy is expecting twins with Mindy . Luke Cafferty is seen with Becky at the bus depot departing for the Army . The second to the last scene is of Tim and Billy , taking a break while putting up the frame of Tim 's new house . They sit back , crack open a beer , and Billy toasts , " Texas Forever ? " to which Timmy responds emphatically , " Texas Forever " and they clink their beers . The series ends with Eric coaching a new high school team in Philadelphia ( in a noticeably smaller stadium than those in Texas ) . After practice , Eric recites the phrase : " Clear eyes , full hearts ... " After not getting the normal response of " Can 't lose , " he says , " We 'll deal with that later . " Tami then shows up and the two walk off the field as the lights turn off .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Although the series never had a high viewership , it was met with critical acclaim and has a strong fan @-@ base . On the review aggregator website Metacritic , the first season received a score of 78 out of 100 , based on 32 reviews . Virginia Heffernan wrote for The New York Times that " if the season is anything like the pilot , this new drama about high school football could be great – and not just television great , but great in the way of a poem or painting . " The Washington Post similarly praised the series as " extraordinary in just about every conceivable way . " Bill Simmons , a former columnist for ESPN Magazine implored readers of his column in the September 24 , 2007 issue to watch the show , calling it " the greatest sports @-@ related show ever made . " Positive reviews also came from USA Today , the San Francisco Chronicle , and international sources , with The Guardian 's Jonathan Bernstien calling the pilot " beautifully shot " and the Metro awarding it 4 out of 5 stars .
Throughout its inaugural season , many online journalists heaped praise on the show . Matt Roush of TV Guide dedicated several of his " Roush Dispatch " columns to the show calling the last episodes of season one " terrifically entertaining " while Zap2it 's Amy Amatangelo asked her readers to " promise to watch [ the last 4 episodes of ] Friday Night Lights . " The show 's pilot did , however , receive negative reviews as well . The Philadelphia Inquirer 's review was particularly harsh , calling the show a " standard high school sports soap opera . "
Season two reviews were considerably less positive than for the first , with the Landry and Tyra murder plot being particularly panned by critics . The Los Angeles Times said that the show had lost its innocence , while The Boston Globe said the event was " out of sync with the real @-@ life tone of the show . " Others were more positive , though , with Variety saying " faith should be shown in showrunner / writer Jason Katims " while The New York Times said " to hold Friday Night Lights to a measure of realism would be to miss what are its essentially expressionistic pleasures . "
Time Out magazine 's Andrew Johnston included the series in his list of the ten best TV shows for both 2006 and 2007 , stating " Who 'd have thought a tribute to heartland values would turn out to be the most avant @-@ garde show on TV ? The music and random close @-@ ups said more than the dialogue in Peter Berg 's phenomenal football drama . " Time magazine 's James Poniewozik named it one of the Top 10 Returning Series of 2007 , ranking it at No. 4 . In 2007 , AOL ranked Friday Night Lights the fifth Best School Show of All Time . The same year , the show placed No. 71 on Entertainment Weekly 's " New TV Classics " list . In 2009 , Alan Sepinwall placed it in his " Best of the ' 00s in TV : Best Dramas " and wrote : " Few shows are as willing to so directly confront the emotions of its characters , aided by central performances — as one of TV ’ s most realistic and loving couples — from Chandler and Connie Britton . " The A.V. Club named it the 16th best TV series of the 2000s . In 2010 , Kristin Dos Santos of E ! Online ranked it number 4 on her list , " Top 20 TV Series of the Past 20 Years " .
Friday Night Lights 's final season was lauded by critics . Based on 10 reviews , the season obtained a score of 82 out of 100 on Metacritic , indicating " universal acclaim " and it was included on numerous best lists . Poniewozik ranked it No. 7 on his list of 2011 's Top 10 TV Series , saying , " The final season of this drama came down , as you would expect , to a final dramatic game . But the real action was always just as much in the stands " . He also ranked the final episode " Always " No. 1 on 2011 's Top 10 TV Episodes list . Paste also named it one of the 20 best TV shows of 2011 and Slant Magazine ranked Friday Night Lights No. 10 on its list of 2011 's 25 Best TV Shows , concluding " The show 's true concerns — obsession , class , family — were articulated beautifully as ever in the quiet , familiar relationships between a town and its team , and a coach and his wife " . The Salt Lake Tribune in its list of the Top 10 series of 2011 ranked Friday Night Lights No. 1 explaining " For five seasons , Friday Night Lights was both the simplest and most complex show on TV . It felt like real life , and real life is complicated . " TV Guide named the show among its Best TV Shows of 2011 praising the fact that " Friday Night Lights left its fans with the best portrait of a marriage ever on TV " . It was also included on The Huffington Post 's and E ! Online 's 2011 's Best TV Shows .
In 2013 , the Writers Guild of America ranked Friday Night Lights No. 22 in its of the " 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time " .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Friday Night Lights won a Peabody Award , three AFI awards , an Emmy Award for Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series , an ACE Eddie Award for editing , an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Directing , a Television Critics Association Award , and has earned multiple Writers Guild of America nominations . The show 's two leading actors , Kyle Chandler and Connie Britton , received Emmy nominations for their performances in 2010 , while executive producer Jason Katims won two Humanitas Prize awards for writing .
In 2011 , after concluding its run , the show was honored by four Emmy nominations and Kyle Chandler won the award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and Jason Katims won for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for " Always " .
= = = Fan base = = =
Friday Night Lights enjoys what former NBC President Kevin Reilly called a " passionate and vocal [ fanbase ] " . This fan dedication has shown itself in everything from advertisers expressing their support for the show to news outlets getting massive amounts of support mail after running positive pieces about the show .
After some statements made by NBC 's Entertainment head Ben Silverman about the future of the show and the fact that everything seemed to point that Friday Night Lights wouldn 't return after the writers ' strike , fans put together several campaigns . Save FNL Campaign raised money to send footballs and contributions to charity foundations that were related to the show . The Save FNL Campaign raised a total of $ 15 @,@ 840 for 18 @,@ 750 footballs , $ 2061 for charity , and $ 924 worth of DVDs for troops stationed overseas .
= = Television ratings = =
= = = U.S. ratings = = =
Though it was critically acclaimed , Friday Night Lights never enjoyed high ratings . The first two seasons averaged roughly 6 million viewers each . Ratings dropped in subsequent seasons with the third season averaging 4 @.@ 6 million viewers , the fourth season with 3 @.@ 8 million , and fifth season with 3 @.@ 6 million .
= = = International ratings = = =
The show 's pilot , which aired on February 21 , 2007 on ITV4 , was watched by 26 @,@ 000 viewers in the UK . This was attributed to the program being aired opposite of the Barcelona – Liverpool football game in the first knockout round of the 2006 – 07 UEFA Champions League .
= = = DVR ratings = = =
On December 29 , 2006 Nielsen Media Research reported the results of having , for the first time , monitored viewers who use a Digital Video Recorder to record shows for later viewing . These ratings , called " live plus seven " , include all viewers who use a DVR to record the show and then watch it within a week of its initial airing .
According to the Nielsen numbers , DVR viewers increased Friday Night Lights ratings by 7 @.@ 5 % overall in December . When Nielsen monitored viewers again in April 2007 the increase went up to 17 % for the week ending on April 8 .
= = = Affluent viewers = = =
On March 5 , 2007 , Media Life Magazine reported that Friday Night Lights was one of the most popular shows among " affluent viewers " who had little experience playing football . This was determined using a report from Magna Global who in turn used analysis done by Nielsen Media Research . Affluence in the study was determined by yearly income .
In the study , Friday Night Lights tied for the 11th most watched show by affluent viewers . According to the study viewers of the show have a median household income of $ 65 @,@ 000 per year .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Online episodes = = =
Streaming videos , such as cast interviews and the full episode from the previous week , have been available on NBC.com since the series ’ inception . In December 2006 , NBC expanded this selection to include every episode of the season . The move to offer every episode was made for only a few select shows and represents a marketing push on NBC 's part .
In addition to the free ad @-@ support offerings , every episode of Friday Night Lights became available for download on the iTunes Store on February 10 , 2007 for $ 1 @.@ 99 per episode . As a special promotion , the pilot was initially offered as a free download . The series is also available on Netflix .
= = = Syndication = = =
ABC Family acquired syndication rights for the first four seasons and began airing reruns September 6 , 2010 , but it was pulled on October 18 , 2010 , due to low ratings . In July 2011 , it was announced that ESPN Classic had acquired the rights of all the five seasons of the show and started airing the series beginning on July 12 , 2011 .
In an attempt to bolster series ratings , NBC repositioned reruns of the show to air on its sister network Bravo , during the weeks leading up to the season one finale on NBC . These episodes aired on a schedule of one hour every Friday and three hours every Saturday . Bravo is known to have an audience that is upscale and largely female , which is in line with the new strategy of NBC 's then @-@ President Kevin Reilly ( now at FOX ) for selling the show . When questioned about this strategy , he admitted to having regrets about initially marketing the show incorrectly , saying : “ It ’ s been so clear to me that [ the marketing for ] the show ended up confusing people in terms of what [ the public thought ] it was supposed to be " . He said he felt the show is , at its core , a “ women 's show ” , and his wish is that the marketing had reflected that to a greater extent .
Once the 2006 – 2007 television season ended , NBC planned to air reruns throughout the summer in the hopes of gaining new viewers during the summer hiatus . Despite rising ratings for the reruns , NBC abruptly pulled them from the network 's schedule on June 24 , 2007 . NBC resumed airing reruns in late August / early September , timed to the Season 1 DVD release .
TeenNick acquired the rights in 2015 and began airing the series , in chronological order , on April 10 , 2015 with a week @-@ long event in which three episodes aired nightly .
= = = DirecTV = = =
During the 2007 – 08 Writers Guild of America strike , NBC Universal 's decision to release the Season 2 DVD with only the 15 produced episodes and comments by NBC chief Ben Silverman led to speculation that the show would be canceled .
In March 2008 , it was confirmed that NBC had picked up the series for a third season , after a cost @-@ sharing partnership between NBC and DirecTV was struck . The agreement had first run episodes airing exclusively on DirecTV , and the episodes aired on NBC at a later date . Season 3 premiered exclusively on DirecTV channel 101 , with the episodes replaying on NBC beginning on January 16 , 2009 . In March 2009 , NBC announced it had renewed the series for two more seasons .
= = Home media releases = =
= = = DVD = = =
The first season was released on DVD in region 1 on August 28 , 2007 , and in region 2 on October 29 , 2007 . Special features include deleted scenes from several episodes and a featurette titled " Behind The Lights : Creating The First Season of Friday Night Lights " .
The second season was released on DVD in region 1 on April 22 , 2008 , and in region 2 on February 11 , 2013 . Special features include deleted scenes from several episodes , audio commentaries for " Last Days of Summer " , " Are You Ready for Friday Night " and " There Goes the Neighborhood " and a featurette titled " Friday Night Lights Cast & Producers at the Paley Festival in L.A. " .
The third season was released on DVD in region 1 on May 19 , 2009 , and in region 2 on March 25 , 2013 . Special features include deleted scenes from various episode and an audio commentary for " Tomorrow Blues " .
The fourth season was released on DVD in region 1 on August 17 , 2010 , and in region 2 on May 20 , 2013 . Special features include deleted scenes from various episodes , audio commentary for " East of Dillon " , and several behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes .
The fifth season was released on DVD in region 1 on April 5 , 2011 , and in region 2 on August 12 , 2013 . Special features include deleted scenes from several episodes , audio commentaries for " Don 't Go " and " Always " , a featurette titled " The Lights Go Out " , and a photo gallery .
A complete series box set containing all the episodes and material from the individual season sets was released in region 1 on October 4 , 2011 .
In March 2016 , it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to the series in region 1 ; they will re @-@ release the first two seasons on DVD on September 6 , 2016 .
= = = Soundtracks = = =
Two soundtracks with music featured on the show were released . The first , Friday Night Lights , was released in 2007 , and included music from The Killers , OutKast , and Explosions in the Sky , who had produced the score for the film . The second soundtrack , Friday Night Lights Vol . 2 , was released in 2010 , and included the main " Friday Night Lights Theme " by W. G. Walden . The score for both the film and television show , along with all background music and all instrumental music is performed by Explosions in the Sky .
= = Potential film sequel = =
In July 2011 , it was revealed that creator and executive producer Peter Berg was interested in continuing the series , as a feature film . In August 2011 , Berg said at a Television Critics Association panel that the Friday Night Lights film is in development . Berg was quoted as saying " We 're very serious about trying to do it " , adding that the script is currently being written . Universal Pictures and Imagine Television would produce the film , with Kyle Chandler and Connie Britton set to return . In May 2013 , executive producer Brian Grazer confirmed the continued development to make a film . In December 2013 , it was confirmed by Berg that a film would not be moving forward .
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