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= Quantum of Solace =
Quantum of Solace ( 2008 ) is the 22nd James Bond film produced by Eon Productions , and is the direct sequel to the 2006 film Casino Royale . Directed by Marc Forster , it features Daniel Craig 's second performance as James Bond . In the film , Bond seeks revenge for the death of his lover , Vesper Lynd , and is assisted by Camille Montes ( Olga Kurylenko ) , who is plotting revenge for the murder of her family . The trail eventually leads them to wealthy businessman Dominic Greene ( Mathieu Amalric ) , a member of the Quantum organisation , who intends to stage a coup d 'état in Bolivia to seize control of that country 's water supply .
Producer Michael G. Wilson developed the film 's plot while Casino Royale was being shot . Neal Purvis , Robert Wade and Paul Haggis contributed to the script . Daniel Craig and Marc Forster had to write some sections themselves due to the Writers ' Strike , though they were not given the screenwriter credit in the final cut . The title was chosen from a 1959 short story in Ian Fleming 's For Your Eyes Only , though the film does not contain any elements of that story . Location filming took place in Mexico , Panama , Chile , Italy , Austria and Wales while interior sets were built and filmed at Pinewood Studios . Forster aimed to make a modern film that also featured classic cinema motifs : a vintage Douglas DC @-@ 3 was used for a flight sequence , and Dennis Gassner 's set designs are reminiscent of Ken Adam 's work on several early Bond films . Taking a course away from the usual Bond villains , Forster rejected any grotesque appearance for the character Dominic Greene to emphasise the hidden and secret nature of the film 's contemporary villains .
The film was also marked by its frequent depictions of violence , with a 2012 study by the University of Otago in New Zealand finding it to be the most violent film in the franchise . Whereas Dr. No featured 109 " trivial or severely violent " acts , Quantum of Solace had a count of 250 – the most depictions of violence in any Bond film . Quantum of Solace premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square on 29 October 2008 , gathering mixed reviews , which mainly praised Craig 's gritty performance and the film 's action sequences , but feeling that the film was not as impressive as its predecessor Casino Royale . As of November 2012 , it is the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing James Bond film , without adjusting for inflation , earning $ 586 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
James Bond is driving from Lake Garda to Siena , Italy , with the captured Mr. White ( Jesper Christensen ) in the boot of his car . After evading pursuers , Bond delivers White to M , who interrogates him regarding his organisation , Quantum . M 's bodyguard Craig Mitchell ( Glenn Foster ) , is a double agent ; he attacks M , enabling White to escape . Bond chases Mitchell and kills him . Bond and M return to London and search Mitchell 's flat , discovering that Mitchell had a contact in Haiti , Edmund Slate ( Neil Jackson ) . Bond learns that Slate is a hitman sent to kill Camille Montes ( Olga Kurylenko ) at the behest of her lover , environmentalist entrepreneur Dominic Greene ( Mathieu Amalric ) . Observing her subsequent meeting with Greene , Bond learns that Greene is helping exiled Bolivian General Medrano ( Joaquin Cosio ) — who murdered Camille 's family — to overthrow his government and become the new president , in exchange for a seemingly barren piece of desert .
After rescuing Camille from Medrano , Bond follows Greene to a performance of Tosca in Bregenz , Austria . Meanwhile , the head of the CIA 's South American section , Gregg Beam ( David Harbour ) , strikes a non @-@ interference deal with Greene for access to putative stocks of Bolivian oil . Bond infiltrates Quantum 's meeting at the opera , identifying members of Quantum 's executive board , and a gunfight ensues . A Special Branch bodyguard working for Quantum member Guy Haines ( Paul Ritter ) , is killed after he fights with Bond . M assumes that Bond killed him , and has Bond 's passports and credit cards revoked . Bond heads to Italy and convinces his old ally René Mathis ( Giancarlo Giannini ) to accompany him to Bolivia . They are greeted by Strawberry Fields ( Gemma Arterton ) , a consular employee who demands that Bond return to the UK immediately . Bond seduces her and they attend a fundraising party Greene holds that night . At the party , Bond again rescues Camille from Greene . Leaving , Bond and Camille are pulled over by Bolivian police working for Medrano . They had earlier attacked Mathis and put him in the boot of Bond 's car to frame Bond . In the ensuing struggle , Mathis is killed .
The following day , Bond and Camille survey Quantum 's intended land acquisition by air ; their plane is shot down by a Bolivian fighter aircraft . They skydive into a sinkhole , and discover that Quantum is damming Bolivia 's supply of fresh water to create a monopoly . Back in La Paz , Bond meets M and learns that Quantum murdered Fields by drowning her in crude oil . Bond meets CIA Agent Felix Leiter ( Jeffrey Wright ) , who discloses that Greene and Medrano will meet in the Atacama Desert to finalise their agreement . Warned by Leiter , he evades the CIA 's Special Activities Division when they attempt to kill him .
At an eco hotel in the desert , Greene tells Medrano that now he controls the majority of Bolivia 's water supply , Medrano must accept a new contract that makes Greene Planet Bolivia 's sole water utility company at significantly higher rates . Bond infiltrates the hotel , kills the Chief of Police ( Fernando Guillén Cuervo ) for betraying Mathis , and confronts Greene . Meanwhile , Camille kills Medrano , avenging the murders of her family . The struggle leaves the hotel destroyed by fire . Bond captures Greene and interrogates him about Quantum , leaving him stranded in the desert with only a can of engine oil .
Bond travels to Kazan , Russia , where he finds Vesper Lynd 's former lover , Yusef Kabira ( Simon Kassianides ) , a member of Quantum who seduces women with valuable connections , and who is indirectly responsible for her death . Bond tells Kabira 's latest target , Corrine Veneau ( Stana Katic ) , a Canadian Intelligence agent , of his true intentions , thus sparing her Vesper 's fate . He allows MI6 to arrest Kabira . Outside , M tells Bond that Greene was found dead in the middle of the desert , shot twice and with engine oil in his stomach . M tells Bond that she needs him back ; he responds that he never left . Walking away , he drops Vesper 's necklace in the snow .
= = Cast = =
Daniel Craig as James Bond . Craig 's physical training for his reprise of the role placed extra effort into running and boxing , to spare him the injuries he sustained on his stunts in the first film . Craig felt he was fitter , being less bulky than in the first film . He also practised speedboating and stunt driving . Craig felt Casino Royale was [ physically ] " a walk in the park " compared to Quantum of Solace , which required a different performance from him because Quantum of Solace is a revenge film , not a love story like Casino Royale . While filming in Pinewood , he suffered a gash when kicked in his face , which required eight stitches , and a fingertip was sliced off . He laughed these off , noting they did not delay filming , and joked his finger wound would enable him to have a criminal career ( though it had grown back when he made this comment ) . He also had minor plastic surgery on his face . The actor advised Paul Haggis on the script and helped choose Marc Forster as the director .
Olga Kurylenko as Camille Montes , a Bolivian agent with her own vendetta regarding Greene and Medrano . Forster chose her because out of the 400 women who auditioned , she seemed the least nervous . When she read the script , she was glad she had no love scene with Craig ; she felt it would have distracted viewers from her performance . Kurylenko spent three weeks training to fight with weapons , and she learnt a form of indoor skydiving known as body flying . Kurylenko said she had to do " training non @-@ stop from the morning to the evening " for the action scenes , overcoming her fears with the help of Craig and the stunt team . She was given a DVD box set of Bond films , since the franchise was not easily available to watch in her native Ukraine . Kurylenko found Michelle Yeoh in Tomorrow Never Dies inspiring " because she did the fight scenes by herself . " The producers had intended to cast a South American actress in the role . Kurylenko trained with a dialect coach to perform with a Spanish accent . She said that the accent was easy for her because she has " a lot of hispanic friends , from Latin America and Spain , and it 's an accent I 've always heard " . When reflecting on her experience as a Bond girl , she stated she was proudest of overcoming her fears in performing stunts .
Mathieu Amalric as Dominic Greene , the main villain . He is a leading member of Quantum posing as a businessman working in reforestation and charity funding for environmental science . In the 2015 Bond film Spectre , he is revealed to be a member of the crime syndicate SPECTRE , which Quantum is a subsidiary of . Amalric acknowledged taking the role was an easy decision because , " It 's impossible to say to your kids that ' I could have been in a Bond film but I refused . ' " Amalric wanted to wear make @-@ up for the role , but Forster explained that he wanted Greene not to look grotesque , but to symbolise the hidden evils in society . Amalric modelled his performance on " the smile of Tony Blair [ and ] the craziness of Sarkozy , " the latter of whom he called " the worst villain we [ the French ] have ever had ... he walks around thinking he 's in a Bond film . " He later claimed this was not criticism of either politician , but rather an example of how a politician relies on performance instead of a genuine policy to win power . " Sarkozy , is just a better actor than [ his presidential opponent ] Ségolène Royal — that 's all , " he explained . Amalric and Forster reconceived the character , who was supposed to have a " special skill " in the script , to someone who uses pure animal instinct when fighting Bond in the climax . Bruno Ganz was also considered for the part , but Forster decided Amalric gave the character a " pitiful " quality .
Gemma Arterton as MI6 agent Strawberry Fields , who works at the British consulate in Bolivia . Fields , who is merely an office worker as described by M , takes herself seriously and tries to overpower Bond when the pair meet . She is later seduced by Bond , infiltrates Greene 's fund raiser party with him and ends up paying the ultimate price . Forster found Arterton a witty actress and selected her from a reported 1 @,@ 500 candidates . One of the casting directors asked her to audition for the role , having seen her portray Rosaline in Love 's Labour 's Lost at the Globe Theatre . Arterton said Fields was " not so frolicsome " as other Bond girls , but is instead " fresh and young , not ... a femme fatale . " Arterton described Fields as a homage to the 1960s Bond girls , comparing her red wig to that of Diana Rigg , who played Tracy Bond in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service . Rigg , alongside Honor Blackman , is one of her favourite Bond girls . Arterton had to film her character 's death scene first day on the set , where she was completely covered head to toe in non @-@ toxic black paint . Although she found the experience unpleasant , she believes the scene will be an iconic part of the film . The character 's first name , which is a reference to the Beatles song " Strawberry Fields Forever " , is never actually uttered on screen ; when Bond asks her for her name , she replies , " Just Fields . " Robert A. Caplen suggests that this is a conscious effort to portray a woman " whose character attributes are neither undermined nor compromised " by her name , even though her name may have sexual overtones reminiscent of earlier Bond girls .
Giancarlo Giannini as René Mathis , Bond 's ally who was mistakenly believed to be a traitor in Casino Royale . Having been acquitted , he chooses to aid Bond again in his quest to find out who betrayed him .
Jeffrey Wright as Felix Leiter , Bond 's ally at the CIA . Early script drafts gave Leiter a larger role , but his screentime was restricted by on @-@ set rewrites .
Judi Dench as M. Forster felt Dench was underused in the previous films and wanted to make her part bigger , having her interact with Bond more because she is " the only woman Bond doesn 't see in a sexual context , " which Forster finds interesting .
Anatole Taubman as Elvis , Greene 's second @-@ in @-@ command . Taubman wanted to make Elvis " as colourful , as edgy and as interesting as possible " , with one of his suggestions being the bowl cut . Amalric and Taubman improvised a backstory for Elvis : he is Dominic 's cousin and once lived on the streets before being inducted into Quantum . He called Elvis " a bit of a goofball . He thinks he 's all that but he 's not really . ... He 's not a comic guy . He definitely takes himself very serious , but maybe by his taking himself too serious he may become friendly . "
David Harbour as Gregg Beam , the CIA section chief for South America and a contact of Felix Leiter .
Joaquín Cosío as General Medrano , the exiled general whom Greene is helping to get back into power , in return for support of his organisation . He murdered Camille 's entire family when she was a young girl .
Fernando Guillén Cuervo as Carlos , the Colonel of Bolivian Police , the chief of all police forces , and the contact of René Mathis in Bolivia .
Jesper Christensen as Mr. White , whom Bond captured after he stole the money won at Casino Royale in Montenegro .
Rory Kinnear as Bill Tanner , M 's aide .
Paul Ritter as Guy Haines
Tim Pigott @-@ Smith as the British Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs .
Neil Jackson as Edmund Slate , a henchman who fights Bond in Haiti .
Simon Kassianides as Yusef , a member of Quantum who seduces female agents and manipulates them into giving away classified information . He is indirectly responsible for Vesper Lynd 's death .
Stana Katic as Corrine Veneau , a Canadian agent and Yusef 's latest target .
Glenn Foster as Craig Mitchell , M 's bodyguard and a double agent .
Oona Chaplin as Perla de las Dunas ' receptionist , a woman saved by Camille Montes in one of the last sequences .
Lucrezia Lante della Rovere as Gemma , Mathis ' girlfriend .
Elizabeth Arciniega as Mr. White 's girlfriend .
Marc Forster asked his friends and fellow directors Guillermo del Toro and Alfonso Cuarón to appear in cameos . Cuarón appears as a Bolivian helicopter pilot , while del Toro provides several other voices .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
" If you remember in Chinatown , if you control the water you control the whole development of the country . I think it 's true . Right now it appears to be oil , but there 's a lot of other resources that we don 't think about too much but are all essential , and they 're very limited and every country needs it . Because every country knows that raising the standard of living ( and populations are getting bigger ) is the way we 're all going . "
In July 2006 , as Casino Royale entered post @-@ production , Eon Productions announced that the next film would be based on an original idea by producer Michael G. Wilson . It was decided beforehand the film would be a direct sequel , to exploit Bond 's emotions following Vesper 's death in the previous film . Just as Casino Royale 's theme was terrorism , the sequel focuses on environmentalism . The film was confirmed for a 2 May 2008 release date , with Craig reprising the lead role . Roger Michell , who directed Craig in Enduring Love and The Mother , was in negotiations to direct , but opted out because there was no script . Sony Entertainment vice @-@ chairman Jeff Blake admitted a production schedule of 18 months was a very short window , and the release date was pushed back to late 2008 . Neal Purvis and Robert Wade completed their draft of the script by April 2007 , and Paul Haggis , who polished the Casino Royale script , began his rewrite the next month .
In June 2007 , Marc Forster was confirmed as director . He was surprised that he was approached for the job , stating he was not a big Bond film fan through the years , and that he would not have accepted the project had he not seen Casino Royale prior to making his decision : he felt Bond had been humanised in that film , arguing since travelling the world had become less exotic since the series ' advent , it made sense to focus more on Bond as a character . Born in Germany and raised in Switzerland , Forster was the first Bond director not to come from the British Commonwealth of Nations , although he noted Bond 's mother is Swiss , making him somewhat appropriate to handle the British icon . The director collaborated strongly with Barbara Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson , noting they only blocked two very expensive ideas he had . The director found Casino Royale 's 144 @-@ minute running time too long , and wanted his follow @-@ up to be " tight and fast ... like a bullet . "
" Because Bond plays it real , I thought the political circumstances should be real too , even though Bond shouldn 't be a political film . I thought the more political I make it , the more real it feels , not just with Bolivia and what 's happening in Haiti , but with all these corporations like Shell and Chevron saying they 're green because it 's so fashionable to be green . During the Cold War , everything was very clear , the good guys and the bad guys . Today there 's much overlapping of good and bad . It isn 't as morally distinct , because we all have both elements in us . "
Haggis , Forster and Wilson rewrote the story from scratch . Haggis said he completed his script two hours before the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike officially began . Forster noted a running theme in his films were emotionally repressed protagonists , and the theme of the picture would be Bond learning to trust after feeling betrayed by Vesper . Forster said he created the Camille character as a strong female counterpart to Bond rather than a casual love interest : she openly shows emotions similar to those which Bond experiences but is unable to express . Haggis located his draft 's climax in the Swiss Alps , but Forster wanted the action sequences to be based around the four classical elements of earth , water , air and fire . The decision to homage Goldfinger in Fields 's death came about as Forster wanted to show oil had replaced gold as the most precious material . The producers rejected Haggis 's idea that Vesper Lynd had a child , because " Bond was an orphan ... Once he finds the kid , Bond can 't just leave the kid . " The water supply issue in Bolivia was the main theme of the film , with a story based on the Cochabamba Water Revolt .
Michael G. Wilson decided on the film 's title Quantum of Solace only " a few days " before its announcement on 24 January 2008 . It was the name of a short story in Ian Fleming 's anthology For Your Eyes Only ( 1960 ) . The film is related to the title in one of its thematic elements : " when the ' Quantum of Solace ' drops to zero , humanity and consideration of one human for another is gone . " Daniel Craig admitted , " I was unsure at first . Bond is looking for his quantum of solace and that 's what he wants , he wants his closure . Ian Fleming says that if you don 't have a quantum of solace in your relationship then the relationship is over . It 's that spark of niceness in a relationship that if you don 't have you might as well give up . " He said that " Bond doesn 't have that because his girlfriend [ Vesper Lynd ] has been killed , " and therefore , " [ Bond is ] looking for revenge ... to make himself happy with the world again . " Afterwards , Quantum was made the name of the organisation introduced in Casino Royale . Craig noted the letter Q itself looks rather odd . Near the end of the film , the Camille Montes character and Bond have a discussion about their individual quests to avenge the deaths of their loved ones . Montes asks Bond to " let me know what it feels like " when he succeeds , the implication of the title being that it will be a small amount of solace compared to his despair . Bond 's lack of emotion when he does exact revenge shows this to be the case .
According to a December 2011 interview with Craig , " We had the bare bones of a script and then there was a writers ' strike and there was nothing we could do . We couldn 't employ a writer to finish it . I say to myself , ' Never again ' , but who knows ? There was me trying to rewrite scenes — and a writer I am not . " He said that he and Forster " were the ones allowed to do it . The rules were that you couldn 't employ anyone as a writer , but the actor and director could work on scenes together . We were stuffed . We got away with it , but only just . It was never meant to be as much of a sequel as it was , but it ended up being a sequel , starting where the last one finished . "
During filming , after the strike ended , Forster read a spec script by Joshua Zetumer , which he liked , and hired him to reshape scenes for the later parts of the shoot , which the director was still unsatisfied with . Forster had the actors rehearse their scenes , as he liked to film scenes continually . Zetumer rewrote dialogue depending on the actors ' ideas each day .
= = = Filming = = =
Quantum of Solace was shot in six countries . Second unit filming began in Italy at the Palio di Siena horse race on 16 August 2007 , although at that point Forster was unsure how it would fit into the film . Some scenes were filmed also in Maratea and Craco , two small distinctive towns in Basilicata in southern Italy . Other places used for location shooting were Madrid in August 2007 ; Baja California , Mexico in early 2008 , for shots of the aerial battle ; Malcesine , Limone sul Garda and Tremosine in Italy during March , and at Talamone during the end of April . The main unit began on 3 January 2008 at Pinewood Studios . The 007 Stage was used for the fight in the art gallery , and an MI6 safehouse hidden within the city 's cisterns , while other stages housed Bond 's Bolivian hotel suite , and the MI6 headquarters . Interior and exterior airport scenes were filmed at Farnborough Airfield and the snowy closing scenes were filmed at the Bruneval Barracks in Aldershot .
Shooting in Panama City began on 7 February 2008 at Howard Air Force Base . The country doubled for Haiti and Bolivia , with the National Institute of Culture of Panama standing in for a hotel in the latter country . A sequence requiring several hundred extras was also shot at nearby Colón . Shooting in Panama was also carried out at Fort Sherman , a former US military base on the Colón coast . Forster was disappointed he could only shoot the boat chase in that harbour , as he had a more spectacular vision for the scene . Officials in the country worked with the locals to " minimise inconvenience " for the cast and crew , and in return hoped the city 's exposure in the film would increase tourism . The crew was going to move to Cusco , Peru for ten days of filming on 2 March , but the location was cancelled for budget reasons . Twelve days of filming in Chile began on 24 March at Antofagasta . There was shooting in Cobija , the Paranal Observatory , and other locations in the Atacama Desert . Forster chose the desert and the observatory 's ESO Hotel to represent Bond 's rigid emotions , and being on the verge of committing a vengeful act as he confronts Greene in the film 's climax .
While filming in Sierra Gorda , Chile , the local mayor , Carlos Lopez , staged a protest because he was angry at the filmmakers ' portrayal of the Antofagasta region as part of Bolivia . He was arrested , detained briefly , and put on trial two days later . Eon dismissed his claim that they needed his permission to film in the area . Michael G. Wilson also explained Bolivia was appropriate to the plot , because of the country 's history of water problems , and was surprised the two countries disliked each other a century after the War of the Pacific . In a poll by Chilean daily newspaper La Segunda , 75 % of its readers disagreed with Lopez 's actions , due to the negative image they felt it presented of Chile , and the controversy 's potential to put off productions looking to film in the country in the future .
From 4 – 12 April the main unit shot on Sienese rooftops . Shooting on the real rooftops turned out to be less expensive than building them at Pinewood . The next four weeks were scheduled for filming the car chase at Lake Garda and Carrara . On 19 April , an Aston Martin employee driving a DBS to the set crashed into the lake . He survived , and was fined £ 400 for reckless driving . Another accident occurred on 21 April , and two days later , two stuntmen were seriously injured , with one , Greek stuntman Aris Comninos , having to be put in intensive care . Filming of the scenes was temporarily halted so that Italian police could investigate the causes of the accidents . Stunt co @-@ ordinator Gary Powell said the accidents were a testament to the realism of the action . Rumours of a " curse " spread among tabloid media , something which deeply offended Craig , who disliked that they compared Comninos ' accident to something like his minor finger injury later on the shoot ( also part of the " curse " ) . Comninos recovered safely from his injury .
Filming took place at the floating opera stage at Bregenz , Austria , from 28 April – 9 May 2008 . The sequence , where Bond stalks the villains during a performance of Tosca , required 1 @,@ 500 extras . The production used a large model of an eye , which Forster felt fitted in the Bond style , and the opera itself has parallels to the film . A short driving sequence was filmed at the nearby Feldkirch , Vorarlberg . The crew returned to Italy from 13 – 17 May to shoot a ( planned ) car crash at the marble quarry in Carrara , and a recreation of the Palio di Siena at the Piazza del Campo in Siena . 1 @,@ 000 extras were hired for a scene where Bond emerges from the Fonte Gaia . Originally , he would have emerged from the city 's cisterns at Siena Cathedral , but this was thought disrespectful . By June the crew returned to Pinewood for four weeks , where new sets ( including the interior of the hotel in the climax ) were built . The wrap party was held on 21 June .
= = = Design = = =
Production designer Peter Lamont , a crew member on 18 previous Bond films , retired after Casino Royale . Forster hired Dennis Gassner in his stead , having admired his work on The Truman Show and the films of the Coen brothers . Craig said the film would have " a touch of Ken Adam , " while Michael G. Wilson also called Gassner 's designs " a postmodern look at modernism . " Forster said he felt the early Bond films ' design " were ahead of their time , " and enjoyed the clashing of an older style with his own because it created a unique look unto itself . Gassner wanted his sets to emphasise Craig 's " great angular , textured face and wonderful blue eyes , " and totally redesigned the MI6 headquarters because he felt Judi Dench " was a bit tired in the last film , so I thought , let 's bring her into a new world . "
Louise Frogley replaced Lindy Hemming as costume designer , though Hemming remained as supervisor . Hemming hired Brioni for Bond 's suits since her tenure on the series began with 1995 's GoldenEye , but Lindsay Pugh , another supervisor , explained their suits were " too relaxed . " Tom Ford was hired to tailor " sharper " suits for Craig . Pugh said the costumes aimed towards the 1960s feel , especially for Bond and Fields . Prada provided the dresses for both Bond girls . Jasper Conran designed Camille 's ginger bandeau , bronze skirt and gold fish necklace , while Chrome Hearts designed gothic jewellery for Amalric 's character , which the actor liked enough to keep after filming . Sophie Harley , who created Vesper Lynd 's earrings and Algerian loveknot necklace in Casino Royale , was called upon to create another version of the necklace .
The film returns to the traditional gun barrel opening shot , which was altered into part of the story for Casino Royale where it was moved to the beginning of the title sequence . In this film the gun barrel sequence was moved to the end of the movie , which Wilson explained was done for a surprise , and to signify the conclusion of the story begun in the previous film . The opening credits sequence was created by MK12 . Having worked on Forster 's Stranger than Fiction and The Kite Runner , MK12 spontaneously began developing the sequence early on in production , and had a good idea of its appearance which meant it did not have to be redone when the title singer was changed . MK12 selected various twilight colours to represent Bond 's mood and focused on a dot motif based on the gunbarrel shot . MK12 also worked on scenes with graphical user interface , including the electronic table MI6 use , and the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti title cards .
= = = Effects = = =
Quantum of Solace was the last in Ford Motor 's three @-@ film deal that began with 2002 's Die Another Day . Although Ford sold over 90 % of the Aston Martin company in 2007 , the Aston Martin DBS V12 returned for the film 's car chase around Lake Garda ; Dan Bradley was hired as second unit director because of his work on the second and third Bourne films , so the film would continue the gritty action style begun in Casino Royale . He had intended to use Ford GTs for the opening chase , but it was replaced by the Alfa Romeo 159 . After location filming in Italy , further close @-@ ups of Craig , the cars and the truck were shot at Pinewood against a blue screen . Originally three Alfa Romeos were in the sequence : but Forster felt the scene was running too long and re @-@ edited the scene so it only looked like two Romeos were chasing Bond . Six Aston Martins were destroyed during filming , and one of them was purchased by a fan .
Fourteen cameras were used to film the Palio di Siena footage , which was later edited into the main sequence . Aerial shots using helicopters were banned , and the crew were also forbidden from showing any violence " involving either people or animals . " To shoot the foot chase in Siena in April 2008 four camera cranes were built in the town , and a cable camera was also used . Framestore worked on the Siena chase , duplicating the 1 @,@ 000 extras during principal photography to match shots of the 40 @,@ 000 strong audience at the real Palio , removing wires that held Craig and the stuntmen in the rooftop segment of the chase , and digital expansion of the floor and skylight in the art gallery Bond and Mitchell fall into . The art gallery fight was intended to be simple , but during filming Craig 's stunt double accidentally fell from the construction scaffolding . Forster preferred the idea of Bond hanging from ropes reaching for his gun to kill Mitchell , rather than having both men run out of the building to continue their chase as specified in the script , and the number of effects shots increased .
To film the aerial dogfight , a " Snakehead " camera was built and placed on the nose and tail of a Piper Aerostar 700 . SolidWorks , who provided the software used to design the camera , stated " pilots for the first time can fly as aggressively as they dare without sacrificing the drama of the shot . " The camera could turn 360 degrees and was shaped like a periscope . The crew also mounted SpaceCams on helicopters , and placed cameras with 1600 mm lenses underground , to cover the action . Forster wanted to film the plane fight as a homage to Alfred Hitchcock 's North by Northwest , and chose planes like the Douglas DC @-@ 3 to suit that .
The free @-@ fall scene involved its own set of challenges , Craig disliked the idea of " being hung by wires and blown by a large fan in front of a green screen " but actual sky diving coverage has serious drawbacks . It 's not only difficult , dangerous and time @-@ consuming , but nearly always results in problematic head @-@ replacements for close @-@ ups . Stunt co @-@ ordinator Gary Powell and VFX Designer Kevin Tod Haug , presented the idea of filming the scene in a large vertical wind tunnel in Bedford to do this sequence as practically as possible . While a great solution for the actors ' performances the technique presented enormous VFX challenges : relighting shots captured in a tall white tube to match the sky over the Bolivian desert , and the impossibility of filming medium to wide shots of the actors . An array of eight Dalsa Origin cameras ( supported by seven HD cameras and a 35mm hand @-@ held camera , all running in sync ) was used to create a virtual camera with which to shoot the actors floating in the simulator . Ged Wright and his team at Double Negative developed a method to use the data from these cameras that allowed these real performances to be placed in a synthetic environment as seen by a synthetic camera . During the shooting in the wind tunnel Craig and Kurylenko wore wind @-@ resistant contact lenses that enabled them to open their eyes as they fell . For safety and comfort , they only shot for 30 seconds at a time . Forster wished he had more time to work on the free @-@ fall scene .
The Moving Picture Company created the climactic hotel sequence . The fire effects were supervised by Chris Corbould , and post @-@ production MPC had to enhance the sequence by making the smoke look closer to the actors , so it would look more dangerous . A full @-@ scale replica of the building 's exterior was used for the exploding part Bond and Camille escape from . The boat chase was another scene that required very little CGI . Machine FX worked on replacing a few shots of visible stuntmen with a digital version of Craig 's head , and recreated the boats Bond jumps over on his motorcycle to make it look more dangerous . Crowd creation was done for the Tosca scene by Machine FX , to make the performance look like it had sold out . Forster edited the opera scene to resemble The Man Who Knew Too Much . In total , there are 900 + visual effects shots in Quantum of Solace .
= = = Music = = =
David Arnold , who composed the scores for the previous four Bond films , returned for Quantum of Solace . He said that Forster likes to work very closely with his composers and that , in comparison to the accelerated schedule he was tied to on Casino Royale , the intention was to spend a long time scoring the film to " really work it out . " He also said he would be " taking a different approach " with the score . Arnold composed the music based on impressions from reading the script , and Forster edited those into the film . As with Casino Royale , Arnold kept use of the " James Bond Theme " to a minimum . Arnold collaborated with Kieran Hebden for " Crawl , End Crawl , " a remix of the score played during the end credits .
Jack White of The White Stripes and Alicia Keys collaborated on " Another Way to Die , " the first Bond music duet . They had wanted to work together for two years beforehand . The song was recorded in Nashville , Tennessee ; White played the drums while Keys performed on the piano . The Memphis Horns also contributed to the track . White 's favourite Bond theme is John Barry 's instrumental piece for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , and he watched various opening credit sequences from the series for inspiration while mixing the track . Mark Ronson and Amy Winehouse had recorded a demo track for the film , but Ronson explained Winehouse 's well @-@ publicised legal issues in the preceding weeks made her " not ready to record any music " at that time .
= = Release = =
The film premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square on 29 October 2008 . Princes William and Harry attended , and proceeds from the screening were donated to the charities Help for Heroes and the Royal British Legion . The film was originally scheduled to be released in the UK and North America on 7 November ; however , Eon pushed forward the British date to 31 October during filming , while the American date was pushed back in August to 14 November , after Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince had been moved to 2009 , thereby allowing the distributors to market the film over the autumn blockbuster Thanksgiving holiday weekend . In Australia , the film was moved a week to 19 November , after 20th Century Fox chose to release Australia on Quantum of Solace 's original date of 26 November .
= = = Marketing = = =
Returning product placement partners from Casino Royale included Ford , Heineken , Smirnoff , Omega SA , Virgin Atlantic and Sony Ericsson . A reported £ 50 million was earned in product placement , which tops the Bond films ' record of £ 44 million for Die Another Day . The 2009 Ford Ka is driven by Camille in the film . Avon created a fragrance called Bond Girl 007 with Gemma Arterton as the " face " of the product . Coca @-@ Cola became a promotional partner , rebranding Coke Zero as " Coke Zero Zero 7 . " A tie @-@ in advert featured the orchestral element of " Another Way to Die . " In the film , Coca @-@ Cola was briefly seen being served at Dominic Greene 's party . Sony held a competition , " Mission for a Million , " enabling registered players to use their products to complete certain tasks . Each completed " mission " gives consumers a chance to win $ 1 million and a trip to a top secret location .
= = = = Merchandise = = = =
Corgi International Limited made 5 @-@ inch action figures and gadgets ( such as a voice @-@ activated briefcase ) , as well as its traditional die @-@ cast toy vehicles . It also created 7 @-@ inch figures of characters from the previous films . Scalextric released four racing sets to coincide with the film . Activision released its first James Bond game , also titled Quantum of Solace , which is based on both Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace . It is the first Bond game to feature Craig 's likeness and the first seventh generation console game in the series . Swatch designed a series of wrist watches , each of them inspired by a Bond villain .
Though the screenplay did not get made into a novel despite its original storyline , Penguin Books published a compilation of Fleming 's short stories entitled Quantum of Solace : The Complete James Bond Short Stories , with a UK release date of 29 May 2008 and a North American release date of 26 August 2008 . The book combines the contents of Fleming 's two short story collections , For Your Eyes Only — including the original " Quantum of Solace " short story — and Octopussy and The Living Daylights .
= = = Home media = = =
Quantum of Solace was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray by MGM via 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment in Australia , the UK and North America from 18 to 24 March 2009 . At the DVD sales chart the film opened at No. 3 , grossing $ 21 @,@ 894 @,@ 957 from 1.21m DVD units sold . As of 1 November 2009 , 2 @,@ 643 @,@ 250 DVD units were sold , generating $ 44 @,@ 110 @,@ 750 in sales revenue . These figures do not include Blu @-@ ray sales or DVD rentals . The DVDs were released in both a standard one @-@ disc set and a deluxe two @-@ disc special edition . There are no audio commentaries or deleted scenes on these editions .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Upon its opening in the UK , the film grossed £ 4 @.@ 9 million ( $ 8 million ) , breaking the record for the largest Friday opening ( 31 October 2008 ) in the UK . The film then broke the UK opening weekend record , taking £ 15 @.@ 5 million ( $ 25 million ) in its first weekend , surpassing the previous record of £ 14 @.@ 9 million held by Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . It earned a further £ 14 million in France and Sweden — where it opened on the same day . The weekend gross of the equivalent of $ 10 @.@ 6 million in France was a record for the series , surpassing what Casino Royale made in five days by 16 % . The $ 2 @.@ 7 million gross in Sweden was the fourth @-@ highest opening for a film there .
The following week , the film was playing in sixty countries . It grossed the equivalent of $ 39 @.@ 3 million in the UK , $ 16 @.@ 5 million in France and $ 7 @.@ 7 million in Germany on 7 November 2008 . The film broke records in Switzerland , Finland , United Arab Emirates , Nigeria , Romania and Slovenia . Its Chinese and Indian openings were the second largest ever for foreign @-@ language films .
The film grossed $ 27 million on its opening day in 3 @,@ 451 cinemas in Canada and the United States , where it was the number one film for the weekend , with $ 67 @.@ 5 million and $ 19 @,@ 568 average per cinema . It was the highest @-@ grossing opening weekend Bond film in the US , and tied with The Incredibles for the biggest November opening outside of the Harry Potter series . The film earned a B- from CinemaScore 's audience surveys . From the 31 October British opening through to the 14 November US opening weekend , the film had grossed a total $ 319 @,@ 128 @,@ 882 worldwide . As of 10 February 2010 , it had grossed the equivalent of $ 417 @,@ 722 @,@ 300 in countries other than Canada and the US , where it grossed $ 168 @,@ 368 @,@ 427 , to give a total of $ 586 @,@ 090 @,@ 727 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Reviews for Quantum of Solace have been mixed . Of the 280 reviews listed on Rotten Tomatoes , 65 % are positive , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 1 / 10 . Metacritic calculated a score of 58 out of 100 from 38 reviews , indicating a " mixed or average " response . Critics generally preferred Casino Royale , but continued to praise Craig 's depiction of Bond , and agree that the film is still an enjoyable addition to the series . The action sequences and pacing were praised , but criticism grew over the realism and serious but gritty feel that the film carried over .
Roger Moore , the third actor to play Bond in the films , said that Craig was a " damn good Bond but the film as a whole , there was a bit too much flash cutting [ and ] it was just like a commercial of the action . There didn 't seem to be any geography and you were wondering what the hell was going on . " Kim Newman of Empire gave it 4 / 5 , remarking it was not " bigger and better than Casino Royale , [ which is ] perhaps a smart move in that there 's still a sense at the finish that Bond 's mission has barely begun . " However , he expressed nostalgia for the more humorous Bond films . The Sunday Times review noted that " following Casino Royale was never going to be easy , but the director Marc Forster has brought the brand 's successful relaunch crashing back to earth – with a yawn " ; the screenplay " is at times incomprehensible " and the casting " is a mess . " The review concludes that " Bond has been stripped of his iconic status . He no longer represents anything particularly British , or even modern . In place of glamour , we get a spurious grit ; instead of style , we get product placement ; in place of fantasy , we get a redundant and silly realism . " The Guardian gave a more positive review , rating it as 3 / 5 stars , and was particularly fond of Craig 's performance , saying he " made the part his own , every inch the coolly ruthless agent @-@ killer , nursing a broken heart and coldly suppressed rage " and calling the film " a crash @-@ bang Bond , high on action , low on quips , long on location glamour , short on product placement " ; it concludes " Quantum of Solace isn 't as good as Casino Royale : the smart elegance of Craig 's Bond debut has been toned down in favour of conventional action . But the man himself powers this movie ; he carries the film : it 's an indefinably difficult task for an actor . Craig measures up . "
Screen Daily says , " Notices will focus — rightly — on Craig 's magnetism as the steely , sexy , murderous MI6 agent , but two other factors weigh in and freshen up proceedings : Forster 's new technical team , led by cinematographer Roberto Schaefer and production designer Dennis Gassner . And the ongoing shift of M , as played by Judi Dench , to front and centre : the Bond girls fade into insignificance as she becomes his moral counterpoint and theirs is the only real relationship on screen . " The review continues , " Bond is , as has been previously noted , practically the Martin Scorsese of the BAFTAs : 22 films later , with grosses probably close to the GDP of one of the small nations it depicts , it 's still waiting for that Alexander Korda award . The best Casino Royale could achieve was a gong for sound . Will this be the year that changes its fortunes ? " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , who praised the previous film , disliked Quantum of Solace . He wrote that the plot was mediocre , characters weak and that Bond lacked his usual personality , despite his praise for Craig 's interpretation of the role . Throughout his review , he emphasised that " James Bond is not an action hero . " Kate Muir wrote in The Times that " The Bond franchise is 50 years old this year , and the scriptless mess of Quantum of Solace may be considered its mid @-@ life crisis " , before she went on to praise the film 's successor Skyfall as a " resurrection " . Some writers criticised the choice of Quantum of Solace as a title . " Yes , it 's a bad title , " wrote Marni Weisz , the editor of Famous , a Canadian film publication distributed in cinemas in that country , in an editorial entitled " At least it 's not Octopussy . "
Not all the reviews were as critical . Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph , in a reflective review of the film in 2013 , was positive . He praised the film 's shorter runtime , claiming that many other Bond films run out of steam before the end , and included Casino Royale in this category . Describing the film as having a " rock @-@ solid dramatic idea and the intelligence to run with it " , he gave the film four stars out of five .
= = = Accolades = = =
The film was nominated for Best Original Score , Best Original Song , Visual Effects , Film and Sound Editing at the 2008 Satellite Awards , winning Best Song . It was nominated for Best Action Movie at the 2009 Critics ' Choice Awards , and at the Empire Awards , which is voted for by the public , it was shortlisted for Best Actor , Best Actress , Best Newcomer , Best Thriller and Best Soundtrack . It was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Action / Adventure / Thriller Film , while Kurylenko and Dench were both nominated for the Best Supporting Actress award . An editorial by The Times also listed the film 's pre @-@ titles sequence as the tenth @-@ greatest car chase in film history .
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= All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues =
" All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues " is the eleventh episode of the American drama series first season of Lost . The episode was directed by Stephen Williams and written by Javier Grillo @-@ Marxuach . It first aired on December 8 , 2004 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . In the episode , flashbacks reveal Jack Shephard being responsible for his father 's dismissal from a hospital after performing surgery while drunk . In the present , Jack and a team go searching for two fellow plane crash survivors after they are kidnapped by somebody who was not listed in the passenger manifest .
The flashbacks were inspired by Grillo @-@ Marxuach 's background as the son of a doctor , and the episode in general went through several changes in the writing stage , one of them being the creation of two new characters who help look for the missing survivors , who were then scrapped in favor of including regular character Boone Carlyle . " All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues " was watched by 18 @.@ 88 million Americans and was met with positive reviews from critics , with several reviewers commending the scene in which Jack saves Charlie Pace .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) operates on a woman who flatlines , and despite his attempts to revive her , his father Christian Shephard ( John Terry ) forces him to stop and call the time of death . It is later revealed that it was actually Christian 's operation ; Jack was called in by a nurse after it becomes apparent that his father was performing the surgery under the influence of alcohol . Christian attempts to cover this up by making Jack sign a form detailing the surgery , albeit with his inebriation omitted from the report , stating that the hospital will revoke his medical license if alcohol is mentioned .
However , sometime later Jack learns the patient 's husband is suing the hospital . Jack and Christian then attend a board meeting discussing what went wrong during the operation . The board reveals that the deceased woman was pregnant , which was unknown by Jack . Horrified , he confesses to the board that Christian was operating under the influence during the surgery , which impaired his judgment that led to the chain of events causing the woman 's death .
= = = On the Island = = =
On Day 16 , October 7 , 2004 , back at the caves , the camp has learned from Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) that one survivor , Ethan Rom ( William Mapother ) , is not listed in the passenger manifest . Furthermore , Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) and Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) are missing . Jack and John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) run through the jungle to find three distinct footprints , indicating that Ethan took Charlie and Claire . Locke decides to go back to gather a hunting party , but Jack continues alone . Locke returns with Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) and finds Jack . After they find a knuckle bandage left by Charlie as a clue , the party find two separate trails . Locke takes Boone in one direction , while Jack and Kate take the other .
It soon turns out that Jack and Kate are following the correct trail when they find more of Charlie 's knuckle bandages . When it starts raining , Jack believes he hears Claire screaming . Jack tumbles down an embankment to find Ethan , who warns Jack he will kill one of his captives if he does not stop following Ethan . A fistfight ensues , but Ethan gains the upper hand and subdues Jack . When he regains consciousness , Jack continues on , eventually finding Charlie , who has been hanged by Ethan . Kate cuts him down , and Jack furiously performs CPR — despite Kate 's pleas that he is dead . Jack does not give up and brings Charlie back to life .
Back at the caves at nightfall , Jack learns from Charlie that " they " only wanted Claire all along . In the meantime , Boone and Locke are still looking through the jungle . Boone decides to go back to the caves . As Locke throws him a flashlight , Boone drops it , and it lands on a metal surface embedded in the ground . Curious , the two proceed to remove the mud over it to find out what it is .
= = Production = =
" All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues " was written by Javier Grillo @-@ Marxuach . Throughout the writing process , the episode went through several changes . The working title for the episode was " What It Takes " ; however , the writers deemed the title " lame . " In writing Jack 's flashback scenes , Grillo @-@ Marxuach drew his inspiration on his own background as the son of a doctor . Two new minor characters , named Arthur and Sullivan , were originally created to accompany Locke . The idea was later scrapped in favor of including series regular Boone Carlyle ; this development would serve as a genesis for the character 's upcoming death in a later episode , " Do No Harm " . The idea behind the metal surface , which would be known as the hatch for the rest of the season , came when the producers were storyboarding the season . The hatch 's discovery was to be introduced earlier into the episode , but was moved to the end to give the episode a cliffhanger .
With Jack and Kate 's journey , in the original outline they were to come under a dart attack by the Others , the island 's native inhabitants , however it was cut because executive producer Damon Lindelof deemed the attack too " cheesy . " Grillo @-@ Marxuach described the " hysterical CPR " as " the biggest cliché in the book , " but added " the nine people who were writing for the show decided , maybe we earned that . It gave us the emotional payoff for the episode . "
The fight scene between Jack and Ethan was performed by the actors themselves . The two were given the freedom to set up how their characters would fight each other . However , stunt coordinator Michael Vendrell wanted Ethan to be " as feral as possible ; no school of combat , karate , kung @-@ fu . " Before filming the scene where Jack finds Charlie , episode director Stephen Williams scouted for a suitable location and found " what looked like a cathedral , " because of the layout of trees behind where Charlie was hung . Monaghan had to be harnessed to a cable for roughly four to five hours . The actor described the scene ; " they put me in the tree and I just hung there . I just hung limp . I tried to fall asleep , I tried to relax . When everything was going on , when they cut me down from the tree , when [ Matthew Fox ] was trying to revive me , when [ Evangeline Lilly ] was crying , I really didn 't hear any of it . I just was in a semi @-@ meditative state ; however close that I could get with someone smacking me in the chest .
= = Reception = =
" All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues " received a 6 @.@ 8 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . The episode was watched by 18 @.@ 88 million viewers , the sixth largest audience in American television the week it aired . It was also an improvement of over 1 @.@ 7 million over the previous episode , " Raised by Another " . In the United Kingdom , the episode was seen by 3 @.@ 76 million viewers . It was the second highest @-@ rated series to air on Channel 4 for the week .
Critical reactions of the episode were positive . Chris Carabott of IGN rated the episode 9 out of 10 , calling it " a swift return to form " with " plenty of striking and emotional moments " that made it one of the better episodes of the first season . Carabott commented on the flashbacks ; " We don 't necessarily learn anything new about Jack from a personality standpoint , " but Fox did " an exceptional job of conveying Jack 's heartbreak as he reveals that his father operated on a woman while under the influence of alcohol . " He enjoyed Jack and Ethan 's encounter , calling it " chilling . " Carabott also praised the scene where Jack tries to save Charlie ; " I remember believing that they had killed off Charlie on my initial viewing and even though I knew the outcome this time , it was still a hard scene to watch , " adding " after Jack finally manages to resuscitate him , you have to feel for Charlie because you know that he 's disappointed in himself for letting Claire down . " Another IGN article ranked " All the Best Cowboys Have Daddy Issues " the 33rd best Lost episode .
Todd VanDerWerff of the Los Angeles Times rated the episode the 79th of all Lost episodes ( apart from the series finale ) , described the episode as " thrilling , " but opined that the show since " has done similar things much better . " Whitney Pastorek of Entertainment Weekly did not care for Jack 's flashbacks , but commended the scene in which Jack saved Charlie , stating " even though I knew he was going to go back to the CPR and save Charlie 's life , I started crying . This is how you identify good TV : When you know what 's going to happen and you still get swept up in it all . "
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= Józef Piłsudski =
Józef Klemens Piłsudski ( Polish : [ ˈjuzɛf ˈklɛmɛns pʲiwˈsutski ] ; 5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935 ) was a Polish statesman ; Chief of State ( 1918 – 22 ) , " First Marshal of Poland " ( from 1920 ) , and de facto leader ( 1926 – 35 ) of the Second Polish Republic , Minister of Military Affairs . From mid @-@ World War I he had a major influence in Poland 's politics , and was an important figure on the European political scene . He was the person most responsible for the creation of the Second Republic of Poland in 1918 , 123 years after it had been taken over by Russia , Austria and Prussia . Under Piłsudski , Poland recovered Vilnius from newly born independent state of Lithuania following Żeligowski 's Mutiny but was unable to incorporate most of Lithuania into the newly resurrected Polish State .
Describing himself as a descendant of the culture and traditions of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , Piłsudski believed in a multicultural Poland - a home of nations , recognizing numerous ethnic and religious nationalities and finally existing in strong historical alliance with independent states of Lithuania and Ukraine . His main opponent Roman Dmowski by contrast called for an independent state of Poland narrowed to the lands of historical Crown and founded mainly on ethnically Polish demos and Roman Catholic identity .
Early in his political career , Piłsudski became a leader of the Polish Socialist Party . Concluding that Poland 's independence would have to be won by force of arms , he created the Polish Legions . In 1914 he anticipated the outbreak of a European war , the Russian Empire 's defeat by the Central Powers , and the Central Powers ' defeat by the western powers . When World War I broke out , he and his Legions fought under Austrian army control against Russia . In 1917 , with Russia faring badly in the war , he withdrew his support from the Central Powers and was arrested by the Germans .
From November 1918 , when Poland regained independence , until 1922 Piłsudski was Poland 's Chief of State . In 1919 – 21 he commanded Poland 's forces in six border wars that shaped the nation of Poland . His forces seemed almost defeated in the Polish @-@ Soviet War when they fought the battle for Warsaw in August 1920 . In the " miracle on the Vistula , " they routed five Russian armies and saved Poland . In 1923 , with the government dominated by his opponents , particularly the National Democrats , he withdrew from active politics . Three years later , he returned to power with the May 1926 coup d 'état , and became the strong man ( in practice a military dictator ) of Poland . From then until his death in 1935 , he concerned himself primarily with military and foreign affairs .
Piłsudski pursued , with varying degrees of intensity , two complementary strategies , intended to enhance Poland 's security : " Prometheism " , which aimed at breaking up , successively , the Imperial Russia and later the Soviet Union into their constituent nations ; and the creation of an " Intermarium " federation , comprising Poland and other independent states located in the geographical space between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea and geopolitically placed between Germany and Russia . The Intermarium main purpose was to guarantee a lasting balance of power in Central Europe and to secure the existence of its nations against both western and eastern imperialisms .
Between 1945 and 1989 , Piłsudski 's person and his record were one of the multiple topics forbidden by the Polish communist regime . Wandycz characterizes him as " an ardent Polish patriot who on occasion would castigate the Poles for their stupidity , cowardice , or servility . He called himself a Polish Lithuanian , and was stubborn and reserved , loath to show his emotions . " Today , although some aspects of his rule remain controversial , Piłsudski 's memory is held in high esteem in Poland . Together with his opponent Roman Dmowski he is regarded as a father of the modern Polish nation .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Józef was born on 5 December 1867 to the medieval noble family Piłsudski , at their manor named Zułów near the Zułowo village ( now Zalavas , Švenčionys district municipality , Lithuania ) , on the territory of the former Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , occupied by the Russian Empire since 1795 . The estate was part of the dowry brought by his mother , a member of the wealthy Billewicz family . The Piłsudski 's family although pauperized , cherished Polish patriotic traditions and has been characterized either as Polish or as Polonized @-@ Lithuanian . Józef was the second son born to the family .
Józef , when he attended the Russian gymnasium at Wilno ( now Vilnius , Lithuania ) , was not an especially diligent student . One of the younger Polish students at this gymnasium was the future Russian communist leader Feliks Dzierżyński , who later would become Piłsudski 's arch @-@ enemy . Along with his brothers Adam , Bronisław and Jan , Józef was introduced by his mother Maria , née Billewicz , to Polish history and literature , which were suppressed by the Russian authorities . His father , likewise named Józef , had fought in the January 1863 Uprising against Russian rule of Poland .
The family resented the Russian government 's Russification policies . Young Józef profoundly disliked having to attend Russian Orthodox Church service and left school with an aversion not only for the Russian Tsar and the Russian Empire , but for the culture , which he knew well .
In 1885 Piłsudski started medical studies at Kharkov University , where he became involved with Narodnaya Volya , part of the Russian Narodniki revolutionary movement . In 1886 he was suspended for participating in student demonstrations . He was rejected by the University of Dorpat ( Tartu , Estonia ) , whose authorities had been informed of his political affiliation . On 22 March 1887 he was arrested by Tsarist authorities on a charge of plotting with Vilnius socialists to assassinate Tsar Alexander III . In fact , Piłsudski 's main connection to the plot was his elder brother Bronisław 's involvement in it . Bronisław Piłsudski was sentenced to fifteen years ' hard labor ( katorga ) in eastern Siberia .
Józef received a milder sentence : five years ' exile in Siberia , first at Kirensk on the Lena River , then at Tunka . While being transported in a prisoners ' convoy to Siberia , Piłsudski was held for several weeks at a prison in Irkutsk . There he took part in what the authorities viewed as a revolt : after one of the inmates had insulted a guard and refused to apologize , he and other political prisoners were beaten by the guards for their defiance ; Piłsudski lost two teeth and took part in a subsequent hunger strike until the authorities reinstated political prisoners ' privileges that had been suspended after the incident . For his involvement , he was sentenced in 1888 to six months ' imprisonment . He had to spend the first night of his incarceration in 40 @-@ degree @-@ below @-@ zero Siberian cold ; this led to an illness that nearly killed him and to health problems that would plague him throughout life .
During his years of exile in Siberia , Piłsudski met many Sybiraks , including Bronisław Szwarce , who had almost become a leader of the January 1863 Uprising . He was allowed to work in an occupation of his own choosing , and earned his living tutoring local children in mathematics and foreign languages ( he knew French , German and Lithuanian in addition to Russian and his native Polish ; he would later learn English ) . Local officials decided that as a Polish noble he was not entitled to the 10 @-@ ruble pension received by most other exiles .
In 1892 Piłsudski returned from exile and settled in Adomavas Manor near Teneniai ( now in Šilalė district ) . In 1893 he joined the Polish Socialist Party ( PPS ) and helped organize its Lithuanian branch . Initially he sided with the Socialists ' more radical wing , but despite the socialist movement 's ostensible internationalism he remained a Polish nationalist . In 1894 , as its chief editor , he began publishing an underground socialist newspaper , Robotnik ( The Worker ) ; he would also be one of its chief writers , and , initially , a typesetter . In 1895 he became a PPS leader , and took the position that doctrinal issues were of minor importance and that socialist ideology should be merged with nationalist ideology , since that combination offered the greatest chance of restoring Polish independence .
On 15 July 1899 , while an underground organizer , Piłsudski married a fellow socialist organizer , Maria Juszkiewiczowa , née Koplewska . According to his chief biographer , Wacław Jędrzejewicz , the marriage was less romantic than pragmatic in nature . Both were very involved in the socialist and independence movement . The printing press of " Robotnik " was in their apartment first in Wilno , then in Łódź . Having a pretext of regular family life made their accommodation safer from suspicion . The Russian law also protected the wife from prosecution for the illegal activities of the husband . The marriage deteriorated when , several years later , Piłsudski began an affair with a younger socialist , Aleksandra Szczerbińska . Maria died in 1921 , and in October that year Piłsudski married Aleksandra . By then the couple had two little daughters , Wanda and Jadwiga .
In February 1900 , after Russian authorities found Robotnik 's underground printing press in Łódź , Piłsudski was imprisoned at the Warsaw Citadel . But , after feigning mental illness in May 1901 , he managed to escape from a mental hospital at Saint Petersburg with the help of a Polish physician , Władysław Mazurkiewicz , and others , fleeing to Galicia , then part of Austria @-@ Hungary .
At the time , when almost all parties in Russian Poland and Lithuania took a conciliatory position toward the Russian Empire and aimed at negotiating within it a limited autonomy for Poland , Piłsudski 's PPS was the only political force that was prepared to fight the Empire for Polish independence and to resort to violence in order to achieve that goal .
On the outbreak of the Russo @-@ Japanese War ( 1904 – 1905 ) , in the summer of 1904 , Piłsudski traveled to Tokyo , Japan , where he tried unsuccessfully to obtain that country 's assistance for an uprising in Poland . He offered to supply Japan with intelligence in support of its war with Russia and proposed the creation of a Polish Legion from Poles , conscripted into the Russian Army , who had been captured by Japan . He also suggested a " Promethean " project directed at breaking up the Russian Empire — a goal that he later continued to pursue . Meeting with Yamagata Aritomo , he suggested that starting a guerrilla war in Poland would distract Russia , and asked that Japan supply him with weapons . Although Japanese diplomat Hayashi Tadasu favored the plan , the Japanese government , including Yamagata were more skeptical .
Piłsudski 's arch @-@ rival Roman Dmowski , also traveled to Japan , where he argued against Piłsudski 's plan , endeavoring to discourage the Japanese government from supporting at this time a Polish revolution which Dmowski felt would be doomed to failure . Dmowski , himself a Polish patriot , would remain Piłsudski 's political arch @-@ enemy to the end of Piłsudski 's life . In the end , the Japanese offered Piłsudski much less than he had hoped for ; he received Japan 's help in purchasing weapons and ammunition for the PPS and its combat organisation , while the Japanese declined the Legion proposal .
In the fall of 1904 Piłsudski formed a paramilitary unit ( the Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party , or bojówki ) aiming to create an armed resistance movement against the Russian authorities . The PPS organized an increasing numbers of demonstrations , mainly in Warsaw ; on 28 October 1904 , Russian Cossack cavalry attacked a demonstration , and in reprisal , during a demonstration on 13 November Piłsudski 's paramilitary opened fire on Russian police and military . Initially concentrating their attention on spies and informers , in March 1905 the paramilitary began using bombs to assassinate selected Russian police officers .
During the 1905 Russian Revolution , Piłsudski played a leading role in events in Congress Poland . In early 1905 he ordered the PPS to launch a general strike there ; it involved some 400 @,@ 000 workers and lasted two months until it was broken by the Russian authorities . In June 1905 , Piłsudski sent paramilitary aid to an uprising in Łódź . During the " June Days " , as the Łódź uprising came to be known , armed clashes broke out between Piłsudski 's paramilitaries and gunmen loyal to Dmowski and his National Democrats . On 22 December 1905 , Piłsudski called for all Polish workers to rise up ; the call went largely unheeded .
Unlike the National Democrats , Piłsudski instructed the PPS to boycott the elections to the First Duma . This decision , and his resolve to try to win Polish independence through uprisings , caused tensions within the PPS , and in November 1906 the party fractured over Piłsudski 's leadership . His faction came to be called the " Old Faction " or " Revolutionary Faction " ( " Starzy " or " Frakcja Rewolucyjna " ) , while their opponents were known as the " Young Faction " , " Moderate Faction " or " Left Wing " ( " Młodzi " , " Frakcja Umiarkowana " , " Lewica " ) . The " Young " sympathized with the Social Democrats of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania and believed that priority should be given to co @-@ operation with Russian revolutionaries in toppling the Tsarist regime and creating a socialist utopia that would facilitate negotiations for independence .
Piłsudski and his supporters in the Revolutionary Faction continued to plot a revolution against Tsarist Russia that would secure Polish independence . By 1909 his faction would again be the majority in the PPS , and Piłsudski would remain one of the most important PPS leaders up to the outbreak of the First World War .
Piłsudski anticipated a coming European war and the need to organize the nucleus of a future Polish Army which could help win Poland 's independence from the three empires that had partitioned her out of political existence in the late 18th century . In 1906 Piłsudski , with the connivance of Austrian authorities , founded a military school in Kraków for the training of paramilitary units . In 1906 alone , the 800 @-@ strong paramilitaries , operating in five @-@ man teams in Congress Poland , killed 336 Russian officials ; in subsequent years , the number of their casualties declined , while the paramilitaries ' numbers increased to some 2 @,@ 000 in 1908 .
The paramilitaries also held up Russian currency transports leaving Polish territories . On the night of 26 / 27 September 1908 , they robbed a Russian mail train carrying tax revenues from Warsaw to Saint Petersburg . Piłsudski , who took part in this Bezdany raid near Vilnius , used the funds thus " expropriated " to finance his secret military organization . The take from that single raid ( 200 @,@ 812 rubles ) was a fortune for the time and equaled the paramilitaries ' entire takes of the two preceding years .
In 1908 Piłsudski transformed his paramilitary units into an " Association for Active Struggle " ( Związek Walki Czynnej , or ZWC ) , headed by three of his associates , Władysław Sikorski , Marian Kukiel and Kazimierz Sosnkowski . One of the ZWC 's main purposes was to train officers and noncommissioned officers for a future Polish Army .
In 1910 two legal paramilitary organizations were created in the Austrian zone of Poland – one in Lwów ( now Lviv , Ukraine ) and one in Kraków – to conduct training in military science . With the permission of the Austrian authorities , Piłsudski founded a series of " sporting clubs " , then the Riflemen 's Association , which served as cover to train a Polish military force . In 1912 Piłsudski ( using the nom de guerre , " Mieczysław " ) became commander @-@ in @-@ chief of a Riflemen 's Association ( Związek Strzelecki ) that grew by 1914 to 12 @,@ 000 men . In 1914 , Piłsudski declared that " Only the sword now carries any weight in the balance for the destiny of a nation . "
= = = World War I = = =
At a meeting in Paris in 1914 , Piłsudski presciently declared that in the impending war , for Poland to regain independence , Russia must be beaten by the Central Powers ( the Austro @-@ Hungarian and German Empires ) , and the latter powers must in their turn be beaten by France , Britain and the United States . By contrast , Roman Dmowski , Piłsudski 's rival , believed that the best way to achieve a unified and independent Poland was to support the Triple Entente against the Central Powers .
At the outbreak of World War I , on 3 August in Kraków , Piłsudski formed a small cadre military unit , the First Cadre Company , from members of the Riflemen 's Association and Polish Rifle Squads . That same day , a cavalry unit under Władysław Belina @-@ Prażmowski was sent to reconnoitre across the Russian border , even before the official declaration of war between Austria @-@ Hungary and Russia , which ensued on 6 August .
Piłsudski 's strategy was to send his forces north across the border into Russian Poland , into an area which the Russian Army had evacuated , in the hope of breaking through to Warsaw and sparking a national uprising . Using his limited forces , in those early days he backed his orders with the sanction of a fictitious " National Government in Warsaw " , and bent and stretched Austrian orders to the utmost , taking initiatives , moving forward and establishing Polish institutions in liberated towns , while the Austrians saw his forces as good only for scouting or for supporting main Austrian formations . On 12 August 1914 Piłsudski 's forces took the town of Kielce , of Kielce Governorate , but Piłsudski found the populace less supportive than he had expected .
Soon afterward he officially established the Polish Legions , taking personal command of their First Brigade , which he would lead successfully into several victorious battles . He also secretly informed the British government in the fall of 1914 that his Legions would never fight France or Britain , only Russia .
Piłsudski decreed that Legions ' personnel were to be addressed by the French @-@ Revolution @-@ inspired " Citizen " ( Obywatel ) , and he himself was referred to as " the Commandant " ( " Komendant " ) . Piłsudski enjoyed extreme respect and loyalty from his men which would remain for years to come . The Polish Legions fought against Russia at the side of the Central Powers until 1917 .
Soon after forming the Legions , also in 1914 , Piłsudski set up another organization , the Polish Military Organisation ( Polska Organizacja Wojskowa ) , which served as a precursor Polish intelligence agency and was designed to perform espionage and sabotage missions .
In mid @-@ 1916 , after the Battle of Kostiuchnówka ( 4 – 6 July 1916 ) , in which the Polish Legions delayed a Russian offensive at a cost of over 2 @,@ 000 casualties , Piłsudski demanded that the Central Powers issue a guarantee of independence for Poland . He backed this demand with his own proffered resignation and that of many of the Legions ' officers . On 5 November 1916 the Central Powers proclaimed the " independence " of Poland , hoping to increase the number of Polish troops that could be sent to the eastern front against Russia , thereby relieving German forces to bolster the western front .
Piłsudski agreed to serve in the Regency Kingdom of Poland created by the Central Powers , and acted as minister of war in the newly formed Polish Regency government ; as such he was responsible for the Polnische Wehrmacht . After the Russian Revolution in early 1917 , and in view of the worsening situation of the Central Powers , Piłsudski took an increasingly uncompromising stance , insisting that his men no longer be treated as " German colonial troops " and only be used to fight Russia . Anticipating the Central Powers ' defeat in the war , he did not wish to be allied with the losing side . In the aftermath of a July 1917 " Oath Crisis " when Piłsudski forbade Polish soldiers to swear an oath of loyalty to the Central Powers , he was arrested and imprisoned at Magdeburg ; the Polish units were disbanded , and the men were incorporated into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army , while the Polish Military Organization began attacking German targets . Piłsudski 's arrest greatly enhanced his reputation among Poles , many of whom began to see him as the most determined Polish leader , willing to take on all the partitioning powers .
On 8 November 1918 , three days before the Armistice , Piłsudski and his colleague , Colonel Kazimierz Sosnkowski , were released by the Germans from Magdeburg and soon — like Vladimir Lenin before them — placed on a private train , bound for their national capital , as the collapsing Germans hoped that Piłsudski would create a force friendly to them .
= = = Rebuilding Poland = = =
On 11 November 1918 , in Warsaw , Piłsudski was appointed Commander in Chief of Polish forces by the Regency Council and was entrusted with creating a national government for the newly independent country . On that very day ( which would become Poland 's Independence Day ) , he proclaimed an independent Polish state .
That week , too , Piłsudski also negotiated the evacuation of the German garrison from Warsaw and of other German troops from the " Ober Ost " authority . Over 55 @,@ 000 Germans would peacefully depart Poland , leaving their weapons to the Poles . In coming months , over 400 @,@ 000 total would depart Polish territories .
On 14 November 1918 Piłsudski was asked to provisionally supervise the running of the country . On 22 November he officially received , from the new government of Jędrzej Moraczewski , the title of Provisional Chief of State ( Naczelnik Państwa ) of renascent Poland .
Various Polish military organizations and provisional governments ( the Regency Council in Warsaw ; Ignacy Daszyński 's government in Lublin ; and the Polish Liquidation Committee in Kraków ) bowed to Piłsudski , who set about forming a new coalition government . It was predominantly socialist and introduced many reforms long proclaimed as necessary by the Polish Socialist Party , such as the eight @-@ hour day , free school education , and women 's suffrage . This was necessary to avoid major unrest .
However , Piłsudski believed that as head of state he must be above partisan politics . The day after his arrival in Warsaw , he met with old colleagues from underground days , who addressed him socialist @-@ style as " Comrade " ( " Towarzysz " ) and asked his support for their revolutionary policies ; he refused it and answered : " Comrades , I took the red streetcar of socialism to the stop called Independence , and that 's where I got off . You may keep on to the final stop if you wish , but from now on let 's address each other as ' Mister ' [ rather than continue using the socialist term of address , ' Comrade ' ] ! " He declined to support any one party and did not form any political organization of his own ; instead , he advocated creating a coalition government . He also set about organizing a Polish army out of Polish veterans of the German , Russian and Austrian armies .
In the days immediately after World War I , Piłsudski attempted to build a government in a shattered country . Much of former Russian Poland had been destroyed in the war , and systematic looting by the Germans had reduced the region 's wealth by at least 10 % . A British diplomat who visited Warsaw in January 1919 reported : " I have nowhere seen anything like the evidences of extreme poverty and wretchedness that meet one 's eye at almost every turn " .
In addition , the country had to unify the disparate systems of law , economics , and administration in the former German , Austrian and Russian sectors of Poland . There were nine legal systems , five currencies , 66 types of rail systems ( with 165 models of locomotives ) , which all had to be consolidated on an expedited basis .
Wacław Jędrzejewicz , in Piłsudski : A Life for Poland , describes Piłsudski as very deliberate in his decision @-@ making . He collected all available pertinent information , then took his time weighing it before arriving at a final decision . Piłsudski drove himself hard , working all day and all night . He maintained a spartan lifestyle , eating plain meals alone at an inexpensive restaurant . Though Piłsudski was popular with much of the Polish public , his reputation as a loner ( the result of many years ' underground work ) , as a man who distrusted almost everyone , led to strained relations with other Polish politicians .
Piłsudski and the first Polish government were distrusted in the West because Piłsudski had cooperated with the Central Powers in 1914 – 17 and because the governments of Daszyński and Jędrzej Moraczewski were primarily socialist . It was not until January 1919 , when the world @-@ famous pianist and composer Ignacy Paderewski became prime minister and foreign minister of a new government , that it was recognized in the West .
That still left two separate governments claiming to be Poland 's legitimate government : Piłsudski 's in Warsaw , and Dmowski 's in Paris . To ensure that Poland have a single government and to avert civil war , Paderewski met with Dmowski and Piłsudski and persuaded them to join forces , with Piłsudski acting as Provisional Chief of State and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief while Dmowski and Paderewski represented Poland at the Paris Peace Conference . Articles 87 – 93 of the Versailles Treaty and the Little Treaty of Versailles , signed on 28 June 1919 , formally established Poland as an independent and sovereign state in the international arena .
Piłsudski often clashed with Dmowski , at variance with the latter 's vision of the Poles as the dominant nationality in renascent Poland , and irked by Dmowski 's attempt to send the Blue Army to Poland through Danzig , Germany ( now Gdańsk , Poland ) . On 5 January 1919 , some of Dmowski 's supporters ( Marian Januszajtis @-@ Żegota and Eustachy Sapieha ) attempted a coup against Piłsudski and Prime Minister Moraczewski , but failed .
On 20 February 1919 Piłsudski declared that he would return his powers to the newly elected Polish parliament ( Sejm ) . However , the Sejm reinstated his office in the Little Constitution of 1919 . The word " Provisional " was struck from his title , and Piłsudski would hold the office until 9 December 1922 , when Gabriel Narutowicz was elected the first president of Poland .
Piłsudski 's major foreign @-@ policy initiative at this time was a proposed federation ( to be called " Międzymorze " , Polish for " Between @-@ Seas " , and also known from the Latin as " Intermarum " , stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea ) of Poland with the independent Baltic states and Belarus and Ukraine , somewhat in emulation of the pre @-@ partition Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth .
Piłsudski 's plan met with opposition from most of the prospective member states — who refused to relinquish any of their hard @-@ won independence — as well as from the Allied powers , for whom it would be too bold a change to the existing balance @-@ of @-@ power structure . According to historian George Sanford , around 1920 Piłsudski came to realize the infeasibility of this version of his Intermarum project .
Instead of a Central- and East @-@ European alliance , there soon appeared a series of border conflicts , including the Polish @-@ Ukrainian War ( 1918 – 19 ) , the Polish @-@ Lithuanian War ( 1920 , culminating in Żeligowski 's Mutiny ) , Polish @-@ Czechoslovak border conflicts ( beginning in 1918 ) , and most notably the Polish @-@ Soviet War ( 1919 – 21 ) . Winston Churchill commented : " The war of giants has ended , the wars of the pygmies begun . "
= = = Polish @-@ Soviet War = = =
In the aftermath of World War I , there was unrest on all Polish borders . Regarding Poland 's future frontiers , Piłsudski said , " All that we can gain in the west depends on the Entente — on the extent to which it may wish to squeeze Germany " , while in the east " there are doors that open and close , and it depends on who forces them open and how far . " In 1918 in the east , Polish forces clashed with Ukrainian forces in the Polish @-@ Ukrainian War , and Piłsudski 's first orders as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Polish Army , on 12 November 1918 , were to provide support for the Polish struggle in Lviv .
Piłsudski was aware that the Bolsheviks were no friends of independent Poland , and that war with them was inevitable . He viewed their advance west as a major problem , but also considered the Bolsheviks less dangerous for Poland than their Russian Civil War opponents . These " White Russians " — representatives of the old Russian Empire — were willing to accept only limited independence for Poland , probably within borders similar to those of the former Congress Poland , and clearly objected to Polish control of Ukraine , which was crucial for Piłsudski 's Intermarum project .
This was in contrast to the Bolsheviks , who proclaimed the partitions of Poland null and void . Piłsudski thus speculated that Poland would be better off with the Bolsheviks , alienated from the Western powers , than with a restored Russian Empire . By ignoring the strong pressures from the Entente Cordiale to join the attack on Vladimir Lenin 's struggling Soviet government , Piłsudski probably saved the Bolshevik government in the summer and fall of 1919 .
In the wake of the Russian westward offensive of 1918 – 1919 and of a series of escalating battles which resulted in the Poles advancing eastward , on 21 April 1920 , Marshal Piłsudski ( as his rank had been since March 1920 ) signed a military alliance ( the Treaty of Warsaw ) with Ukrainian leader Symon Petliura to conduct joint operations against Soviet Russia . The goal of the Polish @-@ Ukrainian treaty was to establish an independent Ukraine and independent Poland in alliance , resembling that once existing within Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth In return , Petliura gave up Ukrainian claims to western lands of Galicia being a historical part of the Crown of Poland , for which he was denounced by Ukrainian nationalist leaders .
The Polish and Ukrainian armies , under Piłsudski 's command , launched the a successful offensive against the Russian forces in Ukraine . On 7 May 1920 , with remarkably little fighting , they captured Kiev .
The Bolshevik leadership framed the Polish actions as an invasion ; in response , thousands of officers and deserters joined the army , and thousands of civilians volunteered for war work . The Soviets launched a counter @-@ offensive from Belarus and counter @-@ attacked in Ukraine , advancing into Poland in a drive toward Germany to encourage the German Communist Party in its struggle to take power . Soviet confidence soared . The Soviets announced their plans to invade western Europe ; Soviet communist theoretician Nikolai Bukharin , writing in Pravda , hoped for the resources to carry the campaign beyond Warsaw " straight to London and Paris " . Soviet commander Mikhail Tukhachevsky 's order of the day for 2 July 1920 , read : " To the West ! Over the corpse of White Poland lies the road to worldwide conflagration . March upon Vilnius , Minsk , Warsaw ! " and " onward to Berlin over the corpse of Poland ! "
On 1 July 1920 , in view of the rapidly advancing Soviet offensive , Poland 's parliament , the Sejm , formed a Council for Defense of the Nation . It was chaired by Piłsudski and was to provide expeditious decision @-@ making and temporarily supplant the fractious Sejm . The National Democrats , however , contended that the string of Bolshevik victories had been Piłsudski 's fault and demanded that he resign ; some even accused him of treason . Their 19 July failure to carry a vote of no @-@ confidence in the council led to Roman Dmowski 's withdrawal from it . On 12 August Piłsudski tendered his resignation to Prime Minister Wincenty Witos , offering to be the scapegoat if the military solution failed , but Witos refused to accept his resignation . The Entente pressured Poland to surrender and enter into negotiations with the Bolsheviks . Piłsudski , however , was a staunch advocate of continuing the fight . As Norman Davies noted , at that time , especially abroad , " Piłsudski had nothing of his later prestige . As a pre @-@ war revolutionary he led his party to splits and quarrels ; as a general in World War I he led his legions to internment and disbanding ; as a marshal of the Polish Army he led it to Kiev and Vilnius , both now lost to Poles . He left the Polish Socialist Party and his Austro @-@ German allies ; refused to ally himself with Entente . In France and England he was considered a treasonous ally who leads Poland into destruction ; in Russia he was seen as a false servant of the allies , who will lead imperialism to ruin . All – from Lenin to Lloyd George , from Pravda to Morning Star – considered him a military and political failure . In August 1920 all were in agreement that his catastrophic career will be crowned with the fall of Warsaw . "
Yet over the next few weeks , Poland 's risky , unconventional strategy at the August 1920 Battle of Warsaw halted the Soviet advance . The Polish plan was developed by Piłsudski and others , including Tadeusz Rozwadowski . Later , some supporters of Piłsudski would seek to portray him as the sole author of the Polish strategy , while opponents would seek to minimize his role . In the West for a long time a myth persisted that it was General Maxime Weygand of the French Military Mission to Poland who had saved Poland ; modern scholars , however , are in agreement that Weygand 's role was minimal at best .
Piłsudski 's plan called for Polish forces to withdraw across the Vistula River and defend the bridgeheads at Warsaw and on the Wieprz River , while some 25 % of available divisions concentrated to the south for a strategic counter @-@ offensive . The plan next required two armies under General Józef Haller , facing Soviet frontal attack on Warsaw from the east , to hold their entrenched positions at all costs . At the same time , an army under General Władysław Sikorski was to strike north from outside Warsaw , cutting off Soviet forces that sought to envelope the Polish capital from that direction . The most important role , however , was assigned to a relatively small , approximately 20 @,@ 000 @-@ man , newly assembled " Reserve Army " ( also known as the " Strike Group " , " Grupa Uderzeniowa " ) , comprising the most determined , battle @-@ hardened Polish units and commanded personally by Piłsudski . Their task was to spearhead a lightning northward offensive , from the Vistula @-@ Wieprz triangle south of Warsaw , through a weak spot identified by Polish intelligence between the Soviet Western and Southwestern Fronts . That offensive would separate the Soviet Western Front from its reserves and disorganize its movements . Eventually , the gap between Sikorski 's army and the " Strike Group " would close near the East Prussian border , bringing about the destruction of the encircled Soviet forces .
At the time Piłsudski 's plan was strongly criticized , and only the desperate situation of the Polish forces persuaded other commanders to go along with it . Though based on reliable intelligence , including decrypted Soviet radio communications , the plan was termed " amateurish " by high @-@ ranking army officers and military experts who were quick to point out Piłsudski 's lack of formal military education . When a copy of the plan fell into Soviet hands , Western Front commander Mikhail Tukhachevsky thought it a ruse and disregarded it . Days later , the Soviets paid dearly for this when , during the Battle of Warsaw , the overconfident Red Army suffered one of its greatest defeats ever .
A National Democrat Sejm deputy , Stanisław Stroński , coined the phrase , " Miracle at the Vistula " ( " Cud nad Wisłą " ) , to express his disapproval of Piłsudski 's " Ukrainian adventure " . Stroński 's phrase was adopted as praise for Piłsudski by some patriotically or piously minded Poles , who were unaware of Stroński 's ironic intent . A junior member of the French military mission , Charles de Gaulle , would later adopt some lessons from the Polish @-@ Soviet War as well as from Piłsudski 's career .
In February 1921 Piłsudski visited Paris , where in negotiations with French president Alexandre Millerand he laid the foundations for the Franco @-@ Polish Military Alliance that would be signed later that year . The Treaty of Riga , which ended the Polish @-@ Soviet War in March 1921 , partitioned Belarus and Ukraine between Poland and Russia . Piłsudski called the treaty an " act of cowardice " . The treaty , and Piłsudski @-@ approved General Lucjan Żeligowski 's capture of Vilnius from the Lithuanians , marked an end to this incarnation of Piłsudski 's federalist Intermarum plan .
On 25 September 1921 , when Piłsudski visited Lwów ( now Lviv ) for the opening of the first Eastern Trade Fair ( Targi Wschodnie ) , he was the target of an unsuccessful assassination attempt by Stepan Fedak , acting on behalf of Ukrainian @-@ independence organizations , including the Ukrainian Military Organization .
= = = Retirement and coup = = =
After the Polish Constitution of March 1921 severely limited the powers of the presidency ( intentionally , to prevent a President Piłsudski from waging war ) , Piłsudski declined to run for the office . On 9 December 1922 the Polish National Assembly elected Gabriel Narutowicz of Polish People 's Party " Wyzwolenie " ; his election , opposed by the right @-@ wing parties , caused public unrest . On 14 December at the Belweder Palace , Piłsudski officially transferred his powers as Chief of State to his friend Narutowicz ; the Naczelnik was replaced by the President .
Two days later , on 16 December 1922 , Narutowicz was shot dead by a right @-@ wing painter and art critic , Eligiusz Niewiadomski , who had originally wanted to kill Piłsudski but had changed his target , influenced by National @-@ Democrat anti @-@ Narutowicz propaganda .
For Piłsudski this was a major shock , shaking his belief that Poland could function as a democracy and making him favor government by a strong hand . He became Chief of the General Staff and , together with Minister of Military Affairs Władysław Sikorski , managed to stabilize the situation , quelling unrest with a brief state of emergency .
Stanisław Wojciechowski of Polish People 's Party " Piast " ( PSL Piast ) , another of Piłsudski 's old colleagues , was elected the new president , and Wincenty Witos , also of PSL Piast , became prime minister . But the new government — pursuant to the Lanckorona Pact , an alliance among the centrist PSL Piast and the right @-@ wing Popular National Union and Christian Democrat parties — contained right @-@ wing enemies of Piłsudski , people whom he held morally responsible for Narutowicz 's death and with whom he found it impossible to work . On 30 May 1923 , Piłsudski resigned as Chief of the General Staff .
After General Stanisław Szeptycki proposed that the military should be more closely supervised by civilian authorities , Piłsudski criticized this as an attempt to politicize the army , and on 28 June he resigned his last political appointment . The same day , the Sejm 's left @-@ wing deputies voted a resolution thanking him for his past work . Piłsudski went into retirement in Sulejówek , outside Warsaw , at his country manor , " Milusin " , which had been presented to him by his former soldiers . There he settled down to supporting his family by writing a series of political and military memoirs , including Rok 1920 ( The Year 1920 ) .
Meanwhile , Poland 's economy was in shambles . Hyperinflation fueled public unrest , and the government was unable to find a quick solution to the mounting unemployment and economic crisis . Piłsudski 's allies and supporters repeatedly asked him to return to politics , and he began to create a new power base , centered around former members of the Polish Legions and the Polish Military Organization as well as some left @-@ wing and intelligentsia parties . In 1925 , after several governments had resigned in short order and the political scene was becoming increasingly chaotic , Piłsudski became more and more critical of the government , eventually issuing statements demanding the resignation of the Witos cabinet .
When the Chjeno @-@ Piast coalition , which Piłsudski had strongly criticized , formed a new government , on 12 – 14 May 1926 , Piłsudski returned to power in a coup d 'état ( the May Coup ) , supported by the Polish Socialist Party , Liberation , the Peasant Party , and even the Polish Communist Party . Piłsudski had hoped for a bloodless coup , but the government had refused to back down ; 215 soldiers and 164 civilians had been killed , and over 900 persons had been wounded .
On 31 May the Sejm elected Piłsudski president of the Republic . Piłsudski , however , aware of the presidency 's limited powers , refused the office . Another of his old friends , Ignacy Mościcki , was elected in his stead . Mościcki then appointed Piłsudski as Minister of Military Affairs ( defence minister ) a post he would hold for the rest of his life in 11 successive governments , two of which he headed himself from 1926 to 1928 and for a brief period in 1930 . He also served as General Inspector of the Armed Forces , and Chairman of The War Council .
= = = After the coup = = =
Piłsudski had no plans for major reforms ; he quickly distanced himself from the most radical of his left @-@ wing supporters , declaring that his coup was to be a " revolution without revolutionary consequences " . His goals were to stabilize the country , reduce the influence of political parties , which he blamed for corruption and inefficiency , and strengthen the army . His role in the Polish government over the subsequent years has been called a dictatorship by some sources , or a " quasi @-@ dictatorship " .
= = = = Internal politics = = = =
In internal politics , Piłsudski 's coup entailed sweeping limitations on parliamentary government , as his Sanation regime ( 1926 – 1939 ) — at times employing authoritarian methods — sought to " restore public life to moral health " . From 1928 the Sanation authorities were represented in the sphere of practical politics by the Non @-@ partisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government ( BBWR ) . Popular support and an effective propaganda apparatus allowed Piłsudski to maintain his authoritarian powers , which could not be overruled by the president , who was appointed by Piłsudski , nor by the Sejm . The powers of the Sejm were curtailed by constitutional amendments introduced soon after the coup , on 2 August 1926 . From 1926 to 1930 , Piłsudski relied chiefly on propaganda to weaken the influence of opposition leaders .
The culmination of his dictatorial and supralegal policies came in the 1930s with the imprisonment and trial of certain political opponents ( the Brest trials ) on the eve of the 1930 legislative elections , and with the 1934 establishment of a prison for political prisoners at Bereza Kartuska ( today Biaroza ) , where some prisoners were brutally mistreated . After the BBWR 's 1930 victory , Piłsudski left most internal matters in the hands of his " colonels " , while he himself concentrated on military and foreign affairs . He came under considerable criticism for his treatment of political opponents , and their 1930 arrest and imprisonment was internationally condemned and damaged Poland 's reputation .
Piłsudski became increasingly disillusioned with democracy in Poland . His intemperate public utterances — he called the Sejm a " prostitute " – and his sending ninety armed officers into the Sejm building in response to an impending vote of no @-@ confidence , caused concern in contemporary and modern @-@ day observers who have seen his actions as setting precedents for authoritarian responses to political challenges .
One of Piłsudski 's main goals was to transform the parliamentary system into a presidential system ; however , he opposed the introduction of totalitarianism . The adoption of a new Polish constitution in April 1935 , tailored by Piłsudski 's supporters to his specifications — providing for a strong presidency — came too late for Piłsudski to seek that office ; but the April Constitution would serve Poland up to the outbreak of World War II and would carry its Government in Exile through to the end of the war and beyond .
Nonetheless , Piłsudski 's government depended more on his charismatic authority than on rational @-@ legal authority . None of his followers could claim to be his legitimate heir , and after his death the Sanation structure would quickly fracture , returning Poland to the pre @-@ Piłsudski era of parliamentary political contention .
Piłsudski 's regime began a period of national stabilization and of improvement in the situation of ethnic minorities , which formed about a third of the Second Republic 's population . Piłsudski replaced the National Democrats ' " ethnic @-@ assimilation " with a " state @-@ assimilation " policy : citizens were judged not by their ethnicity but by their loyalty to the state . Widely recognized for his opposition to the National Democrats antisemitic policies , he extended his policy of " state @-@ assimilation " to Polish Jews . The years 1926 – 35 , and Piłsudski himself , were favorably viewed by many Polish Jews whose situation improved especially under Piłsudski @-@ appointed Prime Minister Kazimierz Bartel . Many Jews saw Piłsudski as their only hope for restraining antisemitic currents in Poland and for maintaining public order ; he was seen as a guarantor of stability and a friend of the Jewish people , who voted for him and actively participated in his political bloc . Piłsudski 's death in 1935 brought a deterioration in the quality of life of Poland 's Jews .
During the 1930s , a combination of developments , from the Great Depression to the vicious spiral of OUN terrorist attacks and government pacifications , caused government relations with the national minorities to deteriorate . Unrest among national minorities was also related to foreign policy . Troubles followed repressions in largely Ukrainian @-@ populated eastern Galicia , where nearly 1 @,@ 800 persons were arrested . Tension also arose between the government and Poland 's German minority , particularly in Upper Silesia . The government did not yield to calls for antisemitic measures ; but the Jews ( 8 @.@ 6 % of Poland 's population ) grew discontented for economic reasons that were connected with the depression . Overall , by the end of Piłsudski 's life , his government 's relations with national minorities were increasingly problematic .
In the military sphere , Piłsudski , who had shown himself an accomplished military strategist in engineering the " Miracle at the Vistula " , has been criticized by some for subsequently concentrating on personnel management and allegedly neglecting modernization of military strategy and equipment . His experiences in the Polish @-@ Soviet War ( 1919 – 21 ) may have led him to overestimate the importance of cavalry and to neglect the development of armored and air forces . Others , however , contend that , particularly from the late 1920s , he did support the development of these military branches . The limitations on Poland 's military modernization in this period may have been less doctrinal than financial .
= = = = Foreign policy = = = =
Under Piłsudski , Poland maintained good relations with neighboring Romania , Hungary and Latvia . Relations were strained with Czechoslovakia , however , and were still worse with Lithuania . Relations with Weimar Germany and the Soviet Union varied over time , but during Piłsudski 's tenure could for the most part be described as neutral .
Piłsudski 's Promethean program , designed to weaken the Russian Empire and its successor state , the Soviet Union , by supporting nationalist independence movements of major non @-@ Russian peoples dwelling in Russia and the Soviet Union , was coordinated from 1927 to the 1939 outbreak of World War II in Europe by the military intelligence officer , Edmund Charaszkiewicz . In the Interbellum , the Prometheist movement yielded few tangible results .
Piłsudski sought to maintain his country 's independence in the international arena . Assisted by his protégé , Foreign Minister Józef Beck , he sought support for Poland in alliances with western powers such as France and the United Kingdom , and with friendly , if less powerful , neighbors such as Romania and Hungary .
A supporter of the Franco @-@ Polish Military Alliance and the Polish @-@ Romanian Alliance ( part of the Little Entente ) , Piłsudski was disappointed by the French and British policy of appeasement evident in those countries ' signing of the Locarno Treaties . Piłsudski therefore aimed also to maintain good relations with the Soviet Union and Germany ; hence Poland signed non @-@ aggression pacts with both its powerful neighbors : the 1932 Soviet @-@ Polish Non @-@ Aggression Pact , and the 1934 German @-@ Polish Non @-@ Aggression Pact . The two treaties were meant to strengthen Poland 's position in the eyes of its allies and neighbors .
Piłsudski himself was acutely aware of the shakiness of the pacts , and commented : " Having these pacts , we are straddling two stools . This cannot last long . We have to know from which stool we will tumble first , and when that will be . " Critics of the two non @-@ aggression pacts have accused Piłsudski of underestimating Hitler 's aggressiveness and of giving Germany time to rearm ; and of allowing Stalin to eliminate opposition — primarily in Ukraine — that had been supported by Piłsudski 's Promethean program .
After Adolf Hitler came to power in January 1933 , Piłsudski is rumored to have proposed to France a preventive war against Germany . It has been argued that Piłsudski may have been sounding out France regarding possible joint military action against Germany . Lack of French interest may have been a reason why Poland signed the German @-@ Polish Non @-@ Aggression Pact of January 1934 . Little evidence has , however , been found in French or Polish diplomatic archives that such a proposal for preventive war was ever actually advanced .
Hitler repeatedly suggested a German @-@ Polish alliance against the Soviet Union , but Piłsudski declined , instead seeking precious time to prepare for potential war with Germany or with the Soviet Union . Just before his death , Piłsudski told Józef Beck that it must be Poland 's policy to maintain neutral relations with Germany and keep up the Polish alliance with France , and to improve relations with the United Kingdom .
= = = Death = = =
By 1935 , unbeknownst to the public , Piłsudski had for several years been in declining health . On 12 May 1935 , he died of liver cancer at Warsaw 's Belweder Palace . The celebration of his life began spontaneously within half an hour of the announcement of his death . It was led by military personnel — former Legionnaires , members of the Polish Military Organization , veterans of the wars of 1919 – 21 — and by his political collaborators from his service as Chief of State and , later , Prime Minister and Inspector @-@ General .
The Polish Communist Party immediately attacked Piłsudski as a fascist and capitalist , though fascists themselves did not see him as one of them . Other opponents of the Sanation regime , however , were more civil ; socialists ( such as Ignacy Daszyński and Tomasz Arciszewski ) and Christian Democrats ( represented by Ignacy Paderewski , Stanisław Wojciechowski and Władysław Grabski ) expressed condolences . The peasant parties split in their reactions ( Wincenty Witos voicing criticism of Piłsudski , but Maciej Rataj and Stanisław Thugutt being supportive ) , while Roman Dmowski 's National Democrats expressed a toned @-@ down criticism .
Condolences were expressed by Polish Catholic clergy — by Poland 's Primate August Hlond — as well as by Pope Pius XI , who called himself a " personal friend " of the Marshal . Notable appreciation for Piłsudski was expressed by Poland 's ethnic and religious minorities . Eastern Orthodox , Greek Orthodox , Protestant , Judaic and Islamic organizations expressed condolences , praising Piłsudski for his policies of religious tolerance . His death was a shock to members of the Jewish minority , who even years after remembered him as a very good man who protected Jews .
Mainstream organizations of ethnic minorities similarly expressed their support for his policies of ethnic tolerance , though he was criticized by , in addition to the Polish communists , by the Jewish Labour Bund , and by Ukrainian , German and Lithuanian extremists .
On the international scene , Pope Pius XI held a special ceremony 18 May in the Holy See , a commemoration was conducted at League of Nations Geneva headquarters , and dozens of messages of condolence arrived in Poland from heads of state across the world , including Germany 's Adolf Hitler , the Soviet Union 's Joseph Stalin , Italy 's Benito Mussolini and King Victor Emmanuel III , France 's Albert Lebrun and Pierre @-@ Étienne Flandin , Austria 's Wilhelm Miklas , Japan 's Emperor Hirohito , and Britain 's King George V.
Ceremonies , masses and an enormous funeral were held ; a funeral train toured Poland . A series of postcards , stamps and postmarks was also released . In 1937 , after a two @-@ year display at St. Leonard 's Crypt in Kraków 's Wawel Cathedral , Piłsudski 's body was laid to rest in the Cathedral 's Crypt under the Silver Bells , except for his brain , which he had willed for study to Stefan Batory University , and his heart , which was interred in his mother 's grave at Vilnius ' Rasos Cemetery , where it remains . The 1937 relocation of his remains , made by his long @-@ standing adversary Adam Sapieha , then Archbishop of Krakow , incited widespread protests that included calls for Sapieha 's removal .
= = Legacy = =
On 13 May 1935 , in accordance with Piłsudski 's last wishes , Edward Rydz @-@ Śmigły was named by Poland 's president and government to be Inspector @-@ General of the Polish Armed Forces , and on 10 November 1936 , he was elevated to Marshal of Poland . Rydz was now one of the most powerful people in Poland , the " second man in the state after the President " . While many saw Rydz @-@ Śmigły as a successor to Piłsudski , he never became as influential .
As the Polish government became increasingly authoritarian and conservative , the Rydz @-@ Śmigły faction was opposed by that of the more moderate Ignacy Mościcki , who remained President . After 1938 Rydz @-@ Śmigły reconciled with the President , but the ruling group remained divided into the " President 's Men " , mostly civilians ( the " Castle Group " , after the President 's official residence , Warsaw 's Royal Castle ) , and the " Marshal 's Men " ( " Piłsudski 's Colonels " ) , professional military officers and old comrades @-@ in @-@ arms of Piłsudski 's . After the German invasion of Poland in 1939 , some of this political division would survive within the Polish government in exile .
Piłsudski had given Poland something akin to what Henryk Sienkiewicz 's Onufry Zagłoba had mused about : a Polish Oliver Cromwell . As such , the Marshal had inevitably drawn both intense loyalty and intense vilification .
In 1935 , at Piłsudski 's funeral , President Mościcki eulogized the Marshal : " He was the king of our hearts and the sovereign of our will . During a half @-@ century of his life 's travails , he captured heart after heart , soul after soul , until he had drawn the whole of Poland within the purple of his royal spirit ... He gave Poland freedom , boundaries , power and respect . "
After World War II , little of Piłsudski 's thought influenced the policies of the Polish People 's Republic , a de facto satellite of the Soviet Union . In particular , Poland was in no position to resume Piłsudski 's effort to build an Intermarum federation of Poland and some of its neighbors ; and a " Promethean " endeavor to " break up the Russian state into its main constituents and emancipate the countries that have been forcibly incorporated into that empire . "
For a decade after World War II , Piłsudski was either ignored or condemned by Poland 's communist government , along with the entire interwar Second Polish Republic . This began to change , however , particularly after de @-@ Stalinization and the Polish October ( 1956 ) , and historiography in Poland gradually moved away from a purely negative view of Piłsudski toward a more balanced and neutral assessment .
After the fall of communism and the 1991 disintegration of the Soviet Union , Piłsudski once again came to be publicly acknowledged as a Polish national hero . On the sixtieth anniversary of his death , on 12 May 1995 , Poland 's Sejm adopted a resolution : " Józef Piłsudski will remain , in our nation 's memory , the founder of its independence and the victorious leader who fended off a foreign assault that threatened the whole of Europe and its civilization . Józef Piłsudski served his country well and has entered our history forever . "
While some of Piłsudski 's political moves remain controversial — particularly the May 1926 Coup d 'état , the Brest trials ( 1931 – 32 ) , the 1934 establishment of the Bereza Kartuska detention camp , and successive Polish governments ' failure to formulate consistent , constructive policies toward the national minorities — Piłsudski continues to be viewed by most Poles as a providential figure in the country 's 20th @-@ century history .
Piłsudski has lent his name to several military units , including the 1st Legions Infantry Division and armored train No. 51 ( " I Marszałek " — " the First Marshal " ) .
Also named for Piłsudski have been Piłsudski 's Mound , one of four man @-@ made mounds in Kraków ; the Józef Piłsudski Institute of America , a New York City research center and museum on the modern history of Poland ; the Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw ; a passenger ship , MS Piłsudski ; a gunboat , ORP Komendant Piłsudski ; and a racehorse , Pilsudski . Virtually every Polish city has its " Piłsudski Street " . ( There are , by contrast , few if any streets named after Piłsudski 's National @-@ Democrat arch @-@ rival , Roman Dmowski , even in Dmowski 's old Greater @-@ Poland political stronghold ) . There are statues of Piłsudski in many Polish cities ; the highest density of such statuary memorials is found in Warsaw , which has three in little more than a mile between the Belweder Palace , Piłsudski 's residence , and Piłsudski Square .
He was the subject of paintings by renowned artists such as Jacek Malczewski ( 1916 ) and Wojciech Kossak ( leaning on his sword , 1928 ; and astride his horse , Kasztanka , 1928 ) , as well as of numerous caricatures and photos .
Piłsudski has been a character in numerous works of fiction , such as the 1922 novel Generał Barcz ( General Barcz ) by Juliusz Kaden @-@ Bandrowski and the 2007 novel Ice ( Lód ) by Jacek Dukaj . Poland 's National Library lists over 500 publications related to Piłsudski ; the U.S. Library of Congress , over 300 . Piłsudski 's life was the subject of a 2001 Polish television documentary , Marszałek Piłsudski , directed by Andrzej Trzos @-@ Rastawiecki .
Plans are being considered to turn Piłsudski 's official residence , the Belweder Palace , which currently houses a small exhibit about him , into a full @-@ fledged museum devoted to his memory .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Descendants = =
Both daughters of Marshal Piłsudski returned to Poland in 1990 , after the fall of the Communist system . Jadwiga Piłsudska 's daughter Joanna Jaraczewska returned to Poland in 1979 . She married a Polish " Solidarity " activist Janusz Onyszkiewicz in a political prison in 1983 . Both were very involved in the Polish struggle against communism between 1979 and 1989 .
= = Honors = =
= = = Poland = = =
Order of the White Eagle ( 1921 )
Order of Virtuti Militari , classes I , II , and V
Cross of Independence with Swords ( 6 November 1930 )
Order of Polonia Restituta , Class I and II
Cross of Valour ( four times )
Gold Cross of Merit ( Poland ) ( four times , including in 1931 )
Merit Forces Central Lithuania
Cross on Silesian Ribbon of Merit and valor
Mark officers " Parasol " ( 1912 )
Badge " for faithful service " ( 1916 )
Scouting Cross ( 1920 )
" Gold trade union " Chief Fire Brigades Union [ 78 ]
Cross Kaniowski ( 1929 ) [ 79 ]
Badge " Józef Piłsudski Polish Legion Commander " ( 1916 ) [ 80 ]
Commemorative Badge of former prisoners from the years 1914 – 1921 Ideological ( 1928 ) [ 81 ]
= = = Foreign = = =
Order of the Blue Mantle ( Afghanistan )
Order of the Iron Crown , Class III ( Austria @-@ Hungary )
Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold ( Belgium )
Order of Saint Alexander with sword ( Bulgaria )
Order of the Southern Cross Class I ( Brazil )
Czechoslovak War Cross 1918
Order of the Cross of the Eagle , Class I ( Estonia , 1930 )
Cross of Liberty , class I ( grades I and III ) ( Estonia , 1922 and 1925 )
Order of the White Rose of Finland , Class I
Grand Croix of the Legion of Honour , No. 25864 ( continuous numbering ) and the Médaille militaire ( France )
Order of Military Merit ( Spain )
Order of the Rising Sun , Class I ( Japan )
Order of the Karađorđe 's Star ( Yugoslavia )
Order of Lāčplēsis , Class I ( Latvia )
Sovereign Military Order of St. John of Jerusalem , Class IV
Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword – Portugal
Order of Carol I , class I and the Order of Michael the Brave , Classes I , II and III ( Romania )
Grand Cross of Merit ( Hungary ) [ 100 ]
Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus , Class I of Military Order of Savoy , First Class ( Italy )
= = = Honorary doctorates = = =
Jagiellonian University ( 28 April 1920 ) [ 102 ]
Adam Mickiewicz University ( 11 November 1933 )
University of Warsaw ( 2 May 1921 ) [ 103 ]
Stefan Batory University in Vilnius ( September 1921 )
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= Crazy Eddie =
Crazy Eddie was an American retail business that sold electronic goods . The company did business in several forms . The first , and what would eventually become the most famous / infamous of the three , was a chain of retail shops located New York , New Jersey , Connecticut , and Pennsylvania , which also sold by telephone . The second was a venture that began as a retail shop but was eventually reorganized as an internet and telephone business . The third and most recent was an online and buy @-@ by @-@ telephone store . As of 2015 , none of the three Crazy Eddie ventures is conducting business .
Crazy Eddie was started during 1971 in Brooklyn , New York by businessmen Eddie Antar and Sam M. Antar as ERS Electronics , named after Eddie , his cousin and partner Ronnie Gindi , and Eddie 's father Sam . The chain became important throughout the Tri @-@ State Region as much for its prices as for its memorable radio and television commercials , featuring a frenetic , " crazy " character played by radio announcer Jerry Carroll ( who copied most of his act from early television @-@ commercial actor , used car and electronics salesman Earl " Madman " Muntz ) . At its maximum , Crazy Eddie had 43 stores in the chain , and earned more than $ 300 million in sales .
Carroll 's commercials ended invariably with the tag @-@ line " Crazy Eddie 's prices are insane ! " which , despite the chain 's relatively limited geographical reach , became well @-@ known during the early 1970s .
During February 1987 , the U.S. Attorney for the District of New Jersey commenced a federal grand jury investigation into the warranty billing practices of Crazy Eddie . During September of that year , the United States Securities and Exchange Commission initiated an investigation into alleged violations of federal securities laws by certain Crazy Eddie officers and employees . Eddie Antar was eventually charged with a series of crimes .
Unable to sustain his fraudulent business practices , co @-@ founder Eddie Antar cashed in millions of dollars ' worth of stock and resigned from the company during December 1986 . Crazy Eddie 's board of directors lost control of the company during November 1987 after a proxy battle with a group directed by Elias Zinn and Victor Palmieri , known as the Oppenheimer @-@ Palmieri Group . The entire Antar family was immediately eliminated from the business . The new owners quickly discovered the true extent of the Antar family 's fraud , but were unable to stop Crazy Eddie 's decreasing fortunes . During 1989 , the company declared bankruptcy and was liquidated . Crazy Eddie became a symbol for corporate fraud in its time , but has since been outdone by the Enron , Worldcom and Bernie Madoff accounting scandals .
Antar fled to Israel during February 1990 , but was returned to the United States during January 1993 for trial . His 1993 conviction on fraud charges was overturned , but he eventually pleaded guilty during 1996 . During 1997 , Antar was sentenced to eight years in prison and paid large fines . He was released from prison during 1999 .
= = Beginnings = =
Eddie Antar ’ s grandparents , Murad and Tera Antar , who were Syrian Jews , relocated to Brooklyn , New York from Aleppo , Syria . Murad and Tera worked in their market stalls alongside Arabs , including Egyptians , other Syrians , as well as Turks . Eddie 's father Sam Antar was a retailer , and it was no surprise to the family that Eddie also became a retailer .
The predecessor to Crazy Eddie was a consumer electronics shop called Sight And Sound . It was a property of ERS Electronics , a company owned by Sam M. Antar , his son Eddie Antar , and Eddie 's cousin Ronnie Gindi . Sight And Sound , located on Kings Highway in Brooklyn , began operation during 1969 and offered electronics at regular prices . Due to his aggressive sales techniques , Eddie quickly became known as " Crazy Eddie . " Despite his technique , or perhaps because of it , within 18 months the shop ( as well as Eddie and Ronnie ) was nearly bankrupt .
Eddie Antar bought out Gindi 's one @-@ third ownership stake of Sight And Sound , and Sam M. Antar retained his one @-@ third stake but left the day @-@ to @-@ day operations to Eddie . During 1971 , the Sight And Sound store on Kings Highway was renamed Crazy Eddie . Eddie continued his sales tactics with the renamed Crazy Eddie shop , but this time was successful . Eventually , Eddie closed that location and relocated the business to a bigger shop , just a few blocks from Sight And Sound 's old location . During 1973 , Antar opened the second Crazy Eddie location in Syosset , New York . A third followed during 1975 , located in Manhattan . That year , Antar established a corporate main office in Brooklyn , New York .
= = Advertising = =
An essential part of Crazy Eddie 's success was its advertising campaign , which started almost by accident .
Antar had bought some commercial time on New York radio station WPIX @-@ FM , and one night during 1972 a live commercial was being done by DJ " Dr. Jerry " Carroll , who ended it by reading the shop 's slogan , " his prices are insane " , in this manner : " Crazy Eddie , his prices are IN @-@ SA @-@ A @-@ A @-@ A @-@ A @-@ ANE ! " Antar telephoned and told Carroll to say the line the same way every time , and thus a working relationship was begun .
Beginning during 1975 , Carroll began television advertisement . For most of the next fifteen years Carroll performed commercials in the same frenetic manner he had for radio . One of his more memorable promotions was for Crazy Eddie 's annual " Christmas in August " sale , where he would dress in a Santa suit and do the commercial while stagehands threw fake snowballs at him . Carroll also had a trademark look in each commercial , wearing a blue suit with a lighter blue turtleneck shirt in almost all of his appearances ( even during later years ) . Carroll even appeared in a Spanish @-@ language Crazy Eddie advertisement , although he did not have a speaking role ; instead , his appearance consisted of him holding a radio to his ear as he walked behind the commercial 's spokesman , stopping only to wave at the camera several times .
During the 1980s , more than 7 @,@ 500 unique radio and television ads were broadcast in the Tri @-@ State Region . Carroll 's acting became so identified with the company that many people thought he was actually Crazy Eddie ; Crazy Eddie even made a commercial to this effect with Carroll as a Superman @-@ styled superhero named Crazy Eddie . Warner Communications , the parent company of the distributor of the Superman movie series , found the commercial to be problematic and sued the chain trying to stop it . At the time , Warner also was the parent company of the Atari video game company , and its largest customer for systems and games was Crazy Eddie . Therefore , in retaliation for the lawsuit , Eddie Antar said that if Warner was going to sue for the commercial , he would stop selling Atari products in his stores . The suit was eventually settled .
The commercials were so memorable that HBO 's news parody series Not Necessarily The News created a parody television commercial featuring a caricature of Oliver North ( from the then @-@ infamous Iran @-@ Contra affair ) , known as " Crazy Ollie " , selling used weapons at bargain prices . An early Eddies commercial parody appeared on NBC 's Saturday Night Live on January 22 , 1977 in the Dan Aykroyd creation , " Crazy Ernie . " Carroll and the commercials became significant culturally during 1980s , with the commercials sometimes appearing in the background of contemporary motion pictures . An example is the frightening first sight of a television set with a typical Jerry Carroll commercial on screen by Daryl Hannah 's mermaid character in Ron Howard 's 1984 comedy Splash .
Crazy Eddie also was known to have in @-@ store appearances by notable rock acts , including all four members of Queen in their Manhattan location on Tuesday , July 27 , 1982 ( prior to their performance that evening at Madison Square Garden ) .
= = Fraud = =
Almost from the beginning , Crazy Eddie 's management was engaged in various forms of fraud . The Antars deliberately falsified their books to reduce ( or eliminate ) their taxable income . They also paid employees off the books , and regularly skimmed thousands of dollars ( in cash ) earned at the shops . For every $ 5 Crazy Eddie reported as income , $ 1 was taken by the Antars . During 1979 , the Antars began depositing much of this money - hundreds of thousands of dollars - in Israeli bank accounts . The Antar family skimmed an estimated $ 3 million to $ 4 million ( US ) per year at the height of their fraud . In one offshore bank account , the family deposited more than $ 6 million between 1980 and 1983 .
By 1983 , it was becoming more and more difficult to hide the millions of illicit dollars . The Antars decided that the way to cover up their growing fraud was to make the company public . In preparation , Eddie Antar initiated a scheme during 1979 to skim less each year . Since more income was actually being reported , this had the effect of showing drastically increasing profit margins . While the company 's actual profits ( taking into account skimmed profits ) from 1980 to 1983 increased approximately 13 % , reported profits increased nearly 171 % .
Despite the misgivings of people closely associated with Crazy Eddie , the company held its initial public offering on September 13 , 1984 ( symbol : CRZY ) . Shares of the company sold initially for $ 8 . By early 1986 , Crazy Eddie stock was trading at more than $ 75 per share ( split adjusted ) .
Eddie recruited his cousin , Sam E. Antar ( known as Sammy ) , to assist the company with its fraud . Sammy earned a degree in accounting during 1980 , and served his apprenticeship with Penn and Horowitz , Crazy Eddie 's auditor . During 1986 , he was named chief financial officer of the company . Sammy was informed that there was a $ 3 million deficit from the previous year 's inventory fraud that needed to be hidden . Additionally , he was instructed to find ways to show a 10 % growth in sales .
One of Sammy 's major schemes was a money laundering operation later known as the Panama Pump — money that the Antars had deposited in Israeli banks was transferred to bank accounts in Panama . These accounts , opened using false names , then drafted payments to Crazy Eddie . This money was largely used to inflate same @-@ store sales totals for the company .
As a public company , Eddie , Sammy , and others engaged in increasing amounts of inventory fraud to increase reported profits and inflate the value of Crazy Eddie stock . For the fiscal year ended March 1 , 1985 , Crazy Eddie falsified inventories by $ 3 million . The next fiscal year , that amount increased to between $ 10 and $ 12 million .
= = = Collapse = = =
Only months after Crazy Eddie 's IPO , Eddie Antar started arguing with his wife and former high school sweetheart , Debbie . He began having an affair with another woman , also named Debbie . They were caught by Eddie 's wife and sister on New Year 's Eve 1984 . Crazy Eddie 's troubles began almost immediately afterward ; the scam had relied extensively on family members helping keep the appearance that it was an immensely successful company .
By 1987 , Sammy 's goal was no longer to show greater profitability , but rather to disguise previous frauds . During fiscal year 1987 , they falsified inventories between $ 22 @.@ 5 and $ 28 million . In addition , Crazy Eddie booked $ 20 million in phony debit memos or charge backs to vendors that reduced accounts payable .
As the company 's fraud became more difficult to disguise , the public perception of Crazy Eddie as a commercial success began to change . By October 1986 , the company 's stock value had decreased to $ 17 @.@ 50 per share . During December , Eddie Antar announced his resignation as president and CEO . During April 1987 , it was announced that Eddie had in fact retained his role as president but had dismissed , among others , his father Sam M. Antar . But by then Eddie had already cashed out his share of Crazy Eddie stock , worth between $ 25 million and $ 30 million .
By the spring of 1987 , the company 's stock cost less than $ 10 a share . Additionally , earnings decreased 20 % from the previous year . The franchise did show a 34 % sales increase , but this was mainly the result of 13 new store openings . During May 1987 , Eddie began proceedings to make the company private again .
Before that could happen , Houston @-@ based businessman Elias Zinn and management consultant Victor Palmieri initiated a hostile takeover . With Palmieri 's backing , Zinn purchased $ 17 @.@ 5 million worth of Crazy Eddie stock , which represented 7 @.@ 5 % of the outstanding shares . Once rumors of a takeover started , financial analysts began to examine more closely Crazy Eddie 's financial situation . What they discovered was that while most stockholders of the company had lost money since 1984 , Eddie Antar had sold 6 @.@ 5 million shares worth $ 74 million . A flurry of stockholder lawsuits were filed against the Antar family .
Eddie and Sammy briefly attempted to counter @-@ offer Zinn 's takeover , but Zinn quickly topped their funds . The Antars ' bid was ended , and Zinn became the new owner of Crazy Eddie on November 6 , 1987 . He immediately dismissed the rest of the Antar family from any important jobs . When Palmieri 's financial analysts completed their preliminary audit a few weeks after the takeover , they estimated that Crazy Eddie 's inventory was short by $ 40 to $ 50 million . The final figure was $ 80 million .
By June 1988 , Crazy Eddie 's suppliers were demanding the liquidation of the company , so they could recover money owed to them ; during 1989 they got their wish . The closing of Crazy Eddie began during March 1989 , as the company shuttered 17 of its 43 stores . On June 6 , 1989 Crazy Eddie was served with a petition by five of its creditors , who had not been paid a total of $ 860 @,@ 000 they were owed , which sought to have the company forced into bankruptcy . The company originally planned to fight the petition and file for dismissal , but 15 days later Crazy Eddie voluntarily filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection . Company president and CEO Peter Martosella cited problems created by the creditors ' position ( which he termed " ill @-@ advised " ) , but said business would be conducted as usual at the remaining 26 stores and that Crazy Eddie was still a strong franchise . The company vowed to stay in business but despite Martosella 's assertions Crazy Eddie continued to falter . By the autumn of 1989 , sales were continuing to decrease and stores were unable to keep items stocked due to lack of supplier interest in the company . Faced with these facts , Crazy Eddie management decided that the chain was not worth saving . Soon after Crazy Eddie began going @-@ out @-@ of @-@ business sales , but store supply remained minimal even when leftover merchandise from stores that had shuttered was sent to others that were still in operation . By the end of 1989 the remaining 26 Crazy Eddie locations closed and the chain ceased to exist . During a period of three years Crazy Eddie had gone from one of the most lucrative retailers in the United States and trading at $ 75 per share to bankruptcy and liquidation .
= = = Legal battles = = =
In the meantime , a longtime Crazy Eddie associate named Arnie Spindler , who quit the company after Eddie Antar dismissed his father Sam , brothers Allen and Mitchell and others after a family dispute , had provided investigators with information concerning Crazy Eddie 's fraudulent business practices . Spindler implicated Eddie and Sammy , but stated the rest of the family was innocent . Regardless , the SEC served subpoenas to the entire Antar family .
Based on information gathered during its investigation , the SEC charged Eddie Antar with securities fraud and illegal insider trading on September 6 , 1989 . During January 1990 , a Federal district judge ordered Antar to repatriate more than $ 50 million he had transferred illegally to Israel . He was also ordered to appear in court to explain what had happened with the money . When he failed to appear , an arrest warrant was issued . Eddie surrendered to U.S. Marshals a week later , but was released and ordered to appear at a second hearing . When he failed to appear at that hearing , a second arrest warrant was issued and his assets were frozen .
Eddie Antar fled to Israel using a fake passport and the alias David Jacob Levi Cohen , and purchased a townhouse in the city of Yavne . After Eddie left the country , Sammy offered to testify for Federal prosecutors in exchange for immunity . Sammy pleaded guilty to three felonies . However , he avoided jail time for his testimony , and was instead sentenced to six months of house arrest , 1 @,@ 200 hours of community service , three years of probation , and was given more than $ 10 @,@ 000 in fines . As of 2009 , Sammy was an adviser for government agencies and businesses investigating fraud .
Eddie Antar was arrested near Tel Aviv during June 1992 . While being held in Israel , Eddie was charged with Federal racketeering conspiracy . He was extradited to the United States during January 1993 , and pleaded not guilty to the charges brought against him . Eddie Antar 's fraud trial began during June , and was prosecuted jointly by U.S. Attorneys Paul Weissman and Michael Chertoff . On July 20 , 1993 , Eddie Antar was found guilty of 17 counts of fraud . His brother , Mitchell , was found guilty of three counts , and acquitted on two .
During April 1994 , Eddie Antar was sentenced to 12 ½ years in prison for racketeering and stock fraud . Antar 's lawyers immediately filed an appeal , citing what they believed was bias on the part of the presiding judge . During April 1995 , the verdicts against Eddie and Mitchell were overturned by a Federal appeals panel . Chertoff , calling Eddie " the Darth Vader of capitalism , " vowed to begin a new trial .
Antar eventually pleaded guilty to Federal fraud charges during May 1996 . During February 1997 , he was sentenced to eight years in prison . He was ordered to pay more than $ 150 million in fines , in addition to the more than $ 1 billion in judgments against him , resulting from various civil suits . Efforts to recover additional money from the Antar family on behalf of defrauded stockholders were finally completed during 2012 .
= = Revival attempts = =
Soon after the chain closed during 1989 a New Jersey @-@ based investment group led by Alex Adjimi bought the rights to the Crazy Eddie trademark and announced during January 1990 that it had purchased the leases on Crazy Eddie 's Brooklyn flagship store and another in East Brunswick , New Jersey . The intent of Adjimi 's group was to reopen the chain , but nothing ever came of the attempt .
During 1998 , the grandchildren of Eddie , Allen , and Mitchell Antar revived the Crazy Eddie electronics chain with a shop in Wayne , New Jersey , and as an online internet venture , crazyeddieonline.com. The revived company retained the slogan " his prices are insane " and re @-@ hired Jerry Carroll , who by this time had founded his own advertisement agency , as spokesman . Despite plans to expand the chain to a potential 10 stores , the new Crazy Eddie did not expand beyond the Wayne store and during 1999 the only shop of the revived chain closed .
Eddie Antar returned to the company during 2001 , which by this time had been doing business solely as an internet and buy @-@ by @-@ telephone business for more than a year . He reinitiated the website as crazyeddie.com and once again hired Jerry Carroll to do its advertising . By 2004 crazyeddie.com had disappeared again , and after a brief attempt to revive the online retailer during 2005 Crazy Eddie ceased to exist once again . The Crazy Eddie trademark and associated intellectual property were then acquired by Texas @-@ based company Trident Growth Fund . During July 2006 , Trident attempted to auction the brand and the domain name crazyeddie.com on eBay , with limited success . The auction ended without the reserve price being met , the highest bid being $ 30 @,@ 100 ( US ) .
On March 3 , 2009 , it was announced that Brooklyn @-@ based businessman Jack Gemal had bought the rights to the Crazy Eddie name and quickly began a new online Crazy Eddie venture at pricesareinsane.com. Gemal was also reported to be scouting retail space for new Crazy Eddie retail locations , stating that he wanted to open 50 locations during the next two years . This online venture performed business in the same manner as Crazy Eddie 's other online stores , selling appliances and other electronics through the internet . However , Gemal was never able to find the retail space he sought to reinitiate the Crazy Eddie store chain and during 2012 the online business ceased to exist . A placeholder page currently occupies pricesareinsane.com.
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= Super Smash Bros. Melee =
Super Smash Bros. Melee is a crossover action game developed by HAL Laboratory and published by Nintendo for the GameCube video game console . It is the second game in the Super Smash Bros. series , following the first game . It was released in Japan in November 2001 , with other territories later .
The game features characters from Nintendo video game franchises such as Mario , The Legend of Zelda , Star Fox , and Pokémon . Melee includes all playable characters from the first game in the series on the Nintendo 64 and also adds new characters from franchises such as Fire Emblem , of which no games had been released outside Japan at the time . The stages and gameplay modes make references to , or take their designs from , popular games released by Nintendo . Melee 's gameplay system offers an unorthodox approach to the fighting game genre with a counter that measures damage with percentages , rather than the health bar seen in most fighting games . It builds on the first game by adding new gameplay features and playable characters . Following the popularity of its multiplayer gameplay , Melee has been featured in many competitive gaming tournaments , and is still one of the most popular fighting games for competitive play .
The game received critical praise , as well as awards and acknowledgements from gaming publications . It achieved strong sales upon release , and is the GameCube 's best @-@ selling game , with more than 7 million copies sold by March 2008 .
= = Gameplay = =
Like its predecessor , Super Smash Bros. Melee differs from traditional fighting games as the objective is to force their opponents beyond the boundaries of the stage . Most attacks inflict damage and can , if enough damage is dealt , knock back the enemy . Each character 's health is measured by a meter that represents the damage received as a percentage . The higher the percentage value , the farther the player gets knocked back , and the easier they are to knock off the stage . Unlike other games of the same genre , in which moves are entered by button @-@ input combinations , most moves in Super Smash Bros. Melee can be accessed via one @-@ button presses and a joystick direction .
During battles , items related to Nintendo games or merchandise fall onto the game field . These items have purposes ranging from inflicting damage on the opponent to restoring health to the player . Additionally , most stages have a theme relating to a Nintendo franchise or a specific Nintendo game and are interactive to the player . Although the stages are rendered in three dimensions , players can only move on a two @-@ dimensional plane . Not all stages are available immediately ; some stages must be " unlocked " by achieving particular requirements . Some stages feature moving elements and platforms and hazards that harm players , while others lack these elements .
= = = Single @-@ player = = =
Single @-@ player mode provides the player with a variety of side @-@ scrolling fighting challenges . The applicable modes range from the " Classic mode " , which involves the player battling against opponents in multiple acts until he or she reaches the boss character , to the " Home Run Contest " , which is a minigame involving the player trying to launch a sandbag as far as possible with a Home Run Bat . Some of these modes are personalized for the character ; for example , the " Target Test " sets out a specialized area for a character in which they aim to destroy ten targets in the least amount of time they can . These areas may include references to that particular character 's past and legacy . The " Board the Platforms " minigame from the prequel was not included in Melee . Melee introduced " Adventure mode " , which takes the player to several predefined universes of characters in the Nintendo franchise . " All @-@ Star mode " is an unlockable feature of Melee , requiring the player to defeat every character in the game while having only three health supplements between battles .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
In the multiplayer mode , up to four players or computer @-@ controlled characters may fight , either in a free @-@ for @-@ all or in teams . The Central processing unit ( CPU ) characters ' Artificial intelligence ( AI ) difficulty is ranked from one to nine in ascending order of difficulty . Individual players can also be handicapped ; the higher the handicap , the stronger the player . There are five ways in which the victor can be determined , depending on the game type . The most common multiplayer modes are “ Time mode ” , where the player or team with the most KOs and least falls wins after a predetermined amount of time , and " Stock mode " , a battle in which the last player or team with lives remaining wins . This can be changed to less conventional modes like " Coin mode " , which rewards the richest player as the victor . Players must collect coins created by hitting enemies and try not to lose them by falling off the stage ; harder hits release higher quantities of coins . Other options are available , updating from Super Smash Bros. , such as determining the number and type of items that appear during the battle .
= = = Trophies = = =
Trophies ( known as " Figures " in the Japanese version ) of various Nintendo characters and objects can be collected throughout the game . These trophies include action figures of playable characters , accessories , and items associated with them as well as series and characters not otherwise playable in the game . The trophies range from the well @-@ known to the obscure , and even characters or elements that were only released in Japan . Some of the trophies include a description of the particular subject and detail the year and the game in which the subject first appeared . Super Smash Bros. had a similar system of plush dolls ; however , it only included the 12 playable characters . One trophy is exclusive to the Japanese version of the game .
= = Playable characters = =
Super Smash Bros. Melee features 25 ( 26 if Zelda and Sheik are considered different ) characters , 13 more than its predecessor . Fourteen are available initially , while the other characters require the completion of specific tasks to become available . Every character featured in the game is derived from a popular Nintendo franchise . All characters have a symbol that appears behind their damage meter during a fight ; this symbol represents what series they belong to , such as a Triforce symbol behind Link 's damage meter and a Poké Ball behind Pokémon species . Some characters represent popular franchises while others were less @-@ known at the time of the release ; Marth and Roy represent the Fire Emblem series , which had never been released outside Japan at the time . The characters ' appearance in Super Smash Bros. Melee led to a rise in the popularity of the series . References are made throughout the game to the relationship between characters of the same universe ; in one of the events from " Event mode " , Mario must defeat his enemy Bowser to rescue Princess Peach . Furthermore , each character has recognizable moves from their original series , such as Samus 's firearms from the Metroid series and Link 's arsenal of weapons .
= = Development and release = =
HAL Laboratory developed Super Smash Bros. Melee , with Masahiro Sakurai as the head of production . The game was one of the first games released on the GameCube and highlighted the advancement in graphics from the Nintendo 64 . The developers wanted to pay homage to the debut of the GameCube by making an opening FMV sequence that would attract people 's attention to the graphics . HAL worked with three separate graphic houses in Tokyo to make the opening sequence . On their official website , the developers posted screen shots and information highlighting and explaining the attention to physics and detail in the game , with references to changes from its predecessor . The game was in development for 13 months , and Sakurai called his lifestyle during this period " destructive " with no holidays and short weekends . Unlike the experimental first Super Smash Bros. , he felt great pressure to deliver a quality sequel , claiming it was the " biggest project I had ever led up to that point " . Despite the painful development cycle , Sakurai proudly called it " the sharpest game in the series ... it just felt really good to play " , even compared to its successor , Super Smash Bros. Brawl .
On the game 's official Japanese website , the developers explain reasons for making particular characters playable and explain why some characters were not available as playable characters upon release . Initially , the development team wanted to replace Ness with Lucas , the main character of Mother 3 , but retained Ness in consideration of delays . The game 's creators later included Lucas in the game 's sequel , Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Video game developer Hideo Kojima originally requested the inclusion of Solid Snake to Sakurai , but the game was too far into development . As with Lucas , development time allowed for his inclusion in Brawl . Marth and Roy were initially intended to be playable exclusively in the Japanese version of Super Smash Bros. Melee . However , they received favorable attention during the game 's North American localization , leading to the decision for the developers to include them in the Western version . Additionally , Sakurai stated that the development team had suggested characters from four other games to represent the Famicom or NES era until the developers decided that the Ice Climbers would be in the game . The developers have noted characters that have very similar moves to each other on the website ; such characters have been referred to as " clones " in the media .
Nintendo presented the game at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2001 as a playable demonstration . The next major exposition of the game came in August 2001 at Spaceworld , when Nintendo displayed a playable demo that updated from the previous demo displayed at E3 . Nintendo offered a playable tournament of the games for fans in which a GameCube and Super Smash Bros. Melee were prizes for the winner . Before the game 's release , the Japanese official website included weekly updates , including screenshots and character profiles . Nintendo followed this trend with Super Smash Bros. Brawl , in which there were daily updates by the game 's developer , Masahiro Sakurai . Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu reported that Nintendo advertised the game in between showings of the Pokemon the First Movie across movie theaters in Japan . In January 2003 , Super Smash Bros Melee became part of the Player 's Choice , a marketing label used by Nintendo to promote video games that have sold more than a million copies . In August 2005 , Nintendo bundled the game with the Nintendo GameCube for $ 99 @.@ 99 .
= = = Music = = =
Super Smash Bros. Melee features both new and re @-@ arranged music from many of Nintendo 's popular gaming franchises . In 2002 , Enterbrain released a soundtrack in Japan titled Dairantou Smash Brothers DX Orchestra Concert . The same soundtrack was released in 2003 as " Smashing ... Live ! " as a bonus for subscribing to Nintendo Power magazine in North America , and also as a free gift in an issue of the British Official Nintendo Magazine . The soundtrack does not include music taken directly from the game , but features many live orchestral arrangements performed by the New Japan Philharmonic . The game contains a number of unlockable tracks that can be obtained after making certain in @-@ game accomplishments . On the same website , the developers have posted discussions about the game 's music and voice acting between Masahiro Sakurai and the game 's composers .
= = Reception = =
Super Smash Bros. Melee received critical acclaim from reviewers , most of whom credited Melee 's expansion of gameplay features from Super Smash Bros. Focusing on the additional features , GameSpy commented that " Melee really scores big in the ' we 've added tons of great extra stuff ' department " . Reviewers compared the game favorably to Super Smash Bros. IGN 's Fran Mirabella III stated that it was " in an entirely different league than the N64 version " ; GameSpot 's Miguel Lopez praised the game for offering a more advanced " classic @-@ mode " compared to its predecessor , while detailing the Adventure Mode as " really a hit @-@ or @-@ miss experience " . Despite a mixed response to the single @-@ player modes , many reviewers expressed the game 's multiplayer mode as a strong component of the game . In their review of the game , GameSpy stated that " you 'll have a pretty hard time finding a more enjoyable multiplayer experience on any other console " .
Melee 's visuals garnered a positive reaction . GameSpot lauded the game 's character and background models , stating that " the character models are pleasantly full @-@ bodied , and the quality of their textures is amazing " . IGN 's Fran Mirabella III praised the game 's use of physics , animation and graphics , although his colleague Matt Casamassina thought that " some of the backgrounds lack the visual polish endowed upon the characters " when giving a second opinion about the game .
Critics praised the game 's orchestrated soundtrack ; while GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin commented that " it all sounds brilliant " . GameSpy praised the music for its nostalgic effect , with soundtracks ranging from multiple Nintendo series .
Reviewers have welcomed the simplistic controls , but its " hyper @-@ responsiveness " , with the characters easily dashing and precise movements being difficult to perform , was expressed as a serious flaw of the game by GameSpot . With a milder criticism of controls , Bryn Williams of GameSpy commented that " movement and navigation seems slightly too sensitive " . The basis of Melee 's gameplay system is the battles between Nintendo characters , which has been suggested as being overly hectic ; N @-@ Europe questioned whether the gameplay is " too Frantic ? " , even though they enjoyed the variety of modes on offer . Similarly , Nintendo Spin 's Clark Nielsen stated that " Melee was too fast for its own good " , and " skill was more about just being able to wrap your head around what was happening as opposed to really getting into the combat " . In regards to the pace of the game , Edge commented that it even made gameplay features such as " blocking " redundant , as the player is not given enough time to react to an attack .
Despite the new features added to the game , some reviews criticized Melee for a lack of originality and for being too similar to its predecessor , Super Smash Bros. Caleb Hale from GameCritics.com noted that while it was " every bit as good as its Nintendo 64 predecessor " he also felt " the game doesn 't expand much past that point " . On a similar note , Edge stated that " it 's not evolution ; it 's reproduction " , in reference to a perceived lack of innovation . The nostalgic nature of the game received a positive reaction , as well as the accompanying stages and items that allude to past Nintendo games . Gaming journalists have welcomed the roster of 25 Nintendo characters , as well as the trophy system , which Nintendo Spin labeled as " a great addition to this game " .
= = = Sales = = =
When released in Japan , it became the fastest selling GameCube game with 358 @,@ 525 units sold in the week ending November 25 , 2001 . This success continued as the game sold more than a million units only two months after its release , making it the first GameCube title to reach a million copies . The game also sold well in North America , where it sold 250 @,@ 000 @-@ copies in nine days . In the United States , Super Smash Bros. Melee was the 19th best @-@ selling video game in 2001 according to the NPD Group , and approximately 4 @.@ 06 million units have been sold in the country as of December 27 , 2007 . With a software @-@ to @-@ hardware ratio of 3 : 4 at one time , some have attributed the increasing sales of the Nintendo GameCube near the launch date to Melee . As of March 10 , 2008 , Super Smash Bros. Melee is the best @-@ selling GameCube game , with more than seven million copies sold worldwide .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Several publications have acknowledged Super Smash Bros. Melee in competitions and awards . In their " Best of 2001 " awards , GameSpy chose it as Best Fighting GameCube Game , IGN 's reader choice chose it as Game of the Year , Electronic Gaming Monthly chose it as Best Multiplayer and Best GameCube Game , and GameSpot chose it as the Best GameCube Game and tenth best game of the year .
GameFAQs placed it sixth in a poll of the 100 best games ever and was in the final four of the " Best . Game . Ever . " contest . In the 200th issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly , the editors selected Melee as the 92nd most influential game in their " Top 200 Games of Their Time " list , defining Melee as " Billions of things to unlock , plus Yoshi pummeling Pikachu with a bat " . In a similar competition , Nintendo Power named Super Smash Bros. Melee the 16th best game ever to appear on a Nintendo console , and selected it as the 2001 " Game of the Year " . IGN named it the third best GameCube game of all @-@ time in 2007 as a part of a feature reflecting on the GameCube 's long lifespan , citing it as " the grand stage of fighters , much like Mario Kart is for racing fans " . GameSpy chose it as fourth in a similar list , citing that it had " better graphics , better music , more characters , more gameplay modes , more secrets to discover " in comparison to its predecessor . The game was ranked 58th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's " 100 Greatest Nintendo Games Ever " feature .
= = Professional competition = =
Super Smash Bros. Melee is a widely played competitive video game and has been featured in several high @-@ profile tournaments . It is considered to be the most viable game in the series for competition . From 2004 to 2007 , Major League Gaming sponsored Melee on its Pro Circuit . Although dropping Melee from its 2007 Pro Circuit , MLG still sponsored a number of tournaments as part of the Underground Smash Series . Melee was also included in the Evolution Championship Series ( Evo ) in 2007 , a fighting game tournament held in Las Vegas and was hosted at Evo 2013 after a charity vote to decide the final game to be featured in its tournament lineup . Due to the large turnout and popularity that year , Evo again included Melee at their 2014 and 2015 events . In 2014 Melee was played at MLG Anaheim . Evo 2015 is currently one of the largest Melee tournaments with 1 @,@ 869 entrants and breaking 200 @,@ 000 live viewers .
Ken Hoang , considered to be the game 's best player from 2003 to 2006 , has won over $ 50 @,@ 000 from Smash tournaments . Several professional Melee players including Christopher " KillaOR " McKenzie , Isai Alvarado , and Ken were seen in the 2005 " I 'm a Professional Gamer " episode of the MTV reality series True Life . The competitive Smash community was featured in a 2013 crowd @-@ funded documentary called The Smash Brothers . The film detailed the history of the professional scene and profiled seven prominent Melee players including Hoang , Azen , Jason " Mew2King " Zimmerman , Isai , PC Chris , KoreanDJ , and Evo 2013 champion , Joseph " Mang0 " Marquez . Commentary footage from a Melee tournament is the origin of the Wombo combo internet meme .
= = Sequels = =
At the pre @-@ E3 conference of 2005 , Nintendo announced Melee 's sequel , 2008 's Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Nintendo 's president , Satoru Iwata requested Masahiro Sakurai to be the director of the game after the conference . The game retains some of the gameplay features of its predecessors while having major gameplay additions , such as a more substantial single @-@ player mode and online play via the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection . Taking advantage of the Wii 's variety of controller options , the game allows the use of the Wii Remote , Nunchuk , GameCube controller , and the Classic Controller . Like Melee , the game makes references to games and franchises , including those that debuted after the release of Melee ; for example , Link , Zelda , and Ganondorf 's character designs are taken from The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess and a Nintendogs puppy is present as an Assist Trophy ( a new item that summons computer @-@ controlled characters from different games to briefly participate in the fight ) . Select stages and music from Melee are included in the sequel . In addition to Super Smash Bros. Brawl , a sequel to that game , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS , was released for the Nintendo 3DS on October 3 , 2014 , and the console counterpart to that game , Super Smash Bros. for Wii U , was released on November 21 , 2014 .
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= Thinis =
Thinis or This ( Egyptian : Tjenu ) was the capital city of the first dynasties of ancient Egypt . Thinis is , as yet , undiscovered but well attested to by ancient writers , including the classical historian Manetho , who cites it as the centre of the Thinite Confederacy , a tribal confederation whose leader , Menes ( or Narmer ) , united Egypt and was its first pharaoh . Thinis began a steep decline in importance from Dynasty III , when the capital was relocated to Memphis . Its location on the border of the competing Heracleopolitan and Theban dynasties of the First Intermediate Period , and its proximity to certain oases of possible military importance , ensured Thinis some continued significance in the Old and New Kingdoms . This was a brief respite and Thinis eventually lost its position as a regional administrative centre by the Roman period .
Due to its ancient heritage , Thinis remained a significant religious centre , housing the tomb and mummy of the regional deity . In ancient Egyptian religious cosmology , as seen ( for example ) in the Book of the Dead , Thinis played a role as a mythical place in heaven .
Although the precise location of Thinis is unknown , mainstream Egyptological consensus places it in the vicinity of ancient Abydos and modern Girga .
= = Name and location = =
The name Thinis is derived from Manetho 's use of the adjective Thinite to describe the pharaoh Menes . Although the corresponding Thinis does not appear in Greek , it is demanded by the Egyptian original and is the more popular name among Egyptologists . This is also suggested .
In correcting a passage of Hellanicus ( b . 490 BCE ) , Jörgen Zoega amended Τίνδων όνομα to Θιν δε οι όνομα . Maspero ( 1903 ) found that this revealed the name Thinis and also , from the same passage , a key geographic indicator : επιποταμίη ( English : on the river ) . Maspero used this additional detail to support the theory , which included among its followers Jean @-@ François Champollion and Nestor L 'Hôte , locating Thinis at modern @-@ day Girga or a neighbouring town , possibly El @-@ Birba . Other proposals for Thinis ' location have lost favour at the expense of the Girga @-@ Birba theory : Auguste Mariette , founder director of the Egyptian Museum , suggested Kom el @-@ Sultan ; A. Schmidt , El @-@ Kherbeh ; and Heinrich Karl Brugsch , Johannes Dümichen and others supported El @-@ Tineh , near Berdis . Mainstream Egyptological consensus continues to locate Thinis at or near to either Girga , or El @-@ Birba ( where an inscribed statue fragment mentioning Thinis is said to have been found ) .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ dynastic and Early Dynastic periods = = =
Although the archaeological site of Thinis has never been located , evidence of population concentration in the Abydos @-@ Thinis region dates from the fourth millennium BCE . Thinis is also cited as the earliest royal burial @-@ site in Egypt .
At an early point , the city of Abydos resigned its political rank to Thinis , and although Abydos would continue to enjoy supreme religious importance , its history and functions cannot be understood without reference to Thinis . The role of Thinis as centre of the Thinite Confederacy ( or Dynasty 0 ) and into the Early Dynastic Period ( specifically Dynasty I and Dynasty II ) is taken from Manetho , and , according to Wilkinson ( 2000 ) , seems to be confirmed by Dynasty I and late Dynasty II royal tombs at Abydos , the principal regional necropolis .
= = = Old Kingdom = = =
Such importance seems to have been short @-@ lived : certainly , the national political role of Thinis ended at the beginning of Dynasty III ( c . 2686 BCE ) , when Memphis became the chief religious and political centre . Nonetheless , Thinis retained its regional significance : during Dynasty V , it was the probable seat of the " Overseer of Upper Egypt " , an administrative official with responsibility for the Nile Valley south of the Delta , and throughout antiquity it was the eponymous capital of nome VIII of Upper Egypt and seat of its nomarch .
During the wars of the First Intermediate Period ( c . 2181 – c . 2055 BCE ) , Ankhtifi , nomarch of Hierakonpolis , demanded recognition of his suzerainty from the " overseer of Upper Egypt " at Thinis , and although the city walls , cited in Ankhtifi 's autobiography , seem to have left Ankhtifi capable of only a show of force , he appears to have purchased Thinis ' neutrality with grain .
Following Ankhtifi 's death , Thinis was the northernmost nome to fall under the sway of Intef II , pharaoh of the Theban Dynasty XI ( c . 2118 – c . 2069 BCE ) . Progress north by the Theban armies was halted by Kheti III , pharaoh of the Heracleopolitan Dynasty IX , in a battle at Thinis itself that is recorded in the Teaching for King Merykara , and , throughout Intef II 's later years , his war against the Heracleopolitans and their allies , the nomarchs of Assyut , was waged in the land between Thinis and Assyut .
As Thebes began to take the upper hand , Mentuhotep II ( c . 2061 – c . 2010 BCE ) , on his campaign of reunification , brought Thinis , which had been in revolt , possibly at Heracleopolitan instigation and certainly with the support of an army under the command of the nomarch of Assyut , firmly under his control .
During the Second Intermediate Period ( c. eighteenth century BCE ) , Thinis may have experienced resurgent autonomy : Ryholt ( 1997 ) proposes that the Abydos dynasty of kings might better be called the " Thinite Dynasty " and that , in any event , their royal seat was likely at Thinis , already a nome capital .
= = = New Kingdom and Late Period = = =
The city 's steady decline appears to have halted briefly during Dynasty XVIII ( c . 1550 – c . 1292 BCE ) , when Thinis enjoyed renewed prominence , based on its geographical connection to various oases of possible military importance . Certainly , the office of mayor of Thinis was occupied by several notable New Kingdom figures : Satepihu , who participated in the construction of an obelisk for Hatshepsut and was himself subject of an exemplary block statue ; the herald Intef , an indispensable member of the royal household and the travelling @-@ companion of Thutmose III ; and Min , tutor to the prince Amenhotep III .
Nonetheless , Thinis had declined to a settlement of little significance by the historic period . The misleading reference on a seventh @-@ century BCE Assyrian stele to " Nespamedu , king of Thinis " is nothing more than a reflection of Assyrian " ignorance of the subtlety of the Egyptian political hierarchy " .
Certainly , by the Roman period , Thinis had been supplanted as capital of its nome by Ptolemais , perhaps even as early as that city 's foundation by Ptolemy I.
= = Religion = =
As each nome was home to the tomb and mummy of its dead nome @-@ god , so at Thinis was the temple and last resting @-@ place of Anhur , whose epithets included " bull of Thinis " , worshipped after his death as Khenti @-@ Amentiu , and who , as nome @-@ god , was placed at the head of the local ennead .
The high priest of the temple of Anhur at Thinis was called the first prophet , or chief of seers , a title that Maspero ( 1903 ) suggests is a reflection of Thinis ' decline in status as a city .
One such chief of seers , Anhurmose , who died in the reign of Merneptah ( c . 1213 – c . 1203 BCE ) , broke with the tradition of his New Kingdom predecessors , who were buried at Abydos , and was laid to rest at Thinis itself .
The lion @-@ goddess Mehit was also worshipped at Thinis , and the restoration of her temple there during Merneptah 's reign was probably overseen by Anhurmose .
There is evidence that succession to the office of chief of seers of Anhur at Thinis was familial : in the Herakleopolitan period , one Hagi succeeded his elder brother , also called Hagi , and their father to the post ; and , in the New Kingdom , Wenennefer was succeeded in the priestly office by his son , Hori .
In ancient Egyptian religious cosmology , Thinis played a role as a mythical place in heaven . In particular , as set out in the Book of the Dead , its eschatological significance can be seen in certain rituals : when the god Osiris triumphs , " joy goeth its round in Thinis " , a reference to the celestial Thinis , rather than the earthly city .
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= Ed Blake =
Edward James Blake ( December 23 , 1925 – April 15 , 2009 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played four seasons with the Cincinnati Reds and the Kansas City Athletics . In eight career games , Blake pitched 8 ⅔ innings and had an 8 @.@ 31 earned run average ( ERA ) .
After graduating high school in East St. Louis , Blake played in the farm system of the nearby St. Louis Cardinals before enlisting in the army . He returned to baseball after being wounded in the military service , pitching in the minors for five years before making his major league debut for the Cincinnati Reds . He pitched for them on and off for three years , then spent the next six years pitching for the Toronto Maple Leafs . His last major league appearance was a stint with the Athletics in 1957 , and two years later his professional baseball career ended . After retirement he became a plumber , and died in 2009 .
= = Early life = =
Born in St. Louis , Missouri to Edward and Katherine Blake , he attended Central Catholic High School in East St. Louis , where he was a baseball teammate of Hank Bauer , and graduated in 1943 . Blake pitched batting practice for the St. Louis Cardinals during the 1943 World Series after his high school graduation , in what he considered to be the highlight of his professional career . He signed with the Cardinals in 1944 and spent the season with three different minor league teams : the Columbus Red Birds of the American Association , the Allentown Cardinals of the Interstate League and the Mobile Bears of the Southern Association .
= = Military service and 1940s career = =
After the 1944 season ended , Blake enlisted in the Army and fought with the 40th Infantry Division in the Pacific Theater of Operations . While in the Philippines , Blake was wounded , and was out of action for nine months as he recovered . As the 1946 season began , he rejoined the Cardinals , now fully recovered , and spent the season with the Columbus Cardinals . Blake started the season losing his first three starts , but then won 13 straight and finished the season with a 16 wins , eight losses , and a 3 @.@ 51 earned run average . In February 1947 , Blake was among a group of 92 Cardinals players invited to a dinner for Cardinals minor leaguers , where accusations in regards to Cardinals players being paid poorly were brought up and discussed . He spent the following season playing for both Columbus teams , playing 29 games in total and finishing the season with a combined 4 @.@ 46 ERA . Before the 1948 season began , Blake was promoted to the Rochester Red Wings of the International League . He had a 7 – 6 record and a 3 @.@ 88 ERA in 34 games , seven of them starts . In 1949 , Blake spent most of the season playing for Rochester . On August 9 , 1949 he was traded by the Cardinals to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for Mike Schultz , ending his career with the Cardinals . Blake finished the season with the Syracuse Chiefs and finished the season with a combined 5 – 4 record and a 4 @.@ 78 ERA .
= = Minor leagues and Reds career = =
Blake began the 1950 season with Syracuse Chiefs and spent most of the season as a starting pitcher instead of a reliever . He started in 23 games and finished the season with a 12 – 8 record and an ERA of 3 @.@ 51 . In 1951 , Blake was considered to have a small chance to make the major league roster . Nonetheless , Blake got his first taste of the major leagues that season . He made his major league debut on May 1 , 1951 against the Philadelphia Phillies . Blake played three games during his time on the Reds in 1951 , and finished two of those games . He pitched four innings , allowing five runs and three home runs , finishing the season with an ERA of 11 @.@ 25 . While on the Reds in 1951 , he was part of a Reds " bullpen union " led by Jim Blackburn , which drew up a series of humorous requests including a smoking lounge and sandwiches between double headers . He spent most of the 1951 season with the Columbus Red Birds , playing in 27 games for them . In 27 pitching appearances , 23 of them starts , Blake went 7 – 15 with a 5 @.@ 91 ERA . Despite the record , Blake led the Red Birds in innings pitched and finished tied for second in wins , though he did also lead the team , which went 53 – 101 , in losses .
Blake spent most of 1952 with the Milwaukee Brewers of the American Association , but he also pitched a few games for the Reds during the 1952 Cincinnati Reds season . He pitched in two games for the Reds in 1952 , coming in to finish both games for the Reds . He pitched three shutout innings , allowing three hits in these two games . During his time with the Brewers , he pitched in 21 games . He started 19 of the 21 games , won ten and lost three , and had a 3 @.@ 96 ERA . As the 1953 season began , Blake again had a stint with Cincinnati , but spent most of the season with the Indianapolis Indians . He pitched in one game for the Reds on April 17 , 1953 against the Milwaukee Brewers , allowing two earned runs on a hit and a walk without getting a batter out . During his time with the Indianapolis Indians , he pitched in 29 games , and was the workhorse of the Indians ' squad . He finished the season with a 14 – 7 record , a 3 @.@ 76 ERA , and 208 innings pitched , and led the team in wins , innings pitched , and starting appearances .
= = Maple Leafs and Athletics career = =
The 1953 season marked Blake 's last appearance with the Reds . On February 1 , 1954 , Blake was purchased from the Reds by the Toronto Maple Leafs , an unaffiliated team of the American Association . He played for the Maple Leafs for a total of six seasons , where he had some of his best professional career seasons . In 1954 , he teamed with Connie Johnson to lead the Maple Leafs to a 97 @-@ 57 record . He finished the 1954 season with a 15 – 9 record , a 3 @.@ 92 ERA , 30 games started , and 209 innings pitched , leading the team in the latter two categories . The following season , he combined with Johnson and Jack Crimian to help Toronto win 94 games . On July 10 , Blake was the first pitcher in the International League to win 13 games when he beat the Columbus squad 7 – 4 . He finished the season with 17 wins , 13 losses , and a 3 @.@ 94 ERA . In 1956 , Blake was a member of the " big three " for the Maple Leafs , along with Don Johnson and International League Most Valuable Player Lynn Lovenguth . The three combined for 750 innings pitched and 57 complete games while often working on two days ' rest . He finished the season with 17 wins , 11 losses , and a 2 @.@ 61 ERA . He also led the team in shutouts with six .
Blake was drafted at the end of the 1956 season by the Kansas City Athletics in the rule 5 draft . The day after being drafted , the Athletics planned to include him in an eight @-@ player deal with the Detroit Tigers involving Virgil Trucks and others , but his inclusion in the trade was vetoed by Commissioner Ford Frick , claiming his inclusion was " against the spirit of the draft . " Blake was replaced in the trade by former Toronto teammate Jack Crimian . While he spent most of the 1957 season with Toronto , he had one final major league stint with the Athletics , pitching in two games in April . His 1957 stint in Toronto was not as successful as previous seasons , as he finished with eight wins , nine losses , and a 5 @.@ 54 ERA . He spent five weeks of the 1958 season unable to play due to injury . Despite this , he was still able to pitch in 23 games , winning nine and bringing his ERA down to 3 @.@ 54 . In 1959 , Blake split time between Toronto and the Houston Buffs , winning three games and losing ten in his final professional season of baseball .
= = Personal and later life = =
After his playing career ended , Blake went on to become a plumber . He spent nearly 50 years in the plumbing business and was formerly the president of Plumbers Local 360 . Blake was married to his wife , Carol Jean , for 47 years before her death . With Carol , he had a son , Ed , and a daughter , Peggy . His son , also named Ed Blake , was a former pitcher who played in the Baltimore Orioles ' farm system from 1970 to 1973 , playing for the AA affiliate Asheville Orioles at the peak of his career . His grandson , Ed Blake III , has continued in the footsteps of his father and grandfather as a pitcher in high school . Blake died in Swansea , Illinois at the age of 83 after a long illness , and is interred at Mount Carmel Cemetery in Belleville , Illinois .
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= Bristol Parkway railway station =
Bristol Parkway railway station , on the South Wales Main Line , is in the Stoke Gifford area in the northern suburbs of the Bristol conurbation . It is 112 miles ( 180 km ) from London Paddington . Its three @-@ letter station code is BPW . The station was opened in 1972 by British Rail , and was the first in a new generation of park and ride stations . It is the third @-@ most heavily used station in the West of England , after Bristol Temple Meads and Bath Spa . There are three platforms , and a well @-@ equipped waiting area . The station is managed by Great Western Railway , who provide most of the trains at the station , with CrossCountry providing the rest .
The line is not electrified , but will be by 2016 as part of the planned modernisation of the Great Western Main Line . A new platform will also be built , allowing increased services from London .
= = Description = =
Bristol Parkway is located in the unitary authority of South Gloucestershire , in the Stoke Gifford area of the Bristol conurbation . The immediate surrounding area is mostly residential , with farmland to the south east . The main road access is from the west , with the station situated close to the M4 , M5 and M32 motorways , the latter being the Bristol " Parkway " from which the station takes its name , as well as the A4174 Avon Ring Road . The station is on the South Wales Main Line from London to Swansea , 111 miles 68 chains ( 180 @.@ 01 km ) from the eastern terminus at London Paddington . It is also on the Cross Country Route from Bristol Temple Meads to York . Just to the west of the station is Stoke Gifford Junction , where the Henbury Loop Line to Avonmouth Docks and Cross Country Route to Bristol Temple Meads diverge from the line to South Wales . To the east is a Network Rail maintenance training centre . The next station north along the Cross Country Route is Yate , the next station south is Filton Abbey Wood . The next station east along the South Wales Main Line is Swindon , the next station west is Patchway , however there is only one train per day calling at both Bristol Parkway and Patchway .
The station is on an east / west alignment , with the main station building and car park to the north of the line . There is a goods yard adjacent to the station to the south , with two loops for trains to pass . The station has three platforms , numbered 2 , 3 and 4 . Platform 2 is to the south of the two main running lines , and serves westbound trains towards Wales and Bristol Temple Meads . Platforms 3 and 4 share an island to the north of the two main running lines , with a further two running lines between platform 4 and the car park . Platform 3 serves mainly inter @-@ city trains towards London and Birmingham New Street , while platform 4 is usually reserved for local services . There is a metal wall on platform 2 , fencing off the goods yard . An enclosed footbridge provides access to the platforms , approximately a third of the way along platforms 2 and 3 ( from west to east ) , and at the west end of platform 4 . Platforms 2 and 3 are opposite each other , while platform 4 is offset from platform 3 , starting at the footbridge and extending further to the east . Platform 2 is 257 metres ( 281 yd ) long , platform 3 is 255 metres ( 279 yd ) and platform 4 is 278 metres ( 304 yd ) . Platforms 3 and 4 are signalled for bidirectional running , while platform 2 is unidirectional . The footbridge can be accessed by both stairs and lifts .
The station building , a sweeping metal construction opened in 2001 , contains a booking office , waiting rooms , payphones , cash machines , shops , toilets and a café overlooking the tracks . There are waiting rooms on each platform , as well as vending machines and LED displays giving next train information . Ticket barriers are in use at the station . The pay @-@ and @-@ display car park , run by APCOA , has 1 @,@ 810 spaces .
Bristol Parkway was the first of a new generation of park and ride railway stations , and a large number of passengers use it for that purpose . Over the decade 2002 – 2012 , the number of passengers starting or ending a journey at Bristol Parkway grew by 1 million passengers per year to 2 @.@ 25 million , with a further 740 @,@ 000 passengers changing trains there , giving an annual footfall of just under 3 million passengers and making it the 216th busiest station in the country and the third busiest in the West of England ( after Bristol Temple Meads and Bath Spa ) as of the 2011 / 12 financial year . In the 2006 / 07 financial year , over 100 @,@ 000 passengers used Parkway to travel to or from Bristol Temple Meads , and a further 500 @,@ 000 used it to travel to or from London Paddington .
The line through Bristol Parkway has a linespeed of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) on platforms 2 and 3 ( 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) westbound on platform 3 ) , and 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) on platform 4 . The loading gauge is W8 , and the line handles over 20 million train tonnes per year . It is not electrified , though it is planned that it will be electrified by 2016 as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line .
= = Services = =
The station is managed by Great Western Railway , who operate most rail services from the station . As of the December 2013 timetable , the basic Great Western Railway weekday service consists of two trains per hour each way between London Paddington and Cardiff Central ( with one extended to Swansea ) , one terminating service to and from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and one service each way between Westbury and Gloucester via Bristol Temple Meads ( with one train every two hours extended to Great Malvern and Weymouth ) .
CrossCountry also operate trains from Bristol Parkway – as of the December 2013 timetable , the basic weekday service consists of one hourly train each way between Bristol Temple Meads and Manchester Piccadilly , and one hourly train each way between Plymouth , Bristol and Edinburgh Waverley via Leeds & Newcastle Central . Both these services run via Birmingham New Street .
Great Western Railway services between London and Wales are formed of High Speed Train ( HST ) sets , while other GWR services use a mix of Class 150 , 153 and 158 diesel multiple @-@ unit trains . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have mostly been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground . CrossCountry services are usually formed of Class 220 and 221 Voyager diesel @-@ electric multiple units , with some services between Scotland and the South West employing HST sets .
The standard journey time to London Paddington is 90 minutes , to Cardiff Central 40 minutes , to Birmingham New Street 75 minutes , and to Bristol Temple Meads 12 minutes .
Bristol Parkway is served by several bus routes linking it with the rest of Bristol and South Gloucestershire . These include
3B ( City centre to Aztec West )
X5 ( UWE to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare )
18 ( Emersons Green to Henbury )
X18 ( Kingswood to Southmead Hospital
19 ( Bath to Cribbs Causeway )
73 ( City Centre to Cribbs Causeway )
X73 ( City Centre to Aztec West )
77 ( Thornbury to City Centre )
81 ( Longwell Green to Yate )
82 ( Southmead Hospital to Wotton @-@ under @-@ Edge )
501 ( Parkway Station – Avonmouth )
502 ( Parkway Station to Shirehampton )
625 ( Southmead Hospital to Severn Beach )
These routes are operated by First Bristol , First Somerset and Avon , Wessex Bus and Severnside Transport .
= = History = =
The line through Bristol Parkway was originally opened in 1903 as part of the Great Western Railway 's " Badminton Line " from Wootton Bassett to Patchway , a short @-@ cut for trains from London to South Wales , avoiding Bath and Chippenham . The station was built on the site of the Stoke Gifford marshalling yard , which closed on 4 October 1971 , having become surplus to requirements with the cessation of wagonload freight trains . The station 's development was seen as a response to the potential growth of housing and commercial developments in north Bristol , with proximity to the M4 and M5 motorway interchange at Almondsbury also important . The name " Parkway " came from proximity to the M32 motorway , known as the Bristol Parkway , although the term Parkway has since been applied to park and ride stations throughout the United Kingdom . When the station was built it was outside the developed urban area , but the growth of housing and commercial development in adjoining areas of the North Fringe has brought it within the conurbation , with many large office complexes opened nearby .
The station , owned by British Rail , opened on 1 May 1972 . Services were operated by the Western Region until British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , after which Parkway was served by the InterCity and Regional Railways divisions . The original structures , built by Stone & Co. of Bristol , were basic – two island platforms connected by an open metal footbridge , with a wood and brick building containing the booking facilities and waiting rooms . Platform 1 ( the modern platform 3 ) , on the north side of the tracks , was for trains towards London and Birmingham , and platform 2 was for trains towards Wales and Bristol Temple Meads . The station opened with a 600 @-@ space car park and a fastest journey to London of 95 minutes , which was subsequently reduced to 75 minutes with the introduction of the new High Speed Trains in the mid @-@ 70s . Platform canopies were added in 1973 , along with a cover for the footbridge . Further minor improvements were implemented over the next thirty years , including a new booking office and small extensions to the car park .
Following the privatisation of British Rail in 1997 , services at Bristol Parkway were franchised to several different train operating companies . South Wales Main Line services were provided by Great Western Trains , which was later rebranded as First Great Western ; services from Bristol to Birmingham and the north were operated by Virgin CrossCountry ; and local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was in turn succeeded in 2001 by Wessex Trains , a subsidiary of National Express . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , which was later rebranded as Great Western Railway . Virgin CrossCountry services were taken over by Arriva CrossCountry in 2007 .
In the early 2000s , the Royal Mail began construction of the West of England Post Office Rail Depot just to the east of the station , taking over some of the station car park to provide a platform and warehouse for postal trains . The 12 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m2 ) building opened in 2002 , with the Royal Mail stating it would save 250 @,@ 000 miles ( 400 @,@ 000 km ) of lorry journeys per year on local roads . However , the depot closed only two years later in 2004 , when the Post Office ceased to use the rail network . Royal Mail offered the terminal for use by freight companies , but there were no takers . In 2008 it was reopened as a Network Rail maintenance training centre in a £ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 project which saw the construction of a mezzanine floor , a welding workshop and a 4 @,@ 000 square feet ( 370 m2 ) extension .
In 2000 , work began on a complete redevelopment of the station building . It opened on 1 July 2001 , and featured lifts and generally enhanced facilities . Local roads were enhanced to help speed passengers ' journeys to and from the station , and a new multi @-@ storey car park was built to replace the spaces lost to the Royal Mail facility . A dedicated bus interchange was opened in 2003 . In 2006 , construction started on a new platform face on the north side of platform 1 , to ease congestion for trains toward Birmingham and London . The new platform , platform 4 , was opened on 9 May 2007 by rail minister Tom Harris MP . As part of the reconstruction , the waiting room at the east end of platform 1 was demolished , and replaced with an extended waiting area and customer help desk . Platform 1 was subsequently redesignated platform 3 . The work cost £ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , and was funded by Network Rail , with First Great Western contributing £ 100 @,@ 000 towards the new waiting room and help desk .
Despite the large car park , the increase in passenger numbers at Parkway in recent years has led to problems with on @-@ street parking , leading to the commissioning of a new 200 @-@ space car park 500 metres ( 550 yd ) east of the station . It opened in Spring 2011 , but was used by only 139 motorists in its first three months , and as of August 2012 was averaging only 10 motorists per day . It is expected that traffic will increase when a new bus link is opened to transfer drivers from the car park to the station . A new multi @-@ storey car park on the station site with 710 spaces was opened on 5 September 2014 by Baroness Kramer , Minister of State for Transport . Construction of the car park , which began in mid @-@ 2013 , caused a short @-@ term lack of spaces for commuters . The car park cost £ 13 million and was funded jointly by Network Rail and the Department for Transport under the Station Commercial Projects Fund .
Improved cycle facilities , including a bike hire scheme , were provided in the late 2000s .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 . The CrossCountry franchise is also due to expire in 2019 .
The South Wales Main Line from London to Cardiff is due to be electrified by 2016 , as is the line to Bristol Temple Meads . However , the lines to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and Birmingham will not be electrified , so local and CrossCountry services will still be provided by diesel trains , with " Sprinter " units on local services to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification continuing to Weston , as does MP for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare John Penrose . The electrification scheme also includes the four @-@ tracking of Filton Bank , which will allow more services between Parkway and Bristol Temple Meads , and separate fast inter @-@ city services from local stopping services . New Intercity Express Trains will be introduced , and will be maintained at the Filton Triangle depot just west of Bristol Parkway . There will be a new platform at Parkway for westbound trains to allow new services to run from London Paddington to Bristol Temple Meads , calling only at Bristol Parkway , shaving 20 minutes off the journey time . The area will also be resignalled .
Bristol Parkway is on the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare / Yate corridor , one of the main axes of the Greater Bristol Metro , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . The scheme could see the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line to passengers , with the possibility of services from Bristol Temple Meads to Bristol Parkway via Clifton Down and Henbury .
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= R1 – RG1 ( Rodalies de Catalunya ) =
The R1 is a line of Rodalies de Catalunya 's Barcelona commuter rail service , operated by Renfe Operadora . It runs northwards from the Barcelona area to the southern limits of the province of Girona , passing through the coastal Maresme region . Since 2014 , some services have been extended further north towards Portbou , near the French border . These services are designated RG1 and are considered part of the Girona commuter rail service . According to 2008 data , the line 's annual ridership is 39 @.@ 6 million , the highest on any line of the Barcelona commuter rail service , with an average weekday ridership of 102 @,@ 214 .
R1 – RG1 trains primarily run on the Barcelona – Mataró – Maçanet @-@ Massanes railway , the first railway line in the Iberian Peninsula . They use the Meridiana Tunnel in Barcelona , where they share tracks with Rodalies de Catalunya 's Barcelona commuter rail service lines R3 and R4 , as well as regional rail line R12 , calling at Sants , Plaça de Catalunya and Arc de Triomf stations . R1 services use Molins de Rei as their southernmost terminus and Maçanet @-@ Massanes as their northernmost one . On the other hand , no RG1 services run south of L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat , or north of Portbou .
Together with lines R2 , R3 , and R4 , the R1 ( then simply numbered line 1 ) started services in 1989 as one of the first lines of the Cercanías commuter rail system for Barcelona , known as Rodalies Barcelona . Originally , R1 services had two southern termini , L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Barcelona – El Prat Airport stations . In 2005 , all trains terminating at the airport moved their southern terminus to Molins de Rei . In the long @-@ term future , it is projected that the R1 will take over the southern section of line R2 , creating a major north – south axis that will extend along the coast of the Barcelona metropolitan area .
= = History = =
The current line scheme of the R1 started operating on 28 May 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 05 @-@ 28 ) , after the dismantling of the former route of the Barcelona – Mataró – Maçanet @-@ Massanes railway through the Barcelona neighborhood of Poblenou . Earlier , all the commuter rail services coming from Mataró used the route through Poblenou , terminating at Estació de les Rodalies , a terminus station that was located adjacent to the still existing Estació de França . All services coming from Mataró were then rerouted through the Sagrera rail complex and the Meridiana Tunnel to access Barcelona , terminating at L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat or Barcelona – El Prat Airport stations , depending on the station of origin . The services coming from Mataró terminated at the airport , whilst the services coming from north of Mataró terminated at L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat . Since the new through line scheme offered more stops within Barcelona and better connections with the city 's metro system , the line 's ridership doubled . Throughout 1989 , this new line scheme was incorporated as part of line 1 of Rodalies Barcelona ( predecessor of the R1 ) , the Cercanías commuter rail system for the Barcelona area , created in the same year .
On 4 December 2005 , the services between Mataró and the airport were suspended due to the construction works of the Madrid – Barcelona high @-@ speed rail line in Barcelona 's southern access , leaving the airport without any direct trains to Barcelona . These services moved their southern terminus from the airport to Molins de Rei , originating the line 's current termini . The R1 also started operating as a shuttle line between the airport and El Prat de Llobregat railway station until 22 July 2006 , when line R10 was created , providing a direct rail link between the airport and central Barcelona anew .
= = Infrastructure = =
Like the rest of Rodalies de Catalunya lines , the R1 – RG1 runs on the Iberian gauge mainline railway system , which is owned by Adif , an agency of the Spanish government . All of the railway lines carrying Rodalies de Catalunya services are electrified at 3 @,@ 000 volts ( V ) direct current ( DC ) using overhead lines . The R1 – RG1 operates on a total line length of 181 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 112 @.@ 6 mi ) , which is entirely double @-@ track , excepting for the single @-@ track section between Arenys de Mar and Maçanet @-@ Massanes stations . The trains on the line call at up to 48 stations , using the following railway lines , in order from south to north :
The entire length of the Barcelona – Mataró – Maçanet @-@ Massanes railway is solely used by the R1 – RG1 , though the rest of the infrastructure it uses is shared with other services . South of L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat , it shares tracks with Rodalies de Catalunya 's Barcelona commuter rail service line R4 . Between L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Arc de Triomf stations , R1 and RG1 trains share tracks with commuter rail lines R3 and R4 , and regional rail line R12 , using the Meridiana Tunnel through central Barcelona . After Arc de Triomf , they branch off to El Clot @-@ Aragó railway station , running on exclusive tracks from this point on to Maçanet @-@ Massanes . North of Maçanet @-@ Massanes , the R1 – RG1 shares tracks with regional line R11 and freight services .
In May 2015 , Adif announced that the R1 – RG1 would be the first Rodalies de Catalunya line to feature the European Rail Traffic Management System ( ERTMS ) signaling and security system . ERTMS Level 2 will be installed on the 56 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 35 mi ) section between L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Mataró , increasing capacity and reliability parameters .
= = Operation = =
There are no end @-@ to @-@ end services between Molins de Rei and Portbou stations on the R1 – RG1 , which means only partial services operate on the line . The services commencing or terminating at Molins de Rei do not usually run north of Mataró or Arenys de Mar. On the other hand , most services commencing or terminating at L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat run north of Arenys de Mar , using Calella , Blanes , Maçanet @-@ Massanes , Figueres or Portbou stations as their northern terminus , in order from south to north . Furthermore , since 31 January 2009 , there have been no limited services , so that the entirety of R1 and RG1 trains call at all stations . Previously , some R1 trains had operated limited services , skipping Montgat , Montgat Nord , and Cabrera de Mar @-@ Vilassar de Mar stations . The first trains run about 5 : 00 in the morning , with the latest arriving at about 1 : 00 at night .
The designation of the services operating on the line depends on the route they operate . The services between Molins de Rei and Maçanet @-@ Massanes are designated R1 in coordination with the rest of Barcelona commuter rail service lines , whilst the services between L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and other stations located further north of Maçanet @-@ Massanes are designated RG1 ( the letter ' G ' stands for Girona ) to indicate that they are part of the Girona commuter rail service . RG1 services began operating on 20 March 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 03 @-@ 20 ) after former R1 services between L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Maçanet @-@ Massanes were extended northwards to Figueres . Since 20 June 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 06 @-@ 20 ) , some of these services have been extended further north to Portbou .
As of July 2015 , the service routes operating on the R1 – RG1 are as follows :
The line 's activity gathers on the section between L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Mataró , where a peak @-@ time frequency of 6 minutes has been offered since 26 June 2011 , that is the highest on any line of the Rodalies de Catalunya system . The service frequency reduces as the line moves away from Barcelona , especially on the section north of Maçanet @-@ Massanes , where only RG1 services operate on weekdays , and which is already served by regional rail line R11 . Moreover , the R1 does not operate south of L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat on weekends , when this section is solely served by Barcelona commuter rail service line R4 .
As of July 2015 , the approximate service frequencies on the R1 – RG1 are as follows :
The trains used on the R1 – RG1 are Civia — specifically , the 463 , 464 and 465 Series , which consist of three , four and five cars per set , respectively — and 447 Series electrical multiple units ( EMU ) . Civia trains have been running on the line since July 2006 , initially only operating services between Molins de Rei and Calella . On average , these trains operate a total of 216 services on the line every day on weekdays .
= = Future = =
The 2008 – 2015 Rail Infrastructure Master Plan for the Barcelona Commuter Rail Service , developed by the Spanish Ministry of Public Works and Transport , plans to establish a " coast @-@ to @-@ coast " and " inland @-@ to @-@ inland " line scheme . According to this project , the current R1 will be extended southwards from Barcelona Sants to Sant Vicenç de Calders stations , via Vilanova i la Geltrú , taking over the southern section of the present line R2 . The R1 will become the " coast @-@ to @-@ coast " line , creating a new major south – north axis along the coast of the Barcelona metropolitan area . R1 trains will continue to use the Meridiana Tunnel in central Barcelona with the new line scheme , which is currently not possible due to the configuration of the southern rail accesses to Barcelona Sants . A long @-@ term project with an uncertain completion date , the new configuration would require multi @-@ million euro investments since it is associated with the construction of a new underground route in L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat for the Rodalies de Catalunya lines running through the city as well as the new rail link for Barcelona – El Prat Airport .
As stated in the master plan , the proposed peak @-@ time service frequencies for the future R1 would be as follows :
= = List of stations = =
The following table lists the name of each station served by line R1 – RG1 in order from south to north ; the station 's service pattern offered by R1 and / or RG1 trains ; the transfers to other Rodalies de Catalunya lines , including both commuter and regional rail services ; remarkable transfers to other transport systems ; the municipality in which each station is located ; and the fare zone ( s ) each station belongs to according to the Autoritat del Transport Metropolità ( ATM Àrea de Barcelona ) and the Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l 'Àrea de Girona ( ATM Àrea de Girona ) fare @-@ integrated public transport systems , as well as Rodalies de Catalunya 's own fare zone system for Barcelona commuter rail service lines .
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= Han Sai Por =
Han Sai Por ( simplified Chinese : 韩少芙 ; traditional Chinese : 韓少芙 ; pinyin : Hán Shào Fú ; born 19 July 1943 ) is a Singaporean sculptor . A graduate of the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts ( NAFA ) , East Ham College of Art , Wolverhampton College of Art ( now the School of Art and Design of the University of Wolverhampton ) and Lincoln University , New Zealand , she worked as a teacher and later as a part @-@ time lecturer at NAFA , the LASALLE @-@ SIA College of the Arts , and the National Institute of Education , Nanyang Technological University , before becoming a full @-@ time artist in 1997 .
Han has participated in exhibitions locally and abroad , including events in China , Denmark , Japan , Malaysia , New Zealand and South Korea . Her first solo exhibition , entitled Four Dimensions , was held at the National Museum Art Gallery in 1993 . Her sculptures can be found around the world , in Osaka and Shōdoshima , Kagawa Prefecture , in Japan ; Kuala Lumpur and Sarawak in Malaysia ; and Washington , D.C. In Singapore , sculptures commissioned from her can be seen at Capital Tower , the Defence Science Organisation National Laboratories , the Esplanade – Theatres on the Bay , the National Museum of Singapore , Revenue House , Singapore Changi Airport Terminal 3 , Suntec City Mall , and Woodlands Regional Library . In 2001 , Han was the founding President of the Sculpture Society ( Singapore ) and remains its Honorary President . She was the first artist in residence at the Society 's Sculpture Pavilion at Fort Canning Park in 2009 , where she worked on sculptures made from the trunks of tembusu trees .
Han is probably best known for her stone sculptures with organic forms , examples of which include Growth ( 1985 ) , Spirit of Nature ( 1988 ) , Object C ( 1992 ) and Seeds ( 2006 ) . The last work , presently located in the grounds of the National Museum , consists of two large kernels carved from sandstone excavated from Fort Canning Hill during the Museum 's redevelopment . However , her oeuvre is broad , and includes Four Dimensions ( 1993 ) , a collection of geometrical structures ; and 20 Tonnes ( 2002 ) , also installed at the Museum , which consists of a row of six ridged monolithic blocks with a smaller block at either end , all hewn from a single granite rock .
For her contributions to art , Han was conferred the Cultural Medallion for Art in 1995 . She was also the winner of the sculpture and painting section at the 11th Triennale – India organized by the Lalit Kala Akademi ( National Academy of Art of India ) in 2005 , and the Outstanding City Sculpture Award in China the following year .
= = Early life and education = =
Han Sai Por was born on 19 July 1943 in Singapore during the Japanese occupation . She was one of six children of a poor couple , and her family were squatters living in Changi in a house made of cardboard boxes and coconut leaves . Nonetheless , Han had a happy childhood , and went to a nearby beach to make figurine animals out of sand . This experience helped her to appreciate nature and instilled in her a sense of adventure and exploration . At ten years of age , Han was introduced to Michelangelo 's sculptures through a book given to her by her mother .
Han was educated at Yock Eng High School ( now Yuying Secondary School ) and subsequently at the Singapore Teachers ' Training College between 1965 and 1968 . While working as a teacher , she attended part @-@ time courses at the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts ( NAFA ) from 1975 to 1977 . Having saved some money , she went to the United Kingdom where she studied fine art at the East Ham College of Art ( 1979 – 1980 ) and the Wolverhampton College of Art ( 1980 – 1983 ) , receiving a B.A. ( Hons . ) in Fine Art from the latter . She worked as a cook , hotel maid , waitress and street artist to support herself .
Han returned to Singapore in 1983 and was one of the two pioneer teachers appointed to the new Arts Elective Programme at the Nanyang Girls ' High School . In 1987 , to support her personal artistic endeavours , Han also began to teach part @-@ time at NAFA , the LASALLE @-@ SIA College of the Arts ( both 1987 – 1993 ) , and the National Institute of Education , Nanyang Technological University ( 1994 – 1996 ) . Subsequently , she pursued further studies in landscape architecture at Lincoln University in Lincoln , Canterbury , in New Zealand .
= = Artistic career = =
Han has participated in exhibitions locally and abroad , including events in China , Denmark , Japan , Malaysia , New Zealand and South Korea . Over 24 hours between New Year 's Eve 1989 and New Year 's Day 1990 , she took part in The Time Show organized by The Artists Village , which has been described as " definitely a high point in the history of art in Singapore when an exceptionally wide spectrum of artists expressing in an equally wide range of mediums participated in a single art event " . Han 's first solo exhibition was Four Dimensions at the National Museum Art Gallery from 18 to 28 February 1993 . Other solo shows she has given in Singapore are Rainforest ( Plastique Kinetic Worms , 1999 ) and 20 Tonnes – Physical Consequences ( Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts ARTrium , 2002 ) .
Han became a full @-@ time sculptor in 1997 . Her works can be found around the world : Childhood Dream ( 1992 ) at the Uchinomi @-@ cho Town Hall Garden on the island of Shōdoshima in Kagawa Prefecture , Japan ; Pisces ( 1993 ) at the Yashiro Hoshi @-@ no Choukoku Centre Park in Osaka , Japan ; Spirit of Nature III ( 1990 ) at the Kuching Waterfront Development in Sarawak , Malaysia ; Towards Peace ( 1987 ) in the Kuala Lumpur Lake Gardens , Malaysia ; and Cactus , Tropical Leaves ( both 1994 ) and The Wave of Life at the Embassy of Singapore in Washington , D.C. In Singapore , sculptures commissioned from her can be seen at Capital Tower ( Shimmering Pearls I , 1999 ) , the Defence Science Organisation National Laboratories ( Tropical Brain Forest , 2003 ) , the Esplanade – Theatres on the Bay ( Seed Series , 1998 ) , the National Museum of Singapore ( 20 Tonnes , 2002 ; and Seeds , 2006 ) , One Marina Boulevard ( Progressive Flows , 2004 ) , Orchard MRT Station ( Goddess of Happiness , 1985 ) , Revenue House ( Spring , 1996 ) , Singapore Changi Airport Terminal 3 ( Flora Inspiration , 2007 ) , Singapore Changi Airport VIP Complex ( Singapore – A Garden City , 2004 ) , Suntec City Mall ( Chinese Zodiac Medallions , 1995 ) , UOB Plaza ( Two Figures , 1993 ) , and Woodlands Regional Library ( Rain Forest ) .
In 2001 , Han was the founding President of the Sculpture Society ( Singapore ) , and remains its Honorary President . In May 2009 , she was the first artist in residence at the Society 's Sculpture Pavilion at Fort Canning Park where she worked on sculptures made from the trunks of tembusu trees . The project , sponsored by the Asia Pacific Breweries Foundation Inspire Programme , was intended to provide sculptors and installation artists with studio space and a chance to interact with the public in a park environment . Han was a member of the Fourth Singapore Note and Coin Advisory Committee between 1 July 2008 and 30 June 2011 , where her duties included advising the Monetary Authority of Singapore on designs for new currency .
In 2005 , with the assistance of the National Arts Council ( NAC ) and the Jurong Town Corporation ( JTC ) , she relocated from Seletar Air Base to Workloft @ Wessex , a walk @-@ up apartment in Wessex Estate which had been converted by JTC from an army camp into an artists ' village .
= = Art = =
Han is probably best known for her stone sculptures with organic forms ; she sees her sculpture has having " a force or inner life inside struggling to get out " . Having a preference for granite and marble , she has said : " Stone is one of my favourite materials . In the erosion of rock by wind and water are found original , vital qualities which express the significance of life . " Han often purchases stone using her own resources from quarries in China , Italy , Japan , Malaysia and Singapore . The cost of just the material for solo exhibition pieces can be up to S $ 20 @,@ 000 . Nonetheless , she is motivated by the encouragement , recognition and acknowledgement her art she receives from others . Examples of Han 's sculptures of this genre include Growth ( 1985 ) , a set of five pear @-@ shaped forms in white marble ; Spirit of Nature ( 1988 ) , three black granite ovoid and spheroid forms ; Object C ( 1992 ) , a pale grey granite object resembling a canoe ; and Seeds ( 2006 ) , large kernels carved from sandstone excavated from Fort Canning Hill during the National Museum 's redevelopment . Art historian and critic T.K. Sabapathy has commented that Han is concerned with the uneasy relation between men and nature in the modern era , and has expressed a desire for people to realize that " [ we ] are part of nature and not apart from nature " . In addition , he has said :
Her sculptures appear to embody forces whose origins are to be found in the very beginnings of the art of sculpture . What we have here , especially in the works carved out of stone , is sculpture in its embryonic form . Her works are made up of compact , entirely solid mass of material which she shapes but does not perforate or open up . They are the outcome of a single @-@ minded concentration on mass and volume . This approach leads to the creation of what can be described as kernel sculpture . The works have the strength and durability of primal or elementary forms . They retain the presence and weight of the monolith , and appeal to us with their provocative simplicity . In all these respects Han reasserts the fundamental qualities of sculpture , namely , a sensation of volume and material , tactile quality and ponderability . ... [ Her works ] radiate energy and materiality which , together , appear to be continually forming and re @-@ forming into new and surprising configurations ; essential to them is the indivisible or continuous single surface . These works beckon us to enter into realms that are stable , tranquil and sublime . Han gives her fellow man an affirmative , uplifting view of life .
Beyond Han 's sculptures which embrace organic forms , she has also designed geometric pieces . Four Dimensions ( 1993 ) was made up of ten geometrical structures , including single objects ( such as Tetrahedron – Tetrahedron Interpenetration ) and opened @-@ up planes ( Cubic Triangle ) connected with each other through the use of angles , and light and shadow . Han said : " My works are based on the concept of mathematical logic . The idea is to show how each step is based on the previous one so that the geometrical forms progress in logical sequence ... The fourth dimension is abstract . It cannot be seen or touched . It contains the feelings and talents of Mankind . We wish to possess this space and to open it up for all people to share . " Sabapathy was somewhat critical of these works , saying that they dealt only with techniques and fabrication and did not " disclose fresh insights into space and its articulation " . He expressed the hope that Han would stay the course and deepen her investigation beyond form into an exploration of light , colour and materials to " create environments in which form , space and time can be seen to be related in ever @-@ changing yet intelligent systems " .
20 Tonnes , first exhibited in 2002 in the atrium of the MICA Building ( formerly the Old Hill Street Police Station ) and now permanently installed in front of the National Museum , consists of a row of six ridged monolithic granite blocks with a smaller block at either end , all hewn from a single rock . Han called the work " an explanation of nature 's physical reaction when it is impacted by force , gravity and energy " , and commented : " When I am working on stone , the immediate context is physical , the force of hammering , chiseling and drilling hard stone creates heat and energy . The reaction of the particles causes sparks and waves of sound . The appearance of the stone is the result , the consequent physical reaction . Understanding the character of nature through the physical context has become part of my sculpture . "
According to art curator Tay Swee Lin , Han 's sculptures " exude smooth , sensual lines that are quietly engaging and tactile " , and her art " is a testimony of beauty with meditative quietness belying a resilience and strength that stone and metal encompass . The artist 's personal relationship with her art is one that is complete – her sculptures are crafted by hand from start to finish ; painstakingly carved , sanded and polished . ... In land scarce Singapore , Han 's work encapsulates the appreciation and understanding of the delicate balance of nature that exists in an urban environment . "
In the catalogue accompanying her Four Dimensions exhibition , Han said : " Postmodernism accepts the facts that art does not follow any rigid man @-@ made rules . If the artist says , ' this is art ' then it is art , provided only that the artist can demonstrate a valuable idea or concept . Art needs man to judge and decide whether it is indeed art . "
= = Awards and honours = =
In 1988 , Han won the Best Entry Award from the Singapore National Theatre Trust for her participation in a show entitled Basics at the National Museum Art Gallery . She was awarded a scholarship for the Portland Sculpture Park on the Isle of Portland in Dorset , England , by the Arts Council of Great Britain and the National Arts Council ( NAC ) in 1990 . Together with the installation artist S. Chandrasekaran , she helped to transform an old limestone quarry into a sculpture park , creating a work called Flow through the Rocks . In 1993 she received sponsorship from the Singapore International Foundation to attend the International Painting and Sculpture Symposium in Gulbarga ( Kalburgi ) in Karnataka , India , and served on the NAC 's Arts Resource Panel between 1993 and 1994 .
In 1995 , Han was conferred the Cultural Medallion for Art by the Minister for Communications , Information and the Arts . In her award citation , she was described as " a consummate carver " with " arduous and physically demanding relationships with materials " who had " always been passionate and emphatic about sculpture " . She was also a finalist for the Women Inspire Awards 2002 , and the winner of the sculpture and painting section at the 11th Triennale – India organized by the Lalit Kala Akademi ( National Academy of Art of India ) in 2005 for her Bud , Leaf and Seed Series . The following year , she won the Outstanding City Sculpture Award in China .
In September 2008 , Han was one of seven Cultural Medallion winners to receive an $ 80 @,@ 000 grant from the NAC 's CM Grant programme to fund a project involving site @-@ specific installations based on Singapore flora .
= = Major exhibitions = =
Some of the information in the table above was obtained from Han Sai Por , Women in the Arts , Singapore ( WITAS ) , 2000 , archived from the original on 14 June 2009 , retrieved 12 June 2009 .
= = Works = =
Han , Sai Por ( 1993 ) , Four Dimensions : A Sculptural Installation , Singapore : Sheen 's Gallery , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 00 @-@ 4392 @-@ 6 .
Han , Sai Por ( 2002 ) , Sculpture , Singapore : Art @-@ 2 Gallery , OCLC 225985814 .
Han , Sai Por ( 2005 ) , Han Sai Por , Singapore : National Arts Council , OCLC 233928427 .
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= Provisional Legislature of Oregon =
The Provisional Legislature of Oregon was the single @-@ chamber legislative body of the Provisional Government of Oregon . It served the Oregon Country of the Pacific Northwest of North America from 1843 until early 1849 at a time when no country had sovereignty over the region . This democratically elected legislature became the Oregon Territorial Legislature when the territorial authorities arrived after the creation of the Oregon Territory by the United States in 1848 . The body was first termed the Legislative Committee and later renamed the House of Representatives . Over the course of its six @-@ year history the legislature passed laws , including taxation and liquor regulation , and created an army to deal with conflicts with Native Americans .
Many of the legislators would become prominent figures during the territorial years of Oregon . At first the body was a small committee of nine people , but the group was altered when the Organic Laws of Oregon were revised in 1845 with the legislative branch of the Provisional Government becoming the Oregon House of Representatives with a minimum of 13 members . Once the government was dissolved in 1849 , all the laws remained in effect , except for the one that authorized the minting of coins . Territorial Governor Joseph Lane nullified that law , because it was in conflict with Article I , Section 8 of the United States Constitution , giving Congress the sole right to coin money , thus ending production of the Beaver Coins .
= = Background = =
On May 2 , 1843 , by a vote of 52 to 50 , the European American settlers of the Oregon Country ( mainly those from the Willamette Valley ) , created a provisional government at Champoeg . In May and June , a nine @-@ person committee met in Oregon City and drafted the Organic Laws of Oregon as a pseudo @-@ constitution that was subsequently ratified on July 5 , 1843 . This document created the government and authorized a provisional legislature of nine people .
= = 1843 = =
On May 16 , the nine @-@ person committee of James A. O 'Neil , Robert Moore , William H. Gray , William P. Dougherty , David Hill , Robert Shortess , Thomas J. Hubbard , Robert Newell , and Alanson Beers met for three days to draft laws . The group met again for two days starting on June 16 , with George LeBreton serving as the recorder and Moore as the chairman for both sets of meetings . The laws drafted became the Organic Laws of Oregon and were ratified on July 5 . Committees on land claims , appropriations , military , the judiciary , and districting were also formed at that meeting .
The organic laws were based on the laws of Iowa Territory . The document outlined the legislative branch and its powers , vested in a unicameral or single body . At that time the title of the legislature was the Legislative Committee and it consisted of nine elected representatives apportioned by population to the four established districts ( which later became counties ) . The Organic Laws required the legislature to meet in June and December of each year .
= = 1844 = =
The first meeting of the 1844 legislature took place June 18 at the home of Felix Hathaway in Oregon City . This session lasted until June 27 , and another session was held from December 16 to 21 at the residence of John E. Long , also in Oregon City . At the December meeting , Executive Committee members Peter G. Stewart and Osborne Russell presented a message to the group regarding the opposing claims of the United States and Great Britain .
Among the laws passed during the 1844 session was the " Lash Law " , which banned Blacks from living in the territory with violators subject to 20 – 39 lashes across the back every six months , until the person left the region .
= = = Members = = =
Members of the legislature and the districts they represented ( McCarver served as the speaker of the body with John E. Long as the recorder ) :
= = 1845 = =
The 1845 legislature met three different times , under two different structures . First , from June 24 to July 5 , 1845 , the legislature met in Oregon City , first at the home of John E. Long and then the home of Theophilus R. Magruder , with Morton M. McCarver serving as the speaker of the group . After this , the Organic Laws were replaced with the Organic Act of 1845 , which altered the legislature in several ways . First the number of representatives was increased to include a minimum of 13 and a maximum of 61 . Second , the name was changed to the House of Representatives . All members of the body were to be elected by popular vote with vacancies filled using special elections . The body also received new powers to impeach any civil official by a 3 / 4ths vote , apportion the legislators among the districts , create post offices , levy taxes , declare war , organize and call out the militia , create lower courts , pass laws concerning the general welfare of the region , regulate trade with the Native Americans , regulate liquor sale and manufacture , and regulate the police power of the government , among other powers . Meetings continued to be in June and December .
With these changes , a special session of the legislature met August 5 until August 20 in Oregon City . On August 11 , 1845 at the introduction of Jesse Applegate the body passed a law against dueling within a half hour that Governor Abernethy also signed within 30 minutes of the bill 's introduction . A new legislature met beginning on December 2 , with Robert Newell serving as the speaker of the body through December 10 and Henry A. G. Lee assuming the post until the conclusion of the session on December 19 . Polk District was created during the session , with the bill passed on December 19 . John E. Long served as the recorder and Theophilus R. Magruder as the sergeant at arms for the group . The same people who served in the summer session also served in the December session .
These sessions of the legislature designated Oregon City as the official capital and introduced income and property taxes that replaced an 1843 subscription program used to finance the government 's activities . Other business included a ban on hard liquor , the incorporation of Oregon City , approval for the Barlow Road around Mount Hood , incorporation of the Multnomah Circulating Library , and incorporation of the Oregon Institute . At the meetings John E. Long served as the recorder , Frederick Prigg as the clerk , a Mr. Shaw as the sergeant at arms , and two people as chaplains .
= = = Members = = =
Members of the legislature and the districts they represented :
= = 1846 = =
After hearing the news that the United States had informed Britain it would be ending its obligations under the Treaty of 1818 and looking for a division of the Oregon Country , the legislature scaled back its agenda . One piece of legislation passed was a pilotage law that set standards and licensed boat pilots at the mouth of the Columbia River . The 1846 legislature met in the home of Henry Montgomery Knighton in Oregon City from December 1 through 19 , with Asa Lovejoy serving as the speaker and leader . Noah Huber served as a clerk and Knighton as sergeant at arms .
= = = Members = = =
Members of the legislature and the districts they represented :
= = 1847 = =
In 1847 the legislature met from December 7 to 28 at the Methodist Church in Oregon City . On the second day of this meeting at Main and Seventh streets , news of the Whitman massacre , which occurred on November 29 , 1847 , was delivered to the legislature by Governor Abernethy . This event would dominate the remainder of the session as the Provisional Government worked with the Hudson 's Bay Company to send an army east to Walla Walla . Forty @-@ two men under the command of Henry A. G. Lee were sent immediately to The Dalles in what was the beginning of the Cayuse War . A large force under the command of Cornelius Gilliam was then organized and sent to punish those responsible for the massacre . On December 23 , the group created Benton District out of the southern section of Polk District , naming the new district for Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton . In the legislature , Robert Newell was chosen as the speaker of the group with Calvin W. Cook as clerk .
= = = Members = = =
Members of the legislature and the districts they represented :
= = Final sessions = =
The Provisional Legislature met for two sessions in late 1848 and early 1849 . The first session , from December 5 to December 13 , never formally organized as so many of the representatives had traveled south for the California Gold Rush . Beginning on February 5 , a session was organized that conducted the final business of the Provisional Government . The session lasted until February 16 . During this session a law forbidding the sale of firearms and supplies to Native Americans was repealed , and a law was passed to authorize the minting of gold coins . The law concerning the coins allowed for the creation of the Beaver Coins , which had a higher gold content than United States minted coins . Less than a month later , when the new territorial governor Joseph Lane arrived , however , he rescinded the law as unconstitutional and the coins were collected and removed from circulation . For the legislative session Ralph Wilcox was chosen as speaker , but he resigned from the post . Stephen Meek served as the doorkeeper , William G. T ’ Vault as a clerk , and William Holmes as sergeant at arms .
= = = Members = = =
Members of the legislature and the districts they represented :
= = Oregon Territory = =
On June 15 , 1846 , the Oregon Treaty was signed with Great Britain , which settled the dispute over sovereignty of the Oregon Country . On August 13 , 1848 the United States Congress created the Oregon Territory out of the land between California and the 49th parallel ( this served as the border with Britain 's North American colonies ) and west of the Rocky Mountains . A new bicameral territorial legislature was created with an upper chamber Council and lower chamber House . These bodies met for the first time on July 16 , 1849 , with some members of the provisional legislature continuing into the new government , including David Hill , Asa Lovejoy , Samuel Parker , and Absalom J. Hembree . Upon statehood in 1859 , the territorial legislature would be transformed into the Oregon Legislative Assembly .
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= Brazilian ironclad Tamandaré =
The Brazilian ironclad Tamandaré was an armored gunboat built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the mid @-@ 1860s . She bombarded the Paraguayan fortifications blocking access up the Paraná and Paraguay Rivers as well as bombarding Paraguayan positions in support of the Brazilian Army . The ship participated in the Passagem de Humaitá in February 1868 and was badly damaged . After Tamandaré was repaired she provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war , aside from bombarding Paraguyan capital of Asunción once . The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla after the war . Tamandaré was decommissioned in 1879 and scrapped afterwards .
= = Design and description = =
Tamandaré was designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for a small , simple , shallow @-@ draft armored ship capable of withstanding heavy fire . She was one of three armored gunboats , together with Barroso and Rio de Janeiro , built to the same general plan , although each ship varied significantly in size and armament . The ship is best characterized as a central battery design because the casemate did not extend the length of the ship . A bronze ram , 1 @.@ 4 meters ( 4 ft 7 in ) long , was fitted . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling . For sea passages the ship 's freeboard could be increased to 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 ft 7 in ) by use of removable bulwarks 1 @.@ 1 meters ( 3 ft 7 in ) high . On riverine operations , the bulkwarks , and the ship 's masts , were usually removed .
The ship measured 51 @.@ 36 meters ( 168 ft 6 in ) long overall , with a beam of 9 @.@ 19 meters ( 30 ft 2 in ) and had a mean draft of 2 @.@ 44 meters ( 8 ft 0 in ) . Tamandaré normally displaced 754 metric tons ( 742 long tons ) and 845 metric tons ( 832 long tons ) at deep load . Her crew numbered 120 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Tamandaré had a single John Penn & Sons 2 @-@ cylinder steam engine taken from the British @-@ built wooden gunboat Tietê and proved unreliable in service . The engine , which drove a single 2 @-@ bladed propeller , was powered by two tubular boilers that produced a total of 273 indicated horsepower ( 204 kW ) which gave the ship a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The ship 's funnel was mounted directly in front of her casemate . Tamandaré carried enough coal for six days ' steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
Tamandaré mounted one 70 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader , three 68 @-@ pounder and two 12 @-@ pounder smoothbore guns in her casemate . To minimize the possibility of shells or splinters entering the casemate through the gunports they were as small as possible , allowing only a 24 ° -arc of fire for each gun . The rectangular , 9 @-@ metre ( 29 ft 6 in ) casemate had two gun ports on each side as well as the front and rear .
The 70 @-@ pounder gun weighed 8 @,@ 582 pounds ( 3 @,@ 892 @.@ 7 kg ) and fired a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) shell that weighed 81 pounds ( 36 @.@ 7 kg ) . The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed a nominal 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The exact type of 12 @-@ pounder gun is not known . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of Tamandaré was made from three layers of wood , each 203 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The ship had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 1 @.@ 52 meters ( 5 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters ( 4 in ) covering the machinery and magazines , 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) elsewhere . The curved deck , as well as the roof of the casemate , was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron . The casemate was protected by 102 millimeters of armor on all four sides , backed by 609 millimeters ( 24 @.@ 0 in ) of wood capped with a 102 mm layer of peroba hardwood .
= = Service = =
Tamandaré was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 31 May 1865 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 21 June 1865 , completed on 16 September and cost £ 40 @,@ 506 . The ship arrived at Corrientes on 16 March 1866 ; the next day she sailed for the confluence of the Paraná and Paraguay Rivers to begin operations against the Paraguayans . On 26 March she bombarded the defenses of Itapirú and sank one Paraguayan boat ( chata ) . During her bombardment on the following day , a shell entered one of her gun ports , despite the chain curtain that protected it , and killed 14 men , including her captain , Lieutenant Mariz e Barros , and wounded 20 . The ship bombarded Curuzu Fort , downstream of Curupaity , on 1 September in company with the ironclads Rio de Janeiro , Brasil , Lima Barros , Barroso , and the monitor Bahia . Between 24 and 29 December Barroso , Tamandaré , Brasil , and 11 gunboats bombarded Curuzu Fort again .
On 8 January 1867 Tamandaré , Bahia and Colombo bombarded Paraguayan fortifications at Curupaity . The Brazilians broke through the river defenses at Curupaity during daylight on 15 August 1867 with Barroso , Tamanadaré , and eight other ironclads . The ships were hit 256 times , but not seriously damaged , and only suffered 10 killed and 22 wounded . Tamandaré 's engines broke down while she was in front of the guns and she had to be towed to safety by the ironclad Silvado . They were quickly repaired and Tamandaré bombarded Paraguayan artillery batteries at Timbó that commanded the Paraguay River north of Humaitá the next day . The Paraguayans repeated the operation again on 9 September with much the same result . On 26 September the Paraguyans moved a large @-@ caliber gun below Humaitá and bombarded the Brazilian squadron , but it was silenced by gunfire from Tamandaré and Bahia .
On 19 February 1868 six Brazilian ironclads , including Tamandaré , sailed past Humaitá at night . Three Pará @-@ class river monitors , Rio Grande , Alagoas and Pará , were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns . Barroso led with Rio Grande , followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará . Both Tamandaré , which had taken an estimated 120 hits , and Pará had to be beached after passing the fortress to prevent them from sinking . Tamandaré was under repair at São José do Cerrito until mid @-@ March . On 25 November the ship bombarded the Paraguyan capital of Asunción . Tamandaré and Alagoas destroyed the artillery batteries at Timbó on 23 March 1869 . The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla , based in Ladário , after the war . Tamandaré was decommissioned on 18 April 1879 and scrapped afterwards .
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= Independence Day ( 1996 film ) =
Independence Day ( sometimes styled as ID4 ) is a 1996 American epic , science fiction film . Directed and co @-@ written by Roland Emmerich , it is now considered a significant turning point in the history of the Hollywood blockbuster . The film focuses on disparate groups of people who converge in the Nevada desert in the aftermath of a calamitous attack by an ostensibly powerful extraterrestrial race from an unknown origin . Along with the rest of the human population , they launch a last @-@ ditch counterattack on July 4 – the same date as the Independence Day in the United States .
While promoting Stargate in Europe , Emmerich came up with the idea for the film when fielding a question about his own belief in the existence of alien life . He and Devlin decided to incorporate a large @-@ scale attack having noticed that aliens in most invasion films travel long distances in outer space only to remain hidden when reaching Earth . Shooting began in July 1995 in New York City , and the film was officially completed on June 20 , 1996 .
The film was scheduled for release on July 3 , 1996 , but began showing on July 2 ( the same day the film 's story begins ) in many theaters the result of a high level of anticipation among moviegoers . The film grossed over $ 817 @.@ 4 million worldwide , becoming the highest @-@ grossing film of 1996 , and briefly , the second highest @-@ grossing film worldwide of all time behind 1993 's Jurassic Park . As of June 2016 , it ranks 55th among the highest @-@ grossing films worldwide , and was at the forefront of the large @-@ scale disaster film and sci @-@ fi resurgence of the mid @-@ 1990s . The film received positive reviews upon its release , with critics praising its groundbreaking special effects , musical score , patriotic theme , and acting , which focused primarily on the performances of Smith and Goldblum . Others criticized its storyline and character development . It won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing . A sequel , Independence Day : Resurgence , was released on June 24 , 2016 .
= = Plot = =
On July 2 , 1996 , an enormous alien mothership that has one fourth the mass of the Moon enters orbit around Earth , deploying 36 smaller spacecraft , each 15 miles ( 24 km ) wide , that take positions over some of Earth 's major cities and military bases . David Levinson , an MIT @-@ trained satellite technician , decodes a signal embedded in the global satellite transmissions that he determines is a timer counting down to a coordinated attack . With the help of his former wife , White House Communications Director Constance Spano , Levinson , and his father Julius , gain access to the Oval Office and warn President Thomas J. Whitmore that the aliens are hostile . Whitmore orders large @-@ scale evacuations of New York City , Los Angeles , and Washington D.C. , but it is too late ; the timer reaches zero and the ships activate devastating directed @-@ energy weapons , killing millions . Whitmore , the Levinsons , and a few others , narrowly escape aboard Air Force One as the capital is destroyed , along with other locations over which the ships are positioned .
On July 3 , international military leaders begin ordering individual counterattacks . Their aviation forces attack destroyer ships positioned above the ruins of the cities , but they are protected by force fields . Each destroyer launches a swarm of attack fighters , which wipe out the human fighter squadrons . Captain Steven Hiller of the Los Angeles USMC squadron survives by luring his attacker to the enclosed spaces of the Grand Canyon and sacrificing his plane , forcing the alien to crash @-@ land . He subdues the injured alien pilot and flags down a convoy of refugees , hitching a ride with former combat pilot Russell Casse . They transport the unconscious alien to nearby Area 51 where Whitmore 's group has landed . Through Secretary of Defense Albert Nimzicki , they learn that a faction of the government has been involved in a UFO conspiracy since 1947 , when one of the invaders ' attack fighters crashed in Roswell . Area 51 houses the refurbished attacker ship and three alien corpses recovered from the crash .
When eccentric scientist Brackish Okun examines the alien , it regains consciousness and attacks . It telepathically invades Okun 's mind and uses his vocal cords to communicate with Whitmore before launching a psychic attack against him . Whitmore begins seeing visions of the aliens collecting resources by moving from planet to planet and exterminating all life . After Secret Service agents and military officers kill the alien , he reluctantly authorizes a nuclear attack ; a B @-@ 2 Spirit fires a nuclear cruise missile at a destroyer positioned above Houston , but the ship remains intact .
On July 4 , Levinson demonstrates that the key to defeating the aliens is deactivating their force fields , and devises a way to do it by uploading a computer virus into the mothership . He proposes using the refurbished attack ship to gain entry which Hiller volunteers to pilot . The two are able to implant the virus and deploy a nuclear weapon on board . With military pilots in short supply , Whitmore enlists the help of volunteers with flight experience including Casse and leads an attack on a destroyer ship bearing down on Area 51 . Although the fighters are able to inflict damage , their supply of missiles is quickly exhausted . As the destroyer prepares to fire on the base , the last missile jams and Casse decides to sacrifice his own life . He flies his plane kamikaze @-@ style into the directed @-@ energy weapon port , which results in an explosion that destroys the ship . Human resistance forces around the world successfully destroy the other craft using this vulnerability . As humankind is rejoicing in victory , Hiller and Levinson have returned to Area 51 unharmed and reunite with their families . They and military officers nearby accompany Whitmore and his daughter and watching the wreckage from the mothership burns up , resembling a fireworks display , as it enters Earth 's atmosphere .
= = Cast = =
Will Smith as Captain Steven Hiller , United States Marine Corps ( USMC ) , an assured F / A @-@ 18 pilot with VMFA @-@ 314 who aspires to be an astronaut , even after being turned down by NASA . Devlin and Emmerich had always envisioned an African @-@ American for the role , and specifically wanted Smith after seeing his performance in Six Degrees of Separation .
Bill Pullman as Thomas J. Whitmore , the 42nd President of the United States and a former Persian Gulf War fighter pilot . To prepare for the role , Pullman read Bob Woodward 's The Commanders and watched the documentary film The War Room .
Jeff Goldblum as David Levinson , an MIT @-@ educated computer expert , chess enthusiast , and environmentalist , working as a satellite technician for a cable television company in New York City .
Mary McDonnell as First Lady of the United States Marilyn Whitmore , President Whitmore 's wife .
Judd Hirsch as Julius Levinson , David 's widowed father , who shares his son 's enthusiasm for chess . The character was based on one of producer Dean Devlin 's uncles .
Robert Loggia as General William Grey , USMC , the head of the United States Space Command . Loggia modeled the character after World War II generals , particularly George S. Patton .
Randy Quaid as Russell Casse , a widowed , alcoholic crop duster and veteran Vietnam War pilot ; he claims he was abducted by aliens ten years prior to the film 's events , shortly after completing his military service .
Margaret Colin as Constance Spano , White House Communications Director and David 's former wife .
Vivica A. Fox as Jasmine Dubrow , a single mother , Steven 's girlfriend ( later wife ) , and exotic dancer .
James Rebhorn as Albert Nimzicki , the United States Secretary of Defense , former Director of the CIA , and a member of UFO conspirators within the government . Rebhorn described the character as being much like Oliver North . The character 's eventual firing lampoons Joe Nimziki , MGM 's head of advertising , who reportedly created unpleasant experiences for Devlin and Emmerich when studio executives forced recuts of Stargate .
Harvey Fierstein as Marty Gilbert , David 's boss .
Adam Baldwin as Major Mitchell , United States Air Force ( USAF ) , Area 51 's commanding officer .
Brent Spiner as Dr. Brackish Okun , the unkempt and highly excitable scientist in charge of research at Area 51 . Dr. Okun appeared to have been killed by an alien but returned in the sequel , where it was revealed that the character had merely been in a coma . The character 's appearance and verbal style are based upon those of visual effects supervisor Jeffrey A. Okun , with whom Emmerich had worked on Stargate .
James Duval as Miguel Casse , the eldest of the Casse children and Russel 's stepson according to a novelization .
Lisa Jakub as Alicia Casse , Russell 's teenage daughter .
Giuseppe Andrews as Troy Casse , Russell 's young son .
Ross Bagley as Dylan Dubrow , Jasmine Dubrow 's son and later Steven Hiller 's stepson .
Mae Whitman as Patricia Whitmore , President Whitmore 's daughter .
Bill Smitrovich as Captain Watson .
Kiersten Warren as Tiffany , Jasmine 's exotic dancer friend .
Harry Connick Jr. as Captain Jimmy Wilder , Steve 's best friend and fellow pilot . Connick took over the part from Matthew Perry , originally cast in the role .
Corin Nemec as Connor Mcgrady , a fellow fighter pilot .
Frank Welker as Alien Vocal Effects
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for the film came when Emmerich and Devlin were in Europe promoting their film Stargate . A reporter asked Emmerich why he made a film with content like Stargate if he did not believe in aliens . Emmerich stated he was still fascinated by the idea of an alien arrival , and further explained his response by asking the reporter to imagine what it would be like to wake up one morning and to discover 15 mile @-@ wide spaceships were hovering over the world 's largest cities . Emmerich then turned to Devlin and said , " I think I have an idea for our next film . "
Emmerich and Devlin decided to expand on the idea by incorporating a large @-@ scale attack , with Devlin saying he was bothered by the fact that " for the most part , in alien invasion movies , they come down to Earth and they 're hidden in some back field ... [ o ] r they arrive in little spores and inject themselves into the back of someone 's head . " Emmerich agreed by asking Devlin if arriving from across the galaxy , " would you hide on a farm or would you make a big entrance ? " The two wrote the script during a month @-@ long vacation in Mexico , and just one day after they sent it out for consideration , 20th Century Fox chairman Peter Chernin greenlit the screenplay . Pre @-@ production began just three days later in February 1995 . The U.S. military originally intended to provide personnel , vehicles , and costumes for the film ; however , they backed out when the producers refused to remove the script 's Area 51 references .
A then @-@ record 3 @,@ 000 @-@ plus special effects shots would ultimately be required for the film . The shoot utilized on @-@ set , in @-@ camera special effects more often than computer @-@ generated effects in an effort to save money and get more authentic pyrotechnic results . Many of these shots were accomplished at Hughes Aircraft in Culver City , California , where the film 's art department , motion control photography teams , pyrotechnics team , and model shop were headquartered . The production 's model @-@ making department built more than twice as many miniatures for the production than had ever been built for any film before by creating miniatures for buildings , city streets , aircraft , landmarks , and monuments . The crew also built miniatures for several of the spaceships featured in the film , including a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) destroyer model and a version of the mother ship spanning 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . City streets were recreated , then tilted upright beneath a high @-@ speed camera mounted on a scaffolding filming downwards . An explosion would be ignited below the model , and flames would rise towards the camera , engulfing the tilted model and creating the rolling " wall of destruction " look seen in the film . A model of the White House was also created , covering 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) by 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) , and was used in forced @-@ perspective shots before being destroyed in a similar fashion for its destruction scene . The detonation took a week to plan and required 40 explosive charges .
The film 's aliens were designed by production designer Patrick Tatopoulos . The actual aliens in the film are diminutive and based on a design Tatopoulos drew when tasked by Emmerich to create an alien that was " both familiar and completely original " . These creatures wear " bio @-@ mechanical " suits that are based on another design Tatopoulos pitched to Emmerich . These suits were 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) tall , equipped with 25 tentacles , and purposely designed to show it could not sustain a person inside so it would not appear to be a " man in a suit " .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in July 1995 in New York City . A second unit gathered plate shots and establishing shots of Manhattan , Washington D.C. , an RV community in Flagstaff , Arizona , and the Very Large Array on the Plains of San Agustin , New Mexico . The main crew also filmed in nearby Cliffside Park , New Jersey before moving to the former Kaiser Steel mill in Fontana , California to film the post @-@ attack Los Angeles sequences . The production then moved to Wendover , Utah , and West Wendover , Nevada , where the deserts doubled for Imperial Valley , and the Wendover Airport doubled for the El Toro and Area 51 exteriors . It was here where Pullman filmed his pre @-@ battle speech . Immediately before filming the scene , Devlin and Pullman decided to add " Today , we celebrate our Independence Day ! " to the end of the speech . At the time , the production was nicknamed " ID4 " because Warner Bros. owned the rights to the title Independence Day , and Devlin had hoped that if Fox executives noticed the addition in dailies , the impact of the new dialogue would help them to win the rights to the title . The right to use the title was eventually won two weeks later .
The production team moved to the Bonneville Salt Flats to film three scenes , then returned to California to film in various places around Los Angeles , including Hughes Aircraft where sets for the cable company and Area 51 interiors were constructed at a former aircraft plant . Sets for the latter included corridors containing windows that were covered with blue material . The filmmakers originally intended to use the chroma key technique to make it appear as if activity was happening on the other side of the glass ; but the composited images were not added to the final print because production designers decided the blue panels gave the sets a " clinical look " . The attacker hangar set contained an attacker mock @-@ up 65 feet ( 20 m ) wide that took four months to build . The White House interior sets used had already been built for The American President and had previously been used for Nixon . Principal photography completed on November 3 , 1995 .
The film originally depicted Russell Casse being rejected as a volunteer for the July 4 aerial counteroffensive because of his alcoholism . He then uses a stolen missile tied to his red biplane to carry out his suicide mission . According to Dean Devlin , test audiences responded well to the scene 's irony and comedic value . However , the scene was re @-@ shot to include Russell 's acceptance as a volunteer , his crash course on flying modern fighter aircraft , and him flying an F / A @-@ 18 instead of the biplane . Devlin preferred the alteration because the viewer now witnesses Russell ultimately making the decision to sacrifice his life , and seeing the biplane keeping pace and flying amongst F / A @-@ 18s was " just not believable " . The film was officially completed on June 20 , 1996 .
= = = Music = = =
The Grammy Award @-@ winning score for the film was composed by David Arnold and recorded with an orchestra of 90 , a choir of 46 , and " and every last ounce of stereotypical Americana he could muster for the occasion " . The film 's producer Dean Devlin commented that " you can leave it up to a Brit to write some of the most rousing and patriotic music in the history of American cinema . " The soundtrack has received two official CD releases . RCA released a 50 @-@ minute album at the time of the film 's release , then in 2010 , La @-@ La Land Records released a limited edition 2 @-@ CD set that comprised the complete score plus 12 alternate cues . The premiere of Independence Day live will take place at the Royal Albert Hall in September 2016 , with the film 's score performed live to a screening of the film . This celebrates the twentieth anniversary of the film 's release , and the event will also feature a pre @-@ film talk by David Arnold .
= = Release = =
While the film was still in post @-@ production , Fox began a massive marketing campaign to help promote the film , beginning with the airing of a dramatic commercial during Super Bowl XXX , for which it paid $ 1 @.@ 3 million . The film 's subsequent success at the box office resulted in the trend of using Super Bowl air time to kick off the advertising campaign for potential blockbusters .
Fox 's Licensing and Merchandising division also entered into co @-@ promotional deals with Apple Inc . The co @-@ marketing project was dubbed " The Power to Save the World " campaign , in which the company used footage of David using his PowerBook laptop in their print and television advertisements . Trendmasters entered a merchandising deal with the film 's producers to create a line of tie @-@ in toys . In exchange for product placement , Fox also entered into co @-@ promotional deals with Molson Coors Brewing Company and Coca @-@ Cola .
The film was marketed with several taglines , including : " We 've always believed we weren 't alone . On July 4 , we 'll wish we were " , " Earth . Take a good look . It could be your last " , and " Don 't make plans for August " . The weekend before the film 's release , the Fox Network aired a half @-@ hour special on the film , the first third of which was a spoof news report on the events that happen in the film . Roger Ebert attributed most of the film 's early success to its teaser trailers and marketing campaigns , acknowledging them as " truly brilliant " .
The film had its official premiere held at Los Angeles ' now @-@ defunct Mann Plaza Theater on June 25 , 1996 . It was then screened privately at the White House for President Bill Clinton and his family before receiving a nationwide release in the United States on July 2 , 1996 , a day earlier than its previously scheduled opening .
After a six @-@ week , $ 30 million marketing campaign , Independence Day was released on VHS on November 22 , 1996 . It became available on DVD on June 27 , 2000 , and has since been re @-@ released , in several different versions of this format , with varying supplemental material , including one instance where it was packaged with a lenticular cover . Often accessible on these versions is a special edition of the film , which features nine minutes of additional footage not seen in the original theatrical release . Independence Day became available on Blu @-@ ray discs in the United Kingdom on December 24 , 2007 , and in North America on March 11 , 2008 and in Australia on March 5 , 2008 . The Blu @-@ ray edition does not include the deleted scenes . It was re @-@ released on Blu @-@ ray , DVD , and Digital HD on May 3 , 2016 and was released on 4K Ultra HD Blu @-@ ray on June 7 , 2016 for the 20th Anniversary Edition . The new Blu @-@ ray edition includes both the theatrical and special edition , unlike the original .
= = = Censorship = = =
In Lebanon , certain Jewish and Israel @-@ related content in the film was censored . One cut scene involved Judd Hirsch 's character donning a kippah , and leading soldiers and White House officials in a Jewish prayer . Other removed footage showed Israeli and Arab troops working together in preparation for countering the alien invasion . The Lebanese Shi 'a Islamist militant group Hezbollah called for Muslims to boycott the film , describing it as " propaganda for the so @-@ called genius of the Jews and their concern for humanity . " In response , Jewish actor Jeff Goldblum said : " I think Hezbollah has missed the point : the film is not about American Jews saving the world ; it 's about teamwork among people of different religions and nationalities to defeat a common enemy . "
= = = Twentieth anniversary release = = =
The film will have both its twentieth anniversary and premiere at a special live @-@ orchestral screening performance at the Royal Albert Hall on September 22 , 2016 . The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra , conducted by the original orchestrator Nicholas Dodd , will perform the score live during the film , and the film 's composer , David Arnold , will be a presenter at the event .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Independence Day was the highest @-@ grossing film of 1996 . In the United States , Independence Day earned $ 104 @.@ 3 million in its first full week , including $ 96 @.@ 1 million during its five @-@ day holiday opening , and $ 50 @.@ 2 million during its opening weekend . All three figures broke records set by Jurassic Park three years earlier . That film 's sequel , The Lost World : Jurassic Park , claimed all three records when it was released the following year . Independence Day stayed in the number @-@ one spot for three consecutive weeks , and grossed $ 306 @,@ 169 @,@ 268 in North America , and $ 511 @,@ 231 @,@ 623 in other territories during its theatrical run . The combined total of $ 817 @,@ 400 @,@ 891 once trailed only the worldwide earnings of Jurassic Park as the highest of all time . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 69 @.@ 26 million tickets in the US . It has been surpassed by multiple 21st century films since , and currently holds the 51st @-@ highest worldwide gross of all time for a film . Hoping to capitalize on the film 's success , several studios released large @-@ scale disaster films , and the already rising interest in science fiction @-@ related media was further increased by the film 's popularity .
A month after the film 's release , jewelry designers and marketing consultants reported an increased interest in dolphin @-@ themed jewelry , as the character Jasmine ( Vivica A. Fox ) wears dolphin earrings , and is presented with a wedding ring featuring a gold dolphin .
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon its release , Independence Day received praise for its visuals and sense of fun , but criticism of its writing . Rotten Tomatoes reports a score of 61 % , based on 59 reviews , with the site 's critical consensus reading : " The plot is thin and so is character development , but as a thrilling , spectacle @-@ filled summer movie , Independence Day delivers . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 59 out of 100 , based on 19 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Critics noted that the film had " cardboard " and " stereotypical " characters , and weak dialogue . Yet the shot of the White House 's destruction has been declared a milestone in visual effects , and one of the most memorable scenes of the 1990s . In a 2010 poll , readers of Entertainment Weekly rated it the second @-@ greatest summer film of the previous 20 years , ranking only behind Jurassic Park .
Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film his highest rating , declaring it the " apotheosis " of Star Wars . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave it a B + for living up to its massive hype , adding " charm is the foremost of this epic 's contemporary characteristics . The script is witty , knowing , cool . " Eight years later , Entertainment Weekly would rate the film as one of the best disaster films of all time . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times felt that the film did an " excellent job conveying the boggling immensity of [ the ] extraterrestrial vehicles [ ... ] and panic in the streets " and the scenes of the alien attack were " disturbing , unsettling and completely convincing " .
However , the film 's nationalistic overtones were widely criticized by reviewers outside the U.S. Movie Review UK described the film as " a mish @-@ mash of elements from a wide variety of alien invasion movies and gung @-@ ho American jingoism . " The speech during which Whitmore states that victory in the coming war would see the entire world henceforth describe July 4 as its Independence Day , was described in a BBC review as " the most jaw @-@ droppingly pompous soliloquy ever delivered in a mainstream Hollywood movie . " In 2003 , readers of Empire , voted the scene that contained this speech as the " Cheesiest Movie Moment of All @-@ Time " . Conversely , Empire critic Kim Newman gave the film a five @-@ star rating in the magazine 's original review of the film .
Several prominent critics expressed disappointment with the quality of the film 's special effects . Newsweek 's David Ansen claimed the special effects were of no better caliber than those seen nineteen years earlier in Star Wars . Todd McCarthy of Variety felt the production 's budget @-@ conscious approach resulted in " cheesy " shots that lacked in quality relative to the effects present in films directed by James Cameron and Steven Spielberg . In his review , Roger Ebert took note of a lack of imagination in the spaceship and creature designs . Gene Siskel expressed the same sentiments on At the Movies review of the film .
American Film Institute lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Science Fiction Film
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Legacy = = =
Disaster elements portrayed in Independence Day represented a significant turning point for Hollywood blockbuster films . With advancements in CGI special effects , events depicting mass destruction became commonplace in films that soon followed , such as 1998 's Armageddon and Deep Impact . The trend continued throughout the 2000s and 2010s , evident in films like 2004 's The Day After Tomorrow and 2012 's The Avengers .
= = In other media = =
= = = Books = = =
Author Stephen Molstad wrote a tie @-@ in novel to help promote the film shortly before its release . The novel goes into further detail on the characters , situations , and overall concepts not explored in the film . The novel presents the film 's finale as originally scripted , with the character played by Randy Quaid stealing a missile and roping it to his cropduster biplane .
Following the film 's success , a prequel novel entitled Independence Day : Silent Zone was written by Molstad in February 1998 . The novel is set in the late 1960s and early 1970s , and details the early career of Dr. Brackish Okun .
Molstad wrote a third novel , Independence Day : War in the Desert in July 1999 . Set in Saudi Arabia on July 3 , it centers around Captain Cummins and Colonel Thompson , the two Royal Air Force officers seen receiving the Morse code message in the film .
A Marvel comic book was also written based on the first two novelizations .
= = = Radio = = =
On August 4 , 1996 , BBC Radio 1 broadcast the one @-@ hour play Independence Day UK , written , produced , and directed by Dirk Maggs , a spin @-@ off depicting the alien invasion from a British perspective . None of the original cast was present . Dean Devlin gave Maggs permission to produce an original version , on the condition that he did not reveal certain details of the movie 's plot , and that the British were not depicted as saving the day . Independence Day UK was set up to be similar to the 1938 radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds - the first 20 minutes were live .
= = = Video games = = =
An Independence Day video game was released in February 1997 for the PlayStation , Sega Saturn , and PC , each version receiving mostly tepid reviews . The multi @-@ view shooter game contains various missions to perform , with the ultimate goal of destroying the aliens ' primary weapon . A wireless mobile version was released in 2005 . A computer game entitled ID4 Online was released in 2000 .
= = = Toys = = =
Trendmasters released a toy line for the film in 1996 . Each action figure , vehicle or playset came with a 3 1 ⁄ 2 " floppy disk that contained an interactive computer game .
= = Sequel = =
In June 2011 , Devlin confirmed that he and Emmerich had written a treatment for two sequels to form a trilogy ; both expressed the desire for Will Smith to return . In October 2011 , however , discussions over Smith returning were halted , due to Fox 's refusal to provide the $ 50 million salary demanded by Smith for the two sequels . Emmerich , however , made assurances that the films would be shot back @-@ to @-@ back , regardless of Smith 's involvement .
In March 2013 , Emmerich stated that the titles of the new films would be ID Forever Part I and ID Forever Part II . In November 2014 , the sequel was given the green light by 20th Century Fox , with a release date of June 24 , 2016 . This would be a stand @-@ alone sequel , that would not split into two parts as originally planned , with filming beginning in May 2015 and casting being done after the studio locked down Emmerich as the director of the film . In December 2014 , Devlin confirmed that Emmerich would indeed be directing the sequel . On June 22 , 2015 , Emmerich announced the official title , Independence Day : Resurgence .
With respect to Smith 's decision not to return to film a sequel , Emmerich told Screen Crush that : " In the very beginning , I wanted to work with him and he was excited to be in it but then after a while he was tired of sequels , and he did another science fiction film , which was his father @-@ son story [ After Earth ] , so he opted out . "
Independence Day : Resurgence was released on June 24 , 2016 .
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= Marsh rice rat =
The marsh rice rat ( Oryzomys palustris ) is a semiaquatic North American rodent in the family Cricetidae . It usually occurs in wetland habitats , such as swamps and salt marshes . It is found mostly in the eastern and southern United States , from New Jersey and Kansas south to Florida and northeasternmost Tamaulipas , Mexico ; its range previously extended further west and north , where it may have been a commensal in corn @-@ cultivating communities . Weighing about 40 to 80 g ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 8 oz ) , the marsh rice rat is a medium @-@ sized rodent that resembles the common black and brown rat . The upperparts are generally gray @-@ brown , but are reddish in many Florida populations . The feet show several specializations for life in the water . The skull is large and flattened , and is short at the front .
John Bachman discovered the marsh rice rat in 1816 , and it was formally described in 1837 . Several subspecies have been described since the 1890s , mainly from Florida , but there is disagreement over their validity . The Florida Keys population is sometimes classified as a different species , the silver rice rat ( Oryzomys argentatus ) . Data from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene indicate a deep divergence between populations east of Mississippi and those further west , which suggests that the western populations may be recognized as a separate species , Oryzomys texensis . The species is part of the genus Oryzomys , which also includes several others occurring further south in Mexico , Central America , and northwestern South America , some of which have previously been regarded as subspecies of the marsh rice rat . One , Oryzomys couesi , occurs with the marsh rice rat in Tamaulipas and southern Texas .
The marsh rice rat is active during the night , makes nests of sedge and grass , and occasionally builds runways . It has a diverse diet that includes plants , fungi , and a variety of animals . Population densities are usually below 10 per ha ( 4 per acre ) and home ranges vary from 0 @.@ 23 to 0 @.@ 37 ha ( 0 @.@ 57 to 0 @.@ 91 acres ) , depending on sex and geography . Litters of generally three to five young are born after a pregnancy of about 25 days , mainly during the summer . Newborns are helpless at birth , but are weaned after a few weeks . Several animals prey on the marsh rice rat , including the barn owl , and it usually lives for less than a year in the wild . It is infected by many different parasites and harbors a hantavirus that also infects humans . The species is not of conservation concern , but some populations are threatened .
= = Taxonomy = =
The marsh rice rat is classified as one of eight species in the genus Oryzomys , which is distributed from the eastern United States ( marsh rice rat ) into northwestern South America ( O. gorgasi ) . Oryzomys previously included many other species , which were reclassified in various studies culminating in contributions by Marcelo Weksler and coworkers in 2006 that removed more than 40 species from the genus . All are placed in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of over 100 species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of the family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents , most of which occur in South and Central America . In the United States , the marsh rice rat is the only oryzomyine rodent except for Oryzomys couesi in a small area of southern Texas ; the only other sigmodontines present are several species of cotton rats ( Sigmodon ) in the southern half of the country .
= = = Early history = = =
The marsh rice rat was discovered in 1816 in South Carolina by John Bachman . Bachman intended to describe the species as Arvicola oryzivora , but sent a specimen to Richard Harlan and Charles Pickering at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia to confirm its identity . Another specimen , from New Jersey , was found in the Academy 's collection , and Harlan took it upon himself , against Pickering 's wishes , to describe the new species as Mus palustris , proclaiming it one of the few true rats of the United States . The specific name palustris is Latin for " marshy " and refers to the usual habitat of the species .
In 1854 , in The quadrupeds of North America , Bachman redescribed it as Arvicola oryzivora , considering it more closely related to the voles then placed in the genus Arvicola , and also recorded it from Georgia and Florida . Three years later , Spencer Fullerton Baird argued that the referral of the species to Arvicola was erroneous and introduced a new generic name for the marsh rice rat , Oryzomys . The name combines the Greek oryza " rice " and mys " mouse " and refers to the rat 's habit of eating rice . At the time , Oryzomys was recognized either as a full genus or as a subgenus of the now @-@ defunct genus Hesperomys , but since the 1890s , it has been universally recognized as a genus distinct from Hesperomys , with the marsh rice rat ( Oryzomys palustris ) as its type species .
= = = Species boundaries and subspecies = = =
In the 1890s , several subspecies of the marsh rice rat were described from the United States : O. p. natator from Florida in 1893 , O. p. texensis from Texas in 1894 , and O. p. coloratus from elsewhere in Florida in 1898 . Clinton Hart Merriam recognized O. p. natator as a separate species in 1901 and described a subspecies of it , O. p. floridanus , but considered O. p. texensis to be nearly identical to nominate O. p. palustris . In his 1918 revision of North American Oryzomys , Edward Alphonso Goldman again recognized all these as a single species , Oryzomys palustris . He distinguished four subspecies , which he said formed a " closely intergrading series " — O. p. palustris from New Jersey to southeastern Mississippi and eastern Missouri ; O. p. natator in central Florida ; O. p. coloratus ( including O. natator floridanus Merriam ) in southern Florida ; and O. p. texensis from western Mississippi and southeastern Kansas to eastern Texas . Two additional subspecies were described by William J. Hamilton in 1955 from southern Florida : O. p. planirostris from Pine Island and two miles ( 3 km ) north of Fort Myers and O. p. sanibeli from Sanibel Island . Also in 1955 , Claude W. Hibbard described a new species of Oryzomys , O. fossilis , from Pleistocene deposits in Kansas , on the basis of small differences in characters of the tooth with living marsh rice rats . In 1965 , Walter Dalquest demoted this species , later also found in Texas , to a subspecies , because it does not differ more from living marsh rice rats than the latter differ from each other .
Merriam and Goldman had recognized that a number of Central American species , including Oryzomys couesi and numerous forms with more limited distributions , are related to the marsh rice rat . O. couesi ranges north to southernmost Texas , where its distribution meets that of the marsh rice rat . In 1960 , Raymond Hall argued that specimens from the contact zone were intermediate between the local forms of O. couesi and the marsh rice rat , and accordingly included the former in the marsh rice rat . While reporting on the ecology of Texan O. couesi in 1979 , Benson and Gehlbach noted that populations of O. couesi and the marsh rice rat there were in fact distinct , with the latter being smaller and less brown and more gray in color ; their karyotypes were also distinct . Since then , the two have generally been retained as distinct species , as supported by further research ; a 1994 study even found the two to occur at some of the same places ( in sympatry ) in southern Texas and nearby Tamaulipas , Mexico .
In 1973 , rice rats were discovered at Cudjoe Key in the Florida Keys , and in 1978 Spitzer and Lazell described this population as a new species , Oryzomys argentatus . The status of this form — either a distinct species or not even subspecifically distinct from O. palustris natator — has remained controversial since ; the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World does not recognize O. argentatus as a separate species , but acknowledges a need for further research . A 2005 study using microsatellite DNA found that Florida Keys rice rats exhibit low genetic variation and are significantly different from Everglades rice rats ; the study concluded in favor of classifying the Keys rice rat as a " distinct vertebrate population " . This population probably diverged from mainland rice rats about 2000 years ago .
Among the described subspecies , a 1989 morphometrical study by Humphrey and Setzer separated only two — O. p. natator from much of Florida ( including O. p. coloratus , O. p. planirostris , O. p. sanibeli , and O. p. floridanus , as well as O. p. argentatus ) and O. p. palustris from the rest of the range ( including O. p. texensis ) . However , Whitaker and Hamilton in their 1998 book on the Mammals of the Eastern United States recognized O. p. planirostris and O. p. sanibeli as separate subspecies , but merged all others into O. p. palustris , and placed O. argentatus as a separate species ; their classification was based on their emphasis of overwater gaps as agents of biological diversification and a critique of shortcomings in Humphrey and Setzer 's study , not on a reanalysis of the data .
In 2010 , Delton Hanson and colleagues published a study of the relationships among populations of Oryzomys on the basis of data from three genes — the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b ( Cytb ) and two nuclear markers , exon 1 of the interphotoreceptor retinoid @-@ binding protein gene ( Rbp3 ) and intron 2 of alcohol dehydrogenase gene 1 ( Adh1 @-@ I2 ) . The Cytb data placed all marsh rice rats studied sister to a clade containing various populations of O. couesi ; the mean genetic distance between the two groups was 11 @.@ 30 % . The marsh rice rats fell into two main groups , differing on average by 6 @.@ 05 % , one containing animals from Mississippi , southwestern Tennessee , and further west , and the other including specimens from Alabama and further east . Within the eastern group , variation was only about 0 @.@ 65 % , though examples of the putative subspecies O. p. palustris , O. p. coloratus , O. p. sanibeli , and O. p. planirostris were all included . Data from both of the slower @-@ evolving nuclear markers Rbp3 and Adh1 @-@ I2 also placed examples of Oryzomys in two main clades , but did not recover the western and eastern groups of the marsh rice rat as separate clades . In addition , Adh1 @-@ I2 placed a Costa Rican population within the marsh rice rat clade and some other southern Oryzomys specimens closer to the marsh rice rat than to the O. couesi group . The combined data supported the western and eastern clades within the marsh rice rat and placed the Costa Rican population marginally closer to the marsh rice rat than to O. couesi . Using the genetic species concept , the authors suggested that the western populations of the marsh rice rat be recognized as a separate species , Oryzomys texensis . They recommended further research in the Mississippi – Alabama – Tennessee region , where the ranges of the two meet .
= = = Common names = = =
Many common names have been proposed for the marsh rice rat . Early describers used " Rice Meadow @-@ Mouse " and " Rice @-@ field Mouse " and in the early 1900s , name such as " rice rat " , " marsh mouse " , and " swamp rice rat " came into use . Some of the subspecies received their own common names , such as " Florida Marsh Mouse " , " Swimming Rice Rat " , and " Central Florida Rice Rat " for O. p. natator ; " Bangs ' Marsh Mouse " , " Cape Sable Rice Rat " , and " Everglades Rice Rat " for O. p. coloratus ; and " Texas Rice Rat " for O. p. texensis . The species is now usually known as the " marsh rice rat " , although " marsh oryzomys " has also been in recent use . The Florida Keys form ( argentatus ) is known as the " silver rice rat " .
= = Description = =
The marsh rice rat is a medium @-@ sized rodent that looks much like the common black and brown rats , but has greater differences in color between the upper- and underparts . The fur is thick and short . The upperparts are generally gray to grayish brown , with the head a bit lighter , and are sharply delimited from the underparts , which are off @-@ white , as are the feet . There are small cheek pouches . The ears are about the same color as the upperparts , but there is a patch of light hairs in front of them . The tail is dark brown above and may be paler below . The guard hairs are long and have unpigmented , silvery tips . When rice rats swim , air is trapped in the fur , which increases buoyancy and reduces heat loss . As in most other oryzomyines , females have eight mammae .
The forefeet have four and the hindfeet five digits . On the forefeet , the ungual tufts ( tufts of hair on the digits ) are absent . The hindfeet are broad and have a short fifth digit . Many of the pads are reduced , as are the ungual tufts , but there are small interdigital webs . The Florida Keys form , argentatus , has even more reduced ungual tufts . Many of these traits are common adaptations to life in the water in oryzomyines .
There is some geographic variation in fur color : western populations ( texensis ) are lighter than those from the east ( nominate palustris ) , and Florida populations are generally more tawny or reddish than either , with those from southern Florida ( coloratus ) being brighter than those from the center of the state ( natator ) . The Florida Keys form ( argentatus ) is silvery , and the two other Florida forms — planirostris and sanibeli — lack the reddish tones of mainland Florida populations and are instead grayish , resembling nominate palustris ( planirostris ) , or brownish ( sanibeli ) . In 1989 , Humphrey and Setzer reviewed variation in color among Florida populations . They found argentatus to be substantially lighter and planirostris and sanibeli to be somewhat darker than mainland populations , and argentatus to have a less yellow fur , but found no significant differences in redness . There was also substantial variation within populations .
Total length is 226 to 305 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 to 12 @.@ 0 in ) , tail length 108 to 156 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 1 in ) , hindfoot length 28 to 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) , and body mass 40 to 80 g ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 8 oz ) , with males slightly larger than females . The largest individuals occur in Florida and along the Gulf Coast east of the Mississippi River delta .
The stomach has the characteristic pattern of sigmodontines ( unilocular @-@ hemiglandular ) : it is not split in two chambers by an incisura angularis and the front part ( antrum ) is covered by a glandular epithelium . The gall bladder is absent , a synapomorphy ( shared @-@ derived character ) of Oryzomyini . The karyotype includes 56 chromosomes and a fundamental number of 60 chromosomal arms ( 2n |
= 56 , FN =
60 ) . The form of the sex chromosomes has been used to distinguish the marsh rice rat from Oryzomys couesi , but may be too variable among Oryzomys to be useful in differentiating species . X chromosome inactivation occurs in the marsh rice rat , even though the animal lacks LINE @-@ 1 retrotransposons , which have been suggested as components of the inactivation process . Mutants with fused or additional molars and with light fur have been recorded in laboratory colonies ; the abnormal molars are apparently the result of a single autosomal recessive mutation . At about 50 % , hematocrit ( the proportion of red blood cells in the blood ) is high in the marsh rice rat compared to other rodents ; this may be an adaptation that enables the rice rat to increase oxygen capacity while swimming underwater .
= = = Male reproductive anatomy = = =
The glans penis is long and robust , averaging 7 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 29 in ) long and 4 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 18 in ) broad , and the baculum ( penis bone ) is 6 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 26 in ) long . As is characteristic of Sigmodontinae , the marsh rice rat has a complex penis , with the distal ( far ) end of the baculum ending in three digits . The central digit is notably larger than those at the sides . The outer surface of the penis is mostly covered by small spines , but there is a broad band of nonspinous tissue . The papilla ( nipple @-@ like projection ) on the dorsal ( upper ) side of the penis is covered with small spines , a character the marsh rice rat shares only with Oligoryzomys and Oryzomys couesi among oryzomyines examined . On the urethral process , located in the crater at the end of the penis , a fleshy process ( the subapical lobule ) is present ; it is absent in all other oryzomyines with studied penes except O. couesi and Holochilus brasiliensis . The baculum is deeper than it is wide .
Some features of the accessory glands in the male genital region vary among oryzomyines . In the marsh rice rat , a single pair of preputial glands is present at the penis . As is usual for sigmodontines , there are two pairs of ventral prostate glands and a single pair of anterior and dorsal prostate glands . Part of the end of the vesicular gland is irregularly folded , not smooth as in most oryzomyines .
= = = Skull = = =
The marsh rice rat has a large , flattened skull with a short and broad rostrum ( front part ) . The nasal and premaxillary bones extend back beyond the point where the lacrimal , frontal , and maxillary bones meet . In planirostris , the rostrum is flatter than in mainland Florida forms , in which it is more convex , and the nasals are said to be relatively longer in argentatus . The zygomatic plate , the flattened front part of the zygomatic arch ( cheekbone ) , is broad and develops a notch at its front end . The arches themselves are robust and contain small but distinct jugal bones . The sphenopalatine foramen , a foramen ( opening ) in the side of the skull above the molars , is large ; it is much smaller in O. couesi . The narrowest part of the interorbital region ( located between the eyes ) is towards the front and the edges are lined by prominent shelves . The marsh rice rat has a narrow braincase lined by prominent ridges and a narrow interparietal bone . According to Goldman , Florida animals ( coloratus and natator ) generally have the largest and broadest skulls , and western specimens ( texensis ) have somewhat smaller and narrower skulls than those from the east outside Florida ( nominate palustris ) . In argentatus , the skull is also relatively narrow .
The incisive foramina , openings in the front part of the palate , reach backward between the molars . The palate is long , extending substantially beyond the third molars . The back part , near the third molars , is usually perforated by prominent posterolateral palatal pits , which are recessed into fossae ( depressions ) . The mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the end of the palate , is perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities , which are set far to the front . The condition of the arteries in the head is highly derived . The subsquamosal fenestra , an opening in the back part of the skull determined by the shape of the squamosal bone , is present . The squamosal lacks a suspensory process that contacts the tegmen tympani , the roof of the tympanic cavity , a defining character of oryzomyines . There are some openings in the mastoid bone .
In the mandible ( lower jaw ) , the mental foramen , an opening just before the first molar , opens sidewards , not upwards as in a few other oryzomyines . The upper and lower masseteric ridges , which anchor some of the chewing muscles , join at a point below the first molar and do not extend forward beyond that point . The capsular process , a raising of the bone of the back of the mandible that houses the back end of the incisor , is present , but not as large as in O. couesi .
= = = Teeth = = =
The dental formula is 1 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 31 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 × 2 = 16 ( one upper and one lower incisor and three upper and three lower molars ) , as usual in muroid rodents . The upper incisors are well @-@ developed and strongly opisthodont , with the chewing edge located behind the vertical plane of the teeth . The molars are bunodont , with the cusps higher than the connecting crests , and brachydont , low @-@ crowned , as in most other oryzomyines . Many accessory crests , including the mesoloph on the upper molars and the mesolophid on the lower molars , are present , another trait the marsh rice rat shares with most but not all other oryzomyines . The flexi and flexids ( valleys between the cusps and crests ) at the labial ( outer ) side of the molars are closed by cingula ( ridges ) .
The upper molars have two longitudinal rows of cusps , not three as in the black and brown rats . The first and second upper molar are oval in form and the flexi do not extend to the midline of the molars . The anterocone , the front cusp of the upper first molar , is not divided in two by an indentation at its front ( anteromedian flexus ) , but does display a hollow in the middle , the anteromedian fossette , which divides it into separate cuspules at the labial and lingual ( inner ) sides of the molar . A crest , the anteroloph , is present behind the labial cuspule , but in older animals , the cusps and the crest are united into a single structure by wear . In the third upper molar , the cusps at the back are reduced and scarcely distinguishable . As in most oryzomyines , the upper molars all have one root on the inner ( lingual ) side and two on the outer ( labial ) side ; in addition , the first upper molar usually has another small labial root .
The first lower molar is rounded at the front end and the labial and lingual conules of the anteroconid , the frontmost cusp , are barely distinct . The second lower molar is elongate and has a crest , the anterolophid , before the two cusps that form the front edge of the molar in some other oryzomyines , the protoconid and metaconid . There is a distinct ridge ( anterolabial cingulum ) at the outer front ( anterolabial ) edge of the molar , before the protoconid . The lower third molar is about as long as the second and also has an anterolophid , albeit a less well @-@ defined one . The first lower molar has large roots at the front and back of the tooth and usually one or two smaller ones in between , at the labial and lingual side . The second and third lowers molars have either two roots , one labial and one lingual , or only one at the front , and another large root at the back .
= = = Postcranial skeleton = = =
As usual in oryzomyines , there are twelve ribs . The first rib articulates with both the last cervical ( neck ) and first thoracic ( chest ) vertebrae , a synapomorphy of the Sigmodontinae . Anapophyses , processes at the back of a vertebra , are absent from the fifth lumbar . Between the second and third caudal vertebrae , hemal arches ( small bones ) are present with a spinous back border . The entepicondylar foramen is absent , as in all members of the Sigmodontinae ; if present , as in some other rodents , this foramen perforates the distal ( far ) end of the humerus ( upper arm bone ) .
= = = Physiology = = =
Studies have shown that in poor conditions the weight of the adrenal gland may increase up to 200 % , that rice rats are unable to conserve water well when dehydrated , and that in water contaminated with oil they swim less and their mortality increases . The median amount of radiation needed to kill a marsh rice rat is 5 @.@ 25 Gy and the lethal dose of potassium cyanide is 7 @.@ 20 mg / kg ; both values are relatively low for cricetid rodents . In one study , wild rice rats in radioactively contaminated areas did not show signs of disease . Experiments have found that exposure to more daylight and higher food availability cause increased development of the gonads in both adult and juvenile rice rats . When the pineal gland is removed or melatonin is administered in male rice rats , the testes are reduced and tend to regress into the body .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The marsh rice rat currently occurs in much of the eastern and southern United States , northeast to southern New Jersey , and south to southeastern Texas and far northeastern Tamaulipas , Mexico . The northernmost records in the interior United States are in eastern Oklahoma , southeastern Kansas , southern Missouri and Illinois , and the southern half of Kentucky , but the species is absent in much of the Appalachians . Fossils of the marsh rice rat are known from Rancholabrean ( late Pleistocene , less than 300 @,@ 000 years ago ) deposits in Florida and Georgia and remains referred to the extinct subspecies O. p. fossilis are from the Wisconsinan and Sangamonian of Texas and Illinoian and Sangamonian of Kansas . In the Florida Keys , rice rats occur on most of the Lower Keys , but are absent from the Upper Keys , which are of a different geological origin and were probably never connected to the mainland . The western and eastern Cytb clades within the marsh rice rat may represent expansions from different glacial refugia which the species was restricted to during a glacial period .
Cave and archeological remains indicate that the range of the marsh rice rat has extended substantially further north and west earlier in the Holocene , into central Texas , eastern Nebraska , southwestern Iowa , central Illinois , southern Indiana , southern Ohio , West Virginia , and southwestern Pennsylvania . Most northern archeological sites date from about 1000 CE and are associated with corn cultivation , but in some older cave sites the rice rat is found with the extinct giant armadillo Dasypus bellus , suggesting warm climatic conditions . Perhaps a warm period during the Quaternary enabled the rice rat to disperse northward and when the climate cooled , relict populations were able to survive in the north as commensals in corn @-@ cultivating Native American communities . Some subfossil animals are slightly larger than living marsh rice rats , possibly because environmental constraints were relaxed in commensal populations .
In Tamaulipas and southern Texas , the ranges of the marsh rice rat and the related Oryzomys couesi meet ; in parts of Kenedy , Willacy and Cameron counties , Texas , and in far northeastern Tamaulipas , the two are sympatric ( occur in the same places ) . In experimental conditions , they fail to interbreed and genetic analysis yields no evidence of gene flow or hybridization in the wild . Compared to O. couesi , the marsh rice rat shows less genetic variability within but more between populations in the contact zone , probably because the species is restricted to isolated populations near the coast .
The marsh rice rat occurs in several habitats , ranging from coastal salt marshes to mountain streams and clearings . It is semiaquatic , spending much time in the water , and usually occurs in wetland habitats . It prefers areas where the ground is covered with grasses and sedges , which protect it from predators . In southern Illinois , marsh rice rats are more likely to occur in wetlands with more herbaceous cover , visual obstruction , and nearby grasslands . The species also occurs in drier uplands , which serve as sinks for young , dispersing animals and as refuges during high tide . Rice rats are adept overwater dispersers ; studies on islands off Virginia 's Delmarva Peninsula show that they readily cross 300 @-@ m ( 1000 ft ) channels between islands .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Marsh rice rats are active during the night and for this reason are rarely seen , although they may be among the most common small mammals in part of their range . They will build nests of sedge and grass , about 13 cm ( 5 in ) large , which are placed under debris , near shrubs , in short burrows , or high in aquatic vegetation . They may also use old nests of marsh wrens ( Cistothorus palustris ) , red @-@ winged blackbirds ( Agelaius phoeniceus ) , muskrats ( Ondatra zibethicus ) or round @-@ tailed muskrats ( Neofiber alleni ) . Marsh rice rats sometimes make large runways or dig burrows . They are accomplished and willing swimmers , easily swimming for more than 10 m ( 33 ft ) under water , and will often seek safety in the water when alarmed . Rice rats in the Florida Keys occasionally climb in vegetation , but never higher than 90 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) . Marsh rice rats are very clean and extensively groom themselves , perhaps to keep their fur water @-@ repellent . They are aggressive towards conspecifics and emit high @-@ pitched squeaks while fighting . In dense vegetation , the perceptual range ( the distance from which an animal can detect a patch of suitable habitat ) of marsh rice rats is less than 10 m ( 33 ft ) . When released outside of their natural wetland habitat , marsh rice rats generally move either upwind or downwind ( anemotaxis ) , perhaps in order to move in a straight line , which is an efficient strategy to find suitable habitat .
Many animals prey on marsh rice rats . The barn owl ( Tyto alba ) is among the most important ; one study found that 97 @.@ 5 % of vertebrate remains in barn owl pellets were marsh rice rats . Other predators include birds ( marsh hawks , Circus cyaneus ; and barred owls , Strix varia ) , snakes ( cottonmouth moccasins , Agkistrodon piscivorus ; and others ) , alligators , and carnivorans ( raccoons , Procyon lotor ; red foxes , Vulpes vulpes ; minks , Neovison vison ; weasels of the genus Mustela ; and striped skunks , Mephitis mephitis ) . Many parasites have been recorded on the marsh rice rat , including various ticks and mites , lice , and fleas among external parasites and many nematodes and digeneans , a pentastomid , and several coccidians among internal parasites ( see parasites of the marsh rice rat ) .
Periodontitis , a bacterial disease affecting the jaws , is particularly virulent in marsh rice rats ; the animal has been proposed as a model for research on the disease in humans . The identity of the bacterial agent remains unknown . Vitamin E , fluoride , and iodide protect against bone loss associated with this disease in the rice rat and a high @-@ sucrose diet increases the severity of periodontitis . A case of kyphosis has been observed in a North Carolina marsh rice rat .
= = = Population dynamics = = =
The population density of the marsh rice rat usually does not reach 10 per ha ( 4 per acre ) . The weather may influence population dynamics ; in the Everglades , densities may exceed 200 per ha ( 80 per acre ) when flooding concentrates populations on small islands , In the Florida Keys , population density is less than 1 per ha ( 0 @.@ 4 per acre ) . On Breton Island , Louisiana , perhaps an atypical habitat , home ranges in males average about 0 @.@ 37 hectares ( 0 @.@ 91 acres ) and in females about 0 @.@ 23 hectares ( 0 @.@ 57 acres ) . A study in Florida found male home ranges to average 0 @.@ 25 hectares ( 0 @.@ 62 acres ) and female 0 @.@ 33 hectares ( 0 @.@ 82 acres ) .
Population size is usually largest during the summer and declines during winter , although populations in Texas and Louisiana may be more seasonally stable . Animals also often lose weight during winter . Population size varies dramatically from year to year in southern Texas . In coastal Mississippi , a study found that storms probably do not cause the population to decline substantially and in Texas inundation of its habitat did not significantly influence population density . However , another study in Mississippi found that flooding did cause a marked decline in rice rat abundance .
In the northern part of its range , the species often occurs with the meadow vole ( Microtus pennsylvanicus ) , but there is no evidence that they compete with each other . In the south , the hispid cotton rat ( Sigmodon hispidus ) and the rice rat regularly occur together ; water levels are known to influence relative abundance of these two species in Florida . The cotton rat is mainly active during the day , which may help differentiate its niche from that of the rice rat .
= = = Diet = = =
The marsh rice rat takes both vegetable and animal food , and is more carnivorous than most small rodents are ; dominant food items vary seasonally . Plants eaten include species of Spartina , Salicornia , Tripsacum , and Elymus , among others ; it mainly eats seeds and succulent parts . A 2004 study found that it prefers Spartina alterniflora that have been fertilized with nitrogen and mainly eats the inner tissue of the stem , perhaps because nitrogen @-@ fertilized plants contain much less dimethylsulfoniopropionate in their inner tissues . The marsh rice rat was a major pest on rice plantations , feeding on the rice when it was newly planted . It also eats the fungus Endogone at times .
Animals that are important to the marsh rice rat 's diet include insects , fiddler crabs , and snails , but the species is known to eat many other animals , including fish , clams , and juvenile Graptemys and Chrysemys turtles . They scavenge on carcasses of muskrats , deermice , and sparrows , and may be the most important predator on eggs and young of the marsh wren . Rice rats also eat eggs and young of the seaside sparrow ( Ammodramus maritimus ) and are aggressive towards the sparrow , apparently leading it to avoid nesting in Juncus in a seaside salt marsh in Florida . On islands in North Carolina , rice rats consume eggs of Forster 's tern ( Sterna forsteri ) . They have been observed preying on alligator eggs in Georgia .
Laboratory studies have found that rice rats assimilate 88 % to 95 % of the energy in their food . They lose weight when fed on Spartina , fiddler crabs , or sunflower seeds alone , but a diet consisting of several of those items or of mealworms is adequate to maintain weight . In an experiment , marsh rice rats did not show hoarding behavior , but wild rice rats have been observed carrying food to a nest . Even when they live in uplands , they mostly eat water plants and animals , although they consume some upland plants .
= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
Breeding occurs mostly during the summer . Some studies report that breeding ceases entirely during the winter , but winter breeding occurs as far north as Virginia . This is primarily because photoperiod influences their circadian rhythm which determines breeding . In both Texas and Virginia , there is less variation in reproductive activity in females than in males . In the south of its range , animals may breed less when the summer is at its warmest . The duration of the estrous cycle ranges from 6 to 9 days , with an average of 7 @.@ 72 days . Estrus occurs again after a litter is born . A 1970 study reported that copulatory behavior in the marsh rice rat is similar to that in laboratory brown rats . Before mating starts , " the male pursues the running female from behind . " The male then repeatedly mounts and dismounts the female ; not all mounts result in an ejaculation . Penetrations only last for about 250 ms , but during mating the penetrations and the intervals between them become longer . Even when a male is satiated after mating , it is able to copulate again when a new female is introduced ( the Coolidge effect ) . Partly because of resistance by the female , the frequency of ejaculation during mating is rather low in marsh rice rats as compared to laboratory rats , hamsters , and deermice .
After a gestation of about 25 days , three to five young are usually born , although litter sizes vary from one to seven . Females may have up to six litters a year . Newborns weigh 3 to 4 g ( about 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 15 oz ) and are blind and almost naked . About as many males as females are born . The external ears ( pinnae ) soon unfold and on the first day claws are visible and the young emit high @-@ pitched squeaks . On the second day , they are able to crawl and during the third to fifth days the whiskers and eyelids develop . On the two subsequent days , the mammae and incisors become visible and the animals become more active . Between the eighth and eleventh day , the eyes open , the fur develops , and the young begin to take solid food . Weaning occurs on the eleventh to twentieth day according to different studies . There is considerable variation in reported body masses at different ages , perhaps because of geographic variation . Sexual activity commences when the animals are about 50 to 60 days old . In the wild , rice rats usually live for less than a year ; one study suggested that the average lifespan is only seven months .
= = Human interactions = =
The marsh rice rat is generally of little importance to humans , which is perhaps why it is not as well @-@ studied as some other North American rodents . In 1931 , Arthur Svihla noted that virtually no information had been published on the habits and life history of the marsh rice rat since the 1854 publication of Audubon and Bachman 's description . Writing on Everglades mammals , Thomas E. Lodge notes that although the name " rat " may associate it unpleasantly with the introduced black and brown rats , its appearance is more endearing , even cute . J.S. Steward proposed the marsh rice rat as a model organism in 1951 to study certain infections that other rodents used at the time are not susceptible to . The marsh rice rat is quite susceptible to periodontitis and has been used as a model system for the study of that disease .
The marsh rice rat is the primary host of the Bayou virus ( BAYV ) , the second most common agent of hantavirus infections in the United States . About 16 % of animals are infected and the virus is most prevalent in old , heavy males . The virus may be transmitted among rice rats through bites inflicted during fights . It is also present in rice rat saliva and urine and human infections may occur because of contact with these excreta . Two related hantaviruses , Catacama virus and Playa de Oro virus , are known from Oryzomys couesi in Honduras and western Mexico , respectively . An arenavirus normally associated with woodrats ( Neotoma ) has also been found in Florida marsh rice rats . Antibodies against Borrelia burgdorferi , the bacterium that causes Lyme disease in the United States , have been found in marsh rice rats in Virginia , Maryland , North Carolina , and Tennessee . Another pathogenic bacterium , Bartonella , is known from Georgia marsh rice rats .
The 2009 IUCN Red List assesses the conservation status of the marsh rice rat as " Least Concern " , because it is a common , widespread , and stable species without major threats that occurs in several protected areas . The Florida Keys form is rare and in decline and is threatened by competition with the black rat , predation by domestic cats , habitat loss , and loss of genetic variation ; it is considered endangered . At the northern edge of its distribution , the marsh rice rat is listed as threatened in Illinois and whether it persists in Pennsylvania is unclear ; it probably formerly occurred in tidal marshes on the Delaware River . In Illinois , its population may have regenerated because wetlands have been developed to protect waterfowl and shorebirds and because suitable wetlands often develop in abandoned coal @-@ mining operations . A 2001 study projected that climate change would reduce the range of the marsh rice rat in Texas , where it is now common but may become threatened by habitat loss in the future . A study at the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant found that rice rats accumulate more PCBs but less heavy metal than white @-@ footed mice ( Peromyscus leucopus ) .
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= SM U @-@ 23 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 23 or U @-@ XXIII was a U @-@ 20 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during the First World War . The design for U @-@ 23 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy 's Havmanden class ( three of which had been built in Austria @-@ Hungary ) , and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war .
U @-@ 23 was just over 127 feet ( 39 m ) long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes , a deck gun , and a machine gun . In February 1918 , U @-@ 23 was sunk with all hands by the Italian torpedo boat [ [ Italian torpedo boat Airone ( 1907 ) | Airone ] ] while attempting an attack on the Italian transport Memfi . U @-@ 23 had no wartime successes .
= = Design and construction = =
When it became apparent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy that the First World War would not be a short one , they moved to bolster their U @-@ boat fleet by seizing the plans for the Danish Havmanden class submarines , three of which had been built at Whitehead & Co. in Fiume . Although the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was not happy with the design , which was largely obsolete , it was the only design for which plans were available and which could be begun immediately in domestic shipyards . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy unenthusiastically placed orders for U @-@ 23 and her three sister boats on 27 March 1915 .
U @-@ 23 was one of two boats of the class to be built at the Hungarian UBAG yard in Fiume . Due to demands by the Hungarian government , subcontracts for the class were divided between Hungarian and Austrian firms , and this politically expedient solution worsened technical problems with the design , resulting in numerous modifications and delays for the class in general .
U @-@ 23 was an ocean @-@ going submarine that displaced 173 tonnes ( 191 short tons ) surfaced and 210 tonnes ( 231 short tons ) submerged and was designed for a complement of 18 . She was 127 feet 2 inches ( 38 @.@ 76 m ) long with a beam of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . For propulsion , she featured a single shaft , a single 450 bhp ( 340 kW ) diesel engine for surface running , and a single 160 shp ( 120 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . She was capable of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) while surfaced and 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 23 , the Havmanden class , upon which the U @-@ 20 class was based , had a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) , surfaced , and 23 nautical miles ( 43 km ) at 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) submerged .
U @-@ 23 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 66 mm / 26 ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 23 was launched on 5 January 1917 , but It is not known with certainty when U @-@ 23 was commissioned . Author Paul Halpern reports that U @-@ 23 and her three sisters all entered service between August and November 1917 . Although there are no specific reports of problems with U @-@ 23 , the U @-@ 20 class as a whole suffered from unreliable engines which compounded the poor handling characteristics of the boats . On 21 February 1918 , Linienschiffsleutnant Klemens Ritter von Bézard , U @-@ 23 's only commanding officer , was guiding the boat in an attack on the Italian transport Memfi in the Straits of Otranto . U @-@ 23 came under attack by the Italian torpedo boat Airone which first tried to ram the U @-@ boat , and then deployed an explosive paravane . When the paravane contacted the submerged U @-@ 23 , it blew debris into the air , sinking the submarine with all hands . Like all of her sister boats , U @-@ 23 had no wartime successes .
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= Reginald Pinney =
Major @-@ General Sir Reginald John Pinney , KCB ( 2 August 1863 – 18 February 1943 ) was a British Army officer who served as a divisional commander during the First World War . While commanding a division at the Battle of Arras in 1917 , he was immortalised as the " cheery old card " of Siegfried Sassoon 's poem " The General " .
Pinney served in South Africa during the Boer War with the Royal Fusiliers , and at the outbreak of the First World War was given command of a brigade sent to reinforce the Western Front in November 1914 . He led it in the early part of 1915 , taking heavy losses at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle . That September he was given command of the 35th Division , a New Army division of " bantam " soldiers , which first saw action at the Battle of the Somme ; after three months in action , he was exchanged with the commander of the 33rd Division .
He commanded the 33rd at Arras in 1917 , with mixed results , and through the Spring Offensive in 1918 , where the division helped stabilise the defensive line after the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps was routed . After the war , he retired to rural Dorset , where he served as a local justice of the peace , as High Sheriff for the county , and as a Deputy Lieutenant ; he was also the ceremonial colonel of his old regiment , the Royal Fusiliers .
= = Early career = =
Reginald Pinney was born in 1863 in Clifton , Bristol , the eldest son of the Reverend John Pinney , vicar of Coleshill , Warwickshire , and his wife , Harriet . His paternal grandfather was Charles Pinney , a prominent merchant and former mayor of Bristol , whilst his maternal grandfather , John Wingfield @-@ Digby , was a previous vicar of Coleshill ; an uncle , John Wingfield @-@ Digby , would later be the Conservative MP for North Dorset . John and Harriet Pinney had five more children , four sons and a daughter , before Harriet 's death in 1877 . At least one of Reginald 's brothers , John , also passed into the Army , joining the Central India Horse .
After four years at Winchester College , Pinney entered the Royal Military Academy , Sandhurst in 1882 . He passed out of the Academy and was appointed to the Royal Fusiliers ( 7th Foot ) as a lieutenant on 6 February 1884 . He spent five years with his regiment before attending the Staff College , Camberley in 1889 – 90 ; after leaving Camberley , he was promoted to captain in December 1891 . From 1896 to 1901 he served on the staff as the deputy assistant adjutant @-@ general at Quetta , in India , with a promotion to major in December 1898 . He married Hester Head in 1900 ; the couple had three sons and three daughters .
Pinney saw active service in the Boer War , arriving in South Africa in November 1901 as second @-@ in @-@ command of the 2nd Battalion , Royal Fusiliers . He served with the battalion until the end of the war , following which he was promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel and given command of the 4th Battalion , with a brevet promotion to colonel in 1906 . He relinquished command of the battalion in 1907 , going on to half pay , and later took up the position of assistant adjutant @-@ general in Egypt in 1909 . He held this posting until 1913 , aged fifty , when he was transferred to command a reserve unit , the Devon and Cornwall Brigade of the Wessex Division in the Territorial Force .
= = Brigadier in France = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , an Expeditionary Force of seven regular divisions was mobilised for service in France . At the same time , the Territorial Force was activated to replace them for home defence duties . The Expeditionary Force represented almost all the regular units stationed in the United Kingdom , but only about half the strength of the regular Army ; the remainder was scattered in various stations around the Empire , mainly in India and the Mediterranean . These units were withdrawn as quickly as they could be replaced by Indian or Territorial units , and formed into new divisions to reinforce the Expeditionary Force .
The Wessex Division — now numbered as the 43rd — had been assigned for duty in India to free up regular units there , with its staff and support units held back to form the framework of the new 8th Division , which was formed from returning regular battalions . As a result , Pinney was relieved from command of his Territorial brigade in October and assigned to command the newly formed 23rd Brigade , made up from three battalions that had been on garrison duty in Malta and one from Egypt . All were regular units , with very few reservists , but having spent a long period in colonial stations they were considered as only partially trained compared to the units serving with the Expeditionary Force .
The 8th Division was sent to France in November 1914 ; immediately after arrival , two battalions were deployed to hold a section of the front line for a week during the closing stages of the First Battle of Ypres . However , the brigade did not see its first major action under Pinney 's command until 10 March 1915 , when it was committed to action as part of the Battle of Neuve Chapelle . The 23rd Brigade met heavy resistance when it began its attack , due to a failure by the divisional artillery to bombard a large section of the defenders ' trenches ; the 2nd Middlesex , making a frontal attack , were wiped out almost completely . The other lead battalion of the brigade , the 2nd Cameronians , was enfiladed from the undamaged sector and took heavy losses , losing almost all its officers and retreating in confusion . Pinney quickly learned of this — he was only two hundred yards from the front line — and decided to continue the attack . As he was not able to call for artillery support , the only possible approach was to send in the two reserve battalions . The second assault suffered heavy casualties at the outset , and quickly had to be called off when it was discovered that the corps artillery was about to fire on the positions being attacked ; the Devonshires and West Yorkshires were withdrawn , having taken high casualties and achieved little . After this , the attack continued to bog down , and whilst there was some success elsewhere in the divisional sector , nothing more was achieved by 23rd Brigade . Following Neuve Chapelle , the brigade was reinforced with two Territorial battalions . At the Battle of Aubers on 9 May , 23rd Brigade was held in reserve by 8th Division and so escaped the heavy casualties of the two attacking brigades . Around noon a scratch force of all available infantry was pushed forward by the divisional commander to support these two brigades , including some units of Pinney 's brigade .
= = Divisional command = =
Pinney relinquished command of the brigade to Travers Clarke in late June , when he was promoted to major @-@ general and returned to England to take command of the newly formed 35th Division , a New Army volunteer division . The division was mainly drawn from industrial areas of Northern England , with a high proportion of " bantams " , men who were under the normal regulation height of 5 ft 3 in ( 160 cm ) for Army service . Among the officers Pinney first encountered in the 35th was Bernard Montgomery , recently posted as brigade major of the 104th Brigade , who would later serve under him as the GSO2 in the 33rd Division .
The division was transferred to France in early 1916 , in preparation for the summer offensive of that year . It moved into the line in February , and Pinney ordered a series of small raids in company or battalion strength through the following months . The 35th was deployed for the Battle of the Somme , assigned to XIII Corps in Fourth Army . It was held in reserve during the Battle of Albert , the opening phases of the attack in early July , but fought in the Battle of Bazentin Ridge and the subsequent attacks on High Wood , where it took heavy casualties ; in a week , one brigade lost a thousand men , a third of its strength . The division rested for a week in early August , but returned to the line almost immediately . At the end of the month , a badly planned and potentially suicidal attack on Falgemont Farm was cancelled by Pinney at the last minute when the " facts were pointed out " by Montgomery , and a new plan substituted ; the attacking battalion took the farm with light casualties . Following this , it was withdrawn to a quiet sector of the line .
In September , Major @-@ General Herman Landon , commanding the neighbouring 33rd Division was relieved of his command . It was arranged that he would exchange with Pinney in the 35th Division , and the transfer was made on 23 September . The decision to rotate commanders appears to have been a desire to give Landon a less active command , as the 35th was occupying a relatively quiet sector ; presumably , it was felt that Pinney was a more effective commander for an active division . When Pinney met the officers of one of his new battalions in early October 1916 , they recorded that he seemed " pleasant and human " , and " not too old " . However , some of his habits were unpopular ; most gallingly to his men , he stopped the regular issue of rum in the division shortly after taking command , replacing it with tea instead . The infantry were greatly displeased , with one NCO describing him as " a bun @-@ pinching crank , more suited to command of a Church Mission hut than troops " . There was some justification to the jibe ; as well as being teetotal , Pinney did not smoke , and was devoutly religious . The most lasting description of him was written in this period by Siegfried Sassoon , then an officer in one of the 33rd 's battalions , who used Pinney as the subject of his satirical poem " The General " .
The 33rd was a New Army division of the same wave as the 35th , but it had lost its original New Army composition ; by late 1916 , it was composed equally of Territorial , Regular and New Army battalions . Rather than the 35th 's bantams , the 33rd had originally been formed from " Pals battalions " , units drawn from local communities so that men could serve alongside their friends and colleagues , and the Public Schools Battalions , made up of former pupils of the elite public schools . Many of the initial units had been transferred out — or , in the case of the latter units , disbanded so that their men could be trained as officers — but a number of these close @-@ knit units still remained in the division .
Following Pinney 's arrival the division was withdrawn for two months to reorganise , missing the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette , and saw some fighting in the very end of the fighting on the Somme when a " pretentious " plan produced by the divisional command to capture a German trench system at night failed . The 33rd remained on the Somme front until March 1917 , when it was transferred to Amiens to participate in the Arras Offensive . Here , the division fought at the Second Battle of the Scarpe in late April , where it took 700 prisoners but suffered heavy losses . This was followed by a series of attacks on the Hindenburg Line in late May , the first of which , on the night of 20 May , was masterminded by Pinney — one observer noted that " his tail is right up over his back ... he was out for a gamble with his troops and he had it " , though sadly added that despite its great success , he still refused to authorise an issue of rum . A second attack on 27 May was a complete failure ; Pinney later explained the attack as having been a distraction in support of the coming Battle of Messines , an interpretation greeted with some cynicism by observers .
Following the fighting around Arras , the 33rd was moved to Nieuwpoort , Belgium , as part of the build @-@ up for the planned Operation Hush , a breakthrough along the coastal front coupled with an amphibious landing behind German lines . After the operation was cancelled , the division remained at Niewpoort , where Pinney was hospitalised and temporarily relinquished command . He remained in hospital for two months , during which time he missed heavy fighting by the 33rd at the Battle of Passchendaele . After VIII Corps Commander Hunter @-@ Weston had sacked the current divisional commander , Philip . R. Wood , for lack of aggression ( unjustifiably , in Simon Robbins ’ view ) , Pinney returned to the division on 30 November , amid rumours that he had got the return posting through personal influence .
The division remained in reserve until April 1918 , when German forces attacked as part of the Spring Offensive . During the Battle of the Lys , the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps was effectively wiped out , leaving a two @-@ mile wide gap in the British lines . The 33rd was ordered into position , and Pinney personally commanded the divisional machine @-@ gun battalion , which — with the assistance of various stragglers from retreating units — helped turn back a heavy German attack at the Battle of Hazebrouck on 12 and 13 April . For his service in April , Pinney , along with the commanders of the 12th , 55th and 61st Divisions , was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath . The 33rd was used to train the American 30th Infantry Division through the summer , but went over to the offensive in September , seeing action at the Battle of the St Quentin Canal , the Battle of Cambrai , and the Battle of the Selle . At the Selle , Pinney organised a dawn attack with improvised bridges , allowing the 33rd to force a bridgehead and successfully clear the opposing bank in a short time . The division finished the war in the Sambre valley , and began demobilisation . In February 1919 , with the division mostly demobilised , Pinney retired from the Army , aged fifty @-@ six , after thirty @-@ five years service .
= = Retirement = =
Following the end of his Army career , Pinney took up residence at Racedown Manor , in the village of Broadwindsor , Dorset , where he lived the life of a retired country gentleman . He became a Justice of the Peace and Deputy Lieutenant for the county , and served as its High Sheriff in 1923 . He did not return to an active Army post , though he held the ceremonial colonelcy of the Royal Fusiliers from 1924 to 1933 , as well as the honorary colonelcy of the Dorset Coastal Brigade , Royal Artillery , and the 4th ( Territorial ) Battalion of the Dorsetshire Regiment .
Pinney died on 18 February 1943 , survived by his wife and five of his children . All three of his sons served in the Second World War ; his eldest son , Bernard , was killed in action in November 1941 , commanding J Battery Royal Horse Artillery at Sidi Rezegh in North Africa . His daughter Rachel was part of the notorious " Ferguson 's Gang " who hit the headlines in the interwar years with masked appearances with bags of money to save properties for the National Trust . A scholarship fund , to provide access to higher education for the children of Dorset ex @-@ servicemen , was established in Pinney 's name in June 1943 , and remains in existence .
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= Al @-@ Mundhir III ibn al @-@ Harith =
Al @-@ Mundhir ibn al @-@ Ḥārith ( المنذر بن الحارث ) , known in Greek sources as ( Flavios ) Alamoundaros ( Φλάβιος Ἀλαμούνδαρος ) , was the king of the Ghassanid Arabs from 569 to circa 581 . A son of Al @-@ Harith ibn Jabalah , he succeeded his father both in the kingship over his tribe and as the chief of the Byzantine Empire 's Arab clients and allies in the East , with the rank of patricius . Despite his victories over the rival Persian @-@ backed Lakhmids , throughout Mundhir 's reign his relations with Byzantium were lukewarm due to his staunch Monophysitism . This led to a complete breakdown of the alliance in 572 , after Mundhir discovered Byzantine plans to assassinate him . Relations were restored in 575 and Mundhir secured from the Byzantine emperor both recognition of his royal status and a pledge of tolerance towards the Monophysite Church .
In 580 or 581 , Mundhir participated in an unsuccessful campaign against the Persian capital , Ctesiphon , alongside the Byzantine general ( and future emperor ) Maurice . The failure of the campaign led to a quarrel between the two and Maurice accused Mundhir of treason . Byzantine agents captured Mundhir , who was brought to Constantinople but never faced trial . His arrest provoked an uprising among the Ghassanids under Mundhir 's son al @-@ Nu 'man VI . When Maurice ascended the throne in 582 , Mundhir was exiled to Sicily although , according to one source , he was allowed to return to his homeland after Maurice 's overthrow in 602 .
Mundhir was the last important Ghassanid ruler ; in 584 , the Byzantines would break up the Ghassanid federation . A capable and successful military leader , his rule also saw the strengthening of Monophysitism and a cultural flowering among the Arabs under his rule .
= = Biography = =
= = = Succession and early career = = =
Mundhir was the son of al @-@ Harith ibn Jabalah , ruler of the Ghassanid tribe and supreme phylarch of the Arab foederati in the eastern frontier of the Byzantine Empire . Situated on the southern flank of the frontier , the Ghassanids faced the Lakhmids , another powerful Arab tribe who were in turn the chief client of Byzantium 's main antagonist , the Sassanid Persian Empire . Harith had been raised to the kingship and to the position of supreme phylarch by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) , who wished thereby to create a strong counterpart to the Lakhmid rulers . Mundhir had been confirmed as his father 's heir as early as 563 , during the latter 's visit to Constantinople , and succeeded after Harith 's death in 569 . It appears that Mundhir inherited his father 's Byzantine titles one at a time , as they were not hereditary : the rank of patricius , the honorific appellation paneuphemos ( most honorable ) and the prestigious honorific gentilicum " Flavius " , borne by the Byzantine emperors and consuls .
Soon after Harith 's death , Ghassanid territory was attacked by Qabus ibn al @-@ Mundhir , the new Lakhmid ruler , who sought to take advantage of the situation . Qabus 's forces were repulsed and Mundhir invaded Lakhmid territory in turn , seizing much plunder . As he turned back , the Lakhmids again confronted the Ghassanid army , but suffered a heavy defeat . After this success , Mundhir wrote to the Byzantine emperor Justin II ( r . 565 – 578 ) asking for gold for his men . This request reportedly angered Justin , who sent instructions to his local commander to lure the Ghassanid ruler into a trap and have him killed . But the letter fell into Mundhir 's hands , who then severed his relations with the Empire and refused to commit his forces during the war with Persia that began in 572 .
= = = Return to Byzantine allegiance = = =
As the Byzantines relied upon the Ghassanids to cover the approaches to Syria , Mundhir 's withdrawal left a gap in the Byzantine southern flank , which persisted for three years until 575 when Mundhir returned to the Byzantine allegiance through the mediation of the general Justinian , who met Mundhir at Sergiopolis . Immediately after this reconciliation , Mundhir assembled an army in secret and launched an attack against Hirah , the Lakhmid capital , arguably the Arab world 's largest , richest , and most culturally vibrant city at the time . The city was sacked , plundered , and put to the torch , except for the churches . According to John of Ephesus , Mundhir donated much of his booty from this expedition to monasteries and the poor . The same year , Mundhir visited Constantinople , where he was awarded a crown or diadem ( stemma ) , marking the formal renewal of his role as Byzantium 's chief Arab client @-@ king .
The war with Persia was interrupted by a three @-@ year truce agreed in 575 . In 578 , hostilities were renewed , but the sources on the period , fragmentary as they are , do not mention any Ghassanid participation for the first two years . In 580 , Mundhir was invited by Emperor Tiberius II ( r . 578 – 582 ) to visit the capital again . He arrived in the city on 8 February , accompanied by two of his sons , and was lavishly received . On this occasion , among a multitude of other gifts , he was also presented with a royal crown , instead of the simpler coronet or diadem he had been awarded before .
While at Constantinople , Mundhir received permission from the emperor to hold a Monophysite church council , which convened on 2 March 580 . This council managed , albeit for a brief time , to reconcile the various factions and sects of the Monophysites . It was a goal towards which Mundhir had long striven , as when he intervened in the quarrel between Jacob Baradaeus and Paul the Black , the Monophysite patriarch of Antioch . Before leaving the imperial capital , the Ghassanid ruler also secured a pledge from the emperor that the persecutions of the Monophysites would cease . When he returned home , Mundhir discovered that the Lakhmids and Persians had used his absence to raid his domains . Gathering his forces , he fell upon their army , defeated them , and returned home laden with booty .
In the summer of 580 or 581 , Mundhir went to Circesium on the river Euphrates , where he joined the Byzantine forces under the new magister militum per Orientem , Maurice , for a campaign deep into Persian territory . The combined force moved south along the river , accompanied by a fleet of ships . The allied army stormed the fortress of Anatha and moved on until it reached the region of Beth Aramaye in central Mesopotamia , near the Persian capital of Ctesiphon , but there they found the bridge over the Euphrates destroyed by the Persians . With any possibility of a march to Ctesiphon gone , they were forced to retreat , especially since at the same time the Persian commander Adarmahan had taken advantage of the Byzantine army 's absence and was raiding freely in Osroene , where he sacked the provincial capital Edessa . The retreat was arduous for the exhausted army , and Maurice and Mundhir exchanged recriminations for the expedition 's failure . Mundhir and Maurice cooperated however in forcing Adarmahan to withdraw , and defeated him at Callinicum . Upon returning to his lands , Mundhir learned that a combined Persian @-@ Lakhmid force was preparing another attack against the Ghassanid realm . Immediately he set out to meet them , engaged their army and comprehensively defeated it , before going on to capture the enemy camp . It was to be his last victory .
= = = Arrest and exile = = =
Despite his successes , Mundhir was accused by Maurice of treason during the preceding campaign . Maurice claimed that Mundhir had revealed the Byzantine plan to the Persians , who then proceeded to destroy the bridge over the Euphrates . The chronicler John of Ephesus explicitly calls this assertion a lie , as the Byzantine intentions must have been plain to the Persian commanders . Both Maurice and Mundhir wrote letters to Emperor Tiberius , who tried to reconcile them . Finally , Maurice himself visited Constantinople , where he was able to persuade Tiberius of Mundhir 's guilt . The charge of treason is almost universally dismissed by modern historians ; Irfan Shahîd says that it probably had more to do with Maurice 's dislike of the veteran and militarily successful Arab ruler . This was further compounded by the Byzantines ' habitual distrust of the " barbarian " and supposedly innately traitorous Arabs , as well as by Mundhir 's staunchly Monophysite faith .
Tiberius ordered Mundhir 's arrest , and a trap was laid for the Ghassanid king : summoned to Constantinople to answer charges of treason , Mundhir chose his friend , the curator Magnus , as his advocate . Magnus was probably a Byzantine , hailing from Huwwarin ( Evaria ) . There he had built a church , and he now called on Mundhir to join him and the patriarch of Antioch Gregory in the dedication ceremony . Mundhir arrived with only a small escort and was arrested by Byzantine troops stationed in secret at the location . He was transported to Constantinople , joined along the way by his wife and three of his children . At the capital , he was treated well by Tiberius , who allowed him a comfortable residence and a subsidy , but denied him an audience . Irfan Shahîd believes that this generous treatment , as well as the fact that he was not brought to trial for his supposed treason , indicate that Tiberius too did not believe the charges , but ordered the arrest chiefly to placate the strong anti @-@ Monophysite faction in the imperial capital .
In the meantime , Mundhir 's arrest provoked a revolt led by his four sons , especially the eldest , Nu 'man , a man described by John of Ephesus as even more capable and warlike than his father . For two years , the Ghassanid army launched raids into the Byzantine provinces from their bases in the desert , even defeating and killing the Byzantine dux of Arabia in a battle at Bostra . Tiberius reacted by raising a Chalcedonian brother of Mundhir to the Ghassanid kingship . A large army with Magnus at its head was dispatched east to counter Nu 'man and install his uncle as king . The latter was swiftly done , but the new king died after only twenty days . Magnus also had some success in subduing or subverting the allegiance of some minor Arab tribes away from the Ghassanids . Magnus died shortly before Tiberius 's own death in August 582 , and with Maurice 's accession to the throne , Nu 'man journeyed to Constantinople to achieve a reconciliation with Byzantium . Instead , he too was arrested , tried , and sentenced to death , quickly commuted to house arrest .
Mundhir remained in Constantinople until the death of Tiberius and the accession of Maurice , when he was exiled to Sicily . It is likely that he is the man Pope Gregory the Great mentioned as " Anamundarus " in 600 , indicating that he was still alive at the time . A 13th @-@ century Syriac chronicle further records that after Maurice 's overthrow and murder in 602 , Mundhir was allowed to return home .
= = = Legacy = = =
Mundhir in many ways continued in the footsteps of his father . He was a militarily successful ally of the Byzantines , especially against his fellow Arabs , the Lakhmid tribesmen , and secured Byzantium 's southern flank and its political and commercial interests in Arabia proper . Despite his fervent dedication to Monophysitism , he remained loyal to Byzantium as the Christian state par excellence ; as Irfan Shahîd comments , Mundhir 's self @-@ image may well have been that of a " sixth @-@ century Odenathus fighting for the Christian Roman Empire , as his third @-@ century predecessor had done for the pagan empire " . Yet , in the end , his independent character and his role as the protector of the Monophysite Church led to his downfall and exile . In the overwhelmingly pro @-@ Chalcedonian atmosphere of Tiberius 's and Maurice 's reigns , unlike his father Harith , who was protected by Empress Theodora 's Monophysite leanings , Mundhir could not count on any influential support in Constantinople . Mundhir 's arrest was followed after 584 by the dissolution of the Ghassanid federation into a number of smaller chiefdoms . This was a momentous event in the history of Byzantine @-@ Arab relations : it destroyed Byzantium 's " protective shield " against incursions from the Arabian desert , an error for which the Byzantines would pay dearly with the onset of the Muslim conquests . It was paralleled a few years later by the destruction of the Lakhmid kingdom at the hands of the Persians , opening a power vacuum in northern Arabia which the nascent Muslim state would later fill . On the other hand , the Muslim conquests , and before them the destructive thirty @-@ year war with Persia , were still a long way off in 584 , and the dissolution of the Ghassanid federation may be seen simply , according to the historian Michael Whitby , as the elimination of an " over @-@ successful quasi @-@ client neighbour " , who threatened to become " too powerful for the good of its supposed patron " .
The Ghassanids left an important cultural legacy as well . Their patronage of the Monophysite Syrian Church was crucial for its survival and revival , and even its spread , through missionary activities , south into Arabia . According to the historian Warwick Ball , the Ghassanids ' promotion of a simpler and more rigidly monotheistic form of Christianity in a specifically Arab context can be said to have anticipated Islam . Ghassanid rule also brought a period of considerable prosperity for the Arabs on the eastern fringes of Syria , as evidenced by a spread of urbanization and the sponsorship of several churches , monasteries and other buildings . The surviving descriptions of the Ghassanid courts impart an image of luxury and an active cultural life , with patronage of the arts , music and especially Arab @-@ language poetry . In the words of Ball , " the Ghassanid courts were the most important centres for Arabic poetry before the rise of the Caliphal courts under Islam " , and their court culture , including their penchant for desert palaces like Qasr ibn Wardan , provided the model for the Umayyad caliphs and their court . Among the architectural remains from Mundhir 's own reign are the castle of Dumayr and the so @-@ called ecclesia extra muros ( nowadays identified as Mundhir 's own audience hall or praetorium ) in Sergiopolis , where an inscription in Greek , celebrating Mundhir , survives . Sergiopolis ( modern Rusafa ) was a site of particular significance due to the popularity of the cult of Saint Sergius among the Arabs , and was also a focus of later Umayyad building activity .
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= The Calculus Affair =
The Calculus Affair ( French : L 'Affaire Tournesol ) is the eighteenth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was initially serialised weekly in Belgium 's Tintin magazine from December 1954 to February 1956 before being published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1956 . The narrative follows the attempts of the young reporter Tintin , his dog Snowy , and his friend Captain Haddock to rescue Professor Calculus , a scientist who has developed a machine capable of destroying objects with sound waves , after the latter is the subject of kidnapping attempts from the competing European countries of Borduria and Syldavia .
Following on from the previous volume , Explorers on the Moon , The Calculus Affair was created with the aid of the Hergé 's team of artists at Studios Hergé . The story reflected the Cold War tensions that Europe was experiencing during the 1950s , and introduced three recurring characters into the series : Jolyon Wagg , Cutts the Butcher , and Colonel Sponz . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Red Sea Sharks , and the series as a whole became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . The Calculus Affair was critically well @-@ received , with various commentators having described it as one of the best Tintin adventures . The story was adapted for both the 1957 Belvision animated series Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , and for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana .
= = Synopsis = =
During a thunderstorm , glass and porcelain items at Marlinspike Hall shatter unexplainably . Insurance salesman Jolyon Wagg arrives at the house , annoying Captain Haddock . Gunshots are heard in the Hall 's grounds , and Tintin and Haddock discover a wounded man speaking in a foreign accent who soon disappears . The next morning , Professor Calculus leaves for Geneva to attend a conference on nuclear physics . Tintin and Haddock use the opportunity to investigate Calculus ' laboratory , there discovering that his experiments were responsible for the glass @-@ shattering of the previous night . While exploring , they are attacked by a stranger , who then escapes ; fearing that Calculus is in danger , Tintin , Haddock , and Snowy head for Geneva . In Geneva , they learn that Calculus has gone to Nyon to meet Professor Topolino , an expert in ultrasonics . The group travel there in a taxi , but their car is attacked by two men in another car , who force the taxi into Lake Geneva . Surviving the attack , Tintin , Haddock and Snowy continue to Nyon , where they find Topolino bound and gagged in his cellar . As Tintin questions the professor , the house blows up , but they all survive .
Tintin and Haddock meet the detectives Thomson and Thompson , who reveal that the wounded man at Marlinspike was Syldavian . Tintin surmises that Calculus had invented an ultrasonic device capable of being used as a weapon of mass destruction , which both Syldavian and Bordurian intelligence agents are now seeking to obtain . Discovering that Bordurian spies have kidnapped Calculus and are holding him hostage in their Rolle embassy , Tintin and Haddock seek to rescue him , but during the attempt he is captured by Syldavian agents , who are able to escape by plane to their home country . The next morning , Tintin and Haddock learn that Bordurian fighters shot down the Syldavian plane and captured Calculus , who is now being held in Borduria . They travel to Borduria 's capital , Szohôd , intent on rescuing him .
In the city , they are escorted to their hotel by agents of the Bordurian secret police , who have been ordered to monitor the duo by police chief Colonel Sponz . Aware that they are being monitored , Tintin and Haddock escape the hotel and hide in the opera house , where Bianca Castafiore is performing . When police come searching for them , they hide in Castafiore 's closet ; after Sponz comes to visit Castafiore in her dressing room , Tintin is able to steal papers that will secure Calculus ' release from the fortress of Bakhine from his coat pocket . After disguising themselves as officials from the Red Cross , Tintin and Haddock are able to get Calculus released from prison and with him escape from Borduria aboard a tank . Back at Marlinspike Hall , Calculus reveals that he forgot to take his plans for the ultrasonic device with him to Geneva , and that he had left it at home all along ; he destroys the plans so that they could not be used to create a weapon .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The Calculus Affair was produced at the height of the Cold War and reflected the conflict 's tensions , also being published at a time in which espionage thrillers were proving popular in France and Belgium . The Calculus Affair marked a return to the single volume format which was to persist for the rest of The Adventures of Tintin . The volume started its publication in Tintin magazine on December 1954 . Before working on the book , Hergé would draft his techniques in pencil ; after confirming his sketches , he would work over the drawings and text in ink . With the development of his own Studios Hergé , he selected the best sketch from a number of versions and traced it onto the page he was creating .
The Calculus Affair introduces three recurring characters into the series . The first is Jolyon Wagg , a Belgian insurance salesman who annoys Haddock when he invited himself to Marlinspike . According to Michael Farr , Wagg , was " the proverbial bore " . For the name of Jolyon Wagg ( Séraphin Lampion in the original French version ) , Hergé initially chose Crampon , which was derived from the French expression " Quel Crampon ! " ( English : " What a leech ! " ) . Hergé , however , ultimately rejected Crampon as he found it too explicit and harsh @-@ sounding , settling on Lampion as an alternative . Hergé named Wagg 's insurance company Assurances Mondass , although for the English translation it became the Rock Bottom Insurance company .
The second new character to be introduced to the story was Cutts the butcher ; Hergé named the character Sanzot , a pun on the French word sans @-@ os ( " without bones " ) , which referenced his profession . Another addition to The Calculus Affair was the Bordurian head of secret police Colonel Sponsz , whose name is derived from the Brussels dialect term for a sponge ( éponge in French ) . Hergé used his brother , Paul Remi , as the model for Sponsz , although he was also influenced by the image of the Austrian American filmmaker Erich von Stroheim .
= = = Influences = = =
A key influence on the plot of The Calculus Affair was an article that Hergé had read in a February 1954 issue of the Belgian weekly La Face à main . In this article , it was reported that there had been a number of incidents along the road from Portsmouth to London in southern England in which motorists had reported their car windscreen spontaneously shattering ; the article 's author suggested that it may have been caused by experiments undertaken in a nearby secret facility . To develop this plot further , Hergé consulted Professor Armand Delsemme , an astrophysicist at Liège .
Hergé 's depiction of Switzerland avoided repeating national clichés , instead seeking a high level of realism . Hergé requested that Jean Dupont , the editor of L 'Écho illustré – the magazine in which The Adventures of Tintin was serialised in Switzerland – send him documentation on Swiss railways which he could draw from . He also requested that his Swiss friend Charly Fornora send him a bottle of Valais wine which he could again use as a model from which to draw . Hergé subsequently travelled to Switzerland himself to produce accurate sketches of scenes around Geneva which he could then incorporate into the story ; these included at Geneva Cointrin International Airport , Genève @-@ Cornavin railway station , and the Cornavin Hotel , as well as the road through Cervens and Topolino 's house in Nyon . Despite this realism , a number of minor errors were made in Hergé 's depiction of Geneva .
Hergé 's depiction of Borduria was based on Eastern Bloc countries . Their police force was modelled on the Soviet KGB . Hergé named the political leader of Borduria Plekszy @-@ Gladz , a pun on plexiglas , although the English translators renamed him Kûrvi @-@ Tasch ( " curvy tash " ) , a reference to the fact that the leader 's curved moustache , inspired by that of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , was a prominent symbol in Borduria . As evidence for the accuracy of Hergé 's depiction of an Eastern Bloc city , Farr highlighted that Borduria 's Kûrvi @-@ Tasch Platz closely resembled East Berlin 's Platz der Republik , which would only be completed in the 1970s . All of the furniture in the Bordurian police headquarters was drawn from that found in the Studios Hergé premises .
The idea of a sonic weapon was one which had been unsuccessfully pioneered by German scientists under the control of Albert Speer during World War II . A book that Tintin examines in Professor Topolino 's house , German Research in World War II by Leslie E. Simon – a retired Major General in the US Army – really existed and was published in 1947 . In the strip , Hergé preserved the English language title of the book rather than translating it into French , although altered the book 's cover design to remove a prominent swastika . The inclusion of the book is one of the few instances that there is any reference to the Second World War within The Adventures of Tintin .
Hergé 's decision to name a character Topolino was a reference to Walt Disney , whose character of Mickey Mouse was known as Topolino in Italian . Hergé included a reference to his friend and colleague , the former opera singer Edgar P. Jacobs , in the story , adding a figure named Jacobini to the billing on the opera performance alongside Castafiore . He also inserted a cameo of himself as a reporter into the final scene of the story .
= = = Publication = = =
The Calculus Affair began serialisation in Tintin magazine 's Christmas edition on 22 December 1954 , and continued to appear in the pages of that publication until 22 February 1956 . It would be the first of The Adventures of Tintin to be serialised without interruption since Red Rackham 's Treasure ( 1944 ) . It began serialisation in the French edition of Tintin in February 1955 . It was subsequently published in collected book form as L 'Affaire Tournesol by Casterman in 1956 . For this volume Hergé had designed a front cover ; initially , it simply showed Tintin and Haddock hiding Calculus from Bordurian soldiers , but he subsequently added shattered yellow glass around the edges of the image for dramatic effect .
= = Critical analysis = =
Harry Thompson opined that while the story 's ending was somewhat unsatisfactory and rushed , it remained " probably the best of all the Tintin books " . Biographer Benoît Peeters agreed , describing it as " Hergé 's masterwork " , " a masterpiece of the classic strip cartoon " . Elsewhere , he referred to it as " one of his most brilliant books " , describing Wagg as " the last great figure of The Adventures of Tintin " . Peeters added that the story had " the atmosphere of a spy novel worthy of John Buchan or Eric Ambler " . Similarly , Farr described The Calculus Affair as " one of Hergé 's finest creations " . Biographer Pierre Assouline stated that the " illustrations and the scenario are vibrant and rich ; the story thread holds from beginning to end " .
Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier stated that the introduction of Wagg and Cutts represented " yet another turning point in the series " , praising the characterisation of Wagg as " bitter and successful social satire " . They were critical of Syldavia 's inclusion as an antagonist in the story , stating that the Syldavian attempts to kidnap Calculus " strains believability " because they had appeared as allies of Calculus and Tintin in both the preceding two @-@ volume story arc , Destination Moon ( 1953 ) and Explorers on the Moon ( 1954 ) , and in the earlier King Ottokar 's Sceptre ( 1939 ) . Ultimately , they felt that " the plot seems somewhat shoe @-@ horned into the familiar universe " and " one feels that Hergé 's heart was not really much into the action part of the story " , ultimately awarding it three stars out of five .
In his psychoanalytical study of The Adventures of Tintin , the literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès declared that The Calculus Affair marked the beginning of the third and final period of the series , which he believed could be characterised by Hergé 's depiction of a world run by " wheeling and dealing " and in which " detective work takes precedence over any mystical quest " . Apostolidès considered The Calculus Affair to be both Calculus ' " triumph and his defeat " . He felt that while Calculus had become " an impartial figure " in the preceding two @-@ volume story arc , Destination Moon and Explorers on the Moon , here he had become " the Bad Mother " through his creation of an ultrasonic weapon and the threat that he poses both to the tranquility of Marlinspike and to world peace . He added that the scene at the end of the story in which Calculus burns the plans to his ultrasonic device represents " a symbolic castration " and allows the character to become " the Oedipal Father with whom the sons [ Tintin and Haddock ] can compete " , thus stabilising " the family hierarchy " of the series .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy believed that The Calculus Affair aptly illustrated how Tintin was no longer political in the manner that he was in earlier works like Tintin in the Land of the Soviets ( 1930 ) and Tintin in the Congo ( 1931 ) ; instead , Tintin travels to Borduria to rescue Calculus , " not to fight or expose totalitarianism " . Moving on to Calculus , McCarthy stated that in this story he was " a genius compromised " , with his role being a " counter @-@ position to , or flip @-@ side of , the one he represented in the moon books " . He noted that when Tintin and Haddock arrive in Borduria , they are " treated as honoured guests but are in fact prisoners of the police state " , a reversal of the situation in The Blue Lotus in which Tintin believes himself a prisoner but is in fact a guest . He stated that as with The Crab with the Golden Claws ( 1941 ) , The Calculus Affair was " one long tobacco @-@ trail " with cigarettes representing clues throughout the story . Turning his attention to the opera house scene in which Tintin and Haddock spy upon Sponz and Castafiore , he compared it to the scene in David Lynch 's 1986 film Blue Velvet in which Jeffrey Beaumont spies on the sexual activities of Dorothy Vallens and Frank Booth .
= = Adaptations = =
In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced a string of colour adaptations based upon Hergé 's original comics , adapting eight of the Adventures into a series of daily five @-@ minute episodes . The Calculus Affair was the eighth such story in the second series , being directed by Ray Goossens and written by Greg , himself a well @-@ known cartoonist who in later years would become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .
In 1991 , a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories into a series of episodes , each 22 minutes long . The Calculus Affair was the sixteenth and seventeenth episodes of The Adventures of Tintin to be produced . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book .
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= Hurricane Hernan ( 2008 ) =
Hurricane Hernan was the ninth tropical depression , eighth named storm , fifth hurricane , and first major hurricane of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season . Hernan developed out of a tropical wave that formed off the east coast of Africa on July 24 . Over the next week , the wave traversed the Atlantic without development and entered the Eastern Pacific basin on August 2 . The wave became better organized over the next several days and was declared Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E on August 6 . The depression quickly became Tropical Storm Hernan later that day . Hernan steadily intensified over the next two days and was upgraded to a hurricane on the morning of August 8 .
Hernan continued to intensify and became the first major hurricane — a storm with winds of 111 mph ( 178 km / h ) or higher — of the season on August 9 . After reaching major hurricane status , Hernan steadily weakened to a minimal hurricane . The weakening continued , and Hernan was further downgraded to a tropical storm on August 11 . As Hernan moved over cold waters , the convection associated with the storm dissipated , leaving only a swirl of clouds . By the morning of August 12 , almost all of the convection associated with Hernan had dissipated and the system was declared a remnant low @-@ pressure area . The remnants of the hurricane caused light rain to Hawaii .
= = Origins = =
On July 24 , a tropical wave emerged from the east coast of Africa , near the Cape Verde Islands . The wave was disorganized and failed to develop convection as it traversed the Atlantic Ocean | over the next several days . The wave eventually entered the Eastern Pacific basin on August 2 , and interacted with a broad area of cyclonic flow located a few hundred miles south of Mexico . The wave became better organized throughout the day , and an area of low pressure formed 660 mi ( 1060 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico on August 5 . Strong convection began to develop . That day , a banding feature formed On the morning of August 6 , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued . Later in the day , the National Hurricane Center determined that the system had developed sufficient convection to be declared Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E while located 775 mi ( 1230 km ) to the south @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Sur . However , the storm was operationally believed to have become a depression several hours later .
Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E was influenced by a high pressure area located over Mexico , causing it to move 16 mph ( 26 km / h ) to the north @-@ west . The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Hernan overnight as the storm became more organized . Although Hernan was located over warm waters , moderate wind shear prevented the storm from intensifying quickly , and the storm slowed . Hernan slowly became better organized throughout the night , but wind shear continued to impair Hernan through the morning ; as a result , most of the tropical cyclone forecast models did not predict Hernan to become a hurricane .
= = Intensification and peak strength = =
In the early afternoon , an eye feature began to form ; subsequently , Hernan was nearing hurricane status . However , by the nighttime hours , a microwave satellite found that the center of Hernan was located to the west @-@ southwest of the eye feature , and the intensification ceased for the rest of the day and into the morning of August 8 . Later in the morning , the center of Hernan was determined to be located underneath the eye and was determined to have become a hurricane , the fifth of the season , during the afternoon of August 8 . Throughout the day , the eye became better defined , indicating that moderate northeasterly wind shear had already begun to diminish . Despite a cloud @-@ filled eye , meteorologists showed Hernan peaking as a Category 2 hurricane overnight .
Early on August 9 , Hernan was upgraded to a Category 2 hurricane , with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . Convection around the eye continued become more symmetrical , though the National Hurricane Center had stated that Hernan had most likely reached its peak intensity or was very close to doing so . However , the eye suddenly became better defined . Based on this , Hernan was upgraded to a major hurricane . The intensity of Hernan was uncertain , as there was some difference between intensity estimates . Hernan maintained its appearance through the evening and it was stated that the peak intensity of the storm may have been 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . Overnight , Hernan moved over cooler waters and started to weaken . Although the eye remained well defined , outflow to all the southwestern semicircle became poor .
= = Weakening and dissipation = =
Hernan rapidly weakened overnight and was barely a Category 2 in the afternoon hours of August 10 as it moved over cooler waters . The erosion of the eyewall was later found to be caused by an eyewall replacement cycle that rapidly completed itself during the afternoon . Continuing to slowly weaken , Hernan was soon downgraded to a strong Category 1 . The newly formed eye began to shrink and deteriorate through the early afternoon , but Hernan briefly stopped weakening . Initially , Hernan 's strong circulation allowed it to maintain hurricane status over 24 ° C waters .
Early on August 11 , Hernan was downgraded to a tropical storm . Deep convection diminished around the center of the storm and by August 12 , almost all of the deep convection dissipated as Hernan continued to weaken . Over 23 ° C water , only a swirl of clouds remained and the storm was barely a tropical system . Later that night , Hernan had degenerated into a remnant low , and the final advisory was issued by the National Hurricane Center . The remnant low still retained tropical storm @-@ force winds for a short while before weakening further by the next morning . The low moved towards the west @-@ southwest over the next several days before dissipating 460 mi ( 740 km ) southeast of the Island of Hawaii on August 16 . The remnant low @-@ pressure area of Hernan later brought moisture to the island of Hawaii , causing cloud and shower activity . The associated rainfall was light and insignificant .
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= Fort Dobbs ( North Carolina ) =
Fort Dobbs was an 18th @-@ century fort in the Yadkin – Pee Dee River Basin region of the Province of North Carolina , near what is now Statesville in Iredell County . Used for frontier defense during and after the French and Indian War , the fort was built to protect the British settlers of the western portion of what was then Rowan County , and served as a vital outpost for soldiers , traders , and colonial officials . Fort Dobbs ' primary structure was a blockhouse with log walls , surrounded by a palisade and moat . It was intended to provide protection against Cherokee , Catawba , Shawnee , Delaware and French raids into North Carolina .
The fort 's name honored Arthur Dobbs , the colonial Governor of North Carolina from 1754 to 1765 , who played a role in designing the fort and authorized its construction . When in use , it was the only fort on the frontier between South Carolina and Virginia . Between 1756 and 1760 , the blockhouse was garrisoned by a variable number of soldiers , many of whom were sent to fight in Pennsylvania and the Ohio River Valley during the French and Indian War . On February 27 , 1760 , the fort was the site of an engagement between Cherokee warriors and provincial soldiers that ended in a victory for the provincials . After this battle and other attacks by Cherokee warriors on British forts and settlements in the Anglo @-@ Cherokee War , the southern British colonies launched a devastating counterattack against the Cherokee in 1760 .
Fort Dobbs was abandoned after 1766 , and disappeared from the landscape . Archaeological work in the 20th century and historical research in 2005 and 2006 led to the discovery of the fort 's exact location and probable appearance . The site on which the fort sat is now operated by North Carolina 's Division of State Historic Sites and Properties as Fort Dobbs State Historic Site , and supporters of the site have developed plans for the fort 's reconstruction .
= = Background = =
= = = Settlement of the Carolina back @-@ country = = =
In 1747 , approximately 100 men of suitable age to serve in the colonial militia lived in North Carolina west of present @-@ day Hillsborough . Within three years , most of North Carolina 's population increase , driven mainly by the immigration of Scots @-@ Irish and German settlers traveling from Pennsylvania on the Great Wagon Road , was occurring in seven western counties created after 1740 . By 1754 , six western counties — Orange , Granville , Johnston , Cumberland , Anson , and Rowan — held around 22 @,@ 000 residents out of the colony 's total population of 65 @,@ 000 .
= = = Construction = = =
In 1755 , Governor Arthur Dobbs ordered the construction of a fortified log structure for the protection of settlers in Rowan County from various Native American threats , including assaults from Cherokee , Catawba , Shawnee , and Delaware raiding parties . Dobbs stated in a letter on August 24 , 1755 , to the Board of Trade that the fort was needed " to assist the back settlers and be a retreat to them as it was beyond the well settled Country , only straggling settlements behind them , and if I had placed [ Waddell 's garrison ] beyond the Settlements without a fortification they might be exposed , and be no retreat for the Settlers , and the Indians might pass them and murder the Inhabitants , and retire before they durst go to give them notice " . The new frontier settlements required regular protection , as the settlers in the area attributed many crimes and forms of harassment to denizens of nearby Catawba and Cherokee towns . Furthermore , Governor Dobbs was concerned for his own investments , as he owned more than 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 ha ; 310 sq mi ) of land on the Rocky River , approximately 15 miles ( 24 km ) south of the Fourth Creek Meeting House .
The North Carolina Legislature set aside a sum of £ 10 @,@ 000 for the construction of the fort in 1755 , as well as for the raising of several companies of provincial soldiers to defend the frontier . Provincial soldiers , known by the shortened name " provincials " , were soldiers raised , clothed , and paid by the individual British colonies , although they were at various times armed and supplied by the regular British Army . The total cost of the fort was only £ 1 @,@ 000 . By comparison , Fort Stanwix in New York , begun in 1758 in a then @-@ modern star fort style , cost £ 60 @,@ 000 to erect , while the construction of Fort Prince George in South Carolina cost that province 's House of Commons £ 3 @,@ 000 .
Dobbs likely had a role in designing the fort , as he had designed at least one other fort in North Carolina , as well as a number of structures in Ireland . Hugh Waddell , a Scotch @-@ Irish soldier who had close ties to Governor Dobbs and who was the commander of a company of provincial soldiers in 1755 , built the fort 's blockhouse and palisade using labor provided by his soldiers , and named it after the governor . The land on which the fort was to be located was a part of a 560 @-@ acre ( 230 ha ; 0 @.@ 88 sq mi ) tract owned first by one James Oliphant , then by a Fergus Sloan . Part of the same tract was used for the Fourth Creek Congregation Meeting House ( so named because the settlement was on the fourth creek one would pass traveling west on the South Yadkin River from Salisbury ) in 1755 , which was the principal structure around which the modern city of Statesville was founded . After construction was completed , Fort Dobbs was the only military installation on the colonial frontier between Virginia and South Carolina .
= = = Description and effectiveness = = =
By June 1756 , Waddell had substantially completed construction on the fort . Francis Brown and future governor Richard Caswell , commissioners appointed by Dobbs to inspect frontier defenses , wrote the following report to the North Carolina General Assembly on December 21 , 1756 :
[ Brown and Caswell ] had likewise viewed the State of Fort Dobbs and found it to be a good and Substantial Building of the Dimentions [ sic ] following ( that is to say ) The Oblong Square fifty three feet by forty , the opposite Angles Twenty four feet and Twenty @-@ Two In height Twenty four and a half feet as by the Plan annexed Appears , The Thickness of the Walls which are made of Oak Logs regularly Diminished from sixteen Inches to Six , it contains three floors and there may be discharged from each floor at one and the same time about one hundred Musketts [ sic ] the same is beautifully scituated [ sic ] in the fork of Fourth Creek a Branch of the Yadkin River . And that they also found under Command of Capt Hugh Waddel Forty six Effective men Officers and Soldiers as by the List to the said Report Annexed Appears the same being sworn to by the said Capt in their Presence the said Officers and Soldiers Appearing well and in good Spirits .
The commissioners generally found the defenses of the rest of the North Carolina frontier to be inadequate . In 1756 , the North Carolina General Assembly petitioned King George II for assistance , stating that the frontier remained in a relatively defenseless state . The address to the king further noted that after the fall of Fort Oswego to the French and their native allies in that year , the legislators did not believe that Fort Dobbs would provide a substantial defensive advantage . Settlers west of the Yadkin River were subjected to regular attacks so that between 1756 and 1759 , even after the construction of Fort Dobbs , the population of settlers in the area declined from approximately 1 @,@ 500 to 800 . Catawba raiding parties even struck as far as the largest western settlement , Salisbury , breaking into a session of court held by Peter Henley , Royal Chief Justice of the Province of North Carolina .
In 1759 , Waddell ordered six swivel guns for use by North Carolina 's military . Oral tradition in Iredell County holds that two such swivel guns were mounted at Fort Dobbs , but evidence of the exact quantity present at the fort has not been conclusively established .
= = Use and conflict = =
= = = Early uses = = =
Between 1756 and 1760 , Fort Dobbs was used as a base of operations for Waddell 's company of provincials . Dobbs also employed Waddell and the fort to conduct diplomacy with the province 's native neighbors . The governor gave specific instructions on July 18 , 1756 , in a letter sent from New Bern to Waddell , who had just finished supervising the construction of the fort , and two other men , stating :
I have given Orders to make you or any two of You a Commission as often as Necessary to go and make complaints to the Chief Sachims of the Cherokee and Catauba Nations when any Murders Robberies or Depredations are made by any of their People upon the English and to know whether it is done by their Orders or Allowance and if not to give up the Delinquents if Known or then when not Known that they should give Strict Orders to their Hnnters [ sic ] and warriors not to rob Kill or abuse the English Planters their Bretheren and Destroy their Horses cows Swine or Corn and if they should afterwards do it that the English their Bretheren would be Obliged to repell force with force and in Case they dont own to what Nation they belong that they will be treated as other Indian Nations in alliance with our Enemies the French who are now Spiriting them up to make war against us .
In addition to warning nearby natives against attacking settlers in the Carolinas , Dobbs also charged Waddell with attempting to keep peace with the Catawba . In one instance , Dobbs instructed Waddell to turn over a settler who had killed a Catawba hunter in order to placate the hunter 's tribesmen , in the event assurances that the settler would be brought to justice under the province 's laws did not persuade the Catawba to remain friendly with North Carolina .
In 1756 , Dobbs also approved the construction of another fort , this time in lands claimed by the Catawba , as well as both Carolinas , near modern @-@ day Fort Mill , South Carolina . Workmen under Waddell 's command began construction in 1756 , but in 1757 , Catawba leaders , influenced by South Carolina Governor William Lyttelton , informed North Carolina 's government that they no longer wished for this second fort to be built , and construction of the second fort was permanently halted .
At the commencement of the French and Indian War , settlers in the nearby Fourth Creek Congregation settlement sought protection by remaining in close proximity to the fort . During the early stages of that war , and well into 1759 , the fort housed only two soldiers ; the remaining members of the frontier company had returned to their homes or , like Waddell , had gone to fight in Pennsylvania . In Waddell 's absence , the fort was under the command of Captain Andrew Bailey .
= = = Decline and fall of Anglo @-@ Cherokee relations = = =
During the Anglo @-@ Cherokee War , which occurred during the later years of the French and Indian War , the fort served as the base for a company of North Carolina provincials tasked with repelling Cherokee raids in the western portion of the province when hostilities broke out between that tribe and the British provinces in 1758 . The Anglo @-@ Cherokee War began in 1758 after the capture of Fort Duquesne by the British and their native allies , including the Cherokee . After that fort was taken , the focus of combat in the French and Indian War moved northward , further away from the Cherokee homelands , and a number of Cherokee warriors felt that their contributions to the war effort were unappreciated . Several colonies , including Virginia and South Carolina , promised the Cherokee that they would build forts near their lands to protect them from hostile attack in exchange for warriors that had been supplied for the war effort . In Virginia 's case , such promises were never fulfilled , and in South Carolina , the promised military presence eventually caused more concern in the Cherokee leadership than it alleviated . Long @-@ term trends in English settlement , which encroached past the border between the Cherokee and South Carolina that had been set by treaty at Long Cane Creek ( west of modern @-@ day Greenwood , South Carolina ) , elevated Cherokee concern that vital hunting grounds would be permanently lost .
Several pro @-@ French and pro @-@ Creek leaders among the Cherokee pushed for violent actions against British settlers , despite the opposition of pro @-@ British Cherokee leaders . Eventually tensions between the Cherokee and the colonists reached a head when Cherokee warriors were attacked by settlers in Virginia , including an unknown number who were ambushed by frontier militia groups who alleged that the Cherokee had slaughtered cattle and stolen horses that belonged to Virginian settlers . The Virginians attempted to sell the massacred Cherokee warriors ' scalps to the government of Virginia as the scalps of Shawnee warriors ( for which the British had set a bounty ) , an act that insulted the Cherokee . After this and similar occurrences , younger , pro @-@ French leaders among the Cherokee instigated attacks against settlers throughout the frontier . The colonial military of the South Carolina , which considered the Cherokee towns to be within its sphere of influence , responded by assaulting Cherokees , taking more scalps from the Cherokee and selling them to British authorities , and the colonial government refused to engage in negotiations with even the most sympathetic Cherokee leaders .
= = = War comes to Fourth Creek = = =
Throughout 1759 and 1760 , small Cherokee bands attacked homesteads and communities on the frontier , oftentimes taking scalps from the British settlers . In raids on April 25 and 26 , 1759 , several parties of Cherokee led by Moytoy of Citico struck at settlements on the Yadkin and Catawba Rivers against the wishes of Cherokee leaders such as Attakullakulla , killing around 19 men , women and children , and taking more than 10 scalps from those killed , including eight scalps from settlers living on Fourth Creek . This violence damaged peace talks between Attakullakulla and South Carolina governor William Lyttelton , who considered the territory west of the Yadkin River in North Carolina to be within South Carolina 's sphere of influence . The violence committed by the Cherokee against British settlers continued , which in turn caused the colonial authorities to seek better relations with the Creek and Catawba nations . The Catawba , who were allied to the provinces of North and South Carolina , were only able to provide minimal assistance to the English in the defense of their frontiers , as that tribe 's settlements had been decimated by smallpox in 1759 and early 1760 . During this period of violence , members of Daniel Boone 's family , who had settled in the area , took refuge in the fort , although Boone himself went to Culpeper County , Virginia with his wife and children . Several scholars have speculated that Boone himself served under Waddell as a member of the frontier provincial company .
All remaining goodwill was lost between Lyttelton 's government in Charleston , the North Carolina government , and the pro @-@ peace Cherokee when Lyttelton ordered the detention of several peace delegations led by headmen Oconostota , Tistoe , and " Round O " , despite having previously guaranteed them safe passage . Lyttelton had the delegations put under armed guard , and secured them at Fort Prince George . A peace arrangement was agreed upon in December , 1759 , although the Cherokee agreed under duress , and the pro @-@ war faction of the Cherokee did not obey its terms . Several of the signatories for the Cherokee intended to disavow their promises as soon as they were able , in order to seek retribution for the capture of their peace delegations .
Full @-@ blown war broke out across the Carolina frontier by January , 1760 . Between January and February , 1760 , more than 77 settlers on the Carolina frontier were killed by Cherokee war parties , and the British settlement boundaries had been effectively pushed back by more than 100 miles . Many of the Cherokee captives held at Fort Prince George were massacred in mid @-@ February , 1760 after an attempt was made to rescue them , in which Ensign Richard Coytmore , the commanding officer of that fort who was much maligned by the Cherokee , was killed . Lyttelton , who was soon appointed Governor of Jamaica , requested assistance from Dobbs , but North Carolina 's militia could not be convinced to serve outside of its home province due to long @-@ standing custom .
= = = Battle = = =
Waddell and his provincials returned to Fort Dobbs after the fall of Fort Duquesne . The fort 's sole engagement occurred when a band of Cherokee warriors attacked on the night of February 27 , 1760 . During that battle , approximately 10 to 13 warriors died , and one or two provincial soldiers were wounded , while one young boy was killed . Future American Revolutionary War officer and North Carolina politician Griffith Rutherford , at the time a Captain , may have fought as during the battle under Waddell 's command . The Cherokee made off with several horses belonging to Waddell 's company , but were ultimately repulsed . Waddell described the action in an official report to the Governor on February 29 , 1760 :
For several days I observed that a small party of Indians were constantly about the fort , I sent out several small parties after them to no purpose , the evening before last between 8 and 9 o 'clock I found by the dogs making an uncommon noise there must be a party nigh a spring which we sometimes use . As my garrison is but small , and I was apprehensive it might be a scheme to draw out the garrison , I took out Captain Bailie who with myself and party made up ten ; we had not marched 300 yards from the fort when we were attacked by at least 60 or 70 Indians . I had given my party orders not to fire until I gave the word , which they punctually observed : we received the Indians [ sic ] fire : when I perceived they had almost all fired , I ordered my party to fire which we did not further than 12 steps each loaded with a bullet and seven buck shot , they had nothing to cover them as they were advancing either to tomahawk or make us prisoners : they found the fire very hot from so small a number which a good deal confused them ; I then ordered my party to retreat , as I found the instant our skirmish began another party had attacked the fort , upon our reinforcing the garrison the Indians were soon repulsed with I am sure a considerable loss , from what I myself saw as well as those I can confide in they could not have had less than 10 or 12 killed or wounded , and I believe they have taken six of my horses to carry off their wounded ... On my side I had 2 men wounded one of whom I am afraid will die as he is scalped , the other is in a way of recovery and one boy killed near the fort whom they durst not advance to scalp . I expected they would have paid me another visit last night , as they attack all fortifications by night , but they did not like their reception .
At around the same time as this attack occurred , Cherokee war parties attacked Fort Loudoun , Fort Prince George , and Ninety @-@ Six , South Carolina . After this wave , Cherokee war parties continued to threaten Bethabara in the Wachovia Tract , Salisbury , and other settlements in the Yadkin , Catawba , and Broad river basins . The engagement at Fort Dobbs and settlements in the North Carolina Piedmont led the government of North Carolina to join South Carolina and Virginia in their campaign against the Cherokee in their own settlements in North and South Carolina , known as the " Middle " and " Lower Towns " . Initially , though , Governor Dobbs notified Governor Lyttelton of South Carolina that the North Carolina militia would be unable to assist because it could not be compelled to leave the province . The following year , in 1761 , various delays hampered the movement of North Carolina troops . In the meantime , approximately 15 Cherokee towns of between 350 and 600 inhabitants were destroyed . The campaign against the Cherokees displaced approximately 5 @,@ 000 tribe members , and permanently pushed that tribe 's zone of control west , across the Appalachian Mountains .
= = = Post @-@ war history = = =
At the conclusion of the conflict between the French and the British , and after hostilities between the provincials and Cherokee ended with the rolling back of Cherokee boundaries in western North Carolina , the fort quickly became obsolete . On March 7 , 1764 , the North Carolina General Assembly 's Committee on Public Claims recommended to Governor Dobbs that stores and supplies be removed from the fort to spare the government further expense in upkeep . By 1766 , the fort was formally abandoned .
= = Site preservation and archaeology = =
Archaeological exploration of the site first occurred in 1847 , when a group of local residents attempted to locate a rumored original cannon on the site . Evidence of this dig was discovered in the 21st century in a later archaeological study . In 1909 , local residents established the Fort Dobbs Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution . That same year , the owners of the parcel of land on which the Fort Dobbs site was located donated 1 @,@ 000 square feet ( 93 m2 ) containing the fort 's remains to the Fort Dobbs Chapter . By 1910 , the Chapter erected a stone marker at the site , and in 1915 , it purchased the 10 acres of land surrounding the original donated parcel . In 1969 , the North Carolina General Assembly appropriated $ 15 @,@ 000 to purchase the property , to be matched by funds raised locally by the Iredell County Historical Society ; these purchases were made in 1971 and 1973 . By 1976 , the land was opened as a historic site .
By 2006 , archaeologists and historical researchers had determined the exact location of Fort Dobbs , and had located the post @-@ hole foundations of the former log structure . Excavation began in 1967 , and by 1968 , the site of the fort was confirmed . In 1967 , Stanley South , an archaeologist and proponent of processual archaeology , discovered that by overlaying a transparency depicting a survey of the Fort Dobbs site done in the mid @-@ 18th @-@ century on a modern aerial photograph , evidence of the surveyed lines could still be discerned in the modern terrain . Additionally , excavations revealed a moat that surrounded the blockouse , as well as trash in the moat contemporary with the fort . Early archaeological work concentrated specifically on the moat and a depression called the " cellar " , which South believed served as a storage space in the middle of the fort grounds , and which later researchers believe was directly underneath the blockhouse . Archaeological work has unearthed evidence of a palisade surrounding the blockhouse , in a similar fashion to other French and Indian War @-@ era forts such as Fort Shirley near Heath , Massachusetts , and Fort Prince George .
In 2006 , a researcher affiliated with East Carolina University , Lawrence Babits , presented a study and a reconstruction plan that has been accepted by the Friends of Fort Dobbs , the 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization that supports the site , and the North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources . In his plan , Babits postulated that Dobbs most likely played a role in designing the fort , basing the design on forts with which Dobbs had first @-@ hand experience as an administrator in Scotland , such as Bernera Barracks near Glenelg and Ruthven Barracks near Kingussie . From these comparisons , the contemporary description of the fort , and the soil record , Babits concluded that the " opposite angles " described by Francis Brown in 1756 actually referred to " flankers " , or square wooden structures attached to the corner of the fort that would have allowed defending soldiers to shoot into the flank of any attacking forces surrounding the building .
= = Historic site = =
The State of North Carolina maintains and operates the area as Fort Dobbs State Historic Site . The visitor center , located in a log cabin constructed from parts of local , 19th @-@ century log structures , features displays about both the colonial fort and the French and Indian War period . Outdoor trails lead visitors through the excavated ruins of the fort . Events , including many living history demonstrations , are held throughout the year at the fort . The Fort Dobbs site remains the only historic site in the state related to the French and Indian War .
Yearly attendance at the site is about 27 @,@ 000 people . As of 2013 , a campaign to renovate the site and restore much of Fort Dobbs is underway with the goal of raising $ 2 @.@ 6 million for the project . A grant of $ 150 @,@ 000 was given by the Institute of Museum and Library Services for the design of the project . In 2010 , the Friends of Fort Dobbs pledged $ 500 @,@ 000 to the North Carolina Historic Sites program for the reconstruction of the fort . On January 5 , 2013 , Governor Bev Perdue signed a lease on behalf of the State to the Friends organization , allowing the nonprofit group to hire a private contractor for the fort 's reconstruction .
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= Documentaly =
Documentaly ( stylized as DocumentaLy , Japanese pronunciation : [ dokjɯmentaɺi : ] ) is the fifth studio album by Japanese band Sakanaction , released on September 28 , 2011 . Written around a documentary theme , the band were inspired by personal and world events in 2011 to create material for the album .
The band decided to release three singles prior to the album , as a way to alleviate the pressure that the band felt to release new music after the success of their previous album Kikuuiki ( 2010 ) , and as a way to show the album 's development process . The first single " Identity " , a song originally written during that album 's recording sessions , was released three months after Kikuuiki . The band intended to release " Endless " as the album 's second single , however as they were not fully satisfied with the song , released " Rookie " in its place in March 2011 . Just prior to the single 's physical release , Japan experienced the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on March 11 , 2011 , which made Yamaguchi re @-@ evaluate the reasons why the band made music . Originally , the album 's documentary concept focused on themselves as a band , but the disaster prompted Yamaguchi to take inspiration from world events such as the earthquake . " Bach no Senritsu o Yoru ni Kiita Sei Desu " , released as the album 's third single in July , was written as therapy for Yamaguchi during this time .
The album was primarily created in the first half of 2011 . The band began work on the song " Endless " , and continued to develop it over the course of eight months , however due to Yamaguchi 's dissatisfaction with the piece . Most of the album 's remaining songs were recorded in breaks between the work on " Endless " . Yamaguchi spent much of this time writing lyrics that would express 2011 as a concept , and entrusted the album 's arrangement to the other band members . The album 's other tracks were ordered to complement " Endless " , and are generally ordered chronologically in the order each song was written . The song " Endless " was used as the main promotional track for the album , which was sent to radio stations and given a music video . The band toured the album from October to November with their Sakanaquarium 2011 tour , performing 15 dates at 13 venues in Japan .
The album was well received by critics in Japan , who praised the album 's blend of dance , rock and electronic genres , and felt that the documentary theme expressed the preciousness of music . The album was one of the 13 prize @-@ winning entries for the 2012 CD Shop Awards , and iTunes Japan 's iTunes Rewind 2011 awards named it the best album of the year . Commercially , the album was a success , reaching number two on Oricon 's albums chart , and being certified gold for 100 @,@ 000 physical copies shipped to stored by the Recording Industry Association of Japan .
= = Background and development = =
In March 2010 , Sakanaction released their fourth studio album , Kikuuiki . It was the band 's most commercially successful album up until that point , but Yamaguchi felt disappointed by the sales , expecting the album to sell over 100 @,@ 000 copies . Yamaguchi felt that the band 's sound on Kikuuiki was inaccessible to some pop listeners , leading to the album not selling well , but also felt the pressure from their new @-@ found audience to release more music . In order for the band to sell more and become more well known , Yamaguchi felt that Sakanaction should utilize new techniques to promote themselves , such as appearing more in media and on television . One of these techniques was to release three singles before the album ; something that he believed would show a story @-@ like development of Sakanaction 's album creation process , as well as alleviate the increased pressure he felt to release more Sakanaction music . At the Sakanaquarium 2010 Kikuuiki tour final on May 28 at Zepp Tokyo , the band performed a song entitled " Identity " for the first time during the concert 's encore , a song that had first been written early in the Kikuuiki recording sessions in 2009 , and recorded just after the band finished recording music for the album . On the same day , the song was announced as the band 's next single , released in August .
On October 8 , 2010 , the band performed their first concert at the Nippon Budokan , Sakanaquarium 21 @.@ 1 ( B ) , performing material from their first four albums , along with " Identity " . " Rookie " was written by Ichiro Yamaguchi after the band 's concert at the Nippon Budokan . Though the concert was an important milestone for the band , the actual concert felt like more of a ritual than a genuine milestone to Yamaguchi . This left Yamaguchi wondering what direction the band should take next , what Sakanaction 's place in the music scene was , and how the band was seen by others . Yamaguchi wanted to create a song that expressed the reasons that Sakanaction make music . The pre @-@ production process for recording " Rookie " began in January 2011 . Originally the band planned to release " Endless " as the second single from Documentaly , however Yamaguchi was not fully satisfied with the song and continued to work on it until August 2011 ; releasing " Rookie " in its place . The documentary theme for the album was fully conceptualized in January , during the " Rookie " and early " Endless " recording sessions , developed from Yamaguchi 's feelings of wanting to express himself more . On February 22 , 2011 , Sakanaction released a set of DVDs entitled Sakanaquarium 2010 . Coming in three different packages , Sakanaquarium 2010 ( B ) covered the band 's Nippon Budokan concert , while Sakanaquarium 2010 ( C ) was a recording of the final concert of the band 's Sakanaquarium 2010 Kikuuiki tour , recorded at Shinkiba Studio Coast on May 15 . The third package compiled both concerts and added a third DVD , Sakanaquarium 2010 ( D ) , featuring tour documentary and interview footage . The band found that the public 's response to Sakanaquarium 2010 ( D ) was so positive , that it strengthened their documentary @-@ themed album concept . Instead of merely adopting it as a theme , Sakanaction decided to record an actual documentary of the album 's creation process , on an additional visual media disc .
Just prior to " Rookie " ' s physical single release , Japan experienced the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on March 11 , 2011 . Sakanaction cancelled or rescheduled many of their planned radio appearances , deciding not to directly promote the single at the remaining appearances . During these , the band preferred to focus on sending messages of hope for the victims of the disaster . In April , Yamaguchi visited Kesennuma and Minamisanriku in Miyagi Prefecture to help with the emergency relief , without a media presence . Yamaguchi made the decision to go to Miyagi after watching television segments on celebrities visiting the disaster zone , and feeling that the segments were too focused on celebrity camera opportunities , and did not show the genuine realities of those affected by the earthquake .
The earthquake made Yamaguchi rethink his reasons why Sakanaction make music . The meaning of a documentary @-@ themed album changed after the earthquake , as the band felt as if they did not have a heavy album that reflected these events , then it could not truly be a documentary . Yamaguchi wrote the songs " Bach no Senritsu o Yoru ni Kiita Sei Desu " and " Years " directly after the earthquake , as therapy for himself . Realizing that rock bands were no longer a staple of Japanese charts in the early 2010s , Yamaguchi wanted to create a Sakanaction @-@ style pop song that would resonate with a general pop audience , one that listened to idol groups such as Girls ' Generation , TVXQ and AKB48 . As rock music was no longer so prominent in Japan , Yamaguchi felt that the reasons for people listening to music had changed over time , and wanted to mix rock music with entertainment @-@ focused music in order to give people music that they look for .
= = Writing and production = =
= = = Creation = = =
Though the early concept for the album was to show the band 's reality and development in a chronological order , the earthquake made the band re @-@ evaluate what they wanted to express with their documentary theme . Instead , the band decided to express what living in 2011 was like . Yamaguchi felt inspired to create music that when listened to strongly expressed the sentiments of a certain era , which he saw in the music of John Lennon , Bob Dylan and in Japanese singer Yōsui Inoue 's song " Kasa ga Nai " ( 1972 ) ; as a way for people in the future to be able to experience how people felt during the post @-@ earthquake era . In addition to the earthquake , Yamaguchi expressed other events that happened to him in 2011 through the albums 's lyrics , including the death of electronic musician Rei Harakami in July 2011 which affected him deeply , as well as a turbulent event in his love life .
When writing the album 's lyrics , Yamaguchi tried to express both the feelings that he had , and those that he saw were common in society in the early 2010s . He focused on questioning what the role of a musician was during this period ; and attempted to represent the idea of certain types of people existing in 2011 , making certain types of music . He believed that the true role of a musician had become strongly evident after the earthquake . The band also tried to express 2011 sonically , through the style of synths that pianist Emi Okazaki created for the songs .
The Documentaly album concept was created in January , after the song " Rookie " was written . " Endless " was first recorded after " Rookie " , however was left uncompleted because Yamaguchi was not satisfied with the song . Yamaguchi spent eight months writing the song , recording the other compositions for the album in between working on " Endless " . " Endless " became the most central song on the album for the band , with other songs arranged around " Endless " to complement it . The long writing process for " Endless " was frustrating for Yamaguchi , making him worried about if the documentary theme expressed itself well , and considered giving up on the theme .
As Yamaguchi spent much of his time focused on " Endless " , he entrusted most of the album 's arrangements to the other band members . This made Yamaguchi feel as if he was the director of the project , with drummer Keiichi Ejima leading the band as its captain during his absences as he focused on lyric writing . As Yamaguchi 's workload was lessened , he noticed that Sakanaction were working together more like a genuine band on Documentaly . In addition to the band members , Yamaguchi felt that Sakanaction had gained a solid core of peripheral staff that helped with the recording process , compared to their previous albums .
Documentaly was officially announced for release on August 1 , before the album had been entirely recorded . The band finished recording " Endless " on August 5 , on the morning before the band 's performance at the Rock in Japan Festival . Due to the song 's protracted creation process , finally being able to finish the composition gave the band a sense of the album finally being complete . After recording the final song " Monochrome Tokyo " , the album had finally finished being recorded in late August .
The band ordered the songs in a general chronological order for when each song was written , put into an order so that the listeners would understand Sakanaction as a band by the end of the album . When completed , Yamaguchi felt that Documentaly expressed what the band had come to understand while living in Tokyo . In contrast to Kikuuiki , which left him emotionally drained , he felt optimistic after completing Documentaly , feeling that he had a future in music . The Documentaly sessions led Yamaguchi to decide to live as a musician for a full @-@ time career .
= = = Song writing = = =
Reflective of the documentary theme , Yamaguchi saw the album expressing the ups and downs of regular days , more so than previous albums . Despite the inspiration taken from the heavy events of the earthquake , Yamaguchi felt that because the album featured three singles that were tailored to be heard by a wide audience , which pushed the album into a brighter sound .
The first song written for the album , " Identity " , was first written during the early demo sessions for Kikuuiki in 2009 , in the same period when the band were experimenting on the song " Aruku Around " to develop a signature song with a recognizable Sakanaction sound . It was recorded directly after the band finished work on Kikuuiki , and had lyrics inspired by the band 's song " Me ga Aku Aiiro " , as well as how people create identities for themselves in society . " Holy Dance " was recorded in June 2010 , inspired by Yamaguchi 's frustrations of unable to go fishing .
The songs " Monochrome Tokyo " and " Kamen no Machi " were written about Yamaguchi 's experiences of the chaos of living in Tokyo . " Monochrome Tokyo " was written in late 2010 , around the same time that they were writing " Rookie " . The song 's demo originally began with the lyric Okazaki no ie no kāten wa dasai ( 岡崎の家のカーテンはダサい , " The curtains in Okazaki 's house are old @-@ fashioned " ) as a joke , referencing the band 's video chat discussions .
" Ryūsen " was composed by Yamaguchi on the guitar , as a challenge to create a melody that would emphasize a song 's instrumental . Yamaguchi stressed dynamism during the writing process , choosing a non @-@ standard pop song structure for the piece . The song was recorded in a single live take . The audio from the take was then recorded onto a cassette tape and afterwards reconverted to digital sound , as a convention to add a deteriorated sound effect . " Ryūsen " and the instrumental track " Documentary " were arranged to complement " Endless " , the song present between the two . Seeing releasing music as an act of self @-@ expression , " Endless " was a song written by Yamaguchi to express his inner feelings as directly as possible . For this , Yamaguchi felt that he needed to develop new lyrical techniques to fully express his inner feelings , as these would not be expressed truly if he relied on techniques he had already developed . Eventually , he rewrote the song 74 times , creating a total of 78 different versions of the song lyrics . The instrumental piece " Documentary " , which Yamaguchi felt linked to " Endless " due to its synth elements , was primarily created by Ejima , who had been creating instrumental songs for the band 's albums as a way for him to learn about dance music . Yamaguchi saw the piece as more minimal than previous Sakanaction songs , and saw the song as a documentary of Ejima 's increased skills as a music arranger .
" Bach no Senritsu o Yoru ni Kiita Sei Desu " and " Years " were written together directly after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , as therapy for him after the earthquake . He wrote the songs as having a common theme spread across two works , hence featuring them on Documentaly in the same order as they had appeared on the " Bach no Senritsu o Yoru ni Kiita Sei Desu " single . " Bach no Senritsu o Yoru ni Kiita Sei Desu " is a song written focusing on everyday occurrences , while " Years " was focused on messages reacting to the " great anxiety " in society during the post @-@ earthquake time in Japan . The final track on the album , " Document " , was a song created to document the band 's song creation process . The entire song was written and arranged in a single day , and fully recorded the following day . The lyrics were ad @-@ libbed , a technique which Yamaguchi felt expressed a very personal side to himself , however made the lyrics more sarcastic and cynical than Sakanction 's other songs . The song features the first ever instance in a Sakanaction song where Yamaguchi used the word ai ( 愛 , " love " ) in his lyrics , something he sees as a natural response to seeing love as an everyday thing now .
= = = Title = = =
The album 's title was officially confirmed on August 21 . Originally the band planned on self @-@ titling the album Sakanaction , as a reflection of the original theme of a documentary depicting themselves . The album was re @-@ titled after the events of the earthquake , when the band felt that the event forced them to refocus the documentary theme around all of the events of 2011 , instead of just themselves . The new title for the album , DocumentaLy [ sic ] , is a pun on the words documentary and mental , with the letter ' l ' capitalized . Yamaguchi , the creator of the title , felt that the title expressed the idea of bands living and making music in 2011 , and saw the letters " r " and " l " as two letters that join together the word " real " . The title is a recurring motif in the song titles of the album , including the instrumental track " DocumentaRy " ( sic . ) , and the begging instrumental track " RL " , which features both of the capitalised letters .
= = Promotion and release = =
= = = Album promotion = = =
The band released the song " Bach no Senritsu o Yoru ni Kiita Sei Desu " as a single in July , two and a half months before the album 's release . It was commercially successful , becoming certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for digital downloads , and reaching number four on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 chart . The song 's music video , featuring a distinctive dance where Yamaguchi was laterally attached to four mannequins was well received in Japan , later winning the Best Video of the Year award at the 2012 Space Shower Music Video Awards . The band were featured in the September edition of Musica magazine , released on August 12 , in a featured piece detailing the album 's recording process .
The song " Endless " was used as the main promotional track for the album , and made its radio debut on August 31 . In the week after Documentaly 's release the song was the fourth most played song on Japanese radio for the week , making the song reach number eight on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 . The song 's music video , co @-@ directed by Takumi Shiga and the band 's long @-@ time creative consultant Hisashi " Momo " Kitazawa , was unveiled on YouTube on the day of the album 's release .
Documentaly was released on September 28 in three editions : a standard edition , a limited edition version featuring a 52 @-@ page special booklet and a bonus track , " Holy Dance ( Like a Live Mix ) " , and a more expensive limited edition version featuring a DVD , on top of all of the additions on the other limited edition version . The DVD featured Documentaly Documentary , a 27 @-@ minute documentary focused on the recording process of " Endless " and " Document " .
On December 14 , Sakanaction released Sakanarchive : 2007 @-@ 2011 : Sakanaction Music Video @-@ shū , a DVD compiling the band 's music videos since their debut in 2007 , including all of the music videos released for songs from Documentaly . The collection featured a new music video for the Documentaly track " Document " , which the band were inspired to make due to the documentary footage included on Documentaly 's visual media disc , showcasing the recording of " Document " . The video , depicting a female stalker in Yamaguchi 's home played by singer @-@ songwriter Kanae Hoshiba , was recorded in Yamaguchi 's own home on November 6 , after the band finished their concert at the Makuhari Messe in Chiba .
In May 2012 , " Monochrome Tokyo " was featured on Tokyo Compi : Aoban , an album compiling songs thematically linked to Tokyo .
= = = = Performances and events = = = =
In June , prior to the release of the single " Bach no Senritsu o Yoru ni Kiita Sei Desu " , the band performed a six date tour of Japan 's Zepp music halls , Sakanaquarium 2011 : Zepp Alive . Before the album 's release , the band performed at several of the major Japanese summer music festivals : the Rock in Japan Festival on August 5 , World Happiness on August 7 , the Rising Sun Rock Festival on August 13 and at Space Shower Love Shower on August 21 . On September 8 , 2011 , Yamaguchi threw the ceremonial first pitch for the baseball match between the Yomiuri Giants and Chunichi Dragons . Musica organised a listening party for the album , held at Liquidroom Ebisu in Tokyo on September 23 . The band toured the album from October to November with their Sakanaquarium 2011 tour , performing 15 dates at 13 venues in Japan , including the Zepp music halls and the Makuhari Messe convention center in Chiba .
Actor and singer Gen Hoshino held an event with Yamaguchi on December 15 to celebrate the release of both Documentaly and Hoshino 's album Episode . The event was held at Tower Records Shibuya . On February 24 , 2012 , the band performed an overseas concert in Taipei , Taiwan . Both events were simultaneously broadcast on Ustream .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The album was well received by music critics in Japan . Yuya Shimizu of Rolling Stone Japan gave the album four out of five stars , praising how the album blended DFA Records @-@ style dance rock and minimal techno with their Japanese pop sensibilities , and also noting Yamaguchi 's oddness and lyrical sense . Kenta Eizumi of Vibe felt that Sakanaction expressed a strong sense of crisis happening in the contemporary Japanese music business on the album . By creating an album themed around documentaries , and giving the listener a chance to understand the entire creation process , Eizumi felt that Documentaly expressed the preciousness of music more so than other musical works . Looking at the album 's central track " Endless " , Shimizu felt that the song was an ambitious " compilation @-@ like work " , likening it to electronic musician Rei Harakami . CDJournal reviewers praised the " calm piano intro " that transitioned from the album 's previous song " Ryūsen " , and how the song progressed into " a Sakanaction @-@ like electro and rock fusion sound " . They praised Yamaguchi 's lyrics , feeling they were " symbolic " and " like two recursive mirrors " .
Naohisa Matsunaga of Excite felt that the album showed " the unfolding of a peculiarly intelligent and pop world " , noting the album 's " profound " band sound that adopted danceable electronic elements , as well as the " catchy and thrilling " sound progression . CDJournal called the album a " must listen disc " , praising the increased skill of the " literary world " of Yamaguchi 's lyrics , and the album 's " fantasy @-@ like nostalgia " . They described " Monochrome Tokyo " as an " impressive rock number created by synthesizer and bass guitar riffs " , praising the band 's skill at removing musical elements as well as Yamaguchi 's " emotionally sung " and " sexy " vocals . For " Antares to Hari " , the reviewers felt that a " stylish jazz funk aroma " was created by a " relaxed " bass line and guitar cutting , and praised the light atmosphere created by the deep synths , while " Ryūsen " ' s " comfortable " acoustic guitar " paints a dramatic and grand scene . " They felt that the song managed to develop and increase in " temperature " without becoming noisy , and pointed to this as well as the " abstract " lyric " ryūsen , arata ni ryūsen " ( 流線 新たに流線 , " streamline , a new streamline " ) as creating a " mysterious atmosphere " . The reviewers likened " Kamen to Machi " to Japanese electronic band Yellow Magic Orchestra , and felt a sense of tension created by Yamaguchi 's fast @-@ tempo vocals and the changing background instrumental . They believed that the album 's closing song " Document " was a condensation of the album 's taste , and that the final lyric " ai no uta utatte mo ii kana tte omoihajimeteru " ( 愛の歌 歌ってもいいかなって想い始めてる , " I 'm starting to think that it 's okay to sing love songs " ) set to a " relaxed and hopeful sound " had a powerfully lingering impression .
Reviewing the first single " Identity " , CDJournal reviewers gave the single their star of approval , calling it the " highest [ level of ] pop music " and a future anthem for Sakanaction . They praised the " radical but considered electro sound " and the " danceable " four on the floor beat . They praised Yamaguchi 's " unique " lyrical sense , as well as Yamaguchi 's vocals at the start of the chorus as he sung the word dōshite , feeling it was " intense " . Sumire Hanatsuka of Skream ! felt that that the song blended a Latin rhythm with the " spirits of a Japanese festival " . For the song 's B @-@ side , featured as a bonus track on the album , reviewer Yuichi Hirayama described the song as " an electro tune demanding an escape from anguish " , feeling that it had all of the " power " of " Identity " and the other band 's singles . Reviewing the " Like a Live " remix found as the bonus track on Documentaly , CDJournal reviewers praised the song 's " rhyme @-@ like wordplay and exhilarating sound " .
Critics praised the second single " Rookie " for its new style , not seen in previous Sakanaction works . The third single , " Bach no Senritsu o Yoru ni Kiita Sei Desu " , was praised for its " ecstatic beat " and " elegant piano " , and " smart dance music " sense . Dai Onojima of Rockin ' On Japan felt the song felt simple compared to the busy arrangement of " Rookie " , and that it was one of the band 's songs most strongly structured as a pop song . Reviewing the single 's B @-@ side " Years " , CDJournal felt that it was an " ambient @-@ taste electro song that develops through its triple metre , " and praised Yamaguchi 's lyrics as " hopeful " and " poignant " .
The album was one of thirteen prize @-@ winning entries in the 2012 CD Shop Awards , an award chosen by music store staff across Japan , however the band lost the grand award to idol group Momoiro Clover Z 's debut album Battle and Romance. iTunes Japan awarded Documentaly the best album of the year award at their annual iTunes Rewind 2011 awards , chosen from among the 100 most commercially successful albums on the platform .
= = = Commercial reception = = =
The album debuted at number two on Japan 's Oricon albums chart underneath South Korean boyband TVXQ 's Tone , selling 46 @,@ 000 copies . Rival sales tracking agency SoundScan Japan found that the majority of copies sold in the first week were of the limited CD / DVD edition of the album , which accounted for 40 @,@ 000 of the sold copies . The limited CD @-@ only edition of the album accounted for 6 @,@ 000 copies , while the standard edition did not sell enough copies to chart in the top 20 albums released that week . In its first month , the album was certified by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for over 100 @,@ 000 copies of the album shipped to music stores across Japan . The album spent an additional five weeks in the top fifty , and continued to chart in the top 300 until February 2012 . The album re @-@ entered the top 300 from April to October 2012 , and for a third chart @-@ run from January to May 2013 . In January 2014 , the album re @-@ entered the top 300 for a single week , bringing the total weeks on the chart to 62 . In the album 's chart run , it managed to sell a total of 103 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Ichiro Yamaguchi .
= = Personnel = =
Personnel details were sourced from Documentaly 's liner notes booklet .
Sakanaction
Personnel and imagery
= = Charts = =
= = = Sales and certifications = = =
= = Release history = =
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= 1935 Jérémie hurricane =
The 1935 Jérémie hurricane was a highly destructive tropical cyclone that impacted the Greater Antilles and Honduras in October 1935 , killing well over 2 @,@ 000 people . Developing on October 18 over the southwestern Caribbean Sea , the storm proceeded to strike eastern Jamaica and southeastern Cuba while overwhelming southwestern Haiti in a deluge of rain . The hurricane — a Category 1 at its peak — completed an unusual reversal of its path on October 23 , heading southwestward toward Central America . Weakened by its interaction with Cuba , the storm soon regained strength and made its final landfall near Cabo Gracias a Dios in Honduras on October 25 . The cyclone weakened upon moving inland and dissipated two days later .
Flooding and landslides in Jamaica took their toll on property , agricultural interests , and infrastructure ; fruit growers on the island sustained about $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 1935 USD ) in losses . Just off the coast , an unidentified vessel went down with her entire crew in the hostile conditions . Strong winds buffeted coastal sections of Cuba , notably in and around Santiago de Cuba . There , the hurricane demolished 100 homes and filled streets with debris . Only four people died in the country , thanks to the extensive pre @-@ storm preparations . The storm did the most damage along the Tiburon Peninsula of southwestern Haiti , where catastrophic river flooding took the lives of up to 2 @,@ 000 individuals , razed hundreds of native houses , and destroyed crops and livestock . The heaviest destruction took place around the towns of Jacmel and Jérémie ; one early report estimated that 1 @,@ 500 had been killed at the latter . Entire swaths of countryside were isolated for days , delaying both reconnaissance and relief efforts .
The hurricane later created devastating floods in Central America , chiefly in Honduras . Reported at the time to be the worst flood in the nation 's history , the disaster decimated banana plantations and population centers after rivers flowed up to 50 ft ( 15 m ) above normal . Torrents of floodwaters trapped hundreds of citizens in trees , on rooftops , and on remote high ground , requiring emergency rescue . The storm left thousands homeless and around 150 dead in the country , while monetary losses totaled $ 12 million . Flooding and strong winds reached into northeastern Nicaragua , though damage was much less widespread than in neighboring Honduras .
= = Meteorological history = =
The hurricane originated over the southwestern Caribbean Sea , where , on October 17 , a broad and immature low pressure system was noted . The hurricane forecast center in Jacksonville , Florida issued its first advisory on the storm late on October 20 , following ship reports of winds approaching and exceeding gale @-@ force . Contemporary reanalyses of the storm have determined that it organized into a tropical depression on October 18 , then drifted toward the east , turning north @-@ northeastward as it strengthened into a tropical storm early the next day . Due to low environmental air pressures and the large size of the cyclone , intensification was gradual as the storm approached Jamaica , eventually making landfall on the eastern side of the island , just west of the Morant Point Lighthouse , at 13 : 00 UTC on October 21 . The system came ashore with a central pressure of 995 hPa ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) , suggesting maximum winds of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) . After emerging into the waters between Jamaica and Cuba , the storm slowed in forward speed , continued to intensify , and curved northwestward toward southeastern Cuba . The storm attained the equivalent of Category 1 hurricane status on the current @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale early on October 22 , while meandering just off the coast of Cuba .
At around 18 : 00 UTC on October 22 , the hurricane made landfall near Santiago de Cuba at its initial peak intensity , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . It started weakening early the next day after encountering the Sierra Maestra mountain range and moving southwestward , away from the coast . Steered by persistent high @-@ pressure ridging over the eastern United States and western Atlantic , the cyclone would maintain this highly unusual path for the remainder of its duration in open waters . It brushed Cuba 's Cape Cruz and deteriorated to a tropical storm before passing relatively close to the western tip of Jamaica . On the morning of October 24 , the barometer aboard a ship in the storm 's eye fell to 988 hPa ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) , its lowest recorded pressure . The ship measured winds outside of the lull only up to 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) , but the storm was reintensifying , and once again achieved hurricane strength later in the day . It matched its previous peak intensity at 12 : 00 UTC on October 25 as it approached Cabo Gracias a Dios on the border of Honduras and Nicaragua . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane crossed the Honduran coast for its final landfall . The mountainous terrain of Central America worked to diminish the storm , which curved westward and steadily lost force , though observation of its decay was minimal . The cyclone likely dissipated on October 27 over Guatemala .
= = Impact = =
The hurricane affected several nations along its unusual path , killing an estimated 2 @,@ 150 people .
= = = Jamaica = = =
Parts of eastern Jamaica began to experience strong northeasterly winds early on October 20 , and the parishes of Saint Thomas , Portland , and Saint Mary ultimately bore the brunt of the storm . Heavy rainfall swelled rivers and triggered landslides ; the ensuing floods destroyed bridges , inundated many homes , and necessitated the rescue of trapped individuals . With telegraph communications cut to the hardest @-@ hit areas and roads left impassable , the degree of destruction was initially uncertain , though it was described as " extensive " . The storm took a heavy toll on agriculture ( already compromised from the effects of another hurricane less than a month earlier ) , with banana plantations in particular sustaining heavy damage . Losses to fruit crops in the nation totaled an estimated $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 .
The storm reportedly killed three people on the island . An unidentified schooner capsized off Port Antonio with all hands lost , in spite of efforts to rescue the imperiled crew . One modern source recounts that the crew numbered 31 , but this figure was not widely reported . The USS Houston , underway with President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt , averted its course after encountering adverse conditions .
= = = Cuba and Haiti = = =
In advance of the hurricane 's landfall in Cuba , businesses were closed . Railways worked to secure non @-@ essential trains , and residents of vulnerable coastal towns , including Caimanera , fled their homes in search of safer ground . The hurricane subjected eastern parts of the island to intense gales , measured at over 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) at Santiago de Cuba before the anemometer failed . The northern coast of the island around Nipe Bay also endured strong winds as high as 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) . Winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) were recorded at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base , though the effects there were generally light . Closer to the hurricane 's center , in Santiago de Cuba , about 100 homes sustained complete structural failures . The prolonged nature of the storm hampered search and rescue efforts amid the rubble . Winds strew debris around the city , blocking its streets . A hospital and a power plant both suffered roof failure . Electricity in Santiago de Cuba was preemptively turned off as conditions worsened , contributing to regional power outages .
Significant flooding occurred after the Cauto River overflowed it banks , making driving impossible . The storm severed communications between towns in eastern Cuba after bringing down telephone and telegraph wires . Apart from seven structures ruined in the Guantánamo area , there was less destruction in many locations than initially feared . There were reports of three fatalities in Caimanera , and one person died in Santiago de Cuba . At least 29 individuals were treated for storm @-@ related injuries . Damage assessments in the immediate aftermath of the storm placed monetary damages in Cuba at $ 500 @,@ 000 . In the aftermath , a public curfew was issued for Santiago de Cuba , forcing residents to remain indoors after 8 pm . To prevent looting , troops patrolled streets and vulnerable locations , such as banks . Supplies of bread and milk ran short following the hurricane .
The greatest disaster occurred in southern Haiti , where as many as 2 @,@ 000 people died , possibly more . The towns of Jacmel and Jérémie — both on the Tiburon Peninsula — were devastated by catastrophic freshwater flooding after days of torrential rains . The entire peninsula , already remote in its own right , was isolated for a time , ensuring only scant detail of the disaster reached the outside world . Information was initially relayed to the capital city of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince by a single aircraft .
The hurricane crippled infrastructure , blocking roads throughout the area and destroying a hydroelectricity plant in Jacmel . The town was left without power and drinking water . In Jérémie , the flooding was so severe as to sweep away a large metal bridge . Hundreds of poorly constructed native houses were destroyed on the Tiburon Peninsula , leaving thousands of survivors without homes . Property damage in Haiti amounted to over $ 1 million . Meanwhile , thousands of livestock were killed and crops were completely destroyed , prompting fears of impending famine .
Several days after the storm , the bodies of drowning victims had been recovered by the hundreds , and it was suspected many of the deceased had been washed into the sea . One preliminary estimate placed the number of dead in the Jérémie area alone at 1 @,@ 500 , suggesting the worst of the tragedy occurred there . Indeed , some modern sources have unofficially referred to the storm as Hurricane Jérémie . The Haitian government worked to bring emergency supplies and relief workers , at least partially by way of ship , to the flood @-@ stricken region . As little was known about the extent of losses , officials rushed to restore communications with the disaster area .
= = = Central America = = =
After clearing the Greater Antilles , the hurricane ravaged parts of Honduras . Banana plantations suffered extensively , causing the United Fruit Company about $ 6 million in losses . As in Haiti , the hardest hit areas of Honduras were cut off from the nation 's capital of Tegucigalpa . Severe river flooding wrought widespread destruction , especially around La Ceiba and throughout the Cortés Department . Many towns were inundated by up to 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of water . According to one source , the Ulúa River " officially " rose some 50 ft ( 15 m ) from its normal height near Chamelecón , where the flood left 800 families homeless . Many hundreds of individuals were stranded by raging flood waters in the Cortés region , clutching to trees and rooftops as they awaited uncertain rescue . Even after rescue boats brought many residents of Chamelecón to safety , a third of the population remain trapped .
The rampant Cangrejal River reportedly obliterated an entire suburban community further east , near La Ceiba , while the Aguán River burst its banks at Trujillo and killed numerous plantation workers . By October 29 , the bodies of 70 flood victims had been recovered at Corocito in Colón . Torrential rains extended into Tegucigalpa , causing urban flooding . Just to the northeast , in San Juancito , a large landslide took the lives of at least three people . Overall , the hurricane inflicted about $ 12 million in damage across Honduras ( including the agricultural impacts ) , resulted in about 150 deaths , and destroyed the homes of thousands of residents . The floods were considered to be among the worst in the country 's history . Almost immediately after the passage of the storm , a wide area of Honduras experienced strong earthquake activity .
Damaging , but less expansive , floods also occurred in parts of extreme northeastern Nicaragua around the Mosquito Coast . The Coco River , which constitutes a large portion of the Honduras – Nicaragua border , swelled 40 ft ( 12 m ) as observed about 140 mi ( 230 km ) upstream of its mouth . Banana farms were heavily damaged around Cabo Gracias a Dios , occupied by both nations , and according to early reports in that area , all but a handful of dwellings were destroyed . In spite of the flooding and hurricane @-@ force winds , timely warnings prevented fatalities locally .
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= Ununennium =
Ununennium , also known as eka @-@ francium or simply element 119 , is the hypothetical chemical element with atomic number 119 and symbol Uue . Ununennium and Uue are the temporary systematic IUPAC name and symbol , until a permanent name is decided upon . In the periodic table of the elements , it is expected to be an s @-@ block element , an alkali metal , and the first element in the eighth period .
Ununennium is the element with the lowest atomic number that has not yet been synthesized . Multiple attempts have been made by American , German , and Russian teams to synthesize this element : they have all been unsuccessful , as experimental evidence has shown that the synthesis of ununennium will likely be far more difficult than that of the previous elements , and may even be the penultimate element that can be synthesized with current technology . Its position as the seventh alkali metal suggests that it would have similar properties to its lighter congeners , lithium , sodium , potassium , rubidium , caesium , and francium ; however , relativistic effects may cause some of its properties to differ from those expected from a straight application of periodic trends . For example , ununennium is expected to be less reactive than caesium and francium and to be closer in behavior to potassium or rubidium , and while it should show the characteristic + 1 oxidation state of the alkali metals , it is also predicted to show the + 3 oxidation state unknown in any other alkali metal .
= = History = =
Superheavy elements are produced by nuclear fusion . These fusion reactions can be divided into " hot " and " cold " fusion , depending on the excitation energy of the compound nucleus produced . In hot fusion reactions , very light , high @-@ energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets ( actinides ) , giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy ( ~ 40 – 50 MeV ) that may fission , or alternatively evaporate several ( 3 to 5 ) neutrons . In cold fusion reactions ( which use heavier projectiles , typically from the fourth period , and lighter targets , usually lead and bismuth ) , the fused nuclei produced have a relatively low excitation energy ( ~ 10 – 20 MeV ) , which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions . As the fused nuclei cool to the ground state , they require emission of only one or two neutrons . However , hot fusion reactions tend to produce more neutron @-@ rich products because the actinides have the highest neutron @-@ to @-@ proton ratios of any elements that can presently be made in macroscopic quantities .
Ununennium and unbinilium ( elements 119 and 120 ) are the lightest elements that have not yet been synthesized , and attempts to synthesize them would push the limits of current technology , due to the decreasing cross sections of the production reactions and their probably short half @-@ lives , expected to be on the order of microseconds . Heavier elements would likely be too short @-@ lived to be detected with current technology : they would decay within a microsecond , before reaching the detectors . Previously , important help ( characterized as " silver bullets " ) in the synthesis of superheavy elements came from the deformed nuclear shells around hassium @-@ 270 which increased the stability of surrounding nuclei , and the existence of the quasi @-@ stable neutron @-@ rich isotope calcium @-@ 48 which could be used as a projectile to produce more neutron @-@ rich isotopes of superheavy elements . The more neutron @-@ rich a superheavy nuclide is , the closer it is expected to be to the sought @-@ after island of stability . Even so , the synthesized isotopes still have fewer neutrons than those expected to be in the island of stability . Furthermore , using calcium @-@ 48 to synthesize ununennium would require a target of einsteinium @-@ 253 or -254 , which is very difficult to produce in sufficiently large quantities . More practical production of further superheavy elements would require projectiles heavier than 48Ca .
= = = Synthesis attempts = = =
The synthesis of ununennium was first attempted in 1985 by bombarding a target of einsteinium @-@ 254 with calcium @-@ 48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at Berkeley , California :
254
99Es + 48
20Ca → 302
119Uue * → no atoms
No atoms were identified , leading to a limiting cross section of 300 nb . Later calculations suggest that the cross section of the 3n reaction ( which would result in 299Uue and three neutrons as products ) would actually be six hundred thousand times lower than this upper bound , at 0 @.@ 5 pb .
As ununennium is the lightest undiscovered element , it has been the target of synthesis experiments by both German and Russian teams in recent years . The Russian experiments were conducted in 2011 , and no results were released , strongly implying that no ununennium atoms were identified . From April to September 2012 , an attempt to synthesize the isotopes 295Uue and 296Uue was made by bombarding a target of berkelium @-@ 249 with titanium @-@ 50 at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt , Germany . Based on the theoretically predicted cross @-@ section , it was expected that an ununennium atom would be synthesized within five months of the beginning of the experiment .
249
97Bk + 50
22Ti → 299
119Uue * → 296
119Uue + 3 1
0n
249
97Bk + 50
22Ti → 299
119Uue * → 295
119Uue + 4 1
0n
The experiment was originally planned to continue to November 2012 , but was stopped early to make use of the 249Bk target to confirm the synthesis of ununseptium ( thus changing the projectiles to 48Ca ) . This reaction between 249Bk and 50Ti was predicted to be the most favorable practical reaction for formation of ununennium , as it is rather asymmetrical , though also somewhat cold . ( The reaction between 254Es and 48Ca would be superior , but preparing milligram quantities of 254Es for a target is difficult . ) Nevertheless , the necessary change from the " silver bullet " 48Ca to 50Ti divides the expected yield of ununennium by about twenty , as the yield is strongly dependent on the asymmetry of the fusion reaction .
Due to the predicted short half @-@ lives , the GSI team used new " fast " electronics capable of registering decay events within microseconds . No ununennium atoms were identified , implying a limiting cross @-@ section of 70 fb . The predicted actual cross @-@ section is around 40 fb , which is at the limits of current technology .
= = = Naming = = =
Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , ununennium should be known as eka @-@ francium . Using the 1979 IUPAC recommendations , the element should be temporarily called ununennium ( symbol Uue ) until it is discovered , the discovery is confirmed , and a permanent name chosen . Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels , from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks , the recommendations are mostly ignored among scientists who work theoretically or experimentally on superheavy elements , who call it " element 119 " , with the symbol ( 119 ) or 119 .
= = Predicted properties = =
= = = Nuclear stability and isotopes = = =
The stability of nuclei decreases greatly with the increase in atomic number after curium , element 96 , whose half @-@ life is four orders of magnitude longer than that of any currently known higher @-@ numbered element . All isotopes with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half @-@ lives of less than 30 hours . No elements with atomic numbers above 82 ( after lead ) have stable isotopes . Nevertheless , because of reasons not yet well understood , there is a slight increase of nuclear stability around atomic numbers 110 – 114 , which leads to the appearance of what is known in nuclear physics as the " island of stability " . This concept , proposed by University of California professor Glenn Seaborg , explains why superheavy elements last longer than predicted .
The alpha @-@ decay half @-@ lives predicted for 291 – 307Uue are on the order of microseconds . The longest alpha @-@ decay half @-@ life predicted is ~ 485 microseconds for the isotope 294Uue . When factoring in all decay modes , the predicted half @-@ lives drop further to only tens of microseconds . This has consequences for the synthesis of ununennium , as isotopes with half @-@ lives below one microsecond would decay before reaching the detector . Nevertheless , new theoretical models show that the expected gap in energy between the proton orbitals 2f7 / 2 ( filled at element 114 ) and 2f5 / 2 ( filled at element 120 ) is smaller than expected , so that element 114 no longer appears to be a stable spherical closed nuclear shell , and this energy gap may increase the stability of elements 119 and 120 . The next doubly magic nucleus is now expected to be around the spherical 306Ubb ( element 122 ) , but the expected low half @-@ life and low production cross section of this nuclide makes its synthesis challenging .
= = = Atomic and physical = = =
Being the first period 8 element , ununennium is predicted to be an alkali metal , below lithium , sodium , potassium , rubidium , caesium , and francium . Each of these elements has one valence electron in the outermost s @-@ orbital ( valence electron configuration ns1 ) , which is easily lost in chemical reactions to form the + 1 oxidation state : thus the alkali metals are very reactive elements . Ununennium is predicted to continue the trend and have a valence electron configuration of 8s1 . It is therefore expected to behave much like its lighter congeners ; however , it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkali metals in some properties .
The main reason for the predicted differences between ununennium and the other alkali metals is the spin – orbit ( SO ) interaction — the mutual interaction between the electrons ' motion and spin . The SO interaction is especially strong for the superheavy elements because their electrons move faster — at velocities comparable to the speed of light — than those in lighter atoms . In ununennium atoms , it lowers the 7p and 8s electron energy levels , stabilizing the corresponding electrons , but two of the 7p electron energy levels are more stabilized than the other four . The effect is called subshell splitting , as it splits the 7p subshell into more @-@ stabilized and the less @-@ stabilized parts . Computational chemists understand the split as a change of the second ( azimuthal ) quantum number l from 1 to 1 / 2 and 3 / 2 for the more @-@ stabilized and less @-@ stabilized parts of the 7p subshell , respectively . Thus , the outer 8s electron of ununennium is stabilized and becomes harder to remove than expected , while the 7p3 / 2 electrons are correspondingly destabilized , perhaps allowing them to participate in chemical reactions . This stabilization of the outermost s @-@ orbital ( already significant in francium ) is the key factor affecting ununennium 's chemistry , and causes all the trends for atomic and molecular properties of alkali metals to reverse direction after caesium .
Due to the stabilization of its outer 8s electron , ununennium 's first ionization energy — the energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom — is predicted to be 4 @.@ 53 eV , higher than those of the known alkali metals from potassium onward . This effect is so large that unbiunium ( element 121 ) is predicted to have a lower ionization energy of 4 @.@ 45 eV , so that the alkali metal in period 8 would not have the lowest ionization energy in the period , as is true for all previous periods . Ununennium 's electron affinity is expected to be far greater than that of caesium and francium ; indeed , ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it . Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the polarizability of ununennium , to 169 @.@ 7 a.u. Indeed , the static dipole polarisability ( αD ) of ununennium , a quantity for which the impacts of relativity are proportional to the square of the element 's atomic number , has been calculated to be small and similar to that of sodium .
The electron of the hydrogen @-@ like ununennium atom — oxidized so it has only one electron , Uue118 + — is predicted to move so quickly that its mass is 1 @.@ 99 times that of a non @-@ moving electron , a feature coming from the relativistic effects . For comparison , the figure for hydrogen @-@ like francium is 1 @.@ 29 and the figure for hydrogen @-@ like caesium is 1 @.@ 091 . According to simple extrapolations of relativity laws , that indirectly indicates the contraction of the atomic radius to around 240 pm , very close to that of rubidium ( 247 pm ) ; the metallic radius is also correspondingly lowered to 260 pm . The ionic radius of Uue + is expected to be 180 pm .
Ununennium is predicted to have a melting point between 0 ° C and 30 ° C : thus it may be a liquid at room temperature . It is not known whether this continues the trend of decreasing melting points down the group , as francium 's melting point is known so poorly , having been variously been stated to be around 23 ° C or 27 ° C , with both values very close to the caesium value ( 28 @.@ 5 ° C ) , possibly due to the extreme heat generated by francium 's radioactive decay . The boiling point of ununennium is expected to be around 630 ° C , which is lower than that of all the previous elements in the group , following the downward periodic trend . The density of ununennium has been variously predicted to be between 3 and 4 g · cm − 3 , continuing the trend of increasing density down the group , using the predicted value for francium between 2 @.@ 8 and 3 @.@ 0 g · cm − 3 .
= = = Chemical = = =
The chemistry of ununennium is predicted to be similar to that of the alkali metals , but it would probably behave more like potassium or rubidium than caesium or francium . This is unusual as periodic trends , ignoring relativistic effects , would predict ununennium to be even more reactive than caesium and francium . This lowered reactivity is due to the relativistic stabilization of ununennium 's valence electron , increasing ununennium 's first ionization energy and decreasing the metallic and ionic radii ; this effect is already seen for francium. the chemistry of ununennium in the + 1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium . On the other hand , the ionic radius of the Uue + ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb + , because the 7p orbitals are destabilized and are thus larger than the p @-@ orbitals of the lower shells . Ununennium may also show the + 3 oxidation state , which is not seen in any other alkali metal , in addition to the + 1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals : this is because of the destabilization and expansion of the 7p3 / 2 spinor , causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionization energy than what would otherwise be expected . Many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large covalent character , due to the involvement of the 7p3 / 2 electrons in the bonding : this effect is also seen to a lesser extent in francium , which shows some 6p3 / 2 contribution to the bonding in francium superoxide ( FrO2 ) . Thus , instead of ununennium being the most electropositive element , as a simple extrapolation would seem to indicate , caesium instead retains this position , with ununennium 's electronegativity most likely being close to sodium 's ( 0 @.@ 93 on the Pauling scale ) .
In the gas phase , and at very low temperatures in the condensed phase , the alkali metals form covalently bonded diatomic molecules . The metal – metal bond lengths in these M2 molecules increase down the group from Li2 to Cs2 , but then decrease after that to Uue2 , due to the aforementioned relativistic effects that stabilize the 8s orbital . The opposite trend is shown for the metal – metal bond @-@ dissociation energies . The Uue – Uue bond should be slightly stronger than the K – K bond . From these M2 dissociation energies , the enthalpy of sublimation ( ΔHsub ) of ununennium is predicted to be 94 kJ · mol − 1 ( the value for francium should be around 77 kJ · mol − 1 ) .
The Uue – Au bond should be the weakest of all bonds between gold and an alkali metal , but should still be stable . This gives extrapolated medium @-@ sized adsorption enthalpies ( − ΔHads ) of 106 kJ · mol − 1 on gold ( the francium value should be 136 kJ · mol − 1 ) , 76 kJ · mol − 1 on platinum , and 63 kJ · mol − 1 on silver , the smallest of all the alkali metals , that demonstrate that it would be feasible to study the chromatographic adsorption of ununennium onto surfaces made of noble metals . The enthalpy of adsorption of ununennium on a Teflon surface is predicted to be 17 @.@ 6 kJ · mol − 1 , which would be the lowest among the alkali metals : this information would be very useful for future chemistry experiments on ununennium . The ΔHsub and − ΔHads values are not proportionally related for the alkali metals , as they change in opposite directions as atomic number increases .
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= Brushstrokes series =
Brushstrokes series is the name for a series of paintings produced in 1965 – 66 by Roy Lichtenstein . It also refers to derivative sculptural representations of these paintings that were first made in the 1980s . In the series , the theme is art as a subject , but rather than reproduce masterpieces as he had starting in 1962 , Lichtenstein depicted the gestural expressions of the painting brushstroke itself . The works in this series are linked to those produced by artists who use the gestural painting style of abstract expressionism made famous by Jackson Pollock , but differ from them due to their mechanically produced appearance . The series is considered a satire or parody of gestural painting by both Lichtenstein and his critics . After 1966 , Lichtenstein incorporated this series into later motifs and themes of his work .
= = Background = =
In the early 1960s , Lichtenstein reproduced masterpieces by Cézanne , Mondrian and Picasso before embarking on the Brushstroke series in 1965 . The Brushstrokes were contemporaneous with abstract painting that no longer emphasized the gestural aspect , with non @-@ demonstrative modes carrying the day . Lichtenstein was identified with some such modes by critics and found himself linked to both Frank Stella and Kenneth Noland . Brushstrokes was the first element of the Brushstrokes series .
Prior to producing his first Brushstroke work , Lichtenstein spun his upcoming work as a satire of Abstract Expressionism . He stated that he intended to draw drips of paint and depictions of brush strokes . Years after the series was completed , Lichtenstein claimed the source for the series was Renaissance artist Frans Hals , a painterly artist whose brushstrokes descended from hallowed examples of European art as an inspiration to abstract expressionism .
According to the Lichtenstein Foundation 's website , he began creating Brushstroke painting in the autumn of 1965 and presented the Brushstroke series at Castelli 's gallery from November 20 through December 11 . A 1967 painting entitles Brushstrokes was produced for the Pasadena Art Museum 's 1967 Lichtenstein exhibition . Later he produced an eight @-@ print Brushstroke Figures series using collage elements . The series is described as an " ... instance of Abstract Expressionism recycled through conventions taken from the mass media ... " He began making sculptural renditions of his Brushstrokes paintings in the early 1980s in a wide variety of shapes and sizes . Many of these were painted bronzes .
The inspiration for the series was Charlton Comics ' Strange Suspense Stories 72 ( October 1964 ) by Dick Giordano which depicted an artist who was worn out emotionally after completing a painting . However , only the original directly references the comic strip . Although the Brushstrokes series had a brief timespan , the motif served as a theme in Lichtenstein 's works for the final 32 years of his career .
In the 1960 Lichtenstein characterized his inspiration as follows : " Although I had played with this idea before , it started with a comic book image of a mad artist crossing out , with a large brushstroke ' X , ' the face of a friend that was haunting him . ... Then I went on to do paintings of brushstroke alone . I was very interested in characterizing or caricaturing a brushstroke ... " He has also described this series as follows : " [ I ] t 's taking something that originally was suppose to mean immediacy and I 'm tediously drawing something that looks like a brushstroke ... I want it to look as though it were painstaking . " In the 1990s , he described his inspiration in more artistic terms
It [ the Brushstroke ] was the way of portraying this romantic and bravura symbol in its opposite style , classicism . The Brushstroke plays a big part in the history of art . Brushstroke almost means painting or art . I did isolated Brushstrokes in 1965 and used cartoon brushstrokes to depict subject matters in the 1980s . I also did Brushstroke sculptures in bronze and wood to make them more palpable . ... the Brushstroke , it is just an idea to start with , and painting it makes it more concrete , but when you do it in bronze sculpture , it becomes real and has weight and is absurd , contradictory and funny .
Lichtenstein has also described the effect of depicting a single artificial brushstroke sculpturally with hundreds of small brushstrokes : " My recent sculpture of a Brushstroke is an attempt to give strong form to something that is a momentary occurrence , to solidify something ephemeral , to make it concrete . "
In 1981 , Lichtenstein return to the brushstroke and introduced complexity to the simple element of the painter 's brushstroke and added free hand strokes to his " decoy ones " .
= = Details = =
Works in the Brushstrokes series depict brushstrokes as their subject . However , rather than present the use of the delicate artist paint brush , Lichtenstein created the strokes of the broad house @-@ painter 's brush . His works both turned a mundane household task into a planned artistic operation and made a time @-@ consuming task appear as if it were produced mechanically in an instant . The Brushstroke series paintings " ... contain the clear outline , process colors , and Benday @-@ dot screen of the comic strip , but like the landscapes , they exchew narrative in favor of reducing a subject ( in this case , painting ) to its most basic symbol ( the brushstroke ) . " The satirical element of the Brushstroke is obvious to many because it is a calculated presentation of the spontaneous gestural works of its day .
Although both the Cubists and the Futurists conveyed movement and speed within the two dimensions of a painting , it was Pollock who brought dynamic movement to the canvas in the 1950s with his form of abstract expressionism known as gestural painting in works such as Autumn Rhythm , 1950 . In Little Big Painting and subsequently even more so in Big Painting No. 6 and Yellow and Green Brushstrokes , for example , dynamic activity was a prominent feature of the series . Lichtenstein 's loops and depiction of sweeping gestures all resemble Pollock 's gestural painting . As a result of this series , Lichtenstein was able to present works to the viewing audience that resembled what they had become accustomed to seeing , however , his result is completely flat without any trace of the brushstroke or the artist 's hand . Meanwhile , the work references mechanical printing with the Ben @-@ Day dots background , which enables Lichtenstein to parody his predecessors and make a " powerful abstract composition " . The effort to make the painting appear mechanically produced by flattening the brushstroke also gives the illusion that the brushstroke is floating freely .
The works in the series are considered ironic mechanical representations of gestural techniques . They depict the brushstroke directionality beginning with the full beginning , gradual fraying and ragged ending laid out over a field of Ben @-@ Day dots . Additionally , the series is an expression of the dealings of commercial art with its remote interaction . The significance of Lichtenstein 's choice of the brushstroke as a subject is expressed by analogy : " ... the Ben @-@ Day dots are to the painting of Lichtenstein what the brushstroke is to Abstract Expressionism : an image of process . " The brushstroke remained a part of his works for the remainder of his career . He produced painted bronze sculptural versions of his brushstrokes throughout his career .
In 2001 a large show of his work from his estate entitled " Brushstrokes : Four Decades " was held in New York City at the Mitchell @-@ Innes and Nash gallery .
= = Critical response = =
According to Diane Waldman of ARTnews , the works " ... spoofed the bravura brushstroke , replete with drips , of the Abstract Expressionists . Issues of vital importance to them , such as gesture and the involvement of the whole body in the act of painting , were reduced to a single brushstroke . " She interprets this as a criticism of the corruption of Abstract Expressionism by uncreative painters . Though not described as abstract art , the brushstrokes forms are considered to be invented . The series was part of Lichtenstein 's 1960s slant towards reductive , economical work .
The works in this series are regarded as having " dense abstract complexity " to blur the clarity of his earlier references while emphasizing " ... the bravura of the brushstroke ... " rather than the subject that it is used to depict . The use of the artist 's paintbrush to create enormous renditions of house @-@ painter brushstrokes in the quasi @-@ mechanical Lichtenstein style is a commentary on his own painting actions . The series was a response to the Pop Art critics of the day , who were mostly abstract expressionist . He expropriated the most basic element of expressionism in his own style both in painting and in sculpture . The series of Brushstroke canvases is regarded as a group of works that parody gestural painting by commenting on the normal individual relationship between the artist and his tools .
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= Forbidden City =
The Forbidden City was the Chinese imperial palace from the Ming dynasty to the end of the Qing dynasty — the years 1420 to 1912 . It is located in the centre of Beijing , China , and now houses the Palace Museum . It served as the home of emperors and their households as well as the ceremonial and political centre of Chinese government for almost 500 years .
Constructed from 1406 to 1420 , the complex consists of 980 buildings and covers 72 ha ( 180 acres ) . The palace complex exemplifies traditional Chinese palatial architecture , and has influenced cultural and architectural developments in East Asia and elsewhere . The Forbidden City was declared a World Heritage Site in 1987 , and is listed by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world .
Since 1925 , the Forbidden City has been under the charge of the Palace Museum , whose extensive collection of artwork and artifacts were built upon the imperial collections of the Ming and Qing dynasties . Part of the museum 's former collection is now located in the National Palace Museum in Taipei . Both museums descend from the same institution , but were split after the Chinese Civil War . With over 14 million annual visitors , the Palace Museum is the most visited Museum in the world .
= = Name = =
The common English name , " the Forbidden City " , is a translation of the Chinese name Zijin Cheng ( Chinese : 紫禁城 ; pinyin : Zǐjinchéng ; literally : " Forbidden City " ) . The name Zijin Cheng first formally appeared in 1576 . Another English name of similar origin is " Forbidden Palace " .
The name " Zijin Cheng " is a name with significance on many levels . Zi , or " Purple " , refers to the North Star , which in ancient China was called the Ziwei Star , and in traditional Chinese astrology was the heavenly abode of the Celestial Emperor . The surrounding celestial region , the Ziwei Enclosure ( Chinese : 紫微垣 ; pinyin : Zǐwēiyuán ) , was the realm of the Celestial Emperor and his family . The Forbidden City , as the residence of the terrestrial emperor , was its earthly counterpart . Jin , or " Forbidden " , referred to the fact that no one could enter or leave the palace without the emperor 's permission . Cheng means a city .
Today , the site is most commonly known in Chinese as Gùgōng ( 故宫 ) , which means the " Former Palace " . The museum which is based in these buildings is known as the " Palace Museum " ( Chinese : 故宫博物院 ; pinyin : Gùgōng Bówùyùan ) .
= = History = =
When Hongwu Emperor 's son Zhu Di became the Yongle Emperor , he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing , and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City .
Construction lasted 14 years and required more than a million workers . Material used include whole logs of precious Phoebe zhennan wood ( Chinese : 楠木 ; pinyin : nánmù ) found in the jungles of south @-@ western China , and large blocks of marble from quarries near Beijing . The floors of major halls were paved with " golden bricks " ( Chinese : 金砖 ; pinyin : jīnzhuān ) , specially baked paving bricks from Suzhou .
From 1420 to 1644 , the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty . In April 1644 , it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng , who proclaimed himself emperor of the Shun dynasty . He soon fled before the combined armies of former Ming general Wu Sangui and Manchu forces , setting fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process .
By October , the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China , and a ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the young Shunzhi Emperor as ruler of all China under the Qing dynasty . The Qing rulers changed the names on some of the principal buildings , to emphasise " Harmony " rather than " Supremacy " , made the name plates bilingual ( Chinese and Manchu ) , and introduced Shamanist elements to the palace .
In 1860 , during the Second Opium War , Anglo @-@ French forces took control of the Forbidden City and occupied it until the end of the war . In 1900 Empress Dowager Cixi fled from the Forbidden City during the Boxer Rebellion , leaving it to be occupied by forces of the treaty powers until the following year .
After being the home of 24 emperors – 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty – the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi , the last Emperor of China . Under an agreement with the new Republic of China government , Puyi remained in the Inner Court , while the Outer Court was given over to public use , until he was evicted after a coup in 1924 . The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925 . In 1933 , the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City . Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II , but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders by Chiang Kai @-@ shek , whose Kuomintang was losing the Chinese Civil War . This relatively small but high quality collection was kept in storage until 1965 , when it again became public , as the core of the National Palace Museum in Taipei .
After the establishment of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , some damage was done to the Forbidden City as the country was swept up in revolutionary zeal . During the Cultural Revolution , however , further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai sent an army battalion to guard the city .
The Forbidden City was declared a World Heritage Site in 1987 by UNESCO as the " Imperial Palace of the Ming and Qing Dynasties " , due to its significant place in the development of Chinese architecture and culture . It is currently administered by the Palace Museum , which is carrying out a sixteen @-@ year restoration project to repair and restore all buildings in the Forbidden City to their pre @-@ 1912 state .
In recent years , the presence of commercial enterprises in the Forbidden City has become controversial . A Starbucks store that opened in 2000 sparked objections and eventually closed on 13 July 2007 . Chinese media also took notice of a pair of souvenir shops that refused to admit Chinese citizens in order to price @-@ gouge foreign customers in 2006 .
= = Description = =
The Forbidden City is a rectangle , with 961 metres ( 3 @,@ 153 ft ) from north to south and 753 metres ( 2 @,@ 470 ft ) from east to west . It consists of 980 surviving buildings with 8 @,@ 886 bays of rooms . A common myth states that there are 9 @,@ 999 rooms including antechambers , based on oral tradition , and it is not supported by survey evidence . The Forbidden City was designed to be the centre of the ancient , walled city of Beijing . It is enclosed in a larger , walled area called the Imperial City . The Imperial City is , in turn , enclosed by the Inner City ; to its south lies the Outer City .
The Forbidden City remains important in the civic scheme of Beijing . The central north – south axis remains the central axis of Beijing . This axis extends to the south through Tiananmen gate to Tiananmen Square , the ceremonial centre of the People 's Republic of China , and on to Yongdingmen . To the north , it extends through Jingshan Hill to the Bell and Drum Towers . This axis is not exactly aligned north – south , but is tilted by slightly more than two degrees . Researchers now believe that the axis was designed in the Yuan dynasty to be aligned with Xanadu , the other capital of their empire .
= = = Walls and gates = = =
The Forbidden City is surrounded by a 7 @.@ 9 metres ( 26 ft ) high city wall and a 6 metres ( 20 ft ) deep by 52 metres ( 171 ft ) wide moat . The walls are 8 @.@ 62 metres ( 28 @.@ 3 ft ) wide at the base , tapering to 6 @.@ 66 metres ( 21 @.@ 9 ft ) at the top . These walls served as both defensive walls and retaining walls for the palace . They were constructed with a rammed earth core , and surfaced with three layers of specially baked bricks on both sides , with the interstices filled with mortar .
At the four corners of the wall sit towers ( E ) with intricate roofs boasting 72 ridges , reproducing the Pavilion of Prince Teng and the Yellow Crane Pavilion as they appeared in Song dynasty paintings . These towers are the most visible parts of the palace to commoners outside the walls , and much folklore is attached to them . According to one legend , artisans could not put a corner tower back together after it was dismantled for renovations in the early Qing dynasty , and it was only rebuilt after the intervention of carpenter @-@ immortal Lu Ban .
The wall is pierced by a gate on each side . At the southern end is the main Meridian Gate ( A ) . To the north is the Gate of Divine Might ( B ) , which faces Jingshan Park . The east and west gates are called the " East Glorious Gate " ( D ) and " West Glorious Gate " ( C ) . All gates in the Forbidden City are decorated with a nine @-@ by @-@ nine array of golden door nails , except for the East Glorious Gate , which has only eight rows .
The Meridian Gate has two protruding wings forming three sides of a square ( Wumen , or Meridian Gate , Square ) before it . The gate has five gateways . The central gateway is part of the Imperial Way , a stone flagged path that forms the central axis of the Forbidden City and the ancient city of Beijing itself , and leads all the way from the Gate of China in the south to Jingshan in the north . Only the Emperor may walk or ride on the Imperial Way , except for the Empress on the occasion of her wedding , and successful students after the Imperial Examination .
= = = Outer Court or the Southern Section = = =
Traditionally , the Forbidden City is divided into two parts . The Outer Court ( 外朝 ) or Front Court ( 前朝 ) includes the southern sections , and was used for ceremonial purposes . The Inner Court ( 内廷 ) or Back Palace ( 后宫 ) includes the northern sections , and was the residence of the Emperor and his family , and was used for day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of state . ( The approximate dividing line shown as red dash in the plan above . ) Generally , the Forbidden City has three vertical axes . The most important buildings are situated on the central north – south axis .
Entering from the Meridian Gate , one encounters a large square , pierced by the meandering Inner Golden Water River , which is crossed by five bridges . Beyond the square stands the Gate of Supreme Harmony ( F ) . Behind that is the Hall of Supreme Harmony Square . A three @-@ tiered white marble terrace rises from this square . Three halls stand on top of this terrace , the focus of the palace complex . From the south , these are the Hall of Supreme Harmony ( 太和殿 ) , the Hall of Central Harmony ( 中和殿 ) , and the Hall of Preserving Harmony ( 保和殿 ) .
The Hall of Supreme Harmony ( G ) is the largest , and rises some 30 metres ( 98 ft ) above the level of the surrounding square . It is the ceremonial centre of imperial power , and the largest surviving wooden structure in China . It is nine bays wide and five bays deep , the numbers 9 and 5 being symbolically connected to the majesty of the Emperor . Set into the ceiling at the centre of the hall is an intricate caisson decorated with a coiled dragon , from the mouth of which issues a chandelier @-@ like set of metal balls , called the " Xuanyuan Mirror " . In the Ming dynasty , the Emperor held court here to discuss affairs of state . During the Qing dynasty , as Emperors held court far more frequently , a less ceremonious location was used instead , and the Hall of Supreme Harmony was only used for ceremonial purposes , such as coronations , investitures , and imperial weddings .
The Hall of Central Harmony is a smaller , square hall , used by the Emperor to prepare and rest before and during ceremonies . Behind it , the Hall of Preserving Harmony , was used for rehearsing ceremonies , and was also the site of the final stage of the Imperial examination . All three halls feature imperial thrones , the largest and most elaborate one being that in the Hall of Supreme Harmony .
At the centre of the ramps leading up to the terraces from the northern and southern sides are ceremonial ramps , part of the Imperial Way , featuring elaborate and symbolic bas @-@ relief carvings . The northern ramp , behind the Hall of Preserving Harmony , is carved from a single piece of stone 16 @.@ 57 metres ( 54 @.@ 4 ft ) long , 3 @.@ 07 metres ( 10 @.@ 1 ft ) wide , and 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) thick . It weighs some 200 tonnes and is the largest such carving in China . The southern ramp , in front of the Hall of Supreme Harmony , is even longer , but is made from two stone slabs joined together – the joint was ingeniously hidden using overlapping bas @-@ relief carvings , and was only discovered when weathering widened the gap in the 20th century .
In the south west and south east of the Outer Court are the halls of Military Eminence ( H ) and Literary Glory ( J ) . The former was used at various times for the Emperor to receive ministers and hold court , and later housed the Palace 's own printing house . The latter was used for ceremonial lectures by highly regarded Confucian scholars , and later became the office of the Grand Secretariat . A copy of the Siku Quanshu was stored there . To the north @-@ east are the Southern Three Places ( 南三所 ) ( K ) , which was the residence of the Crown Prince .
= = = Inner Court or the Northern Section = = =
The Inner Court is separated from the Outer Court by an oblong courtyard lying orthogonal to the City 's main axis . It was the home of the Emperor and his family . In the Qing dynasty , the Emperor lived and worked almost exclusively in the Inner Court , with the Outer Court used only for ceremonial purposes .
At the centre of the Inner Court is another set of three halls ( L ) . From the south , these are the Palace of Heavenly Purity ( 乾清宮 ) , Hall of Union , and the Palace of Earthly Tranquility . Smaller than the Outer Court halls , the three halls of the Inner Court were the official residences of the Emperor and the Empress . The Emperor , representing Yang and the Heavens , would occupy the Palace of Heavenly Purity . The Empress , representing Yin and the Earth , would occupy the Palace of Earthly Tranquility . In between them was the Hall of Union , where the Yin and Yang mixed to produce harmony .
The Palace of Heavenly Purity is a double @-@ eaved building , and set on a single @-@ level white marble platform . It is connected to the Gate of Heavenly Purity to its south by a raised walkway . In the Ming dynasty , it was the residence of the Emperor . However , beginning from the Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing dynasty , the Emperor lived instead at the smaller Hall of Mental Cultivation ( N ) to the west , out of respect to the memory of the Kangxi Emperor . The Palace of Heavenly Purity then became the Emperor 's audience hall . A caisson is set into the roof , featuring a coiled dragon . Above the throne hangs a tablet reading " Justice and Honour " ( Chinese : 正大光明 ; pinyin : zhèngdàguāngmíng ) .
The Palace of Earthly Tranquility ( 坤寧宮 ) is a double @-@ eaved building , 9 bays wide and 3 bays deep . In the Ming dynasty , it was the residence of the Empress . In the Qing dynasty , large portions of the Palace were converted for Shamanist worship by the new Manchu rulers . From the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor , the Empress moved out of the Palace . However , two rooms in the Palace of Earthly Harmony were retained for use on the Emperor 's wedding night .
Between these two palaces is the Hall of Union , which is square in shape with a pyramidal roof . Stored here are the 25 Imperial Seals of the Qing dynasty , as well as other ceremonial items .
Behind these three halls lies the Imperial Garden ( M ) . Relatively small , and compact in design , the garden nevertheless contains several elaborate landscaping features . To the north of the garden is the Gate of Divine Might .
Directly to the west is the Hall of Mental Cultivation ( N ) . Originally a minor palace , this became the de facto residence and office of the Emperor starting from Yongzheng . In the last decades of the Qing dynasty , empresses dowager , including Cixi , held court from the eastern partition of the hall . Located around the Hall of Mental Cultivation are the offices of the Grand Council and other key government bodies .
The north @-@ eastern section of the Inner Court is taken up by the Palace of Tranquil Longevity ( 寧壽宮 ) ( O ) , a complex built by the Qianlong Emperor in anticipation of his retirement . It mirrors the set @-@ up of the Forbidden City proper and features an " outer court " , an " inner court " , and gardens and temples . The entrance to the Palace of Tranquil Longevity is marked by a glazed @-@ tile Nine Dragons Screen . This section of the Forbidden City is being restored in a partnership between the Palace Museum and the World Monuments Fund , a long @-@ term project expected to finish in 2017 .
= = = Religion = = =
Religion was an important part of life for the imperial court . In the Qing dynasty , the Palace of Earthly Harmony became a place of Manchu Shamanist ceremony . At the same time , the native Chinese Taoist religion continued to have an important role throughout the Ming and Qing dynasties . There were two Taoist shrines , one in the imperial garden and another in the central area of the Inner Court .
Another prevalent form of religion in the Qing dynasty palace was Buddhism . A number of temples and shrines were scattered throughout the Inner Court , including that of Tibetan Buddhism or Lamaism . Buddhist iconography also proliferated in the interior decorations of many buildings . Of these , the Pavilion of the Rain of Flowers is one of the most important . It housed a large number of Buddhist statues , icons , and mandalas , placed in ritualistic arrangements .
= = = Surroundings = = =
The Forbidden City is surrounded on three sides by imperial gardens . To the north is Jingshan Park , also known as Prospect Hill , an artificial hill created from the soil excavated to build the moat and from nearby lakes .
To the west lies Zhongnanhai , a former royal garden centred on two connected lakes , which now serves as the central headquarters for the Communist Party of China and the State Council of the People 's Republic of China . To the north @-@ west lies Beihai Park , also centred on a lake connected to the southern two , and a popular royal park .
To the south of the Forbidden City were two important shrines – the Imperial Shrine of Family or the Imperial Ancestral Temple ( Chinese : 太庙 ; pinyin : Tàimiào ) and the Imperial Shrine of State ( Chinese : 太社稷 ; pinyin : Tàishèjì ) , where the Emperor would venerate the spirits of his ancestors and the spirit of the nation , respectively . Today , these are the Beijing Labouring People 's Cultural Hall and Zhongshan Park ( commemorating Sun Yat @-@ sen ) respectively .
To the south , two nearly identical gatehouses stand along the main axis . They are the Upright Gate ( Chinese : 端门 ; pinyin : Duānmén ) and the more famous Tiananmen Gate , which is decorated with a portrait of Mao Zedong in the centre and two placards to the left and right : " Long Live the People 's Republic of China " and " Long live the Great Unity of the World 's Peoples " . The Tiananmen Gate connects the Forbidden City precinct with the modern , symbolic centre of the Chinese state , Tiananmen Square .
While development is now tightly controlled in the vicinity of the Forbidden City , throughout the past century uncontrolled and sometimes politically motivated demolition and reconstruction has changed the character of the areas surrounding the Forbidden City . Since 2000 , the Beijing municipal government has worked to evict governmental and military institutions occupying some historical buildings , and has established a park around the remaining parts of the Imperial City wall . In 2004 , an ordinance relating to building height and planning restriction was renewed to establish the Imperial City area and the northern city area as a buffer zone for the Forbidden City . In 2005 , the Imperial City and Beihai ( as an extension item to the Summer Palace ) were included in the shortlist for the next World Heritage Site in Beijing .
= = = Symbolism = = =
The design of the Forbidden City , from its overall layout to the smallest detail , was meticulously planned to reflect philosophical and religious principles , and above all to symbolise the majesty of Imperial power . Some noted examples of symbolic designs include :
Yellow is the color of the Emperor . Thus almost all roofs in the Forbidden City bear yellow glazed tiles . There are only two exceptions . The library at the Pavilion of Literary Profundity ( 文渊阁 ) had black tiles because black was associated with water , and thus fire @-@ prevention . Similarly , the Crown Prince 's residences have green tiles because green was associated with wood , and thus growth .
The main halls of the Outer and Inner courts are all arranged in groups of three – the shape of the Qian triagram , representing Heaven . The residences of the Inner Court on the other hand are arranged in groups of six – the shape of the Kun triagram , representing the Earth .
The sloping ridges of building roofs are decorated with a line of statuettes led by a man riding a phoenix and followed by an imperial dragon . The number of statuettes represents the status of the building – a minor building might have 3 or 5 . The Hall of Supreme Harmony has 10 , the only building in the country to be permitted this in Imperial times . As a result , its 10th statuette , called a " Hangshi " , or " ranked tenth " ( Chinese : 行十 ; pinyin : Hángshí ) , is also unique in the Forbidden City .
The layout of buildings follows ancient customs laid down in the Classic of Rites . Thus , ancestral temples are in front of the palace . Storage areas are placed in the front part of the palace complex , and residences in the back .
= = Collections = =
The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection . According to the results of a 1925 audit , some 1 @.@ 17 million pieces of art were stored in the Forbidden City . In addition , the imperial libraries housed a large collection of rare books and historical documents , including government documents of the Ming and Qing dynasties .
From 1933 , the threat of Japanese invasion forced the evacuation of the most important parts of the Museum 's collection . After the end of World War II , this collection was returned to Nanjing . However , with the Communists ' victory imminent in the Chinese Civil War , the Nationalist government decided to ship the pick of this collection to Taiwan . Of the 13 @,@ 491 boxes of evacuated artifacts , 2 @,@ 972 boxes are now housed in the National Palace Museum in Taipei . More than 8 @,@ 000 boxes were returned to Beijing , but 2 @,@ 221 boxes remain today in storage under the charge of the Nanjing Museum .
After 1949 , the Museum conducted a new audit as well as a thorough search of the Forbidden City , uncovering a number of important items . In addition , the government moved items from other museums around the country to replenish the Palace Museum 's collection . It also purchased and received donations from the public .
Today , there are over a million rare and valuable works of art in the permanent collection of the Palace Museum , including paintings , ceramics , seals , steles , sculptures , inscribed wares , bronze wares , enamel objects , etc . According to an inventory of the Museum 's collection conducted between 2004 and 2010 , the Palace Museum holds a total of 1 @,@ 807 @,@ 558 artifacts and includes 1 @,@ 684 @,@ 490 items designated as nationally protected " valuable cultural relics . "
Ceramics
The Palace Museum holds 340 @,@ 000 pieces of ceramics and porcelain . These include imperial collections from the Tang dynasty and the Song dynasty , as well as pieces commissioned by the Palace , and , sometimes , by the Emperor personally . The Palace Museum holds about 320 @,@ 000 pieces of porcelain from the imperial collection . The rest are almost all held in the National Palace Museum in Taipei and the Nanjing Museum .
Painting
The Palace Museum holds close to 50 @,@ 000 paintings . Of these , more than 400 date from before the Yuan dynasty ( 1271 – 1368 ) . This is the largest such collection in China . The collection is based on the palace collection in the Ming and Qing dynasties . The personal interest of Emperors such as Qianlong meant that the palace held one of the most important collections of paintings in Chinese history . However , a significant portion of this collection was lost over the years . After his abdication , Puyi transferred paintings out of the palace , and many of these were subsequently lost or destroyed . In 1948 , many of the works were moved to Taiwan . The collection has subsequently been replenished , through donations , purchases , and transfers from other museums .
Bronzeware
The Palace Museum 's bronze collection dates from the early Shang dynasty . Of the almost 10 @,@ 000 pieces held , about 1 @,@ 600 are inscribed items from the pre @-@ Qin period ( to 221 BC ) . A significant part of the collection is ceremonial bronzeware from the imperial court .
Timepieces
The Palace Museum has one of the largest collections of mechanical timepieces of the 18th and 19th centuries in the world , with more than 1 @,@ 000 pieces . The collection contains both Chinese- and foreign @-@ made pieces . Chinese pieces came from the palace 's own workshops , Guangzhou ( Canton ) and Suzhou ( Suchow ) . Foreign pieces came from countries including Britain , France , Switzerland , the United States and Japan . Of these , the largest portion come from Britain .
Jade
Jade has a unique place in Chinese culture . The Museum 's collection , mostly derived from the imperial collection , includes some 30 @,@ 000 pieces . The pre @-@ Yuan dynasty part of the collection includes several pieces famed throughout history , as well as artifacts from more recent archaeological discoveries . The earliest pieces date from the Neolithic period . Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty pieces , on the other hand , include both items for palace use , as well as tribute items from around the Empire and beyond .
Palace artifacts
In addition to works of art , a large proportion of the Museum 's collection consists of the artefacts of the imperial court . This includes items used by the imperial family and the palace in daily life , as well as various ceremonial and bureaucratic items important to government administration . This comprehensive collection preserves the daily life and ceremonial protocols of the imperial era .
= = Influence = =
The Forbidden City , the culmination of the two @-@ thousand @-@ year development of classical Chinese and East Asian architecture , has been influential in the subsequent development of Chinese architecture , as well as providing inspiration for many artistic works . Some specific examples include :
Depiction in art , film , literature and popular culture
The Forbidden City has served as the scene to many works of fiction . In recent years , it has been depicted in films and television series . Some notable examples include :
The Forbidden City ( 1918 ) , a fiction film about a Chinese emperor and an American .
The Last Emperor ( 1987 ) , a biographical film about Puyi , was the first feature film ever authorised by the government of the People 's Republic of China to be filmed in the Forbidden City .
Marco Polo a joint NBC and RAI TV miniseries broadcast in the early 1980s , was filmed inside the Forbidden City . Note , however , that the present Forbidden City did not exist in the Yuan dynasty , when Marco Polo met Kublai Khan .
= = Live Performance concert venue = =
The Forbidden City has also served as a performance venue . However , its use for this purpose is strictly limited , due to the heavy impact of equipment and performance on the ancient structures . Almost all performances said to be " in the Forbidden City " are held outside the palace walls .
Giacomo Puccini 's opera , Turandot , the story of a Chinese princess , was performed at the Imperial Shrine just outside the Forbidden City for the first time in 1998 .
In 1997 , Greek @-@ born composer and keyboardist Yanni performed a live concert in front of the Forbidden City . The concert was recorded and later released as part of the Tribute album .
In 2001 , the Three Tenors , Plácido Domingo and José Carreras and Luciano Pavarotti sang in front of Forbidden City main gate as one of their performances .
In 2004 , the French musician Jean Michel Jarre performed a live concert in front of the Forbidden City , accompanied by 260 musicians , as part of the " Year of France in China " festivities .
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= 2004 Myanmar cyclone =
The 2004 Myanmar cyclone was considered the worst to strike the country since 1968 . The second tropical cyclone of the 2004 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , it formed as a depression on May 16 in the central Bay of Bengal . With low wind shear and a surge in the monsoon trough , the storm intensified while meandering over open waters . The storm eventually began a steady northeastward motion due to a ridge to the north over India . While approaching land , an eye developed in the center of the storm , indicative of a strong cyclone . On May 19 , the cyclone made landfall along northwestern Myanmar near Sittwe , with maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) by the India Meteorological Department . The storm rapidly weakened over land , although its remnants spread rainfall into northern Thailand and Yunnan province in China .
Winds from the cyclone reached 157 km / h ( 98 mph ) in Myanmar , occurring in conjunction with heavy rainfall and a high storm surge . Despite the storm 's ferocity , the government did not report about the cyclone for ten days , as they usually under @-@ report on landfalling storms . The cyclone caused heavy damage throughout Rakhine State , destroying or heavily damaging 4 @,@ 035 homes and leaving 25 @,@ 000 people homeless . There was widespread crop damage , resulting in food shortages , and damaged roads disrupted subsequent relief efforts . Damage in Myanmar totaled over K621 million kyat ( $ 99 @.@ 2 million USD ) , making it the worst storm in the country since 1968 , and there were 236 deaths , with an unofficial death toll as high as 1 @,@ 000 . Although damage was heaviest in Myanmar , the cyclone 's effects also spread into neighboring Bangladesh , where strong winds knocked over trees and capsized two ships .
= = Meteorological history = =
Late on May 14 , an area of convection , or thunderstorms , developed in the central Bay of Bengal about 880 kilometres ( 545 miles ) south @-@ southeast of Kolkata , India , associated with the monsoon trough . On May 15 , the system developed into a low pressure area off the west coast of Myanmar ( Burma ) . Initially , the convection was associated with a low @-@ level circulation center , developing good outflow despite the presence of wind shear . As the shear decreased , the thunderstorms increased and organized , with the eastward @-@ moving circulation partially exposed . At 09 : 00 UTC on May 16 , the India Meteorological Department classified the system as a depression , and nine hours later the agency upgraded it to a deep depression as the system turned northwestward .
The nascent system quickly organized , aided by the decreasing wind shear , as well as a surge in the monsoon . The IMD upgraded the depression to a cyclonic storm at 03 : 00 UTC on May 17 . At 12 : 00 UTC that day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing warnings on the system with its own designation Tropical Cyclone 02B . With weak steering currents , the storm meandered over the central Bay of Bengal , executing a small cyclonic loop over 30 hours . The cloud pattern organized into a central dense overcast that was initially irregular in nature . However , the storm quickly intensified on May 18 , strengthening into a severe cyclonic storm and later very severe cyclonic storm . During this time , the cyclone turned eastward under the influence of a ridge over India to the north .
A buoy near the storm 's center recorded a pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) on May 18 , the lowest recorded pressure in association with the storm . Convection increased around the center and organized into a distinct eye . The JTWC upgraded the cyclone to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on May 19 , estimating peak 1 minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The IMD assessed a much higher intensity , estimating peak 3 minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) at 03 : 00 UTC that day . About an hour later , the cyclone made landfall at peak intensity with an estimated pressure of 952 mbar ( 28 @.@ 1 inHg ) in northwestern Myanmar near Sittwe , near the country 's border with Bangladesh . It weakened gradually over land , dissipating over Myanmar late on May 19 .
= = Impact = =
While stalling in the Bay of Bengal , the cyclone 's outskirts dropped light to moderate rainfall along the eastern coast of India . In Odisha , two locations reported daily rainfall totals of 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . Upon making landfall , the cyclone 's effects spread into southeastern Bangladesh , where heavy rainfall and high winds forced about 50 @,@ 000 people to evacuate to shelters . The winds also knocked down trees and power lines . Two boats sank off Cox 's Bazar , leaving five fishermen missing . Later , the remnants of the cyclone dropped heavy rainfall in northern Thailand , reaching 112 @.@ 4 mm ( 4 @.@ 43 in ) in 24 hours at the Bhumibol Dam . In the nearby Yunnan province in China , precipitation reached 75 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 97 in ) in Ruili .
= = = Myanmar = = =
Damage was heaviest in Myanmar where the storm moved ashore , and winds of 157 km / h ( 98 mph ) were reported . Widespread areas reported winds of 40 km / h ( 25 mph ) . The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission estimated that up to 500 mm ( 20 in ) of precipitation fell along the Bay of Bengal coast in Myanmar and Bangladesh . There were reports of waves 15 m ( 50 ft ) in height along the coast . A high storm surge and coastal flooding inundated four towns in Rakhine State , causing damage to water systems . Flooding was visible on satellite imagery in the days following the cyclone . Eight townships in the state were affected , five of them severely .
For 10 days , Myanmar 's government did not report about the cyclone , which usually under @-@ reports on storms that affect the country . There was also little to no advanced warning of the storm . The storm destroyed over 2 @,@ 650 homes and severely damaged another 1 @,@ 385 , leaving around 25 @,@ 000 people homeless , mostly in Pauktaw . Four hospitals in the region were heavily damaged , including the one in Sittwe that was unable to continue normal operations . About 300 schools were damaged or destroyed , including 44 in Sittwe . The storm also damaged or destroyed 133 religious buildings and 176 government buildings . Across the region , high winds knocked down telephone lines and disrupted power supply . About 2 @,@ 000 cattle were killed , and many rice mills were knocked down , causing a 70 % increase of food prices . Transportation was disrupted after roads were washed away , which contributed to food shortages , while damaged wells caused water shortages . During the storm , 84 ships were lost at sea , in addition to a lost ocean liner , while the main harbor at Sittwe was damaged , along with several fishing piers .
The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs considered the cyclone as the worst to hit Myanmar since 1968 . Damage totaled over K621 million kyat ( $ 99 @.@ 2 million USD ) . Officially , there were 236 deaths in the country , although there were unconfirmed reports of a death toll as high as 1 @,@ 000 . In the city of Myebon alone , there were 139 deaths . Most of the deaths were fishermen from Rakhine State caught at sea .
= = Aftermath = =
On May 27 , the Myanmar government issued a rare appeal for aid to the international community in response to damage from the storm . The request included $ 220 @,@ 000 ( USD ) worth of rice , tarpaulin sheets for temporary shelter , medicine , and clothing , to assist 14 @,@ 000 people . In early June , the government issued an updated appeal to request $ 337 @,@ 000 ( USD ) to help 25 @,@ 000 people , after the scope of the disaster became better known . The Red Cross operation responding to the cyclone ended in December 2004 , which marked the first time the agency had a major response to a disaster . It worked in conjunction with the World Food Programme , Bridge Asia Japan , and the Myanmar Maternal and Child Welfare Association , utilizing some private donations . Red Cross volunteers helped clear roads and clean ponds to return areas to normalcy . Typically , the government handles relief measures .
In the days following the storm , Myanmar 's Ministry of Social Welfare , Relief and Resettlement assessed damage in the affected areas to determine needs , and also coordinated relief efforts . The local Red Cross chapter went to the worst affected villages with water , water purification tablets , blankets , and mosquito nets . Many of the affected families were unable to afford rebuilding their homes . Myanmar 's National Disaster Relief Committee distributed 500 tons of concrete and 50 @,@ 000 roofing sheets to help rebuild homes . By June 8 , all displaced residents were either staying with relatives or returned to their homes , with the reconstruction or resettlement process expected to take up to nine months . Myanmar 's then @-@ Prime Minister Khin Nyunt surveyed the damaged areas and held a ceremony on June 7 in Sittwe , where domestic donations were transferred to the government in " the spirit of national consolidation " . The Prime Minister stated that the country rarely experiences devastating cyclones due to their strong religious beliefs . A group of 35 Rohingya people from Yangon took a tour of Rakhine State after the storm , despite they are usually banned from the region . The group donated about $ 267 @,@ 000 ( USD ) , although due to their minority status in the country , the aid did not help other Rohingyas in the state , who also did not receive assistance from the government .
In response to the aid request , various United Nations agencies sent $ 175 @,@ 000 ( USD ) worth of financial or material assistance to the country . The World Food Programme provided 50 kg ( 110 lb ) of rice to 3 @,@ 700 families for three months , and UNICEF provided medicines , corrugated sheeting , and latrine slabs . The government of Japan donated about ¥ 10 million worth of supplies , including blankets and water . The Chinese Red Cross donated about $ 20 @,@ 000 ( USD ) worth of relief . Eight other governments and Red Cross chapters donated CHF331,432 francs worth of aid or supplies .
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= Eduardo Duhalde =
Eduardo Alberto Duhalde ( Spanish pronunciation : [ eˈðwardo alˈβerto ˈðwalde ] ; born October 5 , 1941 ) is an Argentine politician who served as President of Argentina from 2002 to 2003 . Born in Lomas de Zamora , he was elected for the local legislature and appointed mayor in 1973 . He was deposed during the 1976 Argentine coup d 'état , and elected again when democracy was restored in 1983 . He was elected vice @-@ president of Argentina in 1989 , under President Carlos Menem .
Duhalde resigned as vice president and was elected Governor of Buenos Aires Province in 1991 , and re @-@ elected in 1995 . He ran for president in 1999 , being defeated by Fernando de la Rúa . De la Rúa resigned during the December 2001 riots , and Congress appointed the governor of San Luis Province Adolfo Rodríguez Saá as president . When Rodríguez Saá also resigned , Congress appointed Duhalde . During Duhalde 's term in office , a huge currency devaluation and an increase of the exchange rate led to a gradual recovery . He successfully supported the obscure candidate Néstor Kirchner against Menem , who sought a new presidential term . Duhalde had political disputes with Kirchner in later years , and is largely retired from politics since his defeat in the 2011 presidential elections .
= = Early life = =
Eduardo Alberto Duhalde was born in Lomas de Zamora , in the Greater Buenos Aires . He graduated as a lawyer in 1970 . He was elected to the city legislature the next year , and presided over it . He joined the Justicialist Party ( PJ ) , and soon became leader of its local branch . He was elected to the local legislature of Lomas de Zamora , and appointed its president . The legislature impeached the mayor Ricardo Ortiz , as well as Pedro Turner , who was appointed mayor afterwards . This was part of a political reorganization promoted by President Juan Perón . Duhalde was appointed mayor in 1973 as a result . Many members of the Peronist Youth were killed in Lomas de Zamora during the Pasco massacre , which Duhalde blamed on the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance . He was ousted from office during the 1976 Argentine coup d 'état . He worked as a real estate broker during the following years .
Democratic rule was restored in 1983 , and Duhalde ran for mayor of Lomas de Zamora . Being a centrist , the PJ appointed him candidate as a compromise between the internal opposing factions . The elections ended in a technical tie with the candidate of the Radical Civic Union ( UCR ) , Horacio Devoy ; Duhalde won by just 700 votes . There was a tie in the elections for the local legislature as well , as both the PJ and UCR got eleven legislators . Duhalde reported that a colonel sought his support for a possible coup against the newly elected president Raúl Alfonsín . Duhalde refused and reported directly to Alfonsín himself . He was elected national deputy in 1987 , and became vice president of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies . He established a commission to fight drug addiction during his term of office .
= = Vice presidency and governorship = =
The PJ held primary elections for the 1989 presidential elections between Carlos Menem , governor of La Rioja , and Antonio Cafiero , governor of the Buenos Aires Province . Menem won these elections , with Duhalde as candidate for the vice presidency under his ticket , and then won the general elections . Duhalde did not like the legislative work , and preferred to work with the actual administration of a district . Menem suggested that he run for governor of the populous Buenos Aires Province , which Duhalde accepted on the condition of a great budget aid to the province . This proposal was supported in Congress by Alfonsín , which led to a steady alliance between both politicians . Duhalde was elected governor , ending the political influence of Cafiero .
Duhalde intended to run for the presidency in 1995 , after Menem 's term in office . Menem promoted the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution , which allowed him to run for a second presidential term . Unable to defeat Menem in the primary elections , Duhalde promoted an amendment of the provincial constitution , to allow reelection as well . The PJ could not secure the majority of the constituent chamber , and the three opposing parties ( the UCR , the Broad Front and the MODIN ) joined forces in a " triple alliance " to prevent the sanction of the re @-@ election . Eventually , the MODIN changed sides and supported the re @-@ election , on the condition that a provincial referendum approved it . The referendum allowed the re @-@ election of Duhalde , who won the main elections as well . Menem was also re @-@ elected in the 1995 general elections . Duhalde increased his criticism of Menem , stating that he should leave the neoliberal policies and head a government closer to the Peronist doctrines .
As the new constitution allowed re @-@ election a single time , the PJ started an internal discussion over the leadership of the party after the presidency of Menem . Duhalde announced his intentions to run for president in 1999 shortly after the 1995 elections , leading to a fierce dispute with Menem . The president promoted an advertisement campaign " Menem ' 99 " , despite of the term limit , to avoid being considered a lame duck . He also encouraged the governor of Tucumán , Palito Ortega , to run for the presidency as well . The political image of Duhalde was tarnished by a number of scandals that took place , and issues revealed by investigative journalists . Some of the scandals were related to the national government , such as the scandal over Argentine arms sales to Ecuador and Croatia , and harmed the reputation of the entire PJ . Other scandals involved Duhalde more directly , such as the corruption cases in the Buenos Aires provincial police and the murder of the news photographer José Luis Cabezas . The PJ lost the 1997 midterm elections , and Menem renewed the " Menem ' 99 " campaign . Eventually , the Supreme Court ruled that his attempt to run for another presidential term was unconstitutional . Ortega run for vice president under Duhalde 's ticket , but Duhalde was defeated by the radical Fernando de la Rúa .
De la Rúa 's government would face an economic crisis and the 2001 riots , resigning two years later . De la Rúa thought that Duhalde had organized a coup d 'état against him Rodolfo Terragno , De la Rúa 's Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers , thought instead that the crisis was the exclusive result of keeping the peso @-@ dollar parity despite the costs generated by it . Duhalde and other Peronists interviewed by Ceferino Reato for the book Doce noches said that the party had no interest in removing De la Rúa from power , because he was so unpopular that the party would win the 2003 presidential elections without a problem .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Appointment = = =
De la Rúa headed the country during an economic crisis , and resigned during the December 2001 riots . As his vice president had already resigned months before , Congress was convened to appoint a new president . Eleven provinces with low populations and Peronist governors had formed a bloc , the " Federal Front " , and received the required votes to appoint the governor of San Luis Province , Adolfo Rodríguez Saá . The first administrative actions of Rodríguez Saá caused renewed protests , and the PJ did not fully support him . He called for a meeting with governors in Chapadmalal , but only six governors out of twenty @-@ three attended . He resigned a few days later , and accused Duhalde of plotting against him , along with the governor of Córdoba , José Manuel de la Sota .
The Congress was convened again to appoint a new president . The " Federal Front " was weakened by the failure of Rodríguez Saá , and the provinces with higher populations increased their influence . The likely candidates were Duhalde , De la Sota , and Carlos Ruckauf , the governor of the Buenos Aires province at the time . Menem , who still had legislators loyal to him , wanted to prevent Duhalde from becoming president , and proposed to appoint the governor of Misiones Ramón Puerta instead . Puerta had been the acting president while Congress deliberated the first time , but he refused to be appointed president or even to serve as acting president a second time ( Eduardo Camaño became the acting president as a result ) . Puerta talked with Duhalde , and opined that without De la Rúa and Álvarez he was the politician with the highest legitimacy to be appointed president , as he had placed second in the 1999 elections and won the 2001 legislative elections in the Buenos Aires province , the district of Argentina with the largest population . Alfonsín gave Duhalde decisive support , instructing the radical legislators to vote for him , and giving him two ministers , the radicals Horacio Jaunarena and Jorge Vanossi . The legislators loyal to Menem eventually voted for Duhalde as well . The radicals ' support allowed Duhalde to govern for the remainder of De la Rúa 's term of office , instead of governing for 90 days and calling for new elections , as was the case of Rodríguez Saá . Duhalde was appointed president on January 2 , 2002 .
= = = Economic policy = = =
Duhalde , Alfonsín , their parties , the unions and the Church all agreed to promote policies to increase the industrial growth of the country . For this purpose , Duhalde created the ministry of production , with functions that used to belong to the ministries of economy and foreign relations . The new minister was José Ignacio de Mendiguren , head of the Argentine Industrial Union . Alfonsín negotiated with him , on Duhalde 's behalf , while Congress was still voting for the new president . Duhalde announced at his inauguration that he would repeal the convertibility plan , considered the main cause of the economic crisis . Although Menem proposed a full dollarization of the Argentine economy , Duhalde preferred to instead stick to the peso and order a devaluation . Although it was initially expected to make a 40 % devaluation , the exchange rate of 1 peso to 1 dollar jumped to 3 pesos to 1 dollar , a 200 % devaluation . The higher dollar price allowed for more lucrative exports , increased economic activity and a growth in the employment rates , but at the cost of a higher cost of living .
The financial operations made in dollars were subject to a strong currency substitution to pesos , the " pesification " . There were disputes over the exchange rate of such substitution , as the current price of the dollar in the open market would force most firms and individual debtor to bankruptcy . The initial policy was to make 1 to 1 substitutions to the operations below 100 @,@ 000 dollars . Another conflict was the corralito , imposed by De la Rúa , which attempted to stop the bank run by forbidding the withdrawal of money from bank accounts . Duhalde promised in his oath of office speech that " The one who deposited dollars will receive dollars " . The minister of economy Jorge Remes Lenicov pointed out that that would be impossible , as the amount of dollars required was higher than even the foreign @-@ exchange reserves of the Central Bank . Duhalde acknowledged two weeks later that he was mistaken . The bank accounts in dollars would be " pesified " at a 1 @.@ 4 exchange rate , and the state financed the banks for the different rates with other operations . The taxes of public services were " pesified " and fixed at their current values . Most industries benefited from the " pesification " and the devaluation , as they could now export at higher prices , and the economy started to improve . The jump in the international price of soybean in July 2002 also proved highly beneficial . The devaluation also increased the price of imported products , which allowed import substitution industrialization . As the local prices became cheap in dollars , international tourism to the country was increased . The national state absorbed the debts of the provinces and the bonds used as alternative currency , on the condition that they transferred the power to issue bonds .
Jorge Remes Lenicov resigned in April , alongside ministers De Mendiguren and Capitanich . Peronist governors , legislators , and union leaders met at the Quinta de Olivos , amid rumors that Duhalde would appoint the populist Daniel Carbonetto as minister of economy . They gave their full support to the president and the economic policies instrumented so far . As a result , Duhalde appointed the conservative Roberto Lavagna . Lavagna was the Argentine ambassador to the European Union , and switched offices with Remes Lenicov . He was suggested by Governor Carlos Ruckauf and supported by Alfonsín . He stabilised prices and the exchange rate with tight fiscal and monetary policies , and prevented the crisis from growing into an hyperinflation . The recovery also benefited from the idle capacity of the economy .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
On the political level , Duhalde 's presidency was strongly influenced by his feud with Menem . Menem wanted to run for a new term as president in the 2003 election , and Duhalde wanted to prevent it . To this purpose , he sought other candidates that may have defeated him . Some of these potential candidates were Carlos Reutemann , José Manuel de la Sota , Mauricio Macri , Adolfo Rodríguez Saá , Felipe Solá and Roberto Lavagna , but none of those negotiations bore fruit . The scandal over the death of the piqueteros Maximiliano Kosteki and Manuel Santillán in the Avellaneda massacre forced Duhalde to rush the elections by six months . As a result , he chose Néstor Kirchner , governor of Santa Cruz Province , despite his reservations . Kirchner was fifth in the presidential polls , and was mostly unknown by the public . Duhalde speculated that , although Menem had a large number of willing voters to begin with , he was also very unpopular . Thus , Menem might have won the elections but if the results called for a ballotage , most of the population would rally under any candidate with a chance to defeat him .
To harm Menem 's chances even further , the 2003 election used a variant of the Ley de Lemas for a single time . This way , the Peronists Menem , Kirchner and Rodríguez Saá did not run for primary elections , but faced each other directly in the open election . None of the three candidates ran on the Justicialist Party ticket , but for special parties created for the occasion : Menem for the " Front for Loyalty " , Kirchner for the " Front for Victory " and Rodríguez Saá ( who run for president anyway , but as a critic of Duhalde ) for the " Front of the National and Popular Movement " . It was also announced that Lavagna would stay as minister of Economy during a presidency of Kirchner , to capitalize the support for the ongoing economic policies . Menem defeated Kirchner in the elections , benefited by the lack of popular candidates , but gave up running for a ballotage , fearing that he would lose this special election .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Duhalde was appointed president in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , when the foreign policy of the United States was strictly focused on the War on Terror . Initially , the Argentine society was divided on how to manage the bilateral relations with the US . One group wanted to keep the close relations of the previous decade , as Argentina might need foreign help to deal with the crisis . The other group preferred to maintain more distant relations . Duhalde sought to strike a balance between both options , and eventually leaned towards the second when the US refused to help Argentina .
Argentina voted in the United Nations condemning the human rights violations in Cuba , but refused to send military forces to Afghanistan and Iraq . Still , Duhalde proposed to send peacekeeping troops , and strongly criticized the regime of Saddam Hussein and international terrorism . Duhalde increased his criticism of the United States during the final years of his government , and changed the vote in relation to Cuba to an abstention . Those changes were motivated by the upcoming 2003 elections . Menem , who was running for a third term as president , supported the vote condemning Cuba and the military aid to the United States .
The devaluation caused a diplomatic conflict with Spain , as Duhalde did not allow the Spanish service providers to raise taxes . So far , they received their income according to the dollar exchange rate , and intended to raise taxes to compensate their losses . The Argentine government considered that the effects of the crisis were already grave enough for the people , and further price increases would only worsen the situation . José María Aznar , prime minister of Spain , talked with Duhalde on behalf of the Spanish firms . The taxes were not raised , but Aznar stayed on good terms with Duhalde , and ratified the good relations with the country regardless of the victor of the 2003 elections .
= = Later years = =
Duhalde was succeeded by Néstor Kirchner on May 25 , 2003 . Kirchner soon distanced himself from Duhalde , and removed all the people close to Duhalde from the government to reduce his political influence . Kirchner also sought supporters from all the social and political spectra to counter the influence of Duhalde within the party . However , both men delayed an open dispute and stuck together during the 2003 legislative elections , held in October . The dispute continued in the 2005 midterm elections . Without consensus in the PJ for a single candidate for senator of the Buenos Aires province , both leaders had their respective wives run for the office : Hilda González de Duhalde for the PJ , and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner for the Front for Victory , which was kept by the Kirchners . Cristina Kirchner won those elections .
On December 23 , 2009 , Duhalde announced his intention to run for the presidency in the 2011 presidential elections . Néstor Kirchner had been succeeded by Cristina Kirchner in the presidency , staying as a highly influential figure , and it was still unclear which of the Kirchners would run in 2011 . Many mayors of the Buenos Aires province were unsure whether to support Duhalde or the Kirchners . Duhalde organized the Federal Peronism faction , with members of the PJ opposing the Kirchners . Néstor Kirchner died in October 2010 ; the subsequent state funeral halted the campaign for a few months .
The Federal Peronism organized primary elections for the 2011 presidential elections between Duhalde and governor Alberto Rodríguez Saá , which would be held before the mandatory primary elections . Governors Felipe Solá and Mario Das Neves withdrew their candidacies . Duhalde withdrew his candidacy near the end of the primary elections . As the sole candidate , Rodríguez Saá ran for Federal Peronism , which allied with other provincial parties into the Federal Commitment coalition . Duhalde ran for president as well , on the Unión Popular ticket . He received nearly 6 % of the vote in the main elections , a large difference from the number of votes cast for the main candidates , and Hilda Duhalde was not reelected as senator .
= = Personal life = =
Duhalde worked as a pool lifeguard before embarking on his political career . He met Hilda González at the pool in 1970 and they married the following year . They have five sons and seven grandsons . They live in a country house in San Vicente , Buenos Aires , named " Don Tomás " after Duhalde 's father . The house had been donated for the creation of a foster care center which was never built , and was reclaimed by Duhalde . The rebuilt site includes a large grove , a pool , a tennis field , and an artificial lake .
Duhalde has largely retired from politics since his defeat in the 2011 elections . He sought to make amends with Menem for their past political rivalry , and met him during the 2013 Papal inauguration of Pope Francis . They had a private meeting at Menem 's house , and Menem reported that they were on peaceful terms . They had previously met in similar circumstances in 2005 , during the funeral of Pope John Paul II .
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= Lysurus periphragmoides =
Lysurus periphragmoides , commonly known as the stalked lattice stinkhorn or chambered stinkhorn , is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family . It was originally described as Simblum periphragmoides in 1831 , and has been known as many different names before being transferred to Lysurus in 1980 . The saprobic fungus has a pantropical distribution , and has been found in Africa , Asia , Australasia , and the Americas , where it grows on fertile ground and on mulch . The fruit body , which can extend up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall , consists of a reddish latticed head ( a receptaculum ) placed on top of a long stalk . A dark olive @-@ green spore mass , the gleba , fills the interior of the lattice and extends outwards between the arms . Like other members of the Phallaceae family , the gleba has a fetid odor that attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores . The immature " egg " form of the fungus is considered edible .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The basionym for this species is Simblum periphragmoides , first described by German mycologist Johann Friedrich Klotzsch in 1831 , based on specimens collected in Bois Chéry in Mauritius . Klotzsch designated it as the type species of Simblum , a genus differentiated from the similar genus Lysurus by having the fruit body ending in a spherical , chambered head , with gleba developing within the depressions of the chambers . Lysurus periphragmoides is a morphologically variable species ; as a result , it has acquired an extensive number of synonyms , as various authors have decided that the different forms warranted being designated as new species . Donald Malcolm Dring 's 1980 monograph on the Clathraceae ( a family that has since been subsumed into the Phallaceae ) transferred the taxon to Lysurus , explaining " a distinction between " Simblum " and Lysurus in the original restricted sense cannot be easily maintained because there are examples of intermediates states " , and he lumped 18 synonyms under L. periphragmoides .
In one noted example of an author being too eager to assign a new name , in 1902 George Francis Atkinson described a specimen he found in Texas , otherwise similar to Simblum but with a loose net drooping from the head ; he initiated the new genus Dictybole to include his " new " species D. texense . The species was , according to mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd , merely a decomposing or insect @-@ damaged specimen of L. periphragmoides that had been preserved in alcohol . Lloyd criticized Atkinson 's poor judgment in his self @-@ published journal Mycological Notes , and later , humiliated him under the pen name N.J. McGinty . William H. Long later ( 1907 ) transferred Atkinson 's taxon to the genus Simblum , claiming that the yellow arms and longer spores were sufficiently distinct to consider it distinct from L. periphragmoides ( then known as Simblum sphaerocephalum ) ; however , according to Dring , D. texense should also be considered a synonym of L. periphragmoides . Despite Dring 's renaming , and the subsequent acceptance of his subsuming of the genus Simblum into Lysurus , the species is still occasionally referred to Simblum sphaerocephalum .
The specific epithet periphragmoides means " fenced in all around " , and refers to the latticed structure of the cap . The fungus is commonly known as the " stalked lattice stinkhorn " or " chambered stinkhorn " .
= = Description = =
Immature fruiting bodies of L. periphragmoides start as round or oval " eggs " that may be up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter . On the underside of the egg are whitish rhizomorphs that anchor it to the substrate . The peridium is white to buff @-@ colored on the external surface , and has a gelatinous layer inside . An egg cut in half lengthwise reveals internal layers , including a tough white outer peridium , and a thick layer of firm , translucent , gelatinous matter transversed by strands ( trabeculae ) of denser white tissue . The strands are anastomosing partitions , connecting with the peridium externally and with the bars of the receptaculum within . The gelatinous layer is therefore divided up into many irregular longitudinal chambers .
The egg eventually ruptures as the stalk expands and breaks through , creating a volva at the base of the stipe . In maturity , the fruit bodies , are up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall , with a latticed spherical cap ( the receptaculum ) atop a long yellow or reddish stipe . In general , Old World specimens tend to be yellow , while New World specimens are reddish , although exceptions have been noted in the literature . The receptaculum is typically 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter and forms a red or orange lattice , or mesh . There are typically between 20 and 100 small pentagonal to hexagonal meshes in the receptaculum ; the arms of the mesh have sharp ridges on the outer surface , corrugations on the sides , and are flat to weakly ridged on the inner surface . The internal surfaces of the receptaculum are covered with an olive @-@ green spore @-@ bearing gleba , which sometimes seeps through the mesh holes . Like most stinkhorn species , the gleba has a foul odor , comparable to rotten meat , but it is " less @-@ offensive " than most . The smell of fresh , newly exposed gleba has been reported to be sweet , similar to amyl acetate ; the foul odor forming only after it has been exposed to air for some time . The stipe is 5 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) by 0 @.@ 8 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , and is hollow and spongy . The walls of the stipe are made of an inner layer of large tubes and two or three outer layers of small tubes . Specimens may occasionally be found with fused heads on two separate stipes arising from a single volva .
A variety with a white fruit body is known , Lysurus periphragmoides var. albidum ( originally described as Simblum texense var. albidum by Long ) . It was reported growing from sandy alkaline soil in semi @-@ arid regions of New Mexico , but has not been reported again since Long 's collections in 1941 .
Spores are elliptical or oblong in shape , smooth , inamyloid , and have dimensions of 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 µm . The use of scanning electron microscopy has revealed that L. periphragmoides ( in addition to several other Phallales species ) has a hilar scar — a small indentation in the surface of the spore where it was previously connected to the basidium via the sterigma .
Like many of the stinkhorns , L. periphragmoides is generally considered only edible when in its immature " egg " form .
= = = Similar species = = =
Lysurus periphragmoides is morphologically distinct , and unlikely to be confused with any other species . Within the genus Lysurus , L. mokusin has an angular stipe and a receptacle of four to five clasped arms , contoured like the stipe with alternating ribs and furrows . L. cruciatus has a rounder stipe with receptacle arms that are not clasped together at maturity . The receptacle of L. gardneri , found in south @-@ east Asia , India , and Africa , is made of five to seven reddish @-@ brown fingers that are initially pressed together before separating .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
This species is typically found growing solitary or in groups on lawns , mulch , pastures , and open woods . A North American field guide notes an association with apple orchards and cornfields .
Lysurus periphragmoides has a pantropical distribution . The fungus has been reported from Africa ( Mauritius , Tanzania ) , Asia ( Jilin Province , China , Sri Lanka , India , Pakistan , Thailand , Indonesia ) , Australasia ( New Guinea ) , North America ( Bahamas , Dominica , Mexico ) and South America ( Argentina , Brazil , and Venezuela ) . The distribution extends north to the Ryukyu Islands in Asia . It is fairly common in South America , but is usually restricts its appearance to periods of wet weather in southern North America .
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= Hardnose shark =
The hardnose shark ( Carcharhinus macloti ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , so named because of the heavily calcified cartilages in its snout . A small bronze @-@ coloured shark reaching a length of 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) , it has a slender body and a long , pointed snout . Its two modestly sized dorsal fins have distinctively elongated rear tips . The hardnose shark is widely distributed in the western Indo @-@ Pacific , from Kenya to southern China and northern Australia . It inhabits warm , shallow waters close to shore .
Common and gregarious , the hardnose shark is a predator of bony fishes , cephalopods , and crustaceans . This species is viviparous , with the growing embryos sustained to term via a placental connection to their mother . Females have a biennial reproductive cycle and bear litters of one or two pups after a twelve @-@ month gestation period . The hardnose shark is fished for meat throughout its range and , given its low reproductive rate , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it as Near Threatened .
= = Taxonomy = =
The hardnose shark was described by German biologists Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle in their 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen . They named it Carcharias ( Hypoprion ) macloti in honour of Heinrich Christian Macklot , who collected the type specimen from New Guinea . In 1862 , American ichthyologist Theodore Gill elevated Hypoprion to the rank of full genus , with C. macloti as the type species . In 1985 , Jack Garrick synonymised Hypoprion with Carcharhinus . This species may also be called Maclot 's shark .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
The evolutionary relationships of the hardnose shark have not been fully resolved . In a 1988 study based on morphology , Leonard Compagno tentatively grouped the hardnose shark with the Borneo shark ( C. borneensis ) , whitecheek shark ( C. dussumieri ) , Pondicherry shark ( C. hemiodon ) , creek whaler ( C. fitzroyensis ) , smalltail shark ( C. porosus ) , blackspot shark ( C. sealei ) , and spottail shark ( C. sorrah ) . Results from molecular phylogenetic analyses have been inconsistent , with some supporting parts of Compagno 's hypothesis : a 1992 study could not resolve the hardnose shark 's position in detail , a 2011 study reported that it was close to the clade formed by the whitecheek and blackspot sharks , and a 2012 study concluded that it was the sister species of the Borneo shark .
Teeth apparently belonging to the hardnose shark have been recovered from the Pungo River and Yorktown Formations in the United States , and from the Pirabas Formation in Brazil . The earliest of these fossils date to the Lower Miocene ( 23 – 16 Ma ) .
= = Description = =
The hardnose shark is a slim @-@ bodied species with a long , narrow , and pointed snout . Unlike in other Carcharhinus species , its rostral ( snout ) cartilages are highly calcified , hence the name " hardnose " . The circular eyes are rather large and equipped with protective nictitating membranes . There is a narrow lobe of skin on the anterior rim of each nostril . The arched mouth bears inconspicuous furrows at the corners ; some sources report that the hyomandibular pores ( a series of pores above the corners of the mouth ) are enlarged , while others report that they are not . The upper teeth number 29 – 32 rows and have a narrow , smooth @-@ edged central cusp with very coarse serrations at the base on either side . The lower teeth number 26 – 29 rows and are narrow and smooth @-@ edged . There are five pairs of fairly short gill slits .
The pectoral fins are fairly short and pointed , with a falcate ( sickle @-@ like ) shape . The first dorsal fin is medium @-@ sized and triangular , and originates roughly over the pectoral fin free rear tips . The second dorsal fin is small and low , and originates over the middle of the anal fin base . Both dorsal fins have very long free rear tips , and there is a subtle midline ridge between them . A prominent notch is present on the caudal peduncle at the dorsal origin of the caudal fin . The caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . The skin is covered by overlapping , oval @-@ shaped dermal denticles ; each denticle has three horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth . This species is bronze above and white below , with a barely noticeable pale band on the flanks . The pectoral , pelvic , and anal fins sometimes have lighter margins , while the first dorsal fin and upper caudal fin lobe may have darker margins . The hardnose shark reaches 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) in length .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The hardnose shark is common and widely distributed in the tropical western Indo @-@ Pacific . It is found from Kenya to Myanmar in the Indian Ocean , including Sri Lanka and the Andaman Islands . In the Pacific Ocean , it is found from Vietnam to Taiwan and southern Japan , in Indonesia , and off New Guinea and northern Australia . It is usually found in shallow , inshore waters , but has been reported to a depth of 170 m ( 560 ft ) . Tagging data has shown that this shark tends not to make long @-@ distance movements , with 30 % of re @-@ caught individuals having moved less than 50 km ( 30 mi ) from their initial tagging location . The longest known distance travelled by an individual is 711 km ( 442 mi ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The hardnose shark forms large groups , often associating with spottail sharks and Australian blacktip sharks ( C. tilstoni ) . Males and females generally roam separately from each other . Bony fishes form the main part of this shark 's diet , with cephalopods and crustaceans making up the remainder . Parasites of this species include the nematode Acanthocheilus rotundatus and the tapeworm Otobothrium carcharidis . The hardnose shark is viviparous ; like in other requiem sharks , once the embryos exhaust their yolk supply , the empty yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother provides nutrition . Females give birth once every other year to one or two pups , following a gestation period of twelve months . Newborns measure 45 – 55 cm ( 18 – 22 in ) long , and sexual maturity is attained at 70 – 75 cm ( 28 – 30 in ) long . The maximum lifespan is at least 15 – 20 years .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the hardnose shark is caught with gillnets and line gear by artisanal and commercial fisheries across much of its range . It is used for meat , which is sold fresh or dried and salted , though its small size limits its economic importance . Its low reproductive rate may render it susceptible to overfishing , and given existing levels of exploitation , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Near Threatened . Off northern Australia , the hardnose shark makes up 13 @.@ 6 % of the gillnet catch and 4 @.@ 0 % of the longline catch . Since these losses do not appear to have diminished its population there , the IUCN has given it a regional assessment of Least Concern .
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= Simon & Garfunkel =
Simon & Garfunkel were an American folk rock duo consisting of singer @-@ songwriters Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel . They were one of the most popular recording artists of the 1960s and became counterculture icons of the decade 's social revolution , alongside artists such as the Beatles , the Beach Boys , and Bob Dylan . Their biggest hits — including " The Sound of Silence " ( 1964 ) , " Mrs. Robinson " ( 1968 ) , " Bridge over Troubled Water " ( 1969 ) , and " The Boxer " ( 1969 ) — reached number one on singles charts worldwide . Their often rocky relationship led to artistic disagreements , which resulted in their breakup in 1970 . Their final studio record , Bridge over Troubled Water ( released in January of that year ) , was their most successful , becoming one of the world 's best @-@ selling albums . Since their split in 1970 they have reunited several times , most famously in 1981 for the " The Concert in Central Park " , which attracted more than 500 @,@ 000 people , the seventh @-@ largest concert attendance in history .
The duo met as children in Queens , New York in 1953 , where they learned to harmonize together and began writing original material . By 1957 , under the name Tom & Jerry , the teenagers had their first minor success with " Hey Schoolgirl " , a song imitating their idols The Everly Brothers . Afterwards , the duo went their separate ways , with Simon making unsuccessful solo records . In 1963 , aware of a growing public interest in folk music , they regrouped and were signed to Columbia Records as Simon & Garfunkel . Their début , Wednesday Morning , 3 A.M. , sold poorly , and they once again disbanded ; Simon returned to a solo career , this time in England . In June 1965 , their song " The Sound of Silence " was overdubbed , adding electric guitar and a drumkit to the original 1964 recording . This later version became a major U.S. AM radio hit in 1965 , reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . Simon & Garfunkel reunited , releasing their second studio album Sounds of Silence and touring colleges nationwide . On their third release , Parsley , Sage , Rosemary and Thyme ( 1966 ) , the duo assumed more creative control . Their music was featured in the 1967 film The Graduate , giving them further exposure . Bookends ( 1968 ) , their next album , topped the Billboard 200 chart and included the number @-@ one single " Mrs. Robinson " from the film . After their 1970 breakup following the release of Bridge over Troubled Water , they both continued recording , Simon releasing a number of highly acclaimed albums , including 1986 's Graceland . Garfunkel also briefly pursued an acting career , with leading roles in two Mike Nichols films , Catch @-@ 22 and Carnal Knowledge , and in Nicolas Roeg 's 1980 Bad Timing , as well as releasing some solo hits such as " All I Know " .
Simon & Garfunkel were described by critic Richie Unterberger as " the most successful folk @-@ rock duo of the 1960s " and one of the most popular artists from the decade in general . They won 10 Grammy Awards and were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990 . Their Bridge over Troubled Water album was nominated at the 1977 Brit Awards for Best International Album and is ranked at number 51 on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1953 – 56 ) = = =
Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel grew up in the 1940s and 1950s in the predominantly Jewish neighborhood of Forest Hills in Queens , New York , just three blocks away from one another , and attended the same schools , Public School 164 in Flushing , Parsons Junior High School , and Forest Hills High School . Individually , when still young , they developed a fascination with music ; both listened to the radio and were taken with rock and roll as it emerged , particularly the Everly Brothers . When Simon first noticed Garfunkel , he was singing in a fourth grade talent show , and Simon thought that was a good way to attract girls ; he hoped for a friendship which eventually started in 1953 when they were in the sixth grade and appeared on stage together in a school play adaptation of Alice in Wonderland . That first stage appearance was followed by the duo forming a street @-@ corner doo @-@ wop group , the Peptones , with three other friends , and learning to harmonize together . They began performing for the first time as a duo at school dances .
They moved to Forest Hills High School in 1955 , where , in 1956 , they wrote their first song , " The Girl for Me " ; Simon 's father sent a handwritten copy to the Library of Congress to register a copyright . While trying to remember the lyrics to the Everly 's song " Hey Doll Baby " , they created their own song , " Hey Schoolgirl " , which they recorded themselves for $ 25 at Sanders Recording Studio in Manhattan . While recording they were overheard by a promoter , Sid Prosen , who – after speaking to their parents – signed them to his independent label Big Records .
= = = From Tom & Jerry to Simon & Garfunkel ( 1957 – 64 ) = = =
While still aged 15 , Simon & Garfunkel now had a recording contract with Sid Prosen 's independent label Big Records . Using the name Tom & Jerry ( Garfunkel naming himself Tom Graph , a reference to his interest in mathematics , and Simon naming himself Jerry Landis after the surname of Sue Landis , a girl he had dated ) , the single " Hey Schoolgirl " was released , with the B @-@ side " Dancin ' Wild " , in 1957 . Prosen , using the payola system , bribed Alan Freed $ 200 to get the single played on his radio show , where it became a nightly staple . " Hey Schoolgirl " attracted regular rotation on nationwide AM pop stations , leading it to sell over 100 @,@ 000 copies and to land on Billboard 's charts at number 49 . Prosen promoted the group heavily , getting them a spot on Dick Clark 's American Bandstand ( headlining alongside Jerry Lee Lewis ) . The duo shared approximately $ 4 @,@ 000 from the song – earning two percent each from royalties , the rest staying with Prosen . They released three more singles on Big Records : " Our Song " , " That 's My Story " , and " Don 't Say Goodbye " , none of them successful .
After graduating from Forest Hills High School in 1959 , they were still exploring the possibilities of a music career , though continued their education as a back up ; Simon studying English at Queens College , City University of New York , Garfunkel studying first architecture , then switching to art history at Columbia College , Columbia University . While still with Big Records as a duo , Simon released a solo single , " True or False " , under the name " True Taylor " . This recording upset Garfunkel , who regarded it as a betrayal ; the emotional tension from that incident occasionally surfacing throughout their relationship . Their last recording with Big Records was a cover of a Jan and Dean single , " Baby Talk " , but the company became bankrupt soon after release ; the track was reissued on Bell Records , but failed to sell , so Tom & Jerry was dissolved . Both , however , continued recording , albeit as solo artists : Garfunkel composing and recording " Private World " for Octavia Records , and - under the name Artie Garr - " Beat Love " for Warwick ; Simon recorded with The Mystics , and Tico & The Triumphs , and wrote and recorded under the names Jerry Landis and Paul Kane . Simon also wrote and performed demos for other artists , working for a while with Carole King and Gerry Goffin .
After graduating in 1963 , Simon joined Garfunkel , who was still at Columbia , to perform together again as a duo , this time with a shared interest in folk music . Simon enrolled part @-@ time in Brooklyn Law School , By late 1963 , billing themselves as " Kane & Garr " , they performed at Gerde 's Folk City , a Greenwich club that hosted Monday night open mic performances . The duo performed three new songs — " Sparrow " , " He Was My Brother " , and " The Sound of Silence " — and got the attention of Columbia producer Tom Wilson , who worked with Bob Dylan . As a " star producer " for the label , he wanted to record " He Was My Brother " with a new British act named the Pilgrims . Simon convinced Wilson to let him and his partner have a studio audition , and they performed " The Sound of Silence " . House engineer Roy Halee recorded the audition , and at Wilson 's urging , Columbia signed the duo .
Their debut studio album , Wednesday Morning , 3 A.M. , was recorded over three daytime sessions in March 1964 and released in October . The album contains four original Simon compositions , with the remainder consisting of three traditional folk songs and five folk @-@ influenced singer @-@ songwriter numbers . Simon was adamant that they would no longer use stage names , and they adopted the name Simon & Garfunkel . Columbia set up a promotional showcase at Folk City on March 31 , 1964 , the duo 's first public concert as Simon & Garfunkel . The showcase , as well as other scheduled performances , did not go well .
= = = Simon in England ( 1964 – 65 ) = = =
Wednesday Morning , 3 A.M. sold only 3 @,@ 000 copies upon its October release , and its poor sales led Simon to move to England where he had previously visited and played some gigs . He toured the small folk clubs , appearing on the same bill and befriending British folk artists such as Bert Jansch , Martin Carthy , Al Stewart , and Sandy Denny . He met Kathy Chitty , who became the object of his affection and is the Kathy in " Kathy 's Song " and " America " .
A small music publishing company , Lorna Music , licensed " Carlos Dominguez " , a single Simon had cut two years prior as " Paul Kane " , for a cover by Val Doonican that sold very well . Simon visited Lorna to thank them , and the meeting resulted in a publishing and recording contract . He signed to the Oriole label and released " He Was My Brother " as a single . Simon invited Garfunkel to stay for the summer of 1964 . Near the end of the season , Garfunkel returned to Columbia for class , and Simon surprised his friends by saying that he would be returning to the States as well . He would resume his studies at Brooklyn Law School for one semester , partially at his parents ' insistence . He returned to England in January 1965 , now certain that music was his calling . In the meantime , his landlord , Judith Piepe , had compiled a tape from his work at Lorna and sent it to the BBC in hopes they would play it . The demos aired on the Five to Ten morning show , and were instantly successful . Oriole had folded into CBS by that point , and hoped to record a new Paul Simon album . The Paul Simon Songbook was recorded in June 1965 and featured multiple future Simon & Garfunkel staples , among them " I Am a Rock " and " April Come She Will " . CBS flew Wilson over to produce the record , and he stayed at Simon 's flat . The album saw release in August , and although sales were poor , Simon felt content with his future in England .
Meanwhile , in the United States , a late @-@ night disc jockey at WBZ @-@ FM in Boston played " The Sound of Silence " , where it found a college demographic . It was picked up the next day along the East Coast of the United States , down to Cocoa Beach , Florida . Wilson , inspired by the folk rock sound of the Byrds ' cover of " Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! " and Dylan 's " Like a Rolling Stone " , created a rock remix of the song using studio musicians . The remix of " The Sound of Silence " was issued in September 1965 , where it reached the Billboard Hot 100 . Wilson had not informed the duo of his intention to remix the track ; as such , Simon was " horrified " when he first heard it . Garfunkel graduated in 1965 , returning to Columbia University to do a master 's degree in mathematics .
= = = Mainstream breakthrough and success ( 1965 – 66 ) = = =
By January 1966 , " The Sound of Silence " topped the Hot 100 , selling over one million copies . Simon reunited with Garfunkel that winter in New York , leaving Chitty and his friends in England behind . CBS demanded a new album from the duo , to be called Sounds of Silence to ride the wave of the hit . Recorded in three weeks , and mainly consisting of re @-@ recorded songs from The Paul Simon Songbook , plus four new tracks , Sounds of Silence was rush @-@ released onto the market in mid @-@ January 1966 , peaking at number 21 Billboard Top LPs chart . A week later , " Homeward Bound " was released as a single , entering the USA top ten , followed by " I Am a Rock " peaking at number three . The duo supported the recordings with a nationwide tour of America , while CBS continued their promotion by re @-@ releasing Wednesday Morning , 3 A.M. , which promptly charted at number 30 . Despite the commercial and popular success , the duo received critical derision , as many considered them a manufactured imitation of folk .
As they considered their previous effort a " rush job " to capitalize on their sudden success , the duo spent more time crafting the follow @-@ up . It was the first time Simon insisted on total control in aspects of recording . Work began in 1966 and took nine months . Garfunkel considered the recording of " Scarborough Fair " to be the point at which they stepped into the role of producer , as they were constantly beside engineer Roy Halee mixing the track . Parsley , Sage , Rosemary and Thyme was issued in October 1966 , following the release of several singles and receiving sold @-@ out college campus shows . The duo resumed their trek on the college circuit eleven days following the release , crafting an image that was described as " alienated " , " weird " , and " poetic " . Manager Mort Lewis also was responsible for this public perception , as he withheld them from television appearances ( unless they were allowed to play an uninterrupted set or choose the setlist ) . Simon , then 26 , felt he had finally " made it " into an upper echelon of rock and roll , while most importantly retaining artistic integrity ( " making him spiritually closer to Bob Dylan than to , say , Bobby Darin " , wrote biographer Marc Eliot ) . The duo chose William Morris as their booking agency after a recommendation from Wally Amos , a mutual friend through their producer Tom Wilson .
During the sessions for Parsley , the duo cut " A Hazy Shade of Winter " ; it was released as a single , peaking at number 13 on the national charts . Similarly , they recorded " At the Zoo " for single release in early 1967 ( it charted lower , at number 16 ) . Simon began work for their next album around this time , noting to a writer at High Fidelity that " I 'm not interested in singles anymore " . He had hit a dry spell in his writing , which led to no Simon & Garfunkel album on the horizon for 1967 . Artists at the time were expected to release two , perhaps three albums each year and the lack of productivity from the duo worried executives at Columbia Records . Amid concerns for Simon 's idleness , Columbia Records chairman Clive Davis arranged for up @-@ and @-@ coming record producer John Simon to kick @-@ start the recording . Simon was distrustful of " suits " at the label ; on one occasion , he and Garfunkel brought a tape recorder into a meeting with Davis , who was giving a " fatherly talk " on speeding up production , in order to laugh at it later . The rare television appearances at this time saw the duo performing on such diverse network broadcasts as the Ed Sullivan , Mike Douglas and Andy Williams shows in 1966 and twice on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour in 1967 .
Meanwhile , director Mike Nichols , then filming The Graduate , had become fascinated with the duo 's past two efforts , listening to them nonstop before and after filming . After two weeks of this obsession , he met with Clive Davis to ask for permission to license Simon & Garfunkel music for his film . Davis viewed it as a perfect fit and envisioned a best @-@ selling soundtrack album . Simon was not as immediately receptive , viewing movies akin to " selling out " , creating a damper on his artistic integrity . However , after meeting Nichols and becoming impressed by his wit and the script , he agreed to write at least one or two new songs for the film . Leonard Hirshan , a powerful agent at William Morris , negotiated a deal that paid Simon $ 25 @,@ 000 to submit three songs to Nichols and producer Lawrence Turman . Several weeks later , Simon re @-@ emerged with two new tracks , " Punky 's Dilemma " and " Overs " , neither of which Nichols was particularly taken with . The duo offered another new song , which later became " Mrs. Robinson " , that was not as developed . Nichols loved it .
= = = Studio time and low profile ( 1967 – 68 ) = = =
The duo 's fourth studio album , Bookends , was recorded in fits and starts over various periods from late 1966 to early 1968 . The duo were signed under an older contract that specified the label pay for sessions , and Simon & Garfunkel took advantage of this indulgence , hiring viola and brass players , as well as percussionists . The record 's brevity reflects its concise and perfectionist production . The team spent over 50 studio hours recording " Punky 's Dilemma " , for example , and re @-@ recorded vocal parts , sometimes note by note , until they were satisfied . Garfunkel 's songs and voice took a lead role on some of the songs , and the harmonies for which the duo was known gradually disappeared . For Simon , Bookends represented the end of the collaboration and became an early indicator of his intentions to go solo . Although the album had been planned long in advance , work did not begin in earnest until the late months of 1967 .
Prior to release , the band helped put together and performed at the Monterey Pop Festival , which signaled the beginning of the Summer of Love on the West Coast . " Fakin ' It " was issued as a single that summer and found only modest success on AM radio ; the duo were much more focused on the rising FM format , which played album cuts and treated their music with respect . In January 1968 , the duo appeared on a Kraft Music Hall special , Three for Tonight , performing ten songs largely culled from their third album . Bookends was released by Columbia Records in April 1968 . In a historical context , this was just 24 hours before the assassination of Civil Rights Movement activist Martin Luther King , Jr . , which spurred nationwide outrage and riots . The album debuted on the Billboard Top LPs in the issue dated April 27 , 1968 , climbing to number one and staying at that position for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks ; it remained on the chart as a whole for 66 weeks . Bookends received such heavy orders weeks in advance of its release that Columbia was able to apply for award certification before copies left the warehouse , a fact it touted in magazine ads . The record became the duo 's best @-@ selling album to date : it fed off the buzz created by the release of The Graduate soundtrack album ten weeks earlier , creating an initial combined sales figure of over five million units .
Davis had predicted this fact , and suggested raising the list price of Bookends by one dollar to $ 5 @.@ 79 , above the then standard retail price , to compensate for including a large poster included in vinyl copies . Simon instead scoffed and viewed it as charging a premium on " what was sure to be that year 's best @-@ selling Columbia album " . According to biographer Marc Eliot , Davis was " offended by what he perceived as their lack of gratitude for what he believed was his role in turning them into superstars " . Rather than implement Davis ' price increase plan , Simon & Garfunkel signed a contract extension with Columbia that guaranteed them a higher royalty rate . Lead single " Mrs. Robinson " became , at the 1969 Grammy Awards the first rock and roll song to receive Record of the Year ; it was also awarded Best Contemporary Pop Performance by a Duo or Group .
= = = Growing apart and final years ( 1969 – 70 ) = = =
Bookends , alongside The Graduate soundtrack , propelled Simon & Garfunkel to become the biggest rock duo in the world . Simon was approached by producers to write music for films or license songs ; he turned down Franco Zeffirelli , who was preparing to film Brother Sun , Sister Moon , and John Schlesinger , who likewise was readying to shoot Midnight Cowboy . In addition to Hollywood proposals , producers from the Broadway show Jimmy Shine ( starring Simon 's friend Dustin Hoffman , also the lead in Midnight Cowboy ) asked for two original songs and Simon declined . He collaborated briefly with Leonard Bernstein on a sacred mass before withdrawing from the project due to " finding it perhaps too far afield from his comfort zone " . Garfunkel took the role of Captain Nately in the Nichols film , Catch @-@ 22 , based on the Catch @-@ 22 novel . Initially Simon was to play the character of Dunbar , but screenwriter Buck Henry felt the film was already crowded with characters and subsequently wrote Simon 's part out .
The filming of Catch @-@ 22 began in January 1969 and lasted about eight months . The unexpectedly long film production endangered the relationship between the duo ; Simon had not completed any new songs at this point , and the duo planned to collaborate when the filming would be finished . Following the end of filming of Catch @-@ 22 in October , the first performance of what was , for a time , their last tour , took place in Ames , Iowa . The US leg of the tour ended in the sold @-@ out Carnegie Hall on November 27 . After breaking for Christmas , the duo continued working on the album in early 1970 and finished it in late January . Meanwhile , the duo , working with director Charles Grodin , produced an hourlong CBS special , Songs of America , which is a mixture of scenes featuring notable political events and leaders concerning the USA , such as the Vietnam War , Martin Luther King , John F. Kennedy 's funeral procession , Cesar Chavez and the Poor People 's March . It was broadcast only once , due to internal tension at the network regarding its content .
Bridge over Troubled Water , their final studio album , was released in January 1970 and charted in over 11 countries , topping the charts in 10 , including the Billboard Top LP 's chart in the US and the UK Albums Chart . It was the best @-@ selling album in 1970 , 1971 and 1972 and was at that time the best @-@ selling album of all time . It was also CBS Records ' best @-@ selling album before the release of Michael Jackson 's Thriller in 1982 . The album topped the Billboard charts for 10 weeks and stayed in the charts for 85 weeks . In the United Kingdom , the album topped the charts for 35 weeks , and spent 285 weeks in the top 100 , from 1970 to 1975 . It has since sold over 25 million copies worldwide . " Bridge over Troubled Water " , the album 's lead single , hit number one in five countries and became their biggest seller . The song has been covered by over 50 artists since then , including Elvis Presley and Johnny Cash . " Cecilia " , the follow @-@ up , hit number four in the US , and " El Condor Pasa " hit number 18 .
The recording process was tough for both musicians , and their breakup was almost certain considering the deterioration of their relationship . " At that point , I just wanted out , " Simon later said . Their breakup was not intended to be semi @-@ permanent : Garfunkel hoped for a two @-@ year break from Simon & Garfunkel and did not intend to pursue a film @-@ career . Likewise , Simon did not intend to begin a solo career . A brief British tour followed the album release , and the duo 's last concert as Simon & Garfunkel occurred at Forest Hills Stadium . In 1971 , the album took home six awards at the 13th Annual Grammy Awards , including Album of the Year . Simon 's wife , Peggy Harper , pushed for him to make the split official , and he placed a call to Davis to confirm the duo 's breakup : " I want you to know I ’ ve decided to split with Artie . I don ’ t think we ’ ll be recording together again . " For the next several years , the duo would only speak " two or three " times a year .
= = = Breakup , rifts , and reunions ( 1971 – 2003 ) = = =
In the 1970s , the duo reunited several times . Their first reunion was a benefit concert for presidential candidate George McGovern at New York 's Madison Square Garden in June 1972 . In 1975 , they reconciled once more when they visited a recording session with John Lennon and Harry Nilsson . For the rest of the year , they attempted to make the reunion work , but their collaboration only yielded one song , " My Little Town , " that was featured on Simon 's Still Crazy After All These Years and Garfunkel 's Breakaway . It peaked at number nine on the Hot 100 . In 1975 , Garfunkel joined Simon for a medley of three songs on the television series Saturday Night Live which Simon was guest hosting . In 1977 , Garfunkel joined Simon for a brief performance of their old songs on Simon 's television special The Paul Simon Special , and later that year they recorded a cover of Sam Cooke 's " ( What a ) Wonderful World " along with James Taylor . Old tensions finally appeared to dissipate upon Garfunkel 's return to New York in 1978 , when the duo began interacting more often . On May 1 , 1978 , Simon joined Garfunkel for a concert held at Carnegie Hall to benefit the hearing disabled .
By 1980 , the duo 's respective solo efforts were not doing well . To help alleviate New York 's economic decline , concert promoter Ron Delsener came up with the idea to throw a free concert in Central Park . Delsener contacted Simon with the idea of a Simon & Garfunkel reunion , and once Garfunkel agreed , plans were made . The Concert in Central Park , performed September 19 , 1981 , attracted more than 500 @,@ 000 people , at that time the largest @-@ ever concert attendance . Warner Bros. Records released a live album of the show that went double platinum in the US . A 90 @-@ minute recording of the concert was sold to Home Box Office ( HBO ) for over $ 1 million . The concert created a renewed interest in the duo 's work . They had several " heart @-@ to @-@ heart talks , " attempting to put past issues behind them . The duo planned a world tour , kicking off in May 1982 , but their relationship grew contentious : for the majority of the tour , they did not speak to one another . Warner Bros. pushed for them to extend the tour and release an all @-@ new Simon & Garfunkel studio album .
After recording several vocal tracks for a possible new Simon & Garfunkel album , Simon decided to adopt it as his own solo album . Garfunkel had refused to learn the songs in the studio , and would not give up cannabis and cigarettes , despite Simon 's requests . An official spokesperson remarked , " Paul simply felt the material he wrote is so close to his own life that it had to be his own record . Art was hoping to be on the album , but I 'm sure there will be other projects that they will work on together . They are still friends . " The material was later released on Simon 's 1983 effort Hearts and Bones . Another rift opened between the duo when the lengthy recording of Simon 's 1986 album Graceland prevented Garfunkel from working with Roy Halee on a Christmas album . In 1990 , the duo was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . Garfunkel thanked his partner , calling him " the person who most enriched my life by putting those songs through me , " to which Simon responded , " Arthur and I agree about almost nothing . But it 's true , I have enriched his life quite a bit . " After three songs , the duo left without speaking .
By 1993 , their relationship had thawed again , and Simon invited Garfunkel on an international tour with him . Following a 21 @-@ date , sold @-@ out run at the Paramount Theater in New York and an appearance at that year 's Bridge School Benefit in California , the duo toured the Far East . The duo had a falling out over the course of the rest of the decade , the details of which have never been disclosed . Simon thanked Garfunkel at his 2001 induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist : " I regret the ending of our friendship . I hope that some day before we die we will make peace with each other , " resuming after a pause , " No rush . " They were awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 45th Annual Grammy Awards in 2003 , for which the promoters convinced them to reconcile and open the show with a performance of " The Sound of Silence . " The performance was satisfying for both musicians , and they planned out a full @-@ scale reunion tour over the summer . The Old Friends tour began in October 2003 and played to sold @-@ out audiences across the United States for 30 dates until mid @-@ December . The tour earned an estimated $ 123 million . Following a twelve @-@ city run in Europe in 2004 , they ended their nine @-@ month tour with a free concert at the Colosseum in Rome . It attracted 600 @,@ 000 fans , more than their The Concert in Central Park .
= = = Recent years ( 2009 – present ) = = =
In 2009 , the duo reunited again for three songs during Simon 's two @-@ night engagement at New York 's Beacon Theatre . This led to a reunion tour of Asia and Australia in June 2009 . Their headlining set at the 2010 New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Festival was very difficult for Garfunkel , who was experiencing serious vocal problems . " I was terrible , and crazy nervous . I leaned on Paul Simon and the affection of the crowd , " he told Rolling Stone several years later . Garfunkel was diagnosed with vocal cord paresis , and the remaining tour dates were postponed indefinitely . His manager , John Scher , informed Simon 's camp that Garfunkel would be ready within a year , which did not happen , leading to poor relations between the two . He regained his vocal strength over the course of the next four years , performing shows in a Harlem theater and to underground audiences .
Despite this , the duo have not staged a full @-@ scale tour or performed shows since 2010 . Garfunkel confirmed to Rolling Stone in 2014 that he believes they will tour in the future , although Simon had been too " busy " in recent years . " I know that audiences all over the world like Simon and Garfunkel . I 'm with them . But I don 't think Paul Simon 's with them , " he remarked . In a 2016 interview with NPR 's David Greene , when asked about the possibility of reuniting , Simon stated ; " Well , I don 't think most people do [ constantly want Simon to relive the olden days ] . The fact is , is , like , we did do two big reunions , and we 're done . There 's nothing really much to say . You know , the music essentially stopped in 1970 . And , you know , I mean , quite honestly , we don 't get along . So it 's not like it 's fun . If it was fun , I 'd say , OK , sometimes we 'll go out and sing old songs in harmony . That 's cool . But when it 's not fun , you know , and you 're going to be in a tense situation , well , then I have a lot of musical areas that I like to play in . So that 'll never happen again . That 's that . "
= = Musical style and legacy = =
Over the course of their career , Simon & Garfunkel 's music gradually moved from a very basic , folk rock sound to incorporate more experimental elements for the time , including Latin and gospel music . Many adolescents of the 1960s found their music relevant , while adults regarded them as intelligent . Their music , according to Rolling Stone , struck a chord among lonely , alienated young adults near the end of the decade .
Despite its popularity , the group was also criticized sharply , especially in its heyday . Rolling Stone critic Arthur Schmidt , for example , described the duo 's music as " questionable ... it exudes a sense of process , and it is slick , and nothing too much happens . " New York Times critic Robert Shelton said that the group had " a kind of Mickey Mouse , timid , contrived " approach to music .
Their clean sound and muted lyricism " cost them some hipness points during the psychedelic era " according to Richie Unterberger of AllMusic , who also notes that the duo " inhabited the more polished end of the folk @-@ rock spectrum and was sometimes criticized for a certain collegiate sterility . " Unterberger further observes that some critics would later regard Simon 's lyricism in his work with Simon & Garfunkel to pale in comparison to his later solo material . But Unterberger himself believed that " the best of S & G 's work could stand among Simon 's best material , and the duo did progress musically over the course of their five albums , moving from basic folk @-@ rock productions into Latin rhythms and gospel @-@ influenced arrangements that foreshadowed Simon 's eclecticism on his solo albums . " Their rocky personal relationship led to their " breaking up and making up about every dozen years . "
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Wednesday Morning , 3 A.M. ( 1964 )
Sounds of Silence ( 1966 )
Parsley , Sage , Rosemary and Thyme ( 1966 )
Bookends ( 1968 )
Bridge over Troubled Water ( 1970 )
= = Awards = =
Grammy Awards
The Grammy Awards are held annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences . Simon & Garfunkel have won 9 total competitive awards , 4 Hall of Fame awards , and a Lifetime Achievement Award .
Other recognition
BRIT Awards ( 1978 ) – Best International Album ( of the past 25 years ) ( for Bridge over Troubled Water )
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ( 1990 ) – Inductee
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= Green Wing Special =
The Green Wing Special is the final episode of the British sitcom Green Wing . It was first broadcast in Australia and Belgium on 29 December 2006 . It was aired on 4 January 2007 in the United Kingdom . The episode is sometimes billed as a Christmas special , although the episode contains nothing Christmas related . The special is 90 minutes long , around twice the length of a normal episode .
The special continues the plot from the end of the second series of Green Wing , which ended with Caroline Todd ( played by Tamsin Greig ) becoming engaged to Guy Secretan ( Stephen Mangan ) , " Mac " Macartney ( Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt ) learning that he was going to die , Alan Statham ( Mark Heap ) and Joanna Clore ( Pippa Haywood ) fleeing from the police after they murdered Joanna 's cousin , and Karen Ball ( Lucinda Raikes ) having a dramatic change of personality after she fell out of a window . While this was the final episode of Green Wing , an alternative ending was produced in case a third series was written . There was an argument between the cast and the writers about which ending should have been used . The special received mixed views from both critics and fans .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins at a funeral , attended by Guy , Caroline , Boyce ( Oliver Chris ) , Martin Dear ( Karl Theobald ) and Sue White ( Michelle Gomez ) . References made in the episode lead the viewer to first believe that it is Mac 's funeral , but then a giant picture of Angela Hunter ( Sarah Alexander ) , who left the hospital in series two , appears . The cause of her death is not fully explained , although comments made by the characters indicate she died in a hunting accident with a moose . The plot then splits between three groups of characters .
= = = Caroline , Guy and Mac = = =
Mac returns to work after a month 's leave . When Caroline meets him she implies that she is engaged to Guy . Mac and Guy are then drunk in a bar , where Mac tells Guy he is going to die in a couple of weeks and makes Guy promise he will not tell Caroline . However , Guy tells Martin , who then complains to him about his selfishness . However , Caroline walks in and overhears the argument . Meanwhile , Mac suggests to Sue that she finds someone else to love . Caroline confronts Mac about marrying her . Mac defends himself by saying it would be better for her to marry Guy because he will live longer . Guy later decides to do the right thing , and tells Mac to propose to Caroline because they love each other . Caroline and Mac therefore become engaged and later marry , where the majority of the core cast are in attendance . At the wedding , Sue is seen with a new boyfriend . The special ends with Caroline floating away into the sky holding a mass of helium balloons .
= = = Alan and Joanna = = =
After being rescued by Martin while they were teetering over the edge of a cliff in a stolen campervan , Alan and Joanna are on the run , believing the police are after them for the murder of Joanna 's cousin . They go to a garage to get the van checked for faults , but as they leave , Joanna accidentally runs over the mechanic by putting the van in the wrong gear and reversing into him . They then try to rob a corner shop and Joanna tells Alan to sit on the shopkeeper to restrain her , but this causes Alan to accidentally suffocate her . Back at the hospital , Boyce begins to miss Alan after discovering his replacement is worse than him . Boyce 's plotline with Alan is concluded when Alan telephones him to say goodbye , almost confirming the strange love they have for each other , but instead telling him ( in code ) that he is " Flying west " .
Later , Alan and Joanna are stopped by a policeman on suspicion of stealing the campervan . Joanna gets her peanut @-@ butter sandwich and smears it in the policeman 's face . Alan and Joanna have an argument about the minute odds of the policeman having a peanut allergy and going into anaphylaxis , while in the background this is actually happening . They then carry the body of the policeman into the van . Soon , having run out of food and petrol , Alan changes the engine to run on alcohol and fermented excrement . The plan is of no use however , as the van explodes . They soon reach the beach and Joanna gives Alan three options : Give themselves up , swim the Channel to Spain or commit suicide . As Alan is not keen on the Spanish , they choose the third option and they are last seen walking naked into the sea , presumably to their deaths - although the alternate ending shows them hanging on to a buoy sometime later .
= = = Admin girls = = =
Having fallen out of a window , Karen walks into the office dressed smartly and feistier . However , she has lost a hand and her nose whistles when she has an orgasm . When the girls realise that Joanna is not there to control them they start going wild . They start off by doing mild things such as swapping desks and tipping up litter , then become wilder by interviewing people and asking people to pull their trousers down . Slowly , the scene turns into a " Lord of the Flies " situation . They soon begin to argue and Harriet Schulenburg ( Olivia Colman ) decides to become the new Joanna . Martin is captured by Naughty Rachel ( Katie Lyons ) , Kim Alabaster ( Sally Bretton ) and Karen , chanting " Kill the doctor " at him . Martin calls for his mummy ( Joanna ) , but when Harriet comes out into the office she proclaims she is the " new mummy in town " , and he is dragged into the office . However , Martin somehow manages to escape by means unknown .
= = Production = =
The production on the special was similar to that of the other episodes , with the hospital scenes being shot in the usual locations ( the Northwick Park Hospital in Middlesex and the North Hampshire Hospital in Basingstoke ) . The script was written by the usual eight @-@ person team led by Victoria Pile , and produced and directed by the same people who recorded all the previous episodes . The special was recorded at the same time as the second series . The exterior scenes were harder to shoot . In the beginning funeral scene , one of the mourners is Alan Yentob , who had been filming an episode of the BBC One documentary series Imagine . Stephen Mangan said that Martin 's mime during the funeral was one of his favourite moments in Green Wing . The opening titles of the episode differ from the others as it does not use the normal theme tune , " Last Week " , ( as it is named in the original television soundtrack ) and instead uses the track , " Camel " .
There were some improvised scenes . These included a scene in the beginning of the episode where Alan and Joanna are in a middle of a field and the scene begins with a low @-@ angle shot . Later , when Alan is " humping " Joanna , the scene suddenly becomes a crane shot . This is because the crew at the time had a crane camera after they had finished filming the final scenes in series 2 where Alan , Joanna and Martin are teetering over the edge of a cliff in the stolen camper van . The camper van scenes were the hardest to shoot , especially the scene where the van explodes , as this had to be done in one take . Another problem was the smell of the van , which Pippa Haywood said , " smelt of old dogs . " The van also suffered other problems such as bits of the steering wheel and gear stick coming off . Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt commented that the scene where Alan and Boyce talk together for the last time was one of the most moving scenes in the whole of Green Wing . The wedding was shot at Hall of Bayham Abbey in Kent , where the crew had difficulty filming due to bad weather . The show also features a guest appearance from Jeremy Sheffield near the end of the episode as Sue 's new boyfriend .
The DVD of the special was released on 8 January , four days after its premiere in the UK . Features include the alternate ending , a " Behind the Scenes " featurette , 20 minutes of deleted scenes and commentary from many of the main cast , which includes commentary from some foreign relatives of Michelle Gomez who had not seen the show before . Three extra deleted scenes from the special were later released in " The Definitive Collection " DVD boxset .
= = = Alternative ending = = =
An alternative ending was made for the special which was never broadcast , but was put as an extra on the DVD . In this version of the ending , when Mac sees Caroline floating away , he runs down the stairs and out of the castle to save her . Caroline begins to descend , and both Mac and Guy grab hold of one her legs to bring her down , but instead they are lifted into the air with her . While the three fly away Caroline exclaims " We 're all going to die ! " , to which Mac quite sternly says " Caroline , there 's something I 've been meaning to tell you " , opening the possibility that Mac is not going to die . Meanwhile , Alan and Joanna , after walking into the sea , are last seen hanging onto a buoy waiting to drown . They are still talking and waiting for the ocean to drown them .
This ending was the favourite amongst the actors . Mangan said that the alternative ending was the best moment in the whole of Green Wing . However , the alternative ending was rejected and the writers favoured the ending that was eventually broadcast . It is believed that the alternative ending would have been broadcast if a third series was being made , as that ending was much more ambiguous , since Alan and Joanna are still seen alive and Mac tells Caroline that he still has something to say .
= = Reception = =
When the special was first broadcast , it was watched by 1 @.@ 7 million viewers , 11 % of the total audience . However , these ratings are poor compared to other programmes . For example , an episode of Desperate Housewives shown the previous night attracted 2 @.@ 8 million viewers . Responses from critics were mixed . Matt Baylis said , " Like a homegrown ER on laughing gas , this show will be sorely missed , " and Ian Johns said , " It was like a Richard Curtis romcom , albeit one force @-@ fed magic mushrooms . " Sam Wollaston in The Guardian wrote that it was one of the funniest shows on British television , alongside the satirical sitcom The Thick of It , saying , " The Thick of It is clever @-@ funny , Green Wing is mad @-@ funny . " Wollaston said that while the dramatic element of the show , such as Mac 's death , were good , it was Alan and Joanna 's storyline that was most entertaining . " Mark Heap and Pippa Haywood , who play them , have been the shining lights in an already glittering show . They , and it , will be sorely missed , " he said . David Butcher in the Radio Times said that , " Green Wing 's sublime comic acting and a vein of shrieking madness in the writing make it very hard to beat . "
Paul Whitelaw however attacked both the series and the special saying , " This final installment was typically awful , more so considering its length . " Fans of the show thought that while the special was good , it was not the greatest episode of Green Wing made . Some thought the special concentrated too much on the drama instead of the comedy . Some were confused by the final ending and others complained about the lack of appearances made by Sue White .
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= Charles Mathias =
Charles McCurdy " Mac " Mathias Jr . ( July 24 , 1922 – January 25 , 2010 ) was a Republican member of the United States Senate , representing Maryland from 1969 to 1987 . He was also a member of the Maryland House of Delegates from 1959 to 1960 , and of the United States House of Representatives , representing the 6th congressional district of Maryland from 1961 to 1969 .
After studying law and serving in the United States Navy during World War II , Mathias worked as a lawyer and was elected to the state legislature in 1958 . In 1960 , he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Western Maryland . He was re @-@ elected three times ( 1962 , 1964 , 1966 ) , serving in the House for eight years , where he aligned himself with the then @-@ influential liberal wing of the Republican Party .
Mathias was elected to the Senate in 1968 , unseating the incumbent Democrat , Daniel Brewster , who twenty years earlier had been his roommate while attending the University of Maryland School of Law . He continued his record as a liberal Republican in the Senate , and frequently clashed with the conservative wing of his party . For a few months in late 1975 and early 1976 , Mathias considered running an insurgent presidential campaign in an attempt to stave off the increasing influence of conservative Republicans led by Ronald Reagan .
His confrontations with conservatives cost him several leadership positions in the Senate , including chairmanship of the Judiciary Committee . Despite isolation from his conservative colleagues , Mathias played an influential role in fostering African American civil rights , ending the Vietnam War , preserving the Chesapeake Bay , and constructing the Vietnam Veterans Memorial . He retired from the Senate in 1987 , having served in Congress for twenty @-@ six years ( eight years in the U.S. House of Representatives and eighteen years in the U.S. Senate ) .
= = Early life and career = =
Mathias was born in Frederick , Maryland , the son of Theresa ( née Trail ) and Charles Mathias , Sr. His father was politically active , and he was a descendant of several Maryland legislators . After graduating from Frederick High School , Mathias graduated from Haverford College in Pennsylvania in 1944 . He went on to attend Yale University and received a law degree from the University of Maryland School of Law in 1949 . Around this time , Mathias met his future wife , Ann Bradford , at a birthday party for his law school roommate Daniel Brewster . Ann Bradford is the daughter of former Massachusetts governor Robert F. Bradford .
In 1942 , during World War II , Mathias enlisted in the United States Navy and served at the rank of seaman apprentice . He was promoted to ensign in 1944 and served sea duty in the Pacific Ocean , including the recently devastated Hiroshima , from 1944 until he was released from active duty in 1946 . Following the war , Mathias rose to the rank of captain in the United States Naval Reserve .
Mathias briefly served as assistant Attorney General of Maryland from 1953 to 1954 . From 1954 to 1959 , he worked as the City Attorney of Frederick , where he supported civil rights for African Americans . He played a role in desegregating the local Opera House movie theater , which restricted African American seating to the back of the theater . Mathias also worked to relocate the Frederick post office and helped protect a park in the city . In 1958 , he was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates , serving from 1959 to 1960 . As a delegate , he voted in favor of Maryland ratifying the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , which secured African American rights following the American Civil War . With his support , the legislature ratified the amendment in 1959 , nearly 100 years after it was first introduced .
= = In the House of Representatives = =
On January 4 , 1960 , Mathias declared his candidacy for the House seat of Maryland 's 6th congressional district . He officially began his campaign in March , establishing public education and controls on government spending as two of his priorities should he be elected . In the primary elections of May 1960 , Mathias handily defeated his two rivals , garnering a 3 – 1 margin of victory .
Mathias ' opponent in the general election was John R. Foley , a former judge who had unseated DeWitt Hyde in a Democratic landslide in the state two years prior . Both candidates attacked each other 's voting records , with Foley accusing Mathias of skipping more than 500 votes in the House of Delegates and having the " worst Republican record in Annapolis " . Mathias previously accused Foley of voting " present " ( a de facto abstention ) in the House too often , and argued Foley 's inaction led to inflation and higher taxes . Mathias prevailed over Foley on election day in November 1960 , unseating the one @-@ term incumbent and becoming the first representative from Frederick County since Milton Urner in 1883 .
During his eight @-@ year career in the House , Mathias established himself as a member of the liberal wing of the Republican Party , which was the most influential at the time . He was the author of the " Mathias Amendment " to the unsuccessful 1966 civil rights bill on open housing . Concerning environmental issues , Mathias sponsored legislation to make the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal a national park , and supported other conservation initiatives along the Potomac River . He also served on the Judiciary Committee and the Committee on the District of Columbia . As a member of the D.C. Committee , Mathias was a proponent of establishing home rule in the District of Columbia .
= = United States Senate career = =
= = = Election of 1968 : unseating Brewster = = =
Leading up to the United States Senate elections of 1968 , Mathias ' name was frequently mentioned as a potential challenger to Democratic incumbent Daniel Brewster , his college roommate . Representative Rogers Morton of Maryland 's 1st congressional district was also considering a run at Brewster 's seat , but was dissuaded by Republican party leaders in the state in favor of a Mathias candidacy . Their decision was largely due to the geography of Mathias ' seat . As representative of the 6th district , he already had established name recognition in both the Baltimore and Washington , D.C. , metropolitan areas , the more densely populated and liberal areas of the state . Mathias ' seat was also more likely to stay under Republican control , unlike Morton 's seat , which was located on the socially conservative but Democratic @-@ voting Eastern Shore of Maryland . Mathias had also established a more liberal voting record , which was argued to serve him better in the state with a 3 @-@ 1 Democratic advantage in registered voters .
Mathias officially declared his candidacy for the Senate on February 10 , 1968 , calling for troop reductions in the Vietnam War , and identifying urban blight , racial discrimination , welfare reform , and improving public schools as major issues . As the campaign drew on , the two primary issues became the war and crime . Mathias argued that the extensive bombing campaigns in North Vietnam should be reduced , while Brewster had argued for increasing bombardment . Brewster adopted a hard line stance on law and order , while Mathias advocated addressing the precipitating causes of poverty and the low standard of living in urban ghettos . Campaign finances were also an issue , with controversy erupting over Brewster 's receipt of $ 15 @,@ 000 in campaign contributions from his Senate staff and their families . On November 5 , 1968 , Mathias was elected , garnering 48 % of the vote to Brewster 's 39 % and perennial candidate George P. Mahoney 's 13 % .
= = = First term ( 1969 – 1975 ) : conflict with Nixon = = =
Mathias began his first term in the Senate in January 1969 and laid out his legislative agenda soon thereafter . He was appointed to the District of Columbia committee , where he argued in favor of home rule in the district and providing D.C. residents full representation in both chambers of Congress . Both were positions he carried over from his career in the House . In December 1970 he finally gained passage of legislation creating the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park . He also served as chair of the Special Committee on Termination of the National Emergency from 1971 to 1977 , which produced Senate Report 93 @-@ 549 .
Over the course of his first term , Mathias was frequently at odds with his conservative colleagues in the Senate and the Richard Nixon administration . In June 1969 , Mathias joined with fellow liberal Republican Hugh Scott of Pennsylvania in threatening a " rebellion " unless the Nixon administration worked harder to protect African American civil rights . He also warned against Republicans using the " Southern strategy " of attracting conservative George Wallace voters at the expense of moderate or liberal voters . Mathias voted against two controversial Nixon Supreme Court nominees , Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell , neither of whom was confirmed . Mathias was also an early advocate for setting a timetable for withdrawal of troops from Vietnam , and was against the bombing campaigns Nixon launched into Laos . In October 1972 , Mathias became the first Republican on Ted Kennedy 's Judiciary subcommittee and one of only a few in the nation to support investigation of the Watergate Scandal , which was still in its early stages .
Mathias ' disagreements with the administration became well @-@ known , causing columnists Rowland Evans and Robert Novak to name him the " new supervillain ... in President Nixon 's doghouse " . Evans and Novak also commented that " not since [ Charles Goodell ] was defeated with White House connivance has any Republican so outraged Mr. Nixon and his senior staff as Mathias . The senator 's liberalism and tendency to bolt party lines have bred animosity in the inner sanctum " . Due to their differing ideologies , there was speculation that Mathias was going to be " purged " from the party by Nixon in a similar manner as Goodell in 1971 , but these threats disappeared after the Watergate scandal escalated . By the numbers , Mathias sided with the Nixon administration 47 % of the time , and voted with the majority of his Republican colleagues in the Senate 31 % of the time , during his first term .
In early 1974 , the group Americans for Democratic Action rated Mathias the most liberal member of the GOP in the Senate based on twenty key votes in the 1973 legislative session . At 90 percent , his score was higher than most Democrats in the Senate , and was fourth highest amongst all members . Issues considered when rating senators included their positions on civil rights , mass transit , D.C. home rule , tax reform , and reducing overseas troop levels . The League of Women Voters gave Mathias a 100 % on issues important to them , and the AFL @-@ CIO agreed with Mathias on 32 out of 45 key labor votes . Conversely , the conservative group Americans for Constitutional Action stated Mathias agreed with their positions only 16 % of the time .
= = = Election of 1974 : challenge from Mikulski = = =
As a Republican representing heavily @-@ Democratic Maryland , Mathias faced a potentially difficult re @-@ election bid for the 1974 election . State Democrats nominated Barbara Mikulski , then a Baltimore City Councilwoman who was well @-@ known to residents in her city as a social activist , but with limited name recognition in the rest of the state . Mathias was renominated by Republicans , fending off a primary election challenge from conservative doctor Ross Pierpont . Pierpont was never a substantial threat to Mathias , whose lack of competition was due in part to fallout from the Watergate scandal .
As an advocate for campaign finance reform , Mathias refused to accept any contribution over $ 100 to " avoid the curse of big money that has led to so much trouble in the last year " . However , he still managed to raise over $ 250 @,@ 000 , nearly five times Mikulski 's total . Ideologically , Mikulski and Mathias agreed on many issues , such as closing tax loopholes and easing taxes on the middle class . On two issues , however , Mathias argued to reform Congress and the U.S. tax system to address inflation and corporate price fixing , contrary to Mikulski . In retrospect , The Washington Post felt the election was " an intelligent discussion of state , national , and foreign affairs by two smart , well @-@ informed people " .
With Maryland voters , Mathias benefited from his frequent disagreements with the Nixon administration and his liberal voting record . On November 5 , 1974 , he was re @-@ elected by a 57 % to 43 % margin , though he lost badly in Baltimore City and Baltimore County , where Mikulski was popular .
= = = Second term ( 1975 – 1981 ) : unease with the growth of conservatism = = =
In 1975 , Mathias co @-@ introduced legislation with Illinois Senator Adlai Stevenson III that would prohibit foreign aid to South Vietnam after June 30 , 1975 .
Mathias expressed concerns with the state of his party leading up to the 1976 presidential election , specifically its shift further to the right . Referring to the nomination contest between Gerald Ford and Ronald Reagan , Mathias remarked that the party leadership was placed " in further isolation , in an extreme — almost fringe — position " . On November 8 , 1975 , he hinted at entering some presidential primary elections to steer the party away from what he saw as a strong conservative trend . Over the next few months , Mathias continued to show signs of entering the election , but never campaigned aggressively and lacked any political organization . Columnist George Will commented that Mathias was " contemplating a race — a stroll , really — for the presidency " , in reference to his staid campaign .
After four months of consideration , Mathias decided in March 1976 to not seek the presidency , and asked for his name to be withdrawn from the Massachusetts primary ballot , where it had been added automatically . He had also been considering an independent bid , but said raising money would be too difficult under campaign finance laws . Upon his withdrawal , Mathias stated he would work with the Republican Party in the upcoming elections . However , despite his pledge to support the Republican candidate , Mathias ' criticism of the party did not wane , stating that " over and over again during the primaries , I have felt uncomfortably like a member of the chorus in a Greek tragedy " . In a further criticism of his party 's neglect of liberal voters , Mathias commented :
I 've had to deal with some hard truths ... People don 't like to hear we 've got only 18 percent of the electorate . They pretend it 's not important that our following among blacks , and young people , and urban communities is not what it should be ... But I feel it 's of the greatest importance that if there 's to be a Republican Party , we look these facts in the face .
Mathias ' short candidacy did not endear him to the conservative wing of the Maryland Republican Party organization . In June 1976 , he lost a vote by state Republicans to determine who would represent Maryland on the platform committee at the 1976 Republican National Convention . Instead , the group chose George Price , a conservative member of the Maryland House of Delegates from Baltimore County . At one point , Mathias was close to being denied attendance to the convention altogether as an at @-@ large delegate , but a last minute compromise ensured all Republican congressional representatives seats as at @-@ large delegates . Mathias maintained a low profile during the convention , and received harsh criticism from some of the conservative delegates from Maryland who attended .
At the beginning of the new Congress in 1977 , Mathias was in line for several potential committee promotions to ranking member . However , Mathias ' outspoken criticism of the party in the previous election cycle aroused enmity amongst his colleagues . On the Judiciary Committee , Mathias had the most seniority of any other member except Strom Thurmond of South Carolina , who already held another ranking membership on the Armed Services Committee . Only one ranking membership was allowed per senator , so Thurmond resigned his ranking membership on the Armed Services Committee to circumvent Mathias serving as ranking member of the Judiciary Committee . Mathias was also prevented from assuming leadership positions on the Government Operations Committee following a power struggle , and on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights . On the latter subcommittee , Mathias had more seniority than any other member . However , party leaders were uneasy with the idea of allowing Mathias to team up with liberal Democrat and subcommittee chairman Birch Bayh , and voted instead for William L. Scott as ranking member .
= = = Election of 1980 : uncertain party renomination = = =
After these slights , speculation was raised that Mathias would leave the Republican Party , especially as the 1980 elections were approaching . Several prominent conservatives in the state , such as U.S. Representatives Marjorie Holt and Robert Bauman , were considering challenging Mathias for his seat . In contrast , the Democratic side of the aisle had fewer challengers , suggesting Mathias would win renomination more easily if he were to switch parties . However , Mathias chose to remain as a Republican , and teamed up with eight other Republican senators to express their dissatisfaction with the hard @-@ line wing of the party . Mathias later stated that he had never seriously considered switching parties .
When it came time to nominate members to the 1980 Republican National Convention , Maryland Republicans voted for Mathias and Bauman as co @-@ chairmen of the delegation to represent the liberal and conservative wings of the party , respectively . The 1980 nomination contest lacked the " fierce ideological bickering that marked the 1976 state convention " , in which Mathias was nearly excluded as a delegate .
Despite initial concerns that a strong conservative would run in the 1980 Republican primary , Mathias did not face any major opposition for his seat . He easily won his party 's nomination , and was re @-@ elected by a substantial margin in November . His Democratic counterpart in the election , Edward T. Conroy , positioned himself as more conservative than Mathias . Conroy also made national defense the primary issue of his campaign , where he accused Mathias of being weak . Mathias countered , stating he had voted for over $ 1 @.@ 1 trillion in defense spending during his career in the Senate . By winning easy re @-@ election , Mathias became the first Maryland Republican to win election to a third Senate term , and also the only Republican to win the city of Baltimore up to that point . He also secured support from several precincts of Baltimore 's Democratic political machine , and several labor unions .
= = = Final term ( 1981 – 1987 ) = = =
After Republicans gained control of the Senate in 1981 , Mathias sought the chairmanship of the Judiciary Committee but was relegated to the relatively mundane chairmanship of the Rules Committee . He was also appointed chairman of the Government Operations Subcommittee on Government Efficiency and the District of Columbia , and accepted a seat on the influential Foreign Relations Committee , though he had to sacrifice his seat on the Appropriations Committee to do so . In 1982 , Mathias chaired a bipartisan Senate inquiry into the methods used by the FBI in the Abscam corruption investigation , which found that dozens of officials had been named for accepting bribes without basis . He also served as co @-@ chair of the Joint Committee on Printing from 1981 to 1983 and 1985 to 1987 , and as a member of the Joint Committee on the Library from 1983 to 1987 .
Leading up to the 1986 elections , it was unclear whether Mathias would seek a fourth term . His support of President Reagan was lukewarm , which had further isolated him ideologically from his Republican colleagues . One delegate at the Maryland state party convention had even called Mathias " liberal swine " for his record . Additionally , his frequent difficulties in securing a committee chairmanship along with his low attendance rate were raising questions regarding his ability . However , Mathias was showing signs of seeking re @-@ election in 1985 , and dismissed any claims of ineffectiveness . Mathias claimed " within a matter of minutes , I can talk to any member of the Cabinet ; and I could go see them within 24 hours .... It was no accident that the Chesapeake Bay was mentioned in the President 's State of the Union address . That took a lot of hard work " .
Despite initial indications otherwise , Mathias announced on September 27 , 1985 , that he would not seek a fourth term . His announcement concerned Republican party officials in the state , who feared that local Republicans had poorer election chances without Mathias at the top of the ticket . At the national level , Mathias ' announcement came shortly after news that Republican Paul Laxalt of Nevada would be retiring as well . The departure of two Republican senators from swing or Democratic @-@ leaning states was treated by Republican party leaders as a poor sign of the party 's chances in the upcoming elections . Linda Chavez won the Republican primary for the Senate seat , and she lost to Democrat Barbara Mikulski .
Mathias remained active in his final days in the Senate , playing an important role in removing a death penalty provision in a 1986 Senate drug bill after threatening filibuster , and in preparing impeachment proceedings against federal judge Harry E. Claiborne . Mathias ' last day in the Senate was January 3 , 1987 , at which point he was succeeded by Barbara Mikulski .
= = Legacy and post @-@ Senate life = =
Mathias held a retirement party at the Baltimore Convention Center on July 14 , 1986 , which had over 1 @,@ 200 attendees . The proceeds from the event , at $ 150 per person , were used to establish a foreign studies program at the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies in his name . Mathias planned to teach at Johns Hopkins following his departure from the Senate .
Donald P. Baker of The Washington Post commented that Mathias ' lasting reputation would be that of a maverick . Though he was elected to the House in 1960 as a moderate / conservative , his life in the Congress moved him to the center , and he frequently deviated from the party line and sided with Democrats . The fact that he " went out of his way to disassociate himself from [ Ronald Reagan ] " in the 1980 elections had hindered his chances at a chairmanship . Mathias also established a record on civil rights , having played an important role in passing a fair housing bill while he was in the House , and also in establishing a national holiday for Martin Luther King Jr . He held liberal views on abortion , defense spending , and the Equal Rights Amendment , and , along with Senator John Warner of Virginia , was one of the sponsors of a bill to authorize the construction of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial . In discussing Mathias ' retirement , Tom Wicker of The New York Times commented that " he was fair , flexible , concerned , able to rise above partisanship but not above responsibility " . When Wicker asked him which senators he respected the most , Mathias listed J. William Fulbright ( D ) , Jacob Javits ( R ) , John Sherman Cooper ( R ) , Cliff Case ( R ) , Phil Hart ( D ) , Mike Mansfield ( D ) , and George Aiken ( R ) , because " each one of those people would take an issue on his own responsibility ... They 'd simply come to the conclusion that this was the right thing for the country " .
On environmental issues , Mathias established a record as a strong advocate of the Chesapeake Bay . After touring the bay shoreline in 1973 , he sponsored legislation that led to a study by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) two years later , which was one of the first reports that made the public aware of harmful levels of nutrients and toxins in the waters . As a result , the report was one of the catalysts for cleanup efforts , and evolved into the Chesapeake Bay Program . In recognition , the Charles Mathias Laboratory , part of the Smithsonian Institution , was established in 1988 as a research facility to analyze human impact on the bay . In 1990 , the Mathias Medal was established by Maryland Sea Grant at the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science as further acknowledgment of Mathias ' environmental record . In 2003 , thirty years after he launched a study of the Chesapeake , Mathias was recognized by the Army Corps of Engineers for the influential role he played initiating restoration efforts .
From 1987 to 1993 , Mathias was a partner at the law firm of Jones , Day , Reavis and Pogue . In 1991 , Mathias was chosen by the U.S. Federal Reserve Board to lead a committee to supervise the operations of First American Bankshares , Inc . Prior to his arrival , First American had been secretly acquired by Bank of Credit and Commerce International , which resulted in a major banking scandal . Mathias was appointed chairman of the board of First American in November 1992 , replacing former U.S. Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach . He continued as chairman of First American until 1999 .
After his retirement , Mathias served on numerous boards and committees . He was a member of the Governor 's Commission on State Taxes and Tax Structure ( 1989 – 1990 ) , a member of the Maryland Civil War Heritage Commission ( 1992 – 1995 ) , a member of the Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured , co @-@ chair of the Task Force on the Presidential Appointment and Senate Confirmation Process ( 1996 ) , a member of the board of the George C. Marshall International Center , a member of the board of the Center for Responsive Politics , a member of the board of WorldSpace Satellite Radio , and board member emeritus of Brown University 's Watson Institute for International Studies . Additionally , Mathias served on the Board of Trustees of Enterprise Foundation ( now Enterprise Community Partners ) from 1980 through 2001 .
As of 2008 , Mathias practiced law in Washington , D.C. , and was a resident of Chevy Chase , Maryland . On October 28 , 2008 , Mathias endorsed Sen. Barack Obama in the United States presidential election , 2008 .
Mathias died from complications of Parkinson 's disease at his home on January 25 , 2010 .
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= GRB 970228 =
GRB 970228 was the first gamma @-@ ray burst ( GRB ) for which an afterglow was observed . It was detected on 28 February 1997 at 02 : 58 UTC . Since 1993 , physicists had predicted GRBs to be followed by a lower @-@ energy afterglow ( in wavelengths such as radio waves , x @-@ rays , and even visible light ) , but until this event , GRBs had only been observed in highly luminous bursts of high @-@ energy gamma rays ( the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation ) .
The burst had multiple peaks in its light curve and lasted approximately 80 seconds . Peculiarities in the light curve of GRB 970228 suggested that a supernova may have occurred as well . The position of the burst coincided with a galaxy about 8 @.@ 1 billion light @-@ years away ( a redshift of z = 0 @.@ 695 ) , providing early evidence that GRBs occur well beyond the Milky Way .
= = Observations = =
A gamma @-@ ray burst ( GRB ) is a highly luminous flash of gamma rays , the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation . GRBs were first detected in 1967 by the Vela satellites , a series of spacecraft designed to detect nuclear explosions .
GRB 970228 was detected on 28 February 1997 at 02 : 58 UTC by the Gamma @-@ Ray Burst Monitor ( GRBM ) and one of the Wide Field Cameras ( WFCs ) on board BeppoSAX , an Italian – Dutch satellite originally designed to study X @-@ rays . Within a few hours , the BeppoSAX team determined the burst 's position with an error box — a small area around the specific position to account for the error in the position — of 3 arcminutes . The burst was also detected by the Ulysses space probe .
The burst was located at a right ascension of 05h 01m 46.7s and a declination of + 11 ° 46 ′ 53 @.@ 0 ″ in optical images taken with the William Herschel Telescope on La Palma , providing the first arcsecond @-@ accuracy localization of any Gamma @-@ ray burst . It lasted around 80 seconds and had multiple peaks in its light curve . Gamma @-@ ray bursts have very diverse time profiles , and it is not fully understood why some bursts have multiple peaks and some have only one . One possible explanation is that multiple peaks are formed when the source of the gamma @-@ ray burst undergoes precession .
= = Afterglow = =
In 1993 , Bohdan Paczyński and James E. Rhoads published an article arguing that , regardless of the type of explosion that causes GRBs , the extreme energetics of GRBs meant that matter from the host body must be ejected at relativistic speeds during the explosion . They predicted that the interaction between the ejecta and interstellar matter would create a shock front . Should this shock front occur in a magnetic field , accelerated electrons in it would emit long @-@ lasting synchrotron radiation in the radio frequencies , a phenomenon that would later be referred to as a radio afterglow . Jonathan Katz later concluded that this lower @-@ energy emission would not be limited to radio waves , but should range in frequency from radio waves to x @-@ rays , including visible light .
The Narrow Field Instruments on board BeppoSAX began making observations of the GRB 970228 's position within eight hours of its detection . A transient x @-@ ray source was detected which faded with a power @-@ law slope in the days following the burst . This x @-@ ray afterglow was the first GRB afterglow ever detected . Power @-@ law decays have since been recognized as a common feature in GRB afterglows , although most afterglows decay at differing rates during different phases of their lifetimes .
Optical images were taken of GRB 970228 's position on 1 and 8 March using the William Herschel Telescope and the Isaac Newton Telescope . Comparison of the images revealed an object which had decreased in luminosity in both visible light and infrared light . This was the burst 's optical afterglow . Deeper follow @-@ up observations using the New Technology Telescope showed that the afterglow coincided with a distant , small galaxy : the first evidence of the extragalactic , cosmological nature of Gamma @-@ ray bursts . After the gamma @-@ ray bursts itself had faded away , very deep observations taken with the Keck telescopes showed the underlying galaxy to have a redshift of 0 @.@ 695 . The predicted radio afterglow was never detected for this burst . At the time of this burst 's discovery , GRBs were believed to emit radiation isotropically . The afterglows from this burst and several others — such as GRB 970508 and GRB 971214 — provided early evidence that GRBs emit radiation in collimated jets , a characteristic which lowers the total energy output of a burst by several orders of magnitude .
= = Supernova relation = =
Daniel Reichart of the University of Chicago and Titus Galama of the University of Amsterdam independently analyzed GRB 970228 's optical light curve , both concluding that the host object may have undergone a supernova explosion several weeks before the gamma @-@ ray burst occurred .
Galama analyzed the light curve of the burst and found that its luminosity decayed at different rates at different times . The luminosity decayed more slowly between March 6 and April 7 than it did before and after these dates . Galama concluded that the earlier light curve had been dominated by the burst itself , whereas the later light curve was produced by the underlying Type Ic supernova . Reichart noted that the late afterglow was redder than the early afterglow , an observation which conflicted with the then @-@ preferred relativistic fireball model for the gamma @-@ ray burst emission mechanism . He also observed that the only GRB with a similar temporal profile was GRB 980326 , for which a supernova relation had already been proposed by Joshua Bloom .
An alternative explanation for the light curves of GRB 970228 and GRB 980326 involved dust echoes . Although GRB 980326 did not provide enough information to definitively rule out this explanation , Reichart showed that the light curve of GRB 970228 could only have been caused by a supernova . Definitive evidence linking gamma @-@ ray bursts and supernovae was eventually found in the spectrum of GRB 020813 and the afterglow of GRB 030329 . However , supernova @-@ like features only become apparent in the weeks following a burst , leaving the possibility that very early luminosity variations could be explained by dust echoes .
= = Host galaxy = =
During the night between 12 and 13 March , Jorge Melnick made observations of the region with the New Technology Telescope . He discovered a faint nebular patch at the burst 's position , almost certainly a distant galaxy . Although there was a remote chance that the burst and this galaxy were unrelated , their positional coincidence provided strong evidence that GRBs occur in distant galaxies rather than within the Milky Way . This conclusion was later supported by observations of GRB 970508 , the first burst to have its redshift determined .
The position of the burst 's afterglow was measurably offset from the centroid of the host galaxy , effectively ruling out the possibility that the burst originated in an active galactic nucleus . The redshift of the galaxy was later determined to be z = 0 @.@ 695 , which corresponds to a distance of approximately 8 @.@ 123 × 109 ly . At this distance , the burst would have released a total of 5 @.@ 2 × 1044 J assuming isotropic emission .
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= Phumdi =
Phumdis are a series of floating islands , exclusive to the Loktak Lake in Manipur state , in northeastern India . They cover a substantial part of the lake area and are heterogeneous masses of vegetation , soil and organic matter , in different stages of decay . The largest single mass of phumdi is in the southeastern part of the lake , covering an area of 40 km2 ( 15 @.@ 4 sq mi ) . This mass constitutes the world ’ s largest floating park , named Keibul Lamjao National Park . The park was formed to preserve the endangered Eld 's deer subspecies , called sangai in the Manipuri language , indigenous to this area .
Phumdis are used by the local people for constructing their huts for fishing and other livelihood uses , and are inhabited by about 4000 people . Athapums are artificial circular phumdis , built by the villagers as enclosures for fish farming ; aquaculture has caused proliferation of the phumdis in the lake .
= = Traditional practice = =
Although phumdi vegetation has existed for centuries , it was not until 1886 that the Manipur Gazetteer recorded that wetlands with floating islands were used by inhabitants for fishing . Before the Itahi barrage was constructed in 1986 , 207 khangpoks ( huts or sheds ) were reported on the phumdis , but after the dam was completed in 1999 , the Loktak Development Authority ( LDA ) reported 800 such structures . Many of the huts are reported to have been converted into permanent dwellings and about 4 @,@ 000 people live in these floating huts , earning their living as fishermen . The huts are constructed using plastic ropes , heavy rocks , wood , bamboo , zinc plates and iron rods . Athapums , artificial circular phumdis , which were built by the villagers as enclosures for fish farming , are present on the lake , and this aquaculture has caused further proliferation of the phumdis . A tourist lodge has been built on one of the phumdis in Sandra Island .
= = Ecological composition = =
The floating mass of matted vegetation , organic debris , and soil that constitutes a phumdi has a thickness that varies from a few centimetres to two metres . Its humus is black in colour and porous , with a spongy texture . Only 20 % of a phumdi 's thickness floats above the water surface ; the other 80 % remains submerged . Before the construction of the Loktak Hydroelectric Project , the park area containing phumdis was merely marshy land , but since the commissioning of the project , two ecosystems have emerged . One , the body of open water , covers one @-@ third of the area and the other , the phumdi , covers the remaining two @-@ thirds .
The life @-@ cycle of the phumdis has generally been subject to seasonal variation . During the monsoon season when the water level is high , the phumdis float , but during the dry season , as the water level falls , the phumdis touch the lake bed and absorb nutrients from it . When the wet season returns , they again float , and the biomass , which has enough nutrients stored in the plants ' roots , survives . However , the contemporary situation , with high water levels in the lake throughout the year , has meant that the process of ' feeding ' on lake – bottom nutrients has been seriously disturbed , resulting in a loss of biomass and a thinning of the islands each year . In January 1999 , it was reported that a large section of phumdi in the north of the park had shattered into pieces and drifted away from the park area , threatening the habitat of the sangai .
Changes in the water regime due to the construction of the Ithai barrage across the Manipur River have caused changes in the vegetation composition of the phumdis . A study was instituted , from October 2005 to July 2006 , to record the vegetation composition and productivity of phumdis in areas of ranging thickness , water depth and soil pH , accumulating data in both summer and winter . The study recorded 83 plant species of 21 families ( Poaceae and Cyperaceae formed the dominant families ) ; 81 species were recorded in summer and 48 in winter . The Diversity indices of the plant species were recorded ; they were a richness of 48 , diversity of 0 @.@ 29 and evenness of 0 @.@ 47 in summer . In winter , the respective figures were 81 , 0 @.@ 17 and 0 @.@ 52 . Species richness was found to be different in 48 samples of thin phumdis , 53 samples of thick phumdis and 14 samples on hard ground . The eight plant communities identified during winter and summer were Capillipedium , Leersia hexandra , Oenanthe javanica , Phragmites karka , Kyllinga triceps , Pteridium aquilinum , Zizania latifolia and Persicaria perfoliata . Zizania latifolia recorded the highest productivity with ( 13 @.@ 90 ± 5 @.@ 01 ) g / m2 for winter and ( 102 @.@ 96 ± 26 @.@ 03 ) g / m2 for summer . Greater productivity was recorded in summer ( 65 @.@ 96 g / m2 ) than winter ( 15 @.@ 76 g / m2 ) . Variation of productivity of annuals and perennials were noted according to seasons and type of phumdis .
= = = Wildlife = = =
The largest of all the phumdis in the lake is situated in the southeastern region of the Loktak Lake , which forms the Keibul Lamjao National Park . This park is the last natural refuge of the endangered Manipur brow @-@ antlered deer ( Cervus eldi eldi ) , locally known as the sangai , one of the three sub species of the Eld 's deer listed as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature .
Apart from the brow @-@ antlered deer , which is the flagship species of the park , other fauna found in the park are mammals , reptiles , and migratory and resident avifauna species .
Mammal species consist of hog deer ( C. porcinus ) , wild boar ( Sus scrota ) , large Indian civets ( Viverra civetta , Viverricula indica ) , common otter ( Lutra lutra ) , fox , jungle cat , Asian golden cat , bay bamboo rat , musk shrew , common shrew , flying fox , and sambar ( Cervus unicolor ) .
Reptile species found in the park are the keel back tortoise , viper , krait , cobra , water cobra , banded krait ( Bungarus fasciatus ) , Asian rat snake ( beauty rat snake ) , Russels ’ viper ( Daboia ) , checkered garter snake , python and common lizard ( viviparous lizard ) . Python molurus is an endangered species found in the park .
Prominent bird species seen in the park are both migratory and resident avifauna species . Some of the avifauna are the East Himalayan pied kingfisher , black kite , lesser sky @-@ lark , northern hill myna , Burmese pied myna , North Indian black drongos , lesser eastern jungle crow , yellow headed wagtail , spotbill duck , blue @-@ winged teal , ruddy shell duck , hooded crane , Burmese sarus crane , Indian white @-@ breasted waterhen and crimson @-@ breasted pied woodpecker .
= = Environmental issues = =
The proliferation of phumdis , coupled with severe infestation of the lake by water hyacinth , has substantially impeded water circulation and caused an increase in siltation and deposit of pollutants in the lake ecosystem . The building materials used to build huts on the phumdi blocks sunlight from reaching the lower depths of the lake water , which has resulted in formation of vertical profiles of the lake water body and decomposition . Further , pesticides and insecticides are used for catching fish or as insect repellent . Degradation is in the form of benthal , which , as it decays , releases toxic gases such as methane , hydrogen sulfide , and reduces dissolved oxygen ( DO ) . This causes the lake water to degenerate into a eutrophic condition , creating a dead water zone called the hypolimnion . Above the hypolimnion is a thin layer , known as epilimnion , where fish survive to some degree . The benthal is becoming increasingly thick , causing not only pollution of the lake water , but an increase in the shallow part of the lake .
It has been reported that the construction of Ithai Barrage has altered the Loktak Lake and its ecosystem . Siltation has reduced the water holding capacity and has consequently had a negative impact on the power generation capacity at the Loktak Hydro Electric Power Project . Thinning of the phumdi in the Keibul Lamjao area has affected the habitat of the sangai , and other aquafauna , avifauna and flora are on the decline ; the 35 species ( 5 mammals , 3 birds , 9 reptiles , 3 amphibians , 12 fishes , 2 molluscs and 1 annelid ) are reported to be disappearing gradually .
It is also reported that the soil of the park formed by the phumdis is highly acidic , with unsuitable pH conditions for many species of plants to grow and flourish . Further , the acidity of the soil has also adversely affected the fish breeding farms . Recent reports indicate that locals are slicing the phumdis into sizeable pieces and towing them with canoes to sell to fish culture owners .
A scientific study of the water quality parameters of physico @-@ chemical and microbiological characteristics and role of phumdis in the Loktak Lake has been conducted by collecting surface water samples on monthly basis from 15 stations , representing 5 zones ; northern , western , eastern , middle and southern . The test results indicated that water quality in the phumdi area was poor in the northern and southern zones of the lake ; test results indicated low dissolved oxygen , low pH ( normal range for pH in surface water systems is 6 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 5 ) high CO2 and high Biochemical Oxygen Demand ( BOD ) but the water quality was good in the open water area . Assessment of the total nitrogen content of the macrophyte species of phumdis indicated that the following were present in descending order : Salvinia natans ( 1 @.@ 8 % ) , Zizania latifolia ( 1 @.@ 6 % ) , Capillipedium sp . ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) , Brachiaria mutica ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) , Cyperus brevifolius ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) , Echinochloa stagnina ( 1 @.@ 0 % ) , Phragmites karka ( 1 @.@ 0 % ) and Hedychium coranarium ( 0 @.@ 94 % ) . The test results confirmed the fact that the phumdis were efficient in absorbing nutrients from the lake water . However , they deteriorated water quality due to reduced light penetration and accumulation of organic matter in the lake ecosystem .
= = Management strategies = =
A detailed study has been conducted by the Loktak Development Authority ( LDA ) in collaboration with Wetlands International – South Asia , supported by the India – Canada Environment Facility , implementing a project on Sustainable Development and Water Resources Management of the Loktak Lake . The project addresses the issues relating to water management , sustainable fisheries development , community participation and development , catchment area treatment and conservation of wildlife . The Planning Commission of the Government of India , decided in September 2008 that these policies would be implemented over a period of 5 – 6 years at an estimated cost of over Rs500 crores ( US $ 100 million ) , and extended the area under management to also incorporate the water of Nambul and other rivers and their tributaries , which are primarily responsible for polluting the Loktak Lake .
In order to resolve the problem of the excessive growth of phumdis that affects the lake ecosystem and local community , a study sponsored by the India – Canada Environment Facility was undertaken by the Tata Energy Research Institute ( TERI ) to examine efficient ways of converting phumdis into briquettes as fodder and fuel pellets , which could be used to meet both energy demands within the region . Two options for the biomass conversion were studied . The first involved making briquettes of vegetative part of phumdis for use as fodder while the second proposed to pelletise the lower part of phumdis for use as fuel . The study observed that phumdis have nutritional potential as feed material due to its higher crude fibre and crude protein content , but the inorganic content in the root and mat zone was found to be unsuitable for the purpose . The second option of making briquettes from the upper vegetative portion of the phumdis by mixing 12 % de @-@ oiled rice bran was found to be feasible for using them as fodder . The lower portion , which was densified to make fuel pellets , was found to be suitable for use as fuel . Such pellets were found to have an average calorific value of 3 @,@ 400 calories per kilogram ( 14 @,@ 200 kJ / kg ) with ash content of 27 % . Cost economics were worked out and the study had found it to be “ an economically viable and an attractive proposition for the benefit of local population . ” The study concluded that extraction of phumdi from the lake could also generate income for the local people who are dependent on the lake for their livelihood . Such a step would protect the lake from the adverse effects of proliferation of phumdis and maintain the ecological balance of the lake , thus converting the waste into wealth . The Planning Commission has also concurred with project proposals to engage interested individuals and private enterprises to begin the commercial venture of manufacturing compost from the phumdis and thus improve the environment of the Keibul Lamjao National Park . The project also envisages removal of 3630 artificial phumdis and compensation to their owners ; this is reported to have been implemented .
Another method adopted in the past to tackle the phumdis was by way of diverting them towards the Khordak River . However , as this approach had not been very successful , the State Government planned to construct a canal at Tera Khunou Khong Ahanbi to divert the phumdis to Manipur River . Other methods adopted by the Loktak Development Authority ( LDA ) to control phumdis and water hyacinth include introducing weevils for the biological control of water hyacinth , which was carried out in collaboration with the Horticulture Institute of Bangalore . Reports have shown this to be an effective method in controlling water hyacinth .
A lake restoration plan based on a decentralised bioreactor system to eliminate the organic load that enters the lake in the form of non @-@ point and point source pollutants has also been mooted . Phumdis could be harvested in a sustainable manner by conversion into fuel and compost by installing ‘ Plug Flow Bioreactors ’ in a modular manner around the lake perimeter . Laboratory tests of key species of phumdis have proved its potential to produce biogas . The bioreactors could also be used to treat sewage and thus arrest flow of organic matter into the lake .
In a recent workshop organized by the LDA on " Management of Phumdis " in the Loktak Lake , which involved presentations by locals , the emphasis was on the need to open the barrage for eight months per year ( January , April and June – September ) to clear the phumdis , control floods and wash away the silt and waste that had accumulated over time . The LDA is also implementing action plans that are economically viable and technically feasible which would result in livelihood enhancement such as evolving an attractive resettlement plan for the phumdi dwellers backed by remunerative livelihood programs and examine the introduction of fishing nets instead of Athapum , the circular shaped Phumdis floating in the lake , planted or cultured artificially for catching fish .
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= Kongsfjord Telemetry Station =
Kongsfjord Telemetry Station ( Norwegian : Kongsfjord telemetristasjon ) was a satellite ground station located nearby Ny @-@ Ålesund in Svalbard , Norway . It was used between 1967 and 1974 as one of the four initial ground stations which were part of the European Space Tracking Network ( ESTRACK ) serving the European Space Research Organization 's ( ESRO ) first generation of satellites . The station provided radio tracking , telemetry and commanding services as well as data download . Although owned by ESRO , the facilities were constructed and operated by the Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research ( NTNF ) .
Plans for the station 's construction started in the early 1960s and negotiations between ESRO and Norwegian authorities started in 1964 , despite Norway 's lack of membership in ESRO . An initial disagreement of whether to locate the facility by Ny @-@ Ålesund or Longyearbyen was overcome , and an agreement was signed on 14 December 1964 . However , it was followed up by numerous protests from the Soviet Union , which claimed the installation would violate the demilitarized zone clause of the Svalbard Treaty , as the station had the potential to be used for military satellites and intelligence . The protests were rejected by Norwegian authorities , and construction started in May 1965 . The Soviet Union attempted several inspections ; one resulted in the crash of a Soviet helicopter . Operations commenced in 1967 , but the facility was closed in 1974 as the facility was not suitable for new satellites with higher orbits .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The first official inquiries into establishing ionosphere research in Svalbard was taken by Leiv Harang , then head of the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment ( FFI ) , in October 1950 . Two similar facilities , a completed one at Kjeller and one under construction in Tromsø , had already been initiated . The proposal , regarded by Harang as primarily a military project , was initially issued to the United States . It was considered by US Joint Chiefs of Staff , who saw it as a possible excuse to populate Spitsbergen as a counter @-@ measure to the Soviet mining communities . However , nothing came of the plans before the International Geophysical Year in 1957 – 58 , when an ionosphere research station was established as Isfjord Radio and moved to Ny @-@ Ålesund in 1963 . Although unrelated to the telemetry station , this was the initiation of technology services in Ny @-@ Ålesund .
In 1960 , Norway entered a cooperation with the United States , which resulted in the construction of the Norwegian Space Centre at Andøya . In 1964 , ESRO was established as a Western European reaction to the rapidly developing Soviet and American space programs . Norway chose to only join as an observer , partially because of the close cooperation with the US and partially because of the cost . However , Norwegian space research scientists participated in ESRO programs .
Preliminary work in the planning of ESRO operations concluded that the ESTRACK network would initially consist of four radio tracking and telemetry stations and three optical tracking stations . In addition to Svalbard , tracking and telemetry stations were built on the Falkland Islands , in Fairbanks , Alaska and in Redu , Belgium . France actively opposed the Svalbard location , as Norway was not a member of ESRO . The ESRO secretariat wanted to quicken the location decision , as it was necessary to have all four in operation before the launch of the ESRO @-@ 1 and ESRO @-@ 2 satellites .
The initial proposal had called for locating the station in Ny @-@ Ålesund due to its topographical advantage . In January 1964 , ESRO started informal discussions with the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs , who stated that they had no initial objections . By then , supported by Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani , ESRO instead proposed situating the station at Longyearbyen because it was less remote and would incur lower costs . This was opposed by Norwegian authorities ; mining in Ny @-@ Ålesund had ceased after the 1963 Kings Bay Affair and the authorities wanted permanent activity in the town . An official request was made by ESRO in February , and in May , official political support for the project was awarded . The main motivation was to establish a permanent space technology center in Norway that could stimulate further scientific growth .
= = = Soviet protests = = =
The Svalbard Treaty establishes Svalbard as both a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone , allowing a Soviet presence but hindering Norway from installing military fortifications . The Soviet Union objected to the creation of the telemetry program and threatened to establish a counter @-@ station . The basis was that the ground station was seen as having a military potential , that most ESRO members were also members of North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) and that Norway lacked sufficient competence to control whether or not military activities would take place at the station . Norwegian authorities responded that the installation was to be used for scientific and peaceful activities under Norwegian control . Further , because of treaty only prohibited fortifications and not military activity as such , Norway held the right to conduct military scientific research and operate intelligence operations on the archipelago .
To minimize Soviet opposition , Norway attempted to move the debate from the political to the specialist scene , while at the same time establishing a protocol for Norwegian control and operation of the facility . To achieve this , Norwegian authorities worked towards establishing an inspection procedure to insure that the facilities remained solely used for ' peaceful activities ' . This would particularly focus on the regular inspection of auxiliary equipment . To depoliticize the issue further , the government appointed the semi @-@ independent NTNF as the operator of the facility . The first oral consultations between the Soviet embassy and the Norwegian government took place in November 1964 .
In the Norwegian Government 's internal evaluation , FFI stated that as long as regular inspections were carried out , there was little chance of military use of the installations , in particular because of the limited technical equipment which would be installed . The Norwegian Intelligence Service held a different opinion , and stated that if the right equipment was installed , the ground station could be used to listen to information from Soviet satellites in the area and that it would require a very competent inspector to find such equipment . Allowing Soviet inspectors access to the station was discussed politically , but this was quickly discarded as it would establish an unwanted precedent and would undermine the Norwegian sovereignty of the archipelago .
Discussions between ESRO and Norwegian authorities continued , with ESRO pressing for a quick decision , while Norway was stalling the negotiations . This was carried out to allow time to develop solid counter @-@ policy against the Soviet Union as well as to gain support for the installation to be located at Kongsfjorden outside Ny @-@ Ålesund . On the other hand , ESRO threatened to instead build the installation in northern Sweden and northern Canada and abandon the Svalbard plans . An agreement was reached between ESRO , Norwegian authorities and NTNF was on 14 December 1964 . It established both the location and that NTNF would be Norway 's party . The agreement allowed the station to be located in Ny @-@ Ålesund in exchange for Norwegian authorities building and operating the facility . While ESRO accepted NTNF as the Norwegian party , they wanted to receive a guarantee from the Norwegian authorities . However , to minimize Soviet criticism , the ministry was not interested in giving direct guarantees and asked that ESRO solely negotiate with NTNF .
The official Soviet protest was issued on 17 February 1965 in a letter to the Norwegian government . Specifically , it stated that Norway would be violating Article 9 of the Svalbard Treaty , that the installation could be used for intelligence assessment and that Norway should have consulted the Soviet Union before making the decision . The issue was discussed by the Norwegian Cabinet of State six days later . Minister of Justice and acting Minister of Foreign Affairs Oscar Christian Gundersen regarded the protest as moderate and that it fell into a series of Soviet protests against any activity on Svalbard that could remotely be considered a potential cover @-@ up for military activity . An official response was sent on 23 March , which rejected all the Soviet objections . It stated that Norwegian authorities had made agreements with ESRO that Norway would make sufficient inspections to insure that Article 9 was followed , it pointed out the open and civil nature of ESRO and rejected the Soviet claims that they had the right to be consulted in advance .
Norwegian Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen visited the Soviet Union in May 1965 , in which Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin warned against the installation and stated that the Soviet Union would build a counter @-@ station . In June , the Soviet Consul in Barentsburg came on an inspection to the installation , and on 2 July a Soviet helicopter crashed at the construction site after having , presumably unintentionally , touched a mast . Soviet demands to have permanent Soviet inspectors of the facility were rejected . The Svalbard Treaty does not include any verification procedure , and as such no signatories have the right to conduct inspections .
After the station opened , Soviet protests persisted . The issue was raised at official visits to the Soviet Union by Norwegian politicians in 1966 , 1967 and 1968 . The Soviet Consul in Barentsburg visited Ny @-@ Ålesund in 1968 and attempted to make inspections of the installation . On 28 August 1968 , Norway and the Soviet Union agreed for a one @-@ time , two @-@ day Soviet inspection of the station . The last protest against the installation was made in April 1969 .
= = = Construction and operation = = =
The agreement with ESRO was approved by the Parliament of Norway on 9 July 1965 and the final contract was signed on 13 August . It included clauses that secured non @-@ members access to use the station if there was sufficient capacity , that Norwegian authorities were granted all necessary information about the installation 's use , and that NTNF would approve all auxiliary installations .
For NTNF , the establishment brought by an organizational change . While it had previously also conducted space research , the operations of installations had been placed with FFI . As FFI was a branch of the military , this structure could not be used in Svalbard . Thus NTNF had to organize an operative branch for the ground station . The responsibility for operating the telecommunications facilities was awarded to the Norwegian Telecommunications Administration . The ground station needed a computer . FFI offered to deliver a Simulation for Automatic Machinery , while the alternative was to purchase a PDP @-@ 8 computer from Digital Equipment Corporation . As NTNF was responsible for the country 's technological development , they chose to award the contract to FFI on the condition that they pay for a PDP @-@ 8 if they were not able to deliver a computer themselves .
Construction started in May 1965 and NTNF planned to use as much of the mining company Kings Bay 's facilities as they could . NTNF was allowed to use buildings as needed for free . In exchange , NTNF maintained the entire village and paid insurance on the buildings they used . Movable property used by NTNF was bought for a moderate price . NTNF had to build several new buildings in addition to utilities such as power cables and water , sewer and heating pipes . The new pipes had to be installed after the previous pipes , installed in 1956 , had been subject to frost burst . Instead of building the pipes in a culvert , they were instead placed in wooded boxes above ground . During the summer of 1965 , 65 people were working on construction , although it fell to between 40 and 45 during the winter . The following winter , only five people overwintered .
To allow ease of access and in case of emergencies , an ad hoc airport was built . Originally , Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport , Hamnerabben was simply a section of the road between the radomes and the settlement which was 850 meters ( 2 @,@ 790 ft ) long and 40 meters ( 130 ft ) wide . The gravel was bound with waste oil and with gates at each end . To allow traffic to operate as usual during use , a small bypass road was also built .
A royal decree on 26 October 1967 established an Oslo @-@ based chief inspector who was to inspect the facility at least once per year , and a local inspector who would inspect the facility at least once per week . The Norwegian Telecommunications Administration 's assistant director of radio technology , Per Mortensen , was appointed chief inspector , while the manager of Ny @-@ Ålesund 's coast radio station was appointed assistant inspector . The ground station and auxiliary facilities were ready for operation in 1967 . Through its history , the station had five managers : Henning Nielsen ( 1965 – 67 ) , Roald Søfteland ( 1967 – 68 ) , Ewald Øyen ( 1968 – 70 ) , Einar Enderud ( 1970 – 72 ) and Kristian Sneltvedt ( 1972 – 74 ) .
After the initial ESRO program was initiated , the agency moved towards satellites with a higher orbital eccentricity and escape orbits . The facilities in Ny @-@ Ålesund were unsuitable for telemetry with such satellites , as they would operate at a different frequency , the size of the antenna dish was too small and the ground station 's geographical position was out of range . Because of the change of ESRO 's focus , the need for a telemetry station on Svalbard disappeared after the termination of ESRO 's initial program , and the facility was closed in 1974 .
Since the closing of the mines in 1963 , the mining company Kings Bay had been working to establish Ny @-@ Ålesund as a research town . The telemetry station acted as an important stepping stone for research activity , and the plans for development of Ny @-@ Ålesund as a permanent research community continued past 1974 . In 1997 , Svalbard Satellite Station opened in Longyearbyen , which is among other stations used by ESTRACK .
= = Facilities = =
The ground station was located at Rabben , also known as Hamnerabben , a hill 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) west of the settlement in Ny @-@ Ålesund , at the far end of the airport . It consisted of a 360 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 900 sq ft ) one @-@ story operations center and two antennas . The largest antenna , used for sending , had a diameter of 21 @-@ meter ( 69 ft ) , while the receiving antenna had a diameter of 17 meters ( 56 ft ) . Each was placed on a 4 @-@ meter ( 13 ft ) cubed , 25 tonnes ( 25 long tons ; 28 short tons ) concrete foundation and surrounded with a plastic radome . Both antennas were automated to ensure that they were aimed at the satellite when they were in use . The receiving antenna was used both to download information about the satellites ' condition and surroundings , as well as data download , which was stored on magnetic tape . The uplink was used to give the satellites orders .
Kongsfjord Telemetry Station constituted one of the four initial ESTRACK ground stations which provided radio tracking and telemetry communication with ESRO 's low Earth orbit satellites . The ground station communicated with the satellites in the 136 – 137 MHz band . This was optimal for low @-@ orbit satellites , allowed for a small antenna dish but gave a low bit rate . The various satellites using the facility conducted measurements of solar radiation , cosmic radiation , the polar ionosphere , and ionizing and dynamic effects regarding electric currents and magnetic disturbances .
The facility had a Simulation for Automatic Machinery computer built by FFI which allowed for real @-@ time operations with the data . Telecommunications systems were operated by the Norwegian Telecommunications Administration , which established a two @-@ way radio station at Ny @-@ Ålesund . Communication from the satellites was relayed by radio to Ski and onwards with a leased line to the European Space Operations Centre in Darmstadt , Germany . Return information was relayed via a radio station at Jeløy . Magnetic tapes were sent to Darmstadt every other week , first via aircraft to Longyearbyen and then onwards to Germany . NTNF hired a nurse and had the Amundsen House refitted as a clinic for the duration of the telemetry station 's operation .
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= In My City =
" In My City " is the debut single by Indian recording artist and actress Priyanka Chopra , featuring American rapper will.i.am. The song was produced by RedOne , Rush and Brian Kennedy , and was co @-@ written by Ester Dean , who provides additional vocals . The demo version of " In My City " was first played by will.i.am to Chopra , who was impressed with the track and decided to record it . The song is a homage to Chopra 's nomadic childhood and journey from being a small @-@ town girl to being a successful actor . " In My City " premiered on 13 September 2012 , at the NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football . The next day , the song was released for digital downloads to Nokia Music Store along with CD single .
" In My City " received mixed reviews from music critics ; some complemented Chopra 's vocals , while some criticised the generic sound of the song . In India , " In My City " was a commercial success . It sold 130 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and was certified triple platinum . The accompanying video for " In My City " was directed by Joseph Kahn and was released in January 2013 .
= = Writing and production = =
" In My City " was written by Brian Kennedy , Ester Dean , RedOne , Rush , Brett James , Dante Jones , will.i.am. RedOne also produced the track with producer Rush , and worked on the instrumentation and programming . American rapper will.i.am played Chopra a demo of " In My City " and advised her to record it . Chopra liked the song and decided to proceed with the recording .
Brian Kennedy assisted with the production , while Trevor Muzzy , will.i.am and Aubrey " Juice " Delaine engineered the track . The song was recorded at Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California , and mixed by Muzzy ( mixing engineer ) under RedOne Productions Ltd . Chopra and will.i.am were in the studios for two days while recording ; Chopra said she poured her " blood and soul " into it . Gene Grimaldi mastered the track at Oasis Mastering Studios in Burbank , California . " In My City " also features background vocals from Dean , RedOne , Rush and Muzzy .
" In My City " talks about resonating with the party culture of urban cities . Chopra said that the song was not inspired by one city , since her father was an army doctor , and her family travelled all over India to cities like Jamshedpur , Lucknow , Delhi , Pune , Bareily , Chandigarh , Mumbai and Ladakh . Chopra told the Hindustan Times that the song was " about being proud of where I come from . It 's inviting the world to my city and my city could be anywhere . " The song pays homage to her nomadic childhood and her journey from being a small @-@ town girl to being a successful actor .
= = Release = =
" In My City " was released in India 12 hours before its US NFL launch because Chopra wanted her fans in India to hear it before the American release . A press release said that " Priyanka has always been very clear that India would hear her music first . So all plans have been worked out to ensure that . She will be in India for the launch when the song and special video will air during the TV telecast of NFL . " The song was showcased in an event on 13 September in Mumbai , which was transmitted live on the YouTube and Bollywood Hungama websites .
" In My City " debuted on 13 September 2012 , on the NFL Network 's sports programme Thursday Night Football . Chopra filmed a video that aired every Thursday night before and after Thursday Night Football on the NFL Network . The day after the NFL launch , the song was released on CD single as well as for digital download in India .
Nokia provided exclusive downloads of the song and was chosen as a key feature for Blenders Pride Fashion Tour . " In My City " was released to the iTunes Store of the United States on 2 October 2012 , for digital downloads . In an interview with The Economic Times , the singer expressed her nervousness about the single release , describing it as the culmination of a two @-@ year journey which " has been the toughest yet most enriching experience of my life while also marking the beginning of an exciting new chapter . "
= = Critical reception = =
Hindustan Times writer Robin Bansal was impressed with the song , and called it " [ e ] clectic , peppy , and electrifying from the start ... The song explodes after a point in its massiveness and stays in the head . The impeccable notes and pitch makes one wonder if it 's really Priyanka . " He added that the song had a high tempo and pitch , making it more like a track by The Black Eyed Peas . Chopra refuted the claims that her voice was digitally modulated , and said she has a high range in her voice , and that she always had an accent while speaking English . Perdy Mohindru from The Times of India described the lyrics as simple and beautiful , and complemented Chopra 's accent and voice .
Neha Mujumdar of The Hindu was extremely disappointed with the track , calling it " musically generic " and " lyrically filled with platitudes " . She gave a negative review of the production , and panned Chopra 's " auto @-@ tuned " vocals . Mujumdar wrote that will.I.am 's rapping " does little to relieve the monotony ; indeed , it manages to increase it , because of how predictable his exhortations are " , and that apart fulfilling a desire for " the sort of over @-@ produced music that typically fills up a fast @-@ food chain store " , the song is indistinguishable " from the large body of repetitive , unoriginal dance @-@ pop " . Writing for the US online news portal GlobalPost , Jason Overdorf did not agree with early reviews that said " In My City " sounded like the music of The Black Eyed Peas .
= = Commercial performance = =
" In My City " was a commercial success in India , and reached number @-@ one on the International downloads chart of Nokia Music Store India . The CD single debuted at the top of the pan @-@ India Planet M and Music World retail chain charts . According to the Los Angeles Times , the single broke records by selling more than 130 @,@ 000 copies within the first week of its release . The single was certified triple platinum by the Indian Music Industry ( IMI ) . In the United States the single was unsuccessful , with 5 @,@ 000 digital downloads in its first week on iTunes according to Nielsen SoundScan , and did not receive radio play .
Chopra expressed her amazement at the single 's success in India . She said , " I am so overwhelmed ! I can 't even begin to explain what I 'm feeling ... it 's so amazing that it 's been just a few days since launch and my debut single is now No. 1 on the charts . Thank you so much for the support and appreciation . This means the world to me . " At the fourth Nokia Music Connect video conference , Chopra said that the commercial numbers for " In My City " were all the more surprising , since the music sales in the Indian market is not that much . Universal Music MD , India , Saarc Devraj Sanyal said that the label was surprised with the instant sales of the song . " We have been in the non @-@ film music business for a while and I must admit to mounting engines across all platforms that have been fired like never before on Priyanka 's global single debut . But to see these results so quickly is beyond gratifying , " Sanyal said , before saying that the single debut would be followed by many promotional campaigns targeting different multimedia facets .
= = Promotions = =
" In My City " was first promoted during a TV spot for the NFL Network 's " Thursday Night Football " show , where the single was the music bed . The single was played every Thursday in pre @-@ game shows and began on 13 September . A different promo aired every week with Chopra wearing jerseys of each of the two teams playing that week . Chopra also said that 33 different looks were designed for the commercial based on the teams .
The single was also promoted at Blenders Pride Fashion Tour in cities across India , and was used as the anthem for the tour . On 26 October 2012 , Chopra promoted " In My City " by DJ @-@ ing in four clubs in the National Capital Region , including Hard Rock Cafe and Buzz in Delhi , and Striker and Seven Degrees in Gurgaon . Chopra mingled with the crowd as she MCed and DJed , followed by a playing her single . In Bangalore , Chopra visited several clubs with DJ Nash to promote " In My City " . At a Reliance Digital store in Mumbai , Chopra spent time with autistic children and played her song to them . The event was broadcast live on YouTube and on screens in Reliance Digital stores across India .
= = Music video = =
A promotional video documenting the recording of " In My City " debuted during an NFL game on 13 September 2012 . Later , Chopra posted on her Twitter account that she was in Los Angeles to shoot an official music video for the track . The video , directed by Joseph Kahn , was released on 29 January 2013 .
The video begins with Chopra coming out of a BMW and sending a message with her cellphone to her friends . They all get it , and join her in dancing the song . In the middle , there is an Indian @-@ African influenced drum beat with elaborate choreography . The song continues with more dancing , until it ends with Chopra and all her friends laughing .
= = In popular culture = =
" In My City " was played on 8 May 2013 broadcast of American Idol during a clip when the Top 3 visit their home towns .
" In My City " was selected as the theme song for 2013 season of the NFL ' network Thursday Night Football .
" In My City " was selected as the theme song for the 2016 Centennial Cup America .
= = Track listings and formats = =
Digital Download / CD single
" In My City " ( featuring will.i.am ) – 3 : 40
Digital Remixes EP
" In My City " ( R3hab and ZROQ Remix ) – 3 : 54
" In My City " ( Maestro Remix ) – 5 : 57
" In My City " ( LA Riots Remix ) – 5 : 28
" In My City " ( Mr. Morris Remix ) – 3 : 12
" In My City " ( Wideboys Remix ) – 6 : 34
" In My City " ( ANSOL Remix ) – 5 : 32
" In My City " ( DesiHits Rishi Rich Remix ) – 3 : 58
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of the CD single .
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Emperor Norton =
Joshua Abraham Norton ( c.1818 – January 8 , 1880 ) , known as Emperor Norton , was a citizen of San Francisco , California , who in 1859 proclaimed himself " Norton I , Emperor of the United States " and subsequently " Protector of Mexico " .
Born in England , Norton spent most of his early life in South Africa . After the death of his mother in 1846 and his father in 1848 , he emigrated to San Francisco with an inheritance from his father 's estate , arriving in November 1849 aboard the Hamburg ship Franzeska with $ 40 @,@ 000 ( inflation adjusted to $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2015 US Dollars ) . Norton initially made a living as a businessman , but he lost his fortune investing in Peruvian rice .
After losing a lawsuit in which he tried to void his rice contract , Norton became a less and less public figure . He reemerged in September 1859 , laying claim to the position of Emperor of the United States . Although he had no political power , and his influence extended only so far as he was humored by those around him , he was treated deferentially in San Francisco , and currency issued in his name was honored in the establishments he frequented .
Though some considered him insane or eccentric , citizens of San Francisco celebrated his regal presence and his proclamations , such as his order that the United States Congress be dissolved by force and his numerous decrees calling for a bridge crossing connecting San Francisco to Oakland , and a corresponding tunnel to be built under San Francisco Bay . Similar structures were built long after his death in the form of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge and the Transbay Tube , and there have been campaigns to rename the bridge " The Emperor Norton Bridge " .
On January 8 , 1880 , Norton collapsed at the corner of California and Dupont ( now Grant ) streets and died before he could be given medical treatment . At his funeral two days later , nearly 30 @,@ 000 people packed the streets of San Francisco to pay homage . Norton has been immortalized as the basis of characters in the literature of writers Mark Twain , Robert Louis Stevenson , Christopher Moore , Maurice De Bevere , Selma Lagerlöf , and Neil Gaiman .
= = Early life = =
Genealogical and other research indicates that Norton 's parents were John Norton ( d . August 1848 ) and Sarah Norden , English Jews — John , a farmer and merchant ; Sarah , a daughter of Abraham Norden and a sister of Benjamin Norden , a successful Jewish merchant — who moved the family to South Africa in early 1820 as part of a government @-@ backed colonization scheme whose participants came to be known as the 1820 Settlers .
Most likely , Norton was born in the Kentish town of Deptford , today part of London .
Pinning down Norton 's exact date of birth has proved difficult . His obituary in the San Francisco Chronicle , " following the best information obtainable , " cited the silver plate on his coffin which said he was " aged about 65 , " suggesting that 1814 could be the year of his birth . But Norton 's biographer , William Drury , points out that " about 65 " was based on nothing more than the guess that Norton 's landlady offered to the coroner at the inquest following his death . In a 1923 essay published by the California Historical Society , Robert Ernest Cowan claimed that Norton was born on February 4 , 1819 . However , the passenger lists for the Belle Alliance , the ship that carried Norton and his family from England to South Africa , indicate he was two years old when the ship set sail in February 1820 . The February 4 , 1865 , edition of the Daily Alta California newspaper included an item in which the Alta wished Emperor Norton a happy 47th birthday , indicating that his birth date was February 4 , 1818 ( not 1819 , as Cowan claimed ) — a date that would line up with the Belle Alliance passenger listing from two years later . Moreover , it has been shown that Robert Ernest Cowan appears to have falsified the 1865 Alta item to advance his claim of an 1819 birth date and that persistent online claims for an 1819 birth date , which can be traced to the early years of the Internet , are of doubtful provenance .
Norton emigrated from South Africa to San Francisco in 1849 after receiving a bequest from his father 's estate . He enjoyed a good deal of success in the real estate market , and by the early 1850s had parlayed an initial nest egg of $ 40 @,@ 000 into a fortune of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Norton thought he saw a business opportunity when China , facing a severe famine , placed a ban on the export of rice , causing the price of rice in San Francisco to skyrocket from four to thirty @-@ six cents per pound ( 9 to 79 cents / kg ) . When he heard the Glyde , which was returning from Peru , was carrying 200 @,@ 000 pounds ( 91 @,@ 000 kg ) of rice , he bought the entire shipment for $ 25 @,@ 000 ( or twelve and a half cents per pound ) , hoping to corner the market .
Shortly after he signed the contract , several other shiploads of rice arrived from Peru , causing the price of rice to plummet to three cents a pound . Norton tried to void the contract , stating the dealer had misled him as to the quality of rice to expect . From 1853 to 1857 , Norton and the rice dealers were involved in a protracted litigation . Although Norton prevailed in the lower courts , the case reached the Supreme Court of California , which ruled against Norton . Later , the Lucas Turner and Company Bank foreclosed on his real estate holdings in North Beach to pay Norton 's debt . He filed for bankruptcy and by 1858 was living in reduced circumstances at a working class boarding house .
= = Declares himself emperor = =
By 1859 , Norton had become completely disgruntled with what he considered the inadequacies of the legal and political structures of the United States . On September 17 , 1859 , he took matters into his own hands and distributed letters to the various newspapers in the city , proclaiming himself " Emperor of these United States " :
At the peremptory request and desire of a large majority of the citizens of these United States , I , Joshua Norton , formerly of Algoa Bay , Cape of Good Hope , and now for the last 9 years and 10 months past of S. F. , Cal . , declare and proclaim myself Emperor of these U. S. ; and in virtue of the authority thereby in me vested , do hereby order and direct the representatives of the different States of the Union to assemble in Musical Hall , of this city , on the 1st day of Feb. next , then and there to make such alterations in the existing laws of the Union as may ameliorate the evils under which the country is laboring , and thereby cause confidence to exist , both at home and abroad , in our stability and integrity .
The announcement was first reprinted for humorous effect by the editor of the San Francisco Bulletin . Norton would later add " Protector of Mexico " to this title . Thus commenced his unprecedented and whimsical 21 @-@ year " reign " over America .
In his self @-@ appointed role of emperor , Norton issued numerous decrees on matters of the state . After assuming absolute control over the country , he saw no further need for a legislature , and on October 12 , 1859 , he issued a decree formally abolishing the United States Congress . In it , Norton observed :
... fraud and corruption prevent a fair and proper expression of the public voice ; that open violation of the laws are constantly occurring , caused by mobs , parties , factions and undue influence of political sects ; that the citizen has not that protection of person and property which he is entitled .
Norton ordered all interested parties to assemble at Platt 's Music Hall in San Francisco in February 1860 to " remedy the evil complained of " .
In an imperial decree the following month , Norton summoned the Army to depose the elected officials of the U.S. Congress :
WHEREAS , a body of men calling themselves the National Congress are now in session in Washington City , in violation of our Imperial edict of the 12th of October last , declaring the said Congress abolished ;
WHEREAS , it is necessary for the repose of our Empire that the said decree should be strictly complied with ;
NOW , THEREFORE , we do hereby Order and Direct Major @-@ General Scott , the Command @-@ in @-@ Chief of our Armies , immediately upon receipt of this , our Decree , to proceed with a suitable force and clear the Halls of Congress .
Norton 's orders were ignored by the Army , and Congress likewise continued without any formal acknowledgement of the decree . Further decrees in 1860 dissolved the republic and forbade the assembly of any members of the former Congress . Norton 's battle against the elected leaders of America persisted throughout his reign , though it appears he eventually , if grudgingly , allowed Congress to exist without his permission . Hoping to resolve the many disputes that had resulted in the Civil War , in 1862 Norton issued a mandate ordering both the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant churches to publicly ordain him as " Emperor " .
His attempts to overthrow the elected government having been ignored , Norton turned his attention to other matters , both political and social . On August 12 , 1869 , " being desirous of allaying the dissensions of party strife now existing within our realm " , he abolished the Democratic and Republican parties . The failure to treat Norton 's adopted home city with appropriate respect is the subject of a particularly stern edict that often is cited as having been written by Norton in 1872 — although evidence for the authorship , date or source of this decree remains elusive :
Whoever after due and proper warning shall be heard to utter the abominable word " Frisco , " which has no linguistic or other warrant , shall be deemed guilty of a High Misdemeanor , and shall pay into the Imperial Treasury as penalty the sum of twenty @-@ five dollars .
Norton was occasionally a visionary , and some of his Imperial Decrees exhibited profound foresight . He issued instructions to form a League of Nations , and he explicitly forbade any form of conflict between religions or their sects . Norton saw fit to decree the construction of a suspension bridge or tunnel connecting Oakland and San Francisco , his later decrees becoming increasingly irritated at the lack of prompt obedience by the authorities :
WHEREAS , we issued our decree ordering the citizens of San Francisco and Oakland to appropriate funds for the survey of a suspension bridge from Oakland Point via Goat Island ; also for a tunnel ; and to ascertain which is the best project ; and whereas the said citizens have hitherto neglected to notice our said decree ; and whereas we are determined our authority shall be fully respected ; now , therefore , we do hereby command the arrest by the army of both the Boards of City Fathers if they persist in neglecting our decrees .
Given under our royal hand and seal at San Francisco , this 17th day of September , 1872 .
The intent of this decree , unlike many others , actually came to fruition ; construction of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge began on July 9 , 1933 and was completed on November 12 , 1936 . The construction of Bay Area Rapid Transit 's Transbay Tube was completed in 1969 , with Transbay rail service commencing in 1974 .
= = Norton 's Imperial acts = =
Norton spent his days inspecting San Francisco 's streets in an elaborate blue uniform with gold @-@ plated epaulettes , given to him by officers of the United States Army post at the Presidio of San Francisco . He also wore a beaver hat decorated with a peacock feather and a rosette . He frequently enhanced this regal posture with a cane or umbrella . During his inspections , Norton would examine the condition of the sidewalks and cable cars , the state of repair of public property , and the appearance of police officers . Norton would also frequently give lengthy philosophical expositions on a variety of topics to anyone within earshot .
During the 1860s and 1870s , there were occasional anti @-@ Chinese demonstrations in the poorer districts of San Francisco . Riots , sometimes resulting in fatalities , took place . During one incident , Norton allegedly positioned himself between the rioters and their Chinese targets ; with a bowed head , he started reciting the Lord 's Prayer repeatedly until the rioters dispersed without incident .
Norton was loved and revered by the citizens of San Francisco . Although penniless , he regularly ate at the finest restaurants in San Francisco ; restaurateurs took it upon themselves to add brass plaques in their entrances declaring " [ by ] Appointment to his Imperial Majesty , Emperor Norton I of the United States . " Norton 's self @-@ penned Imperial seals of approval were prized and a substantial boost to trade . No play or musical performance in San Francisco would dare to open without reserving balcony seats for Norton .
A rumor started by the devoted Norton caricaturist Ed Jump claims he had two dogs , Bummer and Lazarus , which were also San Francisco celebrities . Though he did not own the dogs , Norton ate at free lunch counters where he shared his meals with the dogs .
In 1867 , a policeman named Armand Barbier arrested Norton to commit him to involuntary treatment for a mental disorder . The Emperor 's arrest outraged the citizens and sparked scathing editorials in the newspapers . Police Chief Patrick Crowley ordered Norton released and issued a formal apology on behalf of the police force . Crowley wrote " that he had shed no blood ; robbed no one ; and despoiled no country ; which is more than can be said of his fellows in that line . " Norton magnanimously granted an Imperial Pardon to the errant policeman . All police officers of San Francisco thereafter saluted Norton as he passed in the street .
Norton did receive some tokens of recognition for his position . The 1870 U.S. census lists Joshua Norton as 50 years old and residing at 624 Commercial Street ; his occupation was listed as Emporer [ sic ] . It also noted he was insane . Norton also issued his own money to pay for his debts , and it became an accepted local currency in San Francisco . These notes came in denominations between fifty cents and ten dollars ; the few surviving notes are collector 's items . The city of San Francisco also honored Norton . When his uniform began to look shabby , the San Francisco Board of Supervisors bought him a suitably regal replacement . Norton sent a gracious thank you note and issued a " patent of nobility in perpetuity " for each supervisor .
= = Later years and death = =
During the later years of Norton 's reign , he was the subject of considerable speculation . One popular story suggested he was the son of Emperor Napoleon III , and that his claim of coming from South Africa was a ruse to prevent persecution . Another popular story suggested Norton was planning to marry Queen Victoria . While this claim is unsupported , Norton did write to the Queen on several occasions , and he is reported to have met Emperor Pedro II of Brazil . Rumors also circulated that Norton was supremely wealthy — only affecting poverty because he was miserly .
A number of decrees that were probably fraudulent were submitted and duly printed in local newspapers , and it is believed that in at least a few cases , newspaper editors themselves drafted fictitious edicts to suit their own agendas . The San Francisco Museum and Historical Society maintains a list of the decrees believed to be genuine .
On the evening of January 8 , 1880 , Norton collapsed on the corner of California Street and Dupont Street ( now Grant Avenue ) in front of Old St. Mary 's Church while on his way to a lecture at the California Academy of Sciences . His collapse was immediately noticed and " the police officer on the beat hastened for a carriage to convey him to the City Receiving Hospital . " Norton died before a carriage could arrive . The following day the San Francisco Chronicle published his obituary on its front page under the headline " Le Roi est Mort " ( " The King is Dead " ) . In a tone tinged with sadness , the article respectfully reported that , " [ o ] n the reeking pavement , in the darkness of a moon @-@ less night under the dripping rain ... , Norton I , by the grace of God , Emperor of the United States and Protector of Mexico , departed this life " . The Morning Call , another leading San Francisco newspaper , published a front @-@ page article using an almost identical sentence as a headline : " Norton the First , by the grace of God Emperor of these United States and Protector of Mexico , departed this life . "
It quickly became evident that , contrary to the rumors , Norton had died in complete poverty . Five or six dollars in small change had been found on his person , and a search of his room at the boarding house on Commercial Street turned up a single gold sovereign , then worth around $ 2 @.@ 50 ; his collection of walking sticks ; his rather battered saber ; a variety of headgear ( including a stovepipe , a derby , a red @-@ laced Army cap , and another cap suited to a martial band @-@ master ) ; an 1828 French franc ; and a handful of the Imperial bonds he sold to tourists at a fictitious 7 % interest . There were fake telegrams purporting to be from Emperor Alexander II of Russia , congratulating Norton on his forthcoming marriage to Queen Victoria , and from the President of France , predicting that such a union would be disastrous to world peace . Also found were his letters to Queen Victoria and 98 shares of stock in a defunct gold mine .
Initial funeral arrangements were for a pauper 's coffin of simple redwood . However , members of the Pacific Club , a San Francisco businessman 's association , established a funeral fund that provided for a handsome rosewood casket and arranged a suitably dignified farewell . Norton 's funeral on Sunday , January 10 , was solemn , mournful , and large . Paying their respects were members of " ... all classes from capitalists to the pauper , the clergyman to the pickpocket , well @-@ dressed ladies and those whose garb and bearing hinted of the social outcast . " Some accounts say as many as 10 @,@ 000 people lined the streets , and that the funeral cortège was two miles ( 3 km ) long . San Francisco 's total population at the time was 230 @,@ 000 . Norton was buried in the Masonic Cemetery , at the expense of the City of San Francisco .
In 1934 , Emperor Norton 's remains were transferred , as were all graves in the city , to a grave site of moderate splendor at Woodlawn Cemetery , in Colma . The grave is marked by a large stone inscribed " Norton I , Emperor of the United States and Protector of Mexico " .
= = Legacy = =
Although details of his life story may have been forgotten , Emperor Norton was immortalized in literature . Mark Twain , who resided in San Francisco during part of Emperor Norton 's public life , modeled the character of the King in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn on Joshua Norton .
Robert Louis Stevenson made Norton a character in his 1892 novel , The Wrecker . Stevenson 's stepdaughter , Isobel Osbourne , mentioned Norton in her autobiography , This Life I 've Loved . She said that Norton " was a gentle and kindly man , and fortunately found himself in the friendliest and most sentimental city in the world , the idea being ' let him be emperor if he wants to . ' San Francisco played the game with him . "
Since 1974 , there has been an annual memorial service at his grave in Colma , just outside San Francisco .
In January 1980 , ceremonies were conducted in San Francisco to honor the 100th anniversary of the death of " the one and only Emperor of the United States . "
The Emperor 's Bridge Campaign , a San Francisco @-@ based nonprofit launched in September 2013 , works to honor the life and advance the legacy of Emperor Norton .
He is considered a patron saint of Discordianism .
= = = Efforts to rename the San Francisco @-@ Oakland Bay Bridge = = =
In 1939 , the group E Clampus Vitus commissioned and dedicated a plaque commemorating Emperor Norton 's call for the construction of a suspension bridge between San Francisco and Oakland , via Yerba Buena Island ( formerly Goat Island ) . The group 's intention was that the plaque be placed on the newly opened San Francisco @-@ Oakland Bay Bridge itself . This was not approved by the bridge authorities , however ; and , sometime shortly after World War II , the plaque was installed at the Cliff House . In the 1990s , the plaque was moved to the Transbay Terminal . When the Terminal was closed and demolished in 2010 , as part of the project to construct a new Transbay Transit Center , the plaque was placed in storage , where it remains .
There have been two recent campaigns to name all , or parts , of the Bay Bridge for Emperor Norton .
In November 2004 , after a campaign by San Francisco Chronicle cartoonist Phil Frank , then @-@ San Francisco District 3 Supervisor Aaron Peskin introduced a resolution to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors calling for the entire bridge to be named for Emperor Norton . On December 14 , 2004 , the Board approved a modified version of this resolution , calling for only " new additions " — i.e. , the new eastern span — to be named " The Emperor Norton Bridge " . Neither the City of Oakland nor Alameda County passed any similar resolution , so the effort went no further .
In June 2013 , eight members of the California Assembly , joined by two members of the California Senate , introduced a concurrent resolution to name the western span of the bridge for former California state Speaker and San Francisco Mayor Willie Brown . In response , there have been public efforts seeking to revive the earlier Emperor Norton effort . One effort , an online petition , was started in August 2013 and calls for the entire bridge to be named for Emperor Norton . This petition has received coverage from local media .
The Emperor 's Bridge Campaign is carrying forward the bridge @-@ naming effort . The Campaign is using the example of numerous California state @-@ owned bridges that have multiple names to call for an " Emperor Norton " name simply to be added as a second name for the Bay Bridge , rather than for the bridge to be renamed altogether . The organization is exploring the possibility of offering state ballot proposition to this effect in 2018 , the 200th anniversary of Emperor Norton 's birth .
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= Banded houndshark =
The banded houndshark ( Triakis scyllium ) is a species of houndshark , in the family Triakidae , common in the northwestern Pacific Ocean from the southern Russian Far East to Taiwan . Found on or near the bottom , it favors shallow coastal habitats with sandy or vegetated bottoms , and also enters brackish water . This shark reaches 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in length . It has a short , rounded snout and mostly narrow fins ; the pectoral fins are broad and triangular , and the trailing margin of the first dorsal fin is almost vertical . It is gray above and lighter below ; younger sharks have darker saddles and dots , which fade with age .
Nocturnal and largely solitary , the banded houndshark preys on benthic invertebrates and bony fishes . It is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained by yolk . After mating during summer , females bear as many as 42 pups following a gestation period of 9 – 12 months . The banded houndshark poses no danger to humans and adapts well to captivity . It is caught as bycatch off Japan , Taiwan , and likely elsewhere in its range ; it may be eaten but is not as well @-@ regarded as related species . Because fishing does not appear to have diminished this shark 's population , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it under Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first scientific description of the banded houndshark was authored by German biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle , based on a dried specimen from Japan , in their 1838 – 41 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen . They gave it the specific epithet scyllium , derived from the Ancient Greek skylion ( " dogfish " ) , and placed it in the genus Triakis . Within the genus , it is placed in the subgenus Triakis along with the leopard shark ( T. ( Triakis ) semifasciata ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Native to the northwestern Pacific Ocean , the banded houndshark occurs from the southern Russian Far East to Taiwan , including Japan , Korea , and eastern China ; records from the Philippines are questionable . This common , benthic shark is found over continental and insular shelves , mostly close to shore but also to a depth of 150 m ( 490 ft ) . It frequents sandy flats and beds of seaweed and eelgrass ; additionally it is tolerant of brackish water and enters estuaries and bays .
= = Description = =
The banded houndshark is a moderately slender @-@ bodied species growing up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long . The snout is short , broad , and rounded ; the widely separated nostrils are each preceded by a lobe of skin that does not reach the mouth . The horizontally oval eyes are placed high on the head ; they are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) and have prominent ridges underneath . The mouth forms a short , wide arch and bears long furrows at the corners that extend onto both jaws . Each tooth has an upright to oblique knife @-@ like central cusp flanked by strong cusplets . There are five pairs of gill slits .
Most of the fins are fairly narrow ; in adults the pectoral fins are broad and roughly triangular . The moderately tall first dorsal fin is placed about halfway between the pectoral and pelvic fins , and its trailing margin is nearly vertical near the apex . The second dorsal fin is about three @-@ quarters as high as the first and larger than the anal fin . The caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a prominent ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe ; in young sharks the lower caudal fin lobe is much less distinct . This species is gray above , with darker saddles and scattered black spots that fade with age ; the underside is off @-@ white .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The banded houndshark is nocturnal and generally solitary , though several individuals may rest together , sometimes piled atop one another inside a cave . It feeds mainly on crustaceans ( including shrimps , crabs , hermit crabs , and mantis shrimps ) , cephalopods ( including octopus ) , and spoon worms ; polychaete worms , tunicates , peanut worms , and small , bottom @-@ living bony fishes ( including flatfishes , conger eels , herring , jacks , drums , and grunts ) are occasionally consumed . Shrimp and spoon worms are important prey for sharks up to 70 cm ( 28 in ) long ; cephalopods predominate in the diets of larger sharks .
Mating occurs during the summer , and involves the male swimming parallel to the female and gripping her pectoral fin with his teeth ; thus secured , he then twists the aft portion of his body to insert a single clasper into her cloaca for copulation . The banded houndshark is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are sustained to birth by yolk . Females bear litters of 9 – 26 pups after a gestation period of 9 – 12 months , though litters as large as 42 pups have been recorded . The newborns measure 18 – 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) long . Males mature sexually at 5 – 6 years old , when they are 93 – 106 cm ( 37 – 42 in ) long , and live up to 15 years . Females mature sexually at 6 – 7 years old , when they are 106 – 107 cm ( 42 – 42 in ) long , and live up to 18 years . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Callitetrarhynchus gracilis , Onchobothrium triacis , and Phyllobothrium serratum , the leech Stibarobdella macrothela , and the copepods Achtheinus impenderus , Caligus punctatus , Kroyeria triakos , and Pseudopandarus scyllii .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the banded houndshark is commonly displayed in public aquariums in China and Japan , and has reproduced in captivity . Individuals have survived in captivity for over five years . This species is often caught incidentally off Japan in gillnets and set nets ; the meat is sometimes sold , but is considered to be of poorer quality than that of other houndsharks in the region . It is caught in lesser numbers off Taiwan , and is probably also fished off Korea and northern China . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the banded houndshark under Least Concern , as it remains abundant throughout its range . Off Japan , it can be found in rocky areas that provide refuge from fishing pressure .
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= Morchella importuna =
Morchella importuna is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae described from North America in 2012 . It occurs in gardens , woodchip beds , and other urban settings of northern California and the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada . The fungus has also been reported from Turkey , Spain , France , Switzerland , Canada and China , although it is unknown whether this is a result of accidental introductions . It is considered a choice edible mushroom . The fruit bodies develop a distinctive ladder @-@ like pattern of pits and ridges on the surface of their conical caps .
= = Taxonomy = =
Officially described in 2012 , Morchella importuna was one of 14 new North American species that resulted from the Morel Data Collection Project . The type locality was in King County , Washington . It was previously identified as phylogenetic species Mel @-@ 10 in a 2011 publication , and erroneously as the " Classic North American Black Morel " in 2005 , where it was lumped together with Morchella angusticeps , and what has since been described as M. brunnea . The specific epithet importuna , which means " inconsiderate " or " assertive " , refers to the morel 's habit of causing " consternation and distress among gardeners and homeowners whose territory has been invaded " .
As argued in a recent study by Richard et al. however , the name Morchella importuna is probably a later synonym of an old European taxon , such as Morchella elata , Morchella vaporaria or Morchella hortensis .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of M. importuna are 6 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) high . The cap is 3 – 15 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) high and measures 2 – 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) wide at its widest point . It is conical to widely conical or occasionally egg @-@ shaped . Its surface has pits and ridges , with 12 – 20 primary vertical ridges and numerous transecting horizontal ridges , creating a laddered appearance . The cap is attached to stipe with a sinus about 2 – 5 mm both deep and wide . The ridges are smooth or finely velvety and colored pale to dark gray when young , becoming dark grayish brown to nearly black in age . They are bluntly rounded when young , but later become sharpened or eroded . Pits are vertically elongated in all stages of development . They have a smooth or finely velvety texture . The pits open and deepen with development , progressing from gray to dark gray when immature to grayish brown , grayish olive or brownish yellow at maturity . The stipe measures 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) high and 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide , and is often somewhat thicker near the base . Its whitish to pale brownish surface is smooth or finely mealy with whitish granules . It develops longitudinal ridges and grooves ( particularly near the base ) as the fruit body matures . The flesh is whitish to watery tan , measuring 1 – 3 mm thick in the hollow cap ; in the stipe , this tissue is sometimes arranged as chambers or layers . The sterile inner surface of the cap is whitish and pubescent ( covered with short soft " hair " ) .
The ascospores are elliptical , smooth , and measure 18 – 24 by 10 – 13 µm . The cylindrical , hyaline ( translucent ) , asci are eight @-@ spored , measuring 220 – 300 by 12 – 25 µm . Paraphyses are septate , measuring 150 – 250 by 7 – 15 µm . They are cylindrical with variably shaped tips : rounded to roughly club @-@ shaped , pointy , or fuse @-@ shaped . Elements on the sterile ridges are septate and measure 25 – 300 by 10 – 30 µm . Terminal cells are cylindrical with a rounded tip that is variably shaped similar to the paraphyses . Both the paraphyses and the terminal cells are hyaline or brownish in dilute ( 2 % ) potassium hydroxide .
As a member of the Morchella elata group of black morels , M. importuna is sought after as a choice edible mushroom . Raw morels are poisonous and should always be cooked .
= = = Similar species = = =
The rare Pacific Northwest morel Morchella hotsonii , known only from its type collection , is quite similar in appearance to M. importuna . The former species is distinguished by its finely velvety surface .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
A saprobic fungus , Morchella importuna fruit bodies grow in wood chips , gardens , and planters in urban areas . Kuo suggests that it has mycorrhizal tendencies when grown in an environment with trees . Known primarily from northern California and the Pacific Northwest region of the United States , it has been reported from British Columbia ( Canada ) , California , Washington , Nevada , and Oregon , although there have been a few isolated reports of the morel from the Midwestern United States and from eastern North America . Fruiting occurs in the spring , from March until May . Identified as phylogenetic species " Mel @-@ 10 " , Morchella importuna has also been found in Turkey and China , but it remains unclear whether dispersal between these distant locations occurred naturally or through accidental introduction by humans .
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= Birth control =
Birth control , also known as contraception and fertility control , is a method or device used to prevent pregnancy . Planning , making available , and use of birth control is called family planning . Birth control methods have been used since ancient times , but effective and safe methods only became available in the 20th century . Some cultures limit or discourage access to birth control because they consider it to be morally , religiously , or politically undesirable .
The most effective methods of birth control are sterilization by means of vasectomy in males and tubal ligation in females , intrauterine devices ( IUDs ) , and implantable birth control . This is followed by a number of hormone based methods including oral pills , patches , vaginal rings , and injections . Less effective methods include physical barriers such as condoms , diaphragms and birth control sponges and fertility awareness methods . The least effective methods are spermicides and withdrawal by the male before ejaculation . Sterilization , while highly effective , is not usually reversible ; all other methods are reversible , most immediately upon stopping them . Safe sex practices , such as with the use of male or female condoms , can also help prevent sexually transmitted infections . Other methods of birth control do not protect against sexually transmitted diseases . Emergency birth control can prevent pregnancy if taken within the 72 to 120 hours after unprotected sex . Some argue not having sex as a form of birth control , but abstinence @-@ only sex education may increase teenage pregnancies if offered without birth control education , due to non @-@ compliance .
In teenagers , pregnancies are at greater risk of poor outcomes . Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control decreases the rate of unwanted pregnancies in this age group . While all forms of birth control can generally be used by young people , long @-@ acting reversible birth control such as implants , IUDs , or vaginal rings are more successful in reducing rates of teenage pregnancy . After the delivery of a child , a woman who is not exclusively breastfeeding may become pregnant again after as few as four to six weeks . Some methods of birth control can be started immediately following the birth , while others require a delay of up to six months . In women who are breastfeeding , progestin @-@ only methods are preferred over combined oral birth control pills . In women who have reached menopause , it is recommended that birth control be continued for one year after the last period .
About 222 million women who want to avoid pregnancy in developing countries are not using a modern birth control method . Birth control use in developing countries has decreased the number of deaths during or around the time of pregnancy by 40 % ( about 270 @,@ 000 deaths prevented in 2008 ) and could prevent 70 % if the full demand for birth control were met . By lengthening the time between pregnancies , birth control can improve adult women 's delivery outcomes and the survival of their children . In the developing world women 's earnings , assets , weight , and their children 's schooling and health all improve with greater access to birth control . Birth control increases economic growth because of fewer dependent children , more women participating in the workforce , and less use of scarce resources .
= = Methods = =
Birth control methods include barrier methods , hormonal birth control , intrauterine devices ( IUDs ) , sterilization , and behavioral methods . They are used before or during sex while emergency contraceptives are effective for up to a few days after sex . Effectiveness is generally expressed as the percentage of women who become pregnant using a given method during the first year , and sometimes as a lifetime failure rate among methods with high effectiveness , such as tubal ligation .
The most effective methods are those that are long acting and do not require ongoing health care visits . Surgical sterilization , implantable hormones , and intrauterine devices all have first @-@ year failure rates of less than 1 % . Hormonal contraceptive pills , patches or vaginal rings , and the lactational amenorrhea method ( LAM ) , if used strictly , can also have first @-@ year ( or for LAM , first @-@ 6 @-@ month ) failure rates of less than 1 % . With typical use first @-@ year failure rates are considerably high , at 9 % , due to incorrect usage . Other methods such as condoms , diaphragms , and spermicides have higher first @-@ year failure rates even with perfect usage . The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends long acting reversible birth control as first line for young people .
While all methods of birth control have some potential adverse effects , the risk is less than that of pregnancy . After stopping or removing many methods of birth control , including oral contraceptives , IUDs , implants and injections , the rate of pregnancy during the subsequent year is the same as for those who used no birth control .
In those with specific health problems , certain forms of birth control may require further investigations . For women who are otherwise healthy , many methods of birth control should not require a medical exam — including birth control pills , injectable or implantable birth control , and condoms . Specifically , a pelvic exam , breast exam , or blood test before starting birth control pills do not appear to affect outcomes and , therefore , are not required . In 2009 , the World Health Organization ( WHO ) published a detailed list of medical eligibility criteria for each type of birth control .
= = = Hormonal = = =
Hormonal contraception is available in a number of different forms , including oral pills , implants under the skin , injections , patches , IUDs and a vaginal ring . They are currently available only for women , although hormonal contraceptives for men have and are being clinically tested . There are two types of oral birth control pills , the combined oral contraceptive pills ( which contain both estrogen and progesterone ) and the progestogen @-@ only pills ( sometimes called minipills ) . If either is taken during pregnancy , they do not increase the risk of miscarriage nor cause birth defects . Both types of birth control pills prevent fertilization mainly by inhibiting ovulation and thickening cervical mucous . Their effectiveness depends on the user remembering to take the pills . They may also change the lining of the uterus and thus decrease implantation .
Combined hormonal contraceptives are associated with a slightly increased risk of venous and arterial blood clots . Venous clots , on average , increase from 2 @.@ 8 to 9 @.@ 8 per 10 @,@ 000 women years which is still less than that associated with pregnancy . Due to this risk , they are not recommended in women over 35 years of age who continue to smoke . The effect on sexual desire is varied , with increase or decrease in some but with no effect in most . Combined oral contraceptives reduce the risk of ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer and do not change the risk of breast cancer . They often reduce menstrual bleeding and painful menstruation cramps . The lower doses of estrogen released from the vaginal ring may reduce the risk of breast tenderness , nausea , and headache associated with higher dose estrogen products .
Progestin @-@ only pills , injections and intrauterine devices are not associated with an increased risk of blood clots and may be used by women with previous blood clots in their veins . In those with a history of arterial blood clots , non @-@ hormonal birth control or a progestin @-@ only method other than the injectable version should be used . Progestin @-@ only pills may improve menstrual symptoms and can be used by breastfeeding women as they do not affect milk production . Irregular bleeding may occur with progestin @-@ only methods , with some users reporting no periods . The progestins drospirenone and desogestrel minimize the androgenic side effects but increase the risks of blood clots and are thus not first line . The perfect use first @-@ year failure rate of the injectable progestin , Depo @-@ Provera , is 0 @.@ 2 % ; the typical use first failure rate is 6 % .
= = = Barrier = = =
Barrier contraceptives are devices that attempt to prevent pregnancy by physically preventing sperm from entering the uterus . They include male condoms , female condoms , cervical caps , diaphragms , and contraceptive sponges with spermicide .
Globally , condoms are the most common method of birth control . Male condoms are put on a man 's erect penis and physically block ejaculated sperm from entering the body of a sexual partner . Modern condoms are most often made from latex , but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane , or lamb 's intestine . Female condoms are also available , most often made of nitrile , latex or polyurethane . Male condoms have the advantage of being inexpensive , easy to use , and have few adverse effects . Making condoms available to teenagers does not appear to affect the age of onset of sexual activity or its frequency . In Japan about 80 % of couples who are using birth control use condoms , while in Germany this number is about 25 % , and in the United States it is 18 % .
Male condoms and the diaphragm with spermicide have typical use first @-@ year failure rates of 18 % and 12 % , respectively . With perfect use condoms are more effective with a 2 % first @-@ year failure rate versus a 6 % first @-@ year rate with the diaphragm . Condoms have the additional benefit of helping to prevent the spread of some sexually transmitted infections such as HIV / AIDS .
Contraceptive sponges combine a barrier with a spermicide . Like diaphragms , they are inserted vaginally before intercourse and must be placed over the cervix to be effective . Typical failure rates during the first year depend on whether or not a woman has previously given birth , being 24 % in those who have and 12 % in those who have not . The sponge can be inserted up to 24 hours before intercourse and must be left in place for at least six hours afterward . Allergic reactions and more severe adverse effects such as toxic shock syndrome have been reported .
= = = Intrauterine devices = = =
The current intrauterine devices ( IUD ) are small devices , often ' T ' -shaped , often containing either copper or levonorgestrel , which are inserted into the uterus . They are one form of long @-@ acting reversible contraception which are the most effective types of reversible birth control . Failure rates with the copper IUD is about 0 @.@ 8 % while the levonorgestrel IUD has a failure rates of 0 @.@ 2 % in the first year of use . Among types of birth control , they along with birth control implants result in the greatest satisfaction among users . As of 2007 , IUDs are the most widely used form of reversible contraception , with more than 180 million users worldwide .
Evidence supports effectiveness and safety in adolescents and those who have and have not previously had children . IUDs do not affect breastfeeding and can be inserted immediately after delivery . They may also be used immediately after an abortion . Once removed , even after long term use , fertility returns to normal immediately .
While copper IUDs may increase menstrual bleeding and result in more painful cramps hormonal IUDs may reduce menstrual bleeding or stop menstruation altogether . Cramping can be treated with NSAIDs . Other potential complications include expulsion ( 2 – 5 % ) and rarely perforation of the uterus ( less than 0 @.@ 7 % ) . A previous model of the intrauterine device ( the Dalkon shield ) was associated with an increased risk of pelvic inflammatory disease , however the risk is not affected with current models in those without sexually transmitted infections around the time of insertion .
= = = Sterilization = = =
Surgical sterilization is available in the form of tubal ligation for women and vasectomy for men . There are no significant long @-@ term side effects , and tubal ligation decreases the risk of ovarian cancer . Short term complications are twenty times less likely from a vasectomy than a tubal ligation . After a vasectomy , there may be swelling and pain of the scrotum which usually resolves in a week or two . With tubal ligation , complications occur in 1 to 2 percent of procedures with serious complications usually due to the anesthesia . Neither method offers protection from sexually transmitted infections .
This decision may cause regret in some men and women . Of women aged over 30 who have undergone tubal ligation , about 5 % regret their decision , as compared with 20 % of women aged under 30 . By contrast , less than 5 % of men are likely to regret sterilization . Men more likely to regret sterilization are younger , have young or no children , or have an unstable marriage . In a survey of biological parents , 9 % stated they would not have had children if they were able to do it over again .
Although sterilization is considered a permanent procedure , it is possible to attempt a tubal reversal to reconnect the fallopian tubes or a vasectomy reversal to reconnect the vasa deferentia . In women the desire for a reversal is often associated with a change in spouse . Pregnancy success rates after tubal reversal are between 31 and 88 percent , with complications including an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy . The number of males who request reversal is between 2 and 6 percent . Rates of success in fathering another child after reversal are between 38 and 84 percent ; with success being lower the longer the time period between the original procedure and the reversal . Sperm extraction followed by in vitro fertilization may also be an option in men .
= = = Behavioral = = =
Behavioral methods involve regulating the timing or method of intercourse to prevent introduction of sperm into the female reproductive tract , either altogether or when an egg may be present . If used perfectly the first @-@ year failure rate may be around 3 @.@ 4 % , however if used poorly first @-@ year failure rates may approach 85 % .
= = = = Fertility awareness = = = =
Fertility awareness methods involve determining the most fertile days of the menstrual cycle and avoiding unprotected intercourse . Techniques for determining fertility include monitoring basal body temperature , cervical secretions , or the day of the cycle . They have typical first @-@ year failure rates of 24 % ; perfect use first @-@ year failure rates depend on which method is used and range from 0 @.@ 4 % to 5 % . The evidence on which these estimates are based , however , is poor as the majority of people in trials stop their use early . Globally , they are used by about 3 @.@ 6 % of couples . If based on both basal body temperature and another primary sign , the method is referred to as symptothermal . Overall first @-@ year failure rates of < 2 % to 20 % have been reported in clinical studies of the symptothermal method .
= = = = Withdrawal = = = =
The withdrawal method ( also known as coitus interruptus ) is the practice of ending intercourse ( " pulling out " ) before ejaculation . The main risk of the withdrawal method is that the man may not perform the maneuver correctly or in a timely manner . First @-@ year failure rates vary from 4 % with perfect usage to 22 % with typical usage . It is not considered birth control by some medical professionals .
There is little evidence regarding the sperm content of pre @-@ ejaculatory fluid . While some tentative research did not find sperm , one trial found sperm present in 10 out of 27 volunteers . The withdrawal method is used as birth control by about 3 % of couples .
= = = = Abstinence = = = =
Though some groups advocate total sexual abstinence , by which they mean the avoidance of all sexual activity , in the context of birth control the term usually means abstinence from vaginal intercourse . Abstinence is 100 % effective in preventing pregnancy ; however , not everyone who intends to be abstinent refrains from all sexual activity , and in many populations there is a significant risk of pregnancy from nonconsensual sex .
Abstinence @-@ only sex education does not reduce teenage pregnancy . Teen pregnancy rates are higher in students given abstinence @-@ only education , as compared with comprehensive sex education . Some authorities recommend that those using abstinence as a primary method have backup method ( s ) available ( such as condoms or emergency contraceptive pills ) . Deliberate non @-@ penetrative sex without vaginal sex or deliberate oral sex without vaginal sex are also sometimes considered birth control . While this generally avoids pregnancy , pregnancy can still occur with intercrural sex and other forms of penis @-@ near @-@ vagina sex ( genital rubbing , and the penis exiting from anal intercourse ) where sperm can be deposited near the entrance to the vagina and can travel along the vagina 's lubricating fluids .
= = = = Lactation = = = =
The lactational amenorrhea method involves the use of a woman 's natural postpartum infertility which occurs after delivery and may be extended by breastfeeding . This usually requires the presence of no periods , exclusively breastfeeding the infant , and a child younger than six months . The World Health Organization states that if breastfeeding is the infant 's only source of nutrition , the failure rate is 2 % in the six months following delivery . Six uncontrolled studies of lactational amenorrhea method users found failure rates at 6 months postpartum between 0 % and 7 @.@ 5 % . Failure rates increase to 4 – 7 % at one year and 13 % at two years . Feeding formula , pumping instead of nursing , the use of a pacifier , and feeding solids all increase its failure rate . In those who are exclusively breastfeeding , about 10 % begin having periods before three months and 20 % before six months . In those who are not breastfeeding , fertility may return four weeks after delivery .
= = = Emergency = = =
Emergency contraceptive methods are medications ( sometimes misleadingly referred to as " morning @-@ after pills " ) or devices used after unprotected sexual intercourse with the hope of preventing pregnancy . They work primarily by preventing ovulation or fertilization . They are unlikely to affect implantation , but this has not been completely exclude . A number of options exist , including high dose birth control pills , levonorgestrel , mifepristone , ulipristal and IUDs . Levonorgestrel pills , when used within 3 days , decrease the chance of pregnancy after a single episode of unprotected sex or condom failure by 70 % ( resulting in a pregnancy rate of 2 @.@ 2 % ) . Ulipristal , when used within 5 days , decreases the chance of pregnancy by about 85 % ( pregnancy rate 1 @.@ 4 % ) and might be a little more effective than levonorgestrel . Mifepristone is also more effective than levonorgestrel while copper IUDs are the most effective method . IUDs can be inserted up to five days after intercourse and prevent about 99 % of pregnancies after an episode of unprotected sex ( pregnancy rate of 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 2 % ) . This makes them the most effective form of emergency contraceptive . In those who are overweight or obese levonorgestrel is less effective and an IUD or ulipristal is recommended .
Providing emergency contraceptive pills to women in advance does not affect rates of sexually transmitted infections , condom use , pregnancy rates , or sexual risk @-@ taking behavior . All methods have minimal side effects .
= = = Dual protection = = =
Dual protection is the use of methods that prevent both sexually transmitted infections and pregnancy . This can be with condoms either alone or along with another birth control method or by the avoidance of penetrative sex . If pregnancy is a high concern using two methods at the same time is reasonable , and two forms of birth control is recommended in those taking the anti @-@ acne drug isotretinoin , due to the high risk of birth defects if taken during pregnancy .
= = Effects = =
= = = Health = = =
Contraceptive use in developing countries is estimated to have decreased the number of maternal deaths by 40 % ( about 270 @,@ 000 deaths prevented in 2008 ) and could prevent 70 % of deaths if the full demand for birth control were met . These benefits are achieved by reducing the number of unplanned pregnancies that subsequently result in unsafe abortions and by preventing pregnancies in those at high risk .
Birth control also improves child survival in the developing world by lengthening the time between pregnancies . In this population , outcomes are worse when a mother gets pregnant within eighteen months of a previous delivery . Delaying another pregnancy after a miscarriage however does not appear to alter risk and women are advised to attempt pregnancy in this situation whenever they are ready .
Teenage pregnancies , especially among younger teens , are at greater risk of adverse outcomes including early birth , low birth weight , and death of the infant . In the United States 82 % of pregnancies in those between 15 and 19 are unplanned . Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control are effective in decreasing pregnancy rates in this age group .
= = = Finances = = =
In the developing world , birth control increases economic growth due to there being fewer dependent children and thus more women participating in the workforce . Women 's earnings , assets , body mass index , and their children 's schooling and body mass index all improve with greater access to birth control . Family planning via the use of modern birth control is one of the most cost @-@ effective health interventions . For every dollar spent , the United Nations estimates that two to six dollars are saved . These cost savings are related to preventing unplanned pregnancies and decreasing the spread of sexually transmitted illnesses . While all methods are beneficial financially , the use of copper IUDs resulted in the greatest savings .
The total medical cost for a pregnancy , delivery and care of a newborn in the United States is on average $ 21 @,@ 000 for a vaginal delivery and $ 31 @,@ 000 for a Caesarean section as of 2012 . In most other countries the cost is less than half . For a child born in 2011 , an average US family will spend $ 235 @,@ 000 over 17 years to raise them .
= = Prevalence = =
Globally , as of 2009 , approximately 60 % of those who are married and able to have children use birth control . How frequently different methods are used varies widely between countries . The most common method in the developed world is condoms and oral contraceptives , while in Africa it is oral contraceptives and in Latin America and Asia it is sterilization . In the developing world overall , 35 % of birth control is via female sterilization , 30 % is via IUDs , 12 % is via oral contraceptives , 11 % is via condoms , and 4 % is via male sterilization .
While less used in the developed countries than the developing world , the number of women using IUDs as of 2007 was more than 180 million . Avoiding sex when fertile is used by about 3 @.@ 6 % of women of childbearing age , with usage as high as 20 % in areas of South America . As of 2005 , 12 % of couples are using a male form of birth control ( either condoms or a vasectomy ) with higher rates in the developed world . Usage of male forms of birth control has decreased between 1985 and 2009 . Contraceptive use among women in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa has risen from about 5 % in 1991 to about 30 % in 2006 .
As of 2012 , 57 % of women of childbearing age want to avoid pregnancy ( 867 of 1520 million ) . About 222 million women however were not able to access birth control , 53 million of whom were in sub @-@ Saharan Africa and 97 million of whom were in Asia . This results in 54 million unplanned pregnancies and nearly 80 @,@ 000 maternal deaths a year . Part of the reason that many women are without birth control is that many countries limit access due to religious or political reasons , while another contributor is poverty . Due to restrictive abortion laws in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa , many women turn to unlicensed abortion providers for unintended pregnancy , resulting in about 2 – 4 % obtaining unsafe abortions each year .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The Egyptian Ebers Papyrus from 1550 BCE and the Kahun Papyrus from 1850 BCE have within them some of the earliest documented descriptions of birth control : the use of honey , acacia leaves and lint to be placed in the vagina to block sperm . It is believed that in Ancient Greece silphium was used as birth control which , due to its effectiveness and thus desirability , was harvested into extinction .
In medieval Europe , any effort to halt pregnancy was deemed immoral by the Catholic Church , although it is believed that women of the time still used a number of birth control measures , such as coitus interruptus and inserting lily root and rue into the vagina . Women in the Middle Ages were also encouraged to tie weasel testicles around their thighs during sex to prevent pregnancy . The oldest condoms discovered to date were recovered in the ruins of Dudley Castle in England , and are dated back to 1640 . They were made of animal gut , and were most likely used to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases during the English Civil War . Casanova , living in 18th century Italy , described the use of a lambskin covering to prevent pregnancy ; however , condoms only became widely available in the 20th century .
= = = Birth control movement = = =
The birth control movement developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries . The Malthusian League , based on the ideas of Thomas Malthus , was established in 1877 in the United Kingdom to educate the public about the importance of family planning and to advocate for getting rid of penalties for promoting birth control . It was founded during the " Knowlton trial " of Annie Besant and Charles Bradlaugh , who were prosecuted for publishing on various methods of birth control .
In the United States , Margaret Sanger and Otto Bobsein popularized the phrase " birth control " in 1914 . Sanger was mainly active in the United States but had gained an international reputation by the 1930s . At the time , under the Comstock Law , distribution of birth control information was illegal . She jumped bail in 1914 after her arrest for distributing birth control information and left the United States for the United Kingdom to return in 1915 . Sanger established a short @-@ lived birth @-@ control clinic based in the Brownville section of Brooklyn , New York in 1916 , which was shut down after eleven days and resulted in her arrest . The publicity surrounding the arrest , trial , and appeal sparked birth control activism across the United States .
The first permanent birth @-@ control clinic was established in Britain in 1921 by Marie Stopes working with the Malthusian League . The clinic , run by midwives and supported by visiting doctors , offered women 's birth @-@ control advice and taught them the use of a cervical cap . Her clinic made contraception acceptable during the 1920s by presenting it in scientific terms . In 1921 , Sanger founded the American Birth Control League , which later became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America . In 1924 the Society for the Provision of Birth Control Clinics was founded to campaign for municipal clinics ; this led to the opening of a second clinic in Greengate , Salford in 1926 . Throughout the 1920s , Stopes and other feminist pioneers , including Dora Russell and Stella Browne , played a major role in breaking down taboos about sex . In April 1930 the Birth Control Conference assembled 700 delegates and was successful in bringing birth control and abortion into the political sphere – three months later , the Ministry of Health , in the United Kingdom , allowed local authorities to give birth @-@ control advice in welfare centres .
In 1936 the U.S. court ruled in U.S. v. One Package that medically prescribing contraception to save a persons life or well being was not illegal under the Comstock Law ; following this decision , the American Medical Association Committee on Contraception revoked its 1936 statement condemning birth control . A national survey in 1937 showed 71 percent of the adult population supported the use of contraception . By 1938 347 birth control clinics were running in the United States despite their advertisement still being illegal . First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt publicly supported birth control and family planning . In 1966 , President Lyndon B. Johnson started endorsing public funding for family planning services , and the Federal Government began subsidizing birth control services for low @-@ income families . The Affordable Care Act , passed into law on March 23 , 2010 under President Barack Obama , requires all plans in the Health Insurance Marketplace to cover contraceptive methods . These include barrier methods , hormonal methods , implanted devices , emergency contraceptives , and sterilization procedures .
= = = Modern methods = = =
In 1909 , Richard Richter developed the first intrauterine device made from silkworm gut , which was further developed and marketed in Germany by Ernst Gräfenberg in the late 1920s . Gregory Pincus and John Rock with help from the Planned Parenthood Federation of America developed the first birth control pills in the 1950s , such as mestranol / noretynodrel , which became publicly available in the 1960s through the Food and Drug Administration under the name Enovid . Medical abortion became an alternative to surgical abortion with the availability of prostaglandin analogs in the 1970s and mifepristone in the 1980s .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Legal positions = = =
Human rights agreements require most governments to provide family planning and contraceptive information and services . These include the requirement to create a national plan for family planning services , remove laws that limit access to family planning , ensure that a wide variety of safe and effective birth control methods are available including emergency contraceptives , make sure there are appropriately trained healthcare providers and facilities at an affordable price , and create a process to review the programs implemented . If governments fail to do the above it may put them in breach of binding international treaty obligations .
In America , Griswold v. Connecticut overturned a state law prohibiting dissemination of contraception information based on a constitutional right to privacy for marital relationships . In 1971 , Eisenstadt v. Baird extended this right to privacy to single people .
In 2010 , the United Nations launched the Every Woman Every Child movement to assess the progress toward meeting women 's contraceptive needs . The initiative has set a goal of increasing the number of users of modern birth control by 120 million women in the world 's 69 poorest countries by the year 2020 . Additionally , they aim to eradicate discrimination against girls and young women who seek contraceptives . The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists ( ACOG ) recommended in 2014 that oral birth control pills should be over the counter medications .
= = = Religious views = = =
Religions vary widely in their views of the ethics of birth control . The Roman Catholic Church officially only accepts natural family planning , although large numbers of Catholics in developed countries accept and use modern methods of birth control . Among Protestants there is a wide range of views from supporting none to allowing all methods of birth control . Views in Judaism range from the stricter Orthodox sect to the more relaxed Reform sect . Hindus may use both natural and artificial contraceptives . A common Buddhist view is that preventing conception is acceptable , while intervening after conception has occurred is not . In Islam , contraceptives are allowed if they do not threaten health , although their use is discouraged by some .
= = = World Contraception Day = = =
September 26 is World Contraception Day , devoted to raising awareness and improving education about sexual and reproductive health , with a vision of a world where every pregnancy is wanted . It is supported by a group of governments and international NGOs , including the Office of Population Affairs , the Asian Pacific Council on Contraception , Centro Latinamericano Salud y Mujer , the European Society of Contraception and Reproductive Health , the German Foundation for World Population , the International Federation of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology , International Planned Parenthood Federation , the Marie Stopes International , Population Services International , the Population Council , the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) , and Women Deliver .
= = = Misconceptions = = =
There are a number of common misconceptions regarding sex and pregnancy . Douching after sexual intercourse is not an effective form of birth control . Additionally , it is associated with a number of health problems and thus is not recommended . Women can become pregnant the first time they have sexual intercourse and in any sexual position . It is possible , although not very likely , to become pregnant during menstruation .
= = Research directions = =
= = = Females = = =
Improvements of existing birth control methods are needed , as around half of those who get pregnant unintentionally are using birth control at the time . A number of alterations of existing contraceptive methods are being studied , including a better female condom , an improved diaphragm , a patch containing only progestin , and a vaginal ring containing long @-@ acting progesterone . This vaginal ring appears to be effective for three or four months and is currently available in some areas of the world . For women who rarely have sex , the taking of the hormonal birth control levonorgestrel around the time of sex looks promising .
A number of methods to perform sterilization via the cervix are being studied . One involves putting quinacrine in the uterus which causes scarring and infertility . While the procedure is inexpensive and does not require surgical skills , there are concerns regarding long @-@ term side effects . Another substance , polidocanol , which functions in the same manner is being looked at . A device called Essure , which expands when placed in the fallopian tubes and blocks them , was approved in the United States in 2002 .
= = = Males = = =
Methods of male birth control include condoms , vasectomies and withdrawal . Between 25 and 75 % of males who are sexually active would use hormonal birth control if it was available for them . A number of hormonal and non @-@ hormonal methods are in trials , and there is some research looking at the possibility of contraceptive vaccines .
A reversible surgical method under investigation is reversible inhibition of sperm under guidance ( RISUG ) which consists of injecting a polymer gel , styrene maleic anhydride in dimethyl sulfoxide , into the vas deferens . An injection with sodium bicarbonate washes out the substance and restores fertility . Another is an intravas device which involves putting a urethane plug into the vas deferens to block it . A combination of an androgen and a progestin seems promising , as do selective androgen receptor modulators . Ultrasound and methods to heat the testicles have undergone preliminary studies .
= = Other animals = =
Neutering or spaying , which involves removing some of the reproductive organs , is often carried out as a method of birth control in household pets . Many animal shelters require these procedures as part of adoption agreements . In large animals the surgery is known as castration . Birth control is also being considered as an alternative to hunting as a means of controlling overpopulation in wild animals . Contraceptive vaccines have been found to be effective in a number of different animal populations .
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= The Other Woman ( Mad Men ) =
" The Other Woman " is the eleventh episode of the fifth season of the American television drama series Mad Men and the 63rd episode of the series overall . It is co @-@ written by Semi Chellas and Matthew Weiner , and directed by Phil Abraham . It aired on AMC in the United States on May 27 , 2012 .
The episode takes place in January 1967 . Pete asks Joan to make a personal and moral sacrifice to ensure the company lands the Jaguar account . Meanwhile , the creatives work long nights to come up with the perfect pitch for the presentation . Don becomes furious after learning of the impact Megan 's new profession will have on their life . Feeling unappreciated , Peggy has lunch with Freddy Rumsen , who encourages her to make a move . Later , Peggy meets with Ted Chaough , from rival firm CGC , and accepts an offer for chief copywriter at CGC .
" The Other Woman " was critically acclaimed , with some critics calling it one of the best episodes of the series . Jon Hamm , Elisabeth Moss , and Christina Hendricks were lauded by journalists for their performances in this episode . " The Other Woman " was watched by 2 @.@ 07 million viewers and received an adult 18 – 49 rating of 0 @.@ 6 , marking a slightly higher viewership than the previous episode .
= = Plot = =
The SCDP Jaguar team discusses taglines . Stan suggests one using the word " mistress " , but Don reminds him the client would not want to hear that word in an advertisement and excuses himself . Peggy asks Don 's approval of one of her projects but he tells her that she is in charge until Jaguar is done . She watches as a lobster lunch is delivered to the Jaguar team .
Ken and Pete dine with Herb Rennet , head of the Dealers Association and a member of Jaguar 's selection committee . Herb suggests SCDP ’ s competitive standing might be improved if they arrange an evening for him with Joan . Pete tells Joan about Herb 's proposal . Shocked , she asks how Pete would feel if someone asked that of his wife Trudy . He asks Joan how much it would take to convince her . She replies that he " couldn 't afford it " .
Subbing in for Ginsberg while he works on Jaguar , Peggy attends a conference call with Chevalier Blanc . The company wants to pull the Hard Day 's Night ad but she spontaneously comes up with changing the existing ad to targeting women instead and wins the client over .
Pete presents Herb 's proposal at a partners meeting , guaranteeing SCDP will lose the account if they do not comply . Don spurns the idea and leaves , but the remaining partners reluctantly agree to offer Joan $ 50 @,@ 000 . They decide to withhold Christmas bonuses and extend their credit line to cover the cost .
Don instructs the Jaguar team to ditch the mistress concept because it is vulgar . Later , Harry praises Peggy 's work on Chevalier Blanc . She tells Don the client ultimately went with the same ad as before , only in a Paris setting . Don says Ginsberg will take over once the Jaguar pitch is finished , prompting Peggy to reply that she is not in charge of everything . Don pulls some money from his wallet and condescendingly tosses it in Peggy 's face , telling her that if she wants to go to Paris , she should just go . Ken tries to comfort her , saying that Don is just upset about Jaguar , to which she replies that she does not care .
Lane advises Joan to demand a 5 % partnership stake in the company , adding that , when he thought he was essential to the future of the firm , he settled for much less than he felt was due him . Joan later tells Pete she wants a partnership , comprising 5 % of the business and voting rights , in exchange for her spending the night with Herb . Pete asks how to make the arrangements , to which she icily and rhetorically asks if she has to do it all . Pete later tells Don about the arrangement with Joan . Don visits Joan 's apartment to dissuade her . She thanks him and wishes him luck on the presentation , but it is eventually revealed that , unbeknownst to Don , her sexual encounter with Herb had already taken place .
Pete tells Trudy he wants an apartment in the city , but she refuses , telling him that his love affair with Manhattan is over and that they have not even been trying for a second child .
The next day , Megan tells Don that her audition gained her a callback for Little Murders and rehearsals begin shortly in Boston . He voices his displeasure at her being gone for three months . She accuses him of expecting her acting career to fail . When the callback does not go well , she tells him that , if she has to choose between him and the play , she would choose him , but will hate him for it . He assures her that he does not want her to fail , and they kiss .
Ginsberg approaches Don with a new Jaguar concept , portraying the car as an unattainable woman : " Jaguar : At last , something beautiful you can truly own . " Don smiles . Over lunch with Freddy Rumsen , Peggy gripes about her exclusion from Jaguar . Freddy suggests she leave SCDP and offers to help . The next day , Don presents the pitch to Jaguar . Herb smiles as Don unveils the tagline . Joan inquires of Don about the presentation .
Peggy meets Ted Chaough from Cutler Gleason and Chaough to discuss job opportunities and he praises her work . She writes her job requirements , " Copy Chief $ 18 @,@ 000 / year " , on a piece of paper and slides it across the table to him . Chaough crosses out $ 18 @,@ 000 and writes $ 19 @,@ 000 .
The following day , Roger summons all the partners to his office to learn the fate of their Jaguar presentation . Don locks eyes with Joan when she joins them , realizing that she has , in fact , slept with Herb . Roger receives the congratulatory confirmation call from Jaguar , and the office erupts in celebration . In Don 's office , Peggy informs him she has accepted a job with CGC . He thinks she is asking for a raise and attempts to negotiate salary , but she tells him it is not about money . She holds back tears as he kisses her hand . She walks out of the office and smiles as she waits for an elevator .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by Semi Chellas and Matthew Weiner , and directed by Phil Abraham . Weiner said in August 2012 that he intended for Peggy 's departure from SCDP to be in " The Other Woman " , which is centered on Joan : " [ the episode is ] literally about the quantification and value of women in the workplace and the relationship of their sexuality to it . I knew that on a subconscious level at the writing stage , because of the way the stories went together . As these stories fold in together , it starts to become about that , but it was always about what you have to do to get ahead , in a very simple way , and the opportunities to get ahead . "
The nonlinear narrative involving Joan 's storyline and Don 's Jaguar pitch was " a solution to how to tell the story " according to Weiner . " The ordering of those events really was a problem and we got to a point where we can either show Don doing the pitch , or show Joan being with the guy , but we can 't do them both , " he said , explaining that he felt " if Don gives the pitch after [ the audience has ] seen Joan do this , no one is going to listen to a word that he says . It doesn 't matter how good it is . [ The audience is ] not going to believe he could have won . "
Chellas " had this great idea , this elliptical thing , which we really loaded up with cues so that you would know at the end that Don was too late . Seeing Joan in there , taking the necklace off , and Joan 's mother taking Don 's hat into the room where Joan was , and then Joan putting on the green robe and coming out , seeing that behind @-@ the @-@ scenes moment the second time really cemented it . " Weiner said this allowed them to " show Joan going through with it 24 hours beforehand , and then show Don giving this pitch that the audience is convinced is a great pitch . Then you slowly dissolve back to the reality of Don coming in [ to work ] pretty happy , Joan asking how it went , and Roger having this dead response — ' it was one of his good ones ' — and Don wondering why Joan 's not more excited . "
Abraham spoke about shooting a scene of the episode in August 2012 :
Sometimes the toughest moments come where you least expect them . In this episode , that moment was Don throwing money in Peggy 's face . It was a pivotal story point and didn 't seem like it would be a hard beat to hit . During rehearsal when Jon Hamm threw the money at Lizzie Moss , it beaned her right between the eyes , inadvertently , but it was exactly what the scene required . Of course when we go to shoot the scene after setting the lights , Jon tosses the money at her , but it 's just not eliciting the same response . Lizzie tells me it would really help her if Jon just nailed her with the cash again . It 's harder than you think to have perfect aim with loose bills in your pocket when your target is 13 feet ( 4 m ) away . It took a few more takes than anyone had patience for , but when the cash finally landed where it needed to , it took Lizzie by surprise all over again , and that was the moment you ended up seeing onscreen .
While discussing the prostitution plot , Christina Hendricks said , " This is a very confusing situation for Joan and for everyone involved . First off , it 's just completely insulting . Second of all , it 's quite an opportunity . Then all of a sudden you put the money involved or the opportunity involved or you put a label on it , then it becomes a scary road to go down . " Hendricks said that Joan 's motivation was " protection [ for ] her child . " Hendricks felt that Joan saw herself as an equal in a way to the other partners after going through with the deal , as Joan had seen them do worse things over her thirteen years in employment .
Vincent Kartheiser called the storyline an example of an " amoral " business tactic . Kartheiser described Pete as doing " what he thinks he needs to do to get the account . I don 't know if that 's always such a good thing , but it 's common in business . And I think in that situation , Pete represents that type of businessman . " Matthew Weiner and Jared Harris both characterized Lane 's decision as two @-@ fold — he gave Joan the best advice for her and for himself .
Jon Hamm praised the prostitution sequence as " Very elegant paired with Don 's pitch to Jaguar . This idea of something beautiful that you could possess , that you could own . It 's one thing when you 're talking about a car . It 's something else when you 're talking about a human being . "
Elisabeth Moss said she was not told by Weiner that Peggy would be leaving SCDP " until we were shooting episode 10 , the one right before it . It was unusual that he didn 't tell me . He usually tells me what 's happening , pitches me things to ask me how they sound . " Moss ' initial reaction " was just one of feeling like there was really no other logical way to go for her . After everything that had happened for five years , she can 't just keep butting her head up against that wall . [ ... ] She 's becoming her own person and she needs to have her own place not under Don . " Moss also said , " I will thank [ Weiner ] forever for not telling me . It would have made my life harder . I knew about Peggy 's baby in season one . I fought against it , to play it as she was living it , feeling it , and not be in my head . Not knowing Peggy would quit allowed me to find it for myself , to really feel Peggy 's growing frustration with Don all season . "
According to Moss , Peggy " has the capability of being a Don Draper , and there can 't be two of them in the office . " The goodbye scene between Don and Peggy was a difficult one to shoot . Moss said , " That scene was a really , really tough scene to do . They didn 't tell me they were going to do this , but they told Jon to hold my hand and not let it go . Then he did , and I lost it . Every single one of those tears were absolutely real . She wants to stay with all of her heart . She does not want to leave , but she knows she has to . " Hamm said there was " respect , understanding , and admiration between those two characters . This is the exact right time for her to leave . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received critical acclaim from television journalists and has been described by critics as " a knockout episode in a season full of knockout episodes , " funny in some parts , poignant in others , and downright heartbreaking " The storyline involving Joan 's prostituting herself to secure the Jaguar account for Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce came in for particular analysis and scrutiny among journalists , as related to its execution and use of themes of female sexuality and sexual objectification . Alan Sepinwall fought with himself over the execution of the prostitution story in this episode , asking , " If you buy that the partners would be willing to sell Joan , and that Joan would feel the same way , then this is an all @-@ time great episode of the series . But if you don 't , then it 's Weiner and company making the characters act against their natures to fit the theme . " Sepinwall described the story as " something that so fundamentally changes the way you view a number of major characters , and the show that uses them , that it has to be just about perfect to work , and maybe not even then . " Todd VanDerWerff opined that , " ' The Other Woman ' shouldn ’ t work . It ’ s so obviously constructed to be a ' message ' episode , and the message is far from subtle : No matter what we try to do to make them equal , men are always going to turn women into objects on some level , because that ’ s just how men perceive them . " VanDerWerff compared it to the " Employee of the Month " episode of The Sopranos , even going so far as to call " The Other Woman " a stronger episode .
The final scene in which Peggy leaves both Don and the agency was pinpointed by critics as a standout sequence . Maureen Ryan said , " the scene between Don and Peggy was tremendous , but Jon Hamm and Elisabeth Moss are always magnificent together . It 's no coincidence that their final pose — Don at Peggy 's waist , kissing her hand — recalled Don 's brutal reconciliation with Megan a few weeks ago , kneeling , begging her to stay with him . "
Weiner was " surprised " by the reaction to Joan 's storyline :
I knew it was a dramatic moment , and I expected it to be treated as drama , because the stakes were so high , and we knew Joan so well . But I also felt on some level , if we hadn 't used the word prostitution in there , it was more about the public nature of what was going on , and also their love for Joan , and the fact that she was put in this position that was so upsetting to people . I was stunned , though , by the suggestion that there were some people questioning about whether she would have actually done this or not . That shocked me . Maybe what they were saying is they were questioning whether they would have done it , but I was hoping , certainly judging on the history of the show and what Joan has done , obviously this is not the first time this has been an issue for her .
In August 2012 , Hamm said " The Other Woman " was his favorite episode of the fifth season of Mad Men , and spoke about the reaction to Joan 's storyline :
When [ " The Other Woman " ] aired , people were sort of outraged by the Joan storyline , like , " Oh my God , how could she do that ? What is she thinking ? " I kind of looked at it and I was like , Wait a minute : Joan 's not a saint , first of all . She 's having an affair with her boss while she 's married . She 's slept with at least one other person in the office . So let 's back off that thing . And she 's also making a very sort of prudent financial decision and very much trading one thing for another . I found the kind of psychological thing of that very interesting .
In August 2012 , Moss said the final scene was her favorite of the season : " It would 've been so easy to have it be tears and trauma and music , but it 's so simple , almost over before you know it . It brings you to a dark , sad place then gives you this slap in the face when she turns to the elevator and smiles . Matt [ Weiner ] and I didn 't feel it was a sad thing . It says to the audience , ' No , you don 't get to cry all night about this . ' "
= = = Accolades = = =
This episode received writing and directing nominations for the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards .
Due to their nomination , Jon Hamm , Elisabeth Moss , and Christina Hendricks all submitted this episode for consideration for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series , Lead Actress , and Supporting Actress in a Drama Series , respectively , for the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards .
This episode also won the Writers Guild of America Award for Episodic Drama .
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Other Woman " was watched by 2 @.@ 07 million viewers and received an adult 18 – 49 rating of 0 @.@ 6 , marking a slightly higher viewership than the previous episode .
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= Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia =
Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia ( Russian : Михаи ́ л Александрович ; 4 December [ O.S. 22 November ] 1878 – 13 June 1918 ) was the youngest son and fifth child of Emperor Alexander III of Russia and youngest brother of Nicolas II .
At the time of his birth , his paternal grandfather Alexander II of Russia was still the reigning Emperor of All the Russias . Michael was fourth @-@ in @-@ line to the throne following his father and elder brothers Nicholas and George . After the assassination of his grandfather in 1881 , he became third @-@ in @-@ line , and in 1894 after the death of his father , second @-@ in @-@ line . George died in 1899 , leaving Michael as heir @-@ presumptive to the throne .
The birth of Nicholas 's son Alexei in 1904 temporarily moved Michael back to second @-@ in @-@ line , but Alexei inherited the blood @-@ clotting disorder haemophilia and was not expected to live . Michael caused a commotion at the imperial court when he took Natalia Sergeyevna Wulfert , a married woman , as a lover . Nicholas sent Michael to Orel , to avoid scandal , but this did not stop Michael , who travelled frequently to see his mistress . After the couple 's only child , George , was born in 1910 , Michael brought Natalia to St. Petersburg , where she was shunned by society . In 1912 , Michael shocked Nicholas by marrying Natalia , in the hope that he would be removed from the line of succession . Michael and Natalia left Russia to exile abroad in France , Switzerland and England .
After the outbreak of World War I , Michael returned to Russia , assuming command of a cavalry regiment . When Nicholas abdicated on 15 March [ O.S. 2 March ] 1917 , Michael was named as his successor instead of Alexei . Michael , however , deferred acceptance of the throne until ratification by an elected assembly . He was never confirmed as Emperor , and following the Russian Revolution of 1917 , he was imprisoned and murdered .
= = Early life = =
Michael was born at Anichkov Palace on Nevsky Prospekt in Saint Petersburg , as the youngest son and penultimate child of Tsarevitch Alexander of Russia and his wife , Maria Feodorovna ( known before her marriage as Princess Dagmar of Denmark ) . His maternal grandparents were King Christian IX of Denmark and Louise of Hesse @-@ Kassel . His paternal grandmother Empress Maria Alexandrovna ( known before her marriage as Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine ) died before his second birthday . His paternal grandfather , Emperor Alexander II of Russia , was assassinated on 1 March 1881 , and as a result Michael 's parents became Emperor and Empress of All the Russias before his third birthday . After the assassination , the new Tsar Alexander III moved his family , including Michael , to the greater safety of Gatchina Palace , which was 29 miles southwest of Saint Petersburg and surrounded by a moat .
Michael was raised in the company of his younger sister , Olga , who nicknamed him " Floppy " because he " flopped " into chairs ; his elder siblings and parents called him " Misha " . Conditions in the nursery were modest , even spartan . The children slept on hard camp beds , rose at dawn , washed in cold water , and ate a simple porridge for breakfast . Michael , like his siblings , was taught by private tutors and was cared for by an English nanny , Mrs Elizabeth Franklin .
Michael and Olga frequently went on hikes in the forests around Gatchina with their father , who took the opportunity to teach both of them woodsmanship . Physical activities such as equestrianism were also taught at an early age , as was religious observance . Though Christmas and Easter were times of celebration and extravagance , Lent was strictly observed — meat , dairy products and any form of entertainment were avoided . Family holidays were taken in the summer at Peterhof Palace and with Michael 's grandparents in Denmark .
Michael was almost 16 when his father fell fatally ill ; the annual trip to Denmark was cancelled . On 1 November 1894 , Alexander III died at the untimely age of 49 . Michael 's eldest brother , Nicholas , became Tsar , and Michael 's childhood was effectively over .
= = Military career and public duties = =
Michael 's mother , Dowager Empress Marie , moved back to Anichkov Palace with Michael and Olga . Like most members of his family , Michael was enrolled in the military . He completed training at a gunnery school and joined the Horse Guards Artillery . In November 1898 , he attained legal adulthood , and just eight months later became heir presumptive to Nicholas as the middle brother , George , was killed in a motorcycle accident . George 's death and the subsequent change in the line of succession highlighted that Nicholas did not yet have a son . As the succession was limited to males , his three daughters were ineligible . When Nicholas 's wife , Alexandra , became pregnant in 1900 she hoped that the child would be male . She manoeuvred to get herself declared Regent for her unborn child in the event of Nicholas 's death , but the government disagreed and determined Michael would succeed regardless of the unborn child 's gender . She was delivered of a fourth daughter the following year .
Michael was perceived as unremarkable , quiet and good @-@ natured . He performed the usual public duties expected of an heir to the throne . In 1901 , he represented Russia at the funeral of Queen Victoria and was given the Order of the Bath . The following year he was made a Knight of the Garter in King Edward VII 's coronation honours . In June 1902 , Michael transferred to the Blue Cuirassier Regiment and moved to Gatchina , where the regiment was based . Since coming of age , Michael had assumed financial independence , and his assets included the largest sugar refinery in the country , capital amounting to millions of roubles , a collection of motor vehicles , and country estates at Otrovo in Russian Poland and Brasovo near Orel .
Michael was heir presumptive until 12 August 1904 , when the birth of Tsarevich Alexei to Nicholas and Alexandra provided an heir apparent . Michael again became second @-@ in @-@ line to the throne , but was named as co @-@ Regent for the boy , along with Alexandra , in the event of Nicholas 's death .
= = Romances = =
In 1902 , Michael met Princess Beatrice of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . They fell in love and began to correspond in her native English . Michael spoke both French and English fluently . At first it seemed they would marry ; however , the Orthodox Church prohibited the marriage of first cousins , and Michael 's father and Beatrice 's mother were siblings . Nicholas refused to permit the marriage , and to Michael 's and Beatrice 's mutual dismay , their romance ended .
Michael 's attention turned to Alexandra Kossikovskaya ( September 1875 , Orel region – 1923 , Berlin ) , known affectionately as " Dina " , who was his sister Olga 's lady @-@ in @-@ waiting . Dina 's father , Vladimir Kossikovsky , was a lawyer , and Dina was a commoner . Michael rejected the notion , proposed by his friends , that he keep her as a mistress , and in July 1906 he wrote to Nicholas asking permission to marry her . Nicholas and Dowager Empress Marie were appalled . Both felt that royalty should marry royalty , and according to Russian house law any children of a marriage between a royal and a commoner would be ineligible for the succession . Nicholas threatened to revoke Michael 's army commission and exile him from Russia if he married without his permission . Marie had Dina dismissed as Olga 's lady @-@ in @-@ waiting , and took Michael to Denmark until mid @-@ September .
Shortly after his return to Russia , three British newspapers announced on 24 September 1906 that Michael was to marry Princess Patricia of Connaught , but neither he nor Patricia knew anything about it . Buckingham Palace issued a denial . Nevertheless , two years later , in October 1908 , Michael visited London , and he and Patricia were " paired " at social engagements . It seems likely that Michael 's mother was plotting to get him married to a more suitable bride , and the originator of the false report , Reuters correspondent Guy Beringer , read too much into the plans . Michael and Dina were planning to elope , but their plans were stymied as Dina was under surveillance by the Okhrana , Nicholas 's secret police , and she was prevented from travelling . Under family pressure , and unable to see Dina , by August 1907 , Michael appeared to be losing interest . Dina went to live abroad . She never married and believed herself to be Michael 's rightful fiancée , but their romance was over .
In early December 1907 , Michael was introduced to Natalia Sergeyevna Wulfert , the wife of a fellow officer , and from 1908 they began a deep friendship . Natalia was a commoner , who had a daughter from her first marriage . By August 1909 , they were lovers , and by November 1909 , Natalia was living apart from her second husband in an apartment in Moscow paid for by Michael . In an attempt to prevent scandal , Nicholas transferred Michael to the Chernigov Hussars at Orel , 250 miles from Moscow , but Michael travelled from there several times a month to see Natalia . Their only child , George , named after Michael 's dead brother , was born in July 1910 , before her divorce from her second husband was finalised . To ensure that the child could be recognised as his rather than as Wulfert 's , Michael had the date of the divorce back @-@ dated . Nicholas issued a decree giving the boy the surname " Brasov " , taken from Michael 's estate at Brasovo , which was a tacit acknowledgement that Michael was the father .
In May 1911 , Nicholas permitted Natalia to move from Moscow to Brasovo and granted her the surname " Brasova " . In May 1912 , Michael went to Copenhagen for the funeral of his uncle King Frederick VIII of Denmark , where he fell ill with a stomach ulcer that was to trouble him for years afterwards . After a holiday in France , where he and Natalia were trailed by the Okhrana , Michael was transferred back to Saint Petersburg to command the Chevalier Gardes . He took Natalia to the capital with him , and set her up in an apartment , but she was shunned by society , and within a few months he had moved her to a villa in Gatchina .
= = Marriage = =
In September 1912 , Michael and Natalia spent a holiday abroad , and as usual they were trailed by the Okhrana . In Berlin , Michael announced that he and Natalia would drive to Cannes , and instructed his staff to follow by train . The Okhrana were under instructions to follow by train rather than car , and so Michael and Natalia would be unaccompanied on their journey south . Michael 's journey was a deliberate ruse . On the way to Cannes , the couple diverted to Vienna , where they were married on 16 October 1912 by Father Misitsch at the Serbian Orthodox Church of Saint Sava . A few days later , after travelling through Venice and Milan , they arrived at Cannes , where George and Natalia 's daughter from her first marriage joined them . Two weeks after the marriage Michael wrote to his mother and brother to inform them . They were both horrified by Michael 's action . His mother said it was " unspeakably awful in every way " , and his brother was shocked that his brother had " broken his word ... that he would not marry her " .
Nicholas was particularly upset because his heir , Alexei , was gravely ill with haemophilia , which Michael cited as one of his reasons for marrying Natalia . Michael feared that he would become heir presumptive again on Alexei 's death , and would never be able to marry Natalia . By marrying her now , he would be removed from the line of succession early , and preclude the prospect of losing Natalia . In a series of decrees over December 1912 and January 1913 , Nicholas relieved Michael of his command , banished him from Russia , froze all his assets in Russia , seized control of his estates , and removed him from the Regency . Society in Russia was shocked at the severity of Nicholas 's reprisal , but there was little sympathy for Natalia . She was not entitled to be known as Grand Duchess ; she instead used the style " Madame or Countess Brasova " .
For six months , they stayed in hotels in France and Switzerland , without any decrease in their standard of living . They were visited by Michael 's sister Grand Duchess Xenia and cousin Grand Duke Andrew . In July 1913 , they saw Michael 's mother in London , who told Natalia " a few home truths " , according to Xenia 's diary . After another trip to continental Europe , Michael took a one @-@ year lease on Knebworth House , a staffed and furnished stately home 20 miles north of London . Michael 's finances were stretched as he had to rely on remittances sent from Russia at Nicholas 's command , and Nicholas still controlled all his estates and assets .
= = War = =
Upon the outbreak of World War I , Michael telegraphed the Tsar requesting permission to return to Russia to serve in the army , providing his wife and son could come too . Nicholas agreed , and Michael travelled back to Saint Petersburg , via Newcastle , Norway , Sweden and Finland . Michael had already leased Paddockhurst in Sussex , an estate larger than Knebworth , and had planned to move there on the expiry of the Knebworth lease . He moved his furniture and furnishings there . The war was not expected to last long , and the couple assumed they would be moving back to England at the end of the war . In the meantime , Michael offered its use to the British military . At Saint Petersburg , now named Petrograd , they moved into a villa at 24 Nikolaevskaya street , Gatchina , that Michael had bought for Natalia . Natalia was not permitted to live at any of the imperial palaces .
He was promoted from his previous rank of colonel to major @-@ general , and given command of a newly formed division : the Caucasian Native Cavalry , which became known as the " Savage Division " . The appointment was perceived as a demotion because the division was mostly formed from new Muslim recruits rather than the elite troops that Michael had commanded previously . The six regiments in the division were each composed of a different ethnic group : Chechens , Dagestanis , Kabardin , Tatars , Circassians and Ingush , commanded by Russian officers . The men were all volunteers as conscription did not apply to the Caucasus , and although it was difficult to maintain discipline , they were an effective fighting force . For his actions commanding his troops in the Carpathian mountains in January 1915 , Michael earned the military 's highest honour , the Order of St. George . He , unlike his brother , the Tsar , was a popular military leader .
By January 1915 , the horrific nature of the war was apparent . Michael felt " greatly embittered towards people in general and most of all towards those who are at the top , who hold power and allow all that horror to happen . If the question of war were decided by the people at large , I would not be so passionately averse to that great calamity . " Michael confessed in a letter to his wife that he felt " ashamed to face the people , i.e. the soldiers and officers , particularly when visiting field hospitals , where so much suffering is to be seen , for they might think that one is also responsible , for one is placed so high and yet has failed to prevent all that from happening and protect one 's country from this disaster . "
At the start of the war , Michael wrote to Nicholas asking him to legitimise his son so , he argued , that the boy would be provided for in the event of Michael 's death at the front . Eventually , Nicholas agreed to make George legitimate and granted him the style of " Count Brasov " by decree on 26 March 1915 .
= = Retreat = =
By June 1915 , the Russians were in retreat . When Grand Duke Constantine died that month , Michael was the only member of the imperial family absent from the funeral in Petrograd . Natalia chided him for his absence , and Michael retorted that it was simply wrong for his relatives to abandon their units to attend Constantine 's funeral at such a time . The American war correspondent , Stanley Washburn , reported that Michael wore " a simple uniform with nothing to indicate his rank but shoulder straps of the same material as his uniform " . Michael was " unaffected and democratic " and " living so simply in a dirty village " . Natalia was appalled that Michael eschewed fancy uniforms and decorations for life at the front , but he was convinced " that at such a difficult time I must serve Russia and serve here at the front " .
In July 1915 , Michael caught diphtheria but recovered . The war was going badly for Russia , and the following month Nicholas appointed himself Supreme Commander of the Russian forces . The move was not welcomed . Nicholas 's bad decisions included instructing Michael to authorise a payment to a friend of Rasputin 's , an army engineer called Bratolyubov , who claimed to have invented a devastating flame @-@ thrower . The claim was bogus , and Bratolyubov was arrested for fraud , but Rasputin intervened and he was released . Michael appeared gullible and naive ; a friend of Natalia 's said he " trusted everybody ... Had his wife not watched over him constantly , he would have been deceived at every step . "
In October 1915 , Michael regained control of his estates and assets from Nicholas , and in February 1916 was given command of the 2nd Cavalry Corps , which included the Savage Division , a Cossack division , and a Don Cossack division . However , the slights against him by the Tsar 's retinue continued ; when he was promoted to lieutenant @-@ general in July 1916 , unlike all other Grand Dukes who attained that rank he was not appointed as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Tsar with the rank of adjutant @-@ general . Michael admitted that he " always despised Petrograd high society ... no people are more devious than they are ; with a few exceptions , they are all scum . " Michael made no public political statements , but it was assumed that he was a liberal , like his wife , and British consul Bruce Lockhart thought he " would have made an excellent constitutional monarch " .
Throughout the summer of 1916 , Michael 's corps was involved in the Brusilov Offensive . The Guards Army suffered heavy losses under the incompetent leadership of Michael 's uncle , Grand Duke Paul , who was removed from command . In contrast , Michael was awarded a second gallantry medal , the Order of St. Vladimir with Swords , for his part in actions against the enemy , and was belatedly made an adjutant @-@ general . The poor progress of the war and their almost constant separation depressed both Michael and Natalia . Michael was still suffering from stomach ulcers , and in October 1916 he was ordered to take leave in the Crimea .
Before leaving for his sister Xenia 's estate at Ai @-@ Todor , 12 miles from Yalta , he wrote a candid letter to his brother warning him that the political situation was tense :
I am deeply concerned and worried by what is happening around us . There has been a shocking alteration in the mood of the most loyal people ... which fills me with a most serious apprehension not only for you and for the fate of our family , but even for the integrity of the state order .
The public hatred for certain people who allegedly are close to you and who are forming part of the present government has , to my amazement , brought together the right , the left and the moderate ; and this hatred , along with the demands for changes are already openly expressed .
= = Increasing public unrest = =
Michael , and other members of the imperial family including Grand Dukes Alexander , George , Nicholas and Dmitri and Grand Duchess Elizabeth , warned against the growing public unrest and the perception that Nicholas was governed by his German @-@ born wife Alexandra and the self @-@ styled holy man Rasputin . Nicholas and Alexandra refused to listen . In December 1916 , Dmitri and four of his friends killed Rasputin . Michael learned of the murder at Brasovo , where he was spending Christmas with his family . On 28 December , according to the French ambassador , there was a failed attempt to assassinate Alexandra ; the lone assailant was caught and hanged the next day . The Duma President Mikhail Rodzianko , Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna and British ambassador Buchanan joined calls for Alexandra to be removed from influence , but Nicholas still refused to take their advice . Plots and gossip against Nicholas and Alexandra continued to build .
In January 1917 , Michael returned to the front to hand over command of his corps ; from 29 January he was Inspector @-@ General of Cavalry stationed at Gatchina . General Aleksei Brusilov , Michael 's commander on the south @-@ eastern front , begged him to tell the Tsar of " the need for immediate and drastic reforms " , but Michael warned him , " I have no influence ... My brother has time and time again had warnings and entreaties of this kind from every quarter . " Brusilov recorded in his memoirs , " [ Michael ] was an absolutely honourable and upright man , taking no sides and lending himself to no intrigues ... he shunned every kind of gossip , whether connected with the services or with family matters . As a soldier he was an excellent leader and an unassuming and conscientious worker . "
Through February , Grand Duke Alexander , Duma President Rodzianko , and Michael pressured Nicholas and Alexandra to yield to popular demands . Public unrest grew , and on 27 February in Petrograd soldiers joined demonstrators , elements of the military mutinied , and prisoners were freed . Nicholas , who was at army headquarters in Mogilev , prorogued the Duma , but the deputies refused to leave and instead set up their own rival government . After consulting Rodzianko at the Mariinsky Palace in Petrograd , Michael advised Nicholas to dismiss his ministers and set up a new government led by the leader of the majority party in the Duma . His advice was supported by General Mikhail Alekseyev , Nicholas 's chief of staff . Nicholas rejected the suggestion and issued futile orders for troops to move on Petrograd .
= = Revolution = =
On the night of 27 – 28 February 1917 , Michael attempted to return to Gatchina from Petrograd , where he had been in conference with Rodzianko and from where he had telegraphed the Tsar , but revolutionary patrols and sporadic fire prevented his progress . Revolutionaries patrolled the streets , rounding up people connected with the old regime . Michael managed to reach the Winter Palace , where he ordered the guards there to withdraw to the Admiralty , because it afforded greater safety and a better tactical position and because it was a less politically charged location . Michael himself took refuge in the apartment of an acquaintance , Princess Putyatina , on Millionnaya street . In the neighbouring apartments , the Tsar 's Chamberlain Nikolai Stolypin and the Procurator of the Holy Synod were detained by revolutionaries , and in the house next door General Baron Staekelberg was killed when his house was stormed by a mob .
On 1 March , Rodzianko sent guards to Putyatina 's apartment to ensure Michael 's safety , and Michael signed a document drawn up by Rodzianko and Grand Duke Paul proposing the creation of a constitutional monarchy . The newly formed Petrograd Soviet rejected the document , which became irrelevant . Calls for the Tsar 's abdication had superseded it .
= = Abdication of Nicholas II = =
On the afternoon of 15 March [ O.S. 2 March ] 1917 , Emperor Nicholas II , under pressure from generals and Duma representatives , abdicated in favour of his son , Alexei , with Michael as Regent . However , later that evening , he reconsidered his decision . Alexei was gravely ill with haemophilia , and Nicholas feared that if Alexei was Emperor , he would be separated from his parents . In a second abdication document , signed at 11 @.@ 40 p.m. but marked as having been issued at 3 @.@ 00 p.m. , the time of the earlier one , Nicholas II declared :
We have judged it right to abdicate the Throne of the Russian State and to lay down the Supreme Power . Not wishing to be parted from Our Beloved Son , We hand over Our Succession to Our Brother the Grand Duke Michael Aleksandrovich and Bless Him on his accession to the Throne .
By early morning , Michael was proclaimed as " Emperor Michael II " to Russian troops and in cities throughout Russia , but his accession was not universally welcomed . While some units cheered and swore allegiance to the new Emperor , others remained indifferent . The newly formed Provisional Government had not agreed to Michael 's succession . When Michael awoke that morning , he discovered not only that his brother had abdicated in his favour , as Nicholas had not informed him previously , but also that a delegation from the Duma would visit him at Putyatina 's apartment in a few hours time . The meeting with Duma President Rodzianko , the new Prime Minister Prince Lvov , and other ministers , including Pavel Milyukov and Alexander Kerensky , lasted all morning . Putyatina laid on a lunch , and in the afternoon two lawyers ( Baron Nolde and Vladimir Nabokov ) were called to the apartment to draft a manifesto for Michael to sign . The legal position was complicated as the legitimacy of the government , whether Nicholas had the right to remove his son from the succession , and whether Michael actually was Emperor were all open to question . After further discussion , and several drafts , the meeting settled on a declaration of conditional acceptance as an appropriate form of words . In it , Michael deferred to the will of the people and acknowledged the Provisional Government as the de facto executive , but neither abdicated nor refused to accept the throne . He wrote :
Inspired , in common with the whole people , by the belief that the welfare of our country must be set above everything else , I have taken the firm decision to assume the supreme power only if and when our great people , having elected by universal suffrage a Constituent Assembly to determine the form of government and lay down the fundamental law of the new Russian State , invest me with such power .
Calling upon them the blessing of God , I therefore request all the citizens of the Russian Empire to submit to the Provisional Government , established and invested with full authority by the Duma , until such time as the Constituent Assembly , elected within the shortest possible time by universal , direct , equal and secret suffrage , shall manifest the will of the people by deciding upon the new form of government .
Commentators ranging from Kerensky to French ambassador Maurice Paléologue regarded Michael 's action as noble and patriotic , but Nicholas was appalled that Michael had " kowtowed to the Constituent Assembly " and called the manifesto " rubbish " .
The hopes of the monarchists that Michael might be able to assume the throne following the election of the Constituent Assembly were overtaken by events . His renunciation of the throne , though conditional , marked the end of the Tsarist regime in Russia . The Provisional Government had little effective power ; real power was held by the Petrograd Soviet .
= = Arrest = =
Michael returned to Gatchina , and was not permitted to return to his unit or travel beyond the Petrograd area . On 5 April 1917 , he was discharged from military service . By July , Prince Lvov had resigned as Prime Minister to be replaced by Alexander Kerensky , who ordered ex @-@ Emperor Nicholas removed from Petrograd to Tobolsk in the Urals because it was " some remote place , some quiet corner , where they would attract less attention " . On the eve of Nicholas 's departure , Kerensky gave permission for Michael to visit him . Kerensky remained present during the meeting , and the brothers exchanged awkward pleasantries " fidgeting all the while , and sometimes one would take hold of the other 's hand or the buttons of his uniform " . It was the last time they would ever see each other .
On 21 August 1917 , guards surrounded the villa on Nikolaevskaya street where Michael was living with Natalia . On the orders of Kerensky , they were both under house arrest , along with Nicholas Johnson , who had been Michael 's secretary since December 1912 . A week later , they were moved to an apartment in Petrograd . Michael 's stomach problems worsened , and with the intervention of British ambassador Buchanan and foreign minister Mikhail Tereshchenko , they were moved back to Gatchina in the first week of September . Tereshchenko told Buchanan that the Dowager Empress would be allowed to leave the country , for England if she wished , and that Michael would follow in due course . The British , however , were not prepared to accept any Russian Grand Duke for fear it would provoke a bad public reaction in Britain , where there was little sympathy for the Romanovs .
On 1 September 1917 , Kerensky declared Russia a republic . Michael wrote in his diary : " We woke up this morning to hear Russia declared a Republic . What does it matter which form the government will be as long as there is order and justice ? " Two weeks later , Michael 's house arrest was lifted . Kerensky had armed the Bolsheviks after a power struggle with the commander @-@ in @-@ chief , and in October there was a second revolution as the Bolsheviks seized power from Kerensky . With a permit to travel issued by Peter Polotsov , a former colleague of Michael 's from the Savage Division who was now a commander in Petrograd , Michael planned to move his family to the greater safety of Finland . They packed valuables and prepared to move , but their preparations were seen by Bolshevik sympathisers and they were placed once more under house arrest . The last of Michael 's cars were seized by the Bolsheviks .
The house arrest was lifted again in November , and the Constituent Assembly was elected and met in January 1918 . Despite being the minority party , the Bolsheviks dissolved it . On 3 March 1918 ( N.S. ) , the Bolshevik government signed the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk , which effectively ceded vast areas of the former Russian Empire to the Central Powers of Germany , Austria @-@ Hungary and the Ottoman Empire . On 7 March 1918 , Michael and his secretary Johnson were re @-@ arrested on the orders of Moisei Uritsky , the Head of the Petrograd secret police , and imprisoned at the Bolshevik headquarters in the Smolny Institute .
= = Imprisonment = =
On 11 March 1918 , Uritsky sent Michael and Johnson to Perm , a thousand miles to the east , on the order of the Council of the People 's Commissars , which included both Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin . The journey , by freight train in a coach without windows or heat , took eight days at an average speed of 5 miles per hour . At first , Michael was billeted in a hotel , but two days after his arrival he was jailed by the local Soviet . Natalia lobbied the Commissars in Petrograd for his release , and on 9 April 1918 he was set at liberty within Perm . He moved into the best room in the best hotel in Perm , along with Johnson and two manservants , valet Vasily Chelyshev and former chauffeur Borunov . Natalia feared for George 's safety , and in March 1918 , she arranged for Michael 's son to be smuggled out of Russia by his nanny with the help of Danish diplomats and the Putyatins .
In May , Natalia was granted a travel permit to join Michael . Accompanied by family friends , Prince Putyatin and Margaret Abakanovich , she arrived at Perm before the Orthodox Easter , and they spent about a week together . Meanwhile , as part of the truce between the Bolsheviks and the Central Powers , prisoners @-@ of @-@ war from Austria – Hungary were being shipped out of Russia . Czech troops were strung out along the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway , on their way to Vladivostok , where they were due to take ship . The Czechs , however , were not going home to fight for the Austrian empire , but to fight for a separate homeland independent from Austria . The Germans demanded that the Bolsheviks disarm the Czechs , who fought back , seized the railway , joined forces with Russians fighting against the Bolsheviks , and advanced westwards toward Perm . With the approach of the Czechs , Michael and Natalia feared that she would become trapped there , possibly in a dangerous situation , and so on 18 May she left unhappily . By early June , Michael was again ill with stomach trouble .
= = Murder = =
On 12 June 1918 , the leader of the local secret police , Gavril Myasnikov , with the connivance of other local Bolsheviks , hatched a plan to murder Michael . Myasnikov assembled a team of four men , who all , like him , were former prisoners of the Tsarist regime : Vasily Ivanchenko , Ivan Kolpashchikov , Andrei Markov , and Nikolai Zhuzhgov . Using a forged order , the four men gained entry to Michael 's hotel at 11 @.@ 45 p.m. At first , Michael refused to accompany the men until he spoke with the local chairman of the secret police , Pavel Malkov , and then because he was ill . His protestations were futile , and he got dressed . Johnson insisted on accompanying him , and the four men plus their two prisoners climbed into two horse @-@ drawn three @-@ seater traps . They drove out of the town into the forest near Motovilikha . When Michael queried their destination , he was told they were going to a remote railway crossing to catch a train . By now it was the early hours of 13 June . They all alighted from the carriages in the middle of the wood , and both Michael and Johnson were fired upon , once each , but as the assassins were using home @-@ made bullets , their guns jammed . Michael , whether wounded or not is unknown , moved towards the wounded Johnson with arms outstretched , when he was shot at point @-@ blank range in the head . Both Zhuzhgov and Markov claimed to have fired the fatal shot . Johnson was shot dead by Ivanchenko . The bodies were stripped and buried . Anything of value was stolen , and the clothes were taken back to Perm . After they were shown to Myasnikov as proof of the murders , the clothes were burned . The Ural Regional Soviet , headed by Alexander Beloborodov , approved the execution , either retrospectively or beforehand , as did Lenin . Michael was the first of the Romanovs to be executed by the Bolsheviks , but he would not be the last . Neither Michael 's nor Johnson 's remains were ever found .
The Perm authorities distributed a concocted cover story that Michael was abducted by unidentified men and had disappeared . Chelyshev and Borunov were arrested . Shortly before his own arrest , Colonel Peter Znamerovsky , a former Imperial army officer also exiled to Perm , managed to send Natalia a brief telegram saying that Michael had disappeared . Znamerovsky , Chelyshev and Borunov were all killed by the Perm Bolsheviks . Soviet disinformation about Michael 's disappearance led to unfounded rumours that he had escaped and was leading a successful counter @-@ revolution . In the ultimately forlorn hope that Michael would ally with Germany , the Germans arranged for Natalia and her daughter to escape to Kiev in German @-@ controlled Ukraine . On the collapse of the Germans in November 1918 , Natalia fled to the coast , and she and her daughter were evacuated by the British Royal Navy .
On 8 June 2009 , four days short of the 91st anniversary of their murders , both Michael and Johnson were officially rehabilitated . Russian State Prosecutors stated , " The analysis of the archive material shows that these individuals were subject to repression through arrest , exile and scrutiny ... without being charged of committing concrete class and social @-@ related crimes . "
Michael 's son George , Count Brasov , died in a car crash shortly before his 21st birthday in 1931 . Natalia died penniless in a Parisian charity hospital in 1952 . His stepdaughter Natalia Mamontova married three times , and wrote a book about her life entitled Stepdaughter to Imperial Russia , published in 1940 .
= = Regimental affiliations and commands = =
= = = Russian = = =
Life @-@ Guards Horse Artillery Brigade – lieutenant , 1898
Life @-@ Guards Her Imperial Majesty Empress Maria Feodorovna 's Cuirassier Regiment – captain and squadron commander , 1902
17th Hussar Chernigovskii HIH Grand Princess Elizavet Feodorovna Hussars – colonel , commanding , 1910
Life @-@ Guards Her Imperial Majesty Empress Maria Feodorovna 's Chevalier Guards Regiment – colonel , commanding , 1912
Caucasian Native Mounted Division – major @-@ general , commanding , 1914
Second Cavalry Corps , Seventh Army – lieutenant @-@ general , 1916
Inspector @-@ General of Cavalry , 1917
= = = Foreign = = =
Ulanen @-@ Regiment Kaiser Alexander III von Rußland ( Westpreußisches ) Nr.1 , Prussian / Imperial German Army – colonel and regimental chief , December 1901 , during an official visit to Berlin
à la suite Imperial German Navy
= = Titles and honors = =
= = = Russian = = =
Knight of the Order of St. AndrewOrder of St. Alexander Nevsky ( by statute of the Order of St. Andrew )
Order of the White Eagle ( by statute of the Order of St. Andrew )
Order of St. Anne First Class ( by statute of the Order of St. Andrew )
Order of St. Stanislaus First Class ( by statute of the Order of St. Andrew )
Alexander III Commemorative Medal , 1896
Nicholas II Coronation Medal , 1896
Knight , Fourth Class , Order of St. Vladimir ( civil )
Order of St. George , Fourth Class ( for actions in the Carpathian Mountains , while in command of the Caucasian Native Cavalry Division ) , January 1915
St. George Sword , 27 June 1915
Knight , Fourth Class , Order of St. Vladimir , with swords ( for actions during the Brusilov Offensive , while in command of the 2nd Cavalry Corps ) , 1916
= = = Foreign = = =
Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary - 1897
Knight , III Class , Order of the Dannebrog , Denmark - before May 1901
Knight , IV Class , Order of the Redeemer , Greece - before May 1901
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath of Great Britain - 15 February 1901
Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle of Prussia - 15 December 1901 - during an official visit to Berlin
Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece of Spain - 26 December 1901
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour of France
Knight of the Order of the Garter of Great Britain - 15 July 1902
Knight of the Order of the Elephant of Denmark
Knight , Grand Cross , Order of St. Olaf , Norway
Knight Grand Commander ( with collar ) , Royal House Order of Hohenzollern , Prussia
Knight , Grand Cross , with Crown , House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis ( a.k.a. " Order of Merit " ) , Oldenburg
Knight of the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation of Italy
Knight , Grand Cross , Military Order of Christ , Portugal
Knight , Grand Cross , Royal Military Order of Aviz ( a.k.a. " Order of St. Benedict of Aviz " ) , Portugal
Knight , Grand Cordon , Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum , Japan
Knight , Most Illustrious Order of the Royal House of Chakri , Kingdom of Siam ( Thailand )
Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim , Sweden - 1908
= = Ancestry = =
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= Gimme More =
" Gimme More " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her fifth studio album , Blackout ( 2007 ) . It was released on September 18 , 2007 by Jive Records as the lead single from the album . The song was written by Nate " Danja " Hills , James " Jim Beanz " Washington , Keri Hilson and Marcella Araica , while production was handled by Jack Black and vocal production was handled by Washington and Hilson . " Gimme More " was recorded in 2006 during Spears 's second pregnancy , and was one of the first solo productions by Danja . The song opens with an intro in which Spears says the phrase " It 's Britney , bitch " . Musically , " Gimme More " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song with breathy vocals and influences from other genres , such as electro music . The track closes with a speak @-@ sing outro by Danja .
" Gimme More " received positive reviews from critics , praising the music and Spears 's breathy vocals . The song peaked at number three on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , becoming her fifth top ten hit and also her second highest @-@ peaking single at the time . It also peaked at the top of the charts in Canada and Ireland , and reached top five positions in 14 countries . The accompanying music video premiered on October 5 , 2007 . It displayed Spears as a stripper and featured a break from Spears 's highly choreographed music videos . It received mixed to negative reviews from critics , who panned Spears 's pole dancing as well as the lack of storyline . An alternate cut was leaked on July 18 , 2011 .
Spears performed " Gimme More " at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , wearing a black , jeweled @-@ encrusted bikini . The performance was panned by many critics , who commented extensively on her " singing " , dancing and wardrobe , with one deeming it as " one of the worst to grace the MTV Awards " . Chris Crocker uploaded a video in response to the criticism titled " Leave Britney Alone ! " , which made him an Internet celebrity and attracted attention from the media . Spears has also performed " Gimme More " at the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) and Britney : Piece of Me ( 2013 ) . " Gimme More " has been covered and sampled by many artists , including Sia and Marié Digby . The song 's opening line , " It 's Britney , bitch " , became a catch phrase in popular culture . The song appears in the best selling video game Grand Theft Auto V on the Non @-@ Stop Pop station .
= = Background = =
" Gimme More " was co @-@ written by Jim Beanz , Marcella " Ms. Lago " Araica , Nate " Danja " Hills and Keri Hilson , while being produced by Danja . Spears started working with Danja in July 2006 . He explained that the creative process was not difficult at first since he was " left to do pretty much whatever I wanted to " , and " if she felt it , she was gonna ride with it . If she didn 't , you ’ d see it in her face . " Hilson said that she wrote the song with Spears in mind after Danja played her the instrumental , adding , " I just started singing , ' Give me , Give me , ' and added a little more in and just having fun and messing around really . " Spears began recording the track in Las Vegas in August 2006 , while she was seven months pregnant with her second child , Jayden James . Recording continued at Spears ' house in Los Angeles , California , three weeks after she gave birth . Hilson commented that " She gave 150 percent . [ ... ] I don ’ t know any other mother that would do that . " In an interview with Rhapsody , Danja commented that he added a speak @-@ sing outro to " stake [ his ] claim " , since " Gimme More " was one of his first solo productions . " There 's a lot riding on my future , because people think I ’ m around because of Tim and they don ’ t really know what I ’ m capable of " , he said . The song was mixed by Ms. Lago at Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles . Background vocals were provided by Hilson and Beanz . " Gimme More " was released as the album 's lead single and premiered on New York City @-@ based radio station Z100 's web site .
= = Composition = =
" Gimme More " is an upbeat dance @-@ pop song with influences of electro . According to the sheetmusic published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , it is set in a moderate dance groove and composed in the key of G minor , with 113 beats per minute , with Spears vocal range spanning over two octaves from F # 3 to C6 . The melody incorporates " low electronic lines " whereas the beat has been described by Bill Lamb of About.com as " disco @-@ ish " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy compared Spears 's vocals to those of her single " I 'm a Slave 4 U " ( 2001 ) . Lamb described them as " teasing [ ... ] backed by moaning and heavy breathing " reminiscent of Donna Summer 's " Love to Love You Baby " ( 1975 ) . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine felt the song was reminiscent of Sabrina 's " Boys ( Summertime Love ) " ( 1987 ) .
" Gimme More " is constructed in the common verse @-@ chorus form . The song opens with a spoken intro in which Spears says the line " It 's Britney , bitch " . The chorus consists of the repetition of the hookline " Gimme gimme " , that ends with a constantly pitch @-@ shifted " More " . The song closes with a speak @-@ sing outro by Danja in which he says the lines " Bet you didn 't see this one coming / The Incredible Lago , the legendary Ms. Britney Spears / and the unstoppable Danja " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Gimme More " received positive reviews from critics . Dennis Lim of Blender named the song one of the highlights of the album , calling it " hypnotic pole @-@ dance pop " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian called the song " futuristic and thrilling " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy said that " somehow , out of personal chaos , pop greatness has emerged . [ Danja ] melds tack @-@ sharp beats and a deliciously scuzzy bassline to create a dancefloor throb that feels devilishly sexy " . While reviewing The Singles Collection , Evan Sawdey of PopMatters called " Gimme More " " the best dance track she has done since ' Toxic ' " . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times said the track set the mood for Blackout , adding that " the electronic beats and bass lines are as thick as Ms. Spears ’ s voice is thin [ ... ] she delivers almost nothing but slithery come @-@ ons and defiant invitations to nightclub decadence " . New Musical Express compared Spears 's vocals to " a sex addict ’ s cry for help " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said some of the songs of Blackout , " really show off the skills of the producers " , exemplifying " Gimme More " , " Radar " , " Break the Ice " , " Heaven on Earth " and " Hot as Ice " .
Bill Lamb of About.com gave the song three and a half stars and commented , " It does seem that Britney 's bump @-@ and @-@ grind singing style that we first heard 8 years ago on ' ... Baby One More Time ' is still intact , and the ' It 's Britney , bitch ' announcement that opens the song implies a significant amount of fire remains . The opening alone bumps the song 's rating up by half a star " . Roger Friedman of Fox News dubbed the line as " cocky and fun " . Eric R. Danton of The Hartford Courant wrote , " The comedy starts right away , when she plays the role of your drunk friend calling at 3 a.m. , slurring , ' It 's Britney , bitch ' " . Mike Schiller of PopMatters called the opening line " real value ... kind of hilarious " and added that the " inserted “ more ” syllables in the chorus only add to the feel that this is a genetically engineered sort of dancefloor banger " . Popjustice named " Gimme More " the tenth best song of 2007 . The StarPhoenix listed it as the second most infectious song of the year .
= = Chart performance = =
On September 22 , 2007 , " Gimme More " debuted at number 85 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . On October 13 , 2007 , the song peaked at number three on the chart . The same week , it also peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Digital Songs , due to digital sales of 179 @,@ 000 downloads . It became her fifth top ten hit in the Hot 100 , as well as her highest peaking since " ... Baby One More Time " . On February 13 , 2008 , the single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) selling 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . On December 15 , 2007 , it peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs . As of March 2015 , " Gimme More " has sold 1 @,@ 810 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States . It is her seventh best @-@ selling digital single in the country . In Canada , the song debuted at number 53 on September 22 , 2007 . On October 13 , 2007 , it peaked at number one and climbed from number 42 , becoming the chart 's " Greatest Gainer " . It was certified two times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for sales of 160 @,@ 000 copies .
In Australia , the single debuted at number three on the Australian Singles Chart on October 15 , 2007 . It received a gold certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments over 35 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , it debuted at number 24 on October 1 , 2007 . The following week , it peaked at number 15 . " Gimme More " was also successful in Europe , peaking at number two in the European Hot 100 Singles . In the United Kingdom , " Gimme More " debuted and peaked at number three on October 21 , 2007 ( for the week ending date October 27 , 2007 ) . According to The Official Charts Company , " Gimme More " has sold 210 @,@ 000 copies there . It also reached the top five in Belgium , Czech Republic , Belgium , Denmark , Ireland , Norway and Sweden and peaking inside the top ten in Austria and Finland . " Gimme More " has sold almost three million copies worldwide .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Gimme More " was filmed at the end of July 2007 at a warehouse in downtown Los Angeles , California . It was directed by Jake Sarfaty , who was handpicked by Spears . According to People , the production was Spears 's " concept and vision " . During filming , Spears was spotted wearing a short black dress , black boots and a black hat . On September 13 , 2007 , it was reported by The New York Times that the music video was being " tweaked with input from her advisers " since " [ the ] gritty , stripper @-@ themed clip [ ... ] may jolt fans who are more accustomed to the slick , tightly choreographed videos that made her an MTV staple " . The music video premiered exclusively in the iTunes Store on October 5 , 2007 and in all other outlets , including TRL on October 8 , 2007 , and on BET 's 106 & Park on November 13 , 2007 .
The video begins with a blonde Spears sitting and laughing in a bar with two female friends , but stops to look at a brunette Spears calling out to her on a small stage in front of them , wearing a leather vest , a studded belt , panties and fishnet stockings while sporting a tattoo on her biceps . She dances erotically around a pole and up against a mirror . Throughout the video , she continues to dance and flip her hair while special effects lights flash around her as the camera moves slightly in and out of focus to the beat of the song . The video 's light systems change from black and white with aura @-@ like blue and pink hues to full blown color . Around the middle of the video , she is joined by two alter egos of her female friends , who also dance around the pole . The blonde Spears and her friends , while watching the dancing , later draw their attention to an attractive man sitting with his friends at a table across the bar .
The music video received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly said " The moral of the story is , if you ’ re going to build an entire video around a stripper pole , then you better work said pole like a nine @-@ to @-@ five . Drop it like it ’ s hot . [ ... ] Alas , in the case of " Gimme More , " I ’ ve seen sexier pole work during an afternoon of fly @-@ fishing " . Andrei Harmsworth of Metro commented " To her credit , the video is slightly less disappointing than her mimed performance of the track at the Video Music Awards last month but it is still smeared with the same smutty hallmarks " . Dose said the video " sucks less than you think " and added " Spears appears lucid , sometimes happy , and awards @-@ worthy editing makes her appear to be standing upright competently throughout " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said the lightning effects and digital body enhancement of the video " indicate a predilection toward maintaining an image that no longer reflects reality . It doesn 't point to an artist who refuses to evolve , but rather one who doesn 't know how — or isn 't being allowed to . " IGN writer Sketch Longwood called it one of Spears ' hottest videos , adding that she " proves to be quite skilled in the art of teasingly slinking around . " While reviewing the alternate version of the video in July 2011 , Becky Bain of Idolator stated that " Spears 's last few videos — particularly the joyfully silly clip for ' I Wanna Go ' — more than make up for the travesty that was the pop star 's video for ' Gimme More ' [ ... ] The stripper concept was a poor choice , the barely @-@ there outfits were ill @-@ fitting , the ' choreography ' was a joke , the editing was sloppy . "
An alternative version of the video leaked online on July 18 , 2011 , and included new scenes , which featured Spears strutting down the street in a black outfit and laying down in a zebra @-@ print bed with a cat . The scenes of blonde Spears were cut . Becky Bain of Idolator said that " Neither the deleted nor added parts add or subtract anything from the experience . This video was kind of doomed no matter how it was edited together . "
= = Live performances = =
= = = MTV Video Music Awards = = =
After days of media speculation , it was confirmed on September 6 , 2007 , that Spears would open the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards at the Pearl Theatre in the Palms Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas , Nevada , on September 9 , 2007 . It was also announced that she was going to perform " Gimme More " , with a magic act from illusionist Criss Angel in some parts of the performance . However , the bit is thought to have been rejected by the show 's organizers at the last minute . The executive producer of the 2007 VMAs Jesse Ignjatovic contacted Spears since she wanted to start the show in " a very big and dramatic way " , and was confident that Spears would deliver and set the tone for the rest of the night . She also said Spears was excited after she was approached by MTV to perform . On September 7 , 2007 , Spears started rehearsing at the Pearl Theater . An exclusive video from the rehearsal was posted on MTV.com the following day . The performance began with a close @-@ up of the back of Spears 's head , and continued with Spears turning to the camera and lip synching the first lines of Elvis Presley 's 1958 song " Trouble " , " If you 're lookin ' for trouble , you came to the right place / If you 're lookin ' for trouble , look right in my face . " " Gimme More " began , and the camera panned out to reveal Spears wearing a black , jewel @-@ encrusted bikini and black boots . She was accompanied by male and female dancers dressed in black outfits . Several pole dancers danced in smaller stages around the audience . The backdrop videos featured images of chandeliers floating and silhouettes of women , which were compared by Gil Kaufman of MTV to the gun barrel and title sequence of the James Bond series . At the end of the performance , Spears smiled and thanked the audience before leaving the stage .
The performance was universally panned by critics . Jeff Leeds of The New York Times said that " no one was prepared for Sunday night ’ s fiasco , in which a listless Ms. Spears teetered through her dance steps and mouthed only occasional words in a wan attempt to lip @-@ synch her new single " . Vinay Menon of the Toronto Star commented Spears " looked hopelessly dazed . She was wearing the expression of somebody who had been deposited at the Palms Casino Resort by a tornado , one that promptly twisted away , taking her clothing and sense of purpose . [ ... ] [ She was ] lumbering , in slow motion , as if somebody had poured cement into her streetwalker boots " . David Willis of BBC stated her performance would " go down in the history books as being one of the worst to grace the MTV Awards " . The day after the performance , American blogger Chris Crocker posted a video in YouTube titled " Leave Britney alone ! " , in which he cried and defended Spears 's performance , explaining that he did not want her to spiral out of control like Anna Nicole Smith , who had died in February 2007 . Within the first 24 hours of its posting , the video accumulated over 2 million views . " Leave Britney alone ! " turned Crocker into an internet celebrity , and was featured on television shows such as The View and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . It was also parodied by dozens of other YouTube users , most famously by actor Seth Green . An editor for YouTube said " the melodramatic two @-@ minute clip made Crocker an instant YouTube star " and named it one of the top videos of 2007 . Wired named it the top video of 2007 .
= = = Other performances = = =
During Spears 's 2009 concert tour The Circus Starring Britney Spears , the LAZRtag Remix of " Gimme More " was used in a martial arts @-@ inspired interlude between the first and second act . On March 25 , 2011 , Spears performed a special show at Rain Nightclub in Las Vegas . The setlist of the show consisted of three songs from her seventh studio album , Femme Fatale , including " Hold It Against Me " , " Big Fat Bass " and " Till the World Ends " . During the performance of " Big Fat Bass " , Spears wore a latex bodysuit and elements of " 3 " , " Gimme More " and " I 'm a Slave 4 U " were also included . On March 27 , 2011 , " Big Fat Bass " was also performed at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium that aired on Good Morning America on March 29 , 2011 , and the same day , Spears performed the set at Jimmy Kimmel Live ! .
Spears also performed " Gimme More " at 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour . After the performance of " If U Seek Amy " , a video interlude in which a stalker talked about femme fatales in history saw the beginning of the third section . Spears returned to the stage wearing a golden bikini and made her entrance in a boat whose individual parts were wheeled by dancers in Egyptian costumes . Matt Kivel of Variety said , " the crowd reacted wildly to all of it : screaming out the chorus to ' I 'm a Slave 4 U , ' pulsating along to the twitch of ' Gimme More ' and going absolutely ballistic for the brief , two @-@ verse rendition of ' ... Baby One More Time . ' " Craig S. Semon of Telegram & Gazette called it the most over the top number of the show , adding , " She delivered the banal , brain @-@ numbing chorus [ ... ] while her dancers ( looking like extras from ' Stargate ' ) paraded around in Egyptian garb and basked in the glow of pyrotechnic sparks . " Spears also performs the song at her residency show , Britney : Piece of Me , which began in 2013 .
= = Cover versions and samples = =
" Gimme More " has been covered by many artists and a great number of amateurs . In late 2007 , American singer @-@ songwriter Marié Digby posted an acoustic cover of " Gimme More " along with a cover of Rihanna 's " Umbrella " in her YouTube account . Both became viral hits , with " Gimme More " gaining more than 300 @,@ 000 views in two weeks . Shortly after , Digby became the eighth most subscribed @-@ to artist on YouTube . She joked about the situation saying , " I could have done a karaoke video to [ ' Gimme More ' ] , but I just had my stripper pole taken out the other day from my living room , and it just wouldn 't have been the same " . The same year , Australian pop singer Sia released an acoustic version of the song . Swedish metal band Machinae Supremacy covered the song on their third studio album Overworld , released on February 13 , 2008 . Matthieu De Ronde of Archaic Magazine commented " [ it is ] one of the most unexpected covers of all time , [ ... ] this track has been given a somewhat comical but enjoyable makeover , but who said that metal couldn ’ t be fun ? " . American singer @-@ songwriter Christopher Dallman played a cover of the song during many of his concerts in 2007 . Two years later , he showed his version to his producer Rachel Alina , who prompted him to release an EP of Spears 's covers . The EP , titled Sad Britney , was released on November 9 , 2009 , and also contained covers of " Radar " , " Toxic " and " ... Baby One More Time " . It became Dallman 's first record to chart on iTunes . He also released a music video for " Gimme More " , which was criticized by Spears 's fans who thought Dallman was making fun of her . He explained , " There have been a few folks who have misinterpreted what I was doing and thought that I was somehow making fun of her , which really isn ’ t the case . I have such a place in my heart for Britney " .
" Gimme More " has been sampled in many songs , including Girl Talk 's " Give Me a Beat " ( 2008 ) and Charles Hamilton 's " Devil In A Light Pink Dress " ( 2009 ) . In the episode " Michael Scott Paper Company " of the television series The Office , the character of Michael Scott is driving his convertible listening to Lady Gaga 's " Just Dance " ( 2008 ) . When he stops the car , he looks into the camera and says " It 's Britney , bitch " , mistaking Gaga for Spears . During an episode of the television series Kath & Kim , the character of Brett Craig screams the catch phrase before starting a fight in a bar . During a skit in a 2008 episode of The Ellen DeGeneres Show , in which Ellen DeGeneres and Spears sang Christmas carols through a neighborhood , DeGeneres said the catch phrase when knocking on a door . " It 's Britney , bitch " was also included in a video backdrop during the performance of " Human Nature " in Madonna 's 2008 @-@ 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour . In the video , Spears was trapped in an elevator and tried to get out . At the end of the performance , the doors opened to reveal Spears saying the catch phrase . On November 6 , 2008 in the Los Angeles show at Dodger Stadium , Spears joined Madonna onstage halfway through the performance . In 2012 , " Gimme More " was covered on Glee during its second Britney Spears tribute episode . " Britney 2 @.@ 0 " features " Gimme More " which is performed by Heather Morris and heavily parodies Britney 's infamous 2007 MTV Music Video Awards performance. will.i.am 's single " Scream & Shout " ( which features Spears herself ) samples the phrase " Britney , bitch ! " . Rapper Jay @-@ Z sampled the line " It 's Britney , bitch ! " in " BBC " , a song on his 2013 album Magna Carta Holy Grail .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and Personnel = =
Background Vocals , Lead Vocals – Britney Spears
Producer – Nate " Danja " Hills
Vocal producer – Jim Beanz
Mixer and additional programming – Marcella " Ms. Lago " Araica
Background vocals – Keri Hilson , Jim Beanz , Danja
Additional editing – Ron Taylor
= = Charts = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Germanus ( cousin of Justinian I ) =
Germanus ( Greek : Γερμανός ; died 550 ) was an East Roman ( Byzantine ) general , one of the leading commanders of Emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) . Germanus was Emperor Justinian 's cousin , and a member of the ruling dynasty . He held commands in Thrace , North Africa , and the East against Persia , and was slated to command the final Byzantine expedition against the Ostrogoths . Having married into the Gothic Amal royal line through his second wife Matasuntha and a distinguished service record , at the time of his sudden death , he was considered the probable heir to Emperor Justinian .
= = Biography = =
= = = Origins and early career = = =
Germanus was born before 505 , the nephew of Emperor Justin I ( r . 518 – 527 ) and thus cousin of Emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) , and not his nephew , as is often erroneously stated . According to a statement in Jordanes 's Getica , Germanus was a descendant of the noble Roman clan of the Anicii . The exact nature of his connection , however , if indeed it is anything more than a literary device to indicate noble descent , is unclear . Theodor Mommsen hypothesized that his mother could have been a daughter of Anicia Juliana . During the reign of Emperor Justin I , he was raised to high office ( he is recorded as a vir illustris in a 519 letter addressed to him by Pope Hormisdas ) , eventually being appointed as magister militum per Thraciae . In this capacity , he scored a crushing victory over an invasion of the Antae .
By 536 , he was raised to the honorary consulate and the rank of patricius , and held the post of magister militum praesentalis . In that year , he was sent to North Africa to succeed Solomon as military commander , with the task of suppressing a large @-@ scale mutiny of the Byzantine troops led by Stotzas . His tenure there , described by Procopius , was a thorough success . By appearing conciliatory and paying the arrears , he won over a large part of the mutinous army . He then defeated the remaining rebels under Stotzas at the Battle of Scalas Veteres in the spring of 537 and stabilized the situation by suppressing another conspiracy amongst his troops and restoring discipline .
Germanus was recalled by Emperor Justinian in 539 , and sent to Antioch in 540 at the outbreak of the Lazic War with Sassanid Persia . Heavily outnumbered by the Persians , he retreated to Cilicia and was unable to prevent the catastrophic sack of Antioch in the same year . In the next year , as Belisarius assumed command in the East , Germanus returned to Constantinople .
= = = Conspiracy of Artabanes = = =
By 548 , he was acknowledged as the most influential of Emperor Justinian 's relatives and his heir apparent , although this was never formally recognized . In that year , his position was strengthened further by the death of Empress Theodora , who disliked him intensely . His stature at court was such that a plot was hatched by the disaffected general Artabanes and his kinsman Arsaces to assassinate Emperor Justinian and replace him with Germanus . The conspirators thought Germanus amenable to their plans , since he had been dissatisfied with Emperor Justinian 's meddling in the settling of the will of his recently deceased brother Boraides .
The conspirators first told Justin , Germanus 's eldest son , of their intentions . He , in turn , informed his father , who then held counsel with the comes excubitorum , Marcellus . In order to find out more of their intentions , Germanus met the conspirators in person , while a trusted aide of Marcellus , named Leontius , was concealed nearby and listened in . Marcellus then informed Emperor Justinian , and the conspirators were arrested , but treated with remarkable leniency . At first , Germanus and his sons too were suspected , until the testimony of Marcellus cleared them .
= = = High command and death = = =
In the meantime , the Gothic War in Italy against the Ostrogoths had been going badly for the Byzantine Empire , with the Gothic king Totila having wrested most of the peninsula back from the Byzantine troops . In 549 , Emperor Justinian decided to send a major expeditionary force to Italy with Germanus as its head . Soon , however , he changed his mind and appointed the patricius Liberius instead , before cancelling the expedition altogether .
In 550 , however , Emperor Justinian did finally appoint Germanus as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of an Italian expedition . Installing his base at Serdica ( modern Sofia , Bulgaria ) , he began assembling an army . According to Procopius , his fame was such that soldiers , both Byzantines and barbarians , flocked to his banner . Even a Slav invasion headed for Thessalonica allegedly diverted itself towards Dalmatia at the news of his taking up command in Thrace . Germanus also took a step that he hoped would significantly decrease the resistance he would face from the Ostrogoths : he took as his second wife Matasuntha , the former queen of the Goths , granddaughter of Theodoric the Great and last surviving heir of the royal Amal line . Contemporary accounts certainly suggest that this move , combined with news of the massive preparations , produced an effect among the Goths in Italy , as well as the numerous Byzantine defectors in their ranks , some of whom sent messages promising to return to Byzantine allegiance upon his arrival .
In addition , this marriage , which was endorsed by Emperor Justinian himself , marked Germanus out as the heir to both the East Roman and the Gothic realms . It was not to be , however : only two days before the army was to set out , in the early autumn of 550 , he fell ill and died . His demise dashed any hopes for the reconciliation of Goth and Roman in Italy , and led to further years of bloodshed , until the peninsula was definitively conquered by the Byzantines .
Germanus is given a very favourable treatment in the work of Procopius , he openly praises him for his virtue , justice , and generosity , as well as for his energy and ability both as a soldier and an administrator .
= = = Family = = =
Germanus had a brother named Boraides and perhaps also a brother named Justus . From his first marriage to a lady called Passara , he had two sons and a daughter :
Justin , born probably in circa 525 / 530 , became consul in 540 and general towards the end of Emperor Justinian 's reign .
Justinian , general .
Justina , born in circa 527 , who married in 545 the general John , nephew of the general and rebel Vitalian .
From his later marriage to Matasuntha , he had a son , also called Germanus , born posthumously ( late 550 / early 551 ) . Nothing further is known of him with certainty , although he can possibly be identified with the patricius Germanus , a leading senator in the reign of Emperor Maurice ( r . 582 – 602 ) whose daughter married Maurice 's eldest son Theodosius . Michael Whitby identifies the younger Germanus with Germanus , a son @-@ in @-@ law of Tiberius II Constantine and Ino Anastasia .
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= Ireland King of Arms =
Ireland King of Arms was the title of an officer of arms to the King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1392 until the accession of Henry VII as King of England in 1485 . A king of arms is the highest of the three levels of officers of arms , and usually enjoys heraldic jurisdiction over a geographical area . Despite the name Ireland King of Arms did not appear to exercise heraldic authority in Ireland , and indeed the connection with Ireland seems rather tenuous . The office may have been created preparatory to a subsequently aborted military expedition to Ireland . The last holder of the office , Walter Bellinger , did exercise the heraldic prerogative of a king of arms to grant armorial bearings , however two of his grants were annulled or regranted by other kings of arms as they felt he encroached on their provinces . In 1552 , 70 years after the last Ireland King of Arms , the office of Ulster King of Arms was created . The holders of this office exercised control over the heraldic affairs of Ireland until 1943 , when the office was merged with that of Norroy King of Arms forming the present office of Norroy and Ulster King of Arms .
= = Origins of the office = =
In 1392 , King Richard II of England created the first in a succession of Ireland kings of arms . It is unknown why such an office was called into being . Froissart notes the creation of Chandos le Roy d 'Ireland , but does not give any clues as to the reasoning . It does , however , fit into the general English policy in Ireland at the time . Richard II sought to re @-@ establish English control in those areas where the native Irish had reasserted their independence . The appointment can be seen as a necessary part of the preparations for the appointment of the Duke of Gloucester as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1392 . Richard intended Gloucester to lead a major military campaign , and such a campaign would have necessitated the involvement of heralds to marshal arms and provide advice and evidence in case of heraldic disputes .
Richard and Gloucester 's campaign of 1392 never happened , but Richard did leave for Ireland in 1394 with a large army , accompanied by John Othelake , who had succeeded Chandos as Ireland King of Arms in 1393 . No details are given of Othelake 's career as Ireland King of Arms , although he certainly had a connection with Ireland as an officer of arms to the Earl of March in 1381 . The historical evidence does not even make clear how long Othelake served in the position .
It is clear that Othelake was no longer enjoying the office by 1420 . By this time , John Kitley had been appointed to the post , though the exact date of his appointment is unknown . He was appointed by King Henry V of England on the insistence of the Earl of Ormonde . There is no evidence to suggest that Kitley had any connection to Ireland , or even that he visited it , but his connection to Earl of Ormonde is interesting . Kitley was succeeded by Thomas Collyer , who had previously served as Clarenceux King of Arms and Lancaster Herald of Arms in Ordinary . Nothing is known of his career as Ireland , and he was succeeded by Thomas Ashwell .
= = Walter Bellinger = =
Walter Bellinger enjoyed the office of Ireland King of Arms from at least 1468 . This is proven by the fact that on 3 June 1469 , King Edward IV granted Bellinger a pension of £ 20 per annum for his service as Ireland . The same writ states that he had been appointed on 9 June the year before . Bellinger was a native of Dieppe , and had served as a herald for fifty @-@ five years by 1477 . He accompanied his King to France and acted as his ambassador to the French court in the discussions preceding the Treaty of Picquigny . The French King gave him the value of 100 silver marks for his services in that affair . Bellinger held the office of Ireland King of Arms until the reign of Henry VII of England . After Bellinger , no one was appointed to fill the office .
= = Impact and legacy = =
Bellinger is the only Ireland King of Arms known to have made any grants of arms . However two of his four known grants were annulled and or regranted , because their recipients were within the heraldic jurisdiction of other kings of arms . There is no evidence to suggest that any Ireland Kings of Arms ever attempted to exercise control over the heraldic practice of Ireland .
In 1552 , Bartholomew Butler was created Ulster King of Arms . Edward VI wrote in his journal of the occasion " There was a king of arms made for Ireland , whose name was Ulster , and whose province was Ireland , and he was ... the first herald of Ireland . " Ulster King of Arms was thus a new creation , rather than a revival of Ireland King of Arms , and unlike the latter had heraldic jurisdiction over Ireland . The office of Ulster King of Arms was merged with that of Norroy King of Arms in 1943 , to form the present Norroy and Ulster King of Arms .
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= Volvariella surrecta =
Volvariella surrecta , commonly known as the piggyback rosegill , is an agaric fungus in the family Pluteaceae . Although rare , the species is widely distributed , having been reported from Asia , North America , Northern Africa , Europe , and New Zealand . The fungus grows as a parasite on the fruit bodies of other gilled mushrooms , usually Clitocybe nebularis . V. surrecta mushrooms have white or greyish silky @-@ hairy caps up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , and white gills that turns pink in maturity . The stipe , also white , is up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long , and has a sack @-@ like volva at its base .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first mentioned in scientific literature as Agaricus surrectus by English botanist John Leonard Knapp in his 1829 Journal of a Naturalist . Knapp described the species and illustrated it in a woodcut . He wrote :
We have even an agaric , with a bulbous root and downy pileus , that will spring from the smooth summit of another ( agaricus caseus ) , which has a uniform footstalk , though not of common occurrence . Thus a plant , that itself arises from decay , is found to constitute a soil for another ; and the termination of this chain of efficiency is hidden from us .
Seven years later , Miles Berkeley described the fungus as Agaricus loveianus , not aware of Knapp 's previous publication , and wrote that it was " a most elegant and curious species which ... appears not to have been hitherto noticed . " Berkeley 's name was frequently used in literature to refer to the fungus for over a century rather than Knapp . In his 1917 North American Flora , William Alphonso Murrill proposed a new name combination for the species based on Berkeley 's name , Volvariopsis loweiana . In 1942 , John Ramsbottom discovered Knapp 's image and description of the fungus , and realizing it referred to the same species as Berkeley 's Agaricus loveianus , made the new combination Volvaria surrecta . Rolf Singer transferred it to the genus Volvariella in 1951 , giving it the name by which it is known presently .
Molecular analysis of DNA sequences suggests that V. surrecta belongs to the Volvariella pusilla group — a grouping of related Volvariella species that produce small , white fruit bodies . In this analysis , V. surrecta formed a subclade with V. hypopithys . Almost 90 years earlier , Paul Konrad and André Maublanc recognized the relatedness of these species , and proposed that V. surrecta should be considered a subspecies of V. hypopithys .
The specific epithet surrecta is Latin for " to arise " . Berkeley 's epithet loveianus honors British naturalist and Reverend Richard Thomas Lowe . The mushroom is commonly known as the piggyback rosegill .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of V. surrecta have caps that are initially ovoid ( egg @-@ shaped . Later they become bell @-@ shaped or convex before flattening ; reaching diameters of 2 @.@ 5 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) . The cap sometimes has a shallow umbo , although the presence of this character is not consistent . The cap surface is dry and covered with long , silky hairs ; the color is white to light gray , with a yellowish or brownish center . The gills are free from attachment to the stipe and are packed close together . They are initially white , later becoming pink . There are many lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from cap margin to the stipe ) interspersed between the gills . The stipe is 4 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 4 – 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 47 in ) thick , and roughly equal in width throughout the length or somewhat thicker at the base . Its color is white to light gray , and the stipe surface is appressed @-@ fibrillose , with a pruinose coating near the apex . The white volva measures 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) high and 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) broad , and has a lobed margin . The mushroom is not edible .
The color of the spore print is brownish @-@ pink . The spores are egg @-@ shaped to oval , measuring 5 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 6 by 3 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 9 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 20 – 31 by 5 – 10 μm . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are fusoid @-@ ventricose ( distinctly enlarged in the middle and tapered toward both ends ) , sometimes with an elongated neck . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are also fusoid @-@ ventricose with a neck that is sometimes short and bulbous ; they measure 25 – 50 by 6 – 20 μm . The hyphae do not have clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Because of its occurrence on the fruit bodies of other agarics , V. surrecta is unlikely to be confused with other mushrooms . Other parasitic mushrooms include Asterophora species , but these have thick gills compared to the thin gills of V. surrecta . Collybia species , including C. cookei , C. cirrhata and C. tuberosa are saprobic , and grow on the blackened , decayed remains of other agarics . Their fruit bodies are much smaller than V. surrecta , with cap diameters up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) . Although some other Volvariella species have an appearance similar to V. surrecta , they grow in grass or in leaf litter .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Volvariella surrecta grows parasitically on the fruit bodies of Clitocybe species , usually C. nebularis , although it has been reported growing on Tricholoma species , as well as Melanoleuca brevipes . The mushrooms grow in clusters , and fruit in the summer and autumn . The host mushroom is sometimes malformed and assumes an irregular appearance . In an early publication , Charles Bagge Plowright commented " Berkeley 's figure ... is rather misleading . So is that given by Knapp under the name Agaricus surrectus ... , inasmuchas they show the Agaric ( A. nebularis ) , upon which it is parasitic , in a very robust condition . In my specimen the host ( A. nebularis ) was quite sodden and collapsed so as to be practically unrecognisable unless one had known what species to expect . "
Volvariella surrecta is a rare species , even though its major host is quite common ; the conditions required for the parasite to produce fruit bodies are not well known . Some authors have suggested that it may grow equally well as a parasite or a saprobe . V. surrecta has been found on its host in several different habitat types , including birch woodlands , pine plantations , scrub , thickets of small trees or shrubs beside roads , and under brambles . No definite preference for soil type has been determined , having been found in sands , clay , gravels , and peat . In 1867 , Worthington George Smith reported that he had successfully cultivated the species by partially burying fruit bodies under water @-@ soaked rotting fir leaves that were placed in a bell @-@ glass in a warm room . According to his account , a white mycelium grew over the leaves and eventually formed small white pins ( immature , undifferentiated fruit bodies ) that grew into fully formed mushrooms about two weeks after starting .
The geographical distribution of the fungus includes North America north of Mexico , Northern Africa , Europe , New Zealand , and Asia ( Amur region of Russia , India , and Korea ) .
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= Hurricane Calvin ( 1993 ) =
Hurricane Calvin was one of three Pacific hurricanes on record to make landfall along the Mexican coast during the month of July . The fourth tropical cyclone , third named storm , and second hurricane of the 1993 Pacific hurricane season , Calvin developed from an area of convection to the south of Mexico on July 4 . The following day , the system intensified into a tropical storm , which was named Calvin . Continued strengthening ensued as Calvin curved from its initial westward track northward , and was upgraded to a hurricane on July 6 Calvin eventually turned northwest , and became a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) . By July 7 , Hurricane Calvin made landfall near Manzanillo at peak strength . Calvin rapidly weakened after landfall , and was a tropical storm when it reemerged into the Pacific Ocean on early on July 8 . Despite this , the hurricane did not reintensify , and continued to weaken as it headed rapidly northwestward . As Calvin made a second Mexican landfall near the southern tip of Baja California peninsula late on July 8 , it weakened to a tropical depression . Early on July 9 , the depression dissipated shortly after entering the Pacific Ocean for a third time .
Calvin was only the third July hurricane on record to make landfall on the west coast of Mexico . Throughout the nation of Mexico , Calvin dropped heavy rainfall , especially in the southwestern portion of the country . Heavy rainfall produced flooding , which , in turn , caused mudslides . In the wake of Calvin , 37 fatalities were reported . Most of the casualties were due to flooding or car accidents . In the state of Michoacán , 700 homes were destroyed . In addition , a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) storm surge was reported . Many boats and shoreline structures from Acapulco to Manzanillo were damaged . Heavy seas near Lázaro Cárdenas in western Mexico caused a ship , which contained sulfuric acid , to leak . The cleanup effort took one month to complete . In all , 30 @,@ 000 people were displaced by the storm . Overall , Calvin caused $ 32 million ( 1993 US $ ) in damage .
= = Background = =
A trough steered Calvin northward to hit Mexico as a hurricane in the month of July , making Calvin one of only three Pacific hurricanes to strike the nation since HURDAT started keeping records during the 1949 Pacific hurricane season . The other ones were Hurricane Eugene in 1987 and the third storm in 1954 .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Calvin originated from an area of disturbed weather , characterized with scattered deep convection , that developed south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on the second day of July . Despite the lack of concentrated convection , the system was classified using the Dvorak technique , a tool used to measure a tropical cyclone 's intensity . However , during the morning hours of July 4 , banding features formed on the southern semicircle of the disturbance , and it is estimated that the system attained tropical depression status at 1200 UTC while centered approximately 315 mi ( 505 km ) southeast of Acapulco . Initially , the storm was expected to stay offshore and attain winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Intensifying within a favorable atmospheric environment , the depression attained tropical storm status at 0000 UTC on July 5 , receiving the name Calvin .
A period of rapid intensification ensued shortly thereafter , and banding @-@ type eye formed in association with Calvin later that day . By July 5 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) was predicting winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Later that day , the NHC reported winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Continuing to intensify , the system was upgraded to a hurricane at 0000 UTC on July 6 while becoming the second hurricane of the season , though operationally , it was believed to have become a hurricane three hours earlier . Upon becoming a hurricane , the NHC revised their forecast and was now expecting Calvin to become a Category 3 hurricane on the SSHWS . Around this time , Hurricane Calvin was embedded within the northeastern portion of a large , monsoon @-@ like deep @-@ layer @-@ mean , which stretched from the Intertropical Convergence Zone to the southwest Mexican coastline . Furthermore , Calvin was a fairly large cyclone as surface winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) were reported over 200 mi ( 320 km ) from the storm 's center .
During the late morning hours of July 6 , Calvin briefly slowed down before quickly accelerating to the northwest , bringing Calvin 's gale force winds 90 mi ( 140 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco . Later that day , the NHC upgraded Calvin into a Category 2 hurricane . At 1200 UTC on July 7 , Calvin reached its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 966 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , Calvin made landfall , approximately 40 mi ( 65 km ) west @-@ northwest of Manzanillo . The storm quickly weakened over land , and by the evening , it had weakened into a tropical storm . After weakening greatly due to land interaction with the mountainous terrain of Mexico , Calvin reentered the Pacific at 0000 UTC on July 8 . Although initially expected to turn west , this did not occur . Instead , Calvin continued northwest , accelerating while emerging into the Gulf of California . Calvin weakened to a tropical depression late on July 8 as it made a second landfall along the extreme southern Baja California peninsula . After crossing the coast , Tropical Depression Calvin dissipated the next day atop of cold sea surface temperatures .
= = Preparations = =
Prior to making landfall , a tropical storm warning and hurricane watch was issued for a portion of the Mexican coast on July 6 . Six hours later , a hurricane warning was issued . By July 8 , all hurricane warnings were discontinued . Six hours later , all hurricane watches were dropped . By 1800 UTC that day , all watches and warnings were dropped . In addition to the watches and warnings , flash floods and mudslides to occur . In Acapulco , hundreds of police and emergency workers were on stand by in advance of the storm . Meanwhile , the city 's airport and ports were closed . Further south , in Oaxaca , the ports of Puerto Escondido , Puerto Ángel , Bahias de Huatulco , and Salina Cruz were closed . As a precautionary measure , the port of Zihuatanejo was also closed . In all , many sea ports were closed and airplane flights were canceled leaving many vacationers stranded . Multiple hotels were closed in the cities of Acapulco , Puerto Angel , and Huatulco . While weakening , the storm also threatened ports such as Mazatlán along the Gulf of California coast .
= = Impact = =
Due to the storm 's large size , Hurricane Calvin was responsible for heavy flooding along much of the coast of Mexico , and after moving onshore as a hurricane , two locations ( El Marques , Japala Del ) reported as high as 18 @.@ 27 in ( 464 mm ) of rain . The flooding led to mudslides , killing 28 people on land , with 30 @,@ 000 people displaced . Most of the casualties were indirect . In all , 37 people perished due to Hurricane Calvin . Nationwide 42 @,@ 063 people were evacuated from their homes . Numerous seaside restaurants were washed off their respective foundations . Banana , mango , and corn plantations were also destroyed by the strong winds . Coconut trees were reportedly brought down as well .
In Puebla , a peasant died . Inland , 16 persons were killed in the states of Mexico and San Luis Potosí , where heavy rains caused mudslides across higher elevations . In the latter , 11 deaths were reported as two rivers had overflowed their banks while in the former , five people died . Moreover , six people riding in a taxi died in Veracruz during Calvin . Across Nayarit , Calvin brought heavy rains to the state . Later in its duration , Calvin struck the Baja California peninsula , though the storm had weakened considerably by that time Offshore , three ships containing 659 immigrants were intercepted by the storm , but the ship sustained no damage .
In all , the damage from Hurricane Calvin amounted to over 100 million new pesos , or $ 32 million ( 1993 USD ) . Despite the devastation , many vacationers did not alter their plans because of the hurricane .
= = = Oaxaca = = =
Prior to affecting Guerrero , Hurricane Calvin was responsible for heavy rains and widespread flooding across Oaxaca . An estimated 7 @,@ 000 were left homeless along the Oaxacan coast and on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . In addition , travel from the isthmus was cut off due to mudslides that blocked portions of the Pan @-@ American Highway . Two rivers threatened to overflow their banks while the Benito , Juarez , and Yosocuta dams attained peak capacity and thus the gates were opened to prevent overflowing . A total of 42 communities were flooded . The cities of Tehuantepec , Salina Cruz , Juchtianm , and Tuxtepec were flooded due to extended periods of torrential rains . Across the state , the rains blocked highways and knocked out electrical , telephone , and water services . About 3 @,@ 000 people took refuge to shelters and one person was killed .
= = = Guerrero = = =
In Acapulco , waves of 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) moved through the city . In several states , between 5 in ( 130 mm ) to 10 in ( 250 mm ) inches of rain was recorded . However , in Las Pilas , the highest rainfall total was observed , at 16 @.@ 34 in ( 415 mm ) .
Prior to landfall , the storm 's outer rainbands began to spread over the region , resulting in flooding . Throughout Acapulco , the storm uprooted 100 trees and caused some damage to roads . Although the city escaped significant damage , many huts were damaged and 1 @,@ 600 people were left homeless . City @-@ wide six people were killed while two other fisherman were missing . A mudslide killed a man and a son one person was reported dead after trying to save his boat from sinking . In addition , 13 boats sunk due to high waves , which impeded all maritime activity along the coast . In the city of Zihuatanejo , heavy rains flooded streets ; consequently , " waist @-@ deep " water was reported in some parts of the city . As a result , tourists were evacuated to higher ground . A total of 2 @,@ 000 people were forced to abandon their homes . Two people sustained minor injuries when a tree was uprooted . Many neighborhoods throughout Acapulco were flooded . Overall , several beach communities were destroyed , almost 1 @,@ 000 dwellings were destroyed , thousands of people were left homeless , and many areas remained without electricity .
Statewide , the majority of storm damage occurred over a 4 mi ( 6 km ) stretch of road , which was situated about 25 mi ( 40 km ) north of Acapulco . About a dozen small wood @-@ built restaurants were swept away by high waves . At a nearby small beach resort , four cottages were damaged due to the winds and were later swept away . One two @-@ story hotel was nearly destroyed as all that remained undamaged after the storm was a swimming pool . In a resort town situated 18 mi ( 29 km ) northwest of the city , high waves pounded many small resorts .
= = = Colima = = =
Following Calvin 's closest approach to Manzanillo , the Mexican Weather Service station in the city recorded a minimum barometric pressure of 986 @.@ 5 mbar ( 29 @.@ 13 inHg ) , as well as 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) surface winds as the center of Calvin passed a little to the west . The Instituto Oceanografico del Pacifico in Manzanillo reported a minimum central pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) in addition to gale @-@ force winds . Statewide , sustained winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) were observed around 1300 UTC . Shortly thereafter , near 1545 UTC , sustained winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) with gusts up to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) were reported in Manzanillo . Offshore , several ships reported rough weather during Calvin 's existence , with the Pacific Sandpiper reporting a maximum wave height of 44 ft ( 13 m ) .
Two fatalities occurred offshore when a trimaran capsized ; two fishermen were also reported missing . A pair children were killed by a mudslide . Damage to boats and shoreline structures extended from Acapulco to Manzanillo . Electrical and water services were cut off to the city of Mazanillio . In all , 4 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from their homes throughout the state . Several ports were also closed . Throughout Colima , lime and mango crops sustained $ 4 @.@ 3 million in damage .
= = = Michoacán = = =
In the state of Michoacán , 700 homes were destroyed . Moreover , many bridges and highways were destroyed due to a 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) storm surge . A total of 4 @,@ 000 persons fled their homes in Michoacan , including 3 @,@ 000 alone in Lázaro Cárdenas . Crop damage in both this state and Colima totaled to $ 7 million . Numerous communities were completely evacuated .
Although initially not expected to pose a threat to the chemicals on the ship Betula , rough seas near Lázaro Cárdenas caused all 4 @,@ 000 t ( 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) of sulfuric acid to leak aboard the previously beached cargo tanker . The tow line snapped when a tug was taking it out to sea . Two of the four tanks broke off by July 7 . The Mexican Navy then decided it would be best to tow the ship to shore and neutralize the battery acid that the ship contained . It was estimated that such project could take two weeks .
= = = Jalisco = = =
Shortly after making its first landfall , the storm moved over a sparsely populated portion of Mexico near Puerto Vallarta . Throughout the region from Manzanillo to Puerto Vallarta , no deaths were reported . However , phones and power services were disrupted and many roads were blocked due to extensive flooding . However , further details about impact could not be obtained due to lack of communication , though some places sustained waist @-@ high water . However , the resort city of Puerto Vallarta itself was spared , receiving just some rain and light winds . About 60 mi ( 95 km ) south of the city , numerous coastal roads were destroyed due to mudslides . In all , 10 towns were flooded .
= = Aftermath = =
During the aftermath of the storm , troops were called in to deliver aid to the victims of the storm . A state of emergency was declared in at least ten states in Mexico following Calvin 's passage . Furthermore , Mexican officials implemented emergency measures with assistance of agencies such as the Mexican Army and the local health department in the most of the devastated areas . Civil protection authorities donated food to more than 40 @,@ 000 people for three days . They distributed around 11 @,@ 000 blankets , 5 @,@ 000 mattresses , 8 @,@ 000 sacks of sand to reinforce dikes , and an additional 20 t ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) of food , medicine , and clothes . Many Los Angeles residents looked for ways to donate aid to the needy . Then @-@ Mexican President Carlos Salinas de Gortari announced that the government would channel $ 11 @.@ 4 million to three of the hardest @-@ hit states . The government channeled $ 2 @.@ 7 million to Guerrero alone ( half of which was supplied to Acapulco ) for reconstruction efforts . Michoacan was also expected to receive $ 4 @.@ 7 million in aid while Colima was expected to acquire $ 4 million .
Once the hurricane had moved away from the coast , airports quickly re @-@ opened . Simultaneously , fishermen in Playa Azul protested that their livelihood was endangered due to fishing bans caused by the chemical spill ; consequently , in Lázaro Cárdenas , 28 people were arrested while warrants for 526 others ' arrest were issued for disturbing peace and blocking highways . This sparked protests from two environmental group as a well a group of Mexican artists . Also , the fisherman demanded a $ 1 million compensation . Within a week after the storm , additional rains had moved into the area , leading to further damage and eight fatalities .
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= Geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area =
The geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area includes nine known exposed formations , all visible in Zion National Park in the U.S. state of Utah . Together , these formations represent about 150 million years of mostly Mesozoic @-@ aged sedimentation in that part of North America . Part of a super @-@ sequence of rock units called the Grand Staircase , the formations exposed in the Zion and Kolob area were deposited in several different environments that range from the warm shallow seas of the Kaibab and Moenkopi formations , streams and lakes of the Chinle , Moenave , and Kayenta formations to the large deserts of the Navajo and Temple Cap formations and dry near shore environments of the Carmel Formation .
Subsequent uplift of the Colorado Plateau slowly raised these formations much higher than where they were deposited . This steepened the stream gradient of the ancestral rivers and other streams on the plateau . The faster @-@ moving streams took advantage of uplift @-@ created joints in the rocks to remove all Cenozoic @-@ aged formations and cut gorges into the plateaus . Zion Canyon was cut by the North Fork of the Virgin River in this way . Lava flows and cinder cones covered parts of the area during the later part of this process .
Zion National Park includes an elevated plateau that consists of sedimentary formations that dip very gently to the east . This means that the oldest strata are exposed along the Virgin River in the Zion Canyon part of the park , and the youngest are exposed in the Kolob Canyons section . The plateau is bounded on the east by the Sevier Fault Zone , and on the west by the Hurricane Fault Zone . Weathering and erosion along north @-@ trending faults and fractures influence the formation of landscape features , such as canyons , in this region .
= = Grand Staircase and basement rocks = =
The Grand Staircase is an immense sequence of sedimentary rock layers that stretch south from Bryce Canyon National Park through Zion National Park and into the Grand Canyon . Within this sequence , the oldest exposed formation in the Zion and Kolob canyons area is the youngest exposed formation in the Grand Canyon — the Kaibab limestone . Bryce Canyon to the northeast continues where the Zion and Kolob areas end by presenting Cenozoic @-@ aged rocks . In fact , the youngest formation seen in the Zion and Kolob area is the oldest exposed formation in Bryce Canyon — the Dakota Sandstone .
In the Permian period , the Zion and Kolob area was a relatively flat basin near sea level on the western margin of the supercontinent Pangaea . Sediments from surrounding mountains added weight to the basin , keeping it at relatively the same elevation . These sediments later lithified ( turned to rock ) to form the Toroweap Formation , now exposed in the Grand Canyon to the south but not in the Zion and Kolob area . This formation is not exposed in the park , though it does form its basement rock .
= = Deposition of sediments = =
= = = Kaibab Limestone ( Upper Permian ) = = =
In later Permian time , the Toroweap Basin was invaded by the warm , shallow edge of the vast Panthalassa ocean in what local geologists call the Kaibab Sea . At that time , Utah and Wyoming were near the equator on the western margin of the supercontinent Pangaea .
Starting 260 million years ago , the yellowish @-@ gray limestone of the fossil @-@ rich Kaibab Limestone was laid down as a limy ooze in a tropical climate . During this time , sponges , such as Actinocoelia meandrina , proliferated , only to be buried in lime mud and their internal silica needles ( spicules ) dissolved and recrystallized to form discontinuous layers of light @-@ colored chert . In the park , this formation can be found in the Hurricane Cliffs above the Kolob Canyons Visitor Center and in an escarpment along Interstate 15 as it skirts the park . This is the same formation that rims the Grand Canyon to the south .
Farther to the west , a complex island arc assemblage formed above a subduction zone . To the east , in western Colorado , a mountain range similar to today 's Himalayas called the Uncompahgre Mountains bordered the Utah lowland . The interfingering of the Kaibab with the White Rim Sandstone , now exposed in Capitol Reef National Park area , to the east suggests that the marine facies of the Kaibab migrated eastward in response to a relative sea @-@ level rise , or transgression ( the White Rim is not exposed in the Zion area ) . The sea moved back and forth across Utah , but by the Middle Permian , the sea had withdrawn and the Kaibab Limestone was exposed to erosion , creating karst topography and channels reaching 30 m ( 100 ft ) in depth .
= = = Moenkopi Formation ( Lower Triassic ) = = =
Volcanoes continued to erupt through the Early Triassic on the north – south trending island arc to the west , which was located along what is now the border between California and Nevada . Shallow , marine water stretched from eastern Utah to eastern Nevada over a beveled continental shelf . As the sea withdrew around 230 million years ago , fluvial , mudflat , sabkha , and shallow marine environments developed , depositing gypsum ( from lagoon evaporites ) , mudstones , limestones , sandstones , shales , and siltstones .
It took many thousands of thin layers of these sediments to form the 1 @,@ 800 @-@ foot ( 550 m ) thick Moenkopi Formation . A prograding shoreline laid down muddy delta sediments which mixed with limy marine deposits . The fossilized plants and animals in the Moenkopi are evidence of a climate shift to a warm tropical setting that may have experienced monsoonal , wet @-@ dry conditions .
The Red Canyon Conglomerate , the basal member of the Moenkopi , fills broad east @-@ flowing paleochannels carved into the Kaibab Limestone . Some of these channels are up to several tens of feet deep and may reach 200 ft ( 61 m ) deep in the St. George area . A thin , poorly developed soil , or regolith , formed over the paleotopographic high areas between the channels .
The depositional environment was a nearshore one where the seashore alternated between advance ( transgression ) and retreat ( regression ) . At Zion , the limestones and fossils of the Timpoweap , Virgin Limestone , and Shnabkaib members of the Moenkopi Formation document transgressive episodes . Unlike the Timpoweap and Virgin Limestone members , the Shnabkaib contains abundant gypsum and interbedded mudstone resulting from deposition in a restricted marine environment with complex watertable fluctuations . Regressive , red bed layers separate the transgressive strata . Ripple marks , mud cracks , and thinly laminated bedding suggest that these intervening red shale and siltstone units were deposited in tidal flat and coastalplain environments .
Outcrops of this brightly colored red , brown , and pink banded formation can be seen in the Kolob Canyons section of the park and in buttes on either side of State Route 9 between Rockville , Utah to the south and Virgin , Utah to the southwest of the park borders . Progressively higher beds are exposed until the top of the formation is reached at the mouth of Parunweap Canyon ( when traveling to the park on Route 9 ) .
= = = Chinle Formation ( Upper Triassic ) = = =
Later , uplift exposed the Moenkopi Formation to erosion and Utah became part of a large interior basin drained by north and northwest @-@ flowing rivers in the Upper Triassic . Shallow river deposition along with volcanic ash eventually became the mineral @-@ rich Chinle Formation . The irregular contact zone , or unconformity , between the Chinle and the underlying Moenkopi can be seen between Rockville and Grafton in southwestern Utah .
Petrified wood and fossils of animals adapted to swampy environments , such as phytosaurs , lungfish , and lacustrine bivalves , have been found in this formation as well as conifer trees , cycads , ferns , and horsetails . Relatively plentiful uranium ore , such as carnotite and other uranium @-@ bearing minerals , has also been found . The purple , pink , blue , white , yellow , gray , and red colored Chinle also contains shale , gypsum , limestone , sandstone , and quartz . Iron , manganese oxides and copper sulfide are often found filling gaps between pebbles . Purplish slopes made of the Chinle can be seen above the town of Rockville .
The sand , gravel , and petrified wood which made up these deposits were later strongly cemented by dissolved silica ( probably from volcanic ash from the west ) in groundwater . Much of the bright coloration of the Chinle is due to soil formation during the Late Triassic . The lowermost member of the Chinle , the Shinarump , consists of a white , gray , and brown conglomerate made of coarse sandstone , and thin lenses of sandy mudstone , along with plentiful petrified wood . The Shinarump was laid down in braided streams that flowed through valleys eroded into the underlying Moenkopi Formation . This member of the Chinle forms prominent cliffs with thickness up to 200 feet ( 60 m ) , and its name comes from a Native American word meaning " wolf 's rump " ( a reference to the way this member erodes into gray , rounded hills ) .
A succession of volcanic @-@ ash @-@ rich mudstone and sandstone with a thickness of 350 @-@ foot ( 110 m ) make up the Petrified Forest Member of the Chinle , which was deposited by lakes , highly sinuous rivers and on the surrounding floodplains . This is the same bright , multicolored part of the Chinle that is exposed in Petrified Forest National Park and the Painted Desert . Petrified wood is , of course , also common in this member .
= = = Moenave and Kayenta formations ( Lower Jurassic ) = = =
Early Jurassic uplift created an unconformity above the Chinle Formation that represents about ten million years of missing sedimentation between it and the next formation , the Moenave . Periodic incursions of shallow seas from the north during the Jurassic flooded parts of Wyoming , Montana , and a northeast – southwest trending trough on the Utah / Idaho border . The Moenave was deposited in a variety of river , lake , and flood @-@ plain environments .
The oldest beds of this formation belong to the Dinosaur Canyon Member , a reddish , slope @-@ forming rock layer with thin beds of siltstone that are interbedded with mudstone and fine sandstone . The Dinosaur Canyon , with a local thickness of 140 to 375 feet ( 43 to 114 m ) , was probably laid down in slow @-@ moving streams , ponds and large lakes . Evidence for this is in cross @-@ bedding of the sediments and large numbers of fish fossils .
The upper member of the Moenave is the pale reddish @-@ brown with a thickness of 75 to 150 feet ( 23 to 46 m ) and cliff @-@ forming Springdale Sandstone . It was deposited in swifter , larger , and more voluminous streams than the older Dinosaur Canyon Member . Fossils of large sturgeon @-@ like freshwater fish have been found in the beds of the Springdale Sandstone . The next member in the Moenave Formation is the thin @-@ bedded Whitmore Point , which is made of mudstone and shale . The lower red cliffs visible from the Zion Human History Museum ( until 2000 the Zion Canyon Visitor Center ) are accessible examples of this formation .
At 200 to 600 feet ( 61 to 183 m ) thick , the Kayenta Formation 's sand and silt were laid down in early Jurassic time in slower @-@ moving , intermittent streambeds in a semiarid to tropical environment . Interbedded sandstone , basal conglomerates , siltstones , mudstones , and thin cross @-@ beds are typical channel and floodplain deposits found in the Kayenta . Paleocurrent studies show that the Kayenta rivers flowed in a general westward to southwestward direction .
Fossilized dinosaur footprints from sauropods have been found in this formation near the Left Fork of North Creek . Mountains in Nevada and California continued to rise in the Lower Jurassic as plate motions forced North America northward . Eventually , this created a rain shadow and brought widespread desertification . Today the Kayenta is a red and mauve rocky slope @-@ former that can be seen throughout Zion Canyon .
= = = Navajo Sandstone ( Lower to Mid Jurassic ) = = =
Approximately 190 to 136 million years ago in the Jurassic the Colorado Plateau area 's climate increasingly became arid until 150 @,@ 000 square miles ( 388 @,@ 000 km ² ) of western North America became a huge desert , not unlike the modern Sahara . For perhaps 10 million years sometime around 175 million years ago sand dunes accumulated , reaching their greatest thickness in the Zion Canyon area ; about 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) at the Temple of Sinawava ( photo ) in Zion Canyon .
Most of the sand , made of 98 % translucent , rounded @-@ grain quartz , was transported from coastal sand dunes to the west , in what is now central Nevada . Today the Navajo Sandstone is a geographically widespread , pale tan to red cliff and monolith former with very obvious sand dune cross @-@ bedding patterns ( photo ) . Typically the lower part of this remarkably homogeneous formation is reddish from iron oxide that percolated from the overlaying iron @-@ rich Temple Cap formation while the upper part of the formation is a pale tan to nearly white color . The other component of the Navajo 's weak cement matrix is calcium carbonate , but the resulting sandstone is friable ( crumbles easily ) and very porous . Cross @-@ bedding is especially evident in the eastern part of the park where Jurassic wind directions changed often . The crosshatched appearance of Checkerboard Mesa is a good example ( photo ) .
Springs , such as Weeping Rock ( photo ) , form in canyon walls made of the porous Navajo Sandstone when water hits and is channeled by the underlying non @-@ porous Kayenta Formation . The principal aquifer in the region is contained in Navajo Sandstone . Navajo is the most prominent formation exposed in Zion Canyon with the highest exposures being West Temple and Checkerboard Mesa . The monoliths in the sides of Zion Canyon are among the tallest sandstone cliffs in the world .
= = = Temple Cap and Carmel formations ( Middle Jurassic ) = = =
Utah and western Colorado were deformed as the rate of subduction off the west coast increased in the Middle Jurassic Sevier Orogeny . At the same time , an inland sea began to encroach on the continent from the north . Broad tidal flats and streams carrying iron oxide @-@ rich mud formed on the margins of the shallow sea to the west , creating the Sinawava member of the Temple Cap Formation . Flat @-@ bedded sandstones , siltstones , and limestones filled depressions left in the underlying eroded strata . Streams eroded the poorly cemented Navajo Sandstone , and water caused the sand to slump .
Desert conditions returned briefly , creating the White Throne member , but encroaching seas again beveled the coastline , forming a regional unconformity . Thin beds of clay and silt mark the end of this formation . The most prominent outcrops of this formation make up the capstone of West Temple in Zion Canyon . Rain dissolves some of the iron oxide and thus streaks Zion 's cliffs red ( the red streak seen on the Altar of Sacrifice is a famous example ) . Temple Cap iron oxide is also the source of the red @-@ orange color of much the lower half of the Navajo Formation .
A warm , shallow inland sea started to advance into the region ( transgress ) 150 million years ago , finishing the job of flattening the sand dunes . Limy ooze with some sand and fossils were laid down as 1 @-@ to @-@ 4 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 30 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) thick sedimentation beds from Mid to Late Jurassic time . Some calcareous silt percolated down into the buried sand dunes ( carrying red oxides with it ) and eventually cemented them into the sandstone of the Navajo Formation . The limy ooze above would later lithify into the hard and compact limestone of the Carmel Formation , 200 to 300 feet ( 61 to 91 m ) thick .
Many unique environments were created by the migrating Sevier thrust system , and the four members of the Carmel Formation in southwest Utah capture these changing environments . Both open marine ( crinoids ) and restricted marine ( pelecypods , gastropods ) environments are represented in the Co @-@ op Creek member . Sandstone and gypsum in the Crystal Creek and Paria River members signal a return to desert conditions in a coastal setting .
Outcrops of the Carmel Formation are most notably exposed on Horse Ranch Mountain ( photo ) in the Kolob Canyons section of the park and near Mt . Carmel Junction east of the park . Other formations totaling 2 @,@ 800 feet ( 850 m ) thick may have been deposited in the region during Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous only to be uplifted and entirely removed by erosion .
= = = Dakota Sandstone ( Lower Cretaceous ) = = =
Mountains continued to rise in the Sevier orogenic belt to the west during the Cretaceous while the roughly north @-@ south trending Western Interior Basin expanded . Rifting in the Gulf of Mexico helped the southern end of the basin to subside , which allowed marine water to advance northward . At the same time , the shoreline advanced inland from the Arctic region . The seas advanced and retreated many times during the Cretaceous until one of the most extensive interior seaways ever , called the Western Interior Seaway , drowned much of western North America from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The western shoreline of the seaway was in the vicinity of Cedar City , Utah while the eastern margin was part of the low @-@ lying , stable platform ramp in Nebraska and Kansas .
The pebble to cobble conglomerate and tan fossil @-@ rich sandstone of the resulting 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) thick Dakota Sandstone include alluvial fan and alluvial plain sediments that grade laterally into coastal plain , marginal marine , and marine deposits . A small remnant of the Dakota is exposed on top of the 8 @,@ 766 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 672 m ) -high Horse Ranch Mountain ( photo ) . This formation is the youngest one exposed in the Zion area but the oldest exposed in Bryce Canyon to the northeast . Deposition continued but the resulting formations were later uplifted and eroded away . The exposed formations in the Bryce Canyon area likely represent these lost layers .
= = Tectonic activity and erosion = =
= = = Regional forces = = =
East – west @-@ directed compression from subduction off the west coast affected the area in later Mesozoic and early Tertiary time by folding and thrust faulting strata . Evidence for the Sevier Orogeny part of this period can be seen in the Taylor Creek area in the Kolob section of the park . Chunks of Moenave strata have been compressed to the point of thrusting themselves over the same formation in the Taylor Creek Thrust Fault Zone , located on the east flank of the Kanarra anticline .
Tensional forces forming the Basin and Range physiogeographic province to the west about 20 to 25 million years ago in Tertiary time created the two faults that bound the Markagunt Plateau ( which underlies the park ) : the Sevier Fault on the east and the Hurricane Fault on the west . The Hurricane fault zone is a major , active , steeply west @-@ dipping normal fault that stretches at least 155 miles ( 250 km ) from south of the Grand Canyon northward to Cedar City , Utah . Along the southern boundary of the park , tectonic displacement along this fault is about 3 @,@ 600 ft ( 1 @,@ 098 m ) . Several other normal faults also developed on the plateau .
Subsequent uplift of the Colorado Plateau and tilting of the Markagunt Plateau started 13 million years ago . This steepened the stream gradient of the ancestral Virgin River ( Zion Canyon section of the park ) , and Taylor and La Verkin creeks ( Kolob Canyons section of the park ) , causing them to flow and downcut faster into the underlying Markagunt Plateau . Downcutting continues to be especially rapid after heavy rainstorms and winter runoff when the water contains large amounts of suspended and abrasive sand grains . Uplift and downcutting are so fast that slot canyons ( very narrow river @-@ cut features with vertical walls ) , such as the Zion Narrows , formed .
= = = Volcanic activity = = =
Explosive andesitic volcanism dominated the area to the west of Zion during Oligocene and early Miocene time and probably inundated the region with hundreds of feet of welded tuff that has since eroded away . Three of these tuff layers are preserved on top of Brainhead Peak . About 21 million years ago the Pine Valley laccolith formed . This typical mushroom @-@ shaped laccolith is one of the largest intrusions of this type in the world . Debris flows carried boulders of this intrusion onto the Upper Kolob Plateau indicating that the Hurricane Cliffs could not have been present at the time .
Then from at least 1 @.@ 4 million to 250 @,@ 000 years ago in Pleistocene time basaltic lava flowed intermittently in the area , taking advantage of uplift @-@ created weaknesses in the Earth 's crust . Volcanic activity was concentrated along the Hurricane Fault west of the park that today parallels Interstate 15 . Evidence of the oldest flows can be seen at Lava Point and rocks from the youngest are found at the lower end of Cave Valley . Some cinder cones were constructed much later in the southwest corner of the park .
Some of these lava flows blocked rivers and streams , impounding small lakes and ephemeral ponds in the process . About 100 @,@ 000 years ago , basalt from the largest cinder cone in the park , Crater Hill , flowed over the area . The lava traveled into Coalpits and Scoggins Washes to the south and accumulated to a depth of over 400 ft ( 122 m ) in the ancestral Virgin River valley near the present @-@ day ghost town of Grafton , Utah . Water impounded behind the two blockages , forming Coalpits Lake and Lake Grafton respectively .
Lake Grafton was the largest of at least 14 lakes that have periodically formed in the park ( most were from landslides ; see below ) . Thirteen lava flows are mapped in and near Zion dating from 1 @.@ 5 million to 100 @,@ 000 years ago . More recent flows of less than 10 @,@ 000 years in age occurred north of Zion and east of Cedar Breaks National Monument .
= = = Erosion and canyon formation = = =
Stream downcutting continued along with canyon @-@ forming processes such as mass wasting ; sediment @-@ rich and abrasive flood stage waters would undermine cliffs until vertical slabs of rock sheared away . This process continues to be especially efficient with the vertically jointed Navajo Sandstone .
All erosion types took advantage of preexisting weaknesses in the rock such as rock type , amount of lithification , and the presence of cracks or joints in the rock . Basalt flows concentrated in valleys but subsequent erosion removed sedimentary rock that once stood at higher elevations . The resulting inverted relief consists of ridges capped by basalt which are separated by adjacent drainages .
In all about 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) of sediment were removed from atop the youngest exposed formation in the park ( the Late Cretaceous @-@ aged Dakota Sandstone ) . The Virgin River carved out 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) of sediment in about 1 million years . This is a very high rate of downcutting , about the same rate as occurred in Grand Canyon during its most rapid period of erosion . About 1 million years ago , Zion Canyon was only about half as deep as it is today in the vicinity of Zion Lodge . Assuming that erosion was fairly constant over the past 2 million years , then the upper half of Zion Canyon was carved between about 1 and 2 million years ago and only the upper half of the Great White Throne was exposed 1 million years ago and The Narrows were yet to form .
Downcutting and canyon widening continue today as the process of erosion continues to try to reduce the topography to sea level . In 1998 a flash flood temporarily increased the Virgin River 's flow rate from 200 to 4 @,@ 500 ft ³ / s ( 6 to 125 m ³ / s ) . Geologists estimate that the Virgin River can cut another thousand feet ( 300 m ) before it loses the ability to transport sediment to the Colorado River to the south . However , additional uplift will probably increase this figure .
= = = Landslides and earthquakes = = =
Landslides more than once dammed the Virgin River and created lakes where sediment accumulated . Every time the river eventually breached the slide and drained the lake , leaving a flat @-@ bottomed valley . About 7 @,@ 000 years ago , the relatively thin wall between two closely spaced joints in the Navajo Sandstone collapsed . The resulting Sand Bench landslide blocked Zion Canyon just east of The Sentinel , creating Sentinel Lake . Another notable stand was created about 4 @,@ 000 years ago when Sentinel Slide impounded the North Fork Virgin River , creating a lake that backed up to Weeping Rock . The current site of Zion Lodge was under about 200 feet ( 60 m ) of water for around 700 years . Evidence of valley floors created by these lakes can be seen from Zion Canyon Scenic Drive south of Zion Lodge near Sentinel Slide . Recent landslides in 1923 , 1941 , and 1995 have temporarily dammed the Virgin River . Prior to the initial Sand Bench landslide , the Virgin River flowed 70 ft ( 21 m ) lower in elevation than it does today .
The area is periodically rocked by mild to moderate earthquakes , which often trigger landslides . For example , on September 2 , 1992 a Richter Magnitude 5 @.@ 8 earthquake caused 14 million cubic meters ( 18 million cubic yards ) of mostly Moenave Formation to slide downslope atop the weak claystone of the Petrified Forest member of the Chinle Formation . The quake was centered on the Washington Fault , about 30 miles ( 48 km ) southwest . Three houses and two water tanks were destroyed when the slope they were built on dropped 98 feet ( 30 m ) and extended laterally a similar distance over a period of several hours . The landslide is visible just outside the park 's entrance in Springdale , Utah .
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= Sicklefin weasel shark =
The sicklefin weasel shark ( Hemigaleus microstoma ) is an uncommon species of ground shark in the family Hemigaleidae . It is native to southern India , southern China , and parts of Southeast Asia , living in shallow waters down to a depth of 170 m ( 560 ft ) . This lightly built shark is characterized by its very short mouth , broad upper teeth with serrations only on the trailing edge , and strongly sickle @-@ shaped fins with obvious white tips on the two dorsal fins . It is light grey or bronze in colour , often with small white blotches on its sides , and reaches a maximum known length of 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) .
Spending most of its time close to the sea floor , the sicklefin weasel shark is a specialist predator of cephalopods . Its reproductive mode is viviparous , in which the unborn young form a placental connection to their mother . Females probably give birth twice a year , with each litter consisting of two to four pups . The sicklefin weasel shark is widely caught by artisanal fisheries and used for meat , fins , and fishmeal ; its low natural abundance and reproductive rate mean that it cannot sustain much fishing pressure . Given that fishing activity is intense throughout its range , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Vulnerable .
= = Taxonomy = =
Dutch ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker described the sicklefin weasel shark in 1852 . He gave it the specific epithet microstoma , from the Greek mikros ( " small " ) and stoma ( " mouth " ) , and placed it in a new genus , Hemigaleus . His account was based on two females from Jakarta , Indonesia , measuring 63 and 70 cm ( 25 and 28 in ) long . This species was once thought to occur off Australia , but that population is now recognised as a distinct species , H. australiensis . Yuanting Chu 's 1960 description of Negogaleus brachygnathus from Chinese waters is probably of the same species as H. microstoma . Albert William Herre 's 1929 description of Hemigaleus machlani from the Philippines , though lacking in detail , is also consistent with being of this species .
= = Description = =
The sicklefin weasel shark is a slender @-@ bodied species reaching 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) in length . The snout is fairly long and rounded , with the nostrils preceded by short flaps of skin . The large , oval eyes are equippled with nictitating membranes and are followed by minute spiracles . The mouth forms a very short , wide arch and conceals the teeth when closed . Moderately long furrows are present at the corners of the mouth . There are 25 – 34 upper and 37 – 43 lower tooth rows ; the upper teeth are broad and angled with a smooth leading edge and strongly serrated trailing edge , while the lower teeth are narrow , erect , and smooth @-@ edged . The five pairs of gill slits are short .
The fins are strongly falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) , particularly the dorsal fins , pelvic fins , and lower caudal fin lobe . The pectoral fins are narrow and pointed . The first dorsal fin is positioned about halfway between the pectoral and pelvic fins . The second dorsal fin is about two @-@ thirds as tall as the first and is positioned slightly ahead of the anal fin . The anal fin is smaller than the second dorsal fin . The dorsal surface of the caudal peduncle bears a crescent @-@ shaped notch at the caudal fin origin . The asymmetrical caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a long upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . The dermal denticles are small and overlapping ; each has five horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth . This species is light grey or bronze above , often with small white spots on the sides , and pale below . The dorsal fins are tipped in white , which is especially obvious on the second dorsal as the remainder of fin is mostly dark .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The sicklefin weasel shark is found off southern India and Sri Lanka , as well as from southern China and Taiwan to Java and Borneo . It may also occur in the Philippines and the Red Sea , though specimens from these regions need to be compared taxonomically with those from its confirmed range . It does not seem to be very common naturally . This species inhabits continental and insular shelves from inshore waters to at least a depth of 170 m ( 560 ft ) , and usually swims close to the sea floor .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The diet of the sicklefin weasel shark is composed almost entirely of cephalopods , though crustaceans and echinoderms may be infrequently eaten . Its small mouth and short gill slits may be adaptations for capturing cephalopods via suction , while its weak jaws and small teeth reflect a diet of mostly soft @-@ bodied prey . This species is viviparous , wherein the developing embryos are sustained to term through a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac . Females likely produce two litters per year , implying a gestation period of under six months . Between two and four pups are born at a time ( average 3 @.@ 3 ) ; newborns measure approximately 45 cm ( 18 in ) long . Males mature sexually at around 74 – 75 cm ( 29 – 30 in ) long , while females mature at around 75 – 78 cm ( 30 – 31 in ) long .
= = Human interactions = =
The sicklefin weasel shark is not dangerous to humans . It is caught by artisanal fishers throughout its range , mostly in drifting and bottom gillnets but also in bottom trawls and on longlines . The meat is eaten , the fins are used in shark fin soup , and the offal is processed into fishmeal . However , the small size of this shark limits its economic value . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the sicklefin weasel shark as Vulnerable , noting that it is naturally uncommon and resides in heavily fished regions . In addition , compared to the related Australian weasel shark it is less productive and thus less resilient to withstand fishing pressure .
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= Sidney Crosby =
Sidney Patrick Crosby , ONS ( born August 7 , 1987 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey player who serves as captain of the Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Crosby was drafted first overall by the Penguins out of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) . During his two @-@ year major junior career with the Rimouski Océanic , he earned back @-@ to @-@ back CHL Player of the Year awards and led his club to the 2005 Memorial Cup final . Nicknamed " The Next One " , he was one of the most highly regarded draft picks in hockey history , leading many to refer to the 2005 Draft Lottery as the " Sidney Crosby Sweepstakes " .
In his first NHL season , Crosby finished sixth in league scoring with 102 points ( 39 goals , 63 assists ) and was a runner @-@ up for the Calder Memorial Trophy ( won by Alexander Ovechkin ) . By his second season , he led the NHL with 120 points ( 36 goals , 84 assists ) to capture the Art Ross Trophy , becoming the youngest player and the only teenager to win a scoring title in any major North American sports league . That same season , Crosby won the Hart Memorial Trophy as the Professional Hockey Writers Association 's choice for most valuable player and the Lester B. Pearson Award as the NHL Players Association 's choice for most outstanding player , becoming the seventh player in NHL history to earn all three awards in one year .
Crosby started the 2007 – 08 season with the team 's captaincy and subsequently led them to the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals , where they were defeated by the Detroit Red Wings in six games . The Penguins returned to the Finals against Detroit the following year and won in seven games ; Crosby became the youngest captain in NHL history to win the Stanley Cup . In the 2009 – 10 season , Crosby scored a career @-@ high 51 goals , tying him with Steven Stamkos for the " Rocket " Richard Trophy as the league @-@ leader ; with 58 assists , he totalled 109 points , second in the NHL . During the off @-@ season , Crosby received the Mark Messier Leadership Award . In 2010 – 11 , Crosby sustained a concussion as a result of hits to the head in back @-@ to @-@ back games . The injury left him sidelined for ten and a half months . However , after playing eight games in the 2011 – 12 season , Crosby 's concussion @-@ like symptoms returned in December 2011 , and he did not return until mid @-@ March 2012 after extended treatment by neurologists at UPMC and chiropractic neurologist Ted Carrick , whom Crosby credits with helping him return to hockey . In 2013 – 14 , he again won the Hart Memorial Trophy as well as the Art Ross Trophy and his third Ted Lindsay Award . In the 2015 – 16 season , Crosby finished third in scoring , and captained the Penguins to the 2016 Stanley Cup Finals , where they defeated the San Jose Sharks in six games . Crosby was the 2016 winner of the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player during the playoffs .
Internationally , Crosby has represented Canada in numerous tournaments for the country 's junior and men 's teams . After competing in the 2003 U @-@ 18 Junior World Cup , he represented Canada in back @-@ to @-@ back IIHF World U20 Championships , winning silver in 2004 and gold in 2005 . At the 2006 IIHF World Championship , he led the tournament in scoring , while also earning Top Forward and All @-@ Star Team honours . Four years later , Crosby was named to Team Canada for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver . Playing the United States in the gold medal game , he scored the game @-@ winning goal in overtime . He captained the 2014 Canadian Olympic ice hockey team at the Sochi Olympics , leading the team to a gold medal victory over Sweden . In 2015 he led Team Canada to a gold in the World Championship in Prague , thus becoming a member of the Triple Gold Club and the only player in the club to have captained all three winning teams .
= = Early life = =
Crosby was born in the Grace Maternity Hospital in Halifax , Nova Scotia , on August 7 , 1987 , to Troy and Trina ( née Forbes ) Crosby . Crosby 's jersey number ( 87 ) and 2007 contract signing ( $ 8 @.@ 7 million per year ) reflect his birthdate ( 8 / 7 / 87 ) . Crosby grew up in nearby Cole Harbour , and has a younger sister , Taylor . His father was a goaltender who played for the Verdun Junior Canadiens in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) . Troy played in the 1985 Memorial Cup and had been drafted 240th overall by the Montreal Canadiens in 1984 , but never played at the NHL level . Growing up , Crosby admired Steve Yzerman and , like his father , was a Canadiens fan . Crosby began playing hockey by himself in his basement at the age of two years , shooting pucks against the family 's clothes dryer ; he learned to skate at three .
From age 12 to 15 , Crosby attended Astral Drive Junior High School . He was a straight @-@ A student and , according to the vice @-@ principal , " an amazing role model who was really kind to students in the learning centre and to special needs kids . " When he was 15 , Crosby transferred to Shattuck @-@ Saint Mary 's in Faribault , Minnesota , to play with the school 's hockey program . While playing for the Rimouski Océanic of the QMJHL , Crosby attended and graduated in 2005 from Harrison Trimble High School , in Moncton , New Brunswick .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Minor hockey = = =
Early in his minor hockey years , Crosby began attracting media attention for his play and gave his first newspaper interview at age seven . When Crosby was 13 , Nova Scotia 's Minor Hockey Council refused to allow him to play midget , a level of minor hockey designated for 15- to 17 @-@ year @-@ olds . His family sued but lost . The following year , he entered the midget level with the triple @-@ A Dartmouth Subways and went on to score a combined 217 regular season and playoff points , leading Dartmouth to a second @-@ place finish at the 2002 Air Canada Cup . He was named the MVP and Top Scorer awards at the national tournament at the tournament banquet held after the preliminary round and he finished the tournament with 24 points ( 11 goals and 13 assists ) in 7 games . Crosby was called up as a 14 @-@ year @-@ old to play two games with the Maritime Junior A Hockey League 's Truro Bearcats that season . Crosby had been drafted by the Bearcats in the 2001 MJAHL Draft as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old .
During his midget season , Crosby appeared on the CBC 's Hockey Day in Canada telecast . He has recalled numerous instances in which opposing players intentionally attempted to injure him , as well as constant verbal abuse from parents on and off the ice . Parents taunted and threatened Crosby so harshly , he took to not wearing his jersey between tournament games while he waited to play so that he would not be recognized . Due to this treatment , he elected to play for the American hockey program at Shattuck @-@ Saint Mary 's Boarding School , Minnesota for the 2002 – 03 hockey season . In 57 games with the Sabres , he recorded 72 goals and 162 points , leading the team to a U18 AAA national championship .
= = = Junior career = = =
Crosby was selected first overall in the 2003 Midget Draft by the Rimouski Océanic of the QMJHL . In his first exhibition game , he scored eight points , leading his teammates to nickname him " Darryl " ( in reference to Darryl Sittler 's ten @-@ point in the NHL in 1976 ) . In his first regular season game in the QMJHL , he scored one goal and added two assists . He was named QMJHL Player of the Week for two consecutive weeks at the start of the season and won the honour four more times as the season progressed . He was named QMJHL Player of the Month and Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) Player of the Week three times each . Crosby finished his rookie QMJHL season with 54 goals and 81 assists over 59 games to capture the Jean Béliveau Trophy as the league 's leading point @-@ scorer . He was further recognized with the RDS / JVC Trophy ( overall rookie of the year ) and Michel Brière Memorial Trophy ( most valuable player ) , becoming the first QMJHL player to win all three major awards at once . Rounding out Crosby 's accolades for the 2003 – 04 regular season were QMJHL All @-@ Rookie and First All @-@ Star Team honours , as well as Offensive Rookie , Offensive Player and Personality of the Year Awards . As a team , the Océanic led the Eastern Division with 34 wins and 76 points . After receiving a first @-@ round bye in the 2003 QMJHL playoffs , they defeated the Shawinigan Cataractes in the quarterfinals , then were eliminated by the Moncton Wildcats in the semifinals . Crosby recorded 16 points ( 7 goals and 9 assists ) over 9 post @-@ season games .
During the off @-@ season , the World Hockey Association , a major professional league proposed to rival the NHL , held an Entry Draft on July 17 , 2004 . Holding the first overall selection , Toronto chose Crosby . The following month , it was reported that Crosby turned down a US $ 7 @.@ 5 million deal over three years to play for Hamilton . Crosby told reporters that while " it took a lot to say no to that much money " , he " work [ ed ] hard most of his life to play in the NHL . " The deal would have paid him $ 2 @.@ 5 million annually and an additional $ 2 million payout regardless of whether the WHA was realized as a legitimate league or not . It was not clarified , however , how Hamilton could have signed Crosby , as Toronto held his WHA rights . Nevertheless , the WHA never materialized .
Returning to the Océanic for the 2004 – 05 season , Crosby continued dominating the league , leading the league with 66 goals , 102 assists and 168 points over 62 games to capture his second consecutive Beliveau Trophy . Joining Crosby on Rimouski 's top line were wingers Dany Roussin and Marc @-@ Antoine Pouliot , who finished second and third in league @-@ scoring with 116 and 114 points , respectively . In addition to his scoring title , Crosby was once again named Most Valuable Player , Offensive Player and Personality of the Year honours , while repeating as a QMJHL First All @-@ Star . The Océanic finished with the regular season with the best record in the league , registering 45 wins and 98 points , including a league record @-@ setting 28 @-@ game undefeated streak . They went on to capture the President 's Cup as QMJHL playoff champions , defeating the Halifax Mooseheads in the finals . Crosby led the playoffs with 31 points ( 14 goals and 17 assists ) over 13 games , earning him the Guy Lafleur Trophy as post @-@ season MVP . With their QMJHL championship , the Océanic qualified for the 2005 Memorial Cup , Canada 's national major junior tournament . Meeting the London Knights in the final , the Océanic were shutout 4 – 0 . Despite the loss , Crosby was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team and captured the Ed Chynoweth Trophy as the competition 's leading scorer 11 points ( 6 goals and 5 assists ) over 5 games . Knights forward Corey Perry was awarded the Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy as the MVP . Soon after , he attended the NHL prospect combine in preparation of the 2005 NHL Entry Draft .
= = = NHL career = = =
= = = = 2005 – 07 = = = =
Entering the 2005 NHL Entry Draft , Crosby was listed first overall in the NHL Central Scouting Bureau and International Scouting Services ' respective rankings of prospects . He had also won the Mike Bossy Trophy as the QMJHL 's best prospect . Crosby went on to be selected first overall in the draft by the Pittsburgh Penguins on July 30 , 2005 . Due to the labour stoppage that suspended the entire 2004 – 05 NHL season , positioning for the 2005 draft was conducted via a weighted lottery based on each team 's playoff appearances and draft lottery victories in the last four years . This lottery system led to the draft being popularly referred to as the Sidney Crosby Lottery or the Sidney Crosby Sweepstakes .
Crosby made his NHL debut on October 5 , 2005 , against the New Jersey Devils , and registered an assist on the team 's first goal of the season , scored by Mark Recchi in a 5 – 1 loss . He scored his first NHL goal in the Penguins ' home opener on October 8 against goaltender Hannu Toivonen of the Boston Bruins . Despite having registered two assists for a three @-@ point night , the Penguins were defeated 7 – 6 in overtime . Crosby began his rookie season playing alongside Hall of Famer Mario Lemieux . Unfortunately , Lemieux was forced to retire due to an irregular heartbeat after having played just 26 games of the season . Near the midway point of the season , Penguins head coach Ed Olczyk was fired and replaced by Michel Therrien on December 15 , 2005 . The following day , Therrien designated Crosby as an alternate captain for the Penguins . The move drew criticism from some hockey pundits , including Don Cherry , who claimed that Crosby did not have the experience for the position . He stated , " An 18 @-@ year @-@ old kid says he 's going to give us ideas . What , from the Quebec League , he 's going to give them ideas ? Come on . That 's ridiculous " . Although hopes were high in Pittsburgh for the club to succeed , largely in part to the beginning of Crosby 's NHL career and bolstered by the acquisitions of Sergei Gonchar , Žigmund Pálffy and Mark Recchi , the Penguins still finished with the worst record in the Eastern Conference .
Nevertheless , Crosby 's first NHL campaign was a personal success as he established franchise records in assists ( 63 ) and points ( 102 ) for a rookie , both of which had been previously held by Mario Lemieux . He additionally became the youngest player in NHL history to score 100 points in a single season , and only the seventh rookie ever to hit the benchmark . Overall , Crosby finished sixth in the NHL scoring race and seventh in the NHL in assists . Among Canadian NHL players , he trailed only Joe Thornton and Dany Heatley . Throughout the season , Crosby had battled with Washington Capitals forward and 2004 first @-@ overall pick Alexander Ovechkin for the rookie scoring lead . He would finish second to Ovechkin 's 106 points and also lose out to the Capitals forward for the Calder Memorial Trophy as NHL rookie of the year . Throughout his first season , Crosby was accused by opposing players and coaches of taking dives and complaining to officials , which was typically attributed to his youth . He became the first rookie to earn 100 penalty minutes and 100 points in the same season , which magnified his reputation for complaining to NHL officials . Hockey analyst Kelly Hrudey compared Crosby to Wayne Gretzky , who had a similar reputation as a " whiner " in his youth , and suggested that as Crosby matured , he would mellow out and his reputation would fade .
In his second NHL season , Crosby built on his rookie success . On October 28 , 2006 , Crosby scored his first NHL hat trick in an 8 – 2 victory over the Philadelphia Flyers . His success against the Flyers continued as just over six weeks later , on December 13 , he recorded the first six @-@ point game of his career ( one goal , five assists ) . The multi @-@ point effort vaulted Crosby into the NHL scoring lead , which he would retain for the remainder of the season . He finished the 2006 – 07 NHL season with 36 goals and 84 assists in 79 games to become the first teenager to lead the NHL in scoring since Wayne Gretzky in 1980 . Being only nineteen years old at the time , he became the youngest player in NHL history to win the Art Ross Trophy and the youngest scoring champion in any major North American professional sport .
Crosby 's second NHL season also saw significant improvements for the Penguins franchise as a whole , as the emergence of Calder Trophy @-@ winner Evgeni Malkin and runner @-@ up Jordan Staal complemented the club 's offence . As a result , the Penguins jumped from last place in the Eastern Conference the previous season to fifth for the club 's first playoff appearance since 2001 . Playing the Ottawa Senators in the opening round , Crosby scored a goal in his Stanley Cup playoff debut in a 6 – 3 losing effort . He finished the series with 5 points in 5 games as the Penguins were ousted by the eventual Stanley Cup runner @-@ up . Following the Penguins defeat , Crosby was named Pittsburgh 's team captain on May 31 , 2007 , making him ( at 19 years , 9 months , and 24 days ) the youngest team captain in NHL history . During the season , the Penguins had offered him the captaincy , but he had turned it down . In the press conference naming him the team captain , he explained :
" I just thought it wasn 't right for me . As a team , we were playing great and you don 't want to disrupt things like that . Individually , I was not ready to accept that responsibility quite yet . Going through the playoffs and having that experience has probably given me more confidence . I understand there is going to be a lot more responsibility on my shoulders with this , but it 's something I 'm ready for , I feel very comfortable with it and I 'm just excited to get things going . "
At the NHL 's annual awards show later in June 2007 , Crosby completed a rare off @-@ season hat trick , winning the Hart Memorial Trophy and the Lester B. Pearson Award in addition to his previously clinched Art Ross Trophy . He became the youngest player in NHL history to win the Lester B. Pearson , and only the second youngest player ever to win the Hart ( after Gretzky ) . He became the youngest player ever to be named to the NHL 's First All @-@ Star Team .
= = = = 2007 – 09 = = = =
With Crosby 's initial three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract set to expire at the end of the following season , the Penguins signed him to a five @-@ year , $ 43 @.@ 5 million contract extension on July 10 , 2007 , ensuring his stay with the Penguins through the 2012 – 13 season . Midway through the subsequent season , Crosby recorded a Gordie Howe hat trick on December 20 , 2007 , in a game against the Boston Bruins . His first assist came 55 seconds into the first period . At 8 : 26 of the same period , Crosby scored to give the Penguins a 2 – 0 lead . Then , five minutes and nine seconds into the second frame , Crosby fought defenceman Andrew Ference to complete the hat trick . This was Crosby 's first NHL fight . In NHL 's first Winter Classic ( with a record crowd of 71 @,@ 217 fans in attendance ) , Crosby scored the shootout winner in heavy snowfall to beat the Sabres . Two weeks later , however , on January 18 , 2008 , Crosby suffered a high ankle sprain crashing leg @-@ first into the boards in a game against the Tampa Bay Lightning . As a result , he missed the 2008 All @-@ Star Game , to which he was named a starter . After missing 21 games , he returned on March 4 against the Lightning and earned an assist . Two games after his return , however , he felt his ankle was not up to shape and decided that he needed more time for it to heal . Crosby consequently sat out of the Penguins ' next seven games and returned on March 27 , 2008 , to help the Penguins defeat the New York Islanders 3 – 1 . In spite of the injury @-@ shortened campaign , Crosby still managed 72 points in just 53 games .
His absence from the Penguins ' line @-@ up served as a stepping stone for teammate Evgeni Malkin , who , now in his second season , was developing into a superstar in his own right . Picking up the offensive slack , Malkin finished second in league scoring to Alexander Ovechkin and was also a Hart Trophy nominee as MVP honours also went to Ovechkin . In addition to Crosby 's return to the line @-@ up late in the regular season , the Penguins acquired star winger Marián Hossa from the Atlanta Thrashers at the trade deadline , placing the club in a strong position to make a deep playoff run . Pittsburgh finished the regular season as Atlantic Division champions and just two points shy of the first @-@ seeded Montreal Canadiens . In a rematch of the previous year 's opening round , the Penguins began the 2008 playoffs facing the Ottawa Senators , whom they quickly swept in four games . After then defeating the New York Rangers and archrival Philadelphia Flyers , each in five games , the Penguins reached the final round for the first time since 1992 , to face the Detroit Red Wings . After being shutout as a team for the first two games of the series , Crosby scored the first two goals of game three as the series shifted to Pittsburgh to fuel a 3 – 2 win . The Penguins lost the next game and despite staving off defeat in game five , they were overcome by the Red Wings in six games . Crosby finished the playoffs with 27 points ( 6g , 21a in 20 games ) , tying Conn Smythe @-@ winner Henrik Zetterberg ( 13g , 14a in 22 games ) for the playoff scoring lead .
Early in the following season , on October 18 , 2008 , Crosby scored one goal and three assists to surpass benchmarks of 100 goals , 200 assists , and 300 points for his career . On the scoring play in which Crosby scored , teammate Malkin assisted to record his own 200th point . As a result , Crosby had a team trainer cut the puck in half so both players could commemorate the achievement . Minor injury troubles kept Crosby from five games early in the season as he was listed day @-@ to @-@ day , but he was , for the most part , able to bounce back from the previous injury @-@ riddled season and stay healthy . He recorded 33 goals and 70 assists to finish third in league scoring , as Evgeni Malkin captured his first career Art Ross Trophy .
Entering the 2009 playoffs as the defending Prince of Wales Trophy winners , the Penguins defeated the Philadelphia Flyers in the opening round before meeting the Washington Capitals for a highly publicized second @-@ round matchup . The series was heavily followed as it pitted Ovechkin of the Capitals against both Crosby and Malkin , who together finished as the league 's top three scorers that season . In the second game , Crosby and Ovechkin recorded matching three @-@ goal efforts for their first career playoff hat tricks in a 4 – 3 Capitals victory . Despite being down 2 – 0 in the series , Crosby and the Penguins won the next three games and eventually defeated the Capitals in a seventh and deciding game , in which Crosby added another two goals . Following a sweep of the Carolina Hurricanes in the Eastern Conference Final , Crosby opted against recent NHL tradition and picked up the Prince of Wales Trophy , which he had left untouched the previous year . In explanation of the change of heart , Crosby said , " We didn 't touch the trophy last year , and obviously we didn 't have the result we wanted ... Although we haven 't accomplished exactly what we want ... we can still enjoy it . "
Meeting the Detroit Red Wings for the second straight year in the Finals , Crosby won his first Stanley Cup with the Penguins in seven games . At 21 years , 10 months , and 5 days , Crosby became the youngest NHL captain to win a Stanley Cup championship since 1895 . ( The youngest captain to lead his team to the Stanley Cup in the history of the trophy is Mike Grant of the 1895 Montreal Victorias , who was 21 years and 2 months at the time . ) In the deciding game seven , Crosby was forced to watch all but 32 seconds of the third period from the bench after suffering a knee injury less than halfway through the second period due to a hit from Johan Franzén . Following the game , Crosby was criticized by Detroit forward Kris Draper for neglecting to shake hands with some of Detroit 's players , most notably captain Nicklas Lidström . An irate Draper was quoted as saying " Nick was waiting and waiting , and Crosby didn 't come over to shake his hand . That 's ridiculous , especially as their captain . " Crosby replied afterward , saying , " I just won the Stanley Cup . I think I have the right to celebrate with my teammates . I know it 's not easy waiting around ... I understand if they don 't feel like waiting around . But you know what ? It 's the easiest thing to do in the world , to shake hands after you win . I had no intentions of trying to skip guys and not shake their hands . I think that was a pretty unreasonable comment . "
= = = = 2009 – 13 = = = =
In the 2009 – 10 NHL season , Crosby tied Tampa Bay Lightning centre Steven Stamkos for the lead in goals scored , with 51 goals , earning the Rocket Richard Trophy . He also garnered 58 assists for a total of 109 points , enough to tie with Alex Ovechkin for second in league points , trailing only the Vancouver Canucks ' Henrik Sedin 's 112 . Crosby was also named a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy , finishing third behind Ovechkin and Sedin . Crosby won the Mark Messier Leadership Award , getting recognized as a ' superior leader within the sport , setting a positive example through on @-@ ice performance , motivation of team members and a dedication to the community ' . This was the second time he had received this honour , the other being in January 2007 , during the award 's first year when it was presented monthly . Crosby 's Penguins were defeated in the second round of the 2010 Stanley Cup playoffs , losing to the Montreal Canadiens in seven games . Crosby had 19 points in 13 games in the playoffs , though through seven games against the Canadiens he had only 1 goal and 4 assists for a total of 5 points . Game seven was also the last game to be played at Mellon Arena , the Penguins ' home rink since the start of the franchise . On July 27 , 2010 , Crosby joined his mentor Mario Lemieux to be the first to skate on the new ice at the Consol Energy Center . The two skated for about five minutes before being joined on the ice by a group of young hockey fans all wearing Lemieux 's 66 or Crosby 's 87 jerseys .
In the 2010 – 11 NHL season , Crosby had a 25 @-@ game point streak , which began November 5 , 2010 , against the Anaheim Ducks , and ended December 28 , 2010 , against the New York Islanders . During this streak he had 27 goals ( including three hat @-@ tricks ) , 24 assists , and 51 points . This streak was tied for 11th longest point streak in NHL history , and he was named First Star of the Month in both November and December . On January 3 , 2011 , Crosby was selected as a 2011 All @-@ Star , along with teammates Evgeni Malkin , Marc @-@ André Fleury , and Kris Letang . However , neither Crosby nor Malkin were available to play in the All @-@ Star Game due to injuries and rookie Jeff Skinner along with Paul Stastny were named as replacements . In consecutive games , the 2011 NHL Winter Classic on January 1 , 2011 , against the Washington Capitals and January 5 against the Tampa Bay Lightning , Crosby suffered hits to his head from Dave Steckel and Victor Hedman , respectively . After experiencing several concussion symptoms , Crosby did not return for the rest of the regular season , and he missed the 2010 – 11 Stanley Cup Playoffs . The Penguins were further crippled when Evgeni Malkin suffered a torn ACL and MCL , taking him out for the rest of the season . This left the Penguins without the services of their two highest scoring players . Despite Crosby 's injury and subsequent absence for the final 41 games of the season , he finished as the Penguins ' leading scorer . His 66 points in 41 games were 16 points ahead of the second highest team scorer , defenceman Kris Letang . In doing this , Crosby set an NHL record for fewest games played by an NHL team 's points leader .
Crosby missed the first 20 games of the 2011 – 12 season due to the lingering effects of his concussion . He returned on November 21 , 2011 , against the New York Islanders , scoring two goals and two assists in a 5 – 0 shutout win for the Penguins . However , after playing another seven games , for a total of 12 points in 8 games , Crosby 's concussion @-@ like symptoms returned in December 2011 , possibly following an elbow hit by David Krejci in his eighth game of the season . Despite passing a successful ImPACT test , Crosby decided not to return on the ice until he felt perfectly fine , stating that he also must " listen to [ his ] body " . Crosby returned to action on March 15 , scoring an assist in a 5 – 2 win against the New York Rangers . Despite only playing 22 games , Crosby tallied 29 assists to go with 8 goals for 37 points , including his 600th career point .
Crosby 's return in advance of the playoffs resulted in many experts predicting that the Penguins would win their second Stanley Cup in four years , and though the Penguins were accordingly picked to oust the Philadelphia Flyers in their first round series , it was acknowledged that it would be a tough series for both teams . The Flyers shocked the Penguins by winning the first three consecutive games , the third of which saw the teams combine for 158 penalty minutes . After the 8 – 4 loss in game 3 , Crosby was widely criticized for his conduct during the game , and for his testy post @-@ game interview . When asked about an incident where Flyer forward Jakub Voráček had dropped his glove and Crosby swatted it away with his stick before Voráček could pick it up , Crosby replied , saying " I don 't like any guy on their team there , so his glove was near me , went to pick it up , and I pushed it , so yeah , that 's ... [ ... ] I don 't like them . Because I don 't like them . I don 't like ... I don 't like any guy on their team . " When the interviewer suggested he could have skated away , Crosby replied " Skate away ? Yeah , well , I didn 't that time . " The Penguins went on to win the next two games , but ultimately lost the series in game 6 . Crosby would finish with 3 goals and 5 assists in the 6 games . On June 28 , 2012 , the Pittsburgh Penguins announced that Crosby had agreed to a 12 @-@ year , $ 104.4M contract extension that will keep Crosby in Pittsburgh through the 2024 – 25 NHL season , unless he is traded during this period .
The start of the 2012 – 13 NHL season was postponed until January 2013 due to the owners locking out the players as negotiations took place to solidify a new collective bargaining agreement . During this time , Crosby was a regular attendee of meetings taking place between NHLPA representatives and NHL owners . The lock @-@ out began on September 15 , 2012 , and officially ended January 6 , 2013 , with the NHL regular season getting underway on January 19 . During the 119 @-@ day lock @-@ out , Crosby was often questioned about his future plans should the lock @-@ out persist , and said on more than one occasion that he was entertaining contract offers from various teams in European leagues ( where many NHL players went so that they could continue playing in a professional capacity while waiting for the lock @-@ out to end or for the NHL season to be officially cancelled ) . Crosby continued to practice and participated with other NHL players who had not gone overseas in several exhibition games open to the public .
With the season finally underway in late @-@ January , Crosby set the pace for scoring , totalling 31 points ( 9 goals , 22 assists ) through the first 21 games . He remained hot through March racking up another 25 points ( 6 goals , 19 assists ) in 15 games as the Pittsburgh Penguins went unbeaten over this stretch . However , his regular season came to an abrupt end on March 30 in a home game against the New York Islanders . Crosby 's teammate , Brooks Orpik , unleashed a slapshot which caught Crosby in the mouth , causing the centerman to lose several teeth . Crosby was down the ice for several minutes before the medical staff was able to help him to the dressing room with Crosby holding a towel over his face . Initially the prognosis was not severe , but it was discovered a short while later that Crosby had , in fact , broken his jaw , and would require several rounds of reconstructive dental surgery . He missed the final twelve games of the regular season , and finished fourth in the scoring race , losing the title to Tampa Bay 's Martin St. Louis by four points .
Crosby returned to the ice May 5 for the Penguins ' second game against their first @-@ round playoff opponents , the New York Islanders — ironically the very team Pittsburgh had been playing when Crosby was injured . Despite two Crosby goals , Pittsburgh lost the game 3 – 2 , tying the series at one game a piece . The Penguins would ultimately prevail 4 – 2 in the series over the Isles with Crosby scoring 9 points ( 3 goals , 6 assists ) in the five games in which he played . Crosby and the Penguins moved on to face the Ottawa Senators in the second round with ' Sid the Kid ' registering a hat @-@ trick in game @-@ 2 of the series . Pittsburgh quickly defeated Ottawa 4 games to 1 in the series with a still @-@ hot Crosby finishing the series with four goals and two assists .
The Eastern Conference Finals came down to what many felt were the two best teams in the conference : Pittsburgh and Boston . Boston Bruins goaltender Tuukka Rask put on an outstanding performance , shutting down Pittsburgh 's potent offence with the help of a stifling defensive effort from his teammates . The Penguins were held to just two goals in the series , with Rask stopping 134 of 136 shots on goal ( .985 % ) . Crosby , who had been strong for the Penguins in the regular season and through the first two rounds of the playoffs was held off the score sheet entirely , finishing the series with 0 goals and 0 assists on 13 shots . The Bruins swept the Penguins in four straight games , ending Crosby 's bid for a second Stanley Cup Championship . In the off @-@ season , Crosby was awarded his second Ted Lindsay Award and finished as runner @-@ up to the Hart Memorial Trophy and Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy .
= = = = 2013 – 16 = = = =
Crosby put together a healthy and productive year in 13 – 14 , playing 80 games for the first time since the 2009 – 10 season . Crosby finished the season with 36 goals and a league @-@ leading 68 assists . It marked the first time in his career that he led the league in assists . He also finished with a league @-@ high 104 points , winning the Art Ross Trophy for the second time in his career . Crosby and the Penguins finished second in the east to the Bruins , and were matched up with new division rival the Columbus Blue Jackets in the first round . Despite a very back @-@ and @-@ forth series and not a single goal by Crosby , the Penguins defeated the Jackets in 6 games to advance to a second @-@ round matchup with longtime rival the New York Rangers , against whom they lost in seven games .
Going into their second @-@ round series with the Rangers , Crosby looked to end a long playoff goal drought , which dated back to the 2013 Eastern Conference Finals against the Boston Bruins . After dropping Game 1 at home , Crosby finally broke his goal drought in Game 2 , as the Pens tied the series at 1 – 1 heading back to Madison Square Garden . The Penguins would capitalize on their Game 2 win , taking games 3 and 4 and destroying the Rangers home ice advantage . However , the Rangers would quickly rebound , dominating the Pens in both games 5 and 6 , forcing a Game 7 in Pittsburgh . The Penguins would complete an epic playoff collapse , as they dropped Game 7 to the Rangers , and headed home without a prize for the 5th straight season . This also marked the 5th straight season the Penguins would be eliminated by a lower @-@ seeded team . The team 's collapse prompted Penguins ownership to fire general manager Ray Shero , replacing him with Jim Rutherford , the former general manager of the Carolina Hurricanes . Rutherford 's first action as GM was to relieve Dan Bylsma of his duties , and on June 25 , he announced that Mike Johnston was hired as new head coach . On May 1 , Crosby , along with fellow captains Ryan Getzlaf and Claude Giroux , was named a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy . It marked the fourth time in his career Crosby was named a top three finalist for the Hart Trophy , and his first win since 2006 – 07 . Crosby also collected his third Ted Lindsay Award , as the players choice for the best player in the league .
Crosby finished the 2014 – 15 season with the highest point @-@ per @-@ game average and a total of 84 points , trailing only John Tavares ( 86 points ) and Art Ross winner Jamie Benn ( 87 points ) , who moved to the top by tallying four points in the last day of the regular season . On November 26 , 2014 , Crosby notched his 800th career point , becoming the 6th @-@ fastest player in NHL history to reach 800 points . On January 4 , 2015 , Crosby scored his 300th career goal against the Philadelphia Flyers . Despite a strong start to the season , the injury @-@ plagued Penguins entered the playoffs as the Eastern Conference 's second wild card . Facing the New York Rangers , Crosby helped even the series with two goals in Game 2 . However , the Penguins were defeated in five games and was eliminated in the first round for the first time since the 2012 Stanley Cup playoffs .
Starting the 2015 – 16 NHL season , Penguins had gone through a major overhaul of their roster , adding a number of offensive players such as right winger Phil Kessel . Despite a line @-@ up laced with some of the world 's finest offensive talents , Crosby struggled with putting up points , as he and the team had for much of the Johnston era . By the time Johnston was fired on December 12 , 2015 , after posting a 15 – 10 – 3 record through 28 games , some media outlets began speculating that Crosby had aged out of his prime scoring years . On December 16 , The Washington Post wrote : " Sidney Crosby has widely been regarded as the NHL 's best player since he burst on the scene as a rookie in 2005 ... But Crosby just hasn 't been himself this season , scoring just six goals in 29 games and sitting with a plus / minus of minus @-@ seven . All players go through slumps , but it is clear that the Crosby we knew has been on the decline for some time . " His slow start was capped off by not being selected as a starter for the 61st NHL All @-@ Star Game .
However , under new head coach Mike Sullivan the 28 @-@ year old turned his season around , outscoring all NHL players from December 12 through the end of the season . On February 2 , Crosby scored three straight goals for his first natural hat trick in more than five years . Four days later , Crosby scored his 900th , 901st and 902nd career NHL points to fuel a 3 @-@ 2 overtime comeback victory over the Florida Panthers . He became the 10th @-@ fastest player to reach the 900 @-@ point milestone . He tallied at least one point in 15 of Pittsburgh 's 16 games in March , including six multi @-@ point efforts , and was subsequently named the NHL 's First Star of the Month . On April 2 , Crosby recorded his 600th NHL assist as Penguins clinched a playoff berth for the 10th straight season . Six days later he scored in overtime against Washington Capitals to secure home @-@ ice advantage in the first round of the playoffs . Crosby finished the season with 36 goals and 85 points in 80 games , including a career high nine game @-@ winning goals , and was voted team MVP for the sixth time in his career . His two @-@ way game also received praise , with Scotty Bowman noting that Crosby would be a good candidate for the Frank J. Selke Trophy as the league 's best defensive forward . Crosby 's comeback also impressed Wayne Gretzky : " He had a tough start , but the sign of an elite athlete is a guy that battles through it . He didn 't point any fingers , he just battled through it , and I don 't think there is any question the last 40 or so games , he made a case for the MVP . He was that good . He went to another level . " On May 7 , he was named a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy . He finished as the first runner @-@ up with 800 points and 11 first @-@ place votes .
After losing to New York in the past two playoffs , Penguins eliminated Rangers in the first round , winning four games to one , after losing to the Rangers by the same series margin in the first round in the previous year . Crosby led the team in scoring with three goals and eight points . Penguins then ousted the Presidents ' Trophy @-@ winning Washington Capitals in six games , without much offensive production from either Crosby ( two assists ) or Malkin ( one goal , one assist ) . Advancing to their first Conference Final since 2013 , Crosby ended a scoring slump with the overtime winner against the Tampa Bay Lightning in Game 2 . Scored 40 seconds into overtime for a 3 @-@ 2 win , it was the fastest overtime goal in Penguins playoff history and the first in his career . In the following game , he scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 4 @-@ 2 victory . After dropping the next two games , Crosby scored his third game @-@ winning goal of the series in Game 6 , forcing a final game in Pittsburgh . Defeating the Tampa Bay Lightning 2 @-@ 1 in Game 7 , Crosby helped his team win the Eastern Conference Championship , advancing to the Stanley Cup Finals against the San Jose Sharks .
The Penguins defeated the Sharks in six games in the 2016 Stanley Cup Final , earning Crosby his second Stanley Cup . Crosby became the ninth player to win two cups and two Olympic gold medals . Finishing the playoffs with 19 points ( six goals , 13 assists ) , including the primary helper on the Cup @-@ winning goal scored by Kris Letang , Crosby was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs MVP .
= = Player profile = =
As captain and first line centre for Team Canada , Crosby played with different line mates in almost every game as the coaching staff struggled to find players capable of keeping pace with the superstar centre at the 2010 Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver , British Columbia , and again at the 2014 Winter Olympic Games in Sochi , Russia . Crosby 's fellow countryman and Olympic teammate , Rick Nash of the New York Rangers was questioned by the media about this , at one point saying , " I think he ’ s a tough guy to keep up with . He 's so fast . The way he thinks about the game seems like it ’ s far beyond everyone else 's process . It 's the same thing in the last Olympics , keep shuffling around until you found something that fit . ”
In July 2015 , Jonathan Quick , who was playing for the Los Angeles Kings at the time , praised Crosby for having " the best backhand shot in the league " . Previously in January 2015 , Logan Couture , who was playing for the San Jose Sharks at the time , complimented Crosby 's usage of the backside of the blade as well .
So why not just force him wide ? The thing with defending Crosby is that he can take it wide and use his backhand as well as most players use their forehand . If you ’ re defending a normal player , you ’ d purposely force him to his backhand side . With Sid , you can ’ t do that – – If he roofs it , the goalie basically has no chance .
= = International play = =
= = = Junior = = =
Crosby debuted internationally for Team Canada at the 2003 U @-@ 18 Junior World Cup in the Czech Republic and Slovakia . He was the youngest player on the under @-@ 18 team , having turned 16 shortly before the beginning of the tournament . After seven consecutive gold medals at the tournament , Team Canada lost in the bronze medal game to the Czech Republic 8 – 2 . He scored four goals and six points over five tournament games .
Crosby went on to compete in two World Junior Championships with Team Canada 's under @-@ 20 team . When he was named to the team in December 2003 , he became the fifth sixteen @-@ year @-@ old to represent Canada at the tournament , following Jay Bouwmeester , Jason Spezza , Eric Lindros , and Wayne Gretzky . Competing in the 2004 World Junior Championships in Helsinki , he then became the youngest player to score a goal in the history of the tournament at 16 years , 4 months , and 21 days when he scored against Switzerland in a 7 – 2 win . This record would last until the 2012 World Juniors , when Aleksander Barkov of Finland scored a goal aged 16 years , 4 months . Crosby finished the tournament with 2 goals and 3 assists in 6 games , helping Canada to a silver medal finish . The following year , he returned for Team Canada at the 2005 World Junior Championships in Grand Forks . He improved to 6 goals and 3 assists as Canada earned gold . Crosby stated the following year that his most memorable hockey moment was winning his World Junior gold medal .
= = = Men 's = = =
After completing his rookie season with the Pittsburgh Penguins , Crosby competed in the 2006 World Championships as an alternate captain for Team Canada . Tallying a tournament @-@ best 8 goals and 8 assists in 9 games , he became the youngest player ever to win a World Championship scoring title . Despite his performance , Canada failed to medal , being shutout by Finland 5 – 0 in the bronze medal game . Crosby was named the tournament 's top forward and to the competition 's all @-@ star team .
After having been left off the Olympic team in 2006 , Crosby was named to Team Canada on December 30 , 2009 , as an alternate captain for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver . He scored the game @-@ winning shootout goal for Canada in the second game of the preliminary round against Switzerland . After going pointless in the quarter- and semi @-@ final against Russia and Slovakia , respectively , Crosby scored the winning goal seven minutes and forty seconds into overtime against the United States in the gold medal game . The goal has later become known as the " Golden Goal " due to it being scored in the gold medal game .
Following the Penguins ' second @-@ round elimination in the 2010 Stanley Cup playoffs , Crosby declined an invitation to join Team Canada midway through the 2010 IIHF World Championship in Germany . Crosby was selected to represent Canada at the 2014 Winter Olympics , and was later named team captain . Canada won gold , with Crosby contributing 1 goal and 2 assists in 6 games . He scored his only goal in the final against Sweden , further establishing his reputation as " a player who rises up in big games " . In 2015 , Crosby captained Canada to its first World Championship title since 2007 , with the team winning all ten games and scoring 66 goals . Crosby , scoring four goals and seven assists in nine games , became the 26th member of the Triple Gold Club . He is the first member of the club to captain all three championship teams .
On March 2 , 2016 , Hockey Canada named Crosby to its roster for the 2016 World Cup of Hockey in Toronto .
= = Jerseys = =
Crosby 's 87 Pittsburgh Penguins jersey was the top seller on the NHL 's website from September 2005 to February 2008 . In January 2005 , an Air Canada baggage handler in Montreal stole Crosby 's red Canada jersey from the World Junior Hockey Championship . It was recovered later in a mailbox . His white jersey from the tournament was temporarily delisted from an auction while the red one was missing . It eventually sold for $ 22 @,@ 100 , which went to youth hockey charities and 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake relief .
Less than a year later , one of Crosby 's game @-@ worn sweaters disappeared . The jersey he wore in his first NHL game , played against the New Jersey Devils , disappeared from his father 's luggage during a flight from Pittsburgh to Buffalo . The jersey was later found at the Pittsburgh International Airport between a piece of equipment and a stairwell . Crosby 's jersey from his third NHL game was the highest @-@ selling NHL jersey in an auction for Hurricane Katrina relief – it sold for $ 21 @,@ 010 . During an online auction held by the NHL and the NHL Players Association to benefit Hockey Fights Cancer , Crosby 's game @-@ worn jersey from the first period of the 2007 All @-@ Star Game earned the most money . Crosby 's sold for $ 47 @,@ 520 , more than eight times the next highest price — $ 5 @,@ 681 for the jersey worn by Brendan Shanahan of the New York Rangers .
Following Crosby 's Olympic gold medal victory with Canada in 2010 , it was announced that his stick and glove were missing . It was initially suspected that they might have been stolen ; Reebok Canada offered a reward of CAD $ 10 @,@ 000 for their return — no questions asked . On March 10 , the items were found ; Crosby 's stick had been placed in a shipment bound for the International Ice Hockey Federation Hall of Fame in St. Petersburg , Russia ( the shipment was intercepted in Toronto ) and his glove was found in a hockey bag belonging to Patrice Bergeron whose stall was beside Crosby 's in the locker room .
= = Personal life = =
Crosby lived with the Lemieux family in Sewickley , Pennsylvania , from 2005 until 2010 . In the spring of 2010 , Crosby purchased his own home in the same area . In June 2006 , he bought his first house on Grand Lake in Halifax , Nova Scotia .
In time for Crosby 's first season , Gare Joyce wrote Sidney Crosby : Taking the Game by Storm , a biography . The November 2005 edition of GQ Magazine featured him in a series of shirt @-@ less photos . In 2007 , Crosby was nominated for Time Magazine 's 100 Most Influential People list . He has an endorsement deal with Reebok and designed a fashion line in 2007 . On May 29 , 2010 , it was announced that Crosby would sign the richest endorsement deal in NHL history with Reebok , expected to pay Crosby $ 1 @.@ 4 million a year for five to seven years . He also has endorsement deals with Bell , Tim Hortons and Gatorade .
Crosby continues to be active in the community in Cole Harbour , Nova Scotia . He created the Sidney Crosby Foundation in 2009 , an organization committed to providing support to charities benefiting children . In 2015 , he launched an inaugural Hockey School in Cole Harbour .
In 2008 , Crosby appeared in the documentary film Pond Hockey , in which he discussed his experiences playing pond hockey .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
1999 – 2000 stats are from : " Age @-@ old question : Cole Harbour hockey association bars peewee player from bantam tourney " . The Halifax Daily News . April 5 , 2000 .
= = = International = = =
= = Honours and achievements = =
The Order of Nova Scotia – 2008
Lou Marsh Trophy – 2007 , 2009
Lionel Conacher Award – 2007 , 2009 , 2010
Dapper Dan Sportsman of the Year – 2006 , 2007
NHL
NHL All @-@ Rookie Team – 2006
Runner @-@ up Calder Memorial Trophy – 2006
2 × Art Ross Trophy ( Leading Scorer ) – 2007 , 2014
3 × Lester B. Pearson Award / Ted Lindsay Award ( Peer @-@ voted Best Player ) – 2007 , 2013 , 2014 ( Finalist : 2010 )
2 × Hart Memorial Trophy ( NHL MVP ) – 2007 , 2014 ( Finalist : 2010 , 2013 , 2016 )
4 × NHL First All @-@ Star Team – 2007 , 2013 , 2014 , 2016
2 × NHL Second All @-@ Star Team – 2010 , 2015
5 × NHL All @-@ Star selection – 2007 , 2008 † , 2009 † , 2011 † , 2015 †
2 × Mark Messier Leadership Award – Jan. 2007 , 2010
3 × Prince of Wales Trophy – 2008 , 2009 , 2016
2 × Stanley Cup champion – 2009 , 2016
Maurice " Rocket " Richard Trophy ( Goals Leader ) – 2010
Runner @-@ up Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy – 2012
Conn Smythe Trophy ( Playoff MVP ) – 2016
† Could not play due to injury .
Team awards
Michel Brière Rookie of the Year Award – 2006
Most Valuable Player Award ( MVP ) – 2006 , 2007 , 2010 , 2013 , 2014 , 2016
A.T. Caggiano Memorial Booster Club Award – 2006 , 2007 , 2010 , 2013 , 2014
Aldege " Baz " Bastien Memorial Good Guy Award – 2006 , 2009 , 2010
The Edward J. DeBartolo Community Service Award – 2010 , 2016
International
World Junior silver medal – 2004
World Junior gold medal – 2005
World Championship All @-@ Star Team – 2006
World Championship Best Forward – 2006
World Championship Leading Scorer – 2006
Olympic gold medal – 2010 , 2014
World Championship gold medal – 2015
Minor
Air Canada Cup Tournament MVP Award – 2002
Air Canada Cup Top Scorer Award – 2002
Air Canada Cup Scholarship – 2002
= = Records = =
= = = IIHF = = =
Youngest player to win a World Championship scoring title
= = = Pittsburgh Penguins = = =
Assists ( 63 ) and points ( 102 ) in a season by a rookie
= = = NHL = = =
First rookie to record 100 points and 100 penalty minutes in a season
Youngest player to record 100 points in a season ( 18 years , 253 days )
Youngest player to record 200 career points ( 19 years and 207 days )
Youngest player to record 2 consecutive 100 @-@ point seasons ( 19 years , 215 days ) .
Youngest player voted to the starting line @-@ up in an All @-@ Star Game
Youngest Art Ross Trophy and Lester B. Pearson Award winner
Youngest player to be named to the First All @-@ Star Team
Youngest player to lead NHL playoffs in scoring ( 20 years , 9 months , and 28 days )
Youngest NHL captain to win Stanley Cup ( 21 years , 10 months , and 5 days )
Fewest games played by an NHL team 's leading scorer ( his 66 points in 41 games were the most of any player on the 2010 – 11 Penguins squad )
|
= Geography and ecology of the Everglades =
The geography and ecology of the Everglades involve the complex elements affecting the natural environment throughout the southern region of the U.S. state of Florida . Before drainage , the Everglades were an interwoven mesh of marshes and prairies covering 4 @,@ 000 square miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The Everglades is simultaneously a vast watershed that has historically extended from Lake Okeechobee 100 miles ( 160 km ) south to Florida Bay ( around one @-@ third of the southern Florida peninsula ) , and many interconnected ecosystems within a geographic boundary . It is such a unique meeting of water , land , and climate that the use of either singular or plural to refer to the Everglades is appropriate . When Marjory Stoneman Douglas wrote her definitive description of the region in 1947 , she used the metaphor " River of Grass " to explain the blending of water and plant life .
Although sawgrass and sloughs are the enduring geographical icons of the Everglades , other ecosystems are just as vital , and the borders marking them are subtle or nonexistent . Pinelands and tropical hardwood hammocks are located throughout the sloughs ; the trees , rooted in soil inches above the peat , marl , or water , support a variety of wildlife . The oldest and tallest trees are cypresses , whose roots are specially adapted to grow underwater for months at a time . The Big Cypress Swamp is well known for its 500 @-@ year @-@ old cypresses , though cypress domes can appear throughout the Everglades . As the fresh water from Lake Okeechobee makes its way to Florida Bay , it meets salt water from the Gulf of Mexico ; mangrove forests grow in this transitional zone , providing nursery and nesting conditions for many species of birds , fish , and invertebrates . The marine environment of Florida Bay is also considered part of the Everglades because its sea grasses and aquatic life are attracted to the constant discharge of fresh water .
These ecological systems are always changing due to environmental factors . Geographic features such as the Western Flatwoods , Eastern Flatwoods , and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge affect drainage patterns . Geologic elements , climate , and the frequency of storms and fire are formative processes for the Everglades . They help to sustain and transform the ecosystems in the Shark River Valley , Big Cypress Swamp , coastal areas and mangrove forests . Ecosystems have been described as both fragile and resilient . Minor fluctuations in water levels have far @-@ reaching consequences for many plant and animal species , and the system cycles and pulses with each change .
= = Shaping processes of ecosystems = =
At only 5 @,@ 000 years of age , the Everglades is a young region in geological terms . Its ecosystems are in constant flux as a result of the interplay of three factors : the type and amount of water present , the geology of the region , and the frequency and severity of fires .
= = = Water = = =
Water is the dominant element in the Everglades , and it shapes the land , vegetation , and animal life of South Florida . The South Florida climate was once arid and semi @-@ arid , interspersed with wet periods . Between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 years ago , sea levels rose , submerging portions of the Florida peninsula and causing the water table to rise . Fresh water saturated the limestone , eroding some of it and creating springs and sinkholes . The abundance of fresh water allowed new vegetation to take root , and through evaporation formed thunderstorms . Limestone was dissolved by the slightly acidic rainwater . The limestone wore away , and groundwater came into contact with the surface , creating a massive wetland ecosystem . Although the region appears flat , the wearing away of the limestone in some areas created slight valleys and plateaus — a difference of inches in elevation — that affected not only the flow of water , but also types of vegetation present .
The Everglades are unique ; no other wetland system in the world is nourished primarilyfkjls from the atmosphere . Before the first attempt at draining the Everglades in 1882 , the entire watershed extended from Orlando to Florida Bay comprising the Kissimmee – Lake Okeechobee – Everglades ( KLOE ) watershed . Kissimmee River outlets flow into Lake Okeechobee , which sits 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) above sea level . Only two seasons exist in the Everglades : wet ( May to November ) and dry ( December to April ) . Average annual rainfall in the Everglades is approximately 62 inches ( 160 cm ) , though fluctuations of precipitation are normal . Droughts , floods , and tropical storms are normal occurrences in the area . When Lake Okeechobee exceeds its water storage capacity during the wet season , it pours slowly over the southern rim and flows for 100 miles ( 160 km ) to Florida Bay . The gradient change is so slight that the river moves only 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) a minute . Sawgrass thrives in this river , dominates freshwater marshes and sloughs , and is the main characteristic of the region .
Severe weather , in the form of tropical storms and hurricanes , also affects the structure of the Everglades . Between 1871 and 2003 , 40 tropical cyclones struck the Everglades , usually every one to three years . These storms alter the coastline , flush decaying vegetation from estuaries , strip weakened branches from trees , and disperse seeds , pollen , and plant material . Hurricane Donna in 1960 affected 120 square miles ( 310 km2 ) of mangrove forests by depositing marl over the roots and depriving the trees of oxygen . It also eradicated orchids , bromeliads , and other epiphytes that once flourished in the mangroves ; their reappearance may take a century or more . Donna also significantly spread buttonwood , saltwort , and glasswort , and epiphytes began to grow in new areas . Although the lasting effects remain to be seen , Hurricane Andrew in 1992 also destroyed mangrove forests and snapped slash pines in half . However , regrowth occurred quickly , and sand deposited by the storm surge improved nesting conditions for crocodiles and sea turtles .
= = = Geology = = =
A vast marshland could only have been formed due to the underlying rock formations in southern Florida . The floor of the Everglades formed between 25 million and 2 million years ago when the Florida peninsula was a shallow sea floor . The peninsula has been covered by sea water at least seven times since the earliest bedrock formation . The rock that makes up the Everglades floor was created as layers of calcium carbonate were compressed by ocean water , making limestone . Fossilized bryozoans and tiny shells , or ooids , make the limestone porous . Water is stored in the rock , sometimes from one year to the next . The length of time that a region in the Everglades remains flooded , called a hydroperiod , determines what particular soils and vegetation are present .
Shorter hydroperiods of three or four months promote the growth of periphyton : algae and other microscopic organisms covered with calcium carbonate crystals . Periphyton is the basic building block of marl , a calcitic mud . In areas with hydroperiods of longer than nine months , peat builds up over hundreds or thousands of years due to many generations of decaying plant matter . Peat and marl are considered nutrient @-@ poor soils that foster the growth of specialized vegetation depending on the length of the regional hydroperiod .
Five types of peat appear in the Everglades system ; each type supports a specific type of vegetation , such as sawgrass , tree islands , or custard apple trees . Peat buildup is possible because water prevents oxygen from quickly decomposing plant matter . Once peat buildup reaches the surface , oxygen reacts with the microorganisms to decay the peat rapidly in a process called subsidence . Initial attempts at developing agriculture near Lake Okeechobee were successful , but the nutrients in the peat quickly deteriorated by drying , and were broken down by bacteria in the soil . The dried peat burned or was degraded into carbon dioxide and water by microorganisms . Some homes built near early farms had to restructure their foundations on stilts as the peat deteriorated ; other areas lost approximately 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of soil depth . Between the 1880s and 2005 , an estimated 3 @.@ 4 billion metric tons of soil has been lost in the Everglades due to oxidation . Most of that loss occurs in the Everglades Agricultural Area ; the least amount of loss is found in Everglades National Park .
= = = Fire = = =
Fire is another important element in the maintenance of the Everglades . The majority are caused by lightning strikes from thunderstorms during the wet season . Their effects are largely superficial , and serve to foster further plant growth : sawgrass will burn above water , but the roots are preserved . Fire in the sawgrass marshes serves to keep out larger bushes and trees , and releases nutrients from decaying plant matter more efficiently than decomposition . Large burned areas also affect waterflow , since wind and water are undeterred by the eradicated sawgrass ; water may flow two to three times faster in recently burned areas . During the wet season only dead plant matter and the tips of plants are burned ; however , the effects of fire are much more significant in the dry season , as fire may be fed by organic peat and burn deeply , destroying root systems . The only impediment to the spread of fire in the Everglades is the presence of water . It takes around 225 years for one foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) of peat to develop , but the peat is not as dense as it should be for the 5 @,@ 000 years of the Everglades ' existence . Scientists point to fire as the reason .
Researchers have noted that fires appear in cycles associated with those of the hydroperiods . The first cycle is the annual wet @-@ season fires that occur with rapid frequency during the summer , but are quickly extinguished . Dry @-@ season fires are rarer due to the lack of lightning , but their damage may be more pervasive . A longer fire cycle spanning ten to fourteen years coincides with similar water cycles affected by global climate conditions . Fires in this cycle may be numerous and have little effect , or rare and have catastrophic consequences . The third cycle appears in a 550 @-@ year frequency associated with severe drought . Layers of charcoal have been detected inside peat in parts of the Everglades , indicating the region endured severe fires for years at a time , although this trend seems to have abated since the last occurrence around 940 BCE .
= = Ecosystem characteristics = =
The Everglades are dominated by sawgrass in water ; this is the titular " River of Grass " popularized by Marjory Stoneman Douglas in 1947 . This river contains a wide variety of plant and animal life . An early American environmentalist named Gifford Pinchot said of the Everglades , " It is a region so different that it hardly seems to belong to the United States . It is full of the most vivid and most interesting life on land , in the air , and in the water . It is a land of strangeness , separate and apart from the common things we all know so well . "
The sawgrass grows in prairies or strands , in between channels of water in a shallow river 100 miles ( 160 km ) long and 60 miles ( 97 km ) wide flowing from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay . Some authors refer to the sawgrass and water combination as the " true Everglades " or just " the Glades " . Prior to the first drainage attempts in 1905 , the sheetflow , or the wide shallow river starting in Lake Okeechobee , occupied nearly a third of the lower Florida peninsula . Though sawgrass remains the main feature of the Everglades , other ecosystems are scattered among the marshes and prairies , and their borders are sometimes imperceptible .
= = = Sawgrass marsh = = =
Most marshes in the Everglades are dominated by the sedge known as Cladium , or sawgrass in common terminology . The sedge is a three @-@ dimensional v @-@ shaped stalk with upward @-@ pointing teeth . Sawgrass thrives in the slowly moving water , but may die if oxygen is unable to reach its roots and is particularly vulnerable to floods immediately after a fire . Some of the sawgrass can grow up to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall , and directly south of Lake Okeechobee it has grown to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Farther south , where the peat is not as rich , it typically grows 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) tall in patches , as opposed to the prairies of the upper glades . The hydroperiod for the marsh is usually nine months but can last longer . In shorter hydroperiods , marl may form instead of peat .
Where sawgrass grows densely , few animals or other plants thrive , although alligators often choose these locations for nesting . Where there is more room , periphyton grows , appearing as mats or brown sausage @-@ shaped chunks . Periphyton is predominantly algae , although over 100 different microorganisms help create it . Larval insects and amphibians are supported by periphyton ; these in turn provide food for birds , fish , and reptiles . Periphyton also absorbs calcium from the water , which creates marl where sawgrass takes root .
= = = Freshwater sloughs = = =
Sloughs are channels of free @-@ flowing water in between the sawgrass marshes . Sloughs are deeper than sawgrass marshes , about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) , and may stay flooded for at least 11 months out of the year if not multiple years in a row . The peat beds that support sawgrass are slightly elevated and may begin abruptly creating ridges of grass . The borders between these systems are called " ridge @-@ and @-@ slough " landscapes . Aquatic animals such as turtles , young alligators , snakes , and fish live in sloughs and they usually feed on aquatic invertebrates , such as the Florida apple snail . Plants grow here , usually submerged or floating like bladderwort ( Utricularia ) , waterlily ( Nymphaeaceae ) , or spatterdock ( Nuphar lutea ) . Major sloughs in the Everglades system include the Shark River Slough draining to Florida Bay , Lostmans Slough bordering The Big Cypress , and Taylor Slough in the eastern Everglades .
= = = Wet prairie = = =
Two kinds of wet prairies thrive in the Everglades : marl and water @-@ marsh community . Wet prairies are slightly elevated like sawgrass marshes , but contain abundant plant diversity . Marl prairies are located where marl covers limestone that may protrude as pinnacles or erode into solution holes : depressions formed by the same processes that create sinkholes . Solution holes , however , do not meet the water table ; they are filled with rain water . The surface is covered only three to seven months of the year , but the water is usually just 4 inches ( 10 cm ) deep . Marl is created by layers of periphyton loosely attached to the limestone , and forms a grey or white crumbly mud when it dries . When flooded , the marl can support a variety of water plants , and dwarf cypresses may grow for hundreds of years though not exceed 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in height . Solution holes may remain flooded even when the prairies are dry , and they support aquatic invertebrates such as crayfish and snails , as well as larval amphibians which feed young wading birds . Where the predominant soil is peat , a water @-@ marsh community exists . Its hydroperiod is longer than the marl prairie , although its plants are less diverse . These regions tend to be on the border between sloughs and sawgrass marshes .
Alligators have created an ecological niche in wet prairies ; they dig at low spots with their claws and snouts and create ponds free of vegetation that remain submerged throughout the dry season . Alligator holes are integral to the survival of aquatic invertebrates , turtles , fish , small mammals , and birds during extended drought periods . Alligators feed upon animals that visit the hole .
= = = Tropical hardwood hammock = = =
Islands of trees featuring dense temperate or tropical trees are called tropical hardwood hammocks . They may rise between 1 and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 and 0 @.@ 91 m ) above water level in freshwater sloughs , sawgrass prairies , or pineland . These islands illustrate the difficulty of characterizing the climate of the Everglades as tropical or subtropical . Hammocks in the northern portion of the Everglades consist of more temperate plant species , but closer to Florida Bay the trees are tropical and smaller shrubs are more prevalent . Tropical trees like the West Indian mahogany ( Swietenia mahagoni ) were probably spread by birds carrying seeds from the West Indies .
These hammocks form on slightly elevated areas unharmed by deep peat fires or limestone plateaus rising several inches above the surrounding peat . Hardwood hammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees that grow in very dense clumps , such as southern live oak ( Quercus virginiana ) , gumbo limbo ( Bursera simaruba ) , royal palm ( Roystonea ) , and willow bustic ( Dipholis salicifolia ) . Near the bases of hammocks sharp saw palmettos ( Serenoa repens ) flourish , making the hammocks very difficult to penetrate . Water in sloughs flow around the islands creating moats . Though some ecosystems are maintained and promoted by fire , hammocks may take decades or centuries to recover ; the moats are therefore essential for protection . Islands vary in size , but most range between 1 and 10 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 and 4 @.@ 05 ha ) ; the water slowly flowing around them limits their size and gives them a teardrop appearance from above . The height of the trees is limited by factors such as frost , lightning , and wind : the majority of trees in hammocks grow no higher than 55 feet ( 17 m ) .
Florida strangler figs ( Ficus aurea ) are common in hammocks , and find particular ease in rooting at the heads of cabbage palms ( Sabal palmetto ) . After taking root into the ground , they build complex frameworks around the host tree , eventually squeezing out light and nutrients , and essentially taking its place . A variety of invertebrates including beetles , ants , spiders , and tree snails support a food chain that includes frogs , owls and other birds of prey , snakes , rodents , bobcats , and raccoons . There are more than 50 varieties of tree snails in the Everglades ; the color patterns and designs unique to single islands may be a result of the isolation of certain hammocks .
Tropical hardwood hammocks in the Everglades have been harvested for lumber , particularly by shipbuilders seeking West Indian mahogany and black ironwood ( Krugiodendron ferreum ) . The largest and most mature of these trees had been removed by the late 18th century . Seminoles made their villages in hammocks in the late 19th and early 20th centuries ; they lived in groups of chickees numbering half a dozen , with one central chickee for cooking and another for eating . Dugout canoes , cookware , stills , and sewing machines may still be found in remote locations .
= = = = Bayheads and willowheads = = = =
Some hammocks are dominated by types of vegetation that grow in relation to the amount of water or type of soil present . The majority of hardwood hammocks create a thin poor soil covering the limestone called humus , made of decaying plant matter and moisture trapped by the structure of the trees . When peat forms the layer atop the limestone of a tree island , bayheads develop , dominated by bay trees such as sweetbay magnolia ( Magnolia virginiana ) and others like swamp holly ( Ilex decidua ) , wax myrtle ( Myrica cerifera ) , and cocoplum ( Chrysobalanus icaco ) . Willowheads , dominated by willow trees ( Salix caroliniana ) , take hold where the hydroperiod is long , usually around solution or alligator holes , and may surround the holes , giving them a donut appearance from above .
= = Flatwoods and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge = =
The prairies and sloughs of the Everglades system are bordered by two areas of poorly drained sandy soil on both sides of Lake Okeechobee : the Eastern Flatwoods and the Western Flatwoods just north of Big Cypress Swamp . The predominant ecosystem in the Flatwoods is pine forest , but there are also cypress swamps and sloughs in the Eastern Flatwoods . Along the eastern border of the Everglades is the Atlantic Coastal Ridge , rising 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in elevation , and curving to the southwest , gradually decreasing in elevation until it meets Taylor Slough . The Coastal Ridge prevents Everglades water from flowing into the Atlantic Ocean to the east , directing it southwesterly into Florida Bay . The South Florida metropolitan area is located on a portion of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge , and much of the landscape has changed drastically within the past 100 years as a result of urban growth .
= = = Pine rockland = = =
Pine rocklands ( also called pinelands ) are found on uneven limestone substrates that contain pinnacles and solution holes . There are three primary locations of pine rocklands : the Miami Ridge , which runs from Miami into Long Pine Key near the main entrance of Everglades National Park ; the lower Florida Keys ; and the Big Cypress Swamp . The most significant feature of the pine rockland ecosystem is the South Florida slash pine ( Pinus elliotti var densa ; also called Dade County pine ) that reaches a height of 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) . Pine rockland communities require fire for maintenance ; they have adapted to promote and resist fire at the same time . These communities are located in the highest part of the Everglades with little to no hydroperiod , although some floors may have flooded solution holes or puddles for a few months at a time . The sandy floor of the pine rocklands is covered with dry pine needles that are highly flammable . South Florida slash pines are insulated by their bark to protect them from heat . Fire eliminates competing vegetation on the forest floor , and opens pine cones to germinate seeds . A period without significant fire can turn pineland into hardwood hammock as larger trees overtake the slash pines . The understory shrubs in pine rocklands include fire @-@ resistant species like saw palmetto ( Serenoa repens ) , cabbage palm ( Sabal palmetto ) , and West Indian lilac ( Tetrazygia bicolor ) . The most diverse group of plants in the pine community are herbs , of which two dozen species exist . These plants contain tubers and other mechanisms allowing for quick sprouts after charring .
Wildlife in pine rockland communities is diverse . In some forests , 15 species of birds can be found . Common among them are the pine warbler ( Dendroica pinus ) , the red @-@ bellied woodpecker ( Melanerpes carolinus ) , and the eastern meadowlark ( Sturnella magna ) . More than 20 species of reptiles and amphibians have been noted , such as the green anole ( Anolis carolinensis ) , southern leopard frog ( Rana sphenocephala ) , and southern black racer ( Coluber constrictor priapus ) . Mammals such as the critically endangered Florida panther ( Puma concolor coryi ) , Florida black bear ( Ursus americanus floridanus ) , and several types of bats also live in the pine rocklands .
Before urban development of the South Florida region , pine rocklands covered around 161 @,@ 660 acres ( 654 @.@ 2 km2 ) in Miami @-@ Dade County . Pine forests were extensively cleared by urban developers and the lumber industry in the 1930s and 1940s . Within Everglades National Park , 19 @,@ 840 acres ( 80 @.@ 3 km2 ) of pine rockland communities are protected , but outside the park , 1 @,@ 780 acres ( 7 @.@ 2 km2 ) of pine forests remain as of 1990 , averaging 12 @.@ 1 acres ( 0 @.@ 049 km2 ) in size . Dade County pine has a remarkable longevity and has proven to be termite @-@ resistant , though dense enough to make driving nails difficult . In 1984 they were protected by a county ordinance , after many pine areas had been depleted . A misunderstanding of fire 's role also played a part in the disappearance of pine forests , as natural fires were put out and pine rocklands transitioned into hardwood hammocks . Today prescribed fires occur in Everglades National Park in pine rocklands every three to seven years .
= = The Big Cypress = =
West of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs lies the Big Cypress Swamp , commonly called " The Big Cypress " , referring to its size rather than the height or diameter of its trees . It takes up the majority of Collier County ; at its most limited measurement , the swamp measures 1 @,@ 200 square miles ( 3 @,@ 100 km2 ) , but its hydrological boundary is nearly twice as large . The Big Cypress is slightly elevated at 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) at its highest point and slopes gradually to the coastline for approximately 35 miles ( 56 km ) . Because the defining feature of The Big Cypress is the abundance of trees it is considered a swamp , rather than a marsh where grass is the main characteristic .
The basin for The Big Cypress receives on average 55 inches ( 140 cm ) of water in the rainy season . Most of The Big Cypress sits atop a bedrock covered by a thin layer of limestone that contains quartz , creating a sandy soil that hosts a variety of vegetation . The majority of trees are bald cypress ( Taxodium distichum ) and not true cypresses ( Cupressaceae ) . Cypresses are conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions , with buttressed trunks and root projections that protrude out of the water , called " knees " .
Cypress trees in the area can live for hundreds of years ; some giants grow to 130 feet ( 40 m ) and are 500 years old . Still , they may be only seventh- or eighth @-@ generation cypresses . Few massive trees survived the logging operations that took place in the 1930s and 1940s . As a result , much of The Big Cypress is protected by various federal or state agencies that include Big Cypress National Preserve , Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary , Fakahatchee Strand State Preserve and two Indian reservations .
= = = Cypress head = = =
Although The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps in South Florida , such swamps — as well as portions of sawgrass marshes — can be found near the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and between Lake Okeechobee and the Eastern flatwoods . Hardwood hammocks and pineland are often interspersed with the cypress ecosystem . Much like tree islands that are colloquially referred to as " heads " , cypress trees grow in formations that resemble domes , with the tallest and thickest trunks in the center , rooted in the deepest peat . As the peat thins out , cypresses continue to grow , but are smaller and thinner , giving the small forest the appearance of a dome . They also grow in strands , slightly elevated on a plateau of limestone and surrounded on two sides by sloughs . Other hardwood trees can be found in cypress domes , such as red maple ( Acer rubrum ) , swamp bay ( Persea palustris ) , and pop ash ( Fraxinus caroliniana ) . If cypresses are removed , hardwoods take over , and the ecosystem is recategorized as a mixed swamp forest .
Because the cypress domes and strands retain moisture and block out much of the sunlight , plants such as orchids , bromeliads , and ferns thrive in cypress domes and strands . Orchids bloom throughout the year in cypress heads , and bromeliads appear in many varieties ; on Fakahatchee Strand alone , thirteen species have been documented . Bromeliads collect moisture from rain and humidity in the bases of their leaves , which also nurture frogs , lizards and various insects . Wood storks ( Mycteria americana ) nest almost exclusively in cypress forests and in the past 100 years have seen a dramatic decline , probably due to lack of reproduction tied to controlled water . Wood storks ' reproductive cycles coincide with the dry season , when small fish and amphibians are trapped in shallow pools and puddles . When water from canals or locks is released too soon or not at all , storks are unable to find enough food for themselves and their offspring . An estimated 20 @,@ 000 wood storks nested in The Big Cypress in the 1930s , but by the 1990s less than 2 @,@ 000 were counted .
= = Mangroves and coastal prairie = =
Water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypress eventually flows to the ocean . At a transitional zone where fresh water meets salt water , mangrove trees thrive , adapted as they are to both kinds of water . This brackish mixture of water and mangrove systems , crisscrossed by hundreds of tidal creeks , harbors a very productive ecosystem . The depth of these zones is dependent on how much water flows from the Everglades . In the wet season , fresh water pours into Florida Bay and sawgrass appears near the coastline . In dryer years , salt water creeps inland to the coastal prairie , an ecosystem that buffers the freshwater marshes by absorbing sea water . Mangrove trees grow in fresh water ecosystems when the salt water flows far enough inland . The Everglades have the most extensive contiguous system of mangroves in the world . The mangrove forests of the Ten Thousand Islands cover almost 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 km2 ) .
= = = Mangroves = = =
Three species of mangrove trees exist in the region : red ( Rhizophora mangle ) , black ( Avicennia germinans ) , and white ( Laguncularia racemosa ) , although all are from different families . All have the same characteristics : they are tolerant of salt , brackish , and fresh water ; they grow in oxygen @-@ poor soil ; and they can survive drastic water @-@ level changes . Black and white mangroves excrete salt from under their leaves , and red mangroves filter the salinity of sea water . All species are integral to coastline protection during severe storms . Red mangroves , for example , have far @-@ reaching roots that trap sediments . The trees not only stabilize coastlines , but add land as more sand and decaying vegetation is trapped in the root systems . All three mangroves also absorb the energy of waves and storm surges .
The estuaries act as fisheries for fry and nurseries for crustaceans . Shrimp , oysters , crabs , whelks , cockles , and snails thrive in these waters , as do primordial horseshoe crabs ( Limulus polyphemus ) . The region supports a $ 59 million @-@ a @-@ year Tortugas pink shrimp ( Farfantepenaeus duorarum ) industry , and a $ 22 million @-@ a @-@ year stone crab ( Menippe mercenaria ) industry . Between 80 and 90 percent of species that are harvested commercially in Florida are born or spend time in the shallow waters near the Everglades . Oysters and mangroves work in tandem to build up the coastline . The sand around the coastline has minute white particles of quartz and fine shells . When currents are right , oysters grow in colonies or beds , and deposit their shells , reinforcing the bed . Mangrove seeds , called propagules , are full embryos and float in water until they reach a favorable location and take root , often on oyster beds . They shed skin and litter , ensuring other trees will not compete for space and nutrients .
Mangroves also serve as excellent rookeries for birds . Wading birds , such as roseate spoonbills ( Platalea ajaja ) , egrets , and tricolored herons ( Egretta tricolor ) use the mangroves as a nursery , due to the proximity of food sources and the protection offered from most prey . Thousands of birds can nest in the mangroves at once , making a noisy and messy colony , but their droppings fertilize the mangrove trees . Shorebirds like rails , terns and gulls ; diving birds such as pelicans and grebes ; and birds of prey such as ospreys , hawks and vultures are among the more than 100 species of birds that use Everglades mangrove trees to raise their young .
= = Florida Bay = =
Because much of the coast and inner estuaries are built by mangroves — and there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay — the ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered part of the Everglades . More than 800 square miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km2 ) of Florida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park , representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries . There are approximately one hundred keys in Florida Bay , many of which are mangrove forests . Larger islands may be taken over by hardwood hammocks . The outer rims of the Ten Thousand Islands and Cape Sable share characteristics of the intertwining saltwater bays and fresh water marshes .
The fresh water entering Florida Bay from the Everglades creates ideal conditions for vast beds of turtle grass and algae formations that foster animal life in the bay . Sea turtles and manatees ( Trichechus manatus latirostris ) eat the grass , while invertebrates such as worms , clams , and other mollusks consume algae formations and microscopic plankton . Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore , and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay . The Calusa Indians had various uses for shells of marine invertebrates , due to the lack of dense rock with which to make tools . They used the horse conch ( Pleuroploca gigantea ) , left @-@ handed whelk ( Busycon contrarium ) , and the Florida crown conch ( Melongena corona ) as drinking vessels , picks , hammers , knives and awls .
Sea grasses stabilize sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves . Shrimp , spiny lobsters , and sea urchins live in and among the grasses and feed on phytoplankton ; they in turn feed larger predators such as sharks , rays , barracuda , and king mackerel ( Scomberomorus cavalla ) . Due to shallow water and abundant sunlight , Florida Bay hosts communities of coral reefs and sponges , although the majority of the state 's reefs are closer to the Florida Keys . Everglades keys that foster mangroves also support nurseries for wading birds such as the Great white heron ( Ardea herodias ) , which was almost wiped out in the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 ( only 146 were counted afterward ) . After recovering to number more than 2 @,@ 000 , they were further endangered by Hurricane Donna in 1960 , which decreased their numbers by 35 to 40 percent .
Sea floor patterns of Florida Bay are formed by currents and winds . However , since 1932 , sea levels have been rising at a rate of 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) per 100 years . Though mangroves serve to build and stabilize the coastline , seas may be rising more rapidly than the trees are able to build .
= = Biodiversity = =
Ecosystems in the Everglades have been described as both fragile and resilient . Author Michael Grunwald wrote about the observations of the Everglades ' first American visitors : " If the Grand Canyon was a breathtaking painting , the Everglades was a complex drama , and everything in it had a role . " An estimated 11 @,@ 000 species of seed @-@ bearing plants and 400 species of land or water vertebrates live in the Everglades , but slight variations in water levels affect many organisms and reshape land formations . The health and productivity of any ecosystem relies on the number of species present : the loss of one species weakens the entire ecosystem .
For example , Florida apple snails ( Pomacea paludosa ) are an amphibious fresh water mollusk . They have a single gill and lung , and live on stalks of sawgrass in water depths no more than 20 inches ( 51 cm ) . They are the primary food of the endangered Everglades snail kite ( Rostrhamus sociabilis ) and limpkin ( Aramus guarauna ) as well as the raccoon , otter , and young alligator . Apple snails lay their eggs on sawgrass stalks about 6 inches ( 15 cm ) above the water line , and they are intolerant of being submerged for long periods of time . When the eggs hatch , young snails must enter the water quickly or face death . When water levels are too low or rise too quickly while snail eggs are developing , apple snails do not flourish , affecting the many reptiles , mammals , and birds that feed on them . With regard to the ecology of trophic dynamics , or food chains , the 174 species of invertebrates play a vital role in the Everglades . Crayfish , insects , scorpions , and other invertebrates also support a web of animals .
The group of animals most integral to the overall success of Everglades wildlife is freshwater fish . Few places in the Everglades stay submerged from one year to the next , so alligator holes and deep clefts in the limestone are vital to the survival of fish , and the animal community as a whole . Freshwater fish are the main diet of most wading birds , alligators , and otters , and require large areas of open water in order to repopulate . Young amphibians also play an important role in the food chain . Tadpoles spread quickly in isolated areas where fish do not have the time or access to reproduce in numbers necessary to support larger animals . Hundreds of species of amphibians are found in the Everglades , and their availability helps support wildlife during short hydroperiods or in remote locations .
These smaller animals support communities of larger animals , including 70 species of land birds that breed within the Everglades , and 120 water birds , of which 43 breed in the area . Many of these birds go on to migrate through the West Indies and North America . Several dozen species of mammals also thrive in the region , from tiny bats and shrews to midsize raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) , otters ( Lontra canadensis ) , opossums ( Didelphis virginiana ) , and foxes . The largest include white tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) , the Florida black bear , and the Florida panther .
Although slight changes in water level affect many species , the system as a whole also cycles and pulses with each change . Some transformations to the diversity of plant and animal life are natural , caused by fire or storms , and some are induced by humans , such as urban encroachment , the introduction of exotic species , and rapid global warming . Environmental conditions in the Everglades favor no particular species . Some species , such as snail kites and apple snails , do well in wet conditions , but wood storks and Cape Sable seaside sparrows ( Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis ) do well in dryer circumstances .
= = Human impact = =
= = = Development = = =
People have lived in the Everglades region for thousands of years . Within the past 100 years however , they have changed the natural landscape dramatically . Settlement of urban areas in South Florida was facilitated by large drainage projects intended to create more land . The drainage was often implemented without a full understanding of the intricacies of ecosystems and shaping processes of the Everglades . The South Florida metropolitan area grew exponentially , causing problems in ecosystems throughout the Everglades . By the 1990s , the diminishing quality of life in many of these urban areas was linked to the degraded local environment . The State of Florida and the U.S. government devised and passed a plan in 2000 to restore as much of the Everglades to pre @-@ drainage conditions as possible . It is the costliest and most comprehensive environmental restoration project in history .
= = = Invasive species = = =
Humans have also adversely impacted the ecology of the Everglades by introducing numerous invasive species , which may prey on or compete with native species . A spectacular and particularly damaging example of this phenomenon is the recent proliferation of the Burmese python in the Everglades , as well as elsewhere in Florida . First observed in the wild in 1979 and not again until 1995 , they have increased alarmingly since 2000 . By 2011 , decreases of 87 @.@ 5 % , 94 @.@ 1 % , 98 @.@ 9 % and 99 @.@ 3 % in sightings of bobcats , white @-@ tailed deer , opossums and raccoons , respectively , were reported in park road surveys , while rabbits were no longer being seen at all .
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= North Acropolis , Tikal =
The North Acropolis of the ancient Maya city of Tikal in Guatemala is an architectural complex that served as a royal necropolis and was a centre for funerary activity for over 1300 years . The acropolis is located near the centre of the city and is one of the most studied of Maya architectural complexes . Excavations were carried out from 1957 to 1969 by the University of Pennsylvania , directed by Edwin M. Shook and William Coe .
The first traces of human activity at the site date to approximately 800 BC , with the first structures being built about 350 BC . Around 250 AD the complex underwent a major redevelopment with the construction of a massive basal platform that supported a cluster of temples ; this was followed around AD 450 by the addition of a row of four pyramids on a terrace to the south of the main platform .
A number of royal tombs have been excavated that have been identified with named kings , including the tombs of Yax Nuun Ayiin I ( ruled AD 379- c . 404 ) , Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II ( ruled 411 @-@ 456 ) , Wak Chan K 'awiil ( ruled 537 @-@ 562 ) and " Animal Skull " ( ruled c . 593 @-@ 638 ) . An early tomb in the North Acropolis has been tentatively identified as that of the dynastic founder Yax Ehb ' Xook ( ruled c . 90 ) .
A large number of stone monuments were placed in the North Acropolis . By the 9th century AD these included 43 stelae and 30 altars ; 18 of these monuments were sculpted with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits . A number of these monuments show the influence of the great city of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico .
= = Development = =
The earliest traces of working of the limestone bedrock under the basal platform of the acropolis date to about 800 BC , consisting of deep cuts into the rock associated with refuse from domestic and ceremonial activity . The first structures in what became the North Acropolis were built around 350 BC , towards the end of the Middle Preclassic period ( c . 1000 @-@ 300 BC ) .
= = = Late Preclassic period = = =
During the Late Preclassic ( c . 300 BC - AD 250 ) , a 49 @-@ metre ( 161 ft ) wide causeway was built to unite the North Acropolis with the Mundo Perdido complex to the southwest . The earliest dated architecture in the North Acropolis was built in the second century BC and consisted of a low basal platform to the north with two smaller platforms immediately to the south , which were forerunners of the triadic pyramid complex formed by the later Temples 22 , 23 and 24 . These were not the first structures to be built since the remains of earlier versions of the platforms have been identified underneath but these suffered such extensive destruction prior to the building of the 2nd century BC version that no physical sequence can be reconstructed .
In the 1st century AD the complex underwent a major expansion . At this time there was a gradual shift in focus from the major Preclassic Mundo Perdido complex to the North Acropolis , which was marked out as the new ceremonial centre of the city and received the first royal burials , so far not conclusively identified with named rulers .
= = = Classic period = = =
During the Classic period ( c . AD 250 @-@ 900 ) the royal dynasty of Tikal developed the complex into a royal necropolis , with each successive ruler superimposing new temples over earlier structures . Around AD 250 , the pre @-@ existing architecture was demolished and a new basal platform was built , supporting four corbel @-@ vaulted structures . Around AD 400 the complex was expanded southwards from its original basal platform with the addition of a row of tall pyramids that divided the original architecture from Tikal 's main plaza . Towards the end of the 7th century , King Jasaw Chan K 'awiil I ordered the construction of a new version Temple 33 , possibly to house the remains of Nuun Ujol Chaak , his father . This new building completely blocked the entrance to the North Acropolis , formerly ending its role as the preferred burial ground of Tikal 's kings . Around AD 734 king Jasaw Chan K 'awiil was entombed in Temple I on the east side of the plaza , ending the tradition of interring rulers within the North Acropolis .
= = = Postclassic period = = =
Funerary activity continued as late as the Postclassic ( c . 900 @-@ 1525 ) . Towards the end of Tikal 's dwindling occupancy , during the 10th or 11th centuries , squatters were mining the North Acropolis in search of jade grave goods in the elite tombs ; some of the easier @-@ to @-@ find burials were located and looted at this time .
= = Structures = =
The North Acropolis closes off the Great Plaza on the north side . The basal platform of the North Acropolis covers an area of just under 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) ; measuring approximately 100 by 80 metres ( 330 by 260 ft ) . It stands 9 metres ( 30 ft ) above its bedrock foundation and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) above the Great Plaza , and is accessed by a number of stairways on its south side . During the Preclassic period , the facades of many of the temples were decorated with brightly coloured stucco ornamentation , including giant masks flanking some of the access stairways . By the Early Classic , eight temple @-@ pyramids stood upon the platform , each with an access stairway flanked by masks , a small summit shrine and an elaborate roof comb .
= = = Basal platform = = =
Most of the structures upon the basal platform underwent two consecutive construction phases during the Early Classic , except Temple 22 which underwent three phases of construction . The structures upon the basal platform all date to the Early Classic period and were laid out in a symmetrical arrangement over the course of three centuries . This forms the greatest concentration of pure Early Classic architecture at Tikal , using construction methods distinct from that of the major Late Classic temples around the Great Plaza . The Early Classic construction involved the complete finishing of the basal platform as a distinct architectural unit before the additional structures were built upon it .
Temple 20 ( Structure 5D @-@ 20 ) is located upon the northwest corner of the basal platform and looks outwards to the north . It is estimated to date to approximately AD 550 .
Temple 21 ( Structure 5D @-@ 21 ) forms a pair with Temple 20 ; it is located upon the northeast corner of the basal platform and also looks outwards to the north ; it is thought to date to around AD 550 .
Temple 22 ( Structure 5D @-@ 22 ) is a south @-@ facing building located centrally on the north side of the basal platform . Temple 22 underwent three principal phases of construction . The earliest version of this structure was built around AD 250 ; a second version of the temple was built over it around AD 350 ; this version was decorated with giant stucco masks . The final version of the temple dates to the 5th century AD . Temple 22 has been extensively investigated by archaeologists with portions of the 5th @-@ century architecture being stripped away to expose the earlier versions . A tomb in the Temple 22 was looted at some point during the Postclassic period .
Temple 23 ( Structure 5D @-@ 23 ) has been partially restored and dates to the middle of the 3rd century AD . It is situated on the centre of the west side of the basal platform , facing east .
Temple 24 ( Structure 5D @-@ 24 ) dates to around AD 250 . It forms a pair with Temple 23 , being located on the east side of the basal platform , facing west . Temple 24 has not been explored by archaeologists .
Temple 25 ( Structure 5D @-@ 25 ) is located on the southwest corner of the basal platform ; it was first built around AD 250 and underwent a second Early Classic construction phase that completely covered the earlier version .
Temple 26 ( Structure 5D @-@ 26 ) is the central building in the North Acropolis , located centrally on the south side of the basal platform overlooking the terrace ; the earliest version of this structure dates to approximately AD 250 . Temple 26 has been fully excavated and restored . A tomb in the structure was looted at some time during the Postclassic period . The northern portion of the structure stood over a Late Preclassic tomb ( Burial 85 ) dated to around AD 100 , which has been tentatively identified as that of dynastic founder Yax Ehb ' Xook .
Temple 27 ( Structure 5D @-@ 27 ) forms a pair with Temple 25 . It is situated on the southeast corner of the basal platform . Archaeologists presume that this structure underwent the same two Early Classic construction phases as its twin . It was built around AD 250 .
Building 28 ( Structure 5D @-@ 28 ) is an unusual building at the top of an access stairway on the east side of the basal platform . It appears to have been a guardroom controlling access from the east terrace . The chamber originally contained curtained doorways and benches against the walls . The width of the building completely blocked access from the stairway ; this forced visitors to pass through the chamber , where their presence could be scrutinised and passage beyond blocked if necessary . This route may have become important when Temple 33 was built , blocking the main access stairway from the Great Plaza . Structure 5D @-@ 28 was built very late in the Early Classic period ( around the 6th century ) .
= = = Terrace = = =
A trio of small Early Classic temples ( Temples 29 to 31 ) stand upon a common platform at the east end of the terrace , facing west . It is likely that the platform was purposely built to support the three temples that were built more @-@ or @-@ less simultaneously . Neither the platform nor the temples have been investigated ; it is therefore possible that an early version of the central temple ( Temple 30 ) was built first , then decommissioned with the platform being built to cover the early version , followed by the construction of a new version plus the two additional flanking temples .
Temple 29 ( Structure 5D @-@ 29 ) is located at the east end of the terrace of the North Acropolis , facing west . Stela 40 was excavated at its base in 1996 . Temple 29 is one of a trio of similar structures , with Temples 30 and 31 . Temple 29 has not been excavated ; the corbel vaulting and roof has collapsed to fill the three chambers of the superstructure with rubble . Of the trio of temples , Temple 29 is the only one to display traces of red paint . The basal platform of the temple stands 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high and the superstructure walls measure 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) high . The building is believed to date to the Early Classic period ( c . AD 250 – 600 ) .
Temple 30 ( Structure 5D @-@ 30 ) is at the east end of the terrace of the North Acropolis ; it is one of a trio of similar structures . The roof and vaulting has collapsed , filling the three summit chambers with rubble . Temple 30 is estimated to date from the Early Classic ( c . AD 250 – 600 ) , based upon a stylistic comparison with other structures at Tikal . As with the other temples of the trio , the basal platform of the temple stands 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high and the superstructure walls measure 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) high .
Temple 31 ( Structure 5D @-@ 31 ) is one of a trio of similar structures at the east end of the terrace , together with Temples 29 and 30 . As with the other two temples of the trio , the summit superstructure had three chambers ; these have been buried under the rubble resulting from the collapse of the vaulting and roof . The temple is believed to date to the Early Classic ( c . AD 250 – 600 ) . The height of the temple is identical to those of the other temples in the trio , with a basal platform measuring 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high and superstructure walls standing 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) high .
Temple 32 ( Structure 5D @-@ 32 ) stands immediately to the east of Temple 33 . It was partially investigated in the mid @-@ 1960s and dates to the first half of the 7th century AD . The temple shrine contained three large chambers , which were looted soon after the abandonment of the city in the 10th century . Archaeologists discovered a tomb cut into the bedrock under the pyramid , which contained a royal burial ( Burial 195 ) . The pyramid was built over the tomb soon after the king 's burial and consisted of a single construction phase .
Temple 33 ( Structure 5D @-@ 33 ) was the 33 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 108 ft ) funerary pyramid of 5th @-@ century king Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II . It was centrally situated between Temples 32 and 34 , in the front row of structures facing onto the Great Plaza ; it is one of the most thoroughly explored temples in the entire Maya area . Over the course of two centuries the temple underwent three construction phases ; the final phase of development took place during the Tikal Hiatus , which lasted from AD 562 to 692 . The last construction phase of Temple 33 served as a prototype for Temple I on the Great Plaza . This final version of Temple 33 was controversially dismantled by archaeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction .
Temple 34 ( Structure 5D @-@ 34 ) was the first pyramid to be built along the front terrace of the North Acropolis ; it dates to the Early Classic period . The pyramid was built by Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II over the tomb of his father , Yax Nuun Ayiin I. It was topped by a three chambered shrine with the rooms situated one behind the other . Archaeologists cut a trench across Temple 34 in 1959 and discovered the tomb cut into the bedrock underneath , with two previous versions of the temple built over it . Stela 26 originally stood at the foot of this temple but was broken , probably at the beginning of the Late Classic period , and dragged up the temple steps to be places under a masonry altar within the summit shrine . The shrine was looted in the Postclassic period and the altar was broken at this time . Ceremonial fires for the burning of inanimate sacrifices were lit directly above Yax Nuun Ayiin 's tomb well into the Late Classic period and may be indicative of continued ancestor worship centuries after the king 's death .
Temple 35 ( Structure 5D @-@ 35 ) was a tall Late Classic temple backing against the southwest corner of the basal platform . It is the westernmost of the row of pyramids facing south onto the Great Plaza ; it has not been explored by archaeologists and is considered to be one of two likely locations for the tomb of 7th @-@ century king Nuun Ujol Chaak .
= = Monuments = =
A great many stelae were erected in the North Acropolis ; by the 9th century AD there were a total of 43 stelae and 30 altars . Eighteen of these monuments were sculpted with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits .
Stela 4 was erected by king Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the k 'atun @-@ ending of AD 396 . It is one of two stelae from Yax Nuun Ayiin I 's reign and was re @-@ erected at the base of his funerary pyramid , Temple 34 . The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities , and deities from both cultures . It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other . His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent . Unusually for Maya sculpture , but typically for Teotihuacan , Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face , rather than in profile .
Stela 18 was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the k 'atun @-@ ending of AD 396 . It was re @-@ erected at the base of Temple 34 , his funerary shrine .
Stela 26 was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34 , underneath a broken masonry altar . The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken , probably at the beginning of the Late Classic . Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine .
Stela 31 is the upper portion of a monument that was broken and interred above the tomb of Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II in Temple 33 . It was dedicated in AD 445 and bears images of Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II and his father Yax Nuun Ayiin I , who is depicted as a Teotihuacano warrior on the sides of the monument . The back of the stela is sculpted with a long hieroglyphic text legitimising Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II 's dynasty .
Stela 40 was found at the base of Temple 29 . It has been dated to AD 468 and depicts 5th @-@ century king K 'an Chitam . He is holding up a Teotihuacan @-@ style headdress in one hand . The sides of the monument are sculpted with depictions of his father , Siyaj Chan K 'awill II , and his mother , Lady Ayiin . A lengthy hieroglyphic text on the back details his birth in 415 , his promotion to a junior rank in 434 and his accession to the throne in 458 , as well as a brief description of his father 's reign .
Altar 19 was buried in the fill of the final version of Temple 33 , immediately in front of the second version of the summit shrine . It was badly damaged and was broken into several pieces , and the majority of a sculpture depicting a seated person was chipped away . The three fragments were buried together in a way that paired the altar with the buried Stela 31 ; this may have maintained a relationship between the monuments that existed when they were originally on public display . The altar was crafted from limestone and is now in the site museum at Tikal . It has been dated to approximately AD 445 .
= = Burials = =
Burial 10 was the tomb of late 4th @-@ century king Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The tomb consists of a large chamber carved out of the bedrock beneath Temple 34 . The remains of the king were interred upon a wooden bier and he was accompanied by nine human sacrifices and a headless caiman . The tomb contained a large quantity of grave goods , including an impressive array of ceramic vessels , many decorated with Teotihuacan @-@ linked imagery . One ceramic drinking vessel bore the writing " the drinking vessel of the son of Spearthrower Owl " . Five turtle shells of assorted sizes , some still attached to a rack , were the remains of a musical instrument similar to a marimba . A small jade ornament was also found , sculpted into the form of a caiman 's head with a curled snout . The skull of the king was dyed red . The association of caimans with the king 's remains related to an element of the king 's name ; ayiin means " crocodile " and the animal may have been the king 's way ( spirit companion ) .
Burial 23 was a royal tomb inserted by destroying the second version of the access stairway of Temple 33 . The individual interred within the tomb has not been identified but the tomb is one of two proposed locations for the burial of the late 7th @-@ century king Nuun Ujol Chaak . The tomb was cut into the bedrock under the temple , to the south of the burial of Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II . The king appears to have been hastily interred in a tomb that was still being prepared while the burial took place , since plaster from the walls was splashed on some of the grave goods and a flint pick was accidentally left behind by a workman . The body of the king was laid upon a litter painted with cinnabar and overlain with jaguar @-@ pelts ; the corpse was laid out on the pelts and covered in layers of marine shells .
Burial 24 was an elite status burial inserted into the rubble core of Temple 33 during the final phase of the pyramid 's construction . The tomb contained painted ceramic dishes that appear to name Nuun Ujol Chaak 's father and grandfather , who both preceded him as rulers of the city .
Burial 48 was carved from the bedrock under the terrace , upon the central north @-@ south axis of the North Acopolis directly under Temple 33 ; it has been identified as the tomb of king Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II . The remains of the king were flanked those of two juvenile human sacrifices ; one of these was a child and one was an adolescent . The walls of the tomb were coated in stucco , onto which were painted hieroglyphs indicating that the tomb was sealed in March 457 , a year after the king had died . The king was interred bundled in a seated position and his remains lacked the skull , hands , and femurs . Grave goods included 27 ceramic vessels of mixed of local and imported origin , stone and shell artefacts including a well @-@ used stone metate and accompanying handstone , a large quantity of jade artefacts , including jade discs and hundreds of beads that once formed a semicircular collar , two pairs of earspools and a great many more beads in small groups that did not form a part of the collar . Two obsidian blades also accompanied the burial .
Burial 85 dates to the 1st century AD , in the Late Preclassic , and was enclosed by a platform , with a primitive corbel vault . It was the first royal burial that characterised the shift in ceremonial focus from the Mundo Perdido complex to the North Acropolis . The tomb was centrally located upon the north @-@ south axis of the North Acropolis , under what would later become Temple 26 , and contained a single male skeleton , which lacked a skull and its thighbones . The dynastic founder of Tikal , Yax Ehb ' Xook , has been linked to this tomb , which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis . The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers . The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle . The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell @-@ inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three @-@ pointed royal headband . This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king . Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine , a spondylus shell and twenty @-@ six ceramic vessels .
Burial 125 is another tomb that has been tentatively identified as that of dynastic founder Yax Ehb ' Xook . It has been dated to around 90 AD . A cache was interred 6 metres ( 20 ft ) to the east that may contain the grave goods associated with this burial , since the remains themselves had no directly associated artefacts . The cache contained high status ceramics and jade , shell and bone artefacts . The interment of this burial established a new central axis for the acropolis that was used as a point of reference for most of the royal burials up to the 8th century AD .
Burial 195 was a corbel @-@ vaulted chamber cut into the bedrock under Temple 32 . It was the tomb of the ruler nicknamed " Animal Skull " by archaeologists , who ruled from the end of the 6th century AD through to at least 628 . The remains of the king had been wrapped in cloth that had been dyed red . The tomb was flooded soon after it was sealed , leaving a thick layer of mud that dried to preserve the hollow forms of the king 's burial offerings long after the wooden artefacts had rotted away . Archaeologists filled these hollows with plaster of Paris and were thus able to reconstruct many of the perishable items from the tomb , including four large carved panels depicting the king , a small throne decorated with hieroglyphs , a ballgame yoke and four stucco figurines of the deity K 'awiil .
Burial 200 was the 6th @-@ century tomb of king Wak Chan K 'awiil . It was a masonry tomb contained within Temple 22 .
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= Martin Bucer =
Martin Bucer ( early German : Martin Butzer ) ( 11 November 1491 – 28 February 1551 ) was a German Protestant reformer based in Strasbourg who influenced Lutheran , Calvinist , and Anglican doctrines and practices . Bucer was originally a member of the Dominican Order , but after meeting and being influenced by Martin Luther in 1518 he arranged for his monastic vows to be annulled . He then began to work for the Reformation , with the support of Franz von Sickingen .
Bucer 's efforts to reform the church in Wissembourg resulted in his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church , and he was forced to flee to Strasbourg . There he joined a team of reformers which included Matthew Zell , Wolfgang Capito , and Caspar Hedio . He acted as a mediator between the two leading reformers , Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli , who differed on the doctrine of the eucharist . Later , Bucer sought agreement on common articles of faith such as the Tetrapolitan Confession and the Wittenberg Concord , working closely with Philipp Melanchthon on the latter .
Bucer believed that the Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire could be convinced to join the Reformation . Through a series of conferences organised by Charles V , he tried to unite Protestants and Catholics to create a German national church separate from Rome . He did not achieve this , as political events led to the Schmalkaldic War and the retreat of Protestantism within the Empire . In 1548 , Bucer was persuaded , under duress , to sign the Augsburg Interim , which imposed certain forms of Catholic worship . However , he continued to promote reforms until the city of Strasbourg accepted the Interim , and forced him to leave .
In 1549 , Bucer was exiled to England , where , under the guidance of Thomas Cranmer , he was able to influence the second revision of the Book of Common Prayer . He died in Cambridge , England , at the age of 59 . Although his ministry did not lead to the formation of a new denomination , many Protestant denominations have claimed him as one of their own . He is remembered as an early pioneer of ecumenism .
= = Historical context = =
In the 16th century , the Holy Roman Empire was a centralised state in name only . The Empire was divided into many princely and city states that provided a powerful check on the rule of the Holy Roman Emperor . The division of power between the emperor and the various states made the Reformation in Germany possible , as individual states defended reformers within their territories . In the Electorate of Saxony , Martin Luther was supported by the elector Frederick III and his successors John and John Frederick . Philip I , Landgrave of Hesse — whose lands lay midway between Saxony and the Rhine — also supported the Reformation , and he figured prominently in the lives of both Luther and Bucer . The Emperor Charles V had to balance the demands of his imperial subjects . At the same time , he was often distracted by war with France and the Ottoman Empire and in Italy . The political rivalry among all the players greatly influenced the ecclesiastical developments within the Empire .
In addition to the princely states , free imperial cities , nominally under the control of the Emperor but really ruled by councils that acted like sovereign governments , were scattered throughout the Empire . As the Reformation took root , clashes broke out in many cities between local reformers and conservative city magistrates . It was in a free imperial city , Strasbourg , that Martin Bucer began his work . Located on the western frontier of the Empire , Strasbourg was closely allied with the Swiss cities that had thrown off the imperial yoke . Some had adopted a reformed religion distinct from Lutheranism , in which humanist social concepts and the communal ethic played a greater role . Along with a group of free imperial cities in the south and west of the German lands , Strasbourg followed this pattern of Reformation . It was ruled by a complex local government largely under the control of a few powerful families and wealthy guildsmen . In Bucer 's time , social unrest was growing as lower @-@ level artisans resented their social immobility and the widening income gap . The citizens may not have planned revolution , but they were receptive to new ideas that might transform their lives .
= = Early years ( 1491 – 1523 ) = =
Martin Bucer was born in Sélestat ( Schlettstadt ) , Alsace , a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire . His father and grandfather , both named Claus Butzer , were coopers ( barrelmakers ) by trade . Almost nothing is known about Bucer 's mother . Bucer likely attended Sélestat 's prestigious Latin school , where artisans sent their children . He completed his studies in the summer of 1507 and joined the Dominican Order as a novice . Bucer later claimed his grandfather had forced him into the order . After a year , he was consecrated as an acolyte in the Strasbourg church of the Williamites , and he took his vows as a full Dominican friar . In 1510 , he was consecrated as a deacon .
By 1515 , Bucer was studying theology in the Dominican monastery in Heidelberg . The following year , he took a course in dogmatics in Mainz , where he was ordained a priest , returning to Heidelberg in January 1517 to enroll in the university . Around this time , he became influenced by humanism , and he started buying books published by Johannes Froben , some by the great humanist Erasmus . A 1518 inventory of Bucer 's books includes the major works of Thomas Aquinas , leader of medieval scholasticism in the Dominican order .
In April 1518 , Johannes von Staupitz , the vicar @-@ general of the Augustinians , invited the Wittenberg reformer Martin Luther to argue his theology at the Heidelberg Disputation . Here Bucer met Luther for the first time . In a long letter to his mentor , Beatus Rhenanus , Bucer recounted what he learned , and he commented on several of Luther 's Ninety @-@ Five Theses . He largely agreed with them and perceived the ideas of Luther and Erasmus to be in concordance . Because meeting Luther posed certain risks , he asked Rhenanus to ensure his letter did not fall into the wrong hands . He also wrote his will , which contains the inventory of his books . In early 1519 , Bucer received the baccalaureus degree , and that summer he stated his theological views in a disputation before the faculty at Heidelberg , revealing his break with Aquinas and scholasticism .
The events that caused Bucer to leave the Dominican Order arose from his embrace of new ideas and his growing contact with other humanists and reformers . A fellow Dominican , Jacob van Hoogstraaten , the Grand Inquisitor of Cologne , tried to prosecute Johann Reuchlin , a humanist scholar . Other humanists , including the nobles Ulrich von Hutten and Imperial Knight Franz von Sickingen , took Reuchlin 's side . Hoogstraten was thwarted , but he now planned to target Bucer . On 11 November 1520 , Bucer told the reformer Wolfgang Capito in a letter that Hoogstraaten was threatening to make an example of him as a follower of Luther . To escape Dominican jurisdiction , Bucer needed to be freed of his monastic vows . Capito and others were able to expedite the annulment of his vows , and on 29 April 1521 he was formally released from the Dominican order .
For the next two years , Bucer was protected by Sickingen and Hutten . He also worked for a time at the court of Ludwig V , Elector Palatine , as chaplain to Ludwig 's younger brother Frederick . Sickingen was a senior figure at Ludwig 's court . This appointment enabled Bucer to live in Nuremberg , the most powerful city of the Empire , whose governing officials were strongly reformist . There he met many people who shared his viewpoint , including the humanist Willibald Pirckheimer and the future Nuremberg reformer Andreas Osiander . In September 1521 , Bucer accepted Sickingen 's offer of the position of pastor at Landstuhl , where Sickingen had a castle , and Bucer moved to the town in May 1522 . In summer 1522 , he met and married Elisabeth Silbereisen , a former nun .
Sickingen also offered to pay for Bucer to study in Wittenberg . On his way , Bucer stopped in the town of Wissembourg , whose leading reformer , Heinrich Motherer , asked him to become his chaplain . Bucer agreed to interrupt his journey and went to work immediately , preaching daily sermons in which he attacked traditional church practices and monastic orders . On the basis of his belief that the Bible was the sole source for knowledge to attain salvation ( sola scriptura ) , he preached that the mass should not be considered as the recrucifying of Christ , but rather the reception of God 's gift of salvation through Christ . He accused the monks of creating additional rules above what is contained in the Bible . He summarised his convictions in six theses , and called for a public disputation . His opponents , the local Franciscans and Dominicans , ignored him , but his sermons incited the townspeople to threaten the town 's monasteries . The bishop of Speyer reacted by excommunicating Bucer , and although the town council continued to support him , events beyond Wissembourg left Bucer in danger . His leading benefactor , Franz von Sickingen , was defeated and killed during the Knights ' Revolt , and Ulrich von Hutten became a fugitive . The Wissembourg council urged Bucer and Motherer to leave , and on 13 May 1523 they fled to nearby Strasbourg .
= = Reformer in Strasbourg ( 1523 – 1525 ) = =
Bucer , excommunicated and without means of subsistence , was in a precarious situation when he arrived in Strasbourg . He was not a citizen of the city , a status that afforded protection , and on 9 June 1523 he wrote an urgent letter to the Zürich reformer , Huldrych Zwingli , pleading for a safe post in Switzerland . Fortunately for Bucer , the Strasbourg council was under the influence of the reformer , Matthew Zell ; during Bucer 's first few months in the city he worked as Zell 's unofficial chaplain and was able to give classes on books of the Bible . The largest guild in Strasbourg , the Gärtner or Gardeners , appointed him as the pastor of St Aurelia 's Church on 24 August 1523 . A month later the council accepted his application for citizenship .
In Strasbourg , Bucer joined a team of notable reformers : Zell , who took the role of the preacher to the masses ; Wolfgang Capito , the most influential theologian in the city ; and Caspar Hedio , the cathedral preacher . One of Bucer 's first actions in the cause of reform was to debate with Thomas Murner , a monk who had attacked Luther in satires . While the city council vacillated on religious issues , the number of people supporting the Reformation and hostile towards the traditional clergy had grown .
The hostility reached a boiling point when Conrad Treger , the prior provincial of the Augustinians , denounced the reformist preachers and the burghers of Strasbourg as heretics . On 5 September 1524 , angry mobs broke into the monasteries , looting and destroying religious images . Many opponents of the Reformation were arrested , including Treger . After the council requested an official statement from the reformers , Bucer drafted twelve articles summarising the teachings of the Reformation , including justification by faith ( sola fide ) . He rejected the mass and Catholic concepts such as monastic vows , veneration of saints , and purgatory . He refused to recognise the authority of the pope and instead emphasised obedience to the government . Treger was released on 12 October and left Strasbourg . With his departure , overt opposition to the Reformation ended in the city .
The reformers ' first goal was the creation of a new order of service — at this time the Strasbourg reformers followed Zwingli 's liturgy . They presented proposals for a common order of service for the entire Reformation movement to the theologians of Wittenberg and Zürich . In Bucer 's booklet Grund und Ursach ( Basis and Cause ) , published in December 1524 , he attacked the idea of the mass as a sacrifice , and rejected liturgical garments , the altar , and any form of ritual . By May 1525 , reforms had been implemented in Strasbourg 's parish churches , but the city council decided to allow masses to continue in the cathedral and in the collegiate churches St. Thomas , Young St Peter , and Old St Peter .
= = Dialogue with Luther and Zwingli ( 1524 – 1530 ) = =
Beginning in 1524 , Bucer concentrated on the main issue dividing leading reformers , the eucharist . In this dispute , he attempted to mediate between Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli . The two theologians disagreed on whether the body and blood of Christ were physically present within the elements of bread and wine during the celebration of the Lord 's Supper . Luther believed in a corporeal or physical real presence of Christ ; and Zwingli believed Christ 's body and blood where made present by the Holy Spirit . By late 1524 , Bucer had abandoned the idea of corporeal real presence and , after some exegetical studies , accepted Zwingli 's interpretation . However , he did not believe the Reformation depended on either position but on faith in Christ , other matters being secondary . In this respect he differed from Zwingli .
In March 1526 , Bucer published Apologia , defending his views . He proposed a formula that he hoped would satisfy both sides : different understandings of scripture were acceptable , and church unity was assured so long as both sides had a " child @-@ like faith in God " . Bucer stated that his and Zwingli 's interpretation on the eucharist was the correct one , but while he considered the Wittenberg theologians to be in error , he accepted them as brethren as they agreed on the fundamentals of faith . He also published two translations of works by Luther and Johannes Bugenhagen , interpolating his own interpretation of the Lord 's Supper into the text . This outraged the Wittenberg theologians and damaged their relations with Bucer . In 1528 , when Luther published Vom Abendmahl Christi , Bekenntnis [ Confession Concerning Christ 's Supper ] ( in German ) , detailing Luther 's concept of the sacramental union , Bucer responded with a treatise of his own , Vergleichnung D. Luthers , und seins gegentheyls , vom Abendmal Christi [ Conciliation between Dr. Luther and His Opponents Regarding Christ 's Supper ] ( in German ) . It took the form of a dialogue between two merchants , one from Nuremberg who supported Luther and the other from Strasbourg who supported Bucer , with the latter winning over his opponent . Bucer noted that as Luther had rejected impanation , the idea that Christ was " made into bread " , there was no disagreement between Luther and Zwingli ; both believed in a spiritual presence of Christ in the eucharist . Luther harshly rejected Bucer 's interpretation .
During this time , Bucer and Zwingli remained in close touch , discussing other aspects of theology and practice such as the use of religious images and the liturgy . Bucer did not hesitate to disagree with Zwingli on occasion , although unity between Strasbourg and the Swiss churches took priority over such differences . In 1527 , Bucer and Capito attended a disputation in Bern to decide whether the city should accept reformed doctrines and practices . Bucer provided strong support for Zwingli 's leading role in the disputation , which finally brought the Reformation to Bern .
The last meeting between Zwingli and Luther was at the Marburg Colloquy of October 1529 , organised by Philip of Hesse and attended by various leading reformers , including Bucer . Luther and Zwingli agreed on 13 of the 14 topics discussed , but Zwingli did not accept the doctrine of the real presence , on which Luther would not compromise . After the discussion broke down between the two , Bucer tried to salvage the situation , but Luther noted , " It is obvious that we do not have one and the same spirit . " The meeting ended in failure . The following year , Bucer wrote of his disappointment at doctrinal inflexibility :
If you immediately condemn anyone who doesn 't quite believe the same as you do as forsaken by Christ 's Spirit , and consider anyone to be the enemy of truth who holds something false to be true , who , pray tell , can you still consider a brother ? I for one have never met two people who believed exactly the same thing . This holds true in theology as well .
= = Competing Protestant confessions ( 1530 – 1533 ) = =
The extent of the theological division among the reformers became evident when the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V asked them to present their views to him in 1530 at the Diet of Augsburg . Philipp Melanchthon , the main delegate from Wittenberg , quickly prepared the draft that eventually became the Augsburg Confession . The Wittenberg theologians rejected attempts by Strasbourg to adopt it without the article on the Lord 's Supper . In response , Bucer wrote a new confession , the Confessio Tetrapolitana ( Tetrapolitan Confession ) , so named because only four cities adopted it , Strasbourg and three other southern German cities , Konstanz , Memmingen , and Lindau . A copy of Melanchthon 's draft was used as the starting point and the only major change was the wording on the article on the eucharist . According to Eells , the article on the eucharist in the Tetrapolitan Confession stated , " In this sacrament his true body and true blood are truly given to eat and drink , as food for their souls , and to eternal life , that they may remain in him and he in them " . The ambiguous word " truly " was not defined .
Charles , however , decreed on 22 September that all reformers must reconcile with the Catholic faith , or he would use military force to suppress them . This prompted Melanchthon to call a meeting with Bucer and after lengthy discussions they agreed on nine theses , which they sent to Luther and to Strasbourg . The Strasbourg magistrates forwarded them to Basel and Zürich . Bucer met Luther in Coburg on 26 – 28 September . Luther still rejected Bucer 's theses , but he encouraged him to continue the search for unity . Bucer then travelled to several southern German cities , including Ulm , Isny , Konstanz , Memmingen , and Lindau , and to the Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich . In Zurich on 12 October , he presented the articles to Zwingli , who neither opposed him nor agreed with him .
In February 1531 , the evangelical princes and cities of the empire set up the Protestant Schmalkaldic League to defend the reformed religion . Strasbourg 's Jakob Sturm negotiated the city 's inclusion on the basis of the Tetrapolitan Confession . By this time , Bucer 's relationship with Zwingli was deteriorating . Strasbourg 's political ties with the Elector of Saxony , and Bucer 's partial theological support of Luther , became too much for Zwingli , and on 21 February 1531 , he wrote to Bucer ending their friendship . When representatives of the southern German cities convened in Ulm on 23 – 24 March 1532 to discuss their alliance with the Schmalkaldic League , Bucer advised them to sign the Augsburg Confession , if they were being pressured to do so . For Bucer to recommend the rival confession over his own version surprised the Swiss cities . Luther continued his polemical attacks on Bucer , but Bucer was unperturbed : " In any case , we must seek unity and love in our relationships with everyone , " he wrote , " regardless of how they behave toward us . " In April and May 1533 , he again toured the southern German cities and Swiss cities . The latter remained unconvinced and did not join the Protestant alliance .
= = Organising the Strasbourg church ( 1529 – 1534 ) = =
While these events unfolded , the reformers in Strasbourg were slowly making progress . Their pressure on the council to ban all masses finally succeeded . On 20 February 1529 , Strasbourg openly joined the Reformation when the practice of the mass was officially suspended . In its place , two preaching services ( Predigtgottesdienste ) per Sunday were held in all the parish churches . On 5 January 1530 , when Strasbourg joined the alliance of Swiss cities , the Christliches Burgrecht [ Christian Federation ] ( in German ) , the council systematically removed images and side altars from the churches . Bucer had at first tolerated images in places of worship as long as they were not venerated . He later came to believe they should be removed because of their potential for abuse , and he advocated in a treatise for their orderly removal . First the authority of the magistrates should be obtained , and then the people instructed on abandoning devotion to images .
Bucer 's priority in Strasbourg was to instil moral discipline in the church . To this end , special wardens ( Kirchenpfleger ) , chosen from among the laity , were assigned to each congregation to supervise both doctrine and practice . His concerns were motivated by the effects of a rapidly rising refugee population , attracted by Strasbourg 's tolerant asylum policies . Influxes of refugees , particularly after 1528 , had brought a series of revolutionary preachers into Strasbourg . These men were inspired by a variety of apocalyptic and mystical doctrines , and in some cases by hostility towards the social order and the notion of an official church . Significant numbers of refugees were Anabaptists and spiritualists , such as the followers of Melchior Hoffman , Caspar Schwenckfeld , and Clemens Ziegler . Bucer personally took responsibility for attacking these and other popular preachers to minimise their influence and secure their expulsion and that of their followers . On 30 November 1532 , the pastors and wardens of the church petitioned the council to enforce ethical standards , officially sanction the reformed faith , and refute the " sectarian " doctrines . The ruling authorities , who had allowed sectarian congregations to thrive among the refugees and lower orders , would only expel the obvious troublemakers . Bucer insisted that the council urgently take control of all Christian worship in the city for the common good .
In response to the petition , the council set up a commission that proposed a city synod . For this gathering , Bucer provided a draft document of sixteen articles on church doctrine . The synod convened on 3 June 1533 at the Church of the Penitent Magdalens to debate Bucer 's text , eventually accepting it in full . Sectarian leaders were brought before the synod and questioned by Bucer . Ziegler was dismissed and allowed to stay in Strasbourg ; Hoffmann was imprisoned as a danger to the state ; and Schwenckfeld left Strasbourg of his own accord .
Following the synod , the city council dragged its heels for several months . The synod commission , which included Bucer and Capito , decided to take the initiative and produced a draft ordinance for the regulation of the church . It proposed that the council assume almost complete control of the church , with responsibility for supervising doctrine , appointing church wardens , and maintaining moral standards . Still the council delayed , driving the pastors to the brink of resignation . Only when Hoffman 's followers seized power in Münster , in the Münster Rebellion , did the council act , fearing a similar incident in Strasbourg . On 4 March 1534 , the council announced that Bucer 's Tetrapolitan Confession and his sixteen articles on church doctrine were now official church statements of faith . All Anabaptists should either subscribe to these documents or leave the city . The decision established a new church in Strasbourg , with Capito declaring , " Bucer is the bishop of our church . "
= = Champion of Protestant unity ( 1534 – 1538 ) = =
By 1534 , Bucer was a key figure in the German Reformation . He repeatedly led initiatives to secure doctrinal agreement between Wittenberg , the south German cities , and Switzerland . In December 1534 , Bucer and Melanchthon held productive talks in Kassel , and Bucer then drafted ten theses that the Wittenberg theologians accepted . In October 1535 , Luther suggested a meeting in Eisenach to conclude a full agreement among the Protestant factions . Bucer persuaded the south Germans to attend , but the Swiss , led by Zwingli 's successor Heinrich Bullinger , were skeptical of his intentions . Instead they met in Basel on 1 February 1536 to draft their own confession of faith . Bucer and Capito attended and urged the Swiss to adopt a compromise wording on the eucharist that would not offend the Lutherans . The true presence of Christ was acknowledged while a natural or local union between Christ and the elements was denied . The result was the First Helvetic Confession , the success of which raised Bucer 's hopes for the upcoming meeting with Luther .
The meeting , moved to Wittenberg because Luther was ill , began on 21 May 1536 . To the surprise of the south Germans , Luther began by attacking them , demanding that they recant their false understanding of the eucharist . Capito intervened to calm matters , and Bucer claimed that Luther had misunderstood their views on the issue . The Lutherans insisted that unbelievers who partake of the eucharist truly receive the body and blood of Christ . Bucer and the south Germans believed that they receive only the elements of the bread and the wine . Johannes Bugenhagen formulated a compromise , approved by Luther , that distinguished between the unworthy ( indigni ) and the unbelievers ( impii ) . The south Germans accepted that the unworthy receive Christ , and the question of what unbelievers receive was left unanswered . The two sides then worked fruitfully on other issues and on 28 May signed the Wittenberg Concord . Strasbourg quickly endorsed the document , but much coaxing from Bucer was required before he managed to convince all the south German cities . The Swiss cities were resistant , Zürich in particular . They rejected even a mild statement suggesting a union of Christ with the elements of the eucharist . Bucer advised the Swiss to hold a national synod to decide on the matter , hoping he could at least persuade Bern and Basel . The synod met in Zürich from 28 May to 4 April 1538 , but Bucer failed to win over a single city . The Swiss never accepted or rejected the Wittenberg Concord .
Bucer 's influence on the Swiss was eventually felt indirectly . In summer 1538 , he invited John Calvin , the future reformer of Geneva , to lead a French refugee congregation in Strasbourg . Bucer and Calvin had much in common theologically and maintained a long friendship . The extent to which Bucer influenced Calvin is an open question among modern scholars , but many of the reforms that Calvin later implemented in Geneva , including the liturgy and the church organisation , were originally developed in Strasbourg .
= = Advice to Philip of Hesse ( 1538 – 1539 ) = =
When Philip of Hesse 's law on the protection of the Jews in his territory expired in 1538 , he commissioned Bucer to create a new policy . Philip gave him a draft that was tolerant in the regulation of their affairs . Bucer rejected the favourable conditions and recommended that Jews be prohibited from all trades except those providing minimum subsistence . His Judenratschlag also included his first use of negative stereotypes of the Jews . Philip 's ordinance of 1539 represented a compromise . He allowed the Jews to engage in trade and commerce but included strict rules on their association with Christians . The potential for an arbitrary enforcement of the new policy was frightening , and as a result many Jews chose to leave Hesse . For this Bucer must share part of the blame .
In November 1539 , Philip asked Bucer to produce a theological defence of bigamy , since he had decided to contract a bigamous marriage . Bucer reluctantly agreed , on condition the marriage be kept secret . Bucer consulted Luther and Melanchthon , and the three reformers presented Philip with a statement of advice ( Wittenberger Ratschlag ) ; later , Bucer produced his own arguments for and against bigamy . Although the document specified that bigamy could be sanctioned only under rare conditions , Philip took it as approval for his marriage to a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting of his sister . When rumours of the marriage spread , Luther told Philip to deny it , while Bucer advised him to hide his second wife and conceal the truth . Some scholars have noted a possible motivation for this notorious advice : the theologians believed they had advised Philip as a pastor would his parishioner , and that a lie was justified to guard the privacy of their confessional counsel . The scandal that followed the marriage caused Philip to lose political influence , and the Reformation within the Empire was severely compromised .
= = Doctrinal issues ( 1539 – 1542 ) = =
At the end of 1538 , shortly before the Catholic Duke Georg of Saxony died , a religious colloquy was convened in Leipzig to discuss potential reforms within the Duchy . The Electorate of Saxony sent Melanchthon , and Philip of Hesse sent Bucer . The Duchy itself was represented by Georg Witzel , a former Lutheran who had reconverted to Catholicism . In discussions from 2 to 7 January 1539 , Bucer and Witzel agreed to defer controversial points of doctrine , but Melanchthon withdrew , feeling that doctrinal unity was a prerequisite of a reform plan . Bucer and Witzel agreed on fifteen articles covering various issues of church life . Bucer , however , made no doctrinal concessions : he remained silent on critical matters such as the mass and the papacy . His ecumenical approach provoked harsh criticism from other reformers .
In the Truce of Frankfurt of 1539 , Charles and the leaders of the Schmalkaldic League agreed on a major colloquy to settle all religious issues within the Empire . Bucer placed great hopes on this meeting : he believed it would be possible to convince most German Catholics to accept the doctrine of sola fide as the basis for discussions on all other issues . Under various pseudonyms , he published tracts promoting a German national church . A conference in Haguenau began on 12 June 1540 , but during a month 's discussion the two sides failed to agree on a common starting point . They decided to reconvene in Worms . Melanchthon led the Protestants , with Bucer a major influence behind the scenes . When the colloquy again made no progress , the imperial chancellor , Nicholas Perrenot de Granvelle , called for secret negotiations . Bucer then began working with Johannes Gropper , a delegate of the archbishop of Cologne , Hermann von Wied . Aware of the risks of such apparent collusion , he was determined to forge unity among the German churches . The two agreed on twenty @-@ three articles in which Bucer conceded some issues toward the Catholic position . These included justification , the sacraments , and the organisation of the church . Four disputed issues were left undecided : veneration of the saints , private masses , auricular confession , and transubstantiation . The results were published in the " Worms Book " , which they confidentially presented to a prince on each side of the religious divide : Philip of Hesse and Joachim II , Elector of Brandenburg .
The Worms Book laid the groundwork for final negotiations at the Diet of Regensburg in 1541 . Charles created a small committee , consisting of Johannes Eck , Gropper , and Julius Pflug on the Catholic side and Melanchthon , Bucer , and Johann Pistorius on the Protestant side . The basis for discussion was the " Regensburg Book " — essentially the Worms Book with modifications by the papal legate , Gasparo Contarini , and other Catholic theologians . The two sides made a promising start , reaching agreement over the issue of justification by faith . But they could not agree on the teaching authority of the Church , the Protestants insisting it was the Bible , the Catholics the magisterium — in other words , the pope and his bishops . Into the article on the mass and the Lord 's Supper , Contarini had inserted the concept of transubstantiation , which was also unacceptable to the Protestants . As a result , the colloquy became deadlocked . To salvage some of the agreements reached , Charles and Granvelle had the Regensburg Book reprinted with additional articles in which the Protestants were allowed to present their views . However , Luther in Wittenberg and the papal court in Rome had by this time seen the book , and they both publicly rejected the article on justification by faith . The failure of the conference was a major setback for Bucer .
After Bucer 's return from Regensburg , the city of Strasbourg was struck by the plague . First , Bucer 's friend and colleague Wolfgang Capito succumbed to the disease ; then Bucer 's wife Elisabeth died on 16 November 1541 . How many children Elisabeth had borne is unknown ; several died during child @-@ birth or at a young age . One son , Nathanael , although mentally and physically handicapped , survived to adulthood and remained with the Bucer family throughout his life . During Elisabeth 's final hours , she urged Bucer to marry Capito 's widow , Wibrandis Rosenblatt , after her death . He married Rosenblatt on 16 April 1542 , as her fourth husband — she had outlived Ludwig Keller , Johannes Oecolampadius , and Wolfgang Capito . She brought with her four children from her previous marriages . The new couple produced a daughter , whom they named Elisabeth .
= = Reform in the Electorate of Cologne ( 1542 – 1547 ) = =
On 5 February 1542 , Bucer and Gropper met with Hermann von Wied , archbishop @-@ elector of Cologne , to discuss the introduction of church reform in his archdiocese . As one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Empire , the archbishop of Cologne was a key political figure for both the emperor and the reformers . After consulting the territorial diet , the archbishop enlisted Bucer to lead the reform , and on 14 December Bucer moved to Bonn , the capital of the electorate . His selection caused consternation in the Cologne cathedral chapter , the clerics assisting the archbishop . The hostility of the clergy soon caused a rift between Bucer and Gropper . On 19 December , the chapter lodged a formal protest against Bucer 's appointment , but von Wied supported his new protégé and Bucer was allowed to stay . He led a small congregation at Bonn cathedral , where he preached three times a week , although his main responsibility was to plan reform .
In January 1543 , Bucer began work on a major document for von Wied , Einfältiges Bedenken , worauf eine christliche , im Worte Gottes gegründete Reformation ... anzurichten sei [ Simple Consideration Concerning the Establishment of a Christian Reformation Founded upon God 's Word ] ( in German ) . Melanchthon joined him in Bonn in May , and Caspar Hedio a month later , to help draft the document . At the beginning of July , Bucer discussed the draft with the archbishop , who , after studying it , submitted the document to the territorial diet on 23 July . Although the cathedral chapter flatly rejected it , the diet ruled in favour of the reform programme . The final document was over three hundred pages and covered a number of subjects on doctrine , church law , and liturgy . Some of the principles proposed include justification by faith , the acceptance of baptism and the Lord 's Supper as the only valid sacraments , the offering of the cup to the laity , the holding of worship services in the vernacular , and the authorisation of priests to marry .
These first steps toward reform were halted on 17 August 1543 when Charles V and his troops entered Bonn . The emperor was engaged in a harsh campaign to assert his claim over lands contested by Wilhelm , Duke of Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg . Bucer was forced to return to Strasbourg shortly afterwards . When the anti @-@ reformist Cologne cathedral chapter and the University of Cologne appealed to both emperor and pope for protection against their archbishop , Charles took their side . Bucer wrote several treatises defending von Wied 's reformation plan , including a six @-@ hundred @-@ page book , Beständige Verantwortung ( Steadfast Defence ) , but he was unable to influence the course of events . Von Wied was excommunicated on 16 April 1546 , and he formally surrendered his electoral titles on 25 February 1547 . Bucer 's congregation in Bonn wrote to him in dismay at this disaster . Bucer reassured them that Christians who humble themselves before God eventually receive his protection .
= = Rejecting the Augsburg Interim ( 1547 – 1549 ) = =
With the onset of the Schmalkaldic War in 1546 , Protestants began a gradual retreat within the Empire . On 21 March 1547 , Strasbourg surrendered to the imperial army , and the following month the decisive imperial victory at the Battle of Mühlberg ended most Protestant resistance . In Strasbourg , Bucer and his colleagues , including Matthew Zell , Paul Fagius and Johannes Marbach , continued to press the council to bring more discipline and independence to the church . Charles V overruled their efforts at the Diet of Augsburg , which sat from September 1547 to May 1548 . The Diet produced an imperial decree , the provisional Augsburg Interim , which imposed Catholic rites and ceremonies throughout the Empire , with a few concessions to the Reformation . To make the document acceptable to the Protestants , Charles needed a leading figure among the reformers to endorse it , and he selected Bucer .
Bucer arrived in Augsburg on 30 March 1548 of his own volition . On 2 April , after he was shown the document , he announced his willingness to ratify it if certain changes were made ; but the time for negotiations had passed , and Charles insisted on his signature . When he refused , he was placed under house arrest on 13 April , and shortly afterwards in close confinement . On 20 April , he signed the Interim and was immediately freed .
Despite this capitulation , Bucer continued to fight . On his return to Strasbourg , he stepped up his attacks on Catholic rites and ceremonies , and on 2 July published the Ein Summarischer vergriff der Christlichen Lehre und Religion [ Concise Summary of Christian Doctrine and Religion ] ( in German ) , a confessional statement calling on Strasbourg to repent and to defend reformed principles outlined in twenty @-@ nine articles . Charles ordered all copies destroyed . Tension grew in Strasbourg , as Bucer 's opponents feared he was leading the city to disaster . Many Strasbourg merchants left to avoid a potential clash with imperial forces . On 30 August , the guild officials voted overwhelmingly to begin negotiations to introduce the Interim . Bucer stood firm ; even after the city of Konstanz surrendered and accepted the Interim , he called for Strasbourg to reject it unconditionally . In January 1549 , with plans underway for the implementation of the Interim in Strasbourg , Bucer and his colleagues continued to attack it , producing a memorandum on how to preserve the Protestant faith under its directives . With no significant support left , Bucer and Fagius were finally relieved of their positions and dismissed on 1 March 1549 . Bucer left Strasbourg on 5 April a refugee , as he had arrived twenty @-@ five years earlier .
= = Exile in England ( 1549 – 1551 ) = =
Bucer received several offers of sanctuary , including Melanchthon 's from Wittenberg and Calvin 's from Geneva . He accepted Archbishop Thomas Cranmer 's invitation to come to England ; from his correspondence with several notable Englishmen , he believed that the English Reformation had advanced with some success . On 25 April 1549 Bucer , Fagius , and others arrived in London , where Cranmer received them with full honours . A few days later , Bucer and Fagius were introduced to Edward VI and his court . Bucer 's wife Wibrandis and his stepdaughter Agnes Capito ( daughter of Wolfgang Capito ) joined him in September . The following year , Wibrandis arranged for the rest of her children and her elderly mother to come to England .
Bucer took the position of Regius Professor of Divinity at the University of Cambridge . In June he entered a controversy when Peter Martyr , another refugee who had taken the equivalent Regius Professor position at Oxford University , debated with Catholic colleagues over the issue of the Lord 's Supper . Martyr asked Bucer for his support , but Bucer did not totally agree with Martyr 's position and thought that exposure of differences would not assist the cause of reform . Unwilling to see the eucharist conflict repeat itself in England , he told Martyr he did not take sides , Catholic , Lutheran , or Zwinglian . He said , " We must aspire with the utmost zeal to edify as many people as we possibly can in faith and in the love of Christ — and to offend no one . "
In 1550 , another conflict arose when John Hooper , the new bishop of Gloucester , refused to don the traditional clothes for his consecration . The vestments controversy pitted Cranmer , who supported the wearing of clerical garments , against Hooper , Martyr and Jan Laski , the pastor of the Stranger church in London . As it was known that Bucer had reformed the church services in Strasbourg to emulate the simplicity of the early church , Hooper expected Bucer 's support . However , Bucer tried to stay out of the fray , arguing that there were more important issues to deal with — lack of pastors and pastoral care , the need for catechismal instruction , and the implementation of church discipline . Hooper refused to be swayed , and was imprisoned in the Tower of London until he accepted Cranmer 's demand .
Bucer had ambitious goals in diffusing the Reformation throughout England . He was disappointed , therefore , when those in power failed to consult him in bringing about change . On learning about the custom of presenting a memorandum to the king every new year , he worked on a major treatise which he gave as a draft to his friend John Cheke on 21 October 1550 . The De Regno Christi [ On the Kingdom of Christ ] was the culmination of Bucer 's many years of experience , a summary of his thought and theology that he described as his legacy . In it he urged Edward VI to take control of the English Reformation , and proposed that Parliament introduce fourteen laws of reform , covering both ecclesiastical and civil matters . In his view the Reformation was not only concerned with the church , but in all areas of life . Noting the difficult social conditions in England , he promoted the role of deacons to care for the poor and needy . He described marriage as a social contract rather than a sacrament , hence he permitted divorce , a modern idea that was considered too advanced for its time . He advocated the restructuring of economic and administrative systems with suggestions for improving industry , agriculture , and education . His ideal society was distinctively authoritarian , with a strong emphasis on Christian discipline . The De Regno Christi was never to be the charter of the English Reformation that Bucer intended : it was finally printed not in England but in Basel , in 1557 .
Bucer 's last major contribution to the English Reformation was a treatise on the original 1549 edition of the Book of Common Prayer . Cranmer had requested his opinion on how the book should be revised , and Bucer submitted his response on 5 January 1551 . He called for the simplification of the liturgy , noting non @-@ essential elements : certain holidays in the liturgical calendar , actions of piety such as genuflections , and ceremonies such as private masses . He focused on the congregation and how the people would worship and be taught . How far Bucer 's critique influenced the 1552 second edition of the Prayer Book is unknown . Scholars agree that although Bucer 's impact on the Church of England should not be overestimated , he exercised his greatest influence on the revision of the Prayer Book .
= = Death and legacy = =
Bucer 's time in England was dogged by illnesses , including rheumatism , coughs , and intestinal ailments . Symptoms such as vomiting , shivering , and sweating suggest severe tuberculosis . In February 1551 , his health finally broke down , and on the 22nd he dictated an addition to his will . He named Walter Haddon and Matthew Parker as executors , commended his loved ones to Thomas Cranmer , and thanked his stepdaughter Agnes Capito for taking care of him . On 28 February , after encouraging those near him to do all they could to realise his vision as expressed in De Regno Christi , he died at the age of 59 . He was buried in the church of Great St Mary 's in Cambridge before a large crowd of university professors and students .
In a letter to Peter Martyr , John Cheke wrote a fitting eulogy :
We are deprived of a leader than whom the whole world would scarcely obtain a greater , whether in knowledge of true religion or in integrity and innocence of life , or in thirst for study of the most holy things , or in exhausting labour in advancing piety , or in authority and fulness of teaching , or in anything that is praiseworthy and renowned .
Bucer left his wife Wibrandis a significant inheritance consisting mainly of the household and his large collection of books . She eventually returned to Basel , where she died on 1 November 1564 at the age of 60 .
When Mary I came to the throne , she had Bucer and Fagius tried posthumously for heresy as part of her efforts to restore Catholicism in England . Their caskets were disinterred and their remains burned , along with copies of their books . On 22 July 1560 , Elizabeth I formally rehabilitated both reformers . A brass plaque on the floor of Great St Mary 's marks the original location of Bucer 's grave .
After Bucer 's death , his writings continued to be translated , reprinted , and disseminated throughout Europe . No " Buceran " denomination , however , emerged from his ministry , probably because he never developed a systematic theology as Melanchthon had for the Lutheran church and Calvin for the Reformed churches . Several groups , including Anglicans , Puritans , Lutherans , and Calvinists , claimed him as one of their own . The adaptability of his theology to each confessional point @-@ of @-@ view also led polemicists to criticise it as too accommodating . His theology could be best summarised as being practical and pastoral rather than theoretical . Bucer was not so concerned about staking a doctrinal claim per se , but rather he took a standpoint in order to discuss and to win over his opponents . At the same time his theological stand was grounded in the conditions of his time where he envisioned the ideal society to be one that was led by an enlightened , God @-@ centred government with all the people united under Christian fellowship . Martin Bucer is chiefly remembered for his promotion of doctrinal unity , or ecumenism , and his lifelong struggle to create an inclusive church .
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= Chevrolet Volt =
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug @-@ in hybrid manufactured by General Motors , also marketed in rebadged variants as the Holden Volt in Australia and New Zealand , and with a different fascia as the Vauxhall Ampera in the United Kingdom and as the Opel Ampera in the remainder of Europe .
Sales of the 2011 Volt began in the U.S. in mid @-@ December 2010 followed by various European countries and other international markets in 2011 . Global combined Volt / Ampera family sales totaled over 110 @,@ 000 unit by the end of March 2016 , with the U.S. as the leading market with over 96 @,@ 600 Volts delivered through May 2016 . Canada is the world 's second largest market with almost 6 @,@ 400 Volts sold through May 2016 . About 10 @,@ 000 Opel / Vauxhall Ampera cars had been sold in Europe as of December 2015 , with the Netherlands leading the European region with almost 5 @,@ 000 Amperas and over 1 @,@ 000 Volts registered . The Volt / Ampera family of vehicles is the world 's all @-@ time best @-@ selling plug @-@ in hybrid vehicle as of March 2016 .
The Volt operates as a pure battery electric vehicle until its battery capacity drops to a predetermined threshold from full charge . From there its internal combustion engine powers an electric generator to extend the vehicle 's range as needed . When the engine is running it may be periodically mechanically linked ( by a clutch ) to a planetary gear set , and hence the output drive axle , to improve energy efficiency . The Volt 's regenerative braking also contributes to the on @-@ board electricity generation . Under the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) cycle , the 2013 / 15 model year Volt all @-@ electric range is 38 mi ( 61 km ) , with a combined electric mode / gasoline @-@ only rating of 62 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 8 L / 100 km ; 74 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ equivalent ) .
The second generation Volt improved battery system and drivetrain increased the all @-@ electric range to 53 miles ( 85 km ) , its EPA rated fuel economy in charge @-@ sustaining mode to 42 mpg @-@ US ( 5 @.@ 6 L / 100 km ; 50 mpg @-@ imp ) , and the combined city / highway fuel economy in all @-@ electric mode to 106 MPG @-@ e , up from 98 MPG @-@ e . Deliveries to retail customers in the U.S. and Canada began in October 2015 as a 2016 model year .
The Volt has won several awards , including the 2009 Green Car Vision Award , 2011 Green Car of the Year , 2011 North American Car of the Year , 2011 World Green Car , 2012 European Car of the Year , and 2016 Green Car of the Year . Controversies regarding the Volt include the extent to which the U.S. federal government may have participated in the Volt ’ s development , which continued through General Motors ' 2009 government @-@ led bankruptcy , and concerns about the battery pack fire risk following a crash test that the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) performed on a Volt in 2011 . At the completion of its investigation NHTSA concluded that no discernible defect trend exists .
= = Terminology = =
The Society of Automotive Engineers ' ( SAE ) definition of a hybrid vehicle states that the vehicle shall have " two or more energy storage systems both of which must provide propulsion power , either together or independently . " General Motors has avoided the use of the term " hybrid " when describing its Voltec designs , even after the carmaker revealed that in some cases the combustion engine provided some assist at high speeds or to improve performance . Instead General Motors describes the Volt as an electric vehicle equipped with a " range extending " gasoline powered internal combustion engine ( ICE ) as a genset and therefore dubbed the Volt an " Extended Range Electric Vehicle " or E @-@ REV . In a January 2011 interview , the Chevy Volt 's Global Chief Engineer , Pamela Fletcher , referred to the Volt as " an electric car with extended range . "
According to the Society of Automotive Engineers ( SAE ) definitions , the Volt is a plug @-@ in hybrid vehicle , due to the combination of an internal combustion engine and two electric motors , along with a battery that can accept off @-@ board energy . The Volt operates as a purely electric vehicle for the first 25 to 50 miles ( 40 to 80 km ) in charge @-@ depleting mode . When the battery capacity drops below a pre @-@ established threshold from full charge , the vehicle enters charge @-@ sustaining mode , and the Volt 's control system will select the most optimally efficient drive mode to improve performance and boost high @-@ speed efficiency .
= = History = =
= = = Concept vehicle = = =
The Chevrolet Volt concept car debuted at the January 2007 North American International Auto Show , becoming the first @-@ ever series plug @-@ in hybrid concept car shown by a major car manufacturer . The Volt concept vehicle had four doors with a rear liftgate and seating for four passengers . This was a significant change in design when compared to the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s , which only seated two to reduce weight and to make the necessary room for the lead @-@ acid battery pack . The top speed was also increased on the Volt , from the electronically limited 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) to 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) . The battery pack size was reduced , from about 10 @.@ 6 cu ft ( 300 L ) in volume in the EV1 , to 3 @.@ 5 cu ft ( 100 L ) in the Volt .
General Motors ' then @-@ Vice @-@ Chairman Robert Lutz said the two @-@ seater sports car being developed by Tesla , the Tesla Roadster , and the rapid advancement of lithium @-@ ion battery technology inspired him to push the carmaker to develop the Volt after the 2006 Detroit Auto Show . Lutz 's initial idea was to develop an all @-@ electric car , but Jon Lauckner , General Motors Vice President for Global Vehicle Development , convinced him that to avoid an expensive battery , range anxiety concerns , and lack of public charging infrastructure , they could use a smaller battery pack with a small gasoline engine driving a generator acting as a backup to extend the range , but without a mechanical connection between the gasoline engine and the drive wheels , so it would be a pure electrically driven vehicle without many of the limitations General Motors learned from the EV1 experience .
Most of the Volt initial design parameters defined for the development of the concept car , then referred as the " iCar " in homage to the iPod , were kept throughout the process up to the final production version . A key design parameter was a target of 40 miles ( 64 km ) for the all @-@ electric range , selected to keep the battery size small and lower costs , and mainly because research showed that in the U.S. 78 percent of daily commuters travel 40 miles or less . This target range would allow most travel to be accomplished electrically driven and the assumption was made that charging will take place at home overnight . This requirement translated using a lithium @-@ ion battery pack with an energy storage capacity of 16 kWh considering that the battery would be used until the state of charge ( SOC ) of the battery reached 30 % . This limit to the SOC was necessary in order to maintain operational performance under a wide range of environments , and to minimize the battery degradation to allow at least a ten @-@ year life span . The initial target range for the gasoline engine / generator was set between 250 to 300 miles ( 400 to 480 km ) and the vehicle had to be family size for four or five passengers .
Another key design decision was to develop the concept car based on a new family of common powertrain components for electric propulsion , which initially was called the E @-@ Flex Systems , “ E ” stands for electric drive and “ Flex ” for the different sources of electricity , but later was renamed Voltec drive system . The E @-@ Flex or Voltec powertrain is an attempt to standardize many components of possible future electrically propelled vehicles , and to allow multiple interchangeable electricity @-@ generating systems . The E @-@ Flex powertrain has the potential to adapt the vehicles to pure battery electric , to fuel cell @-@ powered or to several other sources of energy to create electricity on board , such as engine @-@ generator sets ( genset ) fueled by gasoline , diesel , biodiesel , ethanol fuel ( E100 ) , or flex @-@ fuel ( E85 ) . Regenerative braking would also contribute to the on @-@ board electricity generation . On October 2006 the E @-@ flex powertrain was selected for the new propulsion architecture and the name Volt was chosen by General Motors .
The Volt concept car became the first application of the E @-@ Flex ( Voltec ) drive system with a combination of an electric motor , the same used in the Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell , a 16 kW · h ( 58 MJ ) lithium @-@ ion battery pack with 136 kW of peak power , and a genset consisting of a small 1 @.@ 0 L , 3 @-@ cylinder turbocharged flex @-@ fuel capable engine linked to a 53 kW ( 71 hp ) generator . General Motors called this genset an electric vehicle ( EV ) range extender . The vehicle was propelled by an electric motor with a peak output of 120 kW ( 160 hp ) delivering 236 lb ft ( 320 Nm ) of motoring torque . The concept car featured several advanced materials from GE Automotive Plastics which allowed GM to reduce the vehicle weight up to 50 percent .
The Volt concept featured a 12 US gal ( 45 L ; 10 @.@ 0 imp gal ) fuel capacity providing the vehicle a total driving range of around 640 mi ( 1 @,@ 030 km ) , which considered a gasoline fuel efficiency of about 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 60 mpg @-@ imp ) and a 40 mi ( 64 km ) all @-@ electric range . According to General Motors estimates , a daily drive of 60 mi ( 97 km ) , combined with an overnight recharge to support the first 40 all @-@ electric miles , would yield an effective gasoline fuel economy of 150 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 6 L / 100 km ; 180 mpg @-@ imp ) . General Motors also emphasized that the Volt would further reduce dependence on imported oil if E85 ethanol was used instead of gasoline to power the on @-@ board generator engine . Robert Lutz added that if the driver used E85 , " the fuel economy figure became 525 miles per ( equivalent ) petroleum gallon " , as only 15 % of gasoline is used in this blend . General Motors also noted that actual production of the Volt depended on further battery development , because the required rechargeable batteries needed to make the Volt a viable vehicle did not exist in the market and had yet to be developed . The concept car was actually powered by two 12 @-@ volt conventional car batteries , just enough power to allow the vehicle to move at low speeds in the stand .
= = First generation ( 2010 – 2015 ) = =
= = = Production model = = =
The production design model officially unveiled on September 16 , 2008 , as part of General Motors centennial celebration at the Wintergarden headquarters in Detroit . The production model differed greatly in design from the original concept car . The carmaker cited necessary aerodynamic changes needed to reduce the concept car 's high drag coefficient of Cd = 0 @.@ 43 down to a more efficient Cd = 0 @.@ 28 , though still somewhat higher than the Toyota Prius Cd = 0 @.@ 25 . Another reason was the use of General Motors ' new global compact vehicle platform Delta II to keep costs reasonable , and shared with the 2010 model year Chevrolet Cruze . Another significant difference from the concept car is the seating , as the production Volt seats four rather than five passengers . This change was due to the higher @-@ than @-@ usual central tunnel that runs from the front console to the rear seat that houses the car 's T @-@ shaped battery pack .
After the concept was put into the pipeline for production , General Motors began looking for a partner to develop the Volt 's lithium @-@ ion battery pack . The carmaker evaluated about twenty @-@ five different battery cell chemistries and constructions from around two dozen lithium @-@ ion battery makers around the world . Due to their more promising cell technologies , two companies were selected in June 2007 , Compact Power ( CPI ) , which uses a lithium manganese oxide ( LiMn2O4 ) cell made by its parent company , LG Chemical ; and Continental Automotive Systems , which uses lithium iron phosphate based cylindrical cells made by A123Systems . By the end of October 2007 CPI ( LG Chem ) delivered their finished battery pack prototypes , and A123 delivered theirs by January 2008 . General Motors testing process was conducted at the laboratory the carmaker had created for the GM EV1 program . The battery packs included monitoring systems designed to keep the batteries cool and operating at optimum capacity despite a wide range of ambient temperatures . In order to make sure the battery pack would last ten years and 150 @,@ 000 miles ( 240 @,@ 000 km ) expected for the battery warranty , the Volt team decided to use only half of the 16 kWh capacity to reduce the rate of capacity degradation , limiting the state of charge ( SOC ) up to 80 % of capacity and never depleting the battery below 30 % . General Motors also was expecting the battery could withstand 5 @,@ 000 full discharges without losing more than 10 % of its charge capacity .
In April 2008 General Motors started extensive battery testing . In two years the carmaker put the battery packs to the equivalent of 150 @,@ 000 real @-@ world miles ( 240 @,@ 000 km ) and ten years of use . The durability of the battery pack was tested for a broad range of extreme ambient conditions including a shaker table to simulate potholes and a thermal chamber , to simulate temperatures varying from 116 ° F ( 47 ° C ) , typical of the Southwest deserts , to − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) typical of the Alaska tundra . In April 2008 the lithium @-@ ion battery pack was placed in Chevrolet Malibus fitted with the Volt powertrain to be used as test mules for further real @-@ world testing . In October 2008 General Motors chose CPI ( LG Chemical ) to provide the battery systems for the first production version of the Volt . In July 2008 General Motors confirmed that a non @-@ turbocharged , 1 @.@ 4 L 4 @-@ cylinder engine would be used as the range extender , and that the intention was to build it in Flint , Michigan . In April 2009 , General Motors allowed journalists to test the Volt powertrain in the body of Chevrolet Cruze sedans used as test mules which lacked the range @-@ extending generator at the GM Technical Center in Warren , Michigan .
The first pre @-@ production test car based on the final Volt design was built in June 2009 , in Warren , Michigan , and by October 2009 , 80 Volts had been built and were tested under various conditions . On March 31 , 2010 , the first factory @-@ built Volt was produced at the Detroit Hamtramck Assembly Plant in order to test the production line and for quality control purposes , both of the tooling and the pre @-@ production vehicles produced before regular production began .
Tony Posawatz was the Volt Vehicle Line Director from 2006 to 2012 , and he was known as employee # 1 and led the team from concept to production .
Official introduction
General Motors held a ceremony at its Detroit Hamtramck Assembly Plant on November 30 , 2010 , to introduce the first Chevrolet Volt off the assembly line . The first Volt built for retail sale was earmarked for display at General Motors ' Heritage Center museum in Sterling Heights , Michigan . The second unit was offered at a public auction , with an opening bid of US $ 50 @,@ 000 and it was won by Rick Hendrick who paid US $ 225 @,@ 000 . The proceeds went to fund math and sciences education in Detroit through the Detroit Public Schools Foundation . Deliveries to retail customers in the United States began in mid December 2010 . Volt deliveries began in Canada in September 2011 . The first deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in Europe took place in November 2011 . The European version of the Volt , the Opel Ampera , was released to retail customers in Europe in February 2012 . Deliveries of the right @-@ hand drive Vauxhall Ampera in the UK began in May 2012 . The Holden Volt was released in Australia in December 2012 .
= = = Specifications = = =
= = = = Drivetrain = = = =
The 2011 Chevrolet Volt has a 16 kWh / 45 A · h ( 10 @.@ 4 kWh usable ) lithium @-@ ion battery pack that can be charged by plugging the car into a 120 @-@ 240 VAC residential electrical outlet using the provided SAE J1772 @-@ compliant charging cord . No external charging station is required . The Volt is propelled by an electric motor with a peak output of 111 kW ( 149 hp ) delivering 273 lb · ft ( 370 N · m ) of torque . Capacity of the battery pack was increased to 16 @.@ 5 kWh ( 10 @.@ 9 kWh usable ) for 2013 models , which increased the all @-@ electric range from 35 to 38 mi ( 56 to 61 km ) . Other specifications remained the same . The battery pack capacity was increased to 17 @.@ 1 kWh for 2015 models . This incremental upgrade is likely to reflect in an improvement in range over previous model years , but as of July 2014 , the 2015 Volt has not been re @-@ certified with the EPA .
While driving , after the Volt battery has dropped to a predetermined threshold from full charge , a small naturally aspirated 1 @.@ 4 L 4 @-@ cylinder gasoline fueled internal combustion engine ( Opel 's Family 0 ) with approximately 80 hp ( 60 kW ) , powers a 55 kW generator to extend the Volt 's range . The vehicle also has a regenerative braking system . The electrical power from the generator is sent primarily to the electric motor , with the excess going to the batteries , depending on the state of charge ( SOC ) of the battery pack and the power demanded at the wheels .
The Volt requires premium gasoline with a minimum 91 or octane rating because the higher octane rating fuel permits the 10 @.@ 5 : 1 compression ratio engine to utilize more ignition timing advance in order to maximize its fuel efficiency by 5 to 10 % as compared to regular gasoline . For users who drive mostly in electric mode and to avoid maintenance problems caused by storing the same gasoline in the tank for months , the 2011 Volt has a sealed and pressurized fuel tank to avoid evaporation , and as a result , the fuel filler has to be depressurized before opening the tank . Also the engine management system monitors the time between engine running and it is programmed to prompt the driver to run past the 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) all @-@ electric range before recharging in order to consume some gasoline . If the driver does not run on gasoline , the system will automatically run the maintenance mode which starts the engine to consume some of the aging fuel and circulate the fluids within the engine . A configuration with an E85 flex @-@ fuel capable engine is under development and was expected to be available in 2013 .
Operating and driving modes
The Voltec drivetrain has three power converting elements :
Primary traction electric motor / generator , provides good acceleration for driving at lower speeds and regeneration for braking , its maximum output of 111 kW setting the maximum output of the whole system .
Secondary electric motor / generator , works primarily as generator capable of producing 55 kW or when necessary acts as a motor assisting the primary electric motor .
Internal combustion engine of 63 kW power , engaged when the batteries reach the predetermined threshold .
These units are connected via a planetary gear and three electrically controlled hydraulic clutches to provide power output for propulsion in any of four programmed operating modes :
Single motor electric – The primary motor runs solely on battery power , maximum propulsion power is 111 kW .
Dual motor electric – At higher vehicle speeds the secondary motor engages over the planetary gear such that it reduces the speed of the primary motor . This facilitates higher efficiency and better mileage for the combined system , without increasing the maximum power .
Single motor extended – The battery reaches its minimum charge which triggers the combustion engine . The engine drives the secondary motor which now works as a generator , via the charging electronics , to keep the minimum battery charge level . The primary motor can still provide its 111 kW for short acceleration , albeit not sustained .
Dual motor extended – The electric motors are used again in dual configuration with increased efficiency at higher speeds . Additionally the gasoline engine contributes propulsion power via the planetary gear . While power is drained from the battery the amount is less than in mode 2 for the same propulsion power , thus extending the range .
The drivetrain permits the Volt to operate as a pure battery electric vehicle until its battery capacity has been depleted to a defined level , at which time it commences to operate as a series hybrid design where the gasoline engine drives the generator , which keeps the battery at minimum level charge and provides power to the electric motors . The full charge of the battery is replenished only by loading it on the electrical grid .
While in this series mode at higher speeds and loads , ( typically above 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) at light to moderate loads ) the gasoline engine can engage mechanically to the output from the transmission and assist both electric motors in driving the wheels , in which case the Volt operates as a power @-@ split or series @-@ parallel hybrid . After its all @-@ electric range has been depleted , at speeds between 30 to 70 miles per hour ( 48 to 113 km / h ) , the Volt is programmed to select the most efficient drive mode , which improves performance and boosts high @-@ speed efficiency by 10 to 15 percent .
While operating modes are switched automatically the Volt allows the driver to choose from three drive modes : normal , sport and mountain . The mountain mode , which is expected to be required only under unusual power demand conditions , increases minimum battery state of charge ( SOC ) to around 45 % , thus maintaining performance on steep and long grades . The driver will hear more engine noise due to the higher rate of power generation required to maintain this mode . The sport mode causes the engine to rev higher , and the response to the throttle pedal is quicker . The Ampera has an additional option , the " City Mode " or " battery hold " , allowing the driver to save the energy currently stored in the battery for use when traveling in urban areas or restricted zones . The 2013 model year Volt includes a " Hold " option to provide the same choice .
= = = = Battery = = = =
The 2011 Volt 's lithium @-@ ion battery ( Li @-@ ion ) battery pack weighs 435 lb ( 197 kg ) and " consists of 288 individual cells arranged into nine modules . Plastic frames hold pairs of lithium @-@ ion cells that sandwich an aluminum cooling fin . The design and construction of that aluminum plate was critical to ensuring an even temperature distribution with no hot or cool spots across the flat , rectangular cell . The battery pack has its own cooling circuit that is similar to , but independent from , the engine cooling system . "
For the 2011 / 2012 model years , the battery pack stores 16 kWh of energy but it is controlled or buffered via the energy management system to use only 10 @.@ 3 kWh of this capacity to maximize the life of the pack . For this reason the battery pack never fully charges or depletes , as the software only allows the battery to operate within a state of charge ( SOC ) window of 65 % , after which the engine kicks in and maintains the charge near the lower level . The minimum SOC varies depending on operating conditions . When more power is required , such as mountain mode , the lower limit of the SOC will rise to 45 % to ensure there is enough power available . The battery capacity was increased to 16 @.@ 5 kWh for the 2013 model year , the SOC window will be increased to use 10 @.@ 8 kWh of the total battery energy , and the buffer to ensure battery life will not be reduced . These changes will increase the Volt 's all @-@ electric range but charging will take slightly longer . The improved battery performance and durability were achieved through minor changes to the material composition of the battery cell chemistry .
Despite containing near identical energy ( + / - 0 @.@ 5 kWh ) , the Volt 's battery pack is over 70 % lighter than the EV1 's original 1 @,@ 310 lb ( 590 kg ) , 16 @.@ 5 kWh AC Delco lead @-@ acid battery pack , mainly because the Volt uses higher specific energy Li @-@ ion batteries . Li @-@ ion batteries are expected to become less expensive as economies of scale take effect .
Because batteries are sensitive to temperature changes , the Volt has a thermal management system to monitor and maintain the battery cell temperature for optimum performance and durability . The Volt 's battery pack provides reliable operation , when plugged in , at cell temperatures as low as − 13 ° F ( − 25 ° C ) and as high as 122 ° F ( 50 ° C ) . The Volt features a battery pack that can be both warmed or cooled . In cold weather the battery coolant is electrically heated during charging or operation in order to provide full power capability ; in hot weather the battery coolant can be chilled utilizing the vehicle 's air @-@ conditioning system preventing over @-@ temperature damage .
The Volt 's battery is guaranteed by General Motors for eight years or 100 @,@ 000 miles ( 160 @,@ 000 km ) , and will cover all 161 battery components . GM estimates that the Volt batteries will degrade by 10 to 30 % after 8 years or 100 @,@ 000 miles . GM has applied for a patent that may allow technicians to quickly and cheaply recover some of the performance of degraded battery packs . The Volt ’ s battery management system runs more than 500 diagnostics at 10 times per second , allowing it to keep track of the Volt ’ s battery pack in real @-@ time , 85 % of which ensure the battery pack is operating safely and 15 % monitor battery performance and life .
The Volt uses a plug specification published in 2009 , SAE J1772 @-@ 2009 , that is considered a standard for electric cars in North America . Depending on in @-@ car settings a full charge will take approximately 10 hours ( 12A setting ) to as much as 14 hours ( 8A setting ) from a standard North American 120 V , 15 A outlet and about 4 hours from a 240 VAC source and suitable 240V EVSE . The Volt comes with a 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) charging cord suitable for the standard household power outlet in its country of sale . If plugged in , recharging can be controlled remotely through a smartphone application .
= = = = Others = = = =
In order to save energy , the Volt will sometimes heat the seats instead of blowing heated air through HVAC system , as heating the vehicle 's cabin draws significant power , and can even exceed what is needed to move the vehicle on occasions . A power @-@ saving stereo system uses amplifiers that switch on and off rapidly to save power . It uses 50 percent less energy . The system is also lighter because the use of high grade neodymium magnets .
= = = Performance = = =
The Volt has a top speed of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . According to Edmunds.com road tests , the Volt 's 0 to 60 mph ( 0 – 97 km / h ) acceleration time is 9 @.@ 2 seconds running on electric @-@ only mode , and 9 @.@ 0 seconds with the gasoline engine assisting propulsion . Motor Trend reports the Volt 's quarter mile ( 402 m ) time is 16 @.@ 9 sec @ 84 @.@ 3 mph ( 135 @.@ 7 km / h ) , while Edmunds reports a quarter mile ( 402 m ) time of 16 @.@ 8 sec @ 81 @.@ 5 mph ( 131 @.@ 2 km / h ) in electric @-@ only operation , and 16 @.@ 6 sec @ 85 @.@ 5 mph ( 137 @.@ 6 km / h ) with the gasoline engine assisting . Motor Trend reports a 60 to 0 mph ( 97 to 0 km / h ) braking distance of 112 ft ( 34 m ) and Edmunds.com of 124 ft ( 38 m ) .
= = = = Range = = = =
= = = = = United States = = = = =
2011 – 2012 model years
According to General Motors the Volt 's all @-@ electric range with fully charged batteries varies from 25 to 50 miles ( 40 to 80 km ) depending on terrain , driving technique , and temperature . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) official all @-@ electric range is 35 miles ( 56 km ) with an energy consumption of 36 kWh per 100 miles ( 810 kJ / km ) . This range is based on the agency 's five @-@ cycle tests using varying driving conditions and climate controls . The total range with a full tank of gasoline and a fully charged battery is 379 miles ( 609 @.@ 9 km ) according to EPA tests .
The Volt 's nominal usable battery capacity is 10 @.@ 3 kWh . The Volt 's fuel tank capacity is 9 @.@ 3 US gallons ( 35 L ; 7 @.@ 7 imp gal ) . Aside from charge sustaining modes of operation , the battery capacity is completely used first , and then the fuel is consumed . In the event that the car is operated until it runs out of gasoline , the gasoline @-@ powered generator shuts down , and the Volt continues to operate , tapping into a reserve portion of the battery capacity which is below the regular minimum state @-@ of @-@ charge . The reserve battery capacity provides an extra 3 to 4 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 4 km ) . If this reserve battery capacity is also exhausted , the Volt slows to a stop .
2013 – 2015 model years
As a result of its improved battery chemistry , the 2013 model year Volt increased its EPA 's rated all @-@ electric range to 38 miles ( 61 km ) with an energy consumption of 35 kWh per 100 miles ( 788 kJ / km ) , down from 36 kWh ( 810 kJ / km ) in the 2012 model . The total range with a full tank of gasoline and a fully charged battery is 380 miles ( 611 @.@ 6 km ) . The 2014 and 2015 Volt have the same EPA ratings .
= = = = = Europe = = = = =
The Opel Ampera official all @-@ electric range under the EU @-@ approved UN ECE R101 standard for plug @-@ in hybrids is 83 km ( 52 mi ) . Opel prefers to state that the Ampera 's EV ranges is 40 to 80 kilometres ( 25 to 50 mi ) which is confirmed in tests carried out by ADAC Motorwelt . The Vauxhall Ampera is reported to have a total range of 310 mi ( 500 km ) .
= = = = Fuel economy = = = =
United States
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) officially rated the 2011 model year Volt 's combined city / highway fuel economy in all @-@ electric mode at 93 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) ( 2 @.@ 5 L gasoline equivalent / 100 km ; 112 mpg @-@ imp gasoline equivalent ) and 94 MPG @-@ e for the 2012 model year . This rating considers a conversion factor of 33 @.@ 7 kWh of electricity being the energy equivalent of a gallon of gasoline . The EPA rating in gasoline @-@ only mode is 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) . The overall combined city / highway gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy rating for the 2011 Volt is 60 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 72 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) , The EPA also included in the 2011 Volt 's fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios : 30 , 45 , 60 and 75 miles ( 121 km ) driven between a full charge , and a never charge scenario . This information was included in order to make the consumers aware of the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges . Under the gasoline @-@ only scenario ( never charge ) , the 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) figure results from 35 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 42 mpg @-@ imp ) city driving and 40 mpg @-@ US ( 5 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 48 mpg @-@ imp ) on the highway .
For the 2012 model year , EPA revised the Volt 's fuel economy ratings , increasing the combined city / highway rating in all @-@ electric mode from 93 MPG @-@ e to 94 MPG @-@ e , and the highway rating was increased from 90 MPG @-@ e to 93 MPG @-@ e . As a result of its improved battery pack , the 2013 model year EPA rating climbed to a combined city / highway fuel economy of 98 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( 2 @.@ 4 L gasoline equivalent / 100 km ; 118 mpg @-@ imp gasoline equivalent ) . The EPA rating in gasoline @-@ only mode is the same 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) as the previous models . The combined gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy rating of the 2013 / 2014 model year Volt is 62 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 8 L / 100 km ; 74 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent , 63 MPG @-@ e in city driving and 61 MPG @-@ e in highway .
When introduced in December 2010 , the 2011 Volt was the most fuel efficient car sold in the American market in the compact class , with a combined gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy of 60 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 72 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) , until it was surpassed by the 2012 Ford Focus Electric in February 2012 . The all @-@ electric Focus has a combined fuel economy of 105 mpg @-@ US ( 2 @.@ 2 L / 100 km ; 126 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) . Nevertheless , the Volt remained as the most fuel efficient car with an internal combustion engine available in the United States until May 2014 , when the BMW i3 REx replaced the Volt as the most efficient EPA @-@ certified current year vehicle with a gasoline engine , with a combined gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy of 88 mpg @-@ US ( 2 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 106 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) .
In December 2012 General Motors reported , based on data collected through its OnStar telematics system since Volt deliveries began , that Volt owners drive around 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) , or a month and a half , between fill @-@ ups . By mid June 2014 , GM reported that among Volt owners who charge regularly , they typically drive more than 970 mi ( 1 @,@ 560 km ) between fill @-@ ups and visit the gasoline station less than once a month . In early October 2014 , based on General Motors ' real time tally of miles driven by Volt owners in North America , the company reported they have accumulated a total of 1 billion miles ( 1 @.@ 6 billion km ) traveled , of which , about 62 @.@ 5 % were driven in all @-@ electric mode .
A 2014 analysis conducted by the Idaho National Laboratory using a sample of 21 @,@ 600 all @-@ electric cars and plug @-@ in hybrids , found that Volt owners traveled on average 9 @,@ 112 miles in all @-@ electric mode ( e @-@ miles ) per year , while Leaf owners traveled 9 @,@ 697 e @-@ miles per year , despite the Volt 's shorter all @-@ electric range , about half of the Leaf 's . The 2015 edition of the EPA 's annual report " Light @-@ Duty Automotive Technology , Carbon Dioxide Emissions , and Fuel Economy Trends " estimates the following utility factors for 2015 model year plug @-@ in hybrids to represent the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver , whether in electric only or blended modes , The Volt has a utility factor of 66 % , compared with 83 % for the BMW i3 REx , 45 % for the Ford Energi models , 43 % for the McLaren P1 , 37 % for the BMW i8 , and 29 % for the Toyota Prius PHV .
Europe
The Opel Ampera official equivalent fuel consumption under the EU @-@ approved UN ECE R101 standard for plug @-@ in hybrids is 1 @.@ 2 L / 100 km ( 196 @.@ 0 mpg @-@ US ; 235 @.@ 4 mpg @-@ imp ) ( 83 @.@ 3 km / L ) . However , a leading Opel engineer prefers saying 169 Wh / km while battery @-@ powered , and then 20 km / L petrol @-@ powered . The ECE R101 standard weights charge @-@ depleting mode as 76 % and gasoline @-@ only driving as 24 % .
= = = Operating cost and payback period = = =
According to Consumer Reports in December 2011 , the Chevrolet Volt fuel cost in electric mode was 3 @.@ 8 ¢ / mile , while the Nissan Leaf had a cost of 3 @.@ 5 ¢ / mi . The Volt 's higher cost per mile was attributed to its heavier weight . Their estimates used the U.S. national average electricity rate of 11 ¢ / ( kWh ) and energy consumption rates as measured on their own , unofficial tests . When comparing the Volt in range @-@ extended mode with the four most fuel efficient gasoline @-@ powered cars as tested by the magazine , the plug @-@ in hybrid had a cost of 12 @.@ 5 ¢ / mi ( using premium gasoline ) while the Toyota Prius had a cost of 8 @.@ 6 ¢ / mi . , the Honda Civic Hybrid 9 @.@ 5 ¢ / mi . , the Toyota Corolla 11 @.@ 9 ¢ / mi . , and the Hyundai Elantra 13 @.@ 1 ¢ / mi . The analysis also found that , on trips up to 100 mi ( 160 km ) , the Volt was cheaper to drive than the other four cars because the Volt was able to drive 35 mi ( 56 km ) using less expensive electric power . Consumer Reports found that , using their proprietary testing , the Volt overall fuel efficiency was 99 mpg @-@ US ( 2 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 119 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) , and using only range @-@ extended mode the overall fuel economy was 32 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 38 mpg @-@ imp ) and equivalent to the Toyota Corolla . The report noted that , as of 2011 , plug @-@ in electric cars are more expensive to buy , and the previous operating costs do not include maintenance , depreciation or other costs .
According to Edmunds.com , the price premium paid for the Volt in 2012 , after discounting the US $ 7 @,@ 500 U.S. federal tax credit , takes a long time for consumers to recover in fuel savings , often longer than the normal ownership time period . Edmunds compared the Volt ( priced at US $ 31 @,@ 712 ) with the same @-@ size gasoline @-@ powered Chevrolet Cruze ( priced at US $ 19 @,@ 656 ) and found that the payback period for the plug @-@ in hybrid is 15 years for gasoline prices at US $ 3 per gallon , 12 years at US $ 4 per gallon , and drops to 9 years with gasoline prices at US $ 5 per gallon . At February 2012 prices , the break even period is 14 years . These estimates assume an average of 15 @,@ 000 miles ( 24 @,@ 000 km ) annual driving and vehicle prices correspond to Edmunds.com 's true market value estimates .
In a similar comparison carried out by TrueCar in April 2012 for The New York Times , the analysis found that the payback period for the Volt takes 26 @.@ 6 years versus a Chevrolet Cruze Eco , assuming it was regularly driven farther than its battery @-@ only range allows , and with gasoline priced at US $ 3 @.@ 85 per gallon . The analysis assumes an average of 15 @,@ 000 miles ( 24 @,@ 000 km ) driven a year , a fuel economy of 34 @.@ 3 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 86 L / 100 km ; 41 @.@ 2 mpg @-@ imp ) for the Cruze Eco , priced at US $ 19 @,@ 925 , and a Volt price of US $ 31 @,@ 767 , after discounting the US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax . TrueCar also found that with gasoline priced at US $ 5 per gallon , the payback time could drop to about 8 years if the Volt were to be operated exclusively on battery power . The newspaper also reported that according to the March 2012 Lundberg Survey , gasoline prices would need to reach US $ 12 @.@ 50 a gallon for the Volt to break even , while the Nissan Leaf would be competitive with a similar gasoline @-@ powered compact car at US $ 8 @.@ 53 a gallon .
Since the Edmunds and The New York Times pieces however , numerous rebuttal articles have surfaced that have identified various flaws in the methodologies and calculations used by Edmunds and TrueCar in their estimation of the Volt 's pay @-@ back period . Namely both sources strict use of the Volt 's " gasoline engine only " EPA fuel economy rating of 37 mpg , when in fact when operated as intended any real @-@ world use will most typically include an initial 38 miles of all @-@ electric power during which zero gasoline would be consumed . Thus resulting in significantly higher total fuel economy that admittedly will be entirely dependent on how often and how far the car is driven . Many of these articles further suggest that the usage model used by TrueCar of 114 trips of 131 mi ( 211 km ) per trip was not typical of the majority of American daily driving patterns , and their use of a projected cost US $ 3 @.@ 85 per gallon as the cost of gasoline throughout the entire payback period quite unrealistic . An article from the online automotive publication The Truth About Cars indicates that when the Volt is charged and driven daily exclusively on its available electric power for its EPA rated 38 miles of all @-@ electric range ( 13 @,@ 780 mi ( 22 @,@ 180 km ) annually ) the payback period for the Volt would be much lower and similar to that of other plug @-@ in electric @-@ cars such as the Nissan Leaf or approximately 8 @.@ 7 years ( as indicated by TrueCar ) .
= = = Tailpipe emissions = = =
While operating in all @-@ electric mode the Volt produces no tailpipe emissions . However , the clean air benefit is mostly local because , depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries , air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the electricity generation plants . The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emission intensity of the power source used to charge the vehicle . When the Volt 's battery is depleted and the gasoline @-@ powered engine engages , the plug @-@ in emissions are similar to other internal combustion engine vehicles . The amount of total local emissions depends on how much the Volt is driven in all @-@ electric mode and how much in charge @-@ sustaining mode .
United States
The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) classified the Volt as Ultra Low Emission Vehicle ( ULEV ) , as CARB tests do not account for the Volt electric range . With all tests conducted under conditions where the engine is running the CARB rated the Volt 's carbon monoxide ( CO ) emissions at 1 @.@ 3 g / mile ( 0 @.@ 81 g / km ) , missing the limit for SULEV classification by 0 @.@ 3 g / mile ( 0 @.@ 19 g / km ) .
The EPA rating for the model year 2011 Volt 's tailpipe emissions is 84 grams of CO2 per mile , ( 52 @.@ 5 CO2 g / km ) . Tailpipe emissions for the improved model year 2014 / 15 Volt fell to 81 grams of CO2 per mile , ( 50 @.@ 6 CO2 g / km ) . CO2 emissions are produced by the internal combustion engine in extended @-@ range mode , and only after the Volt 's primary battery charge has been depleted . In the other air pollutants category , the Volt rates six out of ten , with ten being best .
The EPA also estimated the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity required to charge the vehicle . Since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region , the EPA considered three scenarios / ranges with the low end of the range corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor , the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor , and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rockies . The following table shows the Volt tailpipe emission plus total upstream CO2 emissions for the three scenarios , compared with other four popular plug @-@ in hybrids and the average gasoline @-@ powered car :
Europe
The Ampera 's official EU @-@ approved UN ECE R101 carbon dioxide emission rating is 27g / km .
= = = Safety = = =
The 2011 Chevrolet Volt standard features include 4 @-@ wheel anti @-@ lock brakes with traction control ; StabiliTrak electronic stability control system with brake assist ; tire @-@ pressure monitoring system ; and 8 total airbags : dual @-@ stage frontal , side @-@ impact and knee for driver and front passenger , and roof @-@ rail side @-@ impact for front and rear outboard seating positions , with a passenger sensing system . There is also available an optional emergency assistance system . A safety cage , built with high @-@ strength and ultra high @-@ strength steel , surrounds the passenger compartment to keep the space intact in the event of a crash . Crush zones framing the trunk and the engine crumple to absorb crash energy before it reaches occupants . Door hinges and latches in harmony with door structure and its steel reinforcements to keep doors closed during an impact . The 2011 Chevrolet Volt was named " Top Safety Pick " by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety . The Volt received the top ratings of " Good " for front , side , and rear impact crash tests , and also on rollover protection . All injury measurements except one were rated good , indicating a low risk of significant injuries in crashes according to the scale of severity employed in the IIHS ’ s testing . The Volt 's lower rating of " Acceptable " was for torso injuries .
The Volt received a five @-@ star overall crash safety rating from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) , the highest @-@ possible score . This rating was obtained with NHTSA 's New Car Assessment Program which is used for 2011 model year vehicles .
Accident and rescue handling
In August 2010 , General Motors began a training program for first responders when performing rescue duties involving the Chevrolet Volt . The program began at the 2010 Fire @-@ Rescue International in Chicago , using a pre @-@ production Volt for a live extrication exercise . Chicago firefighters demonstrated the sequence of tasks required to safely disable the vehicle ’ s powertrain and its 12 @-@ volt electrical system , which controls its high @-@ voltage components , and then proceed to extricate injured occupants . As of January 2011 , additional training workshops had taken place in several other cities corresponding to the Volt 's initial launch markets . An Emergency Response Guide for the 2011 Volt was made available at its Service Technical College for use by emergency responders . The guide also describes methods of disabling the high voltage system and identifies cut zone information .
GM recommends that a Volt battery fire be fought with water rather than dry chemicals , and rates the Volt battery as having no explosion or electrocution hazard as the result of a collision . The high @-@ voltage system is designed to shut down automatically in the event of an airbag deployment , and to detect a loss of communication from an airbag control module . During the Volt development the lithium @-@ ion battery pack was subjected to a wide range of tests , including overcharge , discharge , vibration , excessive heat and cold , short circuit , humidity , fire , crush , water immersion , salt water immersion , and nail penetration .
Warning sounds
Due to significant noise reduction typical of vehicles traveling in all @-@ electric mode at low speeds , the Volt is fitted with a manually activated electronic warning sound system called Pedestrian @-@ Friendly Alert System for use when the car is operating at low speeds to alert pedestrians to the car 's presence .
= = = Other features = = =
Connectivity
The Volt features OnStar Mobile application for owners to access vehicle information without being in or near the car . This smartphone application features the ability to check fuel efficiency as well as the vehicle 's current electric range . It also helps monitor the charging , giving owners key information about the current charge level and the amount of time it will take until it is fully charged . The application also is able to control features such as locking / unlocking doors , and acts as a remote starter . A five @-@ year OnStar Directions and Connections service was bundled into the 2011 Volt 's base price , which was reduced to three years for the 2012 model year .
2011 model year
The 2011 Chevrolet Volt comes standard with cruise control ; remote vehicle start @-@ up system ; 17 @-@ inch 5 @-@ spoke forged painted aluminum wheels ; Bluetooth wireless technology for select phones ; audio and navigation system with a center console capacitive touch panel and DVD and MP3 playback , with voice recognition ; OnStar with five years of service ; BOSE premium speaker system , with six speakers and sub @-@ woofer ; 30 GB hard drive for audio data storage ; USB port ; three auxiliary , 12 @-@ volt , power outlets ; power door locks and windows ; power adjustable mirrors ; programmable time of day charge control ; and a 110 @-@ volt charge cord .
Available options include ; 17 @-@ inch 5 @-@ spoke forged polished @-@ aluminum wheels ; rearview camera system , parking assist package ; leather @-@ wrapped steering wheel ; and heated leather front seats with selectable automatic activation .
2012 model year
The 2012 Volt standard features include a remote keyless access with passive locking allowing the car to automatically lock and unlock with the key fob in close proximity of vehicle ; OnStar turn @-@ by @-@ turn navigation for three years , and available in @-@ dash navigation system ; and Chevrolet MyLink including Bluetooth streaming audio for music and select phones . The 2012 Volt has seven option packages while the 2011 model had only three .
2013 model year
The low @-@ emission package standard available on later 2012 Volts destined for the California market is included in the 2013 Volts sold in New York state to allow their owners access to high @-@ occupancy lanes . The liftgate and roof of the 2013 model is body @-@ colored rather than black , and a new interior color " Pebble Beige " is available in both cloth upholstery and leather seats with suede inserts . A removable rear @-@ seat center armrest is included in the premium trim package . Other changes include an improved audio system with GPS @-@ based navigation ; a comfort package that includes heated driver and front passenger cloth seats and leather @-@ wrapped steering wheel ; and there are a pair of available safety packages .
2014 model year
Minor changes for the 2014 model year include a manual release for the charge port door in place of the electronically activated door found on previous models , and the addition of two new paint colors . A leather wrapped steering wheel becomes standard .
= = Second generation ( 2015 – ) = =
The second generation Chevrolet Volt was officially unveiled at the January 2015 North American International Auto Show . Retail deliveries began in the United States and Canada in October 2015 as a 2016 model year , with 1 @,@ 324 units delivered in the U.S. that month . Availability in the American market was limited to California and the other 10 states that follow California ’ s zero emission vehicle regulations . GM scheduled the second generation as a 2017 model year to be released in the 39 remaining states by early 2016 . Manufacturing of the 2017 MY Volt began in February 2016 , and the first units arrived at dealerships at the end of February 2016 . The 2017 model complies with stricter Tier 3 emissions requirements and it will be available nationwide .
The second generation Volt has an upgraded powertrain with a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ liter engine that uses regular gasoline ; the 18 @.@ 4 kWh battery pack has new chemistry that stores 20 % more electrical energy and uses fewer cells , 192 compared with 288 on the 2014 Volt ; it uses a new power controller that is integrated with the motor housing ; the electric motors weigh 100 lb ( 45 kg ) less and use smaller amounts of rare earth metals . GM engineers explained that the second generation Volt was developed using extensive input from Volt owners .
These improvements allow the 2016 Volt to deliver better EPA ratings than the first generation model . The all @-@ electric range was officially rated at 53 mi ( 85 km ) , up from 38 mi ( 61 km ) attained by the 2015 Volt . The gains in efficiency allow the second generation Volt to improve its combined fuel economy in gasoline @-@ only ( charge @-@ sustaining ) mode to 42 mpg @-@ US ( 5 @.@ 6 L / 100 km ; 50 mpg @-@ imp ) , up from 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) for the previous model . The official second generation Volt 's rating for combined city / highway fuel economy in all @-@ electric mode is 106 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) , up from 98 MPG @-@ e for the 2015 first generation model . The combined gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy rating of the 2016 model year Volt is 77 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 1 L / 100 km ; 92 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent , 82 MPG @-@ e in city driving and 72 MPG @-@ e in highway . Both the all @-@ electric range and fuel economy ratings are the same for the 2017 model year Volt .
In April 2013 , CEO Daniel Akerson announced that GM expects the second generation Volt to be priced on the order of US $ 7 @,@ 000 to US $ 10 @,@ 000 lower than the 2013 model year with the same features . The 2016 Volt pricing will start at US $ 33 @,@ 170 before any available government incentives , plus US $ 825 for destination . The starting price is US $ 1 @,@ 175 lower than the 2015 Volt . In California , order books for the second generation Volt were opened on May 28 , 2015 .
In July 2014 , Opel announced that due to the slowdown in sales , the Ampera would be discontinued after the launch of second generation Volt , and between 2014 and 2018 , Opel planned to introduce in Europe a successor product in the electric vehicle segment . General Motors announced in February 2016 that the all @-@ electrc Opel Ampera @-@ e hatchback will go into production in 2017 . This is the European version of the Chevrolet Bolt EV .
In April 2015 , General Motors confirmed that it will not build the second generation Volt in right @-@ hand @-@ drive configuration . Due to low sales , only 246 units had been sold in Australia by mid @-@ April 2015 , the Holden Volt will be discontinued once the remaining stock is sold out .
= = Production , price and sales = =
= = = North America = = =
Assembly of the Volt was assigned to Detroit / Hamtramck Assembly plant following the conclusion of the 2007 UAW @-@ GM contract talks . For initial production the gasoline engine is being imported from the Opel engine plant in Aspern , Austria . In November 2010 , General Motors began investing US $ 138 @.@ 3 million at its engine operations plant in Flint , Michigan to support increased production of the Ecotec 1 @.@ 4 L engine that is used in the Chevrolet Cruze , the upcoming 2012 Chevrolet Sonic , and the variant used in the Chevrolet Volt . The Flint plant was expected to start production of 400 engines a day in early 2011 , ramp up daily production to 800 engines in late 2011 , and to increase its capacity to 1 @,@ 200 a day by late 2012 . In May 2011 , General Motors decided to invest an additional US $ 84 million at the Flint plant to further increase 1 @.@ 4 L engine production capacity .
In 2010 , General Motors planned an initial production for calendar year 2011 of 10 @,@ 000 Volts and 45 @,@ 000 units for 2012 , up from the 30 @,@ 000 units initially announced . In May 2011 , the carmaker again raised its production targets , as Volt and Ampera production capacity was increased to 16 @,@ 000 units in 2011 , including 3 @,@ 500 units for exports and 2 @,@ 500 demonstration units destined to U.S. dealerships , and the rest for U.S. sales . However , in November 2011 GM 's sales chief announced that they would not meet its sales goal of 10 @,@ 000 vehicles in 2011 .
Out of the 2012 production , General Motors expected to produce 10 @,@ 000 Amperas for sale in Europe , 6 @,@ 000 destined for Opel and 4 @,@ 000 for Vauxhall in the UK . In addition , 2 @,@ 000 Volts will be made available for the region . By early 2012 GM abandoned its sales target to deliver 45 @,@ 000 Volts in the U.S and instead announced that production in 2012 will depend on demand . By March 2012 the Volt plant has a global production capacity of 60 @,@ 000 vehicles per year .
The Volt 's battery cells are produced by LG Chem in South Korea and then shipped to the US , where the battery packs are assembled at a purpose @-@ built facility in Brownstown Charter Township , Michigan owned and operated by General Motors . Compact Power , the North American subsidiary of LG Chem , is building a battery plant in Holland , Michigan to manufacture the advanced battery cells for the Volt and other carmakers , with capacity to produce enough cells for 50 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 battery packs per year . The US $ 303 million Holland plant was funded by 50 % U.S. Department of Energy matching stimulus funds and is planned to open by mid @-@ 2012 .
The 2011 Chevrolet Volt was officially launched on November 30 , 2010 at a ceremony at the Hamtramck plant , where the first production unit for retail sale came off the assembly line . The first retail vehicle was delivered to a customer in Denville , New Jersey on December 15 , 2010 . GM reported it had built 12 @,@ 400 Volts in total through December 2011 . This includes dealers ' demo vehicles in North America and Amperas in dealerships in Europe , crash test vehicles and other unavailable Volts owned by GM .
GM halted production for about one month at the Detroit / Hamtramck Assembly plant by mid June 2011 to complete some upgrades , including the installation of new tooling , equipment and overhead conveyor systems throughout the facility . These upgrades allowed GM to triple the rate of Volt production and prepared the plant for 2012 Volt and Ampera production . After the plant retooling , the production rate reached 150 units per day four days a week by August 2011 . The Volt plant was also down during January 2012 in preparation for building the California lower @-@ emission version . A four @-@ week shutdown due to slow sales took place between March and April 2012 . GM said it had around 3 @,@ 600 Volts in inventory and needed to reduce dealer inventories as production is expected to meet market demand . GM also extended the traditional two @-@ week summer vacation by an extra week at the Hamtramck plant . GM closed its Detroit @-@ Hamtramck plant from September 17 until October 15 , 2012 , affecting roughly 1 @,@ 500 workers on downtime while the plant was retooled to assemble the all @-@ new 2014 Chevrolet Impala alongside the 2013 Volt . This was the second time in 2012 that GM has halted Volt production .
Production of the 2013 model year Volt began in July 2012 and customer deliveries began during the same month . In October 2012 , GM announced that the Cadillac ELR extended @-@ range luxury coupe will be built at the Detroit @-@ Hamtramck Assembly plant , together with he Chevrolet Volt , Opel Ampera , and Holden Volt . The addition of the ELR to the plant represents an additional US $ 35 million investment , bringing the total product investment to US $ 561 million since December 2009 . The first 2014 ELRs rolled off the production line in late May 2013 . These were pre @-@ production units destined for testing purposes before production for retail customers began at the end of 2013 . Deliveries of the 2014 model year Volt began in August 2013 . Volt sales in the U.S. reached the 50 @,@ 000 unit milestone in October 2013 , with over 60 @,@ 000 vehicles of the Volt / Ampera family sold worldwide . Production of the 2015 model year Volt ended in mid @-@ May 2015 , while manufacturing of pre @-@ production units of the second generation began in March 2015 .
= = = = United States = = = =
Sales of the 2011 Chevrolet Volt began in selected markets due to limited initial production , as General Motors ' original target for 2011 was 10 @,@ 000 units . The first cars were delivered in Washington D.C. , the New York City metropolitan region , California , and Austin , Texas . By May 2011 the Volt had been launched also in Connecticut , Maryland , Michigan , New Jersey , and Virginia . Deliveries in Delaware , Florida , Georgia , Hawaii , North Carolina , Oregon , Pennsylvania , South Carolina , and Washington began in the third quarter of 2011 . In June 2011 , Chevrolet dealers nationwide began taking orders for the 2012 Volt , and deliveries in all 50 states began in November 2011 .
The suggested retail price ( MSRP ) for the 2011 Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. started at US $ 40 @,@ 280 which excluded destination freight charge , tax , title , license , dealer fees and optional equipment and before any savings due to factory incentives , tax deductions , or other available subsidies for qualifying buyers . The MSRP for the 2012 Volt starts at US $ 39 @,@ 995 including a US $ 850 destination freight charge and excludes tax , title and license fees , or other available government subsidies . The base price is US $ 1 @,@ 005 less than the 2011 model year , and General Motors explained that this price reduction is possible because of a " wider range of options and configurations that come with the expansion of Volt production for sale nationally . " The price will drop to US $ 34 @,@ 995 including destination charges for the 2014 model year .
Due to the capacity of the Volt 's battery pack it qualifies for the maximum US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit as specified in the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 . The federal tax credit phases out over a one @-@ year period after the manufacturer has sold at least 200 @,@ 000 vehicles in the U.S. Several states also have additional incentives or rebates available for plug @-@ in electric vehicles for qualifying buyers . The 2011 Volt price including all available regular production and premium options is US $ 44 @,@ 600 , including destination charges and before tax credits or any subsidies . For the 2012 model year the price of the Volt with all available options is US $ 46 @,@ 265 before tax credits or any subsidies available .
Although the Volt 's retail price is higher than its main competitor , the 2011 Nissan Leaf , the lease payment for the Volt is almost the same as its competitor , except that the Leaf has a lower initial payment . General Motors explained that " the apparent disparity between the Volt 's sticker and lease prices is a reflection of the company 's calculation that the vehicle will maintain a very high residual value after three years — significantly higher than that of the LEAF . "
The price for the home charging units is US $ 490 plus installation costs . The Voltec is a home @-@ charging unit built by SPX for Volt owners . It is a 240 @-@ volt ( Level II ) charger , and , according to General Motors , can replenish the Volt 's batteries in about four hours . Consumer Reports has advised buyers to budget up to US $ 2 @,@ 000 , as many older homes may need a substantial electrical upgrade because the U.S. National Electrical Code requires that the charger have its own dedicated 220 @-@ volt , 30 @-@ amp circuit . Early buyers can benefit from the federal tax credit available for charging equipment .
The 2011 Volt was not submitted for application to the California Air Resources Board 's ( CARB ) Clean Vehicle Rebate Project rebate and therefore was not required to meet the 10 @-@ year 150 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 240 @,@ 000 km ) battery warranty requirement for enhanced advanced technology partial zero @-@ emissions vehicles ( enhAT @-@ PZEV ) . The Volt team explained that for the launch General Motors decided to go with a common national package which includes an 8 @-@ year 100 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 160 @,@ 000 km ) battery warranty . For this reason owners of the 2011 Volt did not qualify for California 's rebates and free access to use carpool lanes even when traveling solo . A third package , scheduled for 2013 , is under development with an E85 flex @-@ fuel engine . General Motors engineering team commented that " introducing two or three packages of an entirely new technology set and platform at the same time wasn 't an option . "
In February 2012 General Motors began deliveries of a low emission version destined for California that features a new low emissions package that allows the 2012 Chevrolet Volt to qualify as an enhanced , advanced technology – partial zero emissions vehicle ( enhAT @-@ PZEV ) and have access to California ’ s high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes ( HOV ) . The new standard California version of the Volt features a modified engine and exhaust components . The catalytic converter was modified to add a secondary air @-@ injection pump that " streams ambient air into the exhaust stream to increase its ability to remove pollutants . " Owners of a 2012 Volt with the low emissions package are eligible to apply for one of 40 @,@ 000 available HOV lane stickers issued to vehicles that qualify as a California AT @-@ PZEV . The permits are handed out on a first @-@ apply , first @-@ served basis . Additionally , the new low emissions package makes the 2012 Volt eligible for owners to receive up to US $ 1 @,@ 500 in state rebates through the state ’ s Clean Vehicle Rebate Project ( CVRP ) . This incentive is in addition to the federal government ’ s US $ 7 @,@ 500 tax credit . Only the 2012 Volts manufactured after February 6 , 2012 , are fitted with the low emission package and sold as standard models in California . Other states where the Volt has solo driving access to HOV lanes are Florida , Georgia , New York and Virginia .
U.S. sales
Since sales began in December 2010 , a total of 98 @,@ 558 Volts have been sold in the country through June 2016 . The Volt ranked as the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in electric car in the United States until February 2015 , when it was surpassed by the all @-@ electric Nissan Leaf in March 2015 . Cumulative Volt sales passed Leaf sales in March 2016 , and became once again the best selling plug @-@ in car in the American market .
The top 10 selling states during the first quarter of 2012 were California , Michigan , Florida , Illinois , Texas , New York , Minnesota , Ohio , North Carolina and Maryland . California is the leading market and accounted for almost 23 % of Volt sales during this quarter , followed by Michigan with 6 @.@ 3 % of national sales . In California the leading regional markets are San Francisco , Los Angeles , and San Diego , all metropolitan areas notorious for their high congestion levels and where free access to high @-@ occupancy lanes for solo drivers has been a strong incentive to boost Volt sales in the state .
Resale value
In May 2011 Kelley Blue Book ( KBB ) projected the 2011 Chevrolet Volt resale value at just over US $ 17 @,@ 000 after 36 months , the length of a typical lease , which represents 42 % of the car 's US $ 41 @,@ 000 suggested retail price ( MSRP ) . KBB explains that even though the residual value seems low , the projection considers that the first 200 @,@ 000 Volts sold will qualify for a US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit , which effectively reduces the MSRP to US $ 33 @,@ 500 , making the US $ 17,000represent 51 % of its original value after the tax credit . In comparison , KBB notes , the 2011 Toyota Prius has a projected residual of 46 % after 36 months . KBB 's estimate assumed gasoline price will be around US $ 4 per gallon in 2014 . For 2012 , Kelley Blue Book expected the Volt to retain 42 % of its original value after 3 years and 27 % after 5 years . Based on these figures , in November 2011 KBB awarded the Volt with the 2012 Best Resale Value Awards in the plug @-@ in electric car category . KBB explains that the residual value for the Volt is lower than the market 35 @.@ 5 % average due to the US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit , which lowers the transaction price and pushes down the residual value .
Consumer Reports ' analysis show that many Chevrolets lose about half of their purchase price after three years of ownership , and if the Volt depreciates the same , US $ 17 @,@ 000 seems a reasonable estimate . However , Consumer Reports have noted that fuel @-@ efficient hybrids and diesel models often depreciate far less than most vehicles , which might increase the Volt 's resale value after three years above the US $ 17 @,@ 000 estimate . Additionally , if gasoline prices continue to rise or if the tax credits expire , the demand for used Chevrolet Volts could quickly increase , raising their market value . On the other hand , if the next @-@ generation Volt ’ s battery has twice the capacity and cost less , as General Motors has claimed , the first generation Volts will be obsolete when the new ones come out in 2015 . Considering these assumptions , Consumer Reports considers that " at this point we believe it ’ s still unclear how the Volt will fare . "
Pecan Street demonstration project
General Motors is sponsoring the Pecan Street demonstration project at the Mueller neighborhood in Austin , Texas . The project objective is to learn the charging patterns of plug @-@ in electric car owners , and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same , which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug @-@ in cars return home in the evening . As of June 2013 , the community has nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone thanks to GM 's commitment to match the federal government 's US $ 7 @,@ 500 rebate incentive , which halves the purchase price of the Volt .
= = = = Canada = = = =
Chevrolet began taking orders in May 2011 and deliveries began in September 2011 in major cities only . During 2012 the Volt was the best selling plug @-@ in car in Canada , outselling all other PEVs combined . Despite a 24 % reduction from 2012 sales , the Volt continued as the top selling PEV in the Canadian market in 2013 , and again in 2014 with 1 @,@ 521 units . As of December 2015 , the Volt continued to rank as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in Canada . Since September 2011 , a total of 6 @,@ 387 Volts have been delivered in Canada through May 2016 . The monthly sales record was set in May 2016 with 270 deliveries .
The suggested retail price ( MSRP ) for the 2012 Chevrolet Volt starts at CA $ 41 @,@ 545 ( US $ 42 @,@ 423 in June 2011 ) which excludes any charges , fees , and optional equipment and before any available subsidies or incentives for qualifying buyers . In the Canadian market , the Volt is offered in one standard trim level with two option packages , a Premium Trim Package and a Rear Camera and Park Assist Package . Some provinces are offering Government incentives including Ontario , Quebec ( both at CA $ 8 @,@ 500 US $ 8 @,@ 680 ) and British Columbia has announced their new LiveSmart BC program in which the Chevrolet Volt qualifies for a CA $ 5 @,@ 000 incentive / rebate as well as CA $ 500 towards charging equipment .
= = = Europe = = =
The European version of the Volt , the Opel Ampera ( known as the Vauxhall Ampera in the United Kingdom ) , was unveiled at the Geneva Auto Show in March 2009 and also was exhibited at the 2009 Frankfurt Auto Show . Opel developed the battery control modules for the Ampera at the Opel Alternative Propulsion Center Europe in Mainz @-@ Kastel , Germany . The production version of the Ampera was unveiled at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show . The Ampera is assembled at the Detroit / Hamtramck Assembly plant , Michigan .
The main differences between the Volt and the Ampera are in their styling . The Ampera has a distinctive front and rear fascia , with a large cut @-@ out in the rear bumper . The Opel Ampera features more stylized alloy wheels as standard , and the side skirts are body @-@ colored rather than black . In the inside there are only minor differences and both versions share the same exact powertrain and battery pack . A key operational difference was that the Ampera has four drive modes , one more than the 2011 / 12 model year Volt . The additional option is " City Mode " , which adapts battery management to the needs of commuter travel . City mode or " battery hold " engages the range @-@ extender immediately , allowing to save the energy currently stored in the battery , and when switched off , the range @-@ extender stops and the Ampera is then able to use the energy saved in the battery for pure electric driving , for example for traveling urban areas or restricted zones , such as the European low emission zones or to allow the Ampera to qualify for an exemption of the London congestion charge The 2013 model year Volt included the " Hold Drive " button to allow drivers to conserve battery @-@ pack energy for use at a particular time of their choice .
Sales
General Motors production target for 2012 was to manufacture 10 @,@ 000 Amperas for sale in Europe , 6 @,@ 000 destined for Opel and 4 @,@ 000 for Vauxhall in the UK , plus an additional 2 @,@ 000 Volts were to be made available for the region . The carmaker targeted the Ampera for business fleet market and local government agencies , where Opel has a strong customer base , while the Volt is aimed at retail customers . According to Opel , by June 2011 around 5 @,@ 000 customers across Europe had reserved an Ampera , with fleet or business customers representing 60 % of reservations , and a total of 7 @,@ 000 orders were received by March 2012 , with Benelux , Germany and the United Kingdom as the top markets in terms of orders .
The first deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in Europe took place on November 30 , 2011 , to the U.S. Embassy in France . Distribution of the Opel Ampera to dealerships began in December 2011 , but deliveries to customers were delayed until February 2012 because Opel decided to wait until the NHTSA completed its investigation of the Volt 's battery fire risk after a crash . Since May 2012 the Vauxhall Ampera is available through the Zipcar carsharing club in London , Bristol , Cambridge and Oxford .
The Opel / Vauxhall Ampera was Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 5 @,@ 268 units and captured a 21 @.@ 5 % market share of the region 's plug @-@ in electric passenger car segment . As of October 2013 , the Ampera held a market share of almost 10 % of European registration of plug @-@ in electric cars since 2011 . The market share in the Netherlands was 40 % and 10 % in Germany . Ampera sales fell 40 % in 2013 to 3 @,@ 184 cars , and within the plug @-@ in hybrid segment , the Ampera was surpassed in 2013 by the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV ( 8 @,@ 197 ) , Volvo V60 plug @-@ in ( 7 @,@ 437 ) , and the Prius plug @-@ in ( 4 @,@ 314 ) . In 2013 the Ampera ranked eighth among Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicles , and its market share fell to about 5 % . During the first five months of 2014 , only 332 units had been sold , down 67 % from the same period in 2013 . In July 2014 , Opel announced that due to the slowdown in sales , the Ampera will be discontinued after the launch of second generation Volt , and between 2014 and 2018 , Opel plans to introduce in Europe a successor product in the electric vehicle segment . Ampera sales totaled 939 units in 2014 , and only 215 units during the first nine months of 2015 .
As of December 2015 , Opel / Vauxhall Ampera sales totaled almost 10 @,@ 000 units since 2011 , with the Netherlands as the leading market with 5 @,@ 031 Amperas registered , followed by Germany with 1 @,@ 542 units , and the UK with 1 @,@ 250 units registered by the end of June 2015 . The Netherlands is also the top selling Volt market in Europe with 1 @,@ 062 units registered through December 2014 , > out of about 1 @,@ 750 Volts sold through 2014 .
Pricing
In February 2011 Opel announced that the Ampera was to be offered for a uniform price throughout the Eurozone at € 42 @,@ 900 ( US $ 56 @,@ 920 in May 2012 ) including VAT , but prices by country may vary due to the trim levels that will be offered in each market . The Chevrolet Volt also has a uniform price that starts at € 41 @,@ 950 ( US $ 55 @,@ 660 in May 2012 ) including VAT . The Opel Ampera is eligible to several subsidies and tax breaks available for plug @-@ in electric vehicles in several European countries .
In the UK , the Vauxhall Ampera starts at GB £ 37 @,@ 250 ( US $ 60 @,@ 400 in May 2012 ) before discounting the GB £ 5 @,@ 000 Plug @-@ in Car Grant The Chevrolet Volt will also be available in the UK at a cost of GB £ 33 @,@ 545 ( US $ 54 @,@ 400 in May 2012 ) before the government grant . All Volts in the UK will come standard with leather interior .
= = = China = = =
General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Volt in Shanghai under its Chinese name of 沃蓝达 ( Wo Lan Da ) in September 2010 . The first Volts , out of the 10 @-@ vehicle demonstration fleet , arrived in China by late December 2011 . The demonstration program is taking place in Beijing , Tianjin and Shanghai .
The Volt went on sale in China by late 2011 with pricing starting at CN ¥ 498 @,@ 000 ( around US $ 78 @,@ 300 as of August 2012 ) and sales are limited to eight Chinese cities : Beijing , Shanghai , Hangzhou , Suzhou , Wuxi , Guangzhou , Shenzhen and Foshan . GM explained that 13 dealerships were selected in the eight cities , and they were chosen because these " cities have more elites who are inclined to try new technologies and lead the fashion tide . "
However , according to General Motors , in a move illegal under WTO rules the Chinese government refused the allow Chevrolet Volt owners access to up to US $ 19 @,@ 300 in government subsidies available for plug @-@ in vehicles unless GM had agreed to transfer intellectual property to a joint venture with a Chinese automaker for at least one of the Volt ’ s three core technologies : electric motors , complex electronic controls , and power storage devices , whether batteries or a fuel cell . General Motors negotiated with the Chinese government to let the Volt qualify for the subsidies without the technology transfer , but as of November 2011 , the subsidies were available only for electric cars made by Chinese automakers . As a result of the high import duties , General Motors reported in August 2012 that sales are minimal , those of a very low @-@ volume car . According to LMC Automotive , a total of 18 Volts have been sold in China through June 2012 .
In March 2012 , General Motors announced that an agreement was signed with the China Automotive Technology and Research Center ( CATARC ) to manage the Volt demonstration fleet in Beijing and to gather feedback from the fleet usage for one year . The demonstration Volts were scheduled to be delivered in April 2012 .
= = = Other markets = = =
Australia
Deliveries of the Holden Volt in the Australian market began in December 2012 , and the first Volt was delivered to the U.S. Ambassador in Canberra . Pricing starts at A $ 59 @,@ 990 ( around US $ 62 @,@ 598 ) . In November 2011 the first Holden Volt arrived in Australia for a series of evaluation tests . Holden has announced that the Volt underwent numerous modifications to better suit it to Australian roads , although the test vehicles are left @-@ hand drive .
The Holden Volt is available to purchase through 49 select Holden dealerships throughout metropolitan and rural Australia , with 18 in Victoria , 11 in New South Wales , 9 in Queensland , 7 in Western Australia and 4 in South Australia . A total of 80 Holden Volts were sold during 2012 , and 101 units in 2013 . A total of 246 Holden Volts had been sold in the country by mid April 2015 , with the stock of the first generation almost empty . General Motors announced that it will not build the second generation Volt in right @-@ hand @-@ drive configuration , so the Volt will be discontinued in the country when the remaining stock is sold out .
Brazil
General Motors do Brasil announced that it will import from five to ten Volts to Brazil during the first semester of 2011 as part of a demonstration and also to lobby the federal government to enact financial incentives for green cars . If successful , General Motors would adapt the Volt to operate on ethanol fuel , as most new Brazilian cars are flex @-@ fuel .
Japan
In December 2010 , General Motors announced plans to introduce the Volt in limited numbers into Japan in 2011 for technology and market test purposes . Exports for retail sales will depend on the results of this trial .
Mexico
The second generation Volt was released for retail customers in December 2015 . Pricing starts at 638 @,@ 000 pesos ( ~ US $ 36 @,@ 880 ) , and it is available in Mexico City , Monterrey , Guadalajara , Querétaro , and Puebla .
New Zealand
The Holden Volt will be released in New Zealand through three dealerships , with one in Auckland , Christchurch and Wellington . Deliveries are scheduled to begin by late 2012 and pricing starts at NZ $ 85 @,@ 000 ( around US $ 71 @,@ 930 ) .
= = = Global sales = = =
Combined global Volt / Ampera sales passed the 100 @,@ 000 unit milestone in October 2015 . The Volt family of vehicles ranks as the world 's all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in hybrid , and it is also the second best selling plug @-@ in electric car ever , after the Nissan Leaf , which has sold 200 @,@ 000 units worldwide by early December 2015 . The Volt / Ampera family was the world 's best selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 31 @,@ 400 units sold . The Opel / Vauxhall Ampera was Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 5 @,@ 268 units , representing a market share of 21 @.@ 5 % of the region 's plug @-@ in electric passenger car segment . However , during 2013 Ampera sales fell 40 % , and the declining trend continued during 2014 and 2015 .
As of March 2016 , global Volt / Ampera family sales totaled over 110 @,@ 000 units since its inception in December 2010 , including almost 10 @,@ 000 Opel / Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe up to December 2015 . As of May 2016 , Chevrolet Volt sales are led by the United States with 96 @,@ 621 units delivered , followed by Canada with 6 @,@ 387 units , and the Netherlands with 1 @,@ 062 Volts registered through December 2015 , together representing 99 % of global Volt sales . Out of the 9 @.@ 989 Opel / Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through December 2015 , 5 @,@ 031 were registered in the Netherlands , 1 @,@ 542 in Germany , and 1 @,@ 279 in the UK by the end of September 2015 , together representing 78 % of Ampera sales .
The following tables present retail sales of the Volt and Ampera variants through December 2015 for the top selling national markets by year since deliveries began in December 2010 . Demonstration vehicles allocated to dealerships are not included in retail sales reports while they are used for test drives .
= = Related concept cars = =
Cadillac Converj
The Cadillac Converj is a plug @-@ in hybrid concept car first unveiled at the 2009 North American International Auto Show which incorporated the propulsion system from the Chevrolet Volt , including the Voltec powertrain . In August 2011 , General Motors announced its decision to produce the Converj as the Cadillac ELR . The first 2014 ELRs rolled off the production line in late May 2013 . These were pre @-@ production units destined for testing purposes and production for retail customers started at the end of 2013 . The ELR was released to retail customers in the U.S. in December 2013 .
Volt MPV5
At the 2010 Auto China show General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Volt MPV5 Concept . The Volt MPV5 is a plug @-@ in crossover hybrid and has a top speed of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and an electric range of 32 miles ( 51 km ) . The MPV5 integrates design elements from the Volt , with a body style very similar to the Chevrolet Orlando and four inches larger than its predecessor , Chevrolet HHR .
Opel Monza Concept
The Opel Monza Concept is a four @-@ seat coupe plug @-@ in hybrid concept car with gullwing door unveiled at the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show . The concept shares the same basic plug @-@ in hybrid setup as the Chevrolet Volt and Opel Ampera , but using a turbocharged 1 L 3 @-@ cylinder natural gas @-@ powered engine as its range extender instead of General Motors ’ current 1 @.@ 4 L gasoline engine . According to Opel , this concept is the role @-@ model for the next generation of Opel cars , and because of its modular chassis design , future cars based on it would be able to accommodate gasoline , diesel or electric power .
= = Controversies and criticism = =
= = = EPA fuel economy testing = = =
In 2008 , General Motors was concerned about how the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) would test the Volt to determine its official fuel economy rating . The controversy centered on whether , by including a gasoline engine , the Volt should be classified as a hybrid rather than an electric car as claimed by General Motors . If tested with the same EPA tests used by other hybrids , the Volt 's EPA fuel economy rating would be around 48 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 58 mpg @-@ imp ) due to the current EPA test for hybrids disallowing vehicles from boosting their mpg rating using stored battery power . General Motors stated that the Volt is an entirely new type of vehicle which the EPA 's current fuel economy tests were not suited to rate and that a new test should be devised for this emerging class of hybrid @-@ electrics . General Motors also advocated for a more simplified mpg calculation method to take into account the range of a plug @-@ in hybrid while running solely on electricity . Because the Volt can travel 40 miles ( 64 km ) on batteries alone , GM argued that most drivers with a daily commute of less than that distance would drive only in electric mode , so long as they recharged their vehicle at work or at home overnight .
The EPA official rating issued in November 2010 included separate fuel economy ratings for all @-@ electric mode and gasoline @-@ only mode , with an overall combined city / highway gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy rating of 60 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 72 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) . To address the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges , EPA also included in the Volt 's fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios driven between a full charge , and a never @-@ charge scenario . According to this table the Volt 's fuel economy goes up to 168 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 40 L / 100 km ; 202 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) if driven 45 miles ( 72 km ) between full charges . Also , in recognition of the multiple operating modes that a plug @-@ in hybrid can be built with ( all @-@ electric , blended , and gasoline @-@ only ) , for the new fuel economy and environment label that will be mandatory in the U.S. beginning in model year 2013 , EPA and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) issued two separate fuel economy labels for plug @-@ in hybrids . One label is for extended @-@ range electric vehicles , like the Chevy Volt , with two modes : all @-@ electric and gasoline @-@ only ; and a second label for blended mode that includes a combination of all @-@ electric , gasoline and electric operation , and gasoline only , like a conventional hybrid vehicle .
= = = EPA fuel economy rating = = =
In August 2009 , General Motors released its estimated city fuel economy rating for the Volt of 230 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 0 L / 100 km ; 280 mpg @-@ imp ) of gasoline plus 25 kWh / 100 mi ( 560 kJ / km ) of electricity using the EPA 's proposed method for evaluating plug @-@ in hybrids . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued a statement clarifying that the " EPA has not tested a Chevy Volt and therefore cannot confirm the fuel economy values claimed by GM . " In July 2010 , GM explained that their estimate was based on a formula that had not been officially approved and that they had been awaiting the EPA 's decision on how the equivalent fuel economy of plug @-@ in hybrids would be estimated .
The official EPA rating was issued in November 2010 and became the agency 's first fuel economy label for a plug @-@ in hybrids . The EPA rated the 2011 Volt combined fuel economy at 93 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) in all @-@ electric mode , and 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) in gasoline @-@ only mode , for an overall combined fuel economy rating of 60 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 72 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) . The label also shows the combined city @-@ highway fuel economy in all @-@ electric mode expressed in traditional energy consumption units , rating the Volt at 36 kWh per 100 miles ( 160 km ) .
= = = Production cost and sales price = = =
In 2009 , the Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry said that " GM is at least one generation behind Toyota on advanced , “ green ” powertrain development . In an attempt to leapfrog Toyota , GM has devoted significant resources to the Chevy Volt . " and that " while the Chevy Volt holds promise , it is currently projected to be much more expensive than its gasoline @-@ fueled peers and will likely need substantial reductions in manufacturing cost in order to become commercially viable . " A 2009 Carnegie Mellon University study found that a PHEV @-@ 40 will be less cost effective than a HEV or a PHEV @-@ 7 in all of the scenarios considered , due to the cost and weight of the battery . Jon Lauckner , a Vice President at General Motors , responded that the study did not consider the inconvenience of a 7 miles ( 11 km ) electric range and that the study 's cost estimate of US $ 1 @,@ 000 per kWh for the Volt 's battery pack was " many hundreds of dollars per kilowatt hour higher " than what it costs to make today . "
In early 2010 , it was reported that General Motors would lose money on the Volt for at least the first couple of generations , but it hoped the car would create a green image that could rival the Prius .
After the Volt 's sales price was announced in July 2010 , there was concern expressed of the launch price of the Volt and its affordability and resulting popularity , especially when the federal subsidies of US $ 2 @.@ 4 billion were taken into account in the development of the car .
General Motors CEO Edward Whitacre Jr. rejected as " ridiculous " criticism that the Volt 's price is too expensive . He said that " I think it 's a very fair price . It 's the only car that will go coast to coast on electricity without plugging it in , and nobody else can come close . " Despite the federal government being the major GM shareholder due to the 2009 government @-@ led bankruptcy of the automaker , during a press briefing at the White House a Treasury official clarified that the federal government did not have any input on the pricing of the 2011 Chevrolet Volt .
There have also been complaints regarding price markups due to the initial limited availability in 2010 of between US $ 5 @,@ 000 to US $ 12 @,@ 000 above the recommended price , and at least in one case a US $ 20 @,@ 000 mark up in California . Even though the carmaker cannot dictate vehicle pricing to its dealers , GM said that it had requested its dealers to keep prices in line with the company ’ s suggested retail price .
In May 2011 the National Legal and Policy Center announced that some Chevrolet dealers were selling Volts to other dealers and claiming the US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit for themselves . Then the dealers who bought the Volts sell them as used cars with low mileage to private buyers , who no longer qualify for the credit . General Motors acknowledged that 10 dealer @-@ to @-@ dealer Volt sales had taken place among Chevrolet dealers , but the carmaker said they do not encourage such practice .
In September 2012 , Reuters published an opinion / editorial article where it claimed that General Motors , nearly two years after the introduction of the car , was losing US $ 49 @,@ 000 on each Volt it built . The article concluded that the Volt is " over @-@ engineered and over @-@ priced " and that its technological complexity has put off many prospective buyers , due to fears the car may be unreliable . GM executives replied that Reuters ' estimates were significantly flawed as they also allocated the vehicle 's research and development program costs only against the number of Volts sold in the United States ( as of August 2012 ) , instead of spreading the total costs over the entire lifetime of the model , as well as including those units sold in Europe and other countries . GM explained that the investments will pay off once the innovative technologies of the Volt are applied across multiple current and future products .
= = = Battery pack fire risk = = =
In June 2011 a Volt that had been subjected by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) to a 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) side pole impact crash test followed by a post @-@ impact rollover , caught fire three weeks later in the test center parking lot , burning nearby vehicles . The battery was found to be the source of the fire . After the fire , both Chevrolet and the NHTSA independently replicated the crash test and a subsequent vehicle rotation procedure to test for any fluid leakage , but in their first attempt they could not reproduce the conditions under which the battery pack ignited . The NHTSA said it had " concluded that the crash test damaged the Volt ’ s lithium @-@ ion battery and that the damage led to a vehicle fire that took several weeks to develop . " In further testing of the Volt 's batteries carried out by NHTSA in November 2011 , two of the three tests resulted in thermal events . One battery pack was rotated 180 degrees within hours after it was impacted and began to smoke and emit sparks after rotation . In the other case , the battery pack that was crashed @-@ tested one week earlier and that had been monitored since the test caught fire . The NHTSA then took an uncommon step on November 25 , 2011 and opened a formal safety defect investigation " without any data from real @-@ world incidents " to examine the potential risks involved from intrusion damage to the battery pack in the Chevrolet Volt . After the initial Volt fire , the NHTSA examined the Nissan Leaf and other plug @-@ in electric vehicles and said its testing “ has not raised safety concerns about vehicles other than the Chevy Volt . ”
As a result of this investigation , GM announced that it would offer any new GM car in exchange to any Volt owner who has concerns while the federal investigation was taking place . In December 2011 , the company said that if necessary they were prepared to recall all the vehicles and repair them upon determination of the cause of the fires , and also announced they would buy back the car if the owner was too afraid of the potential for a fire . GM 's CEO also said that it may be necessary to redesign or make changes to the battery pack depending on the recommendations from federal officials . As of December 1 , 33 Volt owners in the U.S. and 3 in Canada had requested a loaner car . As of December 5 , General Motors reported that a couple dozen Volt owners had requested the carmaker to buy back their cars , and the company had already agreed to repurchase about a dozen . Before the carmaker agrees to buy back each vehicle , other options are explored as GM primarily wants to provide loaner cars , but " if the only way we can make them happy is to repurchase it , then we will , " a GM spokesman said . General Motors explained that the buy back price includes the Volt purchase price , plus taxes and fees , less a usage fee based on how many miles the car has been run . As of January 5 , 2012 , GM reported that around 250 Volt owners had requested either a loaner vehicle or a potential buyback .
The NHTSA also said it was working with all automakers to develop postcrash procedures to keep occupants of electric vehicles and emergency personnel who respond to crash scenes safe . Additionally , NHTSA advised to be aware that fires may occur a considerable amount of time after a crash . General Motors said the first fire would have been avoided if GM 's protocols for deactivating the battery after the crash had been followed . These protocols had been used by GM since July 2011 but were not shared with the NHTSA until November 2011 . In another statement the carmaker stated that they “ are working with other vehicle manufacturers , first responders , tow truck operators , and salvage associations with the goal of implementing industrywide protocols . ”
Customer deliveries of the Opel Ampera in Europe were delayed until the NHTSA completed its investigation of the Volt 's battery fire risk to make sure the vehicle is safe . However , deliveries of the first Chevrolet Volts in Europe began in France in November 2011 . Deliveries of the Vauxhall Ampera in the UK continued as scheduled for May 2012 . Opel Ampera deliveries began in February 2012 .
Battery enhancements
On January 5 , 2012 , General Motors announced that it would offer a customer @-@ satisfaction program to provide modifications to the Chevrolet Volt to reduce the chance that the battery pack could catch fire days or weeks after a severe accident . The carmaker described the modifications as voluntary enhancements and stated that neither the car nor the battery was being recalled . General Motors determined the June fire was the result of a minor intrusion from a portion of the vehicle into a side section of the battery pack . This intrusion resulted in a small coolant leak inside the battery of approximately 50 mL ( 1 @.@ 8 imp fl oz ; 1 @.@ 7 US fl oz ) . When the vehicle was put through a slow roll , where it was rotated at 90 @-@ degree increments , holding in each position for about five minutes , an additional 1 liter ( 0 @.@ 22 imp gal ; 0 @.@ 26 U.S. gal ) of coolant leaked . With the vehicle in the 180 degrees position ( upside down ) , the coolant came in contact with the printed circuit board electronics at the top of the battery pack and later crystallized . Three weeks later this condition , in combination with a charged battery , led to a short circuit that resulted in the post @-@ crash fire .
General Motors explained the modifications will enhance the vehicle structure that surround the battery and the battery coolant system to improve battery protection after a severe crash . The safety enhancements consist of strengthening an existing portion of the Volt ’ s vehicle safety structure to further protect the battery pack in a severe side collision ; add a sensor in the reservoir of the battery coolant system to monitor coolant levels ; and add a tamper @-@ resistant bracket to the top of the battery coolant reservoir to help prevent potential coolant overfill . The additional side safety structural pieces have a total weight of 2 to 3 lb ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 36 kg ) , and their function is to spread the load of a severe side impact away from the battery pack , reducing the possibility of intrusion into the pack .
During December 2011 , GM conducted four crash tests of Volts with the reinforced steel and upgraded cooling system , resulting in no intrusion to the battery and no coolant leakage . On December 22 , 2011 , the NHTSA also subjected a modified Volt to the same test that led to the original fire , with no signs of the damage that is believed to have been the cause . The NHTSA said “ the preliminary results of the crash test indicate the remedy proposed by General Motors today should address the issue of battery intrusion ” though its investigation remained open . General Motors declined to say how much the modifications would cost .
All 12 @,@ 400 Chevrolet Volts produced until December 2011 , including all Amperas in stock at European dealerships , were scheduled to receive the safety enhancements . Since production was halted during the holidays , the enhancements were in place when production resumed in early 2012 . Sales continued , and dealers modified the Volts they had in stock . General Motors sent a letter to Volt owners indicating that they could schedule the service appointment to protect their batteries beginning in the last week of March 2012 . General Motors also decided to replace the 120 @-@ volt charging cords in most of the nearly 10 @,@ 000 Volts sold since late 2010 . The new cords were enhanced to add durability , and some of the chargers built after February 5 have the new cords .
NHTSA findings
On January 20 , 2012 , the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration closed the Volt 's safety defect investigation related to post @-@ crash fire risk . The agency concluded that " no discernible defect trend exists " and also found that the modifications recently developed by General Motors are sufficient to reduce the potential for battery intrusion resulting from side impacts . The NHTSA also said that " based on the available data , NHTSA does not believe that Chevy Volts or other electric vehicles pose a greater risk of fire than gasoline @-@ powered vehicles . " The agency also announced it has developed interim guidance to increase awareness and identify appropriate safety measures regarding electric vehicles for the emergency response community , law enforcement officers , tow truck operators , storage facilities and consumers .
House of Representatives hearing
The chairman of the Subcommittee on Regulatory Affairs , Stimulus Oversight and Government Spending , U.S. Representative Jim Jordan held hearings on January 25 , 2012 , to investigate why the NHTSA opened a formal investigation only five months after the first postcrash battery fire occurred in June . The subcommittee of the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform wanted to determine if government officials , including from NHTSA , purposely held back information on the Volt fire for political reasons . Both Daniel Akerson , General Motors CEO , and David L. Strickland , NHTSA administrator , denied any wrongdoing .
= = Reception = =
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
The Volt has received awards from multiple organizations :
U.S. organizations
2009 Green Car Vision Award by the Green Car Journal at the Washington Auto Show for " a bold and far @-@ reaching approach that promises to bring an exceptionally fuel efficient model to consumers at reasonable cost . "
2011 Car and Driver Ten Best Cars . For the first time ever Car and Driver magazine included an electrically powered car among its 10 best .
2011 Motor Trend Car of the Year . The magazine commented that " In the 61 @-@ year history of the Car of the Year award , there have been few contenders as hyped – or as controversial – as the Chevrolet Volt . "
2011 Green Car of the Year by Green Car Journal . The magazine editors explained that " This award welcomes a new genre of mass @-@ production electric vehicles to the consumer market , with the Volt as the first @-@ ever electric vehicle to take top prize . "
2011 Automobile of the Year by Automobile Magazine . The editors commented that the Volt " ... is genuinely an all @-@ new car , in the most simplistic sense as well as in the greater notion that the Volt is unlike any vehicle we have ever driven . "
2011 North American Car of the Year announced at the 2011 North American International Auto Show . Forty @-@ nine American and Canadian automobile writers chose the Volt . The nominees were judged based on " innovation , design , safety , handling , driver satisfaction and value " .
Listed among the 2011 Greenest Vehicles of the Year by the American Council for an Energy @-@ Efficient Economy .
Listed among the 2011 Best Green Cars by Mother Earth News .
2011 Edison Award - Gold in the Transportation Category , Personal Transportation Segment .
2012 Best Resale Value Award in the category of electric cars by Kelley Blue Book .
2011 The Volt ranked first in Consumer Reports ' list of owner @-@ satisfaction based on its 2011 Annual Auto Survey , with 93 % respondents who owned the Volt saying they definitely would purchase that same vehicle again . The magazine noted that the Volt had been on sale for just a few months at the time of the survey , and also clarified that the survey took place before the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration investigation regarding the Volt 's battery fire risk .
2012 Total Cost of Ownership Award in the electric car category , granted by Kelley Blue Book for the lowest projected costs during initial five @-@ year ownership period in its category .
2012 The Volt ranked first , for a second year in a row , in Consumer Reports ' list of owner @-@ satisfaction based on its 2012 Annual Auto Survey , with 92 % respondents who owned the Volt saying they definitely would purchase that same vehicle again .
2016 Green Car of the Year by Green Car Journal ( awarded to the second generation Volt ) . The Chevrolet Volt is the first model to receive this award more than once .
International organizations
2009 Festival Automobile International awarded the Grand Prize for Environment to the Volt .
2011 World Green Car announced at the 2011 New York Auto Show .
2012 International Engine of the Year Award in the category of Green Engine , shared by the Opel Ampera and the Chevrolet Volt for their 1 @.@ 4 L engine @-@ based extended @-@ range electric powertrain .
European organizations
2011 Overall Winner of What Car ? Green Awards , granted by the UK magazine to the Vauxhall Ampera .
2011 Top Gear 's " Green Car of the Year 2011 " to the Vauxhall Ampera .
2012 Car of the Year in Denmark . In October 2011 , 18 Danish motor journalists chose the Opel Ampera as " Car of the Year 2012 " by a wide margin , despite being more expensive than the family cars the award usually goes to .
2012 European Car of the Year , shared by the Chevrolet Volt and the Opel / Vauxhall . The Ampera / Volt became the first car developed in the U.S. to win this European award .
2013 Green Mobility Trophy . Readers of Auto Zeitung in Germany awarded the Opel Ampera the throphy and named the mid @-@ size sedan the best electric vehicle .
Rest of the world organizations
2012 Drive 's Green Innovation Award to the Holden Volt , as part of the Australia 's Drive Car of the Year Awards .
= = = Reviews and test drives = = =
The following tables summarize the results of long @-@ term tests reported by specialized media .
Notes :
1 . ^ The EPA run tests used a reproducible methodology to produce results that can be compared between vehicles and test sites . The remainder of the results were obtained using un @-@ controlled driving cycles and are comparable neither to each nor between different vehicles .
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= A Passion for Churches =
A Passion for Churches is a 1974 BBC television documentary written and presented by the then Poet Laureate Sir John Betjeman and produced and directed by Edward Mirzoeff . Commissioned as a follow @-@ up to the critically acclaimed 1973 documentary Metro @-@ land , the film offers Betjeman 's personal poetic record of the goings @-@ on taking place throughout the Anglican Diocese of Norwich and its churches in the run @-@ up to Easter Sunday using the framing device of the Holy sacraments .
Created with the approval of the Bishop of Norwich , Maurice Wood , the 49 @-@ minute film was shot on location in Norfolk and parts of Suffolk throughout the spring of 1974 on 16 mm colour film by cameraman John McGlashan . For the film , John Betjeman wrote an original poetic commentary consisting of blank verse , free verse , and prose and he appeared on @-@ screen in several segments to describe features of ecclesiastical buildings and to reminisce about his lifelong " passion for churches " .
The programme was praised by critics upon its original BBC 2 screening in December 1974 and gained high audience appreciation figures . It has since been repeated on BBC Four in 2006 . It was released on a limited @-@ edition DVD in 2007 .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Following the success of the 1973 film Metro @-@ land , which documented life in suburban London , Edward Mirzoeff was commissioned to create a new documentary with John Betjeman . Mirzoeff noticed that aside from suburban themes , the Church of England was the other major influence on Betjeman 's poetry . His proposal to the poet was for a study of the Church of England to be titled Failed in Divinity , a line derived from Betjeman 's poetic autobiography Summoned by Bells , in which the poet relates how was sent down from the University of Oxford after failing a compulsory examination on divinity . In Mirzoeff 's first treatment , Betjeman would have embarked on a journey around Britain studying fine cathedrals , churches and their congregations . Betjeman ruled against the title , but liked the idea , although he was keen that the film should be primarily about the Church and its people , and not himself .
Following this early proposal , Mirzoeff and Betjeman realised that a study of the whole Church would be too ambitious , and instead decided to set the film within one diocese . Betjeman initially suggested the Diocese of Southwark , owing to a friendship with the then @-@ Bishop of Southwark , Mervyn Stockwood . Mirzoeff was not keen , given that Southwark was primarily an urban diocese . A disastrous meeting with the bishop ( who was " high @-@ handed , arrogant and very , very rude " ) led to that idea being scrapped .
Film editor Ted Roberts suggested the Diocese of Norwich , as Norfolk is noted for the density of its medieval churches in a variety of urban , coastal and rural locations . In addition , Betjeman was close friends with Lady Wilhelmina " Billa " Harrod ( to whom he had once been engaged ) , who resided at The Old Rectory , Holt . She was greatly involved with saving redundant churches and was personal friends with the Bishop of Norwich , Maurice Wood , and was also able to provide the crew with accommodation . Early location @-@ scouting proved fruitful , and the production was bolstered by a meeting with Bishop Wood in March 1974 , during which the bishop , after initial reluctance , gave the production his blessing . Filming began in April 1974 .
= = = Filming = = =
The documentary was shot on 16 mm colour film by cameraman John McGlashan , who had also worked on the BBC 's M.R. James series of adaptations A Ghost Story for Christmas , of which the early installments were entirely filmed in Norfolk ( Betjeman was a fan of Jamesian ghost stories , and often read them to the crew while travelling to locations ) . McGlashan was also a part @-@ time priest for a Liberal Catholic church , and was able to bring to the production additional knowledge of the Sacraments .
After deciding against the original " Failed in Divinity " preface , it was decided to open the film with Betjeman remembering a Norfolk rowing holiday from his youth in which his father pointed out the tower of St Peter 's church in Belaugh . This moment , he said , led to his lifelong " passion for churches " , a phrase that would eventually form the title of the film . The crew decided to film Betjeman revisiting this location on the River Bure , although on several occasions the poet nearly capsized his rowing boat .
The production work was exhaustive , involving the filming of numerous churches in Norfolk , both ancient and more modern . Many of the clergymen featured in the programme were discovered by accident or by word @-@ of @-@ mouth . For example , the production researcher managed to find , on request , a vicar who had an extensive model railway in his rectory , another whose ministry was based on water ( the Chaplain of the Broads ) and a vicar whose congregation at the time numbered zero .
Several of the services featured in the film were one @-@ off events . For example , the wedding was shot at Lyng , where the bride 's father was the rector . The bridegroom , Nigel McCulloch , went on to become the Bishop of Manchester . The production encountered difficulties with obtaining some footage ; while filming a Seaman 's Mission from Great Yarmouth , a wave flooded the boat , ruining the sound @-@ recording equipment , and a sequence featuring an open @-@ air service taking place at daybreak on Easter Sunday at the most easterly point of the UK — at Ness Point , Lowestoft — was nearly missed after the sound recordist overslept .
= = = Poetry = = =
The commentary alternates between blank verse , free verse , and prose . Although Betjeman had accompanied the production on most of its shoots , his poetic commentary was only written in the weeks after the film had already been edited by Roberts . According to Mirzoeff , he would run sequences from the film for hours , searching for inspiration in the rhythm of the editing , sometimes sitting in a small cupboard to help himself concentrate . Mirzoeff notes that he found writing the text for A Passion for Churches more of a strain than for his previous film since he had to take into consideration both his own beliefs and those of his friends . Sometimes members of the crew would help him by writing their own verses for him to use or modify . One particular sequence proved so difficult to write that Betjeman flew into a rage after the director pressured him to hurry the composition along . Mirzoeff suggests that several sequences , such as the scene about redundancy and death , provoked verse of much greater " complexity and depth " than any heard in his previous screen appearances .
= = Synopsis = =
The film is roughly based on themes suggested by the Anglican sacraments . It opens with Betjeman 's recollection of how a boating holiday by Belaugh in Norfolk inspired his " Passion for Churches " . After a montage of church architecture with the musical accompaniment of the barrel organ of Bressingham , the focus shifts to St Margaret 's , Cley next the Sea , where Betjeman introduces the viewer to its features . The scene then switches to a baptism in Trunch and later a children 's service in Mattishall . Also seen are the restoration of the medieval screen at Ranworth and examples of surviving Norwich glass . Betjeman then journeys to Norwich , which has more surviving medieval churches than London , Bristol and York combined . At Norwich Cathedral , the centre of the diocese , he attends a Mothers ' Union meeting with the Bishop , and later the institution of a new rector to the living of Holt . Betjeman tells the viewer about the Elizabethan vicarage of Great Snoring . Later seen are a vicar busily writing his newsletter at Weston Longville , a parish meeting at Letheringsett and a fête at South Raynham . Betjeman presents the three @-@ storey pulpit of St Mary 's Bylaugh and the brass @-@ rubbing at Felbrigg . A wedding takes place in Lyng and in the tower , change ringers explain their addiction to bell @-@ ringing .
Betjeman explores the ruins of St Benet 's Abbey before seeing its modern equivalent at a convent of Anglican nuns at the Community of All Hallows , Ditchingham . Betjeman then takes the North Norfolk Railway to Walsingham to see the Anglican pilgrims going to the church of Our Lady of Walsingham . After a look at the Queen 's church in Sandringham and the unusual Victorian church at Booton , choir practices are seen in progress at Martham and Wymondham Abbey . Exulting the work of Sir Ninian Comper at Lound , Suffolk , Betjeman recalls that he looked like Colonel Sanders . As Easter Day approaches , Betjeman reflects on the furthest reaches of the diocese - water @-@ borne ministries , a parish church in Flordon that no one attends , as well as the fate of those churches declared redundant ; conversion into hospitals , an artists ' studio , a shoe store and dereliction . Easter Day breaks in Lowestoft , and the viewer sees traditionally dressed ladies from the Almshouses in Castle Rising . The film concludes back in Norwich as parishioners of St Peter Mancroft , and parishioners from churches all around the county summoned by bells , walk to worship .
= = Reception and release = =
Mirzoeff recalls that A Passion for Churches created a minor internal disagreement at the BBC since the film , produced by the General Features Department , discussed a subject considered to be the territory of the Religious Broadcasting Department . The head of the department insisted on a screening , but was placated by the presence of the poet and Prime Minister Harold Wilson 's wife , Mary , at a private showing held in November 1974 , and he gave the film his approval .
Critical reception to the film was generally very positive : the Times Literary Supplement named it " Sir John 's masterpiece to date " and the Financial Times described it as " extremely good " . Television playwright Dennis Potter was also highly complimentary , writing his New Statesman review in verse as a tribute . Only the Eastern Daily Press felt that the film was too short and lacking in detail . But it responded favourably to the repeat , claiming that its original criticisms had led to the film being much improved . In fact not one single frame had been changed . Audience response was recorded as " exceptionally enthusiastic " and Betjeman himself was pleased with the result , although of his films he still favoured Metro @-@ land .
A Passion for Churches was revived by BBC Four in 2006 to mark the centenary of the poet 's birth . It was subsequently released on a limited @-@ edition DVD in 2007 with notes by the producer and two additional short films by the poet .
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= German destroyer Z14 Friedrich Ihn =
Z14 Friedrich Ihn was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . The ship was named after the First World War German naval officer Friedrich Ihn . At the beginning of World War II , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the German Bight to lay defensive minefields in German waters . In late 1939 and early 1940 , the ship laid multiple offensive minefields off the English coast that claimed 18 merchant ships and a destroyer . Ihn was under repair during the Norwegian Campaign of early 1940 and was transferred to France later that year .
After a lengthy refit in Germany , she returned to France in early 1941 where she escorted returning warships , commerce raiders , and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay for several months . She remained in Germany for the rest of the year after returning in July . The ship was transferred to France in early 1942 to escort the capital ships as they sailed through the English Channel to return to Germany ( the Channel Dash ) . Ihn was then transferred to Norway where she participated in several unsuccessful attacks on convoys to the Soviet Union . Afterwards she returned to Germany and remained there for the rest of the year . The ship spent most of 1943 in the northern Norway although she was mostly inactive because of fuel shortages . Ihn was ordered home for a long refit late in the year and she was sent to southern Norway upon its completion in mid @-@ 1944 . The ship remained there for the rest of the war , although she made several trips to evacuate refugees from East Prussia in the last days of the war .
Ihn was eventually allocated to the Soviets when the surviving warships were divided between the Allies after the war . Little is known about her service with the Soviet Navy and she was probably scrapped sometime in the 1960s .
= = Design and description = =
Friedrich Ihn had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 239 long tons ( 2 @,@ 275 t ) at standard and 3 @,@ 165 long tons ( 3 @,@ 216 t ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Friedrich Ihn carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . The ship 's crew consisted of 10 officers and 315 sailors .
Friedrich Ihn carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Sufficient depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of sixteen charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of sixty mines . ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines and an active sonar system was installed by February 1941 .
During the war the ship 's light anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented several times . In April 1941 , improved 2 cm C / 38 guns replaced the original C / 30 guns and three additional guns were added . The two guns on the aft shelter deck were replaced at some point by a single 2 cm quadruple Flakvierling mount , probably in 1942 . Sometime in 1944 – 45 , Ihn received a partial " Barbara " anti @-@ aircraft refit where twin 2 cm mounts replaced her singles , giving her a total of 18 2 cm barrels .
= = Construction and career = =
Friedrich Ihn , named after the commander of the torpedo boat SMS S @-@ 35 killed during the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , was ordered on 19 January 1935 from Blohm & Voss . She was laid down at their shipyard in Hamburg on 30 May 1935 as yard number B503 , launched on 5 November 1935 and completed on 6 April 1938 . The ship participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 3rd Destroyer Division . On 23 – 24 March 1939 , Friedrich Ihn was one of the destroyers escorting Adolf Hitler aboard the pocket battleship Deutschland as the Germans occupied Memel . She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May .
When World War II began , Friedrich Ihn was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sister ships in laying defensive minefields . She also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods in October . The ship was scheduled to conduct a minelaying operation off the British coast in early November , but it was cancelled when one of the other destroyers assigned to participate suffered machinery problems from contaminated fuel oil .
On the night of 12 / 13 December , German destroyers sortied to lay minefields off the British coast . Under the command of Commodore ( Kommodore ) Friedrich Bonte in his flagship Hermann Künne , Friedrich Ihn , Bruno Heinemann , Richard Beitzen , and Erich Steinbrinck laid 240 mines off the mouth of the River Tyne , where the navigation lights were still lit . The British were unaware of the minefield 's existence and lost eleven ships totaling 18 @,@ 979 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The destroyers were later ordered to escort the crippled light cruisers Leipzig and Nürnberg which had been torpedoed by the submarine HMS Salmon while covering the destroyers ' withdrawal . Ihn and Steinbrinck had machinery problems en route and were forced to return to port before they reached the cruisers . Ihn and her sisters Friedrich Eckoldt and Steinbrinck sortied again on the night of 18 December , but the British had turned off the navigation lights off Orfordness and the German were forced to abandon the attempt because they could not locate themselves precisely enough to lay the minefield in the proper position .
= = = 1940 = = =
Another minefield of 170 magnetic mines was laid by Ihn , Eckolt , and her sister Steinbrinck on the night of 6 / 7 January 1940 off the Thames Estuary . The destroyer HMS Grenville and six merchant ships totalling 21 @,@ 617 GRT were lost to this minefield as well and another ship was damaged as well . Bonte led a destroyer minelaying sortie to the Newcastle area on the night of 10 / 11 January with Ihn , Heidkamp , Eckoldt , Anton Schmitt , Beitzen , and Karl Galster . Ihn had problems with her boilers that reduced her maximum speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) and she had to be escorted back to Germany by Beitzen . This minefield only claimed one fishing trawler of 251 tons .
Ihn was under repairs during Operation Weserübung in April and did not leave the dockyard until May when she began working up as part of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla . The flotilla was transferred to the Atlantic Coast of France in early September and was attacked by Bristol Blenheim bombers of the Royal Air Force on 11 September while crossing the Baie de la Seine without result , although Ihn was near @-@ missed . Now based at Brest the flotilla laid a minefield in Falmouth Bay during the night of 28 / 29 September . Five ships totalling only 2 @,@ 026 GRT were sunk by this minefield . Led by Kapitän zur See Erich Bey , Ihn and four other destroyers sortied for the Southwest Approaches on 17 October and were intercepted by a British force of two light cruisers and five destroyers . The British opened fire at extreme range and were forced to disengage in the face of long @-@ range torpedo volleys and attacks by Luftwaffe bombers without having hit any of the German ships . Ihn returned home on 7 November for a refit in Stettin .
Her refit was completed in late January 1941 , but she was trapped by thick ice so that she could not reach Gotenhafen to work up until mid @-@ February . Ihn returned to France in April where she was based at La Pallice . There she was primarily occupied with escorting returning commerce raiders , warships and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay to bases in France . These included the raider Thor on 22 April , the supply ship Nordland , and the fleet oiler Ermland in late May . The heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen was escorted to Brest in early June after separating from the battleship Bismarck during Operation Rheinübung . Ihn sailed from Brest on 27 July for another refit and was ineffectually attacked by British motor torpedo boats ( MTB ) off Calais that same day .
= = = 1942 = = =
The ship remained in German waters for the rest of the year after completing her refit . She was sent to Brest in February 1942 to escort the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst , as well as Prinz Eugen through the English Channel back to Germany ( Operation Cerberus ) . During the voyage , Ihn twice engaged British MTBs and shot down two Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers . Shortly afterwards , the ship joined four other destroyers in escorting Prinz Eugen and the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer to Trondheim , Norway . Heavy weather forced Ihn and two other destroyers to return to port before reaching Trondheim and Prinz Eugen was badly damaged by a British submarine after their separation .
On 6 March , the battleship Tirpitz , escorted by Ihn and three other destroyers , sortied to attack the returning convoy QP 8 and the Russia @-@ bound PQ 12 as part of Operation Sportpalast ( Sports Palace ) . That night the weather worsened and Ihn suffered some damage to her bridge and forward gun mount from high waves . The following morning , Admiral Otto Ciliax , commanding the operation , ordered the destroyers to search independently for Allied ships and they stumbled across the 2 @,@ 815 @-@ GRT Soviet freighter Ijora , a straggler from QP 8 later that afternoon and sank her . Tirpitz rejoined them shortly afterwards and Ciliax ordered Ihn to Harstad to refuel . The destroyer rejoined the battleship in the morning and was able to shoot down one of five Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers from the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious that unsuccessfully attacked the German ships at 10 : 20 . Two hours later both ships arrived back in port .
By May , Ihn was flagship of Captain Fritz Berger of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla and she was assigned to escort Tirpitz during Operation Rösselsprung ( Knight 's Move ) , the attack on the Russia @-@ bound Convoy PQ 17 . The ships sailed from Trondheim on 2 July for the first stage of the operation , although all three of the other destroyers assigned to Tirpitz 's escort ran aground in the dark and heavy fog and were forced to return to port for repairs . Tirpitz , the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and Ihn arrived at Altafjord on 4 July , but they were recalled shortly after sortieing on the 5th and never engaged any Allied ships . She escorted Galster , one of the destroyers that had run aground , back to Germany on 12 July .
= = = 1943 – 45 = = =
Ihn was refitted after her arrival and remained in the Baltic Sea for the rest of the year . On 9 January 1943 , together with two other destroyers , she escorted Scharnhorst and Prinz Eugen as they attempted to return to Norway from Gotenhafen . The ships were spotted en route two days later by an aircraft from the Royal Air Force and the attempt was abandoned as the element of surprise was lost . Another attempt was made in March , although just with Scharnhorst , and Ihn joined her escort off Kristiansand , Norway , on 7 March . Heavy weather forced the destroyer to put in to Bergen , Norway , although the battleship reached Trondheim . Ihn was transferred to Narvik , Norway at the end of April , although the shortage of fuel severely limited her activities in the Arctic . She was ordered home to refit in November , a lengthy one that lasted until June 1944 . She was then stationed at Horten , Norway for the rest of the year , where she was employed on convoy escort and minelaying duties , mainly in the Skagerrak . The ship received a brief refit at Swinemünde in November that augmented her anti @-@ aircraft armament and returned to Horten where she remained until May 1945 . On 5 May , Ihn sailed from Denmark to Hela where she loaded refugees that she ferried to Copenhagen the following day . She immediately turned around and returned to Hela for another load that she delivered to Glücksburg , Germany , on the 8th . She surrendered at Flensburg by the next day .
= = = Post @-@ War = = =
The ship was moved to Wilhelmshaven over the summer under British control while the division of the surviving warships was decided among the victorious Allies . While this was being argued the ships were overhauled with a small maintenance crew aboard to preserve their value . The Allied Tripartite Commission allocated Ihn to the Soviet Union at the end of 1945 . By this time she had developed some problems with her boilers and the British proposed to swap her for Theodor Reidel to avoid forcing the Soviets to wait for her to be repaired . They refused and Ihn was repaired more quickly than had been estimated with additional spare boiler parts loaded aboard for the voyage . Commissioned into the Soviet Navy as Prytky ( Russian : Прыткий ) , the ship served in the Baltic fleet until she was struck from the list on 22 March 1952 and sold for scrap .
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= Vermont Route 17 =
Vermont Route 17 ( VT 17 ) is a 40 @.@ 409 @-@ mile ( 65 @.@ 032 km ) long state highway in western Vermont in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at the New York state line in Addison , where it connects to New York State Route 185 ( NY 185 ) by way of the Lake Champlain Bridge . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with VT 100 in Waitsfield . VT 17 was initially much shorter than it is today , extending from the Champlain Bridge to Addison upon assignment . It was extended east through the Green Mountains to Waitsfield in 1965 .
= = Route description = =
The routing of VT 17 varies greatly on opposite sides of the Bristol town center . West of Bristol , the route passes through generally level terrain and connects multiple communities . East of Bristol , VT 17 is more mountainous and more rural in nature .
= = = West of Bristol = = =
VT 17 begins at the New York state line over Lake Champlain , where it connects to NY 185 at the midpoint of the Lake Champlain Bridge . The route heads northeastward from the state line , descending the eastern bridge approach and intersecting VT 125 adjacent to the Chimney Point State Historical Site at Chimney Point . It continues northward along the lakeshore of Addison County and the town of Addison for roughly 2 miles ( 3 km ) ( passing D.A.R. State Park ) before turning eastward toward the village of Addison .
In the center of Addison , situated 6 miles ( 10 km ) from Lake Champlain , VT 17 intersects VT 22A . VT 17 continues east from Addison , crossing over the Otter Creek and intersecting VT 23 near Weybridge prior to curving to the northeast toward Waltham . Midway between Waltham and New Haven , VT 17 briefly overlaps with U.S. Route 7 ( US 7 ) , before continuing eastward through New Haven to Bristol . As the route approaches the village of Bristol , it meets VT 116 at an intersection just west of the community . VT 116 turns east here , joining VT 17 through Bristol along Main Street .
= = = East of Bristol = = =
Outside Bristol , VT 17 and VT 116 are joined by the New Haven River , here marking the northern boundary of the Green Mountain National Forest . The roadway and waterway head east , following a winding route through the Green Mountains . When New Haven splits off to the southeast shortly afterward , VT 17 and VT 116 continue north along Baldwin Creek up to the point where VT 17 and VT 116 diverge . While VT 116 continues north along Beaver Brook , VT 17 remains in the vicinity of Baldwin Creek as it heads northeast through the Green Mountains .
Midway between Bristol and Waitsfield , VT 17 intersects Gore Road , a local road that leads to eastern Burlington 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the north . The route crosses into Chittenden County , as well as the Camel 's Hump State Park , shortly afterward . The route leaves Chittenden County and passes into Washington County 2 miles ( 3 km ) later upon traversing the Appalachian Gap , a mountain pass located to the north of Mount Ellen . East of the gap , VT 17 continues through the eastern Green Mountains for 6 miles ( 10 km ) to Waitsfield , where it terminates at VT 100 .
= = History = =
The road connecting the ferry landing at Chimney Point to the town center of Addison was designated as VT F @-@ 7 ca . 1927 . The ferry crossed Lake Champlain into Port Henry . VT F @-@ 7 was extended eastward to US 7 in New Haven by 1929 . In 1929 , the Champlain Bridge opened , connecting Chimney Point to Crown Point . By the following year , the segment of VT F @-@ 7 west of VT 30A ( now VT 22A ) in Addison was renumbered to VT 17 , which now began on the Champlain Bridge at the New York state line . In 1933 , all of VT 17 and the portion of VT F @-@ 7 's former routing between Addison and New Haven were added to the state highway system . Prior to this time , maintenance of both roads was performed by the towns through which they passed . VT 17 was subsequently extended eastward to New Haven along VT F @-@ 7 's former routing . As part of the 1935 state highway expansion , additional mileage was added to VT 17 , which was extended 4 @.@ 3 miles ( 6 @.@ 9 km ) to VT 116 in Bristol .
In 1936 , a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) portion of the McCullough Turnpike in Fayston , which was chartered in 1933 but proved unprofitable , was deeded back to the state of Vermont and renamed to McCullough State Highway . The road , which extended eastward from the Chittenden – Washington county line , was paved during the period of 1936 and 1940 . The rest of the McCullough Turnpike to VT 100 in Waitsfield became part of the state highway system in 1956 . In 1965 , the state legislature authorized the extension of VT 17 from Bristol to the Addison – Chittenden county line , connecting it to the McCullough State Highway by way of Chittenden County 's section of the former McCullough Turnpike . The VT 17 designation was extended eastward through Chittenden County and along the McCullough State Highway at this time .
VT 17 's connection to the state of New York was temporarily severed in October 2009 when the Champlain Bridge was closed due to safety concerns . The bridge was demolished two months later , truncating VT 17 to the eastern shoreline of Lake Champlain until its replacement , the Lake Champlain Bridge , opened to traffic on November 7 , 2011 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Neil Hamilton Fairley =
Brigadier Sir Neil Hamilton Fairley KBE CStJ FRACP FRCP FRCPE FRS ( 15 July 1891 – 19 April 1966 ) was an Australian physician , medical scientist , and army officer ; who was instrumental in saving thousands of Allied lives from malaria and other diseases .
A graduate of the University of Melbourne , Fairley joined the Australian Army Medical Corps in 1915 . He investigated an epidemic of meningitis that was occurring in Army camps in Australia . While with the 14th General Hospital in Cairo , he investigated schistosomiasis ( then known as bilharzia ) and developed tests and treatments for the disease . In the inter @-@ war period he became renowned as an expert on tropical medicine .
Fairley returned to the Australian Army during the Second World War as Director of Medicine . He played an important role in the planning for the Battle of Greece , convincing the British Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Sir Archibald Wavell to alter his campaign plan to reduce the danger from malaria . In the South West Pacific Area , Fairley became responsible for co @-@ ordinating the activities of all allied forces in the fight against malaria and other tropical diseases . Fairley again sounded the alarm on the dangers of malaria , persuading authorities in the United States and United Kingdom to greatly step up production of anti @-@ malarial drugs . Through the activities of the LHQ Medical Research Unit , he fast @-@ tracked research into new drugs . Fairley convinced the Army of the efficacy of the new drug atebrin , and persuaded commanders to adopt a tough approach to administering the drug to the troops .
After the war Fairley returned to London where he became a consulting physician to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases and Wellcome Professor of Tropical Medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine . A serious illness in 1948 forced him to resign his professorship , but he retained his practice and membership of numerous committees , becoming an " elder statesman " of tropical medicine .
= = Early life = =
Neil Hamilton Fairley was born in Inglewood , Victoria , on 15 July 1891 , as the third of six sons of James Fairley , a bank manager , and his wife Margaret Louisa , née Jones . All of their four sons who survived to adulthood took up medicine as a career . One qualified as a Doctor of Medicine at the University of Melbourne and an FRCS in England and became a surgeon ; he was later killed in action in the First World War . A second also qualified as a Doctor of Medicine at the University of Melbourne , and later as an FRACP and FRCP ; he became senior physician at Royal Melbourne Hospital . A third son became a general practitioner .
Neil was educated at Scotch College , Melbourne , where he was dux of his class . He attended the University of Melbourne , graduating with his Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery ( MBBS ) with first class honours in 1915 , and his Doctor of Medicine ( MD ) in 1917 . While there , he won the Australian inter @-@ varsity high jumping championship and represented Victoria in tennis .
= = First World War = =
Fairley joined the Australian Army Medical Corps with the rank of captain on 1 August 1915 and was posted to Royal Melbourne Hospital as a resident medical officer . He investigated an epidemic of meningitis that was occurring in local Army camps , and his first published paper was an analysis of this disease , documenting fifty cases . In 1916 , he co @-@ authored a monograph published by the Federal government detailing 644 cases , of which 338 ( 52 % ) were fatal , this being before the invention of antibiotic drugs .
Fairley enlisted in the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 24 August 1916 . On 5 September 1916 , he embarked for Egypt on RMS Kashgar , joining the 14th General Hospital in Cairo . There he encountered Major Charles Martin , formerly Professor of Physiology at the University of Melbourne and Director of the Lister Institute from 1903 to 1930 . At this time , Martin was working as a Consulting Physician to the AIF in Egypt and commanded the Anzac Field Laboratory .
While in Egypt , Fairley investigated schistosomiasis ( then known as bilharzia ) . The disease was known to be caused by contact with fresh water inhabited by certain species of snails , and orders had been issued that prohibited bathing in fresh water , but the troops were slow to appreciate the danger involved . In its toxic phase , the disease was easily confused with typhus , so Fairley developed a complement fixation test for the disease along the lines of the Wassermann test . He studied its pathology , confirming that the worms in the circulatory system could be cured by intravenous tartaric acid . Fairley also studied , and later published papers on typhus , malaria , and bacillary dysentery .
Fairley married Staff Nurse Violet May Phillips at the Garrison Church , Abbassia , Cairo on 12 February 1919 . They later divorced on 21 November 1924 . He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 15 March 1919 and commanded the 14th General Hospital for a time before embarking for the United Kingdom in June 1919 . For his services in the First World War , Fairley was mentioned in despatches and made an Officer of the Military Division of the Order of the British Empire . His citation read :
Brilliant work in Pathology – the result of eighteen months of patient and skilful work in the laboratory of the 14th Australian General Hospital . His work on Bilharzia will be of untold value to the civilian population of Egypt .
= = Between the wars = =
Fairley was one of a number of AIF officers granted leave " to visit various hospitals in the United Kingdom so that they become conversant with the latest developments in the medical sciences " . For a time , he worked for Martin at the Lister Institute in London where he qualified for membership of the Royal College of Physicians of London . He also received a Diploma of Public Health from the University of Cambridge . He returned to Australia on the transport Orontes in February 1920 , to become a research assistant to Sydney Patterson , director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research , where Fairley worked on developing a test for echinococcosis along the lines of the test that he had already developed for bilharzia .
Fairley remained for less than a year before resigning to take up a five @-@ year appointment in Bombay as Chair of Clinical Tropical Medicine at a newly created School of Tropical Medicine , a post for which he had been nominated by the Royal Society . On arrival in India , he found that the scheme had been abandoned and that as his appointment could be terminated at six @-@ months ' notice , he would no longer be required after October 1922 . Fairley demanded and received an audience with the Governor of Bombay , Sir George Lloyd , the result of which was that the Secretary of State agreed to create a special five @-@ year post of Medical Officer of the Bombay Bacteriological Laboratory and Honorary Consulting Physician to the Sir Jamshedjee Jeejebhoy Hospital and St George Hospital .
In India , Fairley continued his research into schistosomiasis . The disease was unknown in India but snails were abundant and there was danger that troops returning from Egypt might introduce it . In the absence of human schistosoma , Fairley investigated bovine schistosoma , which infected water buffalo and other domesticated animals in the Bombay area . Experiments with monkeys proved that daily intravenous doses of tartaric acid were an effective treatment . Fairley also carried out pioneering work on Guinea worm disease ( dracunculiasis ) . However , his main interest was Tropical sprue . But he was unable to determine its cause or discover a cure ; in spite of contracting the disease himself and making some advances in its treatment . He was invalided out of India , travelling to the United Kingdom to recuperate in 1925 . While in India he had met Mary Evelyn Greaves , and they were married at the Presbyterian Church , Marylebone , on 28 October 1925 .
Fairley returned to Australia in 1927 and rejoined the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute . He worked there for two years , collaborating with the new director , Charles Kellaway in studies of snake venoms and with Harold Dew on the development of diagnostic tests for echinococcosis . Fairley dedicated most of 1928 to the snake venom programme , co @-@ ordinating an enormous body of epidemiological data – including a questionnaire to Australian clinicians – on the frequency and outcome of bites by Australian elapid snakes . This work involved numerous milkings to establish typical and maximal venom yields , innovative studies of snake dentition using wax moulds , and detailed dissections to describe each species ' biting apparatus . Fairley furthermore undertook in vivo studies of envenomation in a range of large animal species , to determine the efficacy of prevailing first @-@ aid measures . He concluded that at best , ligature and local venesection might slow time to death after a significant envenomation . This reinforced the need for effective antivenenes ( antivenoms ) for the more dangerous local species of snakes , notably the tiger snake ( Notechis scutatus ) , death adder ( Acanthophis antarcticus ) and copperhead ( Austrelaps superbus ) , although only the former was suitable for manufacture by the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories ( now CSL Limited ) .
In 1928 , Fairley received an appointment in London as Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases and Lecturer at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine . Although he and Kellaway convinced the governors to delay Fairley 's commencement until their major venom work was completed , he departed for London by the end of that year . He also opened a consulting practice in Harley Street . In London he encountered patients with filariasis and devised a test to diagnose the disease at an early stage ; but when he went to write up his results he discovered that details of a similar test had already been published . In 1934 , a sewer worker was referred to his ward with acute jaundice which Fairley diagnosed as caused by filariasis . The disease was revealed to be an occupational hazard of sewer workers , and steps were taken to protect the workers . Perhaps his most important work in this period was research into blackwater fever . Since malaria cases were uncommon in the United Kingdom , he made annual visits to the Malaria Research Laboratory of the League of Nations at the Refugee Hospital in Salonika . In the process , he described methaemalbumin , a previously unknown blood pigment . For his scientific accomplishments in London , Fairley was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1942 .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Middle East = = =
With the outbreak of the Second World War , the Australian Army 's director general of medical services , Major General Rupert Downes tapped Fairley as consulting physician . Fairley was seconded to the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) with the rank of colonel on 15 July 1940 and given the serial number VX38970 . He joined the AIF Headquarters in Cairo in September , taking advantage of the initial quiet period to familiarise himself with the AIF 's medical units and their commanders . As the British Army in the Middle East had no consulting physician in tropical diseases , Fairley accepted an offer to act in this capacity as well .
In January 1941 the British Army began planning for operations in Greece . Fairley and his British colleague , Colonel J. S. K. Boyd , the consulting pathologist , drafted a medical appreciation . Drawing on the experience of the Salonika front in the First World War , where very heavy casualties suffered from malaria , plus Fairley 's more recent experience in that part of the world , they painted a gloomy picture , emphasising the grave risks , and going so far as to suggest that the Germans might attempt to entice the allies into a summer campaign in which they could be destroyed by malaria . The British Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Sir Archibald Wavell decried their report as " typical of a very non @-@ medical and non @-@ military spirit " , but a face @-@ to @-@ face meeting with Boyd and Fairley convinced Wavell that they were serious and not merely uncooperative , and Wavell promised his assistance in mitigating the danger . The campaign plan was altered to position allied forces further south , away from the plains of Macedonia and the Vardar and Struma River basins , where malaria was hyper @-@ endemic and heavy casualties had been suffered from malaria by British troops during the First World War .
Fairley tackled an outbreak of bacilliary dysentery among the troops in Egypt . In most cases the patients recovered of their own accord but some cases of shigellosis became seriously ill and died . Fairley had some Shiga anti @-@ toxin with him , but it proved ineffective in serious cases , even when administered in large doses . However , he also had an experimental supply of sulphaguanidine that had been given to him by Dr E. K. Marshall of Johns Hopkins Hospital . The drug was administered to a patient with severe shigellosis who was not expected to live , and the patient soon recovered . Of the 21 @,@ 015 Australian soldiers who contracted bacilliary dysentery during the Second World War , only 21 died .
Malaria again became a concern in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign . The Australian Army raised malaria control units for the first time and as soon as the operational situation permitted swamps and areas of open water were drained and mosquito breeding areas were sprayed . There were 2 @,@ 435 cases of malaria in the AIF in 1941 , a rate of 31 @.@ 8 per thousand per year . Quinine was used as a prophylaxis . On Fairley 's advice , patients with relapses were treated with intravenous quinine for three days followed by a course of atebrin and plasmoquine . For his services in the Middle East , Fairley was mentioned in despatches a second time , and made a Commander of the Military Division Order of the British Empire for his " immense and specialised knowledge of tropical diseases in the Middle East " .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
With the entry of Japan into the war , Fairley flew to Java in January 1942 . Fairley was well aware that Java produced 90 % of the world 's supply of quinine and that the implications would be serious if Java was lost . He arranged for the purchase of all available stocks of quinine , some 120 long tons ( 120 t ) . Fairley was informed that the quinine had been loaded on board two ships . One was never seen again . The other , the SS Klang , reached Fremantle in March . Although 20 long tons ( 20 t ) of quinine was loaded on board , it was apparently unloaded when the ship stopped at Tjilatjap , possibly due to fifth columnists . Thus , none of the shipment reached Australia . Fairley himself departed Java with the I Corps staff on the transport Orcades on 21 February 1942 shortly before Java fell .
In General Sir Thomas Blamey 's reorganisation of the Australian Army in April 1942 , Fairley was appointed director of medicine at Allied Land Forces Headquarters ( LHQ ) in Melbourne . Fairley was soon facing a series of medical emergencies caused by the Kokoda Track campaign . An epidemic of bacillary dysentery was headed off by Fairley 's decision to rush all available supplies of sulphaguanadine to New Guinea . On Fairley 's advice every man who complained of diarrhoea was given the drug and the epidemic was brought under control in ten days .
But Fairley 's main concern was malaria . Despite the experience with malaria in the Middle East , most of the troops had a poor understanding of anti @-@ malaria precautions and few medical officers had encountered the disease . In combination with critical shortages of drugs and anti @-@ malarial supplies such as netting , insecticides and repellents , the result was a medical disaster . In the 13 @-@ week period from 31 October 1942 to 1 January 1943 , the Army reported 4 @,@ 137 battle casualties , but 14 @,@ 011 casualties from tropical diseases , of which 12 @,@ 240 were from malaria . The government grimly contemplated disbanding divisions to replace malaria casualties . " Our worst enemy in New Guinea , " General Blamey declared , " is not the Nip — it ’ s the bite . "
This caused Blamey to despatch a medical mission headed by Fairley to the United States and the United Kingdom in September 1942 to present the Army 's case for a more adequate and equitable share of anti @-@ malarial supplies . The mission was successful . Fairley was able to secure supplies and expedite the delivery of those that were already on order but held up for lack of shipping or priority . In bringing the problem to the attention of the highest allied military and civil authorities overseas , he lifted the global profile and priority of malaria control measures .
It was calculated that Allied requirements for atebrin would be 200 long tons ( 200 t ) per annum , of which 50 long tons ( 51 t ) would be manufactured in the United Kingdom and 150 long tons ( 150 t ) in the United States . American production in 1942 was estimated at 60 tons but efforts were soon under way to increase production . The possibility of producing atebrin in Australia was considered , but the drug was complicated to synthesise and required little shipping space , although steps were taken to produce mosquito repellent . As in the Middle East , the Army relied on a combination of quinine , atebrin and plasmoquine ( QAP ) to cure malaria . The United States and United Kingdom agreed to each produce two tons of plasmoquine each per annum . The requested drugs and supplies began arriving in December 1942 .
As " one of the reasons for the lamentable record in malaria control in 1942 and early 1943 was the absence of medical authority at the level of the theatre commander 's headquarters " , Fairley suggested that there be a body responsible for co @-@ ordinating the activities of all allied forces in the South West Pacific Area . General Blamey took the matter up with the General Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander . MacArthur , who had himself suffered an attack of malaria back in 1904 ( and a serious relapse the next year ) , created the Combined Advisory Committee on Tropical Medicine , Hygiene and Sanitation with Colonel Fairley as its chairman in March 1943 . After its first meeting , Fairley met with MacArthur , who emphasised that he did not wish the committee to concern itself with matters of academic interest but to make concrete recommendations on essential medical matters . The committee proceeded to make a series of recommendations regarding training , discipline , equipment , procedures and priorities , which then went out as GHQ orders to all commands .
Fairley 's proposed use of atebrin as a prophylactic agent was accepted and Fairley switched the Australian Army over to using atebrin as a prophylaxis instead of quinine in March 1943 . The most acute problem at this time was a shortage of atebrin . The Australian Army had only seven weeks ' stock was on hand in March 1943 and US forces in both the South West Pacific and South Pacific Area were drawing on Australian Army stocks as they had not yet received adequate stocks of their own . The drug is also a dye , and had the known side effect of making the skin and eyeballs of the user go yellow in colour after repeated use but this was an acceptable drawback in wartime . Prolonged use could cause lichen planus and psychosis in rare cases , but atebrin still turned out to be much safer than quinine . Blackwater fever — which had a mortality rate of 25 % — disappeared entirely .
Fairley was acutely aware that much remained unknown about malaria . In particular , he was interested in the possibility that sulphaguanidine ( or a related sulphonamide ) might be a causal prophylactic against malaria , as they could be manufactured in Australia , unlike atebrin and plasmoquine . Fairley decided to establish a unit in Cairns to investigate malaria . The LHQ Medical Research Unit commenced work in June 1943 .
Fairley travelled to New Guinea at the end of June 1943 and arranged for Plasmodium falciparum cases to be evacuated to Cairns for treatment . As the flight time from Port Moresby to Cairns was only a few hours , this was considered safe , but since the disease can be fatal if not treated promptly , Fairley was concerned lest the cases be delayed for some reason . Movement Control suggested that a special priority be allocated to such cases , and Major General Frank Berryman suggested calling it priority Neil after Fairley himself . Because movement priorities had to have five letters , an extra L was added on the end . Priority Neill soon came to be applied to the entire Cairns project .
The LHQ Medical Research Unit used human test subjects , all volunteers drawn from the Australian Army , including a small but notable group of ' Dunera Boys ' ( Jewish refugees ) from the 8th Employment Company . The volunteers were infected with strains of malaria from infected mosquitoes of from the blood of other test subjects , which was then treated with various drugs . The volunteers were rewarded with three weeks ' leave and a certificate of appreciation signed by General Blamey . The LHQ Medical Research Unit researched quinine , sulphonamides , atebrin , plasmoquine , and paludrine .
In June 1944 , a conference was held at Atherton , Queensland on " Prevention of Disease in Warfare " . Chaired by Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee , the commander of the First Army , it was attended by key corps and division commanders . Fairley , who had been promoted to brigadier in February 1944 , described the results of the work at Cairns on anti @-@ malarial drugs ; other officers described practical measures that could be taken to reduce the toll of disease on the men . The Director General of Medical Services , Major General S. R. ( Ginger ) Burston , told the senior commanders " the ball is in your court " .
Using draconian drills that required officers to place atebrin tablets in their men 's mouths , the army attempted to reduce the incidence of malaria to zero . For the most part they were successful but in the Aitape @-@ Wewak campaign the 6th Division suffered an epidemic of malaria despite its best efforts . Fairley was urgently recalled from a tour of South East Asia Command and given orders by General Blamey to personally proceed to Wewak and investigate the situation . A special section was formed from the LHQ Medical Research Unit to assist the 6th Division and certain relapsing personnel were evacuated to Cairns . The epidemic was ultimately brought under control by doubling the dosage of atebrin . Fairley was forced to confront the fact — confirmed by research at Cairns — that an atebrin resistant strain of malaria had arisen . The ability of malaria to develop resistant strains would have profound implications in the post @-@ war world .
= = Later life = =
After the war Australian medical research was substantially reorganised , but Fairley joined the ranks of senior Australian medical scientists who spent the remainder of their professional lives in Britain . In London he became consulting physician to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases and Wellcome Professor of Tropical Medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine . His early post war research was a continuation of his wartime work on malaria . He became seriously ill in 1948 and his health steadily declined thereafter , forcing him to resign his professorship . He retained his practice and membership of numerous committees , becoming an " elder statesman " of tropical medicine . In recognition of his service to tropical medicine , he was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 8 June 1950 .
Fairley 's declining health prompted him to leave London and move to The Grove , Sonning , Berkshire , where he died on 19 April 1966 , and was buried in the graveyard of St Andrew 's Church , Sonning . He was survived by his wife and their two sons , who were both medical doctors , and also by the son of his first marriage , who had become an Australian Army officer . His son Gordon Hamilton @-@ Fairley , a renowned oncologist , was killed by a Provisional Irish Republican Army bomb on 22 October 1975 .
Sir William Dargie painted a portrait of Fairley in 1943 , which is in the possession the Fairley family . A later 1960 portrait by Dargie , together with a 1945 one by Nora Heysen , is in the Australian War Memorial . Neither is on display , although the latter can be viewed online . A 1954 Dargie portrait of Queen Elizabeth II painted while Dargie was staying at Fairley 's home at 81 Duke Street , Grosvenor Square , in London , and subsequently given to Fairley , was sold at auction to the National Museum of Australia in 2009 for $ 120 @,@ 000 . Fairley 's papers are in the Basser Library at the Australian Academy of Science . He is commemorated by the Neil Hamilton Fairley Overseas Clinical Fellowship , which provides full @-@ time training in Australia and overseas in areas of clinical research including the social and behavioural sciences .
= = Medical awards and prizes = =
1920 Dublin Research Prize
1921 David Syme Research Prize and Medal
1931 Chalmers Memorial Medal for Research in Tropical Medicine
1945 Bancroft Memorial Medal
1946 Richard Pierson Strong Medal , American Foundation of Tropical Medicine
1948 Moxon Medal , Royal College of Physicians
1949 Mary Kingsley Medal , Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine
1950 Manson Medal , Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
1951 James Cook Medal , Royal Society of NSW
1957 Buchanan Medal , Royal Society of London
Source : Boyd 1966 , p . 141
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= The Castle of Cagliostro =
The Castle of Cagliostro ( Japanese : ルパン三世 カリオストロの城 , Hepburn : Rupan Sansei : Kariosutoro no Shiro , Lupin the Third : Castle of Cagliostro ) is a 1979 Japanese animated adventure comedy film co @-@ written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki in his feature @-@ length directorial debut . It is the second film featuring Monkey Punch 's master thief Arsène Lupin III , from his manga series Lupin III . The film was Miyazaki 's first time directing a theatrical feature after having previously worked as an animator for Toei Animation and TMS Entertainment and directing several shows including Lupin III and two episodes of Lupin III Part II .
The Castle of Cagliostro follows gentleman thief Arsène Lupin III , who successfully robs a casino – only to find the money to be counterfeit . He heads to the tiny country of Cagliostro , the rumoured source of the bills , and attempts to save the runaway Clarisse from the Count Cagliostro 's men . Lupin enlists his associates , Jigen and Goemon , and sends his calling card to the Count to get Inspector Zenigata , his longtime nemesis , to the castle . After becoming trapped in the dungeon under the castle , Lupin and Zenigata form a pact to escape and foil the Count 's counterfeit operation and save Clarisse from her forced marriage to the Count .
The original theatrical release in Japan occurred on 15 December 1979 . The American theatrical debut was on 3 April 1991 , with the home release following in October 1992 . This first dub was produced by Streamline Pictures and released on home video the following year . A new dubbed version was produced by Manga Entertainment in 2000 and has had several releases .
= = Plot = =
Master thief Arsène Lupin III and his colleague , Daisuke Jigen , flee the Monte Carlo Casino with huge quantities of stolen money . They escape in Lupin 's Fiat 500 , but Lupin recognizes the bills as distinctively high quality counterfeits . Deciding to seek out the source , they head to the Grand Duchy of Cagliostro , the alleged wellspring of the counterfeits .
Shortly after arriving , they rescue a young woman being pursued by a gang of thugs , with her and Lupin falling off a cliff while escaping . Lupin is knocked unconscious , and the woman captured , but she leaves him a signet ring . Lupin recognizes the woman as Clarisse , the princess of Cagliostro , who will soon be married to Count Cagliostro , the country 's regent . The Count 's arranged marriage will cement his power and recover the fabled ancient treasure of Cagliostro , for which he needs both his and Clarisse 's ancestral rings .
A squad of assassins attack Lupin and Jigen at their inn but fail to kill them or recover the ring . Lupin leaves his calling card on the back of Jodo , the Count 's butler and chief assassin , announcing he is going to steal Clarisse . Lupin summons Goemon Ishikawa XIII to aid their quest to rescue the princess and tips off his longtime pursuer , Inspector Koichi Zenigata , to his whereabouts to provide a distraction . Zenigata 's presence and a party give Lupin enough time to sneak into the castle . There he finds his on @-@ off lover , Fujiko Mine , posing as Clarisse 's lady @-@ in @-@ waiting , who tells him where the princess is being held . Lupin makes his way to Clarisse and returns her ring , vowing to help her to escape . Before he can act , the Count drops Lupin down a trapdoor into the castle 's catacombs , as Lupin had planned . Lupin mocks the Count through the ring he gave to Clarisse – a fake containing a transmitter – and the Count sends three assassins to retrieve the real ring .
Lupin encounters Zenigata , who was accidentally dropped down earlier , and they form a pact to help each other escape . After overpowering the assassins , they escape into a room full of printing presses — the source of the counterfeits . Zenigata wants to collect evidence , but Lupin points out they must escape the castle first . They start a fire as a distraction and steal the Count 's autogyro . However , as they attempt to rescue Clarisse , Lupin is shot . Clarisse offers the ring to the Count in exchange for Lupin 's life . After securing the ring , the Count 's attempt at betrayal is foiled when Fujiko 's actions allow her , Lupin , and Zenigata to flee . As Lupin recovers from his injuries , Zenigata attempts to convince his superiors at Interpol to prosecute the Count for counterfeiting , but fearing political repercussions , they halt the investigation and remove him from the case . Meanwhile , Lupin intends to stop the wedding and rescue the princess . He also reveals his reasons for rescuing Clarisse to Jigen , Goemon and her former groundskeeper — as a young girl , she had saved his life during his unsuccessful first attempt to find the source of the counterfeit bills ten years earlier . Fujiko tips off Lupin on a way to sneak into the castle , and forms a plan with Zenigata to publicly reveal the counterfeiting operation under the cover of pursuing Lupin .
The wedding appears to go as planned with a drugged Clarisse until Lupin 's " ghost " disrupts the ceremony . The Count calls his guards , but Lupin makes off with Clarisse and both her and the Count 's rings . Meanwhile , Zenigata and his squadron arrive in the chaos and the inspector leads Fujiko , posing as a television reporter , to the Count 's counterfeiting facility to expose the operation to the world . The Count pursues Lupin and Clarisse to the face of the castle 's clock tower . Lupin is forced to surrender the rings to save Clarisse , and they are both knocked into the lake surrounding the tower . After using the rings to reveal the secret of Cagliostro , the Count is killed by the mechanism as it moves to unveil the treasure . Lupin and Clarisse watch as the lake around the castle drains to reveal exquisite ancient Roman ruins — the true treasure of Cagliostro . Lupin and his friends bid farewell to Clarisse , now the rightful ruler of Cagliostro . With Zenigata pursuing them again and Fujiko fleeing with the plates from counterfeit printing presses , Lupin and the gang drive off into the city of Cagliostro , with the police behind them .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Lupin III began as a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Monkey Punch . The title character , Arsène Lupin III , was inspired by ( and is claimed in the series to be the grandson of ) Maurice Leblanc 's fictional character Arsène Lupin , a gallant and famous outlaw able to outsmart even Sherlock Holmes . Lupin III is a gentleman thief and announces his intentions to steal valuable objects by sending a calling card to the owners of the desired items . The manga 's popularity led to two anime series , titled Lupin III and Lupin III Part II . The first film , The Mystery of Mamo , was released on 16 December 1978 . Cagliostro followed the year later following the financial success of that film . The film marked the directorial film debut of Miyazaki , who had previously co @-@ directed episodes of the first Lupin anime series with Isao Takahata . He was also a writer and director of two episodes in the second series under the pseudonym " Telecom " , both produced a year after Cagliostro . In works other than Castle of Cagliostro and the series episodes directed by Miyazaki and Takahata , Lupin III is portrayed as a scheming and lecherous thief , sometimes supported by his former enemies Jigen and Goemon . Miyazaki 's film conflicts with the typical behavior and personality of the characters , a change that has been described as Lupin " growing up " .
Castle of Cagliostro marked Miyazaki 's debut as a theatrical movie director , but he also was a writer , a designer , and a storyboardist on the movie . The production for the film began in May 1979 with the writing of the story and storyboarding for the film . Miyazaki began by drawing a bird 's eye view of the setting before creating the story to completion . After the first draft scenario was returned to Miyazaki without change , he began the storyboards . The story was divided into four parts , but after reaching the third part changes had to be made at the storyboard phase in order to not exceed the decided running time . Animation work began in July while the storyboards were only a quarter complete ; Miyazaki had to complete them during the animation production . Production wrapped up at the end of November and the film 's premier on 15 December 1979 was a short seven and a half months from the project 's undertaking , with only five months of production time .
The film draws upon many sources of inspiration that were important in the production of the film . McCarthy writes that a research trip was not specifically undertaken for the film , but says Miyazaki 's Heidi sketchbooks were useful for the scenery . Miyazaki would cite Italian Mountain Cities and the Tiber Estuary from Kagoshima Publishing as influencing the production of the film . The film included elements that were seen in other Arsène Lupin works , including La Justice d 'Arsène Lupin by Boileau @-@ Narcejac , involving the discovery of a tremendous stash of forged franc notes with which World War I – era Germany had planned to destabilize the French economy . Maurice Leblanc 's The Green @-@ eyed Lady also featured a secret treasure hidden at the bottom of a lake . The castle is visually influenced by that of the original 1952 unfinished release of The Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep . Greenberg writes , " Cagliostro also borrowed many narrative and visual elements from Grimault 's film : the basic plotline of disrupting the wedding of an evil tyrant and a beautiful innocent girl , the tyrant 's luxuriously @-@ decorated palace that is also full of traps , and a gang of henchmen serving the tyrant – both oversized goons and ninja @-@ like assassins ... " The staff added personal touches to the film , the most iconic being Lupin 's car , the Fiat 500 , was the car of head animator Yasuo Ōtsuka . Clarisse 's car in the chase scene is a Citroen 2CV , which is Miyazaki 's first car .
McCarthy describes the summery color palette of the film as matching the scenery and the characters , but notes the use of dark and light colors are used to emphasize the subplot of the dark and light sides of the Cagliostros . The film 's score was composed by series regular Yuji Ohno , and varies between jazz , romance and orchestral music . Notably , it includes a variation of Lupin III 's iconic TV theme . The music was performed by You & The Explosion Band , who had previously worked on the second television series . The main vocal song " Fire Treasure " was performed by Bobby ( aka Toshie Kihara ) and saw release as an LP single . The first release of the soundtrack was Lupin the 3rd The Castle of Cagliostro Original Soundtrack BGM Collection , an album containing extended versions of select cues from the film . It was originally sold on vinyl and cassette tape in 1983 , but later saw release on CD in 1985 with several additional prints runs . In 2003 , the entire score was finally released on a newly commissioned album entitled Lupin the 3rd : The Castle of Cagliostro – Music File and also contained 13 unused cues .
Castle of Cagliostro 's portrayal of the characters was changed to better identify with Miyazaki 's concept of a " hero " and to remove a sense of apathy in the story . This resulted in Lupin being a happy @-@ go @-@ lucky and upbeat thief who drives and lives out of a Fiat 500 ; a sharp contrast to the scheming and lecherous Lupin who drives expensive cars like the Mercedes @-@ Benz SSK because it was " Hitler 's favorite " . The changes would also impact secondary characters like Jigen and Goemon , changing their serious and cold personalities into friendly and humorous ; even the erotic elements involving the femme @-@ fatale Fujiko were dropped .
Fred Patten , who worked at Streamline Pictures was involved in the English adaptation of the film and was involved in the choice of title for the English release , " The Japanese title is Lupin III : Cagliostro no Shiro , which is literally Lupin III : Cagliostro of Castle [ sic ] . So which would be better in English ; Cagliostro Castle , Cagliostro ’ s Castle , or The Castle of Cagliostro ? It was my argument that The Castle of Cagliostro sounded the most sinister . Cagliostro Castle is just a castle ’ s name , like Windsor Castle , but the Castle of Cagliostro emphasizes that it is the evil Count ’ s lair ! "
= = Critical analysis = =
In his first director role , Miyazaki deploys numerous examples of his style to great effect . Dani Cavallaro highlights the signature details of Miyazaki 's style and form being displayed in this work and how it impacts the portrayal of the story . Cagliostro , the country and setting , is depicted in meticulous detail and unconstrained by limitations of architecture , geography and culture , which can be described as " akogare no Paris " ( Paris of our dreams ) , which is a fantastical view of Europe through Eastern eyes . The use of unexpected and unique camera angles and attention to individual movement of the characters are distinctive signatures of Miyazaki 's style , including the opening heist scene which provides characterization and spirit to understanding the character of Lupin . The changes made to the portrayal of the cast , depicting a heroic and selfless Lupin , a friendly Jigen , funny Goemon , and un @-@ sexualized Fujiko , were initially not well received by fans . Otaku USA 's Surat described compared this shift to " a James Bond movie where [ James Bond ] stayed at Motel 6 and his " Bond mobile " was a Toyota Camry ! "
= = Releases = =
The film 's Japanese theatrical release was on 15 December 1979 . A year later , Tokyo Movie Shinsha began screen testing the film in North America and it was notably shown at the World Science Fiction Convention in Boston for a marketing survey . It was later screened at other festivals during the 1980s , including FILMEX 82 in Los Angeles . Despite resounding acclaim from the screenings , many of them were unsuccessful . According to Fred Patten , the primary reason was that , " most people did not bother to come to it since it was " only " an animated @-@ cartoon feature , not a " serious " live @-@ action movie . "
The American theatrical debut was on 3 April 1991 in New York City by Carl Macek 's Streamline Pictures , with the home release following in October 1992 . Streamline 's dub contains several deviations from the original Japanese script , but is more accurate with lip synching of the dialogue in comparison to Manga Entertainment 's later dub ( see below ) . Due to copyright issues with Maurice LeBlanc 's estate , Lupin is referred to as " the Wolf . " Inspector Koichi Zenigata is erroneously named " Keibu Zenigata , " likely due to a translation error ( keibu being the Japanese title for a police inspector ) . The UK release followed on 10 June 1996 by Manga Video . Optimum Releasing re @-@ released Cagliostro in the UK after Manga Entertainment lost its license in the UK . The new DVD features an anamorphic widescreen print with the original Japanese audio track as well as the Streamline dub , both in stereo .
In 2000 , Manga released the film on home video in the United States with a newly commissioned dub that adhered closer to the original script with the correct names restored . The DVD preserves the film in its original aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 85 : 1 widescreen and is non @-@ anamorphic . It additionally features remastered audio and picture , but contains no extras . The same company later released a new special edition DVD of Cagliostro in 2006 . The disc is double @-@ sided with the film on side A and the extras on side B. It includes a new digital transfer ; Manga 's English dub in 2 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 1 surround plus Japanese , Spanish , and French language tracks in mono ; the complete film in storyboard format , accompanied by Japanese audio with English subtitles ; an original Japanese trailer ; a sketch and still gallery ; a 26 @-@ minute interview with animation director Yasuo Ōtsuka , and animated menus . The film is presented in 16 : 9 anamorphic widescreen ; however , the opening credits have been heavily re @-@ edited to remove the Japanese credits , instead using selected still @-@ frames of scenes that appear without Japanese writing . The English @-@ translated names are superimposed over these stills . This change was negatively received by fans of the film . Both DVD releases are out @-@ of @-@ print , with Manga no longer owning the U.S. film rights .
In December 2008 , the film was released on Blu @-@ ray in Japan . Its video format is MPEG @-@ 4 AVC and its digitally @-@ remastered audio is improved over that of the DVD , but contains no English audio or subtitle options despite being in Region A format . Years later , a new HD digital remaster was produced and Cagliostro was given a limited theatrical re @-@ release in Japan on 9 May 2014 . The remaster was released both individually and as part of The Collected Works of Hayao Miyazaki , a box set containing all of Miyazaki 's movies . Both these newer releases were released by Studio Ghibli in conjunction with Disney . StudioCanal released a Blu @-@ ray and DVD bundle of the film on 12 November 2012 in the UK . The StudioCanal release is of superior quality with its new high definition transfer , but the credits for the film are absent . North American anime distributor Discotek Media announced on 26 March 2014 that they had licensed the film and planned to release it on DVD in 2014 , with a Blu @-@ ray release to follow at a then @-@ unspecified future date . The DVD version was eventually delayed to 6 January 2015 and included the Streamline and Animaze / Manga dubs , a " Family Friendly " alternate version of the Animaze / Manga dub with reduced profanity , the original Japanese audio with newly translated English subtitles , an alternate subtitle option based on the subtitles used by TMS in their 1980 screenings of the film , a text @-@ based overview of the film 's production history , translation notes , two trailers and a fan @-@ made audio commentary by Reed Nelson . The Blu @-@ ray was released on 25 June 2015 and featured the same extras in addition to another alternate subtitle option using a literal translation of the film 's screenplay , new interviews with David Hayter and Bob Bergen , an introduction to the film by Hayter , translated past interviews from the French Blu @-@ ray ( featuring Yasuo Ōtsuka , Kazuhide Tomonaga and Monkey Punch ) , an optional storyboard viewing mode , a slideshow gallery of production and promotional art , and a collection of alternate openings to the film . Plans to include an emulated port of Cliff Hanger as an extra feature for the Blu @-@ ray were dropped when the original contracts for the game could not be found . The Castle of Cagliostro was included in Disney 's The Collected Works of Hayao Miyazaki Blu @-@ ray set released on 17 November 2015 , but does not contain any of Discotek 's extras .
= = Reception = =
While the film was not initially a box @-@ office success , it gained popularity through numerous re @-@ releases and was even voted as " the best anime in history " by the readers of Animage . Following a July 1992 release by Streamline Pictures , Janet Maslin said she thought the film " should fare nearly as well [ as Akira ] with animation fans of any age , provided they are unwavering in their devotion to the form and do not think 100 minutes is an awfully long time . " According to Maslin , the film is an " interestingly wild hybrid of visual styles and cultural references " whose " animation is weak when it comes to fluid body movements , but outstanding in its attention to detail . " According to Marc Savlov of The Austin Chronicle , " C of C refrains from the Technicolor ultra @-@ violence that helped make films like Golgo 13 , Akira , and Vampire Hunter D such audience favorites , and instead focuses on broad , almost slapstick humor and chaos to keep viewers riveted . Sometimes it works , and unfortunately , sometimes it doesn 't . " Some fans maintain that it is not a " true " Lupin title , due to Miyazaki 's altering of the titular character into a bumbling hero , rather than his original ruthless criminal self . Monkey Punch , creator of Lupin III , called Castle of Cagliostro an " excellent " movie , but agreed Miyazaki 's vision of Lupin differs from his own . He said , " I wouldn ’ t have had him rescue the girl , I would have had him rape her ! "
In Dani Cavallaro 's The Anime Art of Hayao Miyazaki , the film was said to have received the " Award for Best Animated Feature " . The actual award was from the 1979 Mainichi Film Concours , where the film received the Ōfuji Noburō Award . No concrete evidence for this claim has even been put forward and the misinformation in the releases serves to cement its decades @-@ long persistence .
The film was the best selling anime DVD in May 2001 , and the third best selling in June . Both of Manga Entertainment 's releases of The Castle of Cagliostro received DVD Talk Collector Series recommendation status , the highest status given by the review website DVDtalk.com. Chris Beveridge of AnimeOnDVD.com gave the film a grade of " A + " , although he disliked Manga Entertainment 's use of PG @-@ 13 level language in the English dub . The Castle of Cagliostro placed in 5th place on Japan 's Agency for Cultural Affairs 's list of best anime .
= = Influence = =
The film has itself been an influence in a range of other productions . There is an unconfirmed rumor that film director Steven Spielberg saw a screening of The Castle of Cagliostro in the early 80 's . From that rumor , it would assume that Spielberg was so impressed with the film that it later influenced the action sequences in his Indiana Jones films and The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn . There is no evidence of Spielberg quoting the film , but Manga Entertainment 's DVD releases quote him saying " one of the greatest adventure movies of all time . " Another unverified statement has Spielberg calling the film 's car chase is " one of the greatest chase sequences ever filmed " . Sources believed that Spielberg had seen the film at the 1980 Cannes Film Festival , but Castle of Cagliostro was not shown that year according to official Cannes sources .
The character of Clarisse has also been cited as a potential ancestral example of moe character design , a trend Miyazaki would later criticize as leading to the promotion of unhealthy lolicon fetishism . In 1983 , TMS with Stern Electronics wanted to capitalize on the success of animated Laserdisc video games at the time . They released the arcade game , Cliff Hanger , which used footage from this film , along with the previous Lupin film The Mystery of Mamo . Even though the films themselves weren 't available in North America at the time , the Cliff Hanger game was featured in an episode of the game show Starcade .
Cagliostro deeply influenced Pixar co @-@ founder John Lasseter , along with Miyazaki 's later films ; in October 2014 , Lasseter delivered a keynote address to the Tokyo International Film Festival describing how Miyazaki 's influence upon his own life and work began when he first saw a clip from Cagliostro . Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 1986 film The Great Mouse Detective , co @-@ directed by John Musker and Ron Clements , paid homage to Cagliostro with the film 's climactic Big Ben sequence . Another reference to the clock @-@ tower fight is in " The Clock King " episode of Batman : The Animated Series . Gary Trousdale , co @-@ director of Disney 's Atlantis : The Lost Empire , admitted that a scene at the end of Atlantis , where the waters recede from the sunken city , was directly inspired from the ending in Cagliostro . One of the sequence directors of The Simpsons Movie also mentioned Cagliostro as an influence ; a brief shot where Bart Simpson rolls down the roof of the family house was inspired by Lupin running down the castle roof during his rescue attempt . Capcom 's Breath of Fire 3 video game also has a similar roof @-@ top scene involving a grappling hook .
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= Inner German border =
The inner German border ( German : innerdeutsche Grenze or deutsch @-@ deutsche Grenze ; initially also Zonengrenze ) was the border between the German Democratic Republic ( GDR , East Germany ) and the Federal Republic of Germany ( FRG , West Germany ) from 1949 to 1990 . Not including the similar but physically separate Berlin Wall , the border was 1 @,@ 393 kilometres ( 866 mi ) long and ran from the Baltic Sea to Czechoslovakia .
It was formally established on 1 July 1945 as the boundary between the Western and Soviet occupation zones of former Nazi Germany . On the eastern side , it was made one of the world 's most heavily fortified frontiers , defined by a continuous line of high metal fences and walls , barbed wire , alarms , anti @-@ vehicle ditches , watchtowers , automatic booby traps and minefields . It was patrolled by 50 @,@ 000 armed GDR guards who faced tens of thousands of West German , British and US guards and soldiers . In the hinterlands behind the border were more than a million North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ( NATO ) and Warsaw Pact troops .
The border was a physical manifestation of Winston Churchill 's metaphorical Iron Curtain that separated the Soviet and Western blocs during the Cold War . It marked the boundary between two ideological systems – capitalism and communism . Built by East Germany in phases from 1952 to the late 1980s , the fortifications were constructed to stop the large @-@ scale emigration of East German citizens to the West , about 1 @,@ 000 of whom are said to have died trying to cross it during its 45 @-@ year existence . It caused widespread economic and social disruption on both sides ; East Germans living in the region suffered especially draconian restrictions .
The better @-@ known Berlin Wall was a physically separate , less elaborate , and much shorter border barrier surrounding West Berlin , more than 155 kilometres ( 96 mi ) to the east of the inner German border ( Berlin having been similarly divided by the four powers after World War II , despite the entire city being in the Soviet zone , thus creating an enclave of capitalism surrounded by East German territory ) . On 9 November 1989 , the East German government announced the opening of the Berlin Wall and the inner German border . Over the following days , millions of East Germans poured into the West to visit . Hundreds of thousands moved permanently to the West in the following months as more crossings were opened , and ties between long @-@ divided communities were re @-@ established as border controls became little more than a cursory formality . The inner German border was not completely abandoned until 1 July 1990 , exactly 45 years to the day since its establishment , and only three months before German reunification formally ended Germany 's division .
Little remains of the inner German border 's fortifications . Its route has been declared part of a " European Green Belt " linking national parks and nature reserves along the course of the old Iron Curtain from the Arctic Circle to the Black Sea . Museums and memorials along the old border commemorate the division and reunification of Germany and , in some places , preserve elements of the fortifications .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
The inner German border originated from the Second World War Allies ' plans to divide a defeated Germany into occupation zones . The boundaries between these zones were drawn along the territorial boundaries of 19th @-@ century German states and provinces that had largely disappeared with the unification of Germany in 1871 . Three zones were agreed on , each covering roughly a third of Germany 's territories : a British zone in the north @-@ west , an American zone in the south and a Soviet zone in the East . France was later given a zone in the far west of Germany , carved out of the British and American zones .
The division of Germany was put into effect on 1 July 1945 . Because of their unexpectedly rapid advances through central Germany in the final weeks of the war , British and American troops occupied large areas of territory that had been assigned to the Soviet zone of occupation . The redeployment of Western troops prompted many Germans to flee to the West to escape the Soviet takeover of the remainder of the Soviet zone .
The wartime Allies initially worked together under the auspices of the Allied Control Council ( ACC ) for Germany . Cooperation between the Western Allies and the Soviets ultimately broke down because of disagreements over Germany 's political and economic future . In May 1949 , the three western occupation zones were merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany ( FRG ) with a freely elected government . The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic ( GDR ) , under communist rule .
From the outset , West Germany and the Allies rejected East Germany 's legitimacy . The creation of East Germany was deemed a communist / Soviet fait accompli , without a freely or fairly elected government . West Germany regarded German citizenship and rights as applying equally to East and West German citizens . An East German who escaped or was released to the West was automatically granted West German rights , including residence and the right to work ; West German laws were deemed to be applicable in the East . East Germans thus had a powerful incentive to move to the West , where they would enjoy greater freedom and economic prospects . The East German government sought to define the country as a legitimate state in its own right and portrayed West Germany as enemy territory ( feindliches Ausland ) – a capitalist , semi @-@ fascist state that exploited its citizens , sought to regain the lost territories of the Third Reich , and stood opposed to the peaceful socialism of the GDR .
= = = 1945 – 52 : the " Green Border " = = =
In the early days of the occupation , the Allies controlled traffic between the zones to manage the flow of refugees and prevent the escape of former Nazi officials and intelligence officers . These controls were gradually lifted in the Western zones , but were tightened between Western and Soviet zones in 1946 to stem a flow of economic and political refugees from the Soviet zone . Between October 1945 and June 1946 , 1 @.@ 6 million Germans left the Soviet zone for the west .
The east – west interzonal border became steadily more tense as the relationship between the Western Allies and the Soviets deteriorated . From September 1947 , an increasingly strict regime was imposed on the eastern Soviet zone boundary . The number of Soviet soldiers on the boundary was increased and supplemented with border guards from the newly established East German Volkspolizei ( " People 's Police " ) . Many unofficial crossing points were blocked with ditches and barricades . The West Germans also stepped up security with the establishment in 1952 of the Federal Border Protection force of 20 @,@ 000 men – the Bundesgrenzschutz , or BGS ; however , Allied troops ( the British in the north , the Americans in the south ) retained responsibility for the military security of the border .
The boundary line was nonetheless still fairly easy to cross . Local inhabitants were able to maintain fields on the other side , or even to live on one side and work on the other . Refugees were able to sneak across or bribe the guards , and the smuggling of goods in both directions was rife . The flow of emigrants remained large despite the increase in East German security measures : 675 @,@ 000 people fled to West Germany between 1949 and 1952 .
= = = 1952 – 67 : the " special regime " = = =
The relative openness of the border ended abruptly on 26 May 1952 , when the GDR implemented a " special regime on the demarcation line " , justified as a measure to keep out " spies , diversionists , terrorists and smugglers " . The East German move was taken to limit the continuing exodus of its citizens , which threatened the viability of the GDR 's economy .
A ploughed strip 10 m ( 32 @.@ 8 ft ) wide was created along the entire length of the inner German border . An adjoining " protective strip " ( Schutzstreifen ) 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) wide was placed under tight control . A " restricted zone " ( Sperrzone ) a further 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) wide was created in which only those holding a special permit could live or work . Trees and brush were cut down along the border to clear lines of sight for the guards and to eliminate cover for would @-@ be crossers . Houses adjoining the border were torn down , bridges were closed and barbed @-@ wire fencing was put up in many places . Farmers were permitted to work their fields along the border only in daylight hours and under the watch of armed guards , who were authorised to use weapons if their orders were not obeyed .
Border communities on both sides suffered acute disruption . Farms , coal mines and even houses were split in two by the sudden closure of the border . More than 8 @,@ 300 East German civilians living along the border were forcibly resettled in a programme codenamed " Operation Vermin " ( Aktion Ungeziefer ) . Another 3 @,@ 000 residents , realising that they were about to be expelled from their homes , fled to the West . The seal around the country was expanded in July 1962 , when the GDR declared its entire Baltic coast a border zone subject to closures and restrictions .
The border between East and West Berlin was also significantly tightened , although not fully closed ; East Germans were still able to cross into West Berlin , which then became the main route by which East Germans migrated to the West . Between 1949 and the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 , an estimated 3 @.@ 5 million East Germans – a sixth of the entire population – emigrated to the West , most via Berlin . The railways between East Berlin and other important parts of East Germany went through West Berlin , so an easy way of going to West Berlin was leaving such a train . This railway configuration could not easily be changed , but a new 125 km ( 78 mi ) long railway was built around West Berlin . Following the completion of Berlin outer ring in 1961 , sealing off the East German border with West Berlin became more feasible , and ultimately became a reality in August of that year .
= = = 1967 – 89 : the " modern frontier " = = =
The GDR decided to upgrade the fortifications in the late 1960s to establish a " modern frontier " that would be far more difficult to cross . Barbed @-@ wire fences were replaced with harder @-@ to @-@ climb expanded metal barriers ; directional anti @-@ personnel mines and anti @-@ vehicle ditches blocked the movement of people and vehicles ; tripwires and electric signals helped guards to detect escapees ; all @-@ weather patrol roads enabled rapid access to any point along the border ; and wooden guard towers were replaced with prefabricated concrete towers and observation bunkers .
Construction of the new border system started in September 1967 . Nearly 1 @,@ 300 kilometres ( 808 mi ) of new fencing was built , usually further back from the geographical line than the old barbed @-@ wire fences . The upgrade programme continued well into the 1980s . The new system immediately reduced the number of successful escapes from around 1 @,@ 000 people a year in the mid @-@ 1960s to only about 120 per year a decade later .
The introduction of West German Chancellor Willy Brandt 's Ostpolitik ( " Eastern Policy " ) at the end of the 1960s reduced tensions between the two German states . It led to a series of treaties and agreements in the early 1970s , most significantly a treaty in which East and West Germany recognised each other 's sovereignty and supported each other 's applications for UN membership , although East Germans leaving for the West retained the right to claim a West German passport . Reunification remained a theoretical objective for West Germany , but in practice that objective was put aside by the West and abandoned entirely by the East . New crossing points were established and East German crossing regulations were slightly relaxed , although the fortifications were as rigorously maintained as ever .
In 1988 , the GDR leadership considered proposals to replace the expensive and intrusive fortifications with a high @-@ technology system codenamed Grenze 2000 . Drawing on technology used by the Soviet Army during the Soviet – Afghan War , it would have replaced the fences with sensors and detectors . However , the plan was never implemented .
= = Economic and social impact = =
The closure of the border had a substantial economic and social impact on both halves of Germany . Cross @-@ border transport links were largely severed ; 10 main railway lines , 24 secondary lines , 23 autobahns or national roads , 140 regional roads and thousands of smaller roads , paths and waterways were blocked or otherwise interrupted . The tightest level of closure came in 1966 , by which time only six railway lines , three autobahns , one regional road and two waterways were left open . When relations between the two states eased in the 1970s , the GDR agreed to open more crossing points in exchange for economic assistance . Telephone and mail communications operated throughout the Cold War , although packages and letters were routinely opened and telephone calls were monitored by the East German secret police .
The economic impact of the border was harsh . Many towns and villages were severed from their markets and economic hinterlands , which caused areas close to the border to go into an economic and demographic decline . The two German states responded to the problem in different ways . West Germany gave substantial subsidies to communities under the " Aid to border regions " programme , an initiative begun in 1971 to save them from total decline . Infrastructure and businesses along the border benefited from substantial state investment .
East Germany 's communities had a much harder time , because the country was poorer and their government imposed severe restrictions on them . The border region was progressively depopulated through the clearance of numerous villages and the forced relocation of their inhabitants . Border towns suffered draconian building restrictions : inhabitants were forbidden from building new houses and even repairing existing buildings , causing infrastructure to fall into severe decay . The state did little but to provide a 15 % income supplement to those living in the Sperrzone and Schutzstreifen ; but this did not halt the shrinkage of the border population , as younger people moved elsewhere to find employment and better living conditions .
The GDR bore a huge economic cost for its creation of the border zone and the building and maintenance of its fortifications . The zone consumed around 6 @,@ 900 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 700 sq mi ) – more than six per cent of the East 's territory , within which economic activity was severely curtailed or ceased entirely . The actual cost of the border system was a closely guarded secret , and even today it is uncertain exactly how much it cost to build and maintain . The BT @-@ 9 watchtowers each cost around 65 @,@ 000 East German marks to build and the expanded metal fences cost around 151 @,@ 800 marks per kilometre . The implementation of the " modern frontier " in the 1970s led to a major increase in personnel costs . The total annual expenditure on GDR border troops rose from 600 million marks per annum in 1970 to nearly 1 billion by 1983 . In early 1989 , East German economists calculated that each arrest cost the equivalent of 2 @.@ 1 million marks , three times the average " value " to the state of each working person .
= = Views of the border = =
The two German governments promoted very different views of the border . The GDR saw it as the international frontier of a sovereign state – a defensive rampart against Western aggression . In Grenzer ( " Border Guard " ) , a 1981 East German Army propaganda film , NATO and West German troops and tanks were depicted as ruthless militarists advancing towards East Germany . Border troops interviewed in the film described what they saw as the rightfulness of their cause and the threat of Western agents , spies and provocateurs . Their colleagues killed on the border were hailed as heroes and schoolchildren in East Berlin were depicted saluting their memorial .
However , West German propaganda leaflets referred to the border as merely " the demarcation line of the Soviet occupation zone " , and emphasised the cruelty and injustice of the division of Germany . Signs along the Western side of the frontier declared " Hier ist Deutschland nicht zu Ende – Auch drüben ist Vaterland ! " ( " Germany does not end here : the Fatherland is over there too ! " )
Whereas the GDR kept its civilians well away from the border , the West Germans actively encouraged tourism , and locations where the border was especially intrusive became tourist attractions . One example was the divided village of Mödlareuth in Bavaria . The Associated Press reported in 1976 that " Western tourists by the busload come out to have their pictures taken against the backdrop of the latest Communist walled city [ and ] the concrete blockhouse and the bunker @-@ slits protruding from the green hillock where a collective 's cows were grazing . "
At Zimmerau , in Bavaria , a 38 @-@ metre ( 125 ft ) observation tower ( the Bayernturm ) was constructed in 1966 to give visitors a view across the hills into East Germany . The inhabitants of the East German village of Kella found themselves becoming a tourist attraction for Westerners in the 1970s and 1980s . A viewing point , the " Window on Kella " , was established on a nearby hilltop from which tourists could peer across the border with binoculars and telescopes . To the amusement of many , a nudist beach was opened on the Western side in 1975 immediately adjoining the border 's terminus near the Baltic Sea port of Travemünde . Visitors often sought to have a nude photograph taken below a looming East German watchtower ; the West Germans noted " a lot more movement on that watchtower since the nudist beach opened . "
= = Fortifications of the inner German border = =
The East German side of the inner German border was dominated by a complex system of fortifications and security zones , over 1 @,@ 300 kilometres ( 810 mi ) long and several kilometres deep . The fortifications were established in 1952 and reached a peak of complexity and lethality at the start of the 1980s . The border guards referred to the side of the border zone facing the GDR as the freundwärts ( literally " friendward " ) side and that facing the FRG as the feindwärts ( " enemyward " ) side .
= = = Restricted zone = = =
A person attempting to make an illegal crossing of the inner German border around 1980 , travelling from east to west , would first come to the " restricted zone " ( Sperrzone ) . This was a 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) wide area running parallel to the border to which access was heavily restricted . Its inhabitants could only enter and leave using special permits , were not permitted to enter other villages within the zone , and were subjected to night time curfews . It was not fenced off , but access roads were blocked by checkpoints .
On the far side of the Sperrzone was the signal fence ( Signalzaun ) , a continuous expanded metal fence 1 @,@ 185 kilometres ( 736 mi ) long and 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high . The fence was lined with low @-@ voltage electrified strands of barbed wire . When the wire was touched or cut , an alarm was activated to alert nearby guards .
= = = Protective strip = = =
On the other side of the signal fence lay the heavily guarded " protective strip " ( Schutzstreifen ) , 500 to 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 300 ft ) wide , which adjoined the border itself . It was monitored by guards stationed in concrete , steel and wooden watchtowers constructed at regular intervals along the entire length of the border . Nearly 700 such watchtowers had been built by 1989 ; each of the larger ones was equipped with a powerful 1 @,@ 000 @-@ watt rotating searchlight ( Suchscheinwerfer ) and firing ports to enable the guards to open fire without having to go outside . Their entrances were always positioned facing towards the East German side , so that observers in the West could not see guards going in or out . Around 1 @,@ 000 two @-@ man observation bunkers also stood along the length of the border .
Guard dogs were used to provide an additional deterrent to escapees . Dog runs ( Kettenlaufanlagen ) , consisting of a suspended wire up to 100 metres ( 330 ft ) long to which a large dog was chained , were installed on high @-@ risk sectors of the border . The dogs were occasionally turned loose in temporary pens adjoining gates or damaged sections of the fence .
The guards used an all @-@ weather patrol road ( Kolonnenweg , literally " column way " ) to patrol the border and travel rapidly to the scene of an attempted crossing . It consisted of two parallel lines of perforated concrete blocks that ran beside the border for around 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) .
Next to the Kolonnenweg was one of the control strips ( Kontrollstreifen ) , a line of bare earth running parallel to the fences along almost the entire length of the border . There were two control strips , both located on the inward @-@ facing sides of the fences . The secondary " K2 " strip , 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide , ran alongside the signal fence , while the primary " K6 " strip , 6 metres ( 20 ft ) wide , ran along the inside of the fence or wall . In places where the border was vulnerable to escape attempts , the control strip was illuminated at night by high @-@ intensity floodlights ( Beleuchtungsanlage ) , which were also used at points where rivers and streams crossed the border .
Anyone attempting to cross the control strips would leave footprints , which were quickly detected by patrols . This enabled the guards to identify otherwise undetected escape attempts , recording how many individuals had crossed , where escape attempts were being made and at which times of day escapees were active . From this information , the guards were able to determine where and when patrols needed to be increased , where improved surveillance from watchtowers and bunkers was required , and which areas needed additional fortifications .
Anti @-@ vehicle barriers were installed on the other side of the primary control strip . In some locations , Czech hedgehog barricades , known in German as Panzersperre or Stahligel ( " steel hedgehogs " ) , were used to prevent vehicles being used to cross the border . Elsewhere , V @-@ shaped anti @-@ vehicle ditches known as Kraftfahrzeug @-@ Sperrgraben ( KFZ @-@ Sperrgraben ) were installed along 829 kilometres ( 515 mi ) of the border and were absent only where natural obstacles such as streams , rivers , gullies or thick forests made such barriers unnecessary .
= = = Outer fence , walls and minefields = = =
The outer fences were constructed in a number of phases , starting with the initial fortification of the border from May 1952 . The first @-@ generation fence was a crudely constructed single barbed @-@ wire fence ( Stacheldrahtzaun ) which stood between 1 @.@ 2 and 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 and 8 @.@ 2 ft ) high and was built very close to the actual border line . This was replaced in the late 1950s with parallel rows of more strongly constructed barbed @-@ wire fences , sometimes with concertina wire placed between the fences as an additional obstacle .
A " third @-@ generation " fence , much more solidly constructed , was installed in an ongoing programme of improvements from the late 1960s to the 1980s . The fence line was moved back to create an outer strip between the fence and the actual border . The barbed @-@ wire fences were replaced with a barrier that was usually 3 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 0 metres ( 10 – 13 ft ) high . It was constructed with expanded metal mesh ( Metallgitterzaun ) panels . The openings in the mesh were generally too small to provide finger @-@ holds and were very sharp . The panels could not easily be pulled down , as they overlapped , and they could not be cut through with a bolt- or wire @-@ cutter . Nor could they be tunnelled under easily , as the bottom segment of the fences was partially buried in the ground . In a number of places , more lightly constructed fences ( Lichtsperren ) consisting of mesh and barbed wire lined the border . The fences were not continuous but could be crossed at a number of places . Gates were installed to enable guards to patrol up to the line and to give engineers access for maintenance on the outward @-@ facing side of the barrier .
In some places , villages adjoining the border were fenced with wooden board fences ( Holzlattenzaun ) or concrete barrier walls ( Betonsperrmauern ) standing around 3 – 4 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) high . Windows in buildings adjoining the border were bricked or boarded up , and buildings deemed too close to the border were pulled down . The barrier walls stood along only a small percentage of the border – 29 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 18 @.@ 1 mi ) of the total length by 1989 .
Anti @-@ personnel mines were installed along approximately half of the border 's length starting in 1966 ; by the 1980s , some 1 @.@ 3 million mines of various Soviet @-@ made types had been laid . In addition , from 1970 the outer fence was booby @-@ trapped with around 60 @,@ 000 SM @-@ 70 ( Splittermine @-@ 70 ) directional anti @-@ personnel mines . They were activated by tripwires connected to the firing mechanism . This detonated a horn @-@ shaped charge filled with shrapnel that was sprayed in one direction along the line of the fence . The device was potentially lethal to a range of around 120 metres ( 390 ft ) . The mines were eventually removed by the end of 1984 in the face of international condemnation of the East German government .
= = = Border line = = =
Until the late 1960s , the fortifications were constructed almost up to the actual border line . When the third @-@ generation fortifications were constructed , the fences were moved back from between 20 metres ( 66 ft ) to as much as 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) . This gave the guards a clear field of fire to target escapees without shots landing in the West and provided a buffer zone where engineers could work on maintaining the outward face of the fence in East German territory . Access to the outer strip was very tightly controlled , to ensure that the guards themselves would not be tempted to escape . Although often described by Western sources as a " no @-@ man 's land " , it was de jure wholly East German territory , and escapees could be arrested or shot . Westerners were prohibited from entering the area and thus could not go to the aid of escapees .
The actual line between West and East Germany was located on the far side of the outer strip . It was marked by granite stones ( Grenzsteine ) with the letters " DDR " carved on the west @-@ facing edge . Around 2 @,@ 600 distinctive East German concrete " barber pole " ( Grenzsäule or Grenzpfähle ) markers were installed just behind the border line at intervals of about 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) . A metal coat of arms of East Germany ( Staatsemblem ) was fixed to the side of the marker facing West Germany .
On the West German side , there were no fortifications of any kind , nor even any patrol roads in most areas . Warning signs ( Grenzschilder ) with messages such as Achtung ! Zonengrenze ! ( " Danger ! Zonal border ! " ) or Halt ! Hier Zonengrenze ( " Stop ! Zonal border here " ) notified visitors . Foreign military personnel were restricted from approaching the border to avoid clashes or other unwanted incidents . Signs in English and German provided notifications of the distance to the border to prevent accidental crossings . No such restriction applied to Western civilians , who were free to go up to the border line , and there were no physical obstacles to stop their crossing it .
= = East Germany 's sea border = =
The inner German border system also extended along the Baltic coast , dubbed the " blue border " or sea border of the GDR . The coastline was partly fortified along the east side mouth of the river Trave opposite the West German port of Travemünde . Watchtowers , walls and fences stood along the marshy shoreline to deter escape attempts and the water was patrolled by high @-@ speed East German boats . The continuous line of the inner German border ended at the peninsula of Priwall , still belonging to Travemünde , but already on the east side of the Trave . From there to Boltenhagen , along some 15 km of the eastern shore of the Bay of Mecklenburg , the GDR shoreline was part of the restricted @-@ access " protective strip " or Schutzgebiet . Security controls were imposed on the rest of the coast from Boltenhagen to Altwarp on the Polish border , including the whole of the islands of Poel , Rügen , Hiddensee , Usedom and the peninsulas of Darß and Wustrow .
The GDR implemented a variety of security measures along its Baltic coastline to hinder escape attempts . Camping and access to boats was severely limited and 27 watchtowers were built along the Baltic coastline . If a suspected escape attempt was spotted , high @-@ speed patrol boats would be dispatched to intercept the fugitives . Armed patrols equipped with powerful mobile searchlights monitored the beaches .
Escapees aimed for the western ( West German ) shore of the Bay of Mecklenburg , a Danish lightship off the port of Gedser , the southern Danish islands of Lolland and Falster , or simply the international shipping lanes in the hope of being picked up by a passing freighter . The Baltic Sea was , however , an extremely dangerous escape route . In all , 189 people are estimated to have died attempting to flee via the Baltic .
Some East Germans tried to escape by jumping overboard from East German ships docked in Baltic harbours . So many East Germans attempted to flee this way in Danish ports that harbourmasters installed extra life @-@ saving equipment on quaysides where East German vessels docked . The GDR 's government responded by stationing armed Transportpolizei ( Trapos ) on passenger ships to deal forcefully with escape attempts . On one occasion in August 1961 , the Trapos caused an international incident in the Danish port of Gedser , when they beat up a would @-@ be escapee on the quayside and opened fire , hitting a Danish boat in the harbour . The next day , thousands of Danes turned out to protest against " Vopo ( Volkspolizei ) methods . " The " boat @-@ jumpers " were eventually stopped by further restricting the already limited travel rights of the GDR 's population .
= = River borders = =
The border also ran along part of the length of three major rivers of central Germany : the Elbe between Lauenburg and Schnackenburg ( around 95 kilometres ( 59 mi ) ) , the Werra and the Saale . The river borders were especially problematic ; although the Western Allies and West Germany held that the demarcation line ran along the eastern bank , the East Germans and Soviets insisted that it was located in the middle of the river ( the Thalweg principle ) . In practice , the waterways were shared 50 / 50 but the navigation channels often strayed across the line . This led to tense confrontations as East or West German vessels sought to assert their right to free passage on the waterways .
The rivers were as heavily guarded as other parts of the border . On the Elbe , East Germany maintained a fleet of about 30 fast patrol boats and West Germany had some 16 customs vessels . The river border was closely watched for escapees , many of whom drowned attempting to cross . Numerous bridges blown up in the closing days of the Second World War remained in ruins , while other surviving bridges were blocked or demolished on the East German side . There were no ferry crossings and river barges were rigorously inspected by the GDR border guards . To prevent escape attempts , the East German river banks were barricaded with a continuous line of metal fences and concrete walls . At one location , Rüterberg on the Elbe , the border fortifications completely surrounded the village and sealed off the inhabitants from the rest of East Germany as well as the West .
= = Border guards of the inner German border = =
The guards of the inner German border comprised tens of thousands of military , paramilitary and civilian personnel from both East and West Germany , as well as from the United Kingdom , the United States and initially the Soviet Union .
= = = East Germany = = =
Following the end of the Second World War , the East German side of the border was guarded initially by the Border Troops ( Pogranichnyie Voiska ) of the Soviet NKVD ( later the KGB ) . They were supplemented from 1946 by a locally recruited paramilitary force , the German Border Police ( Deutsche Grenzpolizei or DGP ) , before the Soviets handed over full control of the border to the East Germans in 1955 / 56 . In 1961 , the DGP was converted into a military force within the National People 's Army ( Nationale Volksarmee , NVA ) . The newly renamed Border Troops of the GDR ( Grenztruppen der DDR , commonly nicknamed the Grenzer ) came under the NVA 's Border Command or Grenzkommando . They were responsible for securing and defending the borders with West Germany , Czechoslovakia , Poland , the Baltic Sea and West Berlin . At their peak , the Grenztruppen had up to 50 @,@ 000 personnel .
Around half of the Grenztruppen were conscripts , a lower proportion than in other branches of the East German armed forces . Many potential recruits were screened out as potentially unreliable ; for instance , actively religious individuals or those with close relatives in West Germany . They were all subjected to close scrutiny to assure their political reliability and were given intensive ideological indoctrination .
A special unit of the Stasi secret police worked covertly within the Grenztruppen , posing as regular border guards , between 1968 and 1985 , to weed out potential defectors . One in ten officers and one in thirty enlisted men were said to have been recruited by the Stasi as informers . The Stasi regularly interviewed and maintained files on every guard . Stasi operatives were directly responsible for some aspects of security ; passport control stations at crossings were manned by Stasi officers wearing Grenztruppen uniforms .
The Grenztruppen were closely watched to ensure that they could not take advantage of their inside knowledge to escape across the border . Patrols , watchtowers and observation posts were always manned by two or three guards at a time . They were not allowed to go out of each other 's sight in any circumstances . If a guard attempted to escape , his colleagues were under instructions to shoot him without hesitation or prior warning ; 2 @,@ 500 did escape to the West , 5 @,@ 500 more were caught and imprisoned for up to five years , and a number were shot and killed or injured in the attempt .
The work of the guards involved carrying out repair work on the defences , monitoring the zone from watchtowers and bunkers and patrolling the line several times a day . Border Reconnaissance ( Grenzaufklärungszug or GAK ) soldiers , an elite reconnaissance force , carried out patrols and intelligence @-@ gathering on the western side of the fence . Western visitors to the border were routinely photographed by the GAKs , who also oversaw work detachments maintaining the fence . The workers would be covered by machine guns to discourage them from attempting to escape .
= = = West Germany = = =
A number of West German state organisations were responsible for policing the western side of the border . These included the Bundesgrenzschutz ( BGS , Federal Border Protection ) , the Bayerische Grenzpolizei ( Bavarian Border Police ) and the Bundeszollverwaltung ( Federal Customs Administration ) . West German Army units were not allowed to approach the border without being accompanied by BGS personnel .
The BGS , established in 1951 , was responsible for policing a zone 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) deep along the border . Its 20 @,@ 000 personnel were equipped with armoured cars , anti @-@ tank guns , helicopters , trucks and jeeps . The BGS had limited police powers within its zone of operations to tackle threats to the peace of the border .
The Bundeszollverwaltung ( BZV ) was responsible for policing much of the inner German border and manning the West German crossings . Its personnel lived with their families in communities along the border and carried out regular policing tasks in a zone about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) deep along the border . They had the power to arrest and search suspects in their area of operations with the exception of the section of border in Bavaria . The BZV 's remit overlapped significantly with that of the BGS , which led to a degree of feuding between the two agencies .
The Bayerische Grenzpolizei ( BGP ) was a border police force raised by the Bavarian government to carry out policing duties along the inner German border 's 390 kilometres ( 240 mi ) in Bavaria . By the late 1960s , the BGP had 600 men patrolling its sector of the border , alongside the BZV , BGS and US Army . Its duties were very similar to those of the BZV , leading to turf wars between the two agencies .
= = = Western Allies = = =
The British Army conducted only relatively infrequent patrols along its sector of the inner German border , principally for training purposes and symbolic value . By the 1970s , it was carrying out only one patrol a month , only rarely using helicopters or ground surveillance radar and erecting no permanent observation posts . The British border zone was divided into two sectors covering a total distance of about 650 kilometres ( 400 mi ) along the border . Unlike the Americans , the British did not assign specific units to border duty , but rotated the task between the divisions of the British Army of the Rhine .
The border was also patrolled in the British sector by the British Frontier Service , the smallest of the Western border surveillance organisations . Its personnel served as a liaison between British military and political interests and the German agencies on the border . The BFS was disbanded in 1991 following Germany 's reunification .
The United States Army maintained a substantial and continuous military presence at the inner German border throughout the entire period from 1945 to after the end of the Cold War . Regular American soldiers manned the border from the end of the war until they were replaced in 1946 by the United States Constabulary , which was disbanded in 1952 after policing duties were transferred to the German authorities . It was replaced by three dedicated armoured cavalry regiments assigned to provide a permanent defence . The 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment based at Bamberg , 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment based at Nuremberg and the 14th Armored Cavalry Regiment based at Fulda – later replaced by the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment – monitored the border using observation posts , ground and air patrols , countering intrusions and gathering intelligence on Warsaw Pact activities .
= = = Cross @-@ border contacts = = =
There was little informal contact between the two sides ; East German guards were under orders not to speak to Westerners . After the initiation of détente between East and West Germany in the 1970s , the two sides established procedures for maintaining formal contacts through 14 direct telephone connections or Grenzinformationspunkte ( GIP , " border information points " ) . They were used to resolve local problems affecting the border , such as floods , forest fires or stray animals .
For many years , the two sides waged a propaganda battle across the border using propaganda signs and canisters of leaflets fired or dropped into each other 's territory . West German leaflets sought to undermine the willingness of East German guards to shoot at refugees attempting to cross the border , while East German leaflets promoted the GDR 's view of West Germany as a militaristic regime intent on restoring Germany 's 1937 borders .
During the 1950s , West Germany sent millions of propaganda leaflets into East Germany each year . In 1968 alone , over 4 @,@ 000 projectiles containing some 450 @,@ 000 leaflets were fired from East Germany into the West . Another 600 waterproof East German leaflet containers were recovered from cross @-@ border rivers . The " leaflet war " was eventually ended by mutual agreement in the early 1970s as part of the normalisation of relations between the two German states .
= = Crossing the inner German border = =
The inner German border was never entirely sealed in the fashion of the border between the two Koreas and could be crossed in either direction throughout the Cold War . The post @-@ war agreements on the governance of Berlin specified that the Western Allies were to have access to the city via defined air , road , rail and river corridors . This was mostly respected by the Soviets and East Germans , albeit with periodic interruptions and harassment of travellers . Even during the Berlin Blockade of 1948 , supplies could be brought in by air – the famous Berlin Airlift . Before and after the blockade , Western civilian and military trains , road traffic and barges routinely passed through East Germany en route to Berlin .
The border could be crossed legally only through a limited number of air , road , rail and river routes . Foreigners were able to cross East German territory to or from West Berlin , Denmark , Sweden , Poland and Czechoslovakia . However , they had only limited and very tightly controlled access to the rest of East Germany and faced numerous restrictions on travel , accommodation and expenditure . Lengthy inspections caused long delays to traffic at the crossing points . Westerners found crossing the inner German border to be a somewhat disturbing experience ; Jan Morris wrote :
Travelling from west to east through [ the inner German border ] was like entering a drab and disturbing dream , peopled by all the ogres of totalitarianism , a half @-@ lit world of shabby resentments , where anything could be done to you , I used to feel , without anybody ever hearing of it , and your every step was dogged by watchful eyes and mechanisms .
= = = Crossing points = = =
Before 1952 , the inner German border could be crossed at almost any point along its length . The fortification of the border resulted in the severing of 32 railway lines , three autobahns , 31 main roads , eight primary roads , about 60 secondary roads and thousands of lanes and cart tracks . The number of crossing points was reduced to three air corridors , three road corridors , two railway lines and two river connections giving transit access to Berlin , plus a handful of additional crossing points for freight traffic .
The situation improved somewhat after the initiation of détente in the 1970s . Additional crossings for so @-@ called kleine Grenzverkehr – " small border traffic " , essentially meaning West German day trippers – were opened at various locations along the border . By 1982 , there were 19 border crossings : six roads , three autobahns , eight railway lines plus the Elbe river and the Mittellandkanal .
The largest was at Helmstedt @-@ Marienborn on the Hanover – Berlin autobahn ( A 2 ) , through which 34 @.@ 6 million travellers passed between 1985 – 89 . Codenamed Checkpoint Alpha , this was the first of three Allied checkpoints on the road to Berlin . The others were Checkpoint Bravo , where the autobahn crossed from East Germany into West Berlin , and most famous of all , Checkpoint Charlie , the only place where non @-@ Germans could cross from West to East Berlin .
It was not possible to simply drive through the gap in the fence that existed at crossing points , as the East Germans installed high @-@ impact vehicle barriers and mobile rolling barriers that could ( and did ) kill drivers that attempted to ram them . Vehicles were subjected to rigorous checks to uncover fugitives . Inspection pits and mirrors allowed the undersides of vehicles to be scrutinised . Probes were used to investigate the chassis and even the fuel tank , where a fugitive might be concealed , and vehicles could be partially dismantled in on @-@ site garages . At Marienborn there was even a mortuary garage where coffins could be checked to confirm that the occupants really were dead . Passengers were checked and often interrogated about their travel plans and reasons for travelling . The system used simple technology and was slow , relying largely on vast card indexes recording travellers ' details , but it was effective nonetheless ; during the 28 years of operation of the Marienborn complex , no successful escapes were recorded .
= = = Border crossing regulations = = =
West Germans were able to cross the border relatively freely to visit relatives , but had to go through numerous bureaucratic formalities . East Germans were subjected to far stricter restrictions . It was not until November 1964 that they were allowed to visit the West at all , and even then only pensioners were allowed . This gave rise to a joke that only in East Germany did people look forward to old age . Younger East Germans were not allowed to travel to the West until 1972 , though few did so until the mid @-@ 1980s . They had to apply for an exit visa and passport , pay a substantial fee , obtain permission from their employer and undergo an interrogation from the police .
The odds were against successful applications , and only approximately 40 @,@ 000 a year were approved . Refusal was often arbitrary , dependent on the goodwill of local officials . Members of the Party elite and cultural ambassadors were frequently given permission to travel , as were essential transport workers . However , they were not permitted to take their families with them .
Until the late 1980s , ordinary East Germans were only permitted to travel to the West on " urgent family business " , such as the marriage , serious illness or death of a close relative . In February 1986 , the regime relaxed the definition of " urgent family business " , which prompted a massive increase in the number of East German citizens able to travel to the West . The relaxation of the restrictions was reported to have been motivated by a desire on the part of the East German leadership to reduce their citizens ' desire to travel and shrink the number applying to emigrate . In practice , however , it had exactly the opposite effect .
= = = Emigrating from East Germany = = =
There was no formal legal basis under which a citizen could emigrate from East Germany . In 1975 , however , East Germany signed up to the Helsinki Accords , a pan @-@ European treaty to improve relations between the countries of Europe . An increasing number of East German citizens sought to use the Accords ' provision on freedom of movement to secure exit visas . By the late 1980s , over 100 @,@ 000 applications for visas were being submitted annually with around 15 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 being granted .
The GDR 's government nonetheless remained opposed to emigration and sought to dissuade would @-@ be émigrés . The process of applying for an exit permit was deliberately made slow , demeaning , frustrating and often fruitless . Applicants were marginalised , demoted or sacked from their jobs , excluded from universities and subjected to ostracism . They faced the threat of having their children taken into state custody on the grounds that they were unfit to bring up children . The law was used to punish those who continued to apply for emigration ; over 10 @,@ 000 applicants were arrested by the Stasi between the 1970s and 1989 .
A report for the Central Committee 's security section noted : " The emigration problem is confronting us with a fundamental problem of the GDR 's development . Experience shows that the current repertoire of solutions ( improved travel possibilities , expatriation of applicants , etc . ) have not brought the desired results , but rather the opposite . " The agitation for emigration , the report concluded , " threatens to undermine beliefs in the correctness of the Party 's policies . "
= = = Ransoms and " humanitarian releases " = = =
East German citizens could also emigrate through the semi @-@ secret route of being ransomed by the West German government in a process termed Freikauf ( literally the buying of freedom ) . Between 1964 and 1989 , 33 @,@ 755 political prisoners were ransomed . A further 2 @,@ 087 prisoners were released to the West under an amnesty in 1972 . Another 215 @,@ 000 people , including 2 @,@ 000 children cut off from their parents , were allowed to leave East Germany to rejoin their families . In exchange , West Germany paid over 3 @.@ 4 billion DM – nearly $ 2 @.@ 3 billion at 1990 prices – in goods and hard currency .
Those ransomed were valued on a sliding scale , ranging from around 1 @,@ 875 DM for a manual worker to around 11 @,@ 250 DM for a doctor . The justification , according to East Germany , was that this was compensation for the money invested by the state in the prisoner 's training . For a while , payments were made in kind using goods that were in short supply in East Germany , such as oranges , bananas , coffee and medical drugs . The average prisoner was worth around 4 @,@ 000 DM worth of goods .
The scheme was highly controversial in the West . Freikauf was denounced by many as human trafficking , but was defended by others as an " act of pure humanitarianism " ; the West German government budgeted money for Freikauf under the euphemistic heading of " support of special aid measures of an all @-@ German character . "
= = Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border = =
= = = Refugee flows and escape attempts = = =
Between 1950 and 1988 , around 4 million East Germans migrated to the West ; 3 @.@ 454 million left between 1950 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 . After the border was fortified and the Berlin Wall constructed , the number of illegal crossings fell dramatically and continued to fall as the defences were improved over the subsequent decades . However , escapees were never more than a small minority of the total number of emigrants from East Germany . During the 1980s , only about 1 % of those who left East Germany did so by escaping across the border . Far more people left the country after being granted official permits , by fleeing through third countries or by being ransomed by the West German government .
The vast majority of refugees were motivated by economic concerns and sought to improve their living conditions and opportunities by migrating to the West . Events such as the crushing of the 1953 uprising , the imposition of collectivisation and East Germany 's final economic crisis in the late 1980s prompted surges in the number of escape attempts .
Attempts to flee across the border were carefully studied and recorded by the GDR authorities to identify possible weak points . These were addressed by strengthening the fortifications in vulnerable areas . At the end of the 1970s , a study was carried out by the East German army to review attempted " border breaches " ( Grenzdurchbrüche ) . It found that 4 @,@ 956 people had attempted to escape across the border between 1 December 1974 and 30 November 1979 . Of those , 3 @,@ 984 people ( 80 @.@ 4 % ) were arrested by the Volkspolizei in the Sperrzone , the outer restricted zone . 205 people ( 4 @.@ 1 % ) were caught at the signal fence .
Within the inner security zone , the Schutzstreifen , a further 743 people ( 15 % ) were arrested by the guards . 48 people ( 1 % ) were stopped – i.e. killed or injured – by landmines and 43 people ( 0 @.@ 9 % ) by SM @-@ 70 directional mines on the fence . A further 67 people ( 1 @.@ 35 % ) were intercepted at the fence ( shot and / or arrested ) . A total of 229 people – just 4 @.@ 6 % of attempted escapees , representing less than one in twenty – made it across the fence . Of these , the largest number ( 129 , or 55 % of successful escapees ) succeeded in making it across the fence in unmined sectors . 89 people ( 39 % of escapees ) managed to cross both the minefields and the fence , but just 12 people ( 6 % of the total ) succeeded in getting past the SM @-@ 70s booby @-@ trap mines on the fences .
Escape attempts were severely punished by the GDR . From 1953 , the regime described the act of escaping as Republikflucht ( literally " flight from the Republic " ) , by analogy with the existing military term Fahnenflucht ( " desertion " ) . A successful escapee was not a Flüchtling ( " refugee " ) but a Republikflüchtiger ( " Republic deserter " ) . Those who attempted to escape were called Sperrbrecher ( literally " blockade runners " but more loosely translated as " border violators " ) . Those who helped escapees were not Fluchthelfer ( " escape helpers " ) , the Western term , but Menschenhändler ( " human traffickers " ) . Such ideologically coloured language enabled the regime to portray border crossers as little better than traitors and criminals .
Republikflucht became a crime in 1957 , punishable by heavy fines and up to three years ' imprisonment . Any act associated with an escape attempt – including helping an escapee – was subject to this legislation . Those caught in the act were often tried for espionage as well and given proportionately harsher sentences . More than 75 @,@ 000 people – an average of more than seven people a day – were imprisoned for attempting to escape across the border , serving an average of one to two years ' imprisonment . Border guards who attempted to escape were treated much more harshly and were on average imprisoned for five years .
= = = Escape methods = = =
Escapees used a variety of methods . The great majority crossed on foot , though some took more unusual routes . One of the most spectacular was the escape in September 1979 of eight people from two families in a home @-@ made hot @-@ air balloon . Their flight involved an ascent to more than 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) before landing near the West German town of Naila . The incident inspired the film Night Crossing .
Other escapees relied more on physical strength and endurance . An escapee in 1987 used meat hooks to scale the fences , while in 1971 a doctor swam 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) across the Baltic Sea from Rostock almost to the Danish island of Lolland , before he was picked up by a West German yacht . Another escapee used an air mattress to escape across the Baltic in 1987 .
Mass escapes were rare . One of the few that succeeded took place on 2 October 1961 , when 53 people from the border village of Böseckendorf – a quarter of the village 's population – escaped en masse , followed by another 13 inhabitants in February 1963 . An unusual mass escape occurred in September 1964 when 14 East Germans , including 11 children , were smuggled across the border in a refrigerated truck . They were able to escape detection by being concealed under the carcasses of slaughtered pigs being transported to the West .
The traffic was not one @-@ way ; thousands of people migrated each year from West Germany to the east , motivated by reasons such as marital problems , family estrangement and homesickness . A number of Allied military personnel , including British , French , German and American troops , also defected . By the end of the Cold War , as many as 300 United States citizens were thought to have defected across the Iron Curtain for a variety of reasons – whether to escape criminal charges , for political reasons or because ( as the St. Petersburg Times put it ) " girl @-@ hungry GI 's [ were tempted ] with seductive sirens , who usually desert the love @-@ lorn soldier once he is across the border . " The fate of such defectors varied considerably . Some were sent straight to labour camps on charges of espionage . Others committed suicide , while a few were able to find wives and work on the eastern side of the border .
= = = Order to fire = = =
From 1945 onwards , unauthorised crossers of the inner German border risked being shot by Soviet or East German guards . The use of deadly force was termed the Schießbefehl ( " order to fire " or " command to shoot " ) . It was formally in force as early as 1948 , when regulations concerning the use of firearms on the border were promulgated . A regulation issued to East German police on 27 May 1952 stipulated that " failure to obey the orders of the Border Patrol will be met by the use of arms . " From the 1960s through to the end of the 1980s , the border guards were given daily verbal orders ( Vergatterung ) to " track down , arrest or annihilate violators . " The GDR formally codified its regulations on the use of deadly force in March 1982 , when the State Border Law mandated that firearms were to be used as the " maximum measure in the use of force " against individuals who " publicly attempt to break through the state border " .
The GDR 's leadership explicitly endorsed the use of deadly force . General Heinz Hoffmann , the GDR defence minister , declared in August 1966 that " anyone who does not respect our border will feel the bullet . " In 1974 , Erich Honecker , as Chairman of the GDR 's National Defence Council , ordered : " Firearms are to be ruthlessly used in the event of attempts to break through the border , and the comrades who have successfully used their firearms are to be commended . "
The Schießbefehl was , not surprisingly , very controversial in the West and was singled out for criticism by the West Germans . The GDR authorities occasionally suspended the Schießbefehl on occasions when it would have been politically inconvenient to have to explain dead refugees , such as during a visit to the GDR by the French foreign minister in 1985 . It was also a problem for many of the East German guards and was the motivating factor behind a number of escapes , when guards facing a crisis of conscience defected because of their unwillingness to shoot fellow citizens .
= = = Deaths on the border = = =
It is still not certain how many people died on the inner German border or who they all were , as the GDR treated such information as a closely guarded secret . But estimates have risen steadily since unification , as evidence has been gathered from East German records . As of 2009 , unofficial estimates are up to 1 @,@ 100 people , though officially released figures give a count from 270 up to 421 deaths .
There were many ways to die on the inner German border . Numerous escapees were shot by the border guards , while others were killed by mines and booby @-@ traps . A substantial number drowned while trying to cross the Baltic and the Elbe river . Not all of those killed on the border were attempting to escape . On 13 October 1961 , Westfälische Rundschau journalist Kurt Lichtenstein was shot on the border near the village of Zicherie after he attempted to speak with East German farm workers . His death aroused condemnation across the political spectrum in West Germany . The incident prompted students from Braunschweig to erect a sign on the border protesting the killing .
An Italian truck driver and member of the Italian Communist Party , Benito Corghi , was shot at a crossing point in August 1976 ; the GDR government was severely embarrassed and , unusually , offered an apology . In one notorious shooting on 1 May 1976 , a former East German political prisoner , Michael Gartenschläger , who had fled to the West some years before , was ambushed and killed by a Stasi commando squad on the border near Büchen . The Stasi reported that he had been " liquidated by security forces of the GDR " .
Twenty @-@ five East German border guards died after being shot from the Western side of the border or were killed by resisting escapees or ( often accidentally ) by their own colleagues . The East German government described them as " victims of armed assaults and imperialist provocations against the state border of the GDR " and alleged that " bandits " in the West took potshots at guards doing their duty – a version of events that was uncorroborated by Western accounts of border incidents .
The two sides commemorated their dead in very different ways . Various mostly unofficial memorials were set up on the western side by people seeking to commemorate victims of the border . West Germans such as Michael Gartenschläger and Kurt Lichtenstein were commemorated with signs and memorials , some of which were supported by the government . The death of East German Heinz @-@ Josef Große in 1982 was commemorated annually by demonstrations on the Western side of the border . After the policy of détente was initiated in the 1970s , this became politically inconvenient and state support for border memorials largely ceased .
The taboo in East Germany surrounding escapees meant that the great majority of deaths went unpublicised and uncommemorated . However , the deaths of border guards were used for GDR propaganda , which portrayed them as " martyrs " . Four stone memorials were erected in East Berlin to mark their deaths . The regime named schools , barracks and other public facilities after the dead guards and used their memorials as places of pilgrimage to signify that ( as a slogan put it ) " their deaths are our commitment " to maintaining the border . After 1989 the memorials were vandalised , neglected and ultimately removed .
= = Fall of the inner German border = =
The fall of the inner German border came rapidly and unexpectedly in November 1989 , along with the fall of the Berlin Wall . Its integrity had been fatally compromised in May 1989 when a reformist Communist government in Hungary , supported by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev , began to dismantle its border fortifications . Hungary was already a popular tourist destination for East Germans . Its government was still notionally Communist but planned free elections and economic reform as part of a strategy of " rejoining Europe " and reforming its struggling economy .
Opening the Hungarian border with Austria was essential to this effort ; West Germany had secretly offered a much @-@ needed hard currency loan of DM 500 million ( $ 250 million ) in return for allowing citizens of the GDR to freely emigrate . Pictures of the barbed @-@ wire fences being taken down were transmitted into East Germany by West German television stations .
They prompted a mass exodus by hundreds of thousands of East Germans , which began in earnest in September 1989 . In addition to those crossing the Hungarian border , tens of thousands of East Germans scaled the walls of the West German embassies in Prague , Warsaw and Budapest , where they were regarded as " German citizens " by the federal government , claiming " asylum " .
Czechoslovakia 's hardline communist government agreed to close its border with East Germany to choke off the exodus . The closure produced uproar across East Germany and the GDR government 's bid to humiliate refugees by expelling them from the country in sealed trains backfired disastrously . Torn @-@ up identity papers and East German passports littered the tracks as the refugees threw them out of the windows . When the trains passed through Dresden , 1 @,@ 500 East Germans stormed the main railway station in an attempt to board . Dozens were injured and the station concourse was virtually destroyed .
The small pro @-@ democracy Monday demonstrations soon swelled into crowds of hundreds of thousands of people in cities across East Germany . The East German leadership considered using force but ultimately backed down , lacking support from the Soviet Union for a violent Tiananmen Square @-@ style military intervention . Reformist members of the East German Politbüro sought to rescue the situation by forcing the resignation of the hardline Party chairman Erich Honecker , replacing him in October 1989 with the marginally less hardline Egon Krenz .
The new government sought to appease the protesters by reopening the border with Czechoslovakia . This , however , merely resulted in the resumption of the mass exodus through Hungary via Czechoslovakia . On 8 November 1989 , with huge demonstrations continuing across the country , the entire Politbüro resigned and a new , more moderate Politbüro was appointed under Krenz 's continued leadership .
= = = Opening of the border and the fall of the GDR = = =
The East German government sought to defuse the situation by relaxing the country 's border controls with effect from 10 November 1989 ; the announcement was made on the evening of 9 November 1989 by Politbüro member Günter Schabowski at a somewhat chaotic press conference in East Berlin , who proclaimed the new control regime as liberating the people from a situation of psychological pressure by legalising and simplifying migration . Misunderstanding the note passed to him about the decision to open the border , he announced the border would be opened " immediately , without delay " , rather than from the following day as the government had intended . Crucially , it was neither meant to be an uncontrolled opening nor to apply to East Germans wishing to visit the West as tourists . At an interview in English after the press conference , Schabowski told the NBC reporter Tom Brokaw that " it is no question of tourism . It is a permission of leaving the GDR [ permanently ] . "
As the press conference had been broadcast live , within hours , thousands of people gathered at the Berlin Wall demanding that the guards open the gates . The border guards were unable to contact their superiors for instructions and , fearing a stampede , opened the gates . The iconic scenes that followed – people pouring into West Berlin , standing on the Wall and attacking it with pickaxes – were broadcast worldwide .
While the eyes of the world were on the Mauerfall ( the fall of the Wall ) in Berlin , a simultaneous process of Grenzöffnung ( border opening ) was taking place along the entire length of the inner German border . Existing crossings were opened immediately . Within the first four days , 4 @.@ 3 million East Germans – a quarter of the country 's entire population – poured into West Germany . At the Helmstedt crossing point on the Berlin – Hanover autobahn , cars were backed up for 65 km ( 40 mi ) ; some drivers waited 11 hours to cross to the West . The border was opened in stages over the next few months . Many new crossing points were created , reconnecting communities that had been separated for nearly 40 years . BBC correspondent Ben Bradshaw described the jubilant scenes at the railway station of Hof in Bavaria in the early hours of 12 November :
It was not just the arrivals at Hof who wore their emotions on their sleeves . The local people turned out in their hundreds to welcome them ; stout men and women in their Sunday best , twice or three times the average age of those getting off the trains , wept as they clapped . ' These are our people , free at last , ' they said ... Those arriving at Hof report people lining the route of the trains in East Germany waving and clapping and holding placards saying : ' We 're coming soon.'
Even the East German border guards were not immune to the euphoria . One of them , Peter Zahn , described how he and his colleagues reacted to the opening of the border :
After the Wall fell , we were in a state of delirium . We submitted a request for our reserve activities to be ended , which was approved a few days later . We visited Helmstedt and Braunschweig in West Germany , which would have been impossible before . In the NVA even listening to Western radio stations was punishable and there we were on an outing in the West .
To the surprise of many West Germans , many of the East German visitors spent their DM 100 " welcome money " buying great quantities of bananas , a highly prized rarity in the East . For months after the opening of the border , bananas were sold out at supermarkets along the western side of the border as East Germans bought up whole crates , believing supplies would soon be exhausted . The rush for fruit made the banana the unofficial symbol of the changes in East Germany , which some dubbed the " banana revolution " .
Some West German leftists protested at what they saw as rampant consumerism by tossing bananas at East Germans coming to visit the West . The easterners ' obsession with bananas was famously spoofed by the West German satirical magazine Titanic on the front cover of its November 1989 edition , which depicted " Easterner Gaby ( 17 ) , happy to be in West Germany : My first banana " . Gaby was shown holding a large peeled cucumber .
The opening of the border had a profound political and psychological effect on the East German public . For many people , the very existence of the GDR , which the SED had justified as the first " Socialist state on German soil " , came to be seen as pointless . The state was bankrupt , the economy was collapsing , the political class was discredited , the governing institutions were in chaos and the people were demoralised by the evaporation of the collective assumptions that had underpinned their society for 40 years . Membership of the Party collapsed and Krenz himself resigned on 6 December 1989 after only 50 days in office , handing over to the moderate Hans Modrow . The removal of restrictions on travel prompted hundreds of thousands of East Germans to migrate to the West – more than 116 @,@ 000 did so between 9 November and 31 December 1989 , compared with 40 @,@ 000 for the whole of the previous year .
The new East German leadership initiated " round table " talks with opposition groups , similar to the processes that had led to multi @-@ party elections in Hungary and Poland . When the first free elections were held in East Germany in March 1990 , the former SED , which had renamed itself as the Party of Democratic Socialism , was swept from power and replaced by a pro @-@ reunification Alliance for Germany coalition led by the Christian Democratic Union ( CDU ) , Chancellor Kohl 's party . Both countries progressed rapidly towards reunification , while international diplomacy paved the way abroad . In July 1990 , monetary union was achieved . A Treaty on the establishment of a unified Germany was agreed on in August 1990 and political reunification took place on 3 October 1990 .
= = = Abandonment of the border = = =
The border fortifications were progressively torn down and eventually abandoned in the months following its opening . Dozens of new crossings were opened by February 1990 , and the guards no longer carried weapons nor made much effort to check travellers ' passports . The guards ' numbers were rapidly reduced ; half were dismissed within five months of the opening . On 1 July 1990 the border was abandoned and the Grenztruppen were officially abolished ; all but 2 @,@ 000 of them were dismissed or transferred to other jobs .
The Bundeswehr gave the remaining border guards and other ex @-@ NVA soldiers the task of clearing the fortifications , which was completed only in 1994 . The scale of the task was immense , involving both the clearing of the fortifications and the rebuilding of hundreds of roads and railway lines . A serious complication was the presence of mines along the border . Although the 1 @.@ 4 million mines laid by the GDR were supposed to have been removed during the 1980s , it turned out that 34 @,@ 000 were unaccounted for . A further 1 @,@ 100 mines were found and removed following reunification at a cost of more than DM 250 million , in a programme that was not concluded until the end of 1995 .
The border clearers ' task was aided unofficially by German civilians from both sides of the former border , who scavenged the installations for fencing , wire and blocks of concrete to use in home improvements . Much of the fence was sold to a West German scrap @-@ metal company . Environmental groups undertook a programme of re @-@ greening the border , planting new trees and sowing grass seeds to fill in the clear @-@ cut area along the line .
= = Border area today = =
Very little remains of the installations along the former inner German border . At least 30 public , private and municipal museums along the old line present displays of equipment and other artifacts relating to the border . Among the preserved sites are several dozen watchtowers , short stretches of the fence and associated installations ( some of which have been reconstructed ) , sections of the wall still in situ at Hötensleben and Mödlareuth , and a number of buildings related to the border , such as the GDR crossing point at Marienborn .
Substantial sections of the Kolonnenweg remain in place to serve as farm and forestry access roads , though the accompanying anti @-@ vehicles ditches , fences and other obstacles have been almost entirely removed . Artworks , commemorative stones , memorials and signs have been erected at many points along the former border to mark its opening , to remember its victims and to record the division and reunification of Germany .
The closure of the border region for nearly 40 years created a haven for wildlife in some places . Although parts of the East German side of the border were farmed , intensive farming of the kind practised elsewhere in Germany was absent and large areas were untouched by agriculture . Conservationists became aware as early as the 1970s that the border had become a refuge for rare species of animals and plants . Their findings led the Bavarian government to begin a programme of buying land along the border to ensure its protection from development .
In December 1989 , only a month after the opening of the border , conservationists from East and West Germany met to work out a plan to establish a " German Green Belt " ( Grünes Band Deutschland ) stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Czech border . The Bundestag voted unanimously in December 2004 to extend federal protection to the Green Belt and incorporate it into a " European Green Belt " being developed along the entire 6 @,@ 800 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @,@ 200 mi ) length of the former Iron Curtain . The German Green Belt now links 160 natural parks , 150 flora @-@ and @-@ fauna areas , three UNESCO biosphere reservations and the Harz Mountains National Park . It is home to a wide variety of species that are rare elsewhere in Germany , including the wild cat , black stork , otter and rare mosses and orchids . Most of Germany 's red kites – more than half of the 25 @,@ 000 that live in Europe – live along the former border . The Bund Naturschutz , one of Germany 's largest conservation groups , is campaigning to extend the area within the Green Belt designated as nature conservation zones .
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= Patrick Bissell =
Walter Patrick Bissell ( December 1 , 1957 – December 29 , 1987 ) was an American danseur . He was a leading principal dancer with the American Ballet Theatre . On his death at age 30 from a drug overdose , he was described by the artistic director of the American Ballet Theatre Mikhail Baryshnikov as " without a doubt one of the brightest lights in American Ballet Theater 's history , or , for that matter , in the entire ballet world " . Bissell was noted for his height and athleticism . His most famous rôle was as Solor in La Bayadère . His death prompted investigations into the alleged widespread drug use within the American Ballet Theatre .
= = Early years = =
Bissell was born on December 1 , 1957 in Corpus Christi , Texas . He was one of the five children of Donald and Patricia Bissell ; his siblings included his twin brother William , two sisters Susan and Barbara , and brother Donald . The family lived in Palos Park , Illinois for several years . His father was a computer @-@ systems designer with Hiram Walker Inc . Bissell was an athlete who enjoyed performing feats of daring : at the age of 8 he jumped off a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) -high diving board , even though he did not know how to swim . He dabbled in many sports — baseball , basketball , football , track , etc . He was introduced to ballet at age ten by his sister Susan who paid him to be her ballet partner ; thus he was first paid to dance . He found a home and sanctuary in the passion of ballet and decided to make it his life pursuit . He began training in ballet and jazz dance and was soon accepted into a company in Toledo , Ohio . Like many boys who take up ballet , he tried to keep his lessons a secret , but word got out and he was ridiculed and bullied every single day for the rest of his school days . " I was a skinny kid . They could have crushed me in an instant , " he stated .
While Bissell showed early promise as a dancer , he also showed signs of being a troubled young man and began taking drugs at the age of 14 . He was expelled from his first school for dealing drugs on the premises . He was noticed by the American ballet dancer Edward Villella , who encouraged his parents to send him to a performing arts boarding school . In 1972 he joined the National Academy of Dance in Champaign , Illinois from which he was dismissed for behavior problems . Bissell then spent a year at the North Carolina School of the Arts which he left when he was informed that he should pay more attention to his academic studies . He hitch @-@ hiked all the way to New York to pursue a lifelong career in dance — as that 's where the company 's top schools are . He then won a scholarship to study at the School of American Ballet , where he was encouraged by Lincoln Kirstein , its founder , and Stanley Williams , one of his teachers . He was invented to join Balanchine 's New York City Ballet and the American Ballet Theatre . He decided to join ABT and became a member of the corps . Though he quickly rose through the ranks . Wherever Bissell went , he attracted attention , both from his fiery dancing and his habit of wearing a cowboy hat and boots around New York City — his way of distinguishing he was a true @-@ blue native Texan . He also made his way around the city on a motorcycle .
He danced the lead rôles in three of the four ballets performed by the school in its annual workshop and graduated in 1977 . He became a good friend of Mikhail Baryshnikov , who praised his dancing .
= = Career = =
Bissell joined the corps de ballet of the American Ballet Theatre in 1977 and , after three months there , he danced the lead male rôle in La Bayadère . He moved to the Boston Ballet but returned the following year . In 1978 he was promoted to soloist and to principal dancer in 1979 at the American Ballet Theatre due to the shortage of men in the company — even making the cover of Dance magazine . The ballerinas nicknamed him " Tarzan , " as he was a huge , hulking juggernaut of a man who could carry some of the biggest and tallest girls in the company . For much of his career , however , Bissell was plagued with injuries , and there were reports of drug and alcohol problems . Bissell and Gelsey Kirkland were dismissed from the American Ballet Theatre in 1980 and 1981 on the grounds of chronic lateness and missed rehearsals — in particular for failing to attend a dress rehearsal on the eve of the company 's opening at the Kennedy Center in Washington , D.C. on December 9 , 1980 . Bissell and Kirkland then appeared as guest artists with the Eglevsky Ballet in its production of Act II of Giselle in 1982 at the Hofstra Playhouse in Hempstead , Long Island , New York . Subsequently Bissell rejoined the American Ballet Theatre .
He appeared in many lead rôles , including Don Jose in Roland Petit 's Carmen , Franz in Coppélia , Basil and Espada in Don Quixote , Albrecht in Giselle , Romeo in Romeo and Juliet , Prince Siegfried in Swan Lake , James in La Sylphide , Prince Desire in Sir Kenneth MacMillan 's Sleeping Beauty and lead rôles in George Balanchine 's Stravinsky Violin Concerto , Symphonie Concertante and Theme and Variations . He created the rôle of the Prince in Mikhail Baryshnikov 's production of Cinderella , the leading male rôle in Antony Tudor 's The Tiller in the Fields ( 1978 ) , Glen Tetley 's Contredances ( 1979 ) , the title rôle of Peter Darrell 's Chéri ( 1980 ) and the lead rôle in Lynne Taylor @-@ Corbett 's Estuary ( 1983 ) . In 1984 , Bissell starred as a guest artist with the Universal Ballet Company in its first production , Adrienne Dellas 's Cinderella . He was partnered by its leading ballerina and general director , Julia Moon . He also performed as a guest artist with the National Ballet of Canada , Scottish Ballet and Pacific Northwest Ballet . This is a stark contrast to Patrick 's brother William , who trained to be a minister , but then went on to work in manufacturing .
= = Drug use and death = =
Bissell was arrested in 1981 in Bloomington , Indiana , and charged with public intoxication , disorderly conduct and pushing a policeman . He was given a 30 @-@ day jail sentence , however a plea bargain was made whereby the judge ordered him to arrange to give a performance at Indiana University with the proceeds to be given to charity . Bissell was also given a $ 100 fine . After being fired by the ABT ( along with Gelsey Kirkland ) , they were re @-@ hired and celebrated by doing a stash of cocaine they had smuggled in the lining of a ballet slipper .
Bissell married Jolinda Menendez , a former American Ballet Theatre ballerina ( she danced two rôles in the Baryshnikov Nutcracker ) and principal ballerina with the Pennsylvania Ballet , on June 26 , 1982 at the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church . However the marriage ended after a year due to Bissell 's many philanderings and erratic behavior . In 1984 , company officials from the American Ballet Theatre consulted with experts on drug addiction and found a therapist for him . The following year , a condition of his continued employment by the company was that he undergo regular urine tests . The tests were held weekly with results 95 percent negative , however lapses were penalized with fines . In 1987 , he spent five weeks at the Betty Ford Clinic in California for intensive therapy , completing the treatment in August . Prior to entering the clinic he had injured his foot and was thus prevented from going on the American Ballet Theatre 's fall tour . His family blamed his drug use on the " highly competitive dance world in New York City " .
Bissell was found dead in his apartment in Hoboken , New Jersey on December 29 , 1987 . At the time of his death , he was engaged to fellow dancer at the American Ballet Theatre , soloist Amy Rose , and had planned to rejoin the company in January of the following year . The results of an autopsy showed that he died from an overdose of cocaine , codeine , methadone and other drugs . It never was determined whether Bissell 's death was a deliberate suicide . His death prompted charges of extensive drug use in the dance world by Bissell 's parents and fellow @-@ dancer Gelsey Kirkland . Kirkland 's autobiography Dancing on My Grave mentions Bissell 's frequent use of cocaine and , when discussing her own addiction , she alleged that he had introduced her to the drug . Attention was also drawn to the drug therapy program offered by the American Ballet Theatre . According to the company 's executive director , Charles Dillingham , Bissell had been participating in the therapy program instituted by the company and had " appeared to have been making progress " prior to his death . Gelsey Kirkland alleged that Bissell 's death was " an unavoidable tragedy caused at least in part by the failure of the ballet world and American Ballet Theater in particular to acknowledge and deal openly with the drug problem " , which contrasted with Dillingham 's statement that " his death came as an utterly horrible surprise " . The 1988 production of La Bayadère by the American Ballet Theatre was dedicated to Bissell who had been notable in the rôle of Solor .
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= Air Battle of South Korea =
The Air Battle of South Korea was an air campaign early in the Korean War occurring roughly from June 25 to July 20 , 1950 over South Korea between the air forces of North Korea and the United Nations , including the countries of South Korea , the United States and the United Kingdom . The month @-@ long fight for air supremacy over the country saw several small engagements over airfields in Seoul and Taejon and ultimately ended in victory for the UN air force , which was able to destroy the small North Korean People 's Air Force .
= = Background = =
= = = Invasion = = =
Main Article : Initial Phase of Korean War
On the morning of June 25 , 1950 , ten divisions of the North Korean People 's Army launched a full @-@ scale invasion of the nation 's neighbor to the south , the Republic of Korea . The force of 89 @,@ 000 men moved in six columns , catching the Republic of Korea Army by surprise , resulting in a rout . The smaller South Korean army suffered from widespread lack of organization and equipment , and was unprepared for war . The numerically superior North Korean forces destroyed isolated resistance from the 38 @,@ 000 South Korean soldiers on the front before it began moving steadily south .
To prevent South Korea 's collapse the United Nations Security Council voted to send military forces . The United States ' Seventh Fleet dispatched Task Force 77 , led by the fleet carrier USS Valley Forge ; the British Far East Fleet dispatched several ships , including HMS Triumph , to provide air and naval support . By June 27 , the naval and air forces moving to Korea had authorization to attack North Korean targets with the goal of helping repel the North Korean invasion of the country . With the US forces accepting the North Korean attack as an act of war , it became imperative to evacuate civilians and American diplomats from Korea , as the forces of the north and south were battling across the peninsula . On June 27 the South Koreans were losing the First Battle of Seoul . Most of South Korea 's forces retreated in the face of the invasion . The North Koreans would capture the city the next day forcing the South Korean government and its shattered army to retreat further south .
In the meantime , US naval and air forces were evacuating US diplomats , military dependents , and civilians by ship and air transport , hoping to get American civilians out of the country " by any means . " Civilians were being gathered at Suwon Airfield and Kimpo Airfield near Seoul , before moving to Inchon and out of the country . These airlifts and convoys were being escorted by aircraft from the United States , which was operating its aircraft from bases in Japan .
= = = Air Forces involved = = =
The United States Air Force had 1 @,@ 172 aircraft in the Pacific region at the time of the outbreak of the Korean War , including hundreds of F @-@ 80 Shooting Stars as well as numerous F @-@ 82 Twin Mustangs , B @-@ 26 Invaders , B @-@ 29 Superfortresses , among others . Hundreds of aircraft were available to be immediately mustered against the North Korean invasion , many of them the newest jet engine @-@ powered fighter aircraft . The aircraft could fulfill a variety of missions and were well equipped , well armed and out of reach of North Korean attack , with many bases safely in Japan . Additionally , the Royal Air Force of the United Kingdom , and the Royal Australian Air Force of Australia provided assistance as 800 Naval Air Squadron , 802 Naval Air Squadron , and No. 77 Squadron RAAF were dispatched to provide additional support for ground operations . The combined airpower had about 33 @,@ 975 personnel .
The North Korean People 's Air Force ( KPAF ) consisted of only 132 aircraft and 2 @,@ 000 personnel , of whom only 80 were pilots and most poorly trained . The two Koreas had very small air forces of their own , with the North Koreans ' 132 aircraft organized into the KPAF 1st Air Division . At the early phase in the war , these aircraft were used boldly to the North Koreans ' advantage . Aware of their air superiority over the Republic of Korea Air Force and not expecting UN intervention , they anticipated light resistance in the air . In all , the KPAF had 2 @,@ 000 personnel .
= = Battle = =
At the June 25 outbreak of the war , the US aircraft in Japan immediately began moving to the closest bases to the Korean Peninsula , Itazuke Air Base and Ashiya Air Base . MacArthur ordered another 250 aircraft brought to Korea for the conflict .
= = = Attack at Suwon = = =
North Korean aircraft first met US aircraft in combat during the Battle of Suwon Airfield , in which seven of the 13 North Korean aircraft were destroyed . The North Korean Lavochkin La @-@ 7 and Ilyushin Il @-@ 10 aircraft were easily outmatched by the superior American F @-@ 82 Twin Mustang and F @-@ 80C Shooting Star aircraft , which also had better @-@ trained pilots . The planes of the 8th Fighter Wing , which were attempting to defend Suwon to allow evacuation of UN civilians encountered repeated harassing attacks from North Korean aircraft operating out of Heijo Airfield in Pyongyang . Heijo was the KPAF 's main base , but in the first few days in the war the US aircraft only had authorization to defend themselves if attacked , they could not conduct offensive operations into North Korea .
= = = Raid of Heijo Airfield = = =
During the day on June 29 , the KPAF returned to attack Suwon , and six sorties of North Korean aircraft strafed the airfield during the morning , but each time were driven off by American F @-@ 80s , and in the course of these attacks Lieutenant William T. Norris and Lieutenant Roy W. Marsh each shot down a North Korean aircraft . The North Koreans were able to destroy a single C @-@ 54 Skymaster parked at the airfield . The sorties culminated in a battle above Suwon in the midst of a conference of US military leaders in the town . Leaders including US Lieutenant General George E. Stratemeyer and General of the Army Douglas MacArthur personally witnessed the final sortie of the day , in which four North Korean aircraft attacked four F @-@ 51 Mustang aircraft over the town . The four F @-@ 51s succeeded in shooting down all four of the North Korean aircraft , with Lieutenant Orrin R. Fox scoring two kills and Lieutenants Richard J. Burns , and Harry T. Sandlin scoring one each . Ground forces also downed a North Korean aircraft during a subsequent attack . MacArthur subsequently authorized Stratemeyer to launch strikes into North Korea to destroy North Korean airfields and establish air superiority for the US forces .
As soon as MacArthur cleared US aircraft to enter North Korea , the 8th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron sent aircraft to scout all of North Korea 's airfields . By the afternoon , the aircraft had not completed their scouting missions but a bombing mission was nonetheless ordered against Heijo Airfield . At 16 : 15 , 18 B @-@ 26 Invaders of the 3rd Bombardment Group took off from airbases in Japan for strikes against the airfield . These would be the first offensive action against North Korea . The aircraft arrived at the airfield just after dark . There they found a substantial number of aircraft from North Korea 's 1st Air Division parked on the tarmac , caught completely by surprise . The US aircraft subsequently placed their fragmentation bombs along the hangar line , ramps , and revetment areas . In the confusion , the North Koreans were only able to get one aircraft off the ground to oppose the flight , a Yak @-@ 3 . The aircraft was quickly shot down by Staff Sergeant Nyle S. Mickley , a gunner aboard one of the bombers . By the end of the raid , the US aircraft destroyed an estimated 25 North Korean aircraft on the ground and one in the air while suffering no aircraft lost .
= = = Subsequent strikes = = =
With the successful strike on Heijo Airfield , the UN attempted more attacks against North Korean airfields . The 19th Bombardment Group launched a July 2 strike at Yonpo Airfield based on faulty intelligence there were 65 North Korean aircraft there . Only 16 North Korean aircraft were in the field , none of which were damaged by the airstrike . In the meantime , Task Force 77 launched attacks on airfields in Pyongyang and Ojong @-@ ni , downing two North Korean aircraft and damaging ten others in the July 3 – 4 attack . On July 6 a flight of North Korean aircraft with ROKAF markings attacked Osan and damaged a telephone station , though for the rest of the week North Korean air forces stayed out of the sky .
When they returned to the fight a week later , the North Koreans employed guerrilla tactics with their aircraft , some continuing to use ROKAF markings and timing their strikes when UN patrols were out of the skies refueling . On July 10 , seven Yak @-@ 7s were hidden at the captured Kimpo airfield and used in strikes against UN positions at Cheongju . The next day they surprised and damaged several F @-@ 80s in the area . On July 12 , the Yak @-@ 7s shot down a B @-@ 29 bombing bridges in Seoul . Two more attacked a flight of F @-@ 80s flying over a battle at Chochiwon , damaging them . By the end of the day another UN L @-@ 4 had been shot down . On July 15 , two more Yaks ambushed a flight of B @-@ 26 aircraft near Taejon , forcing one to land . Airstrikes against UN ground positions at Taejon persisted until July 19 . The North Korean aircraft strafed ground positions and also dropped propaganda leaflets signed by US prisoners of war .
In counterattacks against the KPAF , the UN responded on July 15 with an attack on Kimpo , destroying two or three of the seven Yak @-@ 7s there and damaging the runway at the airfield . On July 18 , Task Force 77 attacked Pyongyang and Pyongyang East Airfields , destroying 14 North Korean aircraft and damaging 13 more . The next day , Task Force 77 attacked Yonpo and destroyed 15 more North Korean aircraft there , and three more at Sondok . That day near Pyonggang F @-@ 80s of the 8th Fighter @-@ Bomber Group destroyed another 14 North Korean fighters and one bomber , and damaging seven others . On July 20 , another strike by 14 B @-@ 29s destroyed the runways at Pyongyang and Onjong @-@ ni . In the process of these strikes , the UN aircraft also shot down six North Korean aircraft opposing the attacks . By the end of the day on July 20 , only 65 of the KPAF 1st Air Division 's original aircraft were intact , and only 34 of them were operable .
North Korean airpower ceased to resist UN forces after July 20 , except for isolated engagements . On August 5 and 6 the final airstrikes against the remainder of North Korean aircraft at the Pyongyang airfields destroyed another 18 combat aircraft and seven more were damaged . By this point the North Korean Air Force was considered to have been destroyed , losing 110 aircraft and only possessing 35 , with only 18 operable . Through August and September , the North Koreans could only muster at most 16 sorties a day , most by isolated , single aircraft .
= = Air @-@ to @-@ ground operations = =
By June 30 , air assets were being rallied against ground targets as well as aircraft . That day the 19th Bombardment Group was being used to bomb targets along the Han River . Meanwhile , the 3rd Bombardment Group bombed targets around Seoul , seeking to slow the North Korean advance southward from the newly captured city . These assets also attacked North Korean convoys and troop movements along the roads to great effect . During these attacks North Korean aircraft rarely opposed the US aircraft , but in a few occasions Yak @-@ 9 flights appeared , and in one instance engaged a flight of F @-@ 80s from the 36th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron , allowing Lieutenants Charles A. Wurster and John B. Thomas to score a victory each . In spite of 25 bombing missions in Seoul , however , the North Korean troops were continuing their advance , forcing the US forces to abandon Suwon Airfield .
Beginning with the July 5 Battle of Osan , US troops began a continuous and unsuccessful ground campaign against the North Koreans , and many of the US air assets were used in close air support and airstrike roles to aid the faltering ground troops . From this point on bombers mounted strategic bombing missions against military targets of all types supporting the North Korean ground troops , including ports , armor concentrations and supply stockpiles . A massive interdiction campaign ensued which would have implications for the upcoming conflicts . As more US Air Force , US Navy and US Marine Corps aviation assets arrived in the country , they increased their interdiction campaigns for several days striking bridges and strategic areas though going mostly unthreatened by the North Korean Air Force , though at least one F @-@ 80 was lost when it hit power lines during a bombing run .
The North Korean ground troops , unprepared for the aggressive use of US air power and untrained in countering it , continued to operate tightly packed convoys on open roads , allowing the US air forces to attack and ravage them repeatedly . From July 7 to 9 , an estimated 197 trucks and 44 T @-@ 34 tanks were destroyed between Seoul and Pyongtaek . Though they subsequently won ground engagements at the Battle of Pyongtaek and Battle of Chonan , the North Korean ground troops were taking heavy losses from US air forces . On a few occasions , the UN airpower made mistakes , such as a July 3 bombing by No. 77 Squadron RAAF that hit a South Korean convoy near Suwon . At the same time , UN aircraft began flying at higher altitudes because combined small arms fire from North Korean ground targets was taking a heavier toll on UN aircraft . By mid July , these aircraft were flying up to 200 sorties a day to support UN ground troops , who by this point were losing the Battle of Chochiwon and the Battle of Taejon . By the start of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , the air battle for South Korea had been won by the UN , and it used its air superiority decisively to its advantage during that battle . The UN would remain unopposed in the skies until the Chinese forces entered the war in November of that year .
= = Aftermath = =
In spite of the unsuccessful UN ground action from June 25 to August 4 , the air battle for South Korea was considered a crucial success for the UN forces . Able to attain air superiority over its outmatched enemy , the UN air force was able to concentrate its efforts on attacking the North Koreans on the ground , and in the process inflicted significant casualties . This , in conjunction with bombing missions against North Korean armor , supplies and ports , greatly hampered North Korean efforts against the Pusan Perimeter , contributing to the eventual UN victory on the ground . Stratemeyer later said the victory was " short and sweet " but attributed the victory more to the North Koreans ' lack of a modern air force than to skill ; he felt his pilots were just as inexperienced as the UN ground troops and could have faced similar defeats had they not outnumbered the North Koreans . The victory in the air battles also meant a large number of other advantages for the war during August and September ; UN troops were able to move by day without fear of air attack , and UN naval ships could operate close to shore . North Korean troops themselves were confined to night attacks to avoid UN aircraft and much of its limited navy was also destroyed . By the end of the battle the Eighth Army had more air support than General Omar Bradley 's Twelfth United States Army Group in Europe during World War II .
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= That 's Not My Penguin =
" That 's Not My Penguin " is the sixth episode of the American television police procedural fantasy drama Awake . The episode premiered on April 5 , 2012 on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) , and was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada . It was written by series creator and executive producer Kyle Killen and staff writer Noelle Valdivia , and was directed by Scott Winant . " That 's Not My Penguin " was well received by television critics , who praised its storylines . Commentators noted that the script was well @-@ written and that the episode worked " either way " . Upon airing , the episode garnered 2 @.@ 56 million viewers in the United States and a 0 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It was the lowest @-@ rated show of the timeslot .
The show centers on Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) , a police detective living in two separate realities after a car accident . In this episode , Michael enters a psychiatric hospital during a hostage situation by Gabriel Wyath ( Billy Lush ) . Gabriel wants the police and Michael to find his sister Christie , who was murdered . However , Gabriel has created a separate reality where she was kidnapped by Dr. Wild rather than murdered . In the " green reality " , Michael looks for a " ring " , which is Dr. Wild 's ; Rex stole it for his girlfriend Emma ( Daniela Bobadilla ) . Michael meets Emma and gets the ring back . He also experiences hallucinations after being injected by Gabriel , seeing a penguin and Dr. Jonathan Lee ( BD Wong ) .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Gabriel Wyath ( Billy Lush ) in a psychiatric ward after blowing up a government building . There are doctors who are taking notes and comparing Wyath 's behavior to that of Michael Britten . The doctor 's note that the two are sharing signs of disorganization , having odd behavior , and suffering from a sleeping disorder . Later , in the " green reality " ( where Rex is alive , and Hannah is dead from the crash ) Michael forgets to sign a permission form for a field trip . He goes to work , and asks Efrem Vega ( Wilmer Valderrama ) if the prints came back . Since he is in the " green reality " , Efrem is confused , because he is not his partner in this world . Michael suddenly realizes that he is in the " green reality " . Later , Bird is bragging about his astronaut bed , when Dr. Wild comes to Michael 's desk , and asks for his ring . In the " red reality " ( where Hannah is alive , and Rex is dead from the crash ) , Michael goes to work , and is called in for a hospital hostage situation . Gabriel Wyath ( Billy Lush ) is the one causing the situation . He demands to see his sister Christie . However , she was murdered in a dispute with an ex @-@ boyfriend . Gabriel created a separate world where she was not murdered , but rather kidnapped by Dr. Wild .
Later , Dr. Lee explains what they are dealing with . Gabriel allows Michael to come in the hospital , but nobody else . Michael enters the building and realizes that he has a " dead man switch " , meaning that if Wyath is shot , then the whole building will blow up . Gabriel goes up near the window to handle a man who is screaming , and the police are prepared to shoot him . However , to prevent Gabriel from using his switch , Michael jumps at him , causing him to divert his path . Gabriel knocks him out , and shortly after injects him with ketamine . Michael suddenly wakes up in his " green reality " . Michael is looking for a ring , which is Dr. Wild 's . He sees a hallucination of a penguin , caused by the drugs . The penguin tells him that Rex has the ring . He calls him down , and asks him. it is revealed that Rex stole it for his girlfriend Emma ( Daniela Bobadilla ) . Michael meets Emma and gets the ring back . Dr. Evans ( Cherry Jones ) claims that he is " having a nightmare about madness " . He wakes up in the " red reality " and sees Dr. Lee helping him . The police are coming in to shoot him . Michael quickly phones and tells them to stop , due to the " dead man switch " . Gabriel and Michael talk about Gabriel 's two reality life . This makes Michael think about his life . Shortly later , Michael and Dr. Evans are talking about his mind . He thinks about his life and tells her that he is okay . During a subsequent discussion , he finds out that Dr. Lee was not really inside his mind ; he was actually helping himself .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series creator Kyle Killen and staff writer Noelle Valdivia , and was directed by Scott Winant ; it was Killen 's fourth writing credit , with the last episode he wrote being " Kate Is Enough " . The episode was Valdivia 's first writing credit on the series and Winant 's first directing credit . The episode is rated TV @-@ 14 on television in the United States .
The episode featured guest performances from Billy Lush , who was cast as Gabriel Wyath , Matt Riedy , who was cast as the SWAT Commander Hamilton , John Christopher Storey , who was cast as the Tech , and Daniela Bobadilla , who is cast as Emma , Rex 's girlfriend .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" That 's Not My Penguin " was originally broadcast on April 5 , 2012 in the United States on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) between 10 : 00 pm and 11 : 00 pm , preceded by Up All Night . Upon airing , the episode garnered 2 @.@ 56 million viewers in the United States despite airing simultaneously with The Mentalist on CBS , and the series premiere of the drama series Scandal on ABC . It acquired a 0 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that it was seen by 0 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode 's ratings dropped from the previous episode , " Oregon " . It was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada , and was subsequently aired on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom on June 8 , 2012 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" That 's Not My Penguin " was well received by television commentators . Matt Fowler of IGN gave an extremely positive review . He claimed that the story worked " either way " and that it was " awesome " , mainly because of the hallucinations . Fowler stated that he had his " mind blown " and that the best part of the episode was " when the show , for a little while , actually made me think that there was something to Gabriel 's Dr. Wild story " . Claiming that he was " hooked " to the show , Folwer concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 out of 10 " classifying it as " amazing " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club enjoyed the episode . In his " A- " review , he noted that the episode " doesn 't show any signs of imminent immolation " . He thought that the morale of the episode was " wanting something to be real doesn 't make it easier to pretend , and the harder Michael has to work to keep this up , the better the odds that he ’ s going to lose his grip " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix " loved " the episode . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic gave the episode a " 5 out of 5 " as a perfect score and thought that the entry " really used Awake 's concept to its advantage " .
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= The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man =
The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man is a motion @-@ based 3D dark ride located at the Islands of Adventure , Orlando and Universal Studios Japan , Osaka theme parks . Built for Islands of Adventure 's opening in 1999 , the attraction is a hybrid ride combining special roving motion vehicles with 3D projection , elaborate physical sets , and both practical and tactile effects .
The ride takes park guests @-@ turned @-@ last @-@ minute @-@ reporters into the world of Marvel Comics ' Spider @-@ Man , and after boarding a Daily Bugle vehicle known as the " Scoop " , the rider learns that the evil Sinister Syndicate has captured the Statue of Liberty with an anti @-@ gravity gun . This evil group is made up of many famous Spider @-@ Man villains , including Doctor Octopus , Scream , Electro , Hydro @-@ Man , and the Hobgoblin .
The attraction took three years to produce , with many new technologies and techniques being developed . The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man has been well received , winning several awards including the Golden Ticket Award for Best Dark Ride for twelve consecutive years .
= = History = =
On March 27 , 1999 , Islands of Adventure opened for technical rehearsals , with The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man being one of its debut attractions . On May 28 , 1999 , the attraction officially opened to the public . Due to the success of the attraction , Universal Studios Japan opened a clone of the ride on January 23 , 2004 .
On May 19 , 2011 , Islands of Adventure announced a major refurbishment of the attraction , with plans to re @-@ master the entire ride film in high definition as well as to update the ride 's mechanics and to replace the film projectors with Infitec digital projectors . The refurbished version of the attraction debuted on March 8 , 2012 . The ride was refurbished in time for the release of 2012 film , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . In 2013 , the attraction at Universal Studios Japan underwent a similar refurbishment with 4KHD projections being deployed . The refurbished attraction opened on July 5 , 2013 .
= = Experience = =
= = = Queue = = =
Guests enter the Daily Bugle from Marvel Super Hero Island at Islands of Adventure or New York at Universal Studios Japan . Guests are shown a video in which the company 's good reputation is touted and a new newsgathering vehicle , the " Scoop " , is introduced . After walking though the empty office , guests are shown a " live " video feed of news coverage . Five supervillains led by Doctor Octopus have lain siege to the city by an experimental anti @-@ gravity cannon created by Doctor Octopus himself . The syndicate steals the Statue of Liberty and threatens to destroy it if the city does not surrender to them . As guests walk through the empty offices of the Bugle , it becomes apparent that all the reporters have fled , leaving The Bugle 's Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief J. Jonah Jameson with no choice but to send the tourists to cover the story using the Bugle 's new Scoop vehicle .
= = = Ride experience = = =
After donning night vision goggles ( 3D glasses ) the " cub reporters " get in the Scoop and leave the loading docks to a Manhattan back alley where they encounter Spider @-@ Man . He warns that he is in for the most dangerous night of his life and for the guests to be careful . In this scene , a series of synchronised effects are used to simulate Spider @-@ Man jumping on the Scoop . Nearly missing a trash truck driven by a Stan Lee cameo , the guests enter a warehouse where the Sinister Syndicate are holding the Statue of Liberty hostage . Once spotted , Electro , Scream , and Doctor Octopus attack and hurl the Scoop into the sewer , where Spider @-@ Man is waiting . After he fends off Hydro @-@ Man and Doctor Octopus there , the guests escape narrowly to the river where Hobgoblin attacks with exploding pumpkins and sends guests into the streets .
In the ride 's climax , Doctor Octopus lifts the Scoop up to a height of 400 feet ( 120 m ) using the anti @-@ gravity cannon . A number of synchronised effects help achieve this without the vehicle leaving the ground . These include a movable building set , lighting cues , simulator movements , projections and wind effects . Spider @-@ Man attempts to pull the Scoop down , but is attacked by all the supervillains . Spider @-@ Man thwarts them , but not before Doctor Octopus disengages the anti @-@ gravity device , sending the Scoop on a simulated freefall until it is rescued by Spider @-@ Man 's webbing right above the ground and another Stan Lee cameo . Spider @-@ Man manages to capture all of the supervillains by tying them with webs . As the vehicle pulls into the unload station , Spider @-@ Man thanks the guests for their help and sends them back to the Daily Bugle , where he has rigged the anti @-@ gravity cannon to lift Jameson up to the ceiling in his office . Guests unload while a modern rendition of the classic Spider @-@ Man theme song plays and a voiceover by Stan Lee instructs the riders on exiting properly .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Development of The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man at Islands of Adventure began in 1996 . Allen Ambrosini from At The Park Magazine stated theme park guests in the late 1990s were becoming more sophisticated , desiring rides that combined theming and thrills into a single immersive experience . As a result , the ride 's creators set out to develop a ride which would take the motion simulation elements of Back to the Future : The Ride , and combine them with a 3D film similar to that used on T2 3 @-@ D : Battle Across Time . The result was a prototype ride system combining a track @-@ mounted motion base vehicle with 3D projections and other special effects , with the aim of immersing guests inside a comic book . To develop the attraction , Universal Creative brought together a number of companies including the Oceaneering Entertainment Systems division of Oceaneering International , Birket Engineering , Moog , Soundelux , Kleizer Walczak , and Rinehart Manufacturing .
= = = Ride system = = =
The ride system used on The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man was originally prototyped for the attraction at Islands of Adventure , before being installed at Universal Studios Japan . It has since been utilised for Transformers : The Ride at Universal Studios Singapore , Universal Studios Hollywood and Universal Studios Florida . The ride vehicles , developed by Oceaneering International , are mounted to a track @-@ roaming platform that provides the forward motion to move the vehicle through each show scene . The yaw motor and a stewart platform with six degrees of freedom attaching it to the platform allows the vehicle to move 360 degrees at different angles along the track . The track switches were manufactured by Dynamic Structures . Each of the vehicles are themed as the Daily Bugle 's new " Scoop " vehicle for reporters , with each accommodating twelve riders . Each row of four riders is restrained by a single lapbar . This system was invented by Universal Creative employees Philip Hettema , William Mason , and Gary Goddard . A similar system has been patented by Oceaneering International and used on rides such as The Curse of DarKastle at Busch Gardens Williamsburg , Tokyo Panic Cruise at Tokyo Dome , and Speed of Magic at Ferrari World Abu Dhabi .
= = = Ride film and projections = = =
The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man was primarily developed by Universal Creative , the research and development division of Universal Parks & Resorts . Scott Trowbridge , who now works for Walt Disney Imagineering , was the ride 's producer . Thierry Coup , who has since worked on Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey and Transformers : The Ride , was the Director and production designer . Trowbridge and Coup helped develop the initial storyboards for the attraction . They travelled to Massachusetts several times to meet with the animation directors , Jeff Kleiser and Diana Walczak , and their team at Kleiser @-@ Walczak Construction Co . ( now Synthespian Studios ) who provided all the stereoscopic animation and custom software for squinching . Coup produced the film alongside Patrick Mooney and Mark Rhodes . Trowbridge is given writing credits alongside Ross Osterman and Scott Peterson . Peter Lehman provided the soundtrack with Soundelux .
The attraction features thirteen 30 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) projection screens , twelve of which use 3D projection . The ride uses a polarized 3D system where the two projectors have polarizers designed to interact with each lens of the 3D glasses . By blocking light from one projector with each lens , the 3D effect is achieved . With traditional 3D projections there is an ideal seating location , where an off @-@ center viewing location reduces the overall effect of the 3D . To allow the ride to effectively combine 3D projections with moving viewers , Kleiser @-@ Walczak and their head of software , Frank Vtiz , developed a process they called squinching . First , the amount of distortion is predicted from a particular viewing angle . This same amount of distortion is then added in the opposite direction in order to counteract the effects . Initially miniature models were used to determine the ride 's path and the vehicle 's point of view , with full @-@ scale prototypes being used later . Trowbridge and Coup are credited with inventing the concept of squinching , with Universal Studios holding a patent for the method .
= = = Special effects = = =
In addition to the ride 's motion base and 3D projections , special effects including fog machines , fire , wind , heat , mist , strobe lights , and water spray are also employed throughout the attraction . All of these effects , along with the ride system , 3D projections and soundtrack , are controlled by a central industrial control system which knows , to one thirtieth of a second , when they are to execute . Just shy of the ride 's debut , the director of show and ride engineering at Islands of Adventure , Steve Blum , described The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man as the " most technically complex of all of the attractions " at the park . Vice president of design and creative development Mark Woodbury stated that they " would not have been able to tell this particular story if it weren 't for the technical tools " .
= = Reception = =
Cited by many as one of the best amusement rides in the world , The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man has been well received . Howard Shaprio of The Philadelphia Inquirer stated the ride was " bound to become one of the all @-@ time attractions of theme parks anywhere " . He described the climax of the ride the " most amazing effect " . Bill Dean of The Ledger described the ride as the " most impressive " attraction at Islands of Adventure . Guests interviewed by Dean praised the ride with comments including " I loved it " , " I think this is better [ than Back to the Future : The Ride ] because of the 3 @-@ D effects " , and " it was so exciting and everything was happening all at once , so it was really , really good " . Fred Mawer of the Daily Mail described the rides at Islands of Adventure " as technologically sophisticated as any in the world " with The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man being " the most extraordinary few minutes " .
Arthur Levine of About.com gave the ride 5 stars describing the ride as " an incredibly sophisticated attraction " that " blurs the line between virtual and reality so well that you 'll emerge slack @-@ jawed and awe @-@ struck " . He stated the enhancements made to the film projections in 2012 and 2013 " make the attraction even more immersive and awe @-@ inspiring " . Brady MacDonald of the Los Angeles Times rated the ride his second favourite in the world , after Disneyland 's Indiana Jones Adventure . Following the opening of fellow Universal rides Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey and Transformers : The Ride in 2010 and 2012 , MacDonald bumped The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man to his fourth favourite . In an interview for Amusement Business , Mark Hansen Jr. of Theme Park Critic praised the ride in stating that their dream ride would combine The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man with a 4th Dimension roller coaster such as X at Six Flags Magic Mountain . Theme Park Insider rated the ride a 9 out of 10 , based on 250 reviews .
In April 2004 , just three months after the ride opened at Universal Studios Japan , Amusement Business reported the park was " benefiting greatly from the addition of the ride " . Figures released at the end of 2004 showed Universal Studios Japan 's attendance rose from 8 @.@ 8 million people in 2003 to 9 @.@ 9 million people in 2004 , ranking it the sixth most visited park worldwide .
= = = Awards = = =
The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man has been the recipient of many awards from the amusement park industry . It won Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Award for Best Dark Ride for twelve consecutive years from 1999 through to 2010 . It has since placed second in that category , after fellow Islands of Adventure attraction , Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey , took the top spot in 2011 . In 2000 , the ride won a Thea Award from the Themed Entertainment Association for outstanding themed entertainment and experience design . It has also won numerous public @-@ voted Theme Park Insider Awards and Screamscape Ultimate Awards .
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= Goliath ( La Ronde ) =
Goliath is a steel coaster roller coaster at the La Ronde located in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard , it reaches a maximum height of 174 @.@ 8 feet ( 53 @.@ 3 m ) , a speed of 68 @.@ 4 miles per hour ( 110 @.@ 1 km / h ) , and a track length of 4 @,@ 038 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @,@ 231 @.@ 0 m ) . Construction commenced in September 2005 , and the roller coaster opened to the public on May 13 , 2006 . Goliath was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in Canada until it was surpassed by Behemoth ( another Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster ) , at Canada 's Wonderland 's in 2008 . Six Flags announced that Goliath would be hooked up with Virtual Reality for a New Revolution experience for the 2016 season , which was previously made as a world premiere in 2013 by a Montreal VR company .
= = History = =
Speculation that La Ronde would be building a new roller coaster began in the second half of 2004 . Rumors that the roller coaster would be manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard emerged in September 2005 . Construction for the roller coaster by Martin & Vleminckx began in September 2005 with land clearing and foundation pouring . The $ 18 @.@ 7 million Goliath was announced on October 26 , 2005 . By mid @-@ November , the storage bay was constructed with track pieces for the brake run and station being installed soon after . Construction on the lift hill continued throughout December and was topped off ( the highest piece the lift hill ) on December 21 . The first drop was completed by mid @-@ January 2006 followed by the first camelback hill which was completed by the end of February . After the second and third camelback hills were installed , the turnaround was completed in mid @-@ March . The three camelback hills and banked turns leading back to the station were installed by the end of March marking the completion of installing track . The cars for the trains were also delivered in late March . After the cars were put on the track in April , testing began . Once testing was complete , Goliath opened to the public on May 13 , 2006 .
When Goliath opened , it was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in Canada . Two years later , when Behemoth opened at Canada 's Wonderland , Goliath lost both records .
= = Ride experience = =
After being dispatched from the station , the train immediately begins to climb the 174 @.@ 8 feet ( 53 @.@ 3 m ) lift hill . Once at the top , the train drops back down 170 @.@ 6 feet ( 52 @.@ 0 m ) at a 70 @-@ degree angle . The train then makes a banked right turn leading into the first of three consecutive camelback hills ; each at a height of 121 @.@ 4 feet ( 37 @.@ 0 m ) , 95 @.@ 2 feet ( 29 @.@ 0 m ) , and 78 @.@ 8 feet ( 24 @.@ 0 m ) ( every hill is smaller than the previous one ) . Following the third hill , the train enters a 75 @.@ 5 feet ( 23 @.@ 0 m ) left hand turnaround that makes the train face the opposite direction that it came . After dropping back down to the ground , the train goes over another three camleback hills ; each at a height of 68 @.@ 9 feet ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) , 59 @.@ 1 feet ( 18 @.@ 0 m ) , and 52 @.@ 5 feet ( 16 @.@ 0 m ) . Then , the train makes an upward 45 @.@ 9 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) right banked turn , immediately followed by a downward left banked turn . After another 42 @.@ 7 feet ( 13 @.@ 0 m ) left banked turn , the train rises back up and goes over a small bump before entering the final brake run . The train then makes a 180 @-@ degree right turn leading back to the station . One cycle of the ride lasts about three minutes .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Goliath is approximately 4 @,@ 038 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @,@ 231 @.@ 0 m ) long , and the height of the lift is 174 @.@ 8 feet ( 53 @.@ 3 m ) high . It is made up of 150 foundations , 300 pilings , 106 supports , and 850 anchor bolts . The roller coasters has no inversions though it does feature seve camelback hills . The track is painted red with yellow rails while the supports are painted blue . It was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio .
Though Goliath is a B & M Hyper Coaster ( the model name for this type of B & M roller coaster ) , the roller coaster is technically not classified as a Hypercoaster . A Hypercoaster is any roller coaster that reaches a height over 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; Goliath reaches only 175 feet ( 53 m ) .
= = = Trains = = =
Goliath operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has nine cars which can seat four riders in a single row , for a total of 36 riders per train ; each seat has its own individual lap @-@ bar restraint . The structure of the trains are colored yellow , red and blue . The seats are blue and the restraints are yellow .
= = Awards = =
In Goliath 's opening year , it was voted the 37th best steel roller coaster in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards . The roller coaster peaked at position 23 in 2011 . It did not place in the top five new roller coasters for 2006 .
In Mitch Hawker 's Best Steel Roller Coaster Poll , Goliath was voted as the 25th best steel roller coaster in the world in its first year ; it peaked at position 14 in 2009 .
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= Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis =
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis ( CVST ) is the presence of acute thrombosis ( a blood clot ) in the dural venous sinuses , which drain blood from the brain . Symptoms may include headache , abnormal vision , any of the symptoms of stroke such as weakness of the face and limbs on one side of the body , and seizures . The diagnosis is usually by computed tomography ( CT / CAT scan ) or magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) employing radiocontrast to demonstrate obstruction of the venous sinuses by thrombus .
Treatment is with anticoagulants ( medication that suppresses blood clotting ) , and rarely thrombolysis ( enzymatic destruction of the blood clot ) . Given that there is usually an underlying cause for the disease , tests may be performed to look for these . The disease may be complicated by raised intracranial pressure , which may warrant surgical intervention such as the placement of a shunt .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Nine in ten people with sinus thrombosis have a headache ; this tends to worsen over the period of several days , but may also develop suddenly ( thunderclap headache ) . The headache may be the only symptom of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis . Many patients have symptoms of stroke : inability to move one or more limbs , weakness on one side of the face or difficulty speaking . This does not necessarily affect one side of the body as in the more common " arterial " stroke .
40 % of all patients have seizures , although it is more common still in women who develop sinus thrombosis peripartum ( in the period before and after giving birth ) . These are mostly seizures affecting only one part of the body and unilateral ( occurring on one side ) , but occasionally the seizures are generalised and rarely they lead to status epilepticus ( persistent or recurrent seizure activity for a long period of time ) .
In the elderly , many of the aforementioned symptoms may not occur . Common symptoms in the elderly with this condition are otherwise unexplained changes in mental status and a depressed level of consciousness .
The pressure around the brain may rise , causing papilledema ( swelling of the optic disc ) which may be experienced as visual obscurations . In severely raised intracranial pressure , the level of consciousness is decreased , the blood pressure rises , the heart rate falls and the patient assumes an abnormal posture .
= = Causes = =
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis is more common in particular situations . 85 % of patients have at least one of these risk factors :
Thrombophilia , a tendency to develop blood clots due to abnormalities in coagulation , e.g. factor V Leiden , deficiency of protein C , protein S or antithrombin , or related problems
Nephrotic syndrome , a kidney problem causing protein loss in the urine
Chronic inflammatory diseases , such as inflammatory bowel disease , lupus and Behçet 's disease
Pregnancy and puerperium ( the period after giving birth )
Particular blood disorders , especially polycythemia vera and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
Use of estrogen @-@ containing forms of hormonal contraception
Meningitis and infections of the ear , nose and throat area such as mastoiditis and sinusitis
Direct injury to the venous sinuses
Medical procedures in the head and neck area
Sickle cell anemia
Dehydration , primarily in infants and children
Homocystinuria
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis may be suspected on the basis of the symptoms , for example the combination of headache , signs of raised intracranial pressure and focal neurological abnormalities , or when alternative causes of headache and neurological abnormalities , such as a subarachnoid hemorrhage , have been excluded .
= = = Imaging = = =
There are various neuroimaging investigations that may detect cerebral sinus thrombosis . Cerebral edema and venous infarction may be apparent on any modality , but for the detection of the thrombus itself , the most commonly used tests are computed tomography ( CT ) and magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) , both using various types of radiocontrast to perform a venogram and visualise the veins around the brain .
Computed tomography , with radiocontrast in the venous phase ( CT venography or CTV ) , has a detection rate that in some regards exceeds that of MRI . The test involves injection into a vein ( usually in the arm ) of a radioopaque substance , and time is allowed for the bloodstream to carry it to the cerebral veins - at which point the scan is performed . It has a sensitivity of 75 @-@ 100 % ( it detects 75 @-@ 100 % of all clots present ) , and a specificity of 81 @-@ 100 % ( it would be incorrectly positive in 0 @-@ 19 % ) . In the first two weeks , the " empty delta sign " may be observed ( in later stages , this sign may disappear ) .
Magnetic resonance venography employs the same principles , but uses MRI as a scanning modality . MRI has the advantage of being better at detecting damage to the brain itself as a result of the increased pressure on the obstructed veins , but it is not readily available in many hospitals and the interpretation may be difficult .
Cerebral angiography may demonstrate smaller clots than CT or MRI , and obstructed veins may give the " corkscrew appearance " . This , however , requires puncture of the femoral artery with a sheath and advancing a thin tube through the blood vessels to the brain where radiocontrast is injected before X @-@ ray images are obtained . It is therefore only performed if all other tests give unclear results or when other treatments may be administered during the same procedure .
= = = D @-@ dimer = = =
A 2004 study suggested that the D @-@ dimer blood test , already in use for the diagnosis of other forms of thrombosis , was abnormal ( above 500 μg / l ) in 34 out of 35 patients with cerebral sinus thrombosis , giving it a sensitivity of 97 @.@ 1 % , a negative predictive value of 99 @.@ 6 % , a specificity of 91 @.@ 2 % , and a positive predictive value of 55 @.@ 7 % . Furthermore , the level of the D @-@ dimer correlated with the extent of the thrombosis . A subsequent study , however , showed that 10 % of patients with confirmed thrombosis had a normal D @-@ dimer , and in those who had presented with only a headache 26 % had a normal D @-@ dimer . The study concludes that D @-@ dimer is not useful in the situations where it would make the most difference , namely in lower probability cases .
= = = Further tests = = =
In most patients , the direct cause for the cerebral sinus thrombosis is not readily apparent . Identifying a source of infection is crucial ; it is common practice to screen for various forms of thrombophilia ( a propensity to form blood clots ) .
= = Pathogenesis = =
The veins of the brain , both the superficial veins and the deep venous system , empty into the dural venous sinuses , which carry blood back to the jugular vein and thence to the heart . In cerebral venous sinus thrombosis , blood clots usually form both in the veins of the brain and the venous sinuses . The thrombosis of the veins themselves causes venous infarction — damage to brain tissue due to a congested and therefore insufficient blood supply . This results in cerebral edema ( both vasogenic and cytotoxic edema ) , and leads to small petechial haemorrhages that may merge into large haematomas . Thrombosis of the sinuses is the main mechanism behind the increase in intracranial pressure due to decreased resorption of cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) . The condition does not lead to hydrocephalus , however , because there is no difference in pressure between various parts of the brain .
Any blood clot forms due to an imbalance between coagulation ( the formation of the insoluble blood protein fibrin ) and fibrinolysis . The three major mechanisms for such an imbalance are enumerated in Virchow 's triad : alterations in normal blood flow , injury to the blood vessel wall , and alterations in the constitution of blood ( hypercoagulability ) . Most cases of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis are due to hypercoagulability .
It is possible for the clot to break off and migrate ( embolise ) to the lungs , causing a pulmonary embolism . An analysis of earlier case reports concludes that this occurs in about 10 % of cases , but has a very poor prognosis .
= = Treatment = =
Various studies have investigated the use of anticoagulation to suppress blood clot formation in cerebral venous sinus thrombosis . Before these trials had been conducted , there had been a concern that small areas of hemorrhage in the brain would bleed further as a result of treatment ; the studies showed that this concern was unfounded . Clinical practice guidelines now recommend heparin or low molecular weight heparin in the initial treatment , followed by warfarin , provided there are no other bleeding risks that would make these treatments unsuitable . Some experts discourage the use of anticoagulation if there is extensive hemorrhage ; in that case , they recommend repeating the imaging after 7 – 10 days . If the hemorrhage has decreased in size , anticoagulants are started , while no anticoagulants are given if there is no reduction .
The duration of warfarin treatment depends on the circumstances and underlying causes of the condition . If the thrombosis developed under temporary circumstances ( e.g. pregnancy ) , three months are regarded as sufficient . If the condition was unprovoked but there are no clear causes or a " mild " form of thrombophilia , 6 to 12 months is advised . If there is a severe underlying thrombosis disorder , warfarin treatment may need to continue indefinitely .
Thrombolysis ( removal of the blood clot with " clot buster " medication ) has been described , either systemically by injection into a vein or directly into the clot during angiography . The 2006 European Federation of Neurological Societies guideline recommends that thrombolysis is only used in patients who deteriorate despite adequate treatment , and other causes of deterioration have been eliminated . It is unclear which drug and which mode of administration is the most effective . Bleeding into the brain and in other sites of the body is a major concern in the use of thrombolysis . American guidelines make no recommendation with regards to thrombolysis , stating that more research is needed .
Raised intracranial pressure , if severe or threatening vision , may require therapeutic lumbar puncture ( removal of excessive cerebrospinal fluid ) , medication ( acetazolamide ) , or neurosurgical treatment ( optic nerve sheath fenestration or shunting ) . In certain situations , anticonvulsants may be used to try to prevent seizures . These situations include focal neurological problems ( e.g. inability to move a limb ) and focal changes of the brain tissue on CT or MRI scan . Evidence to support or refute the use of antiepileptic drugs as a preventive measure , however , is lacking .
= = Prognosis = =
In 2004 the first adequately large scale study on the natural history and long @-@ term prognosis of this condition was reported ; this showed that at 16 months follow @-@ up 57 @.@ 1 % of patients had full recovery , 29 @.@ 5 % / 2 @.@ 9 % / 2 @.@ 2 % had respectively minor / moderate / severe symptoms or impairments , and 8 @.@ 3 % had died . Severe impairment or death were more likely in those aged over 37 years , male , affected by coma , mental status disorder , intracerebral hemorrhage , thrombosis of the deep cerebral venous system , central nervous system infection and cancer . A subsequent systematic review of nineteen studies in 2006 showed that mortality is about 5 @.@ 6 % during hospitalisation and 9 @.@ 4 % in total , while of the survivors 88 % make a total or near @-@ total recovery . After several months , two thirds of the cases has resolution ( " recanalisation " ) of the clot . The rate of recurrence was low ( 2 @.@ 8 % ) .
In children with CVST the risk of death is high . Poor outcome is more likely if a child with CVST develops seizures or has evidence of venous infarction on imaging .
= = Epidemiology = =
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis is rare , with an estimated 3 @-@ 4 cases per million annual incidence in adults . While it may occur in all age groups , it is most common in the third decade . 75 % are female . Given that older studies show no difference in incidence between men and women , it has been suggested that the use of oral contraceptives in women is behind the disparity between the sexes . A 1995 report from Saudi Arabia found a doubled incidence at 7 cases per 100 @,@ 000 ; this was attributed to the fact that Behçet 's disease , which increases risk of CVST , is more common in the Middle East .
A 1973 report found that CVST could be found on autopsy ( examination of the body after death ) in nine percent of all people . Many of these were elderly and had neurological symptoms in the period leading up to their death , and many suffered from concomitant heart failure .
In children , a Canadian study reported in 2001 that CVST occurs in 6 @.@ 7 per million annually . 43 % occur in the newborn ( less than one month old ) , and a further 10 % in the first year of life . Of the newborn , 84 % were already ill , mostly from complications after childbirth and dehydration .
= = History = =
The first description of thrombosis of the cerebral veins and sinuses is attributed to the French physician Ribes , who in 1825 observed thrombosis of the saggital sinus and cerebral veins in a man who had suffered from seizures and delirium . Until the second half of the 20th century it remained a diagnosis generally made after death . In the 1940s , reports by Dr Charles Symonds and others allowed for the clinical diagnosis of cerebral venous thrombosis , using characteristic signs and symptoms and results of lumbar puncture .
Improvements on the diagnosis of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in life were made with the introduction of venography in 1951 , which also aided in the distinction from idiopathic intracranial hypertension , which has similar presenting signs and symptoms in many cases .
The British gynecologist Stansfield is credited with the introduction , in 1942 , of the just recently introduced anticoagulant heparin in the treatment of CVST in 1942 . Clinical trials in the 1990s finally resolved the concern about using anticoagulants in most cases of CVST .
= = Notable cases = =
U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton was hospitalized on December 30 , 2012 , for anticoagulation treatment of venous thrombosis of the right transverse sinus , which is located at the base of the brain . Clinton 's thrombotic episode was discovered on an MRI scan done for follow @-@ up of a cerebral concussion she had suffered 2 @.@ 5 weeks before after she fell while suffering from gastroenteritis .
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= Ununtrium =
Ununtrium ( symbol Uut ) is a temporary name for the chemical element with atomic number 113 . It is a synthetic element ( an element that can be created in a laboratory but is not found in nature ) and is extremely radioactive ; its most stable known isotope , ununtrium @-@ 286 , has a half @-@ life of 20 seconds . It is also known as eka @-@ thallium or simply element 113 . Ununtrium was first reported to have been created in 2003 by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna , Russia , and in 2004 by a team of Japanese scientists at RIKEN . In December 2015 , the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( IUPAP ) recognized the element and assigned the priority of the discovery to RIKEN . In June 2016 , the IUPAC published a declaration proposing the name nihonium / nɪˈhoʊniəm / , symbol Nh . The name is set to be formally accepted in ( or after ) November 2016 . The name comes from one of the pronunciations of the Japanese word for Japan ( 日本 , nihon ) .
In the periodic table , it is a p @-@ block transactinide element . It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the boron group , although it has not been confirmed to behave as the heavier homologue to thallium in the boron group . Ununtrium is calculated to have some similar properties to its lighter homologues , boron , aluminium , gallium , indium , and thallium , although it should also show several major differences from them . Unlike all the other p @-@ block elements , it is predicted to show some transition metal character .
= = History = =
= = = Dubna – Livermore collaboration = = =
The first report of ununtrium was in August 2003 , when it was identified as an alpha decay product of element 115 , ununpentium . These results were published on February 1 , 2004 , by a team composed of Russian scientists at Dubna ( Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ) , and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory :
243
95Am + 48
20Ca → 288
115Uup + 3 1
0n → 284
113Uut + α
243
95Am + 48
20Ca → 287
115Uup + 4 1
0n → 283
113Uut + α
The Dubna – Livermore collaboration has strengthened their claim for the discovery of ununtrium by conducting chemical experiments on 268Db , the final decay product of 288Uup . This was valuable as none of the nuclides in this decay chain were previously known , so that their claim was not supported by any previously obtained experimental data ( as none existed ) , and chemical experimentation would strengthen the case for their claim . In June 2004 and again in December 2005 , this dubnium isotope was successfully identified by extracting the final decay products , measuring spontaneous fission ( SF ) activities and using chemical identification techniques to confirm that they behave like a group 5 element ( as dubnium is known to be in group 5 of the periodic table ) . Both the half @-@ life and decay mode were confirmed for the proposed 268Db which lends support to the assignment of the parent and daughter nuclei to ununpentium and ununtrium respectively . Further experiments at Dubna in 2005 have fully confirmed the decay data for ununpentium and ununtrium , but in 2011 , the IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party ( JWP ) did not recognize the two elements as having been discovered because current theory could not distinguish between group 4 and group 5 elements by their chemical properties with sufficient confidence , and the identification of the daughter dubnium isotope was the most important factor in confirming the discovery of ununpentium and ununtrium . Furthermore , the decay properties of all the nuclei in the decay chain of ununpentium had not been previously characterized before the Dubna experiments , a situation which the JWP generally considers " troublesome , but not necessarily exclusive " .
= = = RIKEN = = =
On July 23 , 2004 , a team of Japanese scientists at RIKEN bombarded a target of bismuth @-@ 209 with accelerated nuclei of zinc @-@ 70 and detected a single atom of the isotope ununtrium @-@ 278 . They published their results on September 28 , 2004 :
209
83Bi + 70
30Zn → 278
113Uut + 1
0n
Previously , in 2000 , a team led by P. A. Wilk identified the decay product 266Bh as decaying with identical properties to what the Japanese team had observed , thus lending support for their claim . However , they also observed the daughter of 266Bh , 262Db , undergo alpha decay instead of spontaneous fission ( the Japanese team observed the latter decay mode ) .
The RIKEN team produced a further atom on April 2 , 2005 , although the decay data were slightly different from the first chain , perhaps due to either the formation of a metastable state or an alpha particle escaping from the detector before depositing its full energy . Due to these inconsistencies in the decay data , the small number of ununtrium atoms produced , and the lack of unambiguous anchors to known isotopes , the JWP did not accept this as a conclusive discovery of ununtrium in 2011 .
Most recently , production and identification of another 278Uut nucleus occurred at RIKEN on August 12 , 2012 . In this case , a series of six alpha decays was observed , leading down to an isotope of mendelevium :
278
113Uut → 274
111Rg + α → 270
109Mt + α → 266
107Bh + α → 262
105Db + α → 258
103Lr + α → 254
101Md + α
This decay chain differed from the previous observations at RIKEN mainly in the decay mode of dubnium , which was previously observed to undergo spontaneous fission , but in this case instead alpha decayed ; the alpha decay of 262Db to 258Lr is well @-@ known . The scientists on this team calculated the probability of accidental coincidence to be 10 − 28 , or totally negligible . The resulting 254Md atom than underwent beta plus decay to 254Fm , which itself finally alpha decayed to the long @-@ lived 250Cf , which has a half @-@ life of around thirteen years .
= = Naming = =
In March 2016 , Kosuke Morita , the leader of the RIKEN team , proposed the name " nihonium " to IUPAC , after its place of discovery and referencing Japanese chemist Masataka Ogawa 's 1908 discovery of rhenium , which he named " nipponium " . IUPAC is expected to formally decide on the name by the end of 2016 after a period of public comments .
Until the proposed name is confirmed , ununtrium remains the lightest element that has not yet received an official name . Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , ununtrium should be known as eka @-@ thallium . In 1979 IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called ununtrium ( with the corresponding symbol of Uut ) , a systematic element name as a placeholder , until the discovery of the element is confirmed and a name is decided on . Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels , from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks , the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field , who call it " element 113 " , with the symbol of ( 113 ) or even simply 113 .
Claims to the discovery of ununtrium have been put forward by both the Dubna and RIKEN teams . In 2011 , the IUPAC evaluated the 2004 RIKEN experiments and 2004 and 2007 Dubna experiments , and concluded that they did not meet the criteria for discovery .
On August 12 , 2012 , researchers at the RIKEN Nishina Center for Accelerator @-@ Based Science in Japan , claimed to have synthesised element 113 by colliding zinc nuclei ( with 30 protons each ) into a thin layer of bismuth ( which contains 83 protons ) . In December 2015 , IUPAC recognized the element and assigned the priority of the discovery to RIKEN . For the first time in history a team of Asian physicists will name a new element .
The following names were speculated before the June 2016 announcement of the proposed name " nihonium " :
On 8 June 2016 , IUPAC disclosed the name of ununtrium as nihonium . Prior to the formal approval by the IUPAC Council , a five @-@ month public review is now set , expiring 8 November 2016 .
= = Isotopes = =
Ununtrium has no stable or naturally @-@ occurring isotopes . Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory , either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements . Six different isotopes of ununtrium have been reported with atomic masses 278 and 282 – 286 ; they all decay through alpha decay .
= = = Stability and half @-@ lives = = =
All ununtrium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive ; however , the heavier ununtrium isotopes are more stable than the lighter . The most stable known ununtrium isotope , 286Uut , is also the heaviest known ununtrium isotope ; it has a half @-@ life of 20 seconds . The isotope 285Uut has been reported to also have a half @-@ life of over a second . The isotopes 284Uut and 283Uut have half @-@ lives of 0 @.@ 48 and 0 @.@ 10 seconds respectively . The remaining two isotopes have half @-@ lives between 0 @.@ 1 and 100 milliseconds : 282Uut has a half @-@ life of 70 milliseconds , and 278Uut , the lightest known ununtrium isotope , is also the shortest @-@ lived known ununtrium isotope , with a half @-@ life of just 0 @.@ 24 milliseconds . It is predicted that even heavier undiscovered ununtrium isotopes could be much more stable : for example , 287Uut is predicted to have a half @-@ life of around 20 minutes , close to two orders of magnitude more than that of 286Uut .
Theoretical estimates of alpha decay half @-@ lives of isotopes of ununtrium are in good agreement with the experimental data . The undiscovered isotope 293Uut has been predicted to be the most stable towards beta decay ; however , no known ununtrium isotope has been observed to undergo beta decay .
The stability of nuclei decreases greatly with the increase in atomic number after plutonium , the heaviest primordial element , so that all isotopes with an atomic number above 101 decay radioactively with a half @-@ life under a day , with the exception of dubnium @-@ 268 . Nevertheless , because of reasons not very well understood yet , there is a slight increased nuclear stability around atomic numbers 110 – 114 , which leads to the appearance of what is known in nuclear physics as the " island of stability " . This concept , proposed by University of California professor Glenn Seaborg , explains why superheavy elements last longer than predicted .
= = Predicted properties = =
Ununtrium is the first member of the 7p series of elements and the heaviest boron group element on the periodic table , below boron , aluminium , gallium , indium , and thallium . It is predicted to show many differences from its lighter homologues : a largely contributing effect is the spin – orbit ( SO ) interaction . It is especially strong for the superheavy elements , because their electrons move much faster than in lighter atoms , at velocities comparable to the speed of light . In relation to ununtrium atoms , it lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels ( stabilizing the corresponding electrons ) , but two of the 7p electron energy levels are stabilized more than the other four . The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the inert pair effect , and the effect " tearing " the 7p subshell into the more stabilized and the less stabilized parts is called the subshell splitting . Computation chemists see the split as a change of the second ( azimuthal ) quantum number l from 1 to 1 / 2 and 3 / 2 for the more stabilized and less stabilized parts of the 7p subshell , respectively . For many theoretical purposes , the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as 7s27p1 / 21 . These effects stabilize lower oxidation states : the first ionization energy of ununtrium is expected to be 7 @.@ 306 eV , the highest among the boron group elements . Hence , the most stable oxidation state of ununtrium is predicted to be the + 1 state , and ununtrium is expected to be less reactive than thallium . Differences for other electron levels also exist . For example , the 6d electron levels ( also split in halves , with four being 6d3 / 2 and six being 6d5 / 2 ) are both raised , so that they are close in energy to the 7s ones . Thus , the 6d electron levels , being destabilized , should still be able to participate in chemical reactions in ununtrium ( as well as in the next 7p element , flerovium ) , thus making it behave in some ways like transition metals and allow higher oxidation states . Ununtrium should hence also be able to show stable + 2 , + 3 and + 5 oxidation states . However , the + 3 state should still be less stable than the + 1 state , following periodic trends . Ununtrium should be the most electronegative among all the boron group elements : for example , in the compound UutUus , the negative charge is expected to be on the ununtrium atom rather than the ununseptium atom , the opposite of what would be expected from simple periodicity . The electron affinity of ununtrium is calculated to be around 0 @.@ 68 eV ; in comparison , that of thallium is 0 @.@ 4 eV . The high electron affinity and electronegativity of ununtrium are due to it being only one electron short of the closed @-@ shell valence electron configuration of flerovium ( 7s27p1 / 22 ) : this would make the − 1 oxidation state of ununtrium more stable than that of its lighter congener thallium .
The simplest possible ununtrium compound is the monohydride , UutH . The bonding is provided by the 7p1 / 2 electron of ununtrium and the 1s electron of hydrogen . However , the SO interaction causes the binding energy of ununtrium monohydride to be reduced by about 1 eV and the ununtrium – hydrogen bond length to decrease as the bonding 7p1 / 2 orbital is relativistically contracted . The analogous monofluoride ( UutF ) should also exist . Ununtrium should also be able to form the trihydride ( UutH3 ) , trifluoride ( UutF3 ) , and trichloride ( UutCl3 ) , with ununtrium in the + 3 oxidation state . Because the 6d electrons are involved in bonding instead of the 7s ones , these molecules are predicted to be T @-@ shaped and not trigonal planar . Although the polyfluoride anion UutF −
6 should be stable , the corresponding neutral fluoride UutF5 should be unstable , spontaneously decomposing into the trifluoride and elemental fluorine . Ununtrium ( I ) is predicted to be more similar to silver ( I ) than thallium ( I ) : the Uut + ion is expected to more willingly bind anions , so that UutCl should be quite soluble in an excess of hydrochloric acid or in ammonia while TlCl is not . Additionally , in contrast to the strongly basic TlOH , ununtrium ( I ) should instead form Uut2O , which would be weakly water @-@ soluble and readily ammonia @-@ soluble .
Ununtrium is expected to be much denser than thallium , having a predicted density of about 16 to 18 g / cm3 , due to the relativistic stabilization and contraction of its 7s and 7p1 / 2 orbitals . This is because calculations estimate it to have an atomic radius of about 170 pm , the same as that of thallium , even though periodic trends would predict it to have an atomic radius larger than that of thallium due to it being one period further down in the periodic table . The melting and boiling points of ununtrium are not definitely known , but have been calculated to be 430 ° C and 1100 ° C respectively , exceeding the values for gallium , indium , and thallium , following periodic trends .
= = Experimental chemistry = =
Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of ununtrium has yet to have been established . The isotopes 284Uut , 285Uut , and 286Uut have half @-@ lives long enough for chemical investigation . It is theoretically predicted that ununtrium should have an enthalpy of sublimation around 150 kJ / mol and an enthalpy of adsorption on a gold surface around − 159 kJ / mol . From 2010 to 2012 , some preliminary chemical experiments were performed to determine the volatility of ununtrium . The reaction used was 243Am ( 48Ca , 3n ) 288Uup ; the isotope 288Uup has a short half @-@ life and would quickly decay to the longer @-@ lived 284Uut , which would be chemically investigated . Teflon capillaries at 70 ° C connecting the recoil chamber , where the ununtrium atoms were synthesized , and the gold @-@ covered detectors : the ununtrium atoms would be carried along the capillaries by a carrier gas . While about ten to twenty atoms of 284Uut were produced , none of these atoms were registered by the gold @-@ covered detectors , suggesting either that ununtrium was similar in volatility to the noble gases or , more plausibly , that pure ununtrium was not very volatile and thus could not efficiently pass through the Teflon capillaries at 70 ° C. Formation of the hydroxide UutOH would ease the transport , as UutOH is expected to be more volatile than elemental ununtrium , and this reaction could be facilitated by adding more water vapor into the carrier gas . However , it seems likely that this formation is not kinetically favored , so that one would need to use the longer @-@ lived isotope 286Uut in future experiments .
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= William Johnson ( artist ) =
William Henry Johnson ( March 18 , 1901 – April 13 , 1970 ) was an African @-@ American painter born in Florence , South Carolina . He became a student at the National Academy of Design in New York City , working with Charles Webster Hawthorne . He later lived and worked in France , where he was exposed to modernism . After Johnson married Danish textile artist Holcha Krake , the couple lived for some time in Scandinavia . There he was influenced by the strong folk art tradition . The couple moved to the United States in 1938 . Johnson eventually found work as a teacher at the Harlem Community Art Center , through the Federal Art Project .
Johnson 's style evolved from realism to expressionism to a powerful folk style , for which he is best known . A substantial collection of his paintings , watercolors , and prints is held by the Smithsonian American Art Museum , which has organized and circulated major exhibitions of his works .
= = Education = =
William Henry Johnson was born March 18 , 1901 , in Florence , South Carolina , to Henry Johnson and Alice Smoot . He attended the first public school in Florence , the all @-@ black Wilson School on Athens Street . It is likely that Johnson was introduced to sketching by one of his teachers , Louise Fordham Holmes , who sometimes included art in her curriculum . Johnson practiced drawing by copying the comic strips in the newspapers , and considered a career as a newspaper cartoonist .
He moved from Florence , South Carolina , to New York City at the age of 17 . Working a variety of jobs , he saved enough money to pay for classes at the prestigious National Academy of Design . He took a preparatory class with Charles Louis Hinton , then studied with Charles Courtney Curran and George Willoughby Maynard , all of whom emphasized classical portraiture and figure drawing . Beginning in 1923 , Johnson worked with the painter Charles Webster Hawthorne , who emphasized the importance of color in painting . John studied with Hawthorne at the Cape Cod School of Art in Provincetown , Massachusetts during the summers , paying for his tuition , food and lodging by working as a general handyman at the school . Johnson received a number of awards at the National Academy of Design , and applied for a coveted Pulitzer Travel Scholarship in his final year . When another student was given the award , Hawthorne raised nearly $ 1000 to enable Johnson to go abroad to study .
= = Career = =
Johnson arrived in Paris , France in the fall of 1917 . He spent a year in Paris , and had his first solo exhibition at the Students and Artists Club in November 1927 . Next he moved to Cagnes @-@ sur @-@ Mer in the south of France , influenced by the work of expressionist painter Chaim Soutine . In France , Johnson learned about modernism .
During this time , Johnson met the Danish textile artist Holcha Krake ( April 6 , 1885 – January 13 , 1944 ) . Holcha was traveling with her sister Erna , who was also a painter , and Erna 's husband , the expressionist sculptor Christoph Voll . Johnson was invited to join them on a tour of Corsica . Johnson and Holcha were deeply attracted in spite of differences in race , culture , and age .
Johnson returned to the United States in 1929 . Fellow artist George Luks encouraged Johnson to enter his work at the Harmon Foundation to be considered for the William E. Harmon Foundation Award for Distinguished Achievement Among Negroes in the Fine Arts Field . As a result , Johnson received the Harmon gold medal in the fine arts . He was applauded as a " real modernist " , " spontaneous , vigorous , firm , direct " . Other winners of the fine art award include Palmer Hayden , May Howard Jackson and Laura Wheeler Waring .
While in the United States , Johnson also visited his family in Florence , where he painted a considerable number of new works . He was apparently almost arrested while painting the Jacobia Hotel , a once @-@ fashionable town landmark which had become a dilapidated house of ill @-@ repute . Whether Johnson 's actions or his choice of subject were at issue is unknown . During this visit , Johnson was able to publicly exhibit his paintings twice . The first occasion was at a meeting of the Florence County Teachers Institute on February 22 , 1930 . The second was at a local YMCA where Johnson 's mother worked . Her boss , Bill Covington , arranged for Johnson to exhibit 135 of his paintings for a single afternoon , on April 15 , 1930 . Although the Florence Morning News described Johnson condescendingly as a " humble ... Negro youth " , it also admitted that he had " real genius " .
Johnson returned to Europe in 1930 by working his way to France on a freighter . He went to Funen , a Danish island , to rejoin Holcha Krake . The couple signed a prenuptial agreement on May 28 , 1930 , and were married a few days later in the town of Kerteminde . Johnson and his wife spent most of the 1930s in Scandinavia , where his interest in folk art influenced his painting . However , as Nazi sentiments increased in Germany and Europe in the late 1930s , many artists were affected . Johnson 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Christoph Voll was fired from his teaching position , and his art was labelled " degenerate " . Johnson and Krake chose to move to the United States in 1938 .
With the help of Mary Beattie Brady , Johnson eventually found work as a teacher at the Harlem Community Art Center . There he and other teachers instructed about 600 students per week , as part of a local Federal Art Project supported by the Works Progress Administration . Through the center Johnson met important Harlem inhabitants such as Henry Bannarn and Gwendolyn Knight . He immersed himself in African @-@ American culture and traditions , producing paintings that were characterized by their folk art simplicity . Johnson was determined to " paint his own people " . He celebrated African American culture and imagery in the urban settings of pieces such as Street life - Harlem , Cafe , and Street Musicians , and in the rural settings of Farm Couple at Work , Sowing , and Going to Market . Harsher realities of Negro life were depicted in Chain Gang and Moon over Harlem , which was a response to the 1943 racial riots in New York . Another series of works showed war @-@ time soldiers and nurses . Johnson held a solo exhibition at Alma Reed Galleries in 1941 . However , although he enjoyed a degree of success as an artist during the 1940s and 1950s , he was never able to achieve financial stability .
On a personal level , the 1940s were difficult . Bad news came from Europe . Christoph Voll died in Karlsruhe , Germany , on June 16 , 1939 , after interrogation by Nazi officials . Holcha 's family endured the German occupation of Denmark at their home in Odense . In December 1942 , Johnson and Krake moved to a larger studio apartment in Greenwich Village . A week later , Johnson 's artwork , supplies , and personal possessions were destroyed when the building caught fire . On January 13 , 1944 , John suffered further loss when his wife Holcha died from breast cancer . To deal with his grief , he revisited his family in Florence , and painted works with religious themes , such as Mount Calvary . Mount Calvary and Booker T. Washington Legend ( from Johnson 's Fighters for Freedom series of 1945 ) were included in the show The Negro Artist Comes of Age : A National Survey of Contemporary American Artists at the Albany Institute of History and Art in 1945 .
In 1946 Johnson left for Denmark to be with his wife 's family . However , his behavior became increasingly erratic . At Ullevål Hospital in Oslo in spring 1947 , he was diagnosed as suffering from syphilis which had impaired both mental and motor function . As a U.S. citizen who was no longer considered mentally competent , he was sent back to New York by the U.S. Embassy in Oslo . An attorney was appointed by the court as his legal guardian , and his belongings were put into storage . He entered the Central Islip State Hospital on Long Island on December 1 , 1947 , where he was treated for syphilis @-@ induced paresis . He spent the last twenty @-@ three years of his life there . He no longer painted after 1955 and died on April 13 , 1970 of hemorrhaging of the pancreas .
= = Recognition = =
In 1956 , Johnson 's life 's work was almost destroyed when his legal guardian declared him unable to pay further storage fees . Instead , Helen Harriton , Mary Beattie Brady , and others arranged with the court to have Johnson 's belongings delivered to the Harmon Foundation with unconditional rights over all works . The foundation would use the works to advance interracial understanding and support African American achievements in the fine arts . On April 19 , 1967 , the Harmon Foundation gave more than 1 @,@ 000 paintings , watercolors , and prints by Johnson to the Smithsonian American Art Museum .
In 1991 , the Smithsonian American Art Museum organized and circulated a major exhibition of his artwork , Homecoming : The Art and Life of William H. Johnson , and in 2006 , they organized and circulated William H. Johnson 's World on Paper . An expanded version of this exhibition traveled to the Amon Carter Museum in Fort Worth , Texas , the Philadelphia Museum of Art , and the Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts in Montgomery , Alabama in 2007 .
The William H. Johnson Foundation for the Arts was established in 2001 in honor of the 100th birthday of William Johnson . Beginning with Laylah Ali in 2002 , the Foundation has awarded the William H. Johnson Prize annual to an early career African American artist .
In 2012 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a stamp in Johnson 's honor , recognizing him as one of the nation 's foremost African @-@ American artists and a major figure in 20th @-@ century American art . The stamp , the 11th in the " American Treasures " series , showcases his painting Flowers ( 1939 – 1940 ) , which depicts brightly colored blooms on a small red table .
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= SS Kentuckian =
SS Kentuckian was a cargo ship built in 1910 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . During World War I she was known as USAT Kentuckian in service for the United States Army and USS Kentuckian ( ID @-@ 1544 ) in service for the United States Navy . After her Navy career , she reverted to her original name of SS Kentuckian .
She was built by the Maryland Steel Company as first of three ships ordered by the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , and was employed in inter @-@ coastal service via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Panama Canal after it opened . In World War I , USAT Kentuckian carried cargo and animals to France under charter to the U.S. Army . When transferred to the U.S. Navy in December 1918 , a month after the Armistice , USS Kentuckian was converted to a troop transport and returned almost 8 @,@ 900 American troops from France . Returned to American @-@ Hawaiian in 1919 , Kentuckian resumed inter @-@ coastal cargo service .
Shortly before World War II , Kentuckian was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and sailed between Trinidad and African ports , between New York and Caribbean ports , and in transatlantic convoys through mid 1944 . In mid @-@ July 1944 , the ship was scuttled as part of the breakwater for one of the Mulberry artificial harbors built to support the Normandy Invasion .
= = Design and construction = =
In the second quarter of 1909 , American @-@ Hawaiian , looking to expand its fleet , placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for three new cargo ships — Kentuckian , Georgian , and Honolulan . The contract for the ships required that American @-@ Hawaiian pay $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in cash and a further $ 650 @,@ 000 in twelve monthly notes at 5 % interest . Provisions of the deal allowed that the monthly notes could be converted into longer @-@ term mortgages at 6 % interest , and secured by the ships themselves . The final cost of Kentuckian , including financing costs , was $ 58 @.@ 33 per deadweight ton , which came out to just under $ 579 @,@ 000 .
Kentuckian ( Maryland Steel yard no . 104 ) was the first ship built under the contract . She was launched on 19 March 1910 , by Miss Nancy Johnson , the daughter of U.S. Representative Ben Johnson ( D @-@ KY ) , who christened the ship with sparkling spring water from the Kentucky farms of Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis . The completed ship , delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian on 1 June , was 6 @,@ 479 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 24 m ) in length ( between perpendiculars ) and 53 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 31 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 9 @,@ 925 LT DWT , and her cargo holds had a storage capacity of 428 @,@ 145 cubic feet ( 12 @,@ 123 @.@ 7 m3 ) . Kentuckian had a single quadruple @-@ expansion steam engine powered by oil @-@ fired boilers that drove a single screw propeller at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ) .
= = Early career = =
When Kentuckian began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route would arrive at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , for westbound cargo — and would traverse the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . Kentuckian sailed in this service but it is not clear from sources whether on the east or west side of North America .
After the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 ( which found six American @-@ Hawaiian ships in Mexican ports ) , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . This loss of access coupled with the fact that the Panama Canal was not yet open , caused American @-@ Hawaii to return in late April to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Straits of Magellan . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking that route .
In October 1915 , landslides closed the Panama Canal and all American @-@ Hawaiian ships , including Kentuckian , returned to the Straits of Magellan route again . Kentuckian 's exact movements from this time through early 1918 are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service . She may also have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore .
= = World War I = =
At some point after the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , the United States Army chartered Kentuckian for transporting animals to Europe in support of the American Expeditionary Force . Although there is no information about the specific conversion of Kentuckian , for other ships this typically meant that any passenger accommodations had to be ripped out and replaced with ramps and stalls for the horses and mules carried .
Details about Kentuckian 's first animal transport journey are not known , but her second trip began 14 March 1918 when she sailed from Newport News , Virginia , with 848 animals for Saint @-@ Nazaire , where she unloaded all but the four animals that had died or were destroyed during the voyage . On 24 April , during a convoy crossing in Army service , Naval Armed Guardsmen on Kentuckian sighted a torpedo heading towards the second ship behind her in the column . Opening fire on the torpedo , the gun crew claimed the hit that caused the torpedo to explode short of its intended target . Further details of Kentuckian 's Army service are not available .
With the signing of the Armistice on 11 November , the fighting came to an end and the task of bringing home American soldiers began almost immediately . To that end , Kentuckian was acquired by the United States Navy on 16 December , and commissioned on 28 January 1919 with Lieutenant Commander Carrol E. Higgins , NAR , in command . Before she could begin returning troops , though , Kentuckian had to undergo conversion from a cargo and animal ship . Though sources do not indicate the specific modifications Kentuckian underwent , typical conversions for other ships included the installation of berths for troops , and adding greatly expanded cooking and toilet facilities to handle the large numbers of men aboard . Similar modifications on a fellow American @-@ Hawaiian cargo ship , the two @-@ years @-@ younger Minnesotan , took three months , but it is not known how long Kentuckian 's refit took .
Kentuckian departed New York for her first trooping voyage on 2 March , picking up nearly 2 @,@ 000 soldiers at Saint @-@ Nazaire — among them some 1 @,@ 500 men of the 363rd Infantry Regiment of the U.S. 91st Infantry Division , and a number from the U.S. 33rd Infantry Division — before returning to New York on 1 April . Her arrival on another trooping run in June returned 1 @,@ 860 men , including over 1 @,@ 500 members of the 345th Field Artillery Regiment of the U.S. 90th Infantry Division . An officer of that unit brought back a black police dog named Pat , who , purportedly , had been the personal dog of Germany 's Crown Prince Wilhelm . Another trip in July returned another 1 @,@ 852 men from Saint @-@ Nazaire . In all , Kentuckian made a total of five trooping runs from France , bringing back 8 @,@ 895 men by the time she completed her last trip on 31 August at Norfolk , Virginia . She was decommissioned on 15 September and returned to American @-@ Hawaiian the same day .
= = Interwar years = =
Kentuckian resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Though the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by this time , Kentuckian continued inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal with a few incidents that interrupted what was a mostly uneventful twenty years . In September 1928 , a day after sailing from San Francisco , Kentuckian was rammed by the General Petroleum tanker Los Alamos near Point Sur , California , in a thick fog . Kentuckian had a leak in her number two cargo hold and damage to her port bilge keel and returned to San Francisco for repairs . In early April 1933 , a fire broke out in Kentuckian 's number two cargo hold , which resulted in the delay of the ship at Panama from 8 to 14 April . Kentuckian made her way to Los Angeles over the next ten days , where surveyors examined the ship and her general cargo .
For the most part , Kentuckian primarily carried general cargoes whose contents were not noteworthy . One exception occurred in July 1929 , when The New York Times reported that Kentuckian was carrying , Pirate , an R @-@ class racing yacht to races at Larchmont and Marblehead . The newspaper reported that Pirate was the first West Coast designed and built yacht to race in the East .
Unlike SS Minnesotan , a fellow American @-@ Hawaiian ship that was plagued with labor difficulties , Kentuckian seems to have escaped much of the maritime labor turmoil of the mid @-@ 1930s . One incident was reported by the Los Angeles Times in August 1936 . The news item reported that a portion of Kentuckian 's crew went on strike in protest against unsafe working conditions . The ship 's master had ordered the deckhands to rig one of the cargo booms after the ship docked in Los Angeles , but they refused because the deck was slippery and therefore , in their opinion , unsafe .
= = World War II = =
Shortly before the United States entered World War II , Kentuckian was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) , but continued to be operated by American @-@ Hawaiian . On 19 November 1941 , Kentuckian sailed from New York for Durban , where she arrived on 21 December . Kentuckian spent the next two months sailing between ports in South Africa and Mozambique , calling at Port Elizabeth , Cape Town , and East London in the former , and Lourenco Marques , and Beira in the latter , before heading to Trinidad from Cape Town on 28 February 1942 . Arriving at Trinidad three weeks later , she made her way up to Boston by early April , before putting in at New York for about six weeks . Sailing from New York in late May , Kentuckian joined a southbound Hampton Roads , Virginia – Key West , Florida convoy . She left the convoy before Key West and headed back across the Atlantic to Cape Town , where she arrived on 7 July . Kentuckian spent the next month sailing between Cape Town , East London , and Durban . Kentuckian concluded her second trip to Africa when she sailed for South America on 1 August .
After a three @-@ week crossing of the South Atlantic , Kentuckian arrived at Paramaribo on 22 August , where she took on a load of bauxite and made her way to New York , where she docked on 20 September . The cargo ship slowly made her way south , calling at Charleston , Key West , and Guantánamo Bay along her way to Trinidad , where she arrived on 5 November . Sailing 11 November , Kentuckian began her third and final trip to Africa . She arrived at Freetown on 25 November and called at Bathurst and Takoradi over the next two months before returning to Trinidad on 31 January 1943 . Sailing from Trinidad on 4 February , she called at Guantánamo Bay and Baltimore on her way to New York , where , arriving in late March , she prepared to begin transatlantic convoy sailings to the United Kingdom .
On 1 April , Kentuckian , loaded with grain and general cargo , departed as a part of Convoy HX @-@ 232 , the 232nd New York – Halifax – Liverpool convoy . Developing some unreported problem , she returned to New York on 3 April . The problem must have been minor , because she sailed as part of Convoy HX @-@ 233 three days later . This convoy was attacked by no fewer than eight German submarines , which resulted in the loss of only one ship , the British cargo ship Fort Rampart , and the sinking of 175 by convoy escorts . There is no evidence that Kentuckian played any direct part in the sinking of the German submarine , but , nevertheless , members of her Naval Armed Guard were awarded a battle star for actions in the convoy from 16 – 18 April . Kentuckian arrived at Liverpool on 21 April . Over the next ten months , Kentuckian made nine more convoy crossings between the UK — where she called at Liverpool , Swansea , Milford Haven , Methil , Loch Ewe , Immingham , and Belfast Lough — and New York . She ended her tenth North Atlantic crossing when she arrived at New York on 16 February 1944 .
Sailing from New York on 26 February , Kentuckian made two circuits between that port and the Caribbean , calling at Nuevitas , Cuba , and Manatí , Puerto Rico , and making stops at Key West and Philadelphia along the way , before putting in at New York on 15 April . Kentuckian departed the United States for the final time on 19 May and headed for Milford Haven . After arriving there on 3 June , the cargo ship arrived at Barry via Plymouth , Belfast Lough , and Falmouth , on 27 June . Departing Barry on 8 July as a part of Convoy EBC @-@ 35 , Kentuckian arrived at Arromanches on 10 July and was scuttled there as part of a breakwater protecting the mulberry harbor constructed there in support of the Normandy invasion .
In March 1945 , the WSA offered a payment of $ 565 @,@ 910 to American @-@ Hawaiian for Kentuckian as part of a $ 7 @.@ 2 million settlement for eleven requisitioned American @-@ Hawaiian ships that had either been sunk , scuttled ( like Kentuckian ) , or were to be retained by the government .
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= Chaco Culture National Historical Park =
Chaco Culture National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park hosting the densest and most exceptional concentration of pueblos in the American Southwest . The park is located in northwestern New Mexico , between Albuquerque and Farmington , in a remote canyon cut by the Chaco Wash . Containing the most sweeping collection of ancient ruins north of Mexico , the park preserves one of the most important pre @-@ Columbian cultural and historical areas in the United States .
Between AD 900 and 1150 , Chaco Canyon was a major center of culture for the Ancient Pueblo Peoples . Chacoans quarried sandstone blocks and hauled timber from great distances , assembling fifteen major complexes that remained the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century . Evidence of archaeoastronomy at Chaco has been proposed , with the " Sun Dagger " petroglyph at Fajada Butte a popular example . Many Chacoan buildings may have been aligned to capture the solar and lunar cycles , requiring generations of astronomical observations and centuries of skillfully coordinated construction . Climate change is thought to have led to the emigration of Chacoans and the eventual abandonment of the canyon , beginning with a fifty @-@ year drought commencing in 1130 .
Comprising a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the arid and sparsely populated Four Corners region , the Chacoan cultural sites are fragile – concerns of erosion caused by tourists have led to the closure of Fajada Butte to the public . The sites are considered sacred ancestral homelands by the Hopi and Pueblo people , who maintain oral accounts of their historical migration from Chaco and their spiritual relationship to the land . Though park preservation efforts can conflict with native religious beliefs , tribal representatives work closely with the National Park Service to share their knowledge and respect the heritage of the Chacoan culture .
The park is on the Trails of the Ancients Byway , one of the designated New Mexico Scenic Byways .
= = Geography = =
Chaco Canyon lies within the San Juan Basin , atop the vast Colorado Plateau , surrounded by the Chuska Mountains to the west , the San Juan Mountains to the north , and the San Pedro Mountains to the east . Ancient Chacoans drew upon dense forests of oak , piñon , ponderosa pine , and juniper to obtain timber and other resources . The canyon itself , located within lowlands circumscribed by dune fields , ridges , and mountains , is aligned along a roughly northwest @-@ to @-@ southeast axis and is rimmed by flat massifs known as mesas . Large gaps between the southwestern cliff faces — side canyons known as rincons — were critical in funneling rain @-@ bearing storms into the canyon and boosting local precipitation levels . The principal Chacoan complexes , such as Pueblo Bonito , Nuevo Alto , and Kin Kletso , have elevations of 6 @,@ 200 to 6 @,@ 440 feet ( 1 @,@ 890 to 1 @,@ 960 m ) .
The alluvial canyon floor slopes downward to the northwest at a gentle grade of 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) per mile ( 6 meters per kilometer ) ; it is bisected by the Chaco Wash , an arroyo that rarely bears water . The canyon 's main aquifers were too deep to be of use to ancient Chacoans : only several smaller and shallower sources supported the small springs that sustained them . Today , aside from occasional storm runoff coursing through arroyos , substantial surface water — springs , pools , wells — is virtually nonexistent .
= = Geology = =
After the Pangaean supercontinent sundered during the Cretaceous period , the region became part of a shifting transition zone between a shallow inland sea — the Western Interior Seaway — and a band of plains and low hills to the west . A sandy and swampy coastline oscillated east and west , alternately submerging and uncovering the area atop the present Colorado Plateau that Chaco Canyon now occupies .
The Chaco Wash flowed across the upper strata of what is now the 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) Chacra Mesa , cutting into it and gouging out a broad canyon over the course of millions of years . The mesa comprises sandstone and shale formations dating from the Late Cretaceous , which are of the Mesa Verde formation . The canyon bottomlands were further eroded , exposing Menefee Shale bedrock ; this was subsequently buried under roughly 125 feet ( 38 m ) of sediment . The canyon and mesa lie within the " Chaco Core " — which is distinct from the wider Chaco Plateau , a flat region of grassland with infrequent stands of timber . As the Continental Divide is only 15 @.@ 5 miles ( 25 km ) east of the canyon , geological characteristics and different patterns of drainage differentiate these two regions both from each other and from the nearby Chaco Slope , the Gobernador Slope , and the Chuska Valley .
= = Climate = =
An arid region of high xeric scrubland and desert steppe , the canyon and wider basin average 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of rainfall annually ; the park averages 9 @.@ 1 inches ( 230 mm ) . Chaco Canyon lies on the leeward side of extensive mountain ranges to the south and west , resulting in a rainshadow effect that fosters the prevailing lack of moisture in the region . The region sees four distinct seasons . Rainfall is most likely between July and September , while May and June are the driest months . Orographic precipitation , which results from moisture wrung out of storm systems ascending the mountain ranges around Chaco Canyon , is responsible for most of the summer and winter precipitation , and rainfall increases with higher elevation . Occasional aberrant northward excursions of the intertropical convergence zone may boost precipitation in some years .
Chaco endures remarkable climatic extremes : temperatures range between − 38 to 102 ° F ( − 39 to 39 ° C ) , and may swing 60 ° F ( 33 ° C ) in a single day . The region averages fewer than 150 frost @-@ free days per year , and the local climate swings wildly from years of plentiful rainfall to prolonged drought . The heavy influence of the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation contributes to the canyon 's fickle climate .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Chacoan flora typifies that of North American high deserts : sagebrush and several species of cactus are interspersed with dry scrub forests of piñon and juniper , the latter primarily on the mesa tops . The canyon is far drier than other parts of New Mexico located at similar latitudes and elevations , and it lacks the temperate coniferous forests plentiful to the east . The prevailing sparseness of plants and wildlife was echoed in ancient times , when overpopulation , expanding cultivation , overhunting , habitat destruction , and drought may have led the Chacoans to strip the canyon of wild plants and game . It has been suggested that even during wet periods the canyon was able to sustain only 2 @,@ 000 people .
Among Chacoan mammals are the plentiful coyote ( Canis latrans ) ; mule deer , elk , and pronghorn also live within the canyon , though they are rarely encountered by visitors . Important smaller carnivores include bobcats , badgers , foxes , and two species of skunk . The park hosts abundant populations of rodents , including several prairie dog towns . Small colonies of bats are present during the summer . The local shortage of water means that relatively few bird species are present ; these include roadrunners , large hawks ( such as Cooper 's hawks and American kestrels ) , owls , vultures , and ravens , though they are less abundant in the canyon than in the wetter mountain ranges to the east . Sizeable populations of smaller birds , including warblers , sparrows , and house finches , are also common . Three species of hummingbirds are present : one is the tiny but highly pugnacious rufous hummingbird , which compete intensely with the more mild @-@ tempered black @-@ chinned hummingbirds for breeding habitat in shrubs or trees located near water . Western ( prairie ) rattlesnakes are occasionally seen in the backcountry , though various lizards and skinks are far more abundant .
= = History = =
= = = Archaic – Early Basketmakers = = =
The first people in the San Juan Basin were hunter @-@ gatherers : the Archaic – Early Basketmaker people . These small bands descended from nomadic Clovis big @-@ game hunters who arrived in the Southwest around 10 @,@ 000 BC . More than 70 campsites from this period , carbon @-@ dated to the period 7000 – 1500 BC and mostly consisting of stone chips and other leavings , were found in Atlatl Cave and elsewhere within Chaco Canyon , with at least one of the sites located on the canyon floor near an exposed arroyo . The Archaic – Early Basketmaker people were nomadic or semi @-@ nomadic hunter @-@ gatherers who over time began making baskets to store gathered plants . By the end of the period , some people cultivated food . Excavation of their campsites and rock shelters has revealed that they made tools , gathered wild plants , and killed and processed game . Slab @-@ lined storage cists indicate a change from a wholly nomadic lifestyle .
= = = Ancestral Puebloans = = =
By 900 BC , Archaic people lived at Atlatl Cave and like sites . They left little evidence of their presence in Chaco Canyon . By AD 490 , their descendants , of the Late Basketmaker II Era , farmed lands around Shabik 'eshchee Village and other pit @-@ house settlements at Chaco .
A small population of Basketmakers remained in the Chaco Canyon area . The broad arc of their cultural elaboration culminated around 800 , during the Pueblo I Era , when they were building crescent @-@ shaped stone complexes , each comprising four to five residential suites abutting subterranean kivas , large enclosed areas reserved for rites . Such structures characterize the Early Pueblo People . By 850 , the Ancient Pueblo population — the " Anasazi " , from a Ute term adopted by the Navajo denoting the " ancient ones " or " enemy ancestors " — had rapidly expanded : groups resided in larger , more densely populated pueblos . Strong evidence attests to a canyon @-@ wide turquoise processing and trading industry dating from the 10th century . Around then , the first section of Pueblo Bonito was built : a curved row of 50 rooms near its present north wall .
The cohesive Chacoan system began unravelling around 1140 , perhaps triggered by an extreme fifty @-@ year drought that began in 1130 ; chronic climatic instability , including a series of severe droughts , again struck the region between 1250 and 1450 . Poor water management led to arroyo cutting ; deforestation was extensive and economically devastating : timber for construction had to be hauled instead from outlying mountain ranges such as the Chuska mountains , which are more than 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the west . Outlying communities began to depopulate and , by the end of the century , the buildings in the central canyon had been neatly sealed and abandoned .
Some scholars suggest that violence and warfare , perhaps involving cannibalism , impelled the evacuations . Hints of such include dismembered bodies — dating from Chacoan times — found at two sites within the central canyon . Yet Chacoan complexes showed little evidence of being defended or defensively sited high on cliff faces or atop mesas . Only several minor sites at Chaco have evidence of the large @-@ scale burning that would suggest enemy raids . Archaeological and cultural evidence leads scientists to believe people from this region migrated south , east , and west into the valleys and drainages of the Little Colorado River , the Rio Puerco , and the Rio Grande . Anthropologist Joseph Tainter deals at length with the structure and decline of Chaco civilization in his 1988 study The Collapse of Complex Societies .
= = = Athabaskan succession = = =
Numic @-@ speaking peoples , such as the Ute and Shoshone , were present on the Colorado Plateau beginning in the 12th century . Nomadic Southern Athabaskan @-@ speaking peoples , such as the Apache and Navajo , succeeded the Pueblo people in this region by the 15th century . In the process , they acquired Chacoan customs and agricultural skills . Ute tribal groups also frequented the region , primarily during hunting and raiding expeditions . The modern Navajo Nation lies west of Chaco Canyon , and many Navajo live in surrounding areas .
= = = Excavation and protection = = =
The first documented trip through Chaco Canyon was an 1823 expedition led by New Mexican governor José Antonio Vizcarra when the area was under Mexican rule . He noted several large ruins in the canyon . The American trader Josiah Gregg wrote about the ruins of Chaco Canyon , referring in 1832 to Pueblo Bonito as " built of fine @-@ grit sandstone " . In 1849 , a U.S. Army detachment passed through and surveyed the ruins , following United States acquisition of the Southwest with its victory in the Mexican War in 1848 . The canyon was so remote , however , that it was scarcely visited over the next 50 years . After brief reconnaissance work by Smithsonian scholars in the 1870s , formal archaeological work began in 1896 when a party from the American Museum of Natural History based in New York City — the Hyde Exploring Expedition — began excavating Pueblo Bonito . Spending five summers in the region , they sent over 60 @,@ 000 artifacts back to New York and operated a series of trading posts in the area .
In 1901 Richard Wetherill , who had worked for the Hyde expedition , claimed a homestead of 161 acres ( 65 ha ) that included Pueblo Bonito , Pueblo del Arroyo , and Chetro Ketl . While investigating Wetherill 's land claim , federal land agent Samuel J. Holsinger detailed the physical setting of the canyon and the sites , noted prehistoric road segments and stairways above Chetro Ketl , and documented prehistoric dams and irrigation systems . His report went unpublished and unheeded . It urged the creation of a national park to safeguard Chacoan sites .
The next year , Edgar Lee Hewett , president of New Mexico Normal University ( later renamed New Mexico Highlands University ) , mapped many Chacoan sites . Hewett and others helped enact the Federal Antiquities Act of 1906 , the first U.S. law to protect relics ; it was , in effect , a direct consequence of Wetherill 's controversial activities at Chaco . The Act also authorized the President to establish national monuments : on March 11 , 1907 , Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed Chaco Canyon National Monument . Wetherill relinquished his land claims .
In 1920 , the National Geographic Society began an archaeological examination of Chaco Canyon and appointed Neil Judd , then 32 , to head the project . After a reconnaissance trip that year , Judd proposed to excavate Pueblo Bonito , the largest ruin at Chaco . Beginning in 1921 , Judd spent seven field seasons at Chaco . Living and working conditions were spartan at best . In his memoirs , Judd noted dryly that " Chaco Canyon has its limitations as a summer resort " . By 1925 , Judd 's excavators had removed 100 @,@ 000 short tons of overburden , using a team of " 35 or more Indians , ten white men , and eight or nine horses " . Judd 's team found only 69 hearths in the ruin , a puzzling discovery as winters are cold at Chaco . Judd sent A. E. Douglass more than 90 specimens for tree @-@ ring dating , then in its infancy . At that time , Douglass had only a " floating " chronology. it was not until 1929 that a Judd @-@ led team found the " missing link " . Most of the beams used at Chaco were cut between 1033 and 1092 , the height of construction there .
In 1949 , the University of New Mexico deeded over adjoining lands to form an expanded Chaco Canyon National Monument . In return , the university maintained scientific research rights to the area . By 1959 , the National Park Service had constructed a park visitor center , staff housing , and campgrounds . As a historic property of the National Park Service , the National Monument was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15 , 1966 . In 1971 , researchers Robert Lister and James Judge established the " Chaco Center , " a division for cultural research that functioned as a joint project between the University of New Mexico and the National Park Service . A number of multi @-@ disciplinary research projects , archaeological surveys , and limited excavations began during this time . The Chaco Center extensively surveyed the Chacoan roads , well @-@ constructed and strongly reinforced thoroughfares radiating from the central canyon .
The richness of the cultural remains at park sites led to the expansion of the small National Monument into the Chaco Culture National Historical Park on December 19 , 1980 , when an additional 13 @,@ 000 acres ( 5 @,@ 300 ha ) were added to the protected area . In 1987 , the park was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . To safeguard Chacoan sites on adjacent Bureau of Land Management and Navajo Nation lands , the Park Service developed the multi @-@ agency Chaco Culture Archaeological Protection Site program . These initiatives have identified more than 2 @,@ 400 archeological sites within the current park 's boundaries ; only a small percentage of these have been excavated .
= = Management = =
Chaco Culture National Historical Park is managed by the National Park Service , a federal agency within the Department of the Interior ; neighboring federal lands hosting Chacoan roads are controlled by the Bureau of Land Management . In the 2002 – 03 fiscal year , the park 's total annual operating budget was $ 1 @,@ 434 @,@ 000 . The park has a visitor center , which features the " Chaco Collection Museum " , an information desk , a theater , a book store , and a gift shop . Prior to the 1980s , archeological excavations within current park boundaries were intensive : compound walls were dismantled or demolished , and thousands of artifacts were extracted . Starting in 1981 , a new approach , informed by traditional Hopi and Pueblo beliefs , stopped such intrusions . Remote sensing , anthropological study of Indian oral traditions , and dendrochronology — which left Chacoan relics undisturbed — were pursued . In this vein , the " Chaco American Indian Consultation Committee " was established in 1991 to give Navajo , Hopi , Pueblo , and other Indian representatives a voice in park oversight .
Current park policy mandates partial restoration of excavated sites . " Backfilling " , or re @-@ burying excavated sites with sand , is one such means . Other measures attempt to safeguard the area 's ancient ambiance and mystique , such as the " Chaco Night Sky Program " , which seeks to eliminate the effect of light pollution on the park 's acclaimed night skies ; under the program , some 14 @,@ 000 visitors make use of the Chaco Observatory ( inaugurated in 1998 ) , park telescopes , and astronomy @-@ related programs . The park was named a Gold @-@ tier Dark Sky Park by the International Dark @-@ Sky Association in 2013 . Chacoan relics outside the current park 's boundaries have been threatened by development : an example was the proposed competitive leasing of federal lands in the San Juan Basin for surface coal mining beginning in 1983 . As ample coal deposits abut the park , this strip mining threatened the web of ancient Chacoan roads . The year @-@ long " Chaco Roads Project " thus documented the roads , which were later protected from mining .
= = Sites = =
The Chacoans built their complexes along a 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) stretch of canyon floor , with the walls of some structures aligned cardinally and others aligned with the 18 @.@ 6 @-@ year cycle of minimum and maximum moonrise and moonset .
= = = Central canyon = = =
The central portion of the canyon contains the largest Chacoan complexes . The most studied is Pueblo Bonito . Covering almost 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) and comprising at least 650 rooms , it is the largest great house ; in parts of the complex , the structure was four stories high . The builders ' use of core @-@ and @-@ veneer architecture and multi @-@ story construction necessitated massive masonry walls up to 3 feet ( 91 cm ) thick . Pueblo Bonito is divided into two sections by a wall precisely aligned to run north @-@ south , bisecting the central plaza . A great kiva was placed on either side of the wall , creating a symmetrical pattern common to many Chacoan great houses . The scale of the complex , upon completion , rivaled that of the Colosseum . Nearby is Pueblo del Arroyo , which was founded between AD 1050 and 1075 and completed in the early 12th century ; it sits at a drainage outlet known as South Gap .
Casa Rinconada , isolated from the other central sites , sits to the south side of Chaco Wash , adjacent to a Chacoan road leading to a set of steep stairs that reached the top of Chacra Mesa . Its sole kiva stands alone , with no residential or support structures whatsoever ; it did once have a 39 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) passageway leading from the underground kiva to several above @-@ ground levels . Chetro Ketl , located near Pueblo Bonito , bears the typical ' D ' -shape of many other central complexes . Begun between 1020 and 1050 , its 450 – 550 rooms shared one great kiva . Experts estimate that it took 29 @,@ 135 man @-@ hours to erect Chetro Ketl alone ; Hewett estimated that it took the wood of 5 @,@ 000 trees and 50 million stone blocks .
Kin Kletso ( " Yellow House " ) was a medium @-@ sized complex located 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 800 m ) west of Pueblo Bonito . It shows strong evidence of construction and occupation by Pueblo peoples from the northern San Juan Basin . Its rectangular shape and design is related to the Pueblo II cultural group , rather than the Pueblo III style or its Chacoan variant . It contains 55 rooms , four ground @-@ floor kivas , and a two @-@ story cylindrical tower that may have functioned as a kiva or religious center . Evidence of an obsidian @-@ processing industry was discovered near the village , which was erected between 1125 and 1130 .
Pueblo Alto is a great house of 89 rooms located on a mesa top near the middle of Chaco Canyon , 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 km ) from Pueblo Bonito ; it was begun between AD 1020 and 1050 during a wider building boom throughout the canyon . Its location made the community visible to most of the inhabitants of the San Juan Basin ; indeed , it was only 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) north of Tsin Kletzin , on the opposite side of the canyon . The community was the center of a bead- and turquoise @-@ processing industry that influenced the development of all villages in the canyon ; chert tool production was common . Research at the site conducted by archaeologist Tom Windes suggests only a handful of families , perhaps as few as five to twenty , lived in the complex ; this may imply that Pueblo Alto served a primarily non @-@ residential role . Another great house , Nuevo Alto , was built on the north mesa near Pueblo Alto ; it was founded in the late 12th century , a time when the Chacoan population was declining .
= = = Outliers = = =
Another cluster of great houses lies in Chaco 's northern reaches ; among the largest is Casa Chiquita ( " Small House " ) , a village built in the 1080s , when , in a period of ample rainfall , Chacoan culture was expanding . Its layout featured a smaller , squarer profile ; it also lacked the open plazas and separate kivas of its predecessors . Larger , squarer blocks of stone were used in the masonry ; kivas were designed in the northern Mesa Verdean tradition . Two miles down the canyon is Peñasco Blanco ( " White Bluff " ) , an arc @-@ shaped compound built atop the canyon 's southern rim in five distinct stages between 900 and 1125 . A nearby cliff painting ( the " Supernova Platograph " ) may record the sighting of the SN 1054 supernova on July 5 , 1054 .
Hungo Pavi , located 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Una Vida , measured 872 feet ( 266 m ) in circumference . Initial probes revealed 72 ground @-@ level rooms , with structures reaching four stories in height ; one large circular kiva has been identified . Kin Nahasbas , built in either the 9th or 10th century , is sited slightly north of Una Vida , positioned at the foot of the north mesa . Limited excavation of it has taken place . Tsin Kletzin ( " Charcoal Place " ) , a compound located on the Chacra Mesa and positioned above Casa Rinconada , is 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) due south of Pueblo Alto , on the opposite side of the canyon . Nearby is Weritos Dam , a massive earthen structure that scientists believe provided Tsin Kletzin with all of its domestic water . The dam worked by retaining stormwater runoff in a reservoir . Massive amounts of silt accumulated during flash floods would have forced the residents to regularly rebuild the dam and dredge the catchment area .
Deeper in the canyon , Una Vida ( " One Life " ) is one of the three oldest great houses ; construction began around 900 . Comprising at least two stories and 124 rooms , it shares an arc or " D " -shaped design with its contemporaries , Peñasco Blanco and Pueblo Bonito , but has a unique " dog leg " addition made necessary by topography . It is located in one of the canyon 's major side drainages , near Gallo Wash , and was massively expanded after 930 . Wijiji ( " black greasewood " ) , comprising just over one hundred rooms , is the smallest of the great houses . Built between 1110 and 1115 , it was the last Chacoan great house to be constructed . Somewhat isolated within the narrow wash , it is positioned 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from neighboring Una Vida . Directly north are communities even more remote : Salmon Ruins and Aztec Ruins , sited on the San Juan and Animas Rivers near Farmington , were built during a thirty @-@ year wet period commencing in 1100 . Some 60 miles ( 97 km ) directly south of Chaco Canyon , on the Great South Road , lies another cluster of outlying communities . The largest , Kin Nizhoni , stands atop a 7 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) mesa surrounded by marshy bottomlands .
Casamero Pueblo is located on McKinley County Road 19 , near Tecolote Mesa , a red sandstone mesa . It was connected to its nearby outlier , Andrews Ranch , by a Chacoan road . Chaco Canyon , Aztec Ruins , Salmon Ruins , and Casamero Pueblo are on the Trail of the Ancients Scenic Byway .
= = Ruins = =
= = = Great houses = = =
Immense complexes known as " great houses " embodied worship at Chaco . The Chacoans used masonry techniques unique for their time , and their building constructions lasted decades and even centuries . As architectural forms evolved and centuries passed , the houses kept several core traits . Most apparent is their sheer bulk ; complexes averaged more than 200 rooms each , and some enclosed up to 700 rooms . Individual rooms were substantial in size , with higher ceilings than Anasazi works of preceding periods . They were well @-@ planned : vast sections or wings erected were finished in a single stage , rather than in increments . Houses generally faced the south , and plaza areas were almost always girt with edifices of sealed @-@ off rooms or high walls . Houses often stood four or five stories tall , with single @-@ story rooms facing the plaza ; room blocks were terraced to allow the tallest sections to compose the pueblo 's rear edifice . Rooms were often organized into suites , with front rooms larger than rear , interior , and storage rooms or areas .
Ceremonial structures known as kivas were built in proportion to the number of rooms in a pueblo . One small kiva was built for roughly every 29 rooms . Nine complexes each hosted an oversized great kiva , each up to 63 feet ( 19 m ) in diameter . " T " -shaped doorways and stone lintels marked all Chacoan kivas . Though simple and compound walls were often used , great houses were primarily constructed of core @-@ and @-@ veneer walls : two parallel load @-@ bearing walls comprising dressed , flat sandstone blocks bound in clay mortar were erected . Gaps between walls were packed with rubble , forming the wall 's core . Walls were then covered in a veneer of small sandstone pieces , which were pressed into a layer of binding mud . These surfacing stones were often placed in distinctive patterns . The Chacoan structures altogether required the wood of 200 @,@ 000 coniferous trees , mostly hauled — on foot — from mountain ranges up to 70 miles ( 110 km ) away .
= = = Uses = = =
The meticulously designed buildings composing the larger Chacoan complexes did not emerge until around AD 1030 . The Chacoans melded pre @-@ planned architectural designs , astronomical alignments , geometry , landscaping , and engineering into ancient urban centers of unique public architecture . Researchers have concluded that the complex may have had a relatively small residential population , with larger groups assembling only temporarily for annual ceremonies . Smaller sites , apparently more residential in character , are scattered near the great houses in and around Chaco . The canyon itself runs along one of the lunar alignment lines , suggesting the location was originally chosen for its astronomical significance . If nothing else , this allowed alignment with several other key structures in the canyon .
Turquoise was very important to the people of Chaco . Around 200 @,@ 000 pieces of turquoise have been excavated from the ruins at Chaco Canyon , and workshops for local manufacture of turquoise beads have been found . The turquoise was used locally for grave goods , burials and ceremonial offerings . Over 15 @,@ 000 turquoise beads and pendants accompanied two burials at Pueblo Bonito .
Around this time , the extended Ancestral Puebloan ( Anasazi ) community experienced a population and construction boom . Throughout the 10th century , Chacoan building techniques spread from the canyon to neighboring regions . By AD 1115 at least 70 outlying pueblos of Chacoan provenance had been built within the 25 @,@ 000 square miles ( 65 @,@ 000 km2 ) composing the San Juan Basin . Experts speculate the function of these compounds , some large enough to be considered great houses in their own right . Some suggest they may have been more than agricultural communities , perhaps functioning as trading posts or ceremonial sites .
Thirty such outliers spread across 65 @,@ 000 square miles ( 170 @,@ 000 km2 ) are connected to the central canyon and to one another by an enigmatic web of six Chacoan road systems . Extending up to 60 miles ( 97 km ) in generally straight routes , they appear to have been extensively surveyed and engineered . Their depressed and scraped caliche beds reach 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide ; earthen berms or rocks , at times composing low walls , delimit their edges . When necessary , the roads deploy steep stone stairways and rock ramps to surmount cliffs and other obstacles . Though their purpose may never be certain , archaeologist Harold Gladwin noted that nearby Navajo believe that the Anasazi built the roads to transport timber ; archaeologist Neil Judd offered a similar hypothesis .
= = Archaeoastronomy = =
= = = Sun Dagger = = =
Two whorl @-@ shaped etchings near the top of Fajada Butte compose the " Sun Dagger " petroglyph , itself tucked behind the eponymous rock panels of the " Three @-@ Slab Site " . They are symbolically focal .
It consists of two spirals : one principal and one ancillary . The latter left @-@ hand spiral captured both spring and fall equinoxes ; its artifice was revealed by a descending spear of light , itself filtered through the slabs , that shined upon it and split it in two . The former and larger whorl to its right was lit by the titular " sun dagger " , which bisected it through another interplay of slab and sun . It struck it , brilliantly , as the summer sun attains its solstice midday peak . The Chacoans were said to be marking , as artist , " Sun Dagger " discoverer , and leading proponent Anna Sofaer puts it , " the middle of time " . Each turn of the 9 @.@ 25 @-@ turn large spiral was found to mark one year in the 18 @.@ 6 @-@ year " lunar excursion cycle " of the rising mid @-@ winter full moon . This record is kept by a slab @-@ cast lunar shadow whose edge strikes in succession each ring . As the full " minimum moon " closest to the winter solstice rises , the shadow 's edge precisely strikes the center of the larger spiral ; it steps outward year by year , ring by ring , until it strikes the outermost edge of it during the full " maximum moon " , again in mid @-@ winter .
Fajada Butte bears five other petroglyphs — including a carving of a " rattlesnake " , other spirals , and a rectangle — that are conspicuously lit by contrasts between sunbeams and shadows during equinoxes or solstices . Public access to the butte was curtailed when , in 1989 , erosion from modern foot traffic was found to be responsible for one of the three screening slabs at the " Sun Dagger " site shifting out of its ancient position ; the assemblage of stones has thus lost some of its former spatial and temporal precision as a solar and lunar calendar . In 1990 the screens were stabilized and placed under observation , but the wayward slab was not moved back into its original orientation .
= = = Alignments = = =
Some parties have advanced the theory that at least 12 of the 14 principal Chacoan complexes were sited and aligned in coordination , and that each was oriented along axes that mirrored the passing of the Sun and Moon at visually pivotal times . The first great house known to evince fastidious proportioning and alignment was Casa Rinconada : the twinned " T " -shaped portals of its 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft ) radius great kiva were north @-@ south collinear , and axes joining opposing windows passed within 10 centimetres ( 4 in ) of its center . The great houses of Pueblo Bonito and Chetro Ketl were found by the " Solstice Project " and the U.S. National Geodetic Survey to be sited along a precisely east @-@ west line , an axis that captures the passage of the equinox sun . The lines perpendicularly bisecting their principal walls are aligned north @-@ south , implying a possible intent to mirror the equinox midday . Pueblo Alto and Tsin Kletsin are also north @-@ south aligned . These two axes form an inverted cross when viewed from above ; its northbound reach is extended another 35 miles ( 56 km ) past Pueblo Alto by the ramrod @-@ straight Great North Road , a pilgrimage route that modern @-@ day Pueblo Indians believe to be an allusion to myths surrounding their arrival from the distant north .
Two shared @-@ latitude but diametrically opposed complexes , Pueblo Pintado and Kin Bineola , are located some 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the core buildings of the central canyon . Each lie on a path from the central canyon that is collinear with the passage and setting of the full mid @-@ winter " minimum moon " , which recurs every 18 @.@ 6 years . Two other complexes that are less distant from Pueblo Bonito , Una Vida and Peñasco Blanco , share an axis collinear with the passage of the full " maximum moon " . The terms " minimum " and " maximum " refer to the azimuthal extreme points in the lunar excursion cycle , or the swings in direction relative to true north that the setting full moon exhibits . It takes roughly 9 @.@ 25 years for the rising or setting full moon nearest to winter solstice to proceed from its maximum azimuthal north , or " maximum extremum " , to its southernmost azimuth , known as " minimum extremum " .
Reasons for the alignments have been offered :
As these people would view the heavens ... there was an order of things up there . What you had here ... contrasted to that . Some years it was too dry , too hot ... too windy , too cold . If there was a way to transfer the orderly nature of the cosmos down onto what seems to be chaos that exists here , then you begin to then integrate at this place both heaven and earth . And this would be ... the center place .
= = Photo gallery = =
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= Masonic Hall , Taunton =
The Masonic Hall in Taunton , Somerset , is designated by Historic England as a Grade II * listed building . It was originally built in the early 19th century as St George 's Chapel , the first Roman Catholic chapel open for public worship in Taunton since the Reformation . The building , which forms the end of a terrace , features a series of prominent Ionic pilasters along the front and southern end .
Opened in 1822 , St George 's Chapel served Taunton 's growing Catholic community for over 35 years , before they moved to a larger church which was completed in 1860 . After being rented out for a time , when it was known as St George 's Hall , the building was then sold in 1878 to a company acting on behalf of a group of Freemasons , who purchased it to provide a home for the Unanimity & Sincerity Lodge . It now hosts nine different Lodges of the Freemasons .
= = History = =
= = = Catholic chapel = = =
Prior to the Reformation , Taunton had three Catholic churches ; the Church of St Peter and St Paul , which was part of Taunton Priory , and was destroyed during the Dissolution ; and the Churches of St Mary Magdalene and St James , which both became Anglican . The Roman Catholic Church all but died in Taunton ; one book records that prior to the 19th century , " there were no Papists in Taunton " . In 1787 , a Mission Rector was sent to Taunton . Four years later , Catholic chapels were legalised , and the rector registered a chapel in a house on Canon Street . Upon his death in 1818 , a new rector was appointed ; Rev. Samuel Fisher . The new rector immediately began raising money for a permanent church , which was opened on 3 July 1822 . The building was located on The Crescent , and was dedicated to Saint George . The church seated 200 ; greater than the estimated 120 Catholic resident in Taunton . This new church , known as St George 's Chapel , was the first public Roman Catholic church in Taunton since the Reformation .
Within 35 years , the congregation had swelled , and St George 's Chapel was no longer large enough to serve the Catholics of Taunton . The nearby Franciscan Convent purchased a plot of land adjacent to their own in 1858 , and St George 's Church was opened in April 1860 , to replace the chapel of the same dedication .
= = = Masonic Hall = = =
The chapel building was subsequently let out for various uses , and known as " St George 's Hall " . In 1878 , the hall was purchased by members of the Unanimity & Sincerity Lodge of the Freemasons , and named the Masonic Hall ; it was consecrated by Henry Herbert , 4th Earl of Carnarvon , the Provincial Grand Master of Somerset Freemasons in January the following year . The Unanimity & Sincerity Lodge had originally met in Ilminster after their constitution in 1788 , and moved to Taunton in 1797 , meeting at the London Inn . The owners of the building , though members of the Freemasons had purchased the property as a limited company , and also rented the building to other users : Richard Huish 's School taught their girl 's classes from there , and the cellars were used by a wine merchant .
After purchasing the building , the Masonic Hall Company , in addition to the necessary decorating , also commissioned a builder , William Templemen to carry out a number of structural changes ; the lobby was split into three rooms , to provide a " robing chamber " on one side , and a small waiting room on the other . Beyond the large main hall , what had been the vestry had a temporary partition removed , and a toilet added . The staircase down to the kitchen was moved , and in the kitchen itself a cooking range was installed . In the mid @-@ 1880s , an extension was made to the hall by the same builder ; a two @-@ storey building , of which the ground floor served as a warehouse . The extension replaced a previous building that had been deemed " unfit for repair " . The extension was completed at a cost of £ 337 and 10 shillings , slightly more than the initial estimate . By 1892 , the hall was no longer being used by the school , now known as Bishop Fox 's , for their girl 's lessons . Further renovations were carried out around that time at a cost of just over £ 180 .
The hall continued to be let out for various social functions , and is currently home to nine lodges of the Freemasons ; Unanimity & Sincerity Lodge , Lodge of St George , Taunton Deane Lodge , Queens College Lodge , Old Aluredian Lodge , Taunton School Lodge , Richard Huish Lodge , Vivary Lodge and the Emergency Services Lodge .
= = Architecture = =
The Masonic Hall sits at the southern end of a terrace . It has a stucco front , with two pairs of Ionic pilasters ; the larger ones frame the building , and appear to support an overhanging cornice with a decorative dentil finish . The smaller pilasters are either side of a large doorway , and are topped by a pediment . The double wooden doors have six panels , and are fronted by six steps which are almost the same width as the building . On the southern side of the building , more Ionic pilasters rise the height of the building , spread between four large windows .
The hall is designated by Historic England as a Grade II * listed building , and is considered to form a group with Numbers 1 – 11 and 15 – 20 The Crescent , which are both similarly Grade II * listed , and with the Grade II listed properties ; 21 and 22 The Crescent , Somerset County Club , Dragon Book Shop and Number 14 Bath Place .
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= Clark Kent ( Smallville ) =
Clark Kent is a fictional character on the television series Smallville . The character of Clark Kent , first created for comic books by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster in 1938 as the alternate identity of Superman , was adapted to television in 2001 by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar . This is the fourth time the character has been adapted to a live @-@ action television series . Clark Kent has been played continually by Tom Welling , with various other actors portraying Clark as a child . The character has also appeared in various literature based on the Smallville series , all of which are completely independent of the television episodes . As of 2011 , Smallville 's Clark Kent has appeared in eighteen young adult novels .
In the series , Clark Kent attempts to live the life of a normal human being , and struggles with keeping the secret of his alien heritage from his friends . He has an on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship with Lana Lang through the first seven seasons , the trials of which are based on his lack of honesty about his secret . In contrast to previous incarnations of the character , this Clark Kent starts out best friends with Lex Luthor , whom he meets after saving the latter 's life . The pair 's friendship eventually deteriorates into hatred for one another . In Smallville , Clark 's powers appear over time , as he is not aware of all of them at the start of the show ; for instance , his heat vision and super breath do not develop until season two and six , respectively .
When developing Smallville 's version of Clark Kent , the producers decided to strip him down to the " bare essence " of Superman ; he is also fallible , which allows the audience to see his humanity , but that he is also " ... good to the core " . In the series , he has been seen by critics , and intentionally portrayed by the filmmakers , as a symbolic representation of Jesus Christ . Tom Welling has been nominated for multiple Teen Choice and Saturn Awards for his portrayal of Clark Kent since the show 's first season .
= = Role in Smallville = =
Clark Kent first appears in the pilot episode of Smallville as a teen with superhuman abilities that he uses to help others . Clark is adopted by Jonathan and Martha Kent ( John Schneider and Annette O 'Toole ) as an infant , when he crash lands on Earth on the day of the Smallville meteor shower in 1989 . Twelve years later , trying to find his place in life after being told he is an alien by his adoptive father , Clark saves the life of Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) , the son of billionaire Lionel Luthor ( John Glover ) , and the pair become quick friends . During season one , Clark struggles with the burden of keeping his powers a secret from those close to him . In particular , he is afraid to open up to Lana Lang ( Kristin Kreuk ) for fear that she would not accept him if she learned of his supernatural abilities .
In the season two episode " Rosetta " , Clark learns of his Kryptonian heritage , including his native language , his birth name ( Kal @-@ El ) , and his birth father 's Jor @-@ El ( Terence Stamp ) plan for him to rule the world . Fearful that he will not be able to control his own destiny , Clark runs away to Metropolis in the season two finale , leaving behind Lana , with whom he had started to develop a romantic relationship . In the season three premiere , three months later , Clark is brought home by Jonathan , who has agreed to allow Jor @-@ El to take Clark at an undetermined time in the future . In the season three finale , a girl calling herself Kara arrives at the Kent farm and claims to be from Krypton . After Kara predicts that Clark 's friends are destined to leave or betray him , Clark decides to leave Smallville for good . When Jonathan attempts to intervene , Jor @-@ El threatens to kill him . To save his adoptive father 's life , Clark agrees to go through with his decision to leave .
In the season four premiere , Clark returns to Smallville . He has been " reprogrammed " by Jor @-@ El to seek out the three stones of knowledge so he may fulfill his destiny . He meets Lois Lane ( Erica Durance ) , who is investigating the supposed death of her cousin , and Clark 's best friend , Chloe Sullivan ( Allison Mack ) . Clark , with help from his mother , regains control over his mind and consciously refuses to look for the stones . In the season four finale , a " great evil " is awakened in space after Clark defies Jor @-@ El 's instructions and fails to obtain the three stones of knowledge . With a new meteor shower hitting Smallville , Clark finds the remaining stones and is transported to the Arctic , where the three stones create the Fortress of Solitude .
In the season five premiere , Clark interrupts his training to return to Smallville , but when he fails to return to the Fortress before the Sun sets , he is stripped of his powers . In the episode " Hidden " , Clark begins an honest relationship with Lana , but is killed trying to save the town from a resident who hopes to kill all of the " ... meteor freaks " . Jor @-@ El resurrects Clark , but warns him that someone he loves will eventually have to take his place . Clark worries about who will be sacrificed in return for him being saved . In the episode " Reckoning " , Lana is killed . Unwilling to accept this , Clark turns back time to save her . As a result , it is Clark 's adoptive father that becomes the sacrifice when he suffers a fatal heart attack . In the season five finale , Clark battles Brainiac ( James Marsters ) , a Kryptonian artificial intelligence in the form of a man . Clark fights to stop Brainiac from releasing the Kryptonian criminal Zod from the Phantom Zone . Clark fails , and becomes himself imprisoned in the Phantom Zone , while Zod escapes and sets out to conquer Earth .
In the season six premiere , Clark escapes the Phantom Zone — inadvertently releasing several of the prisoners in the process — and returns to Smallville , where he fights and defeats Zod . The other Phantom Zone escapees become Clark 's primary focus in season six . He must also deal with Lana 's romantic relationship with Lex , which culminates in their engagement in the season six episode " Promise " . The season six finale reveals that the last of the Phantom Zone criminals is really a genetic experiment created by Kryptonian scientists . The escapee attacks Clark , cloning his DNA , and becomes Clark 's doppelgänger . In the season seven premiere , Clark , together with John Jones ( Phil Morris ) , defeats his doppelgänger . As the season continues , Clark discovers that a secret society known as Veritas was aware of his landing in Smallville during the first meteor shower and , moreover , possess a device that supposedly allows them to control him . In the season seven finale , Clark is confronted by Lex at the Fortress of Solitude . Lex has discovered Clark 's secret and possesses the Veritas device , which he uses , resulting in the Fortress collapsing on him and Clark .
In the season eight premiere , it is revealed that the Veritas device does not allow others to control Clark , but rather strips him of his powers . Wandering the globe with Russian gangsters , Clark is eventually found and rescued by Oliver Queen ( Justin Hartley ) and John Jones , with the latter restoring Clarks powers . During season eight , Clark uses his new job at the Daily Planet to access advance information , which he uses to stop crime around the city . In subsequent episodes , Clark adopts the name " Red @-@ Blue Blur " as his superhero moniker . Toward the end of the season , Clark wrestles with the idea of having to kill Davis Bloome ( Sam Witwer ) , a new friend , after discovering that Davis is actually Doomsday , a genetically engineered creature created by General Zod to kill Clark and destroy Earth . In the season eight finale , Clark finds a way to separate Davis ' personality from that of Doomsday , and buries Doomsday a mile underground . When Davis subsequently kills Jimmy Olsen ( Aaron Ashmore ) , Clark decides that his human @-@ learned emotions have caused him the most trouble , as it was his compassion for Davis that led to Jimmy 's death . He vows that " Clark Kent is dead " .
The start of season nine reveals that Clark has begun training with Jor @-@ El , which is shown by his wearing his family crest on his chest when in his superhero persona . After realizing there are other Kryptonians on Earth , lacking special powers and led by Zod ( Callum Blue ) , Clark decides to help them adjust to living as humans . When Zod is shot and killed , Clark uses his own blood to bring him back to life , resulting in Zod regaining his Kryptonian powers . Zod enables the other Kryptonians to regain their powers as well , and unites them to destroy the world in order to turn it into a new Krypton . This season , Lois and Clark begin a romantic relationship , while Lois also assists " The Blur " in his heroic endeavors . Clark kisses Lois while he is " the Blur " in the season nine finale and unknowingly reveals to her the truth . Afterward , he convinces the Kryptonians to leave Earth for a new , uninhabited planet . Clark then sacrifices his own life to send Zod through a portal , far away from Earth .
Season ten begins with Clark stuck in the afterlife , where Jor @-@ El informs him that a great darkness is coming to Earth . Clark is unknowingly resurrected by Lois , who is now aware that he is " the Blur " . Jor @-@ El also informs Clark that he is not ready to be Earth 's true savior , as there are inner demons that Clark must overcome first . In the episode " Homecoming " , Clark is visited by Brainiac 5 , who shows Clark how his past has shaped his present , and will one day shape his future ; including a vision of Clark 's future self when he has fully embraced his destiny . In the episode " Isis " , Clark reveals his secret to Lois only to find out that she already knew he was " the Blur " , which is followed in a later episode by Clark proposing to Lois . Clark realizes that in order to be the hero the world needs , he will have to step out of the shadows and into the light . As a result , Clark makes the decision to turn " Clark Kent " into a real disguise — opting to wear eyeglasses and alter his mannerisms to be more shy and reserved — so that the Blur does not have to hide his face to the world . By the series finale , the darkness , which is revealed to be Darkseid , arrives on Earth to enslave all of humanity . Clark realizes that his entire life has been one big trial by Jor @-@ El ; accepting his true destiny , the Blur saves Earth from Darkseid 's coming Apokolips . The series ends by moving seven years into the future , where Clark and Lois are finally getting married , and Clark has embraced his new identity as " Superman " .
Throughout the series , Clark gains and adjusts to new abilities , including X @-@ ray vision in season one , heat vision in season two , and super hearing in season three . Clark unofficially flew in the season four premiere , when he was reprogrammed as " Kal @-@ El " by his biological father , but upon regaining his memory he forgot how to use the ability . In season six , Clark gained his super breath . By the series finale , Clark learns to fly . Clark also discovers new vulnerabilities as the series progresses , including " green meteor rocks " or ( kryptonite ) , which he learns can weaken and potentially kill him . Various other forms of kryptonite appeared as the show continued , each with a different effect . Red kryptonite removed Clark 's inhibitions . Black kryptonite separated Clark 's Kryptonian personality from his human self , creating two distinct physical forms , and blue kryptonite stripped him of all supernatural abilities as long as it was in contact with him . Subsequent seasons also revealed that Clark could be vulnerable to alien weapons and magic .
= = Portrayal = =
In October 2000 , producers Al Gough and Miles Millar began their search for the three lead roles , and had casting directors in ten different cities looking at actors . After months of scouting , Tom Welling was cast as Clark Kent . Jensen Ackles , the runner up for the role of Clark Kent , would go on to play Jason Teague as a season four regular . Besides Welling , four other actors have portrayed Clark as young boy / teenager : Malkolm Alburquenque portrayed a three @-@ year @-@ old Clark in the pilot , and season two episode " Lineage " ; Brandon Fonseca played young Clark in the season five episode " Vengeance " ; and in the season eight episode " Abyss " , Jackson Warris would fill the role . In addition , in an alternate reality in the seventh season episode " Apocalypse " , a teenaged Clark Kent was portrayed by Brett Dier .
The pilot director , David Nutter , was looking through pictures of actors and stumbled on Tom Welling 's image . When he asked about Welling , the casting director said Welling 's manager did not want him to do the role because it could hurt his feature film career . After a conversation with Welling 's manager , Nutter got Welling to read the script for the pilot , which convinced him to do the part . Welling 's initial fears were quelled after reading the script , when he realized that the show was not about Clark " ... being a super hero ... , " but more about the character attempting to live a normal life as a teenager .
When Tom Welling auditioned for the role he was not sure how to prepare . While waiting for his turn , he realized that the character is one thing above all else : " ... a high school kid .... " To Welling , simply acting like he was a normal teenager , instead of like a super hero , was the perfect way to embody the character . Welling realized that by doing that , the special effects and other production elements would fill in the holes and perfect the character on screen . For one of his auditions , he read the graveyard scene with Kristin Kreuk ( the first actor to be cast for the show ) , and the network thought they had " ... great chemistry " .
Welling was generally unfamiliar with the Superman mythology , so much so that when an episode of Lois & Clark : The New Adventures of Superman aired on television , which featured Clark learning about his Kryptonian heritage , Welling immediately turned the show off . According to Welling , he wanted to learn about Clark 's heritage simultaneously to Clark learning about it on Smallville . Welling believed that it was important for him to learn with the character , to help him be the Clark Kent envisioned by Al Gough and Miles Millar . The actor believed his lack of knowledge of the Superman mythology helped his performance , because Gough and Millar set up the series so that the previous mythology was not as important . Welling also enjoyed that he was in the same predicament as Clark with neither knowing the future of the character , beyond the fact that he will be Superman . When Welling landed the role of Clark Kent he was sent various Superman @-@ related gifts , including books and toys , which Welling planned to leave unopened until the show was over . Welling was adamant from the beginning that he did not sign on to play Superman , and had no intention of wearing the costume . While filming , Welling was allowed input into how his character responded in certain situations , including moving the scene between rooms , or requesting the director film particular mannerisms to emphasize a specific emotion .
= = Character development = =
= = = Storyline progression = = =
Early in the series , Clark was still learning how to handle his life , by learning to control his powers and find the best solution for everyone . His main priority was to fit in with his friends at school and be an average guy . Initially , Clark 's biggest problem was the fact that he could not share his secret with anyone he cared about . According to Welling , " He is burdened with a lot of responsibility . He hasn 't been able to choose whether or not he has these abilities . All this responsibility has just been thrust on him , and he has to deal with it . There have got to be times when he goes home and thinks to himself , ‘ Why me ? ' He wishes it could all go away and he could just be normal . That 's part of the character dilemma which makes him interesting to play . " Welling noted that the show was not about Clark always saving the day , but more about how using his powers " ... alienate [ s ] him from others " . Welling reasoned that by the end of season three , Clark had decided that leaving Smallville and going with Jor @-@ El was something that would save everyone a lot of pain in the long run . Welling described why Clark finally gave in to Jor @-@ El at the end of season three :
" If you can 't fight them , you might as well join them [ ... ] he was choosing the lesser of two evils to go with Jor @-@ El . I think a combination of those two things would probably sum it up . A lot of times in your life , you get to a point where you go , ' I just can 't fight this anymore . There 's nothing I can do about it , so I better get up out of bed and go to work ! ' And in a sense , that 's what Clark had to do . Somehow he had to try to face what it was that was causing him so much pain — and everyone else so much pain — and maybe he reasoned that by causing everyone else a little bit of pain , he could save them a lot of pain in the long run . "
A significant moment in the character 's story came when Clark decided to play football in season four , providing conflict between him and his father . Writer Darren Swimmer refers to this moment as a " ... callback to [ Hothead ] ... " in season one . To him , when Clark defies Jonathan and joins the team anyway , it signified the moment where Jonathan finally decided that he can trust Clark to not hurt anyone . Writer Todd Slavkin viewed it as Clark finally emerging from his father 's shadow . Two more significant moments came during the following season . First , Clark lost his powers when he failed to return to Jor @-@ El to finish his training ; leaving him human and vulnerable . According to Welling , " ... [ Clark ] learned a little bit more about what it 's like to be human , physically . Emotionally , he 's pretty close to trying to understand that . It added more weight to his abilities once he got them back , and it made him realize his responsibilities for what he has . " The second moment came in the show 's 100th episode , with the death of Clark 's adoptive father . The decision to kill Jonathan was made so that Clark could finally step into his destiny , allowing Clark the boy to become Clark the man , as explained by Gough . In order to do that he needed his mentor to die , so that no one would buffer him from the world any longer . Welling saw the series ' 100th episode as the chance for his character to evolve and grow . John Schneider saw the same catalyst for Clark 's evolution . According to Schneider , Jonathan 's death inspired Clark to make the move toward his eventual destiny . Jonathan provided such an example of sacrifice that it leaves a void in Clark . To fill that void Clark would have to become Superman . It was Schneider 's contention that had Jonathan not been the man he was , when the time came that the world needed Superman , Clark would have been unable to take on that persona , because he would not realize that the world needed him .
Writer Holly Harold noted that the introduction of Green Arrow ( Justin Hartley ) allowed Clark to mature more in the sixth season . Clark was able to see how others achieved the same goals , but used alternative routes that perhaps crossed moral lines . This taught Clark to start thinking about things from his opponents ' perspectives . Ultimately , in season six Clark learned it would be his human side that allowed him to become the hero he needed to be , summed up by writer Turi Meyer as " ... soon @-@ to @-@ be Man of Steel " . Each season , Clark gained insight into how not to misuse his abilities from the kryptonite @-@ mutated villains that used them for crime . In later seasons , Clark saw how even those that used their abilities for good might still have questionable actions , specifically Arthur Curry ( Alan Ritchson ) and Andrea Rojas ( Denise Quiñones ) , though Clark did help them take the high road . Those episodes reiterated the effect Clark 's parents had on how he used his abilities . Clark also learned that he cannot do everything alone , even though he chose not to join Oliver 's team of superheroes at the end of the episode " Justice " . For Meyer , season six showed that Clark was still struggling to accept his destiny , but did take steps toward the day that he would put on the cape and become Superman .
= = = Characterization = = =
The idea Gough and Millar came up with for their show 's version of Clark Kent was to strip him down to his " ... bare essence ... " , discovering the reasons why Clark became Superman . In Smallville , Clark is fallible , as Gough explains :
The thing that we 've tried to portray ... is that Clark doesn 't always make the right decisions , and by not making the right decisions , he brings further consequences on himself . Whether it 's running away from Jor @-@ El at the end of season two , or choosing humanity over some sort of Kryptonian mission , those decisions get him in more trouble , and cause more people to suffer , or in Jonathan Kent 's case , to die .
Welling agreed with Gough 's opinion of Clark 's fallibility , stating that the mistakes Clark made showed his humanity .
Even though Clark could make the wrong choices , season five 's " Aqua " helped illustrate the concept that Clark was " ... good to the core " . The episode showed how protective he could be over someone , even when that person annoyed him . In this case , he was trying to warn Lois that Arthur Curry may not have been the man she believed him to be . This concept was echoed by the Seattle Times ' Julia Waterhous , who noted that Clark , despite all his flaws , always put others before himself . Welling 's fellow actors also had their own insights into the character . Kristin Kreuk saw Clark as a kindred spirit who was sad , lonely , but also endearing ; whereas John Schneider classified Clark as a special needs child .
Just like his comic book counterpart , Smallville 's Clark Kent was a symbolic representation of Jesus Christ . Established early on , the pilot episode contained a moment when Clark was crucified on a scarecrow post during a high school hazing . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Rob Owen noted the Christ @-@ like imagery of the scene , stating , " Is it any wonder Clark gets tied up there since Superman , too , was ' sent to save us ' ? " Echoing Owen , Judge Byun identified the same symbolism : " Superman is , in a way , the secular pop culture stand @-@ in for Jesus Christ , a messiah figure for our generation . The series makes this theme explicit in its pilot episode , in which Clark is symbolically ' crucified ' in a cornfield . That striking bit of symbolism becomes the central preoccupation of the series ; Clark is the savior who sacrifices all for the greater good of humanity , and Smallville shows us how he comes to accept and embrace that role . "
This was extended to the end of season nine , where Clark sacrificed his own life in the finale , in order to send General Zod and the rest of the Kandorians to their own world . In doing so , Clark fell off a building " ... in full crucifixion pose , driving home the point that he is sacrificing himself for the good of the planet " . To this point , Cinefantastique 's Tom Powers suggested that these images and metaphorical emphasis through dialogue exchanges came across so heavy @-@ handed that a very devout individual might have found them offensive .
In addition to religious allusions , the crew used color schemes and camera movements to create their own themes for the characters . Since the show was told from Clark 's point of view , particular visual elements were utilized to illustrate a particular characteristic . When he was safe at home the colors used to illustrate the environment were warm and gentle , with an earth tone , while the camera movement was gentle as well . When Clark was keeping his secret , but there was no danger around , the lighting was more neutral , with greater camera movement . When there was danger , the lighting became colder with more grays and blues , and the camera shifted to a handheld , allowing more extreme angles .
= = = Relationships = = =
Clark 's relationships with the other characters evolved over the course of the show . Clark 's relationship with Lex Luthor was symbolic , as the two shared a yin and yang type of relationship . In the pilot , Clark first saved Lex from drowning after a car accident ; at the end of the episode , Lex saved Clark when he was strung up in the cornfield and immobilized by kryptonite . His relationship with Lex was tested by his lack of honesty , just like it was with Lana for the first six seasons ; the same could be said for Lex 's dishonesty with Clark . Both characters wanted to be completely honest with each other , but knew they could not , which inhibited their friendship .
His relationship with Lana Lang was one of Smallville 's central relationships . When Clark and Lana met in the cemetery , Clark realized that he had found someone who understood him , who he could talk to , even though it was not in as strong a way as he would have liked . Although Clark felt close to Lana , his fear that she would " ... kick him out of her life ... " if she learned his secret — that he came in the meteor shower that killed her parents — was strong enough to keep him from becoming as close to her as he wished . The lack of honesty caused issues between them . Judge Byun wondered how this Clark Kent would have room in his heart for Lois Lane later in life , as the he bounced back and forth between Lana and Chloe in the first season .
With Lana 's boyfriend gone by season two , the door opened for Clark , but Welling stated he understood why the producers continued to keep Clark and Lana apart , even after Whitney 's departure : " There 's the cliché that television shows with a main lover interest fail once they get it together . " After briefly being together at the beginning of the fifth season , Clark 's upbringing was not enough to help him cope with the loss of Lana to Lex toward the end of season five . Welling admits that Clark had learned to let Lana make her own choices and not stand in her way , but his problem with her relationship with Lex was that Lex is a dangerous individual and it put Lana 's safety in jeopardy . Apart from that , Clark had learned to walk the lonely road of a hero . His inability to cope with Lana moving on with Lex was carried over to season six . This season was the time the writers put Clark through an emotional wringer when they had Lana accept Lex 's marriage proposal . For writer Kelly Souders , this presented Clark 's worst fear : the woman he loved was marrying his worst enemy .
Apart from Lana , Clark had a growing relationship with Lois . Season five saw the melting of the ice between the two characters , who continued to butt heads . Executive producer Darren Swimmer believed that the audience could finally start to see a growing attraction between the two , and the fact that both would be there for the other in a time of need . Erica Durance believed that Lois in season five , because of her self @-@ imposed walls , laughed off any notion that she had a romantic interest in Clark , even if that notion was true . In season six , Durance described the relationship between Lois and Clark as something neither character wanted to put an official label on . Instead , Durance believed that , by that point in the series , Clark and Lois were satisfied with identifying with a " brother and sister friendship " label , rather than trying to discover how each truly feels . By season eight , Durance noted that Lois was starting to accept the idea that she may be in love with Clark more than she had been with anyone else in her life . His relationship with Lois was included in TV Guide 's list of the best TV couples of all time .
= = = Costume = = =
For most of the series , Clark did not wear any sort of costume when in his superhero persona . From seasons one through eight , Clark was typically dressed in either red , yellow and blue ( the traditional colors of the Superman costume ) , or in the All @-@ American colors of red , white , and blue . This included the primary usage of either a blue t @-@ shirt underneath a red jacket , or a red t @-@ shirt worn under a blue jacket . In season nine , the producers decided to design an actual costume for Clark to wear while patrolling the streets of Metropolis . Abandoning the theme of red , blue , and yellow , the producers chose to keep the costume completely black , save for a silver Superman " S " shield painted on the front . Instead of the traditional cape , Clark 's red jacket is traded for a black trenchcoat . This drew comparison to the character of Neo from The Matrix film series . It was also compared to the black suit Superman wore after being resurrected , following his death at the hands of Doomsday in the comic books .
In the season ten premiere , the audience got its first glimpse of the traditional Superman costume , which was left for Clark by Martha in the season nine finale . Although the suit was briefly seen through a reflection in Clark 's eyes in the season nine finale , the suit that appeared in the season ten premiere was a different design . The producers , working alongside Warner Bros. and DC Comics , procured the costume worn by Brandon Routh in Superman Returns , which the team chose over the Christopher Reeve suit of the 1980s . DC Comics offered the suit worn by Reeve , but Peterson explained that it " ... just didn 't quite fit with our world . " According to producer Kelly Souders , " Well , the process was really a group effort . We worked with DC , and we have Alicia Louis , who does a lot of stuff for us at the studio , and who was really instrumental . It took quite a bit to get that costume . There 's a lot of sign @-@ offs , it really was Warner Bros. and DC and us working to make it happen . " Peterson stated that the costume plays a more prominent role in the final season , with the last scene of Smallville ending with Clark wearing it . Before then , Clark began wearing a new costume in the season ten episode " Shield " . Here , Clark replaced the black trenchoat with a red leather jacket , and the " S " shield now embossed onto the chest of that jacket .
= = Reception = =
In 2002 , Welling was nominated for his first Saturn Award for Best Actor in a Television series , for his portrayal of Clark Kent in Smallville . Following that , Welling was nominated another four consecutive years , 2003 to 2006 , for the Saturn Award for Best Actor in a Television series . The same year he was nominated for his first Saturn Award , Welling won a Teen Choice Award for Choice Breakout TV Star , Male . Although he has not won a Teen Choice Award since , just like with the Saturn Awards , he has been nominated for Choice Actor in television for the four consecutive years after his win , 2003 to 2006 , Although not nominated in 2007 , he did receive a nomination in 2008 and 2009 for Choice Male in an Action / Adventure series . Welling was also nominated for the 2006 Teen Choice Awards for Most Beautiful Couple ( TV — Choice Chemistry ) , with his co @-@ star Kristin Kreuk . In the 2009 Teen Choice Awards , Tom Welling received the award for Choice TV Actor — Action Adventure . Welling was included in TV Guide 's list of " TV 's Sexiest Crime Fighters " .
Bryan Byun , of DVD Verdict , believes that Welling was the perfect choice for Clark Kent : " I can 't imagine a more ideal actor to play this superpowered farm boy than Tom Welling , with his wholesome , honest face and heroic good looks — Welling not only resembles Christopher Reeve physically , but has all of the earnest charm that made Reeve the quintessential Superman . " The Free Lance – Star 's Ron Hedelt likened Welling 's performances as Clark Kent to that of Christopher Reeve 's performances in the Superman films , stating that Welling manages to portray a " ... sweet , unassuming teenager ... " while showing Clark struggle with the truth about himself . Comics2Film 's Rob Worley also wrote of the physical resemblance Welling has to Christopher Reeve , noting that the actor gave the character depth with his convincing portrayal of Clark 's longing to fit in . When comparing Smallville 's Clark Kent to Bryan Singer 's Superman ( Brandon Routh ) in Superman Returns , Seattle Times ' Julia Waterhous found Smallville 's Clark Kent to be the more intriguing character . Waterhous explained that this was due to the inner turmoil of Clark — not being able to tell those he loved his secret — and the fact that no matter what his faults were he continued to put others before himself , remaining " ... pure and good ... " . She explained that this allowed the audience to become intimate with the character , something lacking in the film version . According to the Associated Press , Welling 's popularity as Clark Kent on Smallville had fans of the show wishing he would take the role Routh received in Superman Returns .
= = Other media appearances = =
= = = Young Adult novels = = =
Smallville 's Clark Kent has also appeared in two series of young adult novels . The first was published by Aspect publishing ; consisting of eight novels , which began in October 2002 and ended in March 2004 . The second series was published by Little , Brown Young Readers , also beginning in October 2002 , with a total of ten young adult novels published through April 2004 .
In Aspect 's first novel , Smallville : Strange Visitors , written by Roger Stern , Clark attempted to stop two religious con @-@ men from robbing the town with their kryptonite @-@ enhanced spiritual seminars . Little 's first novel , Arrival , chronicled the events of the show 's pilot as written by author Michael Teitelbaum , and their second book , See No Evil , also published in October 2002 and was written by Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld — who have also written episodes of the show — featured Clark trying to stop Dawn Mills , a young actress , from hurting people who speak badly about her , by using her power to turn invisible .
On November 1 , 2002 , Aspect published Alan Grant 's book , Smallville : Dragon , which had Clark being hypnotized into believing that he was a normal , human teenager , with no abilities . Little 's Flight featured Clark trying to lend emotional support to a young girl who has full @-@ sized wings . The next Aspect novel , Hauntings , followed Clark and his friends as they investigate a ghostly presence in one of Smallville 's haunted houses . Animal Rage followed Clark as he tries to stop an animal rights activist when she tries to hurt the people harming animals in Smallville . Aspect brought in Dean Wesley Smith for their next novel , Whodunit , which involved Clark , Chloe , Lana and Pete investigating the murder of a boy and his sister .
Little published their next two books in April and June 2003 . The first , Speed , had Clark fighting hate crimes in Smallville . The second , Buried Secrets , followed Clark and Lex as they both fell in love with a mind @-@ reading , substitute Spanish teacher . In the novel , Clark and Lex 's friendship was put in jeopardy as the two competed for the teacher 's love . On September 9 , 2004 , Aspect published Shadows , where Clark must stop a girl 's scientist father , who has created a monster that is killing people . Runaway featured Clark leaving Smallville and living on the streets of Metropolis with other homeless teenagers . Clark fell in love with one of the girls before eventually returning home . Smallville : Silence has Clark and his friends investigating the appearance of zombies . Little 's Greed followed Clark and his friends as they took jobs as summer counselors to disadvantaged youths . Pete tried to abuse Clark 's abilities by tricking him into playing in a basketball game , and then betting on the outcome .
Alan Grant returned for a second outing to write Curse , about a grave digger who unleashed a 150 @-@ year @-@ old curse onto Smallville , and Clark 's attempt to put everything back the way it was . In Temptation , Clark used red kryptonite to try and impress Lana and Chloe after they become infatuated with a new , French foreign exchange student . Aspect released their final novel on March 1 , 2004 ; written by Devin K. Grayson , City chronicled Clark and Lex 's trip to Metropolis . While in the city , the pair got caught between the Japanese mafia and a secret agent who believed he has found an alien . In Little , Brown Young Readers ' final novel , written by Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld , Sparks featured Clark trying to save Chloe after she was exposed to a kryptonite fireworks display that makes her the desire of every man . For one of the men , when the desire wears off he decides that he really does want Chloe and kidnaps her .
= = = Comic books = = =
In 2012 , the series was continued in Smallville : Season 11 , a comic book available both in digital and print formats . Every Friday for three weeks in a row , the stories which follow the primary story arcs , were released online and were referred to as episodes . The following week , the preceding three episodes were released as a print comic . Parallel to the main story arc , other story arcs featuring other characters ( many of which were part of the future " Justice League America " ) were released online every fourth Friday , and collected and printed in special editions by themselves , separate from the main story . Written by Bryan Q. Miller , who wrote for the television series , the comic took up the story of the Smallville characters six months after The Blur saved Earth from the Apokolips . Clark no longer fights crime by the alias The Blur , but has been dubbed Superman by the masses .
During the season Clark continued his battles with Lex Luthor , who had lost his memory . New characters were introduced , such as Commander Hank Henshaw , a participant in LexCorp 's project , Guardian Defense Platforms . In the third issue , Clark confronted Lex , during which Clark inadvertently implied that he knew Lex before his amnesia . Superman and Batman met and battled , but declared a truce , and began working together , eventually becoming friends . Clark also reunited with Bart Allen , who was seeking Clark 's aid in battling the Black Flash , who , ended up killing Bart during an ensuing battle .
At one point , Clark and Michael Jon Carter ( Booster Gold ) inadvertently traveled to the 31st century , where they found themselves caught in a war between New Krypton , led by Kara , and an army of xenophobes , during which Doomsday is reawakened , then defeated when all the belligerents form an alliance . While in the future , Clark met a child named Bartholomew Allen , causing Clark to suspect he was a descendant of Bart and giving him hope that he was still alive . After meeting Diana Prince , with whom he teamed to defeat Hades and Felix Faust , Clark , as Superman , chose to reveal to the President that he was not a meteor @-@ infected individual as the public believed but was from another planet . Later , Clark attempted to rally the heroes and the world to make a stand against the Monitors .
= = Merchandise = =
DC Direct has released action figures for Clark Kent , along with other Smallville characters . The first set of action figures was released on October 2 , 2002 , and was modeled after Clark 's appearance in the first season . The second series was released on May 7 , 2008 and was designed after Clark 's appearance in the season six episode " Justice " .
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= Saido Berahino =
Saido Berahino ( born 4 August 1993 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club West Bromwich Albion .
Having fled his native Burundi as a child , he received political asylum in Birmingham , and credits football with helping him integrate into English society . Berahino joined West Bromwich Albion at the age of 11 and turned professional seven years later . He spent time out on loan at Football League clubs Northampton Town , Brentford and Peterborough United ; the latter two spells were ended prematurely by a feud with his manager Uwe Rösler , and a knee injury , respectively .
Berahino made his first starts for West Bromwich Albion in the 2013 – 14 season , with highlights of that campaign including a hat @-@ trick against Newport County , and the winning goal at Old Trafford against Manchester United . In his second full season , he recorded 20 goals in 45 games across all competitions . Following that successful campaign , Berahino became involved in a lengthy transfer saga involving Tottenham Hotspur , straining his relationships with manager Tony Pulis and West Bromwich Albion chairman Jeremy Peace .
Berahino represented England at all youth levels from under @-@ 16 to under @-@ 21 , and was part of their under @-@ 17 team which won the 2010 European Championship . He was called up for the first time to the senior team in November 2014 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Bujumbura , the capital of Burundi , Berahino played football as a child with a ball of plastic bags tied up with laces . His father was killed in 1997 during the Burundian Civil War . He travelled to England alone at the age of 10 , fleeing the ongoing war to join his mother , brother and sisters who had already been granted asylum in Newtown , Birmingham . He could not locate his family on arrival , and was put in a care home . After his mother Liliane was traced , immigration officials had to administer a DNA test to confirm their relationship .
Berahino attended Aston Manor School , where he gained ten GCSE certificates and competed in basketball and athletics in addition to football . His childhood friends included Ateeq Javid and Recordo Gordon , both of whom went on to play County Championship cricket for Warwickshire . Initially speaking only French and having played street football in his native Burundi , Berahino attributed his love for the sport with helping him integrate quickly into English society .
= = Club career = =
= = = West Bromwich Albion = = =
Berahino signed for the West Bromwich Albion Centre of Excellence in 2004 at under @-@ 12 level , joining from inner @-@ city team Phoenix United . He progressed through the youth system of the Baggies and in summer 2011 , he signed a professional contract with them .
= = = = Loans = = = =
On 20 October 2011 , Berahino joined League Two side Northampton Town on a one @-@ month loan deal . He made his professional debut for the Cobblers two days later in 2 – 1 defeat to Bradford City at Valley Parade , playing the full 90 minutes . Three days after that , he scored his first senior goal against Hereford United , albeit in a 1 – 3 home loss at Sixfields . His loan was extended twice , on 3 November and on 5 January 2012 . Two days after his first extension , Berahino scored twice away to Gillingham , a goal in each half of a 4 – 3 loss . He ended his spell with 6 league goals in 14 appearances for Northampton , although they were struggling in League Two .
On 9 February 2012 , Berahino went out on loan again , this time at a higher level than before , by joining League One side Brentford through to the end of the season . He made his debut five days later , replacing Marcus Bean at the end of a 2 – 1 loss at Colchester United . In the next game , at Griffin Park on the 20th , he came on for Gary Alexander in the 28th minute and scored in each half of a 4 – 0 win against Carlisle United . He also scored both goals in a 2 – 0 win over Exeter City on 6 March , after which the club 's caretaker manager Alan Kernaghan praised him by saying : " Saido got the nod and he did well , but this was win [ sic ] built on a strong defensive performance as shown by another clean sheet . " Due to arguments with new manager Uwe Rösler , the loan spell with Brentford ended early and he returned to West Bromwich Albion on 3 April , having scored 4 goals in 8 appearances .
Berahino made his debut for West Brom as a substitute against Yeovil Town in a League Cup second round tie on 28 August 2012 , replacing Shane Long for the final six minutes of a 4 – 2 away win .
He signed on loan for Championship club Peterborough United on 1 October , in a deal until 2 January 2013 . The following day , he made his debut in a 2 – 0 win at Barnsley , replacing Emile Sinclair after 65 minutes . On 27 October , Berahino scored twice in a 3 – 0 win over Derby County . At Peterbrough United , manager Darren Ferguson said that Berahino would play more regularly . He played ten matches on his loan spell , which was cut short by a knee injury .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
At the start of the 2013 – 14 season , manager Steve Clarke suggested that Berahino should become West Bromwich Albion 's main centre forward , instead of the club signing a new one . Of their strikers from the previous season , Romelu Lukaku had left for Everton and Peter Odemwingie had fallen out of favour at the club .
On 27 August 2013 he made his first start for West Brom in a League Cup tie against Newport County and scored a hat @-@ trick in a 3 – 0 home win . He made his first league appearance for the Baggies when he came on as a substitute in a 2 – 0 home defeat against Swansea City on 1 September 2013 , replacing Scott Sinclair for the last 15 minutes of the match . On 28 September , he replaced the injured Sinclair in the first half and scored his first Premier League goal , the winner in a 2 – 1 win against Manchester United at Old Trafford . He scored again on 2 November , opening a 2 – 0 home win over Crystal Palace . Berahino extended his contract with West Bromwich Albion on 2 December , committing him to the club until June 2017 .
Berahino scored the last goal of a 3 – 3 draw away to West Ham United at the Boleyn Ground on 28 December . His penalty four days later won the match against Newcastle United , ending a 10 @-@ match streak without a win for the team , and on 26 April he again netted the only goal , to defeat West Ham at home .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Berahino scored both of West Brom 's goals in their first game of the 2014 – 15 Premier League season , a draw against Sunderland on 16 August 2014 . He scored twice more for the Baggies on 28 September , netting in either side of the half @-@ time whistle as West Brom defeated Burnley 4 – 0 . He equalled his league tally from the previous season with a penalty in a 2 – 1 loss to Liverpool on 4 October , having won the penalty after being fouled by Dejan Lovren .
On 20 October 2014 Berahino again scored against Manchester United , netting West Brom 's second in a home Premier League fixture which ended 2 – 2 . He converted an added @-@ time penalty at The Hawthorns against Crystal Palace on 1 November to secure a draw with the same score . His good start to the season prompted the club to consider a new contract worth over £ 50 @,@ 000 per week , but discussion of it was put on hold in late November due to his arrest on suspicion of drink driving .
On 3 January 2015 in the FA Cup third round , Berahino scored four goals in a 7 – 0 win against Gateshead . He did not celebrate any of these goals , which brought questions to new manager Tony Pulis who explained " you should go and see him in the dressing room , he 's more happy in there " . Berahino later stated " I was just handling business and acting professionally and that 's it " .
In February 2015 , West Bromwich Albion abandoned their contract talks with Berahino , and said they would consider offers above £ 20 million to sell him at the end of the season . The club had been put off by his conduct , as well as an unauthorised interview with Sky Sports in which he declared that he was playing in order to get a transfer to a " bigger " club . On 11 February , Berahino scored his 10th goal of the Premier League season , and fifteenth overall , concluding a 2 – 0 home win over Swansea City . Three days later , he scored the team 's final goal in a 4 – 0 defeat of West Ham United to put the Baggies into the quarter @-@ finals of the FA Cup for the first time since 2008 . On 28 February , Berahino netted his 17th goal of the season across all competitions , scoring the only goal of the game after 72 seconds for a league victory against Southampton .
Away at Manchester United on 2 May , he conceded a penalty by handling Antonio Valencia 's cross , but Boaz Myhill saved from Robin van Persie and West Bromwich Albion won 1 – 0 . Sixteen days later , Berahino scored twice in a 3 – 0 win over recently crowned league champions Chelsea , the second goal was his 20th of the season , a penalty after he was fouled by John Terry . He finished the season with the club 's Player 's Player of the Year Award .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
In August 2015 , West Bromwich Albion rejected a bid estimated at £ 15 million for Berahino to sign for Tottenham Hotspur , with the club valuing him at £ 25 million . After the bids , Pulis left Berahino out of his squad for the game against Chelsea on 23 August , replacing him with new record signing José Salomón Rondón . When interviewed after the match , Pulis stated that Berahino was left out because previous events in the transfer market had been " disruptive " . The following day , the club rejected Berahino 's transfer request . After they rejected a fourth bid for the player on transfer deadline day , Berahino stated he was unhappy with the conduct of his club and wrote on Twitter that he would never play for the club again under chairman Jeremy Peace ; he was fined for these comments . On 7 September , Pulis told the press that all parties had reconciled , and that Berahino was training again as normal .
Berahino returned as a substitute for Albion in 0 – 0 draw against Southampton on 12 September , receiving a mixed reception . He started a week later against local rivals Aston Villa , scoring the only goal of the game by deflecting James Morrison 's shot into the net . The following week against Everton , he opened the scoring and Albion went on to lead 2 – 0 before eventually losing 2 – 3 . After the international break , Berahino scored the only goal in home win against Sunderland on 17 October , exploiting a fumble by their goalkeeper Costel Pantilimon . From 31 October until the end of the calendar year , Berahino did not start a single game , with Pulis saying that " He 's lucky to be on the bench , never mind starting . He 's a smashing kid but lets himself down at times . "
In January 2016 , Berahino scored in a 2 – 2 draw against Bristol City in the third round of the FA Cup , but did not appear in the squad for the replay . Pulis attributed this to an infection , and re @-@ stated that he wanted to keep the player at West Bromwich Albion by the end of the month 's transfer window . He returned for the next round on 30 January , scoring both goals in a 2 – 2 home draw against former loan team Peterborough . The next day , Newcastle made a £ 21 million bid for the player . However , Berahino remained at West Bromwich Albion ; on 26 February he apologised for having threatened to strike . On 16 April , Berahino had two penalty kicks saved by Heurelho Gomes in a 1 – 0 home loss to Watford .
Stoke City tabled an offer of £ 17 million , potentially rising to £ 20 million , for Berahino in July 2016 . West Bromwich Albion rejected that bid and an equal one from Crystal Palace .
= = International career = =
Regarding his allegiance in international football , Berahino said in 2013 :
Berahino made appearances at various youth levels for England . He represented England under @-@ 17 as they won the 2010 European Championship in Liechtenstein , scoring the equaliser in the final group game as they came from behind to defeat Turkey 2 – 1 . In 2012 , he represented the under @-@ 19 team at the European Championship in Estonia , helping them reach the semi @-@ finals before losing in extra time to Greece .
He was called up to the England under @-@ 21 squad for the first time for the match against Scotland on 13 August 2013 . He scored on his England under @-@ 21 debut on 6 September , a European qualifier against Moldova in his side 's 1 – 0 win , this game was also Gareth Southgate 's first game in charge . Four days later , Berahino equalised for a 1 – 1 draw against Finland in the next qualifier away in Tampere . On 15 October , Berahino scored twice in a 4 – 0 qualifying win against Lithuania , taking his tally for the team to 4 goals in 3 games .
Berahino was yellow @-@ carded after the first of his two goals in a 3 – 0 win against Finland under @-@ 21 in a European qualifier on 15 November 2013 , for lifting his shirt to reveal a message to his late father , who died in the Burundian Civil War . He was voted the 2014 Under @-@ 21 Player of the Year by fans , finishing ahead of Harry Kane with 16 % of the vote after a year in which he scored at a rate of a goal every other game , including three to help the team qualify for the European Championship . Berahino has the all @-@ time third @-@ highest goal tally for the England under @-@ 21 side with 10 goals in 13 appearances , behind Francis Jeffers and Alan Shearer .
On 6 November 2014 , England manager Roy Hodgson — who promoted Berahino to the West Bromwich Albion first team in 2011 — named Berahino in his squad for the first time , ahead of a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match against Slovenia at Wembley Stadium on the 15th and a friendly against Scotland at Celtic Park three days afterwards . Berahino did not take part in either of the senior England matches for which he was called up .
In March 2015 , Berahino was approached to represent his native Burundi at international level , a decision which can be taken as he has not played for England in a competitive senior international .
Berahino was named in the England under @-@ 21 squad for 2015 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship in the Czech Republic but withdrew through injury on 18 June , to be replaced by Benik Afobe .
= = Style of play = =
In October 2013 , Berahino told The Daily Telegraph that the strikers he aims to emulate are Samuel Eto 'o , Didier Drogba and Jermain Defoe " because of their movement and the way they finish " .
When interviewed by BBC Sport in February 2015 , West Bromwich Albion manager Tony Pulis said that Berahino could be a " top class player " but that he needed " direction " .
Berahino 's England under @-@ 21 manager Gareth Southgate has said that he has an ability to create space on the pitch for his teammates , and has become physically and mentally stronger since he began working with him . West Bromwich Albion goalkeeper Ben Foster stated that Berahino is more committed in training than other players of his age , and follows a healthy diet . His former West Bromwich Albion teammate Steven Reid said that Berahino 's attitude to training improved as a result of dealing with two " turning points " , namely his expulsion from Brentford and knee injury at Peterborough .
= = Personal life = =
Berahino supports Manchester United . He is a Christian and regularly studies the Bible with his mother .
In April 2014 , Berahino apologised to West Bromwich Albion after videos of him inhaling nitrous oxide for recreational purposes were discovered by the media . He confessed that " This was very poor judgement on my part and not the right example to be setting . At the time , I wasn ’ t fully aware of the serious health risks involved but now I know , I won ’ t be doing it again " . However , Berahino denied allegations that he drove 120 miles under the influence of the substance .
On 22 October 2014 , Berahino was arrested on the M6 near Lymm , Cheshire , on suspicion of drink driving . He was charged with the offence in January 2015 , and admitted to it before North Cheshire Magistrates in Runcorn , who gave him a 12 @-@ month driving ban and a fine of £ 3 @,@ 400 .
In April 2015 , Berahino set up his own charity foundation to help WaterAid improve the lives of disadvantaged people in Britain and abroad . He stated " Having grown up in Burundi , I know only too well the devastating impact the lack of access to clean water or sanitation can have on families " . His manager Pulis said that " His story is an inspiring one and this shows what I have been saying for several months now about his attitude and his growing maturity " .
= = Career statistics = =
As of matches played 29 April 2016 .
= = Honours = =
= = = International = = =
England Under @-@ 17
UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Championship : 2010
= = = Individual = = =
England U21 Player of the Year : 2014
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= M @-@ 217 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 217 , also known as Michiana Parkway , is a multi @-@ lane state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan . The Michiana Parkway , which extends into Indiana , was constructed as a joint effort of the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , the Cass County Road Commission and the Elkhart County Highway Department . Michigan 's segment of the parkway is 1 @.@ 563 miles ( 2 @.@ 515 km ) long continuing County Road 17 ( CR 17 ) in Elkhart County north into the state .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 217 starts at State Line Road on the Michigan – Indiana state line . It is the continuation of CR 17 that runs due north to an intersection with US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) in Porter Township in Cass County . The highway crosses farmland between the two termini . In 2008 , 4 @,@ 239 vehicles used the highway on a daily basis in MDOT 's average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) survey . The survey calculated how many vehicles used the roadway on average each day . The 2008 counts also showed that 75 trucks were included in the total . For 2009 , the figured dropped to 3 @,@ 738 vehicles and 67 trucks . M @-@ 217 is not listed on the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The Michiana Parkway was constructed from CR 4 , just south of the " Elkhart East " interchange ( exit 96 ) of the Indiana Toll Road , to US 12 in Porter Township , along the boundary with Mason Township . The Indiana portion was an upgrade and extension of Elkhart County Road 17 to the state line ; Michigan 's portion was entirely new construction built by the Michigan Department of Transportation and numbered M @-@ 217 . With the completion of M @-@ 217 , MDOT and the Cass County Road Commission swapped roads on September 25 , 2002 . MDOT took over jurisdiction of M @-@ 217 and gave M @-@ 205 to the road commission , an action that decommissioned M @-@ 205 as a state trunkline .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is along the Porter – Mason township line , Cass County .
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= Washington State Route 531 =
State Route 531 ( SR 531 ) is a short Washington state highway in Snohomish County . It extends east 9 @.@ 88 miles ( 15 @.@ 90 km ) , from Wenberg County Park in the community of Lake Goodwin , to SR 9 in southeast Arlington . SR 531 intersects Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) , and passes the Arlington Airport . The route connects I @-@ 5 to SR 9 , Smokey Point , and Wenberg County Park . The Washington State Legislature approved SR 531 's current route in 1991 . Since then , construction projects , arranged by the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) , have turned this small road into an arterial street . Even though the Washington State Legislature and WSDOT approved SR 531 in 1991 , they erected no signs until April 1 , 1992 , when the law creating the road took effect .
The road now used by SR 531 has existed as a separate route since at least 1911 . A map dating from 1911 shows that 172nd Street , then known simply as Lakewood Road and Edgecomb Road , extended east from its current intersection with SR 9 to the banks of the South Fork Stillaguamish River .
= = Route description = =
State Route 531 runs about 9 @.@ 88 miles ( 15 @.@ 90 km ) , from Wenberg County Park to State Route 9 south of Arlington . The route links the communities of Lake Goodwin , North Lakewood ( also known as Lakewood ) , Smokey Point , and Edgecomb . It also passes four schools in the Lakewood School District , as well as Weston High School in the Arlington School District . The road intersects four major arteries : Forty @-@ Five Road , Interstate 5 , Smokey Point Boulevard ( formerly known as U.S. Route 99 ) , and 67th Avenue , before ending at SR 9 . WSDOT found that , based on average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) data , about 35 @,@ 000 motorists utilize the road daily at the I @-@ 5 interchange .
Starting at Wenberg County Park , the route runs north along East Lake Goodwin Road until it intersects Lakewood Road . From there , SR 531 travels east along Lakewood Road around Lake Ki before reaching Forty @-@ Five Road . Here , Lakewood Road becomes the main artery of North Lakewood and Smokey Point , 172nd Street . Continuing east , SR 531 intersects 11th Avenue .
After intersecting 11th Avenue , SR 531 becomes the northern boundary of the Lakewood High School campus . SR 531 continues east from 11th Avenue to 16th Drive , shortly after entering Marysville city limits . Soon thereafter , the road intersects 19th Drive , which connects the southeastern section of North Lakewood with SR 531 . Continuing east across a double track , the highway intersects 27th Avenue , which connects the road with Lakewood Crossing , a shopping center in Lakewood . SR 531 then continues further east to the interchange with I @-@ 5 .
After leaving the interchange with I @-@ 5 , along with North Lakewood and Marysville city limits , SR 531 continues east to Smokey Point Boulevard ( formerly U.S. Route 99 ) in Smokey Point . The road then maintains straight east , passing Weston High School and Arlington Municipal Airport before intersecting 67th Avenue . From 67th Avenue , SR 531 travels east to a suburban community of Edgecomb . The road curves northeast and then southeast while on a hill . SR 531 travels east past the Arlington Gun Range and Gleneagle , a large housing area , before ending at an intersection with SR 9 .
= = History = =
The whole stretch highway from Wenberg County Park to current SR 9 has been known to exist earlier than 1911 . 172nd Street NE , now SR 531 , once extended from what is currently SR 9 to the banks of the South Fork Stillaguamish River . This part of the highway has been removed .
SR 531 became a state highway in 1991 , but the highway designation did not take effect until April 1 , 1992 . In 2006 , WSDOT announced it would complete three more projects over about five years to improve SR 531 . The first , to improve the bridge and interchange between I @-@ 5 and SR 531 , began immediately . The Tulalip , Stillaguamish , Samish and Kikiallus Tribes helped fund the construction of the project . On April 30 , 2005 , the old two @-@ lane SR 531 bridge was demolished during the night . WSDOT redirected traffic on SR 531 to the completed north side of the new bridge , while the northbound lanes of Interstate 5 were closed to all traffic and rerouted on ramps from I @-@ 5 to SR 531 . During construction , eastbound SR 531 left @-@ turn lanes were closed ; a detour on Smokey Point Boulevard and SR 530 provided direct drivers access to northbound I @-@ 5 . The other half of the bridge was later demolished in May 2005 . All of the temporary structures on the bridge were subsequently removed in December 2005 . Partly finished in June 2006 , WSDOT plans to complete the project after adding a loop ramp in 2011 . In August 2007 , WSDOT completed a project to add sidewalks along SR 531 to the adjacent schools of the Lakewood School District .
An upcoming project , adding a loop ramp onto the I @-@ 5 interchange , started in March 2009 and will end in 2011 . WSDOT has awarded the contract for the project to Northwest Construction , Inc . Part of the project includes widening the main entry point to Lakewood Crossing , by adding turn pockets . Widening SR 531 between 43rd Avenue NE and 67th Avenue NE from its current two to five lanes near the Arlington Airport is another planned project . The project is currently in planning stages and WSDOT has set up a webpage for the project .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Snohomish County .
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= HMS Diana ( H49 ) =
HMS Diana was a D @-@ class destroyer of the Royal Navy . Ordered in 1931 , the ship was constructed by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , and entered naval service in 1932 . Diana was initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the China Station in early 1935 . She was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea during late 1935 during the Abyssinia Crisis , before returning to her duty station where she remained until mid @-@ 1939 . Diana was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet just before the Second World War began in September 1939 . She served with the Home Fleet during the Norwegian Campaign . The ship was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1940 and renamed HMCS Margaree . She served for just over a month with the Canadians before being sunk in a collision with a large freighter she was escorting on 22 October 1940 .
= = Design and construction = =
Diana displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Diana carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Diana had a single 12 @-@ pounder AA gun between her funnels and two QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on the side of her bridge . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
Diana was ordered under the 1930 Naval Estimates on 2 February 1931 from the yards of Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , Hebburn @-@ on @-@ Tyne . She was laid down on 12 June 1931 , launched on 16 June 1932 and finally commissioned into the Navy on 21 December 1932 . She cost a total of £ 229 @,@ 502 , excluding the weapons and the communications equipment which were supplied by the Admiralty .
= = Operational history = =
= = = With the Royal Navy = = =
The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – November 1933 . While in the Mediterranean , Diana was commanded by Geoffrey Oliver for a time . The ship was refitted at Sheerness Dockyard between 3 September and 23 October 1934 for service on the China Station with the 8th ( later the 21st ) Destroyer Flotilla and arrived there in January 1935 . She was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in the Red Sea from September 1935 to May 1936 during the Abyssinian Crisis and made port visits in Bombay and East Africa before returning to Hong Kong on 7 August . On one occasion in 1937 Diana investigated why a lighthouse near Amoy was not lit and discovered that it had been attacked by pirates . She remained in the Far East until the rise in tensions before World War II began prompted her recall in August 1939 .
With the outbreak of war , Diana and her sisters Duncan , Daring , and Dainty , were assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , arriving there in October . She was repaired at Malta during November and rejoining the fleet in December where she was briefly placed on contraband control duties before she was transferred to the Home Fleet 's 3rd Destroyer Flotilla . Diana arrived in Home waters in January 1940 , and was assigned to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla . Here her duties included screening units of the Home Fleet and carrying out patrols . On 15 February , the ship escorted HMS Duncan as she towed by tugs from Invergordon to the Forth for permanent repairs , after the latter had been damaged in a collision whilst escorting a convoy .
During the Norwegian Campaign , Diana escorted the aircraft carrier HMS Furious as she returned to Scapa Flow on 25 April to replenish her aircraft . On 1 May , she screened the light cruisers HMS Manchester and HMS Birmingham of the 18th Cruiser Squadron as they covered the evacuations from Åndalsnes and the ship transported the Norwegian Commander @-@ in @-@ chief Major General Otto Ruge from Molde to Tromsø . The ship escorted the carriers HMS Glorious and Furious as the latter flew off RAF Gloster Gladiators fighters to Bardufoss airfield on 21 May . Ten days later Diana escorted the carriers HMS Ark Royal and Furious during Operation Alphabet , the Allied withdrawal from Norway .
= = = Transfer to Canada = = =
The ship was taken in hand for refit and repair in London in July . After their completion , Diana was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy to replace HMCS Fraser which had been sunk in a collision on 25 June 1940 with the British anti @-@ aircraft cruiser HMS Calcutta . The ship was formally commissioned into the Royal Canadian Navy as HMCS Margaree on 6 September 1940 . On 17 October , she escorted Convoy OL8 bound for Canada , but the ship was sunk five days later when she collided with the freighter MV Port Fairy . Of the 176 men aboard Margaree at the time , six officers and 28 ratings were rescued by Port Fairy , but the other 142 were lost .
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= Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar =
The Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar was fought between September 1704 and May 1705 during the War of the Spanish Succession . It followed the capture in August 1704 of the fortified town of Gibraltar , at the southern tip of Spain , by an Anglo – Dutch naval force led by Sir George Rooke and Prince George of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt . The members of the Grand Alliance , Holy Roman Empire , England , the Netherlands , Pro @-@ Habsburg Spain , Portugal and the Savoy , had allied to prevent the unification of the French and Spanish thrones by supporting the claim of the Habsburg pretender Archduke Charles VI of Austria as Charles III of Spain . They were opposed by the rival claimant , the Bourbon Philip , Duke of Anjou , ruling as Philip V of Spain , and his patron and ally , Louis XIV of France . The war began in northern Europe and was largely contained there until 1703 , when Portugal joined the confederate powers . From then , English naval attentions were focused on mounting a campaign in the Mediterranean to distract the French navy and disrupt French and Bourbon Spanish shipping or capture a port for use as a naval base . The capture of Gibraltar was the outcome of that initial stage of the Mediterranean campaign .
At the start of the siege , Gibraltar was garrisoned by around 2 @,@ 000 Dutch , English , Austrian and pro @-@ Habsburg Spanish troops facing a besieging force of up to 8 @,@ 000 French , pro @-@ Bourbon Spanish and Irish troops . The defenders were able to hold off the numerically superior besieging force through exploiting Gibraltar 's geography and the small town 's fortifications , though they were frequently short of manpower and ammunition . The besiegers were undermined by disputes between the French and Spanish officers and terrible conditions in their trenches and bastions , which led to outbreaks of epidemic disease and undermined morale . Sea power proved crucial , as the French navy sought unsuccessfully to prevent the Grand Alliance shipping in fresh troops , ammunition and food . Three naval battles were fought during the siege , two of which were clear defeats for the French and the last of which resulted in the siege being abandoned as hopeless after nine months of fruitless shelling . The outcome was disastrous for the French and Bourbon Spanish side , which was said to have lost 10 @,@ 000 men against only 400 for the Grand Alliance .
= = Aftermath of the capture of Gibraltar = =
The loss of Gibraltar in August 1704 posed a strategic threat to the rule of the Bourbon claimant to the Spanish throne , Philip V of Spain . It was not only , as a later Spanish writer put it , " the first town in Spain to be dismembered from the domination of King Philip and forced to recognise Charles , " but it also potentially had great value as an entry point for the Grand Alliance armies . Its possibilities were recognised immediately by the Alliance forces ' leader Prince George of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt , who told Charles in a letter of September 1704 , that Gibraltar was " a door through which to enter Spain " . An army landed at Gibraltar could advance rapidly along the coast to Cadiz , supported by naval forces , and capture the major port . From there , it was a relatively short distance to Seville , where the Habsburg claimant Charles could be proclaimed king , following which the Alliance could march to Madrid and finish the war .
Gibraltar itself had been largely emptied of its population , most of whom left the town after its capture and had moved to temporary accommodation elsewhere in the Campo de Gibraltar . Only a few dozen Spaniards and a small community of neutral Genoese remained . The town was garrisoned by a motley assortment of Alliance forces , consisting of around 2 @,@ 000 British and Dutch marines , 60 gunners and several hundred Spanish , mostly Catalans , followers of Charles of Austria . They were supported by Sir George Rooke 's Anglo @-@ Dutch fleet consisting of 51 ships of the line operating in the Strait of Gibraltar . The Alliance had two significant disadvantages – limited supplies and a pressing need for their ships , which had already been at sea for six months , to be repaired and reprovisioned .
As soon as Gibraltar was captured , the Alliance set about preparing for a Bourbon counter @-@ attack . The Alliance fleet sailed a short distance across the strait to Tetuan in Morocco , where it took on fresh water . On 22 August , a French fleet was sighted in the strait but began to withdraw after being spotted . Rooke caught up with the French off Málaga on 24 August and attacked , in a bid to prevent the French from slipping past him and attacking Gibraltar . The two fleets were evenly matched but the French ships were faster and had more ammunition than the confederates . They did not manage to make this advantage count , however , and the Battle of Vélez @-@ Málaga was effectively fought to a draw . No ships were sunk but both fleets took very heavy casualties with around 3 @,@ 000 killed or wounded on each side , including the French commander . The Anglo @-@ Dutch fleet was hampered by a shortage of shot and gunpowder , much of which had already been used in bombarding Gibraltar during the operation to capture it , and Sir George Byng 's squadron was forced to pull back when it ran out of ammunition . The rest of the fleet was dangerously low on ammunition but fortunately for the confederates , the French withdrew the following day , leaving the Anglo @-@ Dutch fleet to limp back to Gibraltar .
Having dealt with the French naval threat , Rooke left as many men , guns and supplies at Gibraltar as he could before sailing for home . He split off part of his fleet , leaving Admiral Sir John Leake with 18 ships to patrol the strait and the Portuguese coast . The Spanish had already mobilised their forces and at the start of September the Marquis of Villadarias , the captain @-@ general of Andalusia , arrived in the vicinity of Gibraltar with an army of 4 @,@ 000 men . Villadarias planned to increase his force to 12 @,@ 000 , consisting of 9 @,@ 000 Spaniards and 3 @,@ 000 Frenchmen . The Two Crowns force was also supplemented by many of the civilian refugees from Gibraltar .
= = Start of the siege = =
Hesse set about improving Gibraltar 's defences to make it as difficult as possible for the enemy to mount a frontal attack . The town is set on the western side of a rocky peninsula connected to the Spanish mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus . The north side of the Rock of Gibraltar presents a vertical cliff ; the only access to the town was via a narrow strip , only about 400 feet ( 120 m ) wide , which was blocked by the heavily fortified curtain wall known as the Muralla de San Bernardo ( later the Grand Battery ) . The prince sought to reduce this strip even further by flooding it , forcing any attackers to use a narrow path between the Rock and the inundated area or to advance along the narrow shoreline . He set up cannon in five batteries along the north side of Gibraltar : on the Old Mole , to provide flanking fire from the west ; on the Baluarte de San Pablo ( later North Bastion ) and on the Landport curtain walls , to provide direct fire onto the isthmus ; on the Baluarte de San Pedro ( later Hesse 's Demi Bastion ) , to provide flanking fire from the east ; and in a Round Tower , on a clifftop spur overlooking the isthmus ( later the site of Forbes ' Batteries ) , from where fire could be directed onto enemy troops on the far side of the inundated area . A " bomb ship " was also installed off the Old Mole , carrying a heavy mortar to provide additional flanking fire from the west .
Although Hesse was confident that he would be able to hold Gibraltar against the numerically superior Franco @-@ Spanish force , he was undermined by political disputes between the Habsburg and English commanders . There was widespread resentment among the English marines that they had not been allowed to return with Rooke 's fleet . There was a particularly poisonous relationship between the English Colonel of Marines Edward Fox and the Irish Colonel Henry Nugent , whom Hesse had appointed as Governor of Gibraltar . The two men had fought on opposite sides during the Irish campaign of William III ; the Protestant Fox had gone on to serve Queen Anne , while the Catholic Nugent had joined the service of Charles of Austria . Hesse wrote that Fox was " furious at being under my orders and at not being allowed to leave for England . His respect for the Governor I have appointed is even less . There is confusion everywhere . Orders are not carried out , and the officers are the first to make trouble . . . "
The besieging French and Spanish forces were reinforced on 4 October when 19 French warships " great and small of the line of battle " escorted troop ships carrying 3 @,@ 000 men with heavy guns and supplies of ammunition to a landing point near the ruined Roman town of Carteia at the head of the Bay of Gibraltar . This brought the number of soldiers under Villadarias 's command to some 7 @,@ 000 , which Hesse estimated consisted of eight Spanish and six French battalions of foot plus nine cavalry squadrons . Most of the French ships left on 24 October , to the surprise of the defenders , though six remained behind to blockade Gibraltar .
After the reinforcements had settled in , the Spanish began digging siege lines and trenches towards the confederate positions . The first attack came on 26 October when Spanish guns opened fire on the confederate defences around the Round Tower , causing considerable damage . A French force carried out a simultaneous raid of Gibraltar 's harbour , burning the bomb ship . Villadarias then carried out a heavy bombardment of the San Pablo bastion using 27 guns and 16 mortars , which managed to breach it . Among the casualties were the two feuding colonels , Fox and Nugent , who were killed on successive days . At the same time , an epidemic disease broke out among the Gibraltar garrison , reducing their effective numbers to about 1 @,@ 300 men .
The position of the garrison looked increasingly precarious . Hesse sent a message to Admiral Leake at Lisbon requesting his urgent assistance after the appearance of French ships in the bay . After receiving the message on 21 October , Leake set sail at once , bringing more supplies for the defenders . In the meantime , Hesse had to deal with an internal threat – a plot by some Habsburg Spanish officers , aided by some clergymen and British officers , to betray the garrison . He wrote to Charles in mid @-@ October to inform the Archduke of what had happened :
I 've discovered a tremendous plot . . . I 've had a man hanged who communicated with the enemy . Clergymen persuaded him , though he had been convinced and had confessed under torture , to take everything back . . . assuring him I would not have him hanged . They went so far as to give the delinquent poison so that he would reveal nothing more . . . It 's all very confused and difficult to sort out . [ Colonels ] Gonzalez and Husson and some clergymen are the principals . . . though against the two named I have taken no action . . . for lack of definite proof . Friar Santa Maria will give you personally a long account of the business . . . I will not confront Gonzalez and Husson unless it becomes a matter of absolute necessity . . .
Charles wrote back advising Hesse to carry out a court @-@ martial with independent judges to avoid any suspicion of prejudice . As the accused were Habsburg subjects , a court @-@ martial consisting of British and Dutch officers – who did not owe allegiance to Charles – was convened to adjudicate the case . The British officers who were implicated in the plot appear to have been sent back to England ; their fate is not recorded . Gonzalez was convicted and on 23 February 1705 , " being guilty of high treason [ he ] was shot in the face of the whole garrison . "
= = Assault on the east side = =
The Bourbon Spanish , meanwhile , were planning to carry out a surprise attack . Simón Susarte , a Spanish goatherd who had fled Gibraltar after its capture by Rooke a few months earlier , told Villadarias that there was a secret route by which the east side of the Rock of Gibraltar could be scaled . It required a climb of around 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) , of which the upper section was near @-@ vertical , but was passable with the use of rope and ladders via the Great Sand Dune . As the east side was considered virtually impregnable , only the west side was fortified ; if the Rock could be climbed from the east , an attacker could evade the fortifications and descend directly into the town . The route was reconnoitred and found to be passable by a lightly armed force .
Villadarias decided to send a force of 2 @,@ 000 men – nearly a third of his entire army – divided into two groups : an initial force of 500 to seize the heights at night , followed by a further 1 @,@ 500 the following daybreak . The first 500 set off at dusk on 11 November , led by a Colonel Figueroa and guided by Simón Susarte . They made it to the top of the Rock , reaching its southernmost peak near where O 'Hara 's Battery stands today , and descended part @-@ way down the west side where they sheltered overnight in St. Michael 's Cave . At daybreak they climbed the Philip II Wall , which extends up the west side of the Rock , and killed the English sentries in the lookout point at Middle Hill . A drummer boy bringing food to the lookout saw the invaders and raised the alarm .
Hesse had anticipated some kind of attack from the rear and had kept a mobile force in reserve to guard against such an eventuality . It was formed by an English company , and two Spanish companies : a regular company under captain Francisco de Sandoval and a Catalan company of miquelets under Jaume Burguy , numbering 300 men , all of them led by Hesse 's brother Heinrich . This reserve immediately responded and engaged the Spanish Bourbons at Middle Hill . Although the Bourbons had the advantage of height , they were effectively trapped against the precipice of the Rock and only had three rounds of ammunition each , as a result of travelling light ; they had not come prepared for a pitched battle .
The Spanish Habsburg force led by Captain Burguy , made up of miquelets and regulars , marched ahead and dislodged the Spanish Bourbon grenadiers from the top of the hill . At the same time , Sandoval , with his remaining regulars and miquelets , charged upon the bulk of the assaulting force from one flank , while Heinrich von Hesse attacked from the other side . Around a hundred of the Bourbon force , including their colonel , were captured . Hundreds more were killed , either by defending fire or by falling off the Rock while attempting to flee . Only a few , including Simón Susarte , made it back to the Bourbon lines . The English subsequently ensured that there would be no repeat of this episode by blasting away the path used by the Spanish .
The other 1 @,@ 500 members of the Spanish force did not even set off to support the attack because , after the first 500 had left , Admiral Leake 's squadron was sighted entering the bay with 20 ships . In the subsequent naval engagement , six French frigates were destroyed and a seventh ship was captured intact . Villadarias had apparently intended to carry out a multi @-@ pronged attack but Leake 's timely arrival meant that it fell apart . The French naval support for an assault on the moles evaporated , and a frontal assault via the isthmus – reinforced with the 1 @,@ 500 men originally earmarked for the climb on the eastern side – failed entirely . Hesse 's relief at Leake 's timely arrival was evident in the letter that he sent the admiral after the battle , thanking him for turning up just as " the enemy were attacking us that very night of your entrance in many places at once with a great number of men . "
Leake had not brought many supplies to Gibraltar but provided what he could , and loaned Hesse the fleet 's skilled manpower , of which the confederate garrison was desperately short . A labour force of some 500 men was assembled from the ships ' companies and was put to work repairing the fortifications , remounting guns dislodged by Spanish fire and hauling cannon up the Rock to increase the fire being directed onto the Spanish batteries . One of those involved , Captain Willis , played such a prominent role that the track he used was renamed ( and is still known as ) Willis ' Road , and he also gave his name to Willis ' Battery ( now Princess Royal 's Battery ) , Magazine and Guard .
The siege settled down into a routine of bombardment and counter @-@ bombardment . This proved increasingly trying for the defenders , who were running short of manpower , ammunition and supplies . Captain Joseph Bennett , an engineer whom Leake had brought with him , helped to bolster the fortifications but earned the wrath of some in the garrison , who felt that Gibraltar should be abandoned . He wrote to a friend on 6 December to tell him that " many officers had a design to quit the place and blow up the works but I always opposed them , and mentioned the garrison could be kept with the number of 900 men we had , and no more , as I believe you will have an [ account ] of . Some was for cuting ( sic ) my Throat and others for cuting ( sic ) off my Ears & c . "
Many members of the garrison tried to sneak aboard Leake 's ships to escape the siege . The situation was precarious and was only worsened when a storm damaged many of Leake 's ships on 4 – 5 December . By this time , the garrison was critically short of medicines and supplies . Many were sick or injured and too few remained to carry out repairs to the shell @-@ damaged fortifications . Only 1 @,@ 300 were healthy enough to man the defences . Their living conditions were increasingly grim ; their shoes had worn out and many men wore makeshift sandals made from hay and straw .
= = Reinforcements and the end of the siege = =
A few days later , Leake received the news that a convoy of 20 transport ships carrying supplies and reinforcements was on its way from Lisbon , escorted by four men @-@ of @-@ war . Adverse winds and currents meant that he was unable to sail to assist it against a French naval force that had left Cadiz , and he was forced to wait to see if the convoy would reach its destination . On 18 December , nine of the transports reached the bay , accompanied by two men @-@ of @-@ war , with another seven arriving on 20 December . Four were missing , having been intercepted by the French ; three of them had been sunk or captured while the last one eventually made it to Gibraltar at the end of December . They brought with them 2 @,@ 200 men from the Grenadier Guards , Donegal 's Foot and Barrymore 's Foot , plus some Dutch troops , guns and supplies of powder , tools and food . Further reinforcements arrived between 16 – 18 January . With Gibraltar safe for the moment , Leake left for Lisbon on 3 January with sick and wounded members of the garrison aboard his ships .
The Bourbon Spanish and French land force continued to bombard Gibraltar , inflicting further damage on the town 's somewhat weak fortifications but were unable to make any progress against the reinforced garrison . They were being vigorously opposed with counter @-@ bombardments , which killed many of their number , and by sallies , two of which were carried out successfully by the confederates on 23 and 31 December . Relations steadily worsened between the Spanish and French components of the besieging force , a trend that was exacerbated by the lack of progress they were making , the appalling conditions they were enduring in the open and the steady stream of casualties being caused by the counter @-@ bombardment and outbreaks of epidemic disease . The weather , too , was terrible , with storms and heavy rain making life a misery . By the New Year of 1705 , the besieging force was disintegrating and had dropped in numbers from around 7 @,@ 000 men to only 4 @,@ 000 , the remainder having either become casualties or simply deserting .
The situation was sufficiently alarming that King Louis XIV of France despatched Marshal René de Froulay de Tessé along with 4 @,@ 500 French and Irish reinforcements to recover the situation . Villadarias , however , was determined to make one more effort to take Gibraltar before Tessé arrived . On 7 February , he sent 1 @,@ 500 French , Spanish and Irish troops to seize the Round Tower , an outlying fortification on the cliff face above the present Laguna Estate . The attackers captured the tower but a confederate counter @-@ attack drove them out , leaving 200 of them dead . The Spanish accused the French of fleeing the battlefield and leaving their flank unprotected .
Tessé arrived in mid @-@ February but was appalled to find how badly the siege was being run . His criticism of the Spanish officers led some to quit the siege in the face of what they saw as his insults . Their morale improved somewhat when Admiral Bernard Desjean , Baron de Pointis sailed into the bay on 26 February with a force of 18 men @-@ of @-@ war from Cadiz . Gibraltar 's garrison immediately went on alert , expecting a landing at the south end of the peninsula , but this did not materialise . The reason soon became clear ; Leake had returned with a combined English , Dutch and Portuguese force of 35 ships . In the subsequent battle in the Strait of Gibraltar , the French lost five of their ships , including Pointis ' flagship , and Pointis himself was fatally wounded . Leake 's fleet sailed into the bay on 31 March , bringing with it fresh troops from Mountjoy 's Grenadiers and units of the Portuguese army . Hesse rejoiced at the admiral 's arrival :
I expected with great impatience this good opportunity to express my hearty joy of your great and good success you had at your second appearing off this place ; which I hope hath been the final stroke towards our relief ; the enemy since five days have begun to withdraw their cannon . . . I in particular cannot enough express my hearty thanks and obligations I lie under .
Leake 's arrival was " the final stroke " , as the French abandoned the siege as hopeless following an order from Louis XIV on 12 April . Tessé wrote bitterly to the king to blame the Spanish , telling him that " we have failed before Gibraltar for want of method and planning . . . the ill @-@ fate of your vessels was due to lack of competence at Madrid . . . " With the French having gone home , Villadarias resumed command and began to convert the siege into a blockade by pulling back from the isthmus and removing his cannon . On 2 May , an Alliance scouting party found that the Spanish trenches had been abandoned . Later that day , Hesse accompanied a demolition party to destroy the Bourbon Spanish works , but some members of the party ventured out too far and were captured or killed by the Spanish cavalry . The following day , a larger party , protected by grenadiers , resumed the work of demolishing the Spanish batteries without further opposition , marking the end of the siege .
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= Young Modern =
Young Modern is the fifth and final studio album by Australian alternative rock band Silverchair , released on 30 March 2007 . Young Modern entered the Australian albums chart at No. 1 on 15 April 2007 , their fifth consecutive album to do this , making them the first band to accomplish this feat in Australia . The album opened at No. 8 on the New Zealand albums chart .
Young Modern received four ARIA Awards at the 2007 ARIA Awards , including Single of the Year ( for " Straight Lines " ) and Album of the Year .
= = Recording and production = =
Silverchair spent five weeks in the Australian Hunter Region in late 2005 to practice and sharpen material that Daniel Johns had previously written . Following this , the band recorded intermediate full band demo versions of the songs . To record the final versions of these songs , the band travelled to Los Angeles to record with record producer Nick Launay at Seedy Underbelly Studios . Johns co @-@ produced the album alongside Launay . During the L.A. sessions , additional songs were written and recorded . Van Dyke Parks was hired to compose orchestral arrangements for three songs : " If You Keep Losing Sleep " , " All Across The World " and the 3 part epic " Those Thieving Birds / Strange Behaviour " . Johns and Parks travelled to Prague to have the orchestral arrangements recorded by The City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra .
Unlike previous Silverchair albums , Young Modern was funded independently by the band , rather than by a record label . This was done to " remove the added label pressures " , according to Billboard . The name Young Modern comes from a nickname given to Silverchair 's lead singer , Johns , by Van Dyke Parks during their time working together on Diorama in 2002 . The album features various guest appearances from Australian and international musicians such as Luke Steele , Julian Hamilton and Paul Mac , the latter of whom performed with Johns as The Dissociatives .
= = Album and single releases = =
Young Modern was released on 30 March 2007 in Australia , and 24 July 2007 in the United States of America . The album was released in several versions — the original contained 11 songs , while the iTunes version contained an extra song , " English Garden " . A limited edition DVD was also released , which contained a documentary entitled " The making of Young Modern " , as well as the " Straight Lines " music video .
The first single from Young Modern , " Straight Lines " , was released on 20 March 2007 , a week before the album 's release . " Straight Lines " entered the ARIA Charts at No. 1 on 25 March 2007 , and held that rank for four weeks . It also peaked at No. 11 on the RMNZ charts . " Straight Lines " was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . On 28 October 2007 , " Straight Lines " won Best Selling Australian Single at the ARIA Music Awards of 2007 , as well as Single of the Year .
A second single , " Reflections of a Sound " , was released on 14 July 2007 as a digital single . The music video for " Reflections of a Sound " was first screened on 8 June 2007 , and was produced by Damon Escott and Stephen Lance of Head Pictures .
The third single from Young Modern was " If You Keep Losing Sleep " , released on 9 October 2007 . The song spent one week on the ARIA charts at No. 16 , before dropping out of the charts . The music video for " If You Keep Losing Sleep " was orchestrated by Van Dyke Parks , and was produced by Damon Escott and Stephen Lance , who also created the " Reflections of a Sound " video . The video was described by Molly Meldrum as " the best video I ’ ve seen from Australia ever " . Young Modern 's fourth single , " Mind Reader " , was released as an internet @-@ only single on 23 February 2008 . It had first appeared on radio in January that year .
= = = Artwork = = =
Young Modern front cover is a tribute to Dutch painter Piet Mondrian 's Composition II in Red , Blue , and Yellow .
= = Response = =
Young Modern was received with high acclaim from reviewers . Allmusic 's review said the album contained " catchy melodic hooks , inspired lyrical themes , and stunning string arrangements " , and called it the " pinnacle of the band 's fascinating development " . Reviewer Clayton Bolger heaped praise on most of the songs on the album , calling " Straight Lines " an " instant rock classic " .
Rolling Stone reviewer David Fricke called Silverchair 's members " young ( in their late twenties ) ... [ and ] aggressively modern " , and Entertainment Weekly called the album a " polished glam @-@ rock suite " . Sputnikmusic reviewer Tyler Fisher also approved of the album , although he did not think it was as good as it was made out to be , commenting " It is not as good as the ARIA awards will undoubtedly make it out to be but still one of the better mainstream listens of the year . "
During his weekly entertainment segment on the popular Australian breakfast show Sunrise , Australian music personality Molly Meldrum made a sincere comparison of the album to the classic Beatles album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band .
Nick Pearson of PopMatters , meanwhile , was critical of the album . He began his review with the statement " Once you reach the level of intellectual maturity where you can tell the difference between cryptic but poetic lyrics and nonsensical crap , you have outgrown Silverchair " , and continued in the same fashion throughout . Pearson likened Johns to Kurt Cobain , saying they share a common inability ; " his inability to write lyrics " . His only praise was for the third single released from the album , " If You Keep Losing Sleep " , stating " ' If You Keep Losing Sleep ' is proof that Silverchair are capable of recording interesting music " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Daniel Johns unless otherwise noted .
" Young Modern Station " – 3 : 11 ( Johns , Julian Hamilton )
" Straight Lines " – 4 : 18 ( Johns , Hamilton )
" If You Keep Losing Sleep " – 3 : 20
" Reflections of a Sound " – 4 : 09
" Those Thieving Birds ( Part 1 ) / Strange Behaviour / Those Thieving Birds ( Part 2 ) " – 7 : 26
" The Man That Knew Too Much " – 4 : 19
" Waiting All Day " – 4 : 28 ( Johns , Hamilton )
" Mind Reader " – 3 : 07 ( Johns , Hamilton )
" Low " – 3 : 48
" Insomnia " – 3 : 06
" All Across the World " – 4 : 01
iTunes Store bonus tracks
" English Garden " – 4 : 23
" Straight Lines " ( The Presets Remix ) – 3 : 53 ( iTunes special edition )
Bonus DVD
The making of Young Modern documentary .
" Straight Lines " music video
A vinyl version of the album has been made limited to 1000 copies worldwide ( 400 Available in Australia and 600 elsewhere )
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
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= Rugby union =
Rugby union , or simply rugby , is a contact team sport which originated in England in the first half of the 19th century . One of the two codes of rugby football , it is based on running with the ball in hand . In its most common form , a game is between two teams of 15 players ( two more than rugby league ) using an oval @-@ shaped ball on a rectangular field with H @-@ shaped goalposts on each try line .
In 1845 , the first football laws were written by Rugby School pupils ; other significant events in the early development of rugby include the Blackheath Club 's decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and the split between rugby union and rugby league in 1895 . Historically an amateur sport , in 1995 restrictions on payments to players were removed , making the game openly professional at the highest level for the first time .
World Rugby , originally the International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) and from 1998 to 2014 the International Rugby Board ( IRB ) , has been the governing body for rugby union since 1886 . Rugby union spread from the Home Nations of Great Britain and Ireland , and was absorbed by many of the countries associated with the British Empire . Early exponents of the sport included Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and France . Countries that have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport include Fiji , Georgia , Madagascar , New Zealand , Samoa , Tonga and Wales . Rugby union is played in over 100 countries across six continents ; there are 101 full members and 18 associate members of World Rugby .
The Rugby World Cup , first held in 1987 , takes place every four years with the winner of the tournament receiving the Webb Ellis Cup . The Six Nations Championship in Europe and The Rugby Championship in the Southern Hemisphere are major annual competitions .
Major domestic competitions include the English Premiership in England , Top 14 in France , the Mitre 10 Cup in New Zealand and the Currie Cup in South Africa . Other transnational competitions include the Pro12 , involving Irish , Italian , Scottish and Welsh teams ; the European Rugby Champions Cup , involving the top European teams from their respective domestic competitions ; and Super Rugby , launched in 1996 with Australian , New Zealand and South African teams and since 2016 also including teams in Argentina and Japan .
= = History = =
The origin of rugby football is reputed to be an incident during a game of English school football at Rugby School in 1823 , when William Webb Ellis is said to have picked up the ball and run with it . Although the evidence for the story is doubtful , it was immortalised at the school with a plaque unveiled in 1895 . Despite the doubtful evidence , the Rugby World Cup trophy is named after Webb Ellis . Rugby football stems from the form of game played at Rugby School , which former pupils then introduced to their university . Old Rugbeian Albert Pell , a student at Cambridge , is credited with having formed the first " football " team . During this early period different schools used different rules , with former pupils from Rugby and Eton attempting to carry their preferred rules through to their universities .
A significant event in the early development of rugby football was the production of the first written laws of the game at Rugby School in 1845 , which was followed by the ' Cambridge Rules ' drawn up in 1848 . Other important events include the Blackheath Club 's decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and the formation of the Rugby Football Union in 1871 . The code was originally known as " rugby football " ; it was not until after the schism in England in 1895 , which resulted in the separate code of rugby league , that the sport took on the name " rugby union " to differentiate it from the league game . Despite the sport 's full name of rugby union , it is known simply as rugby throughout most of the world .
= = = First internationals = = =
The first rugby football international was played on 27 March 1871 between Scotland and England . Scotland won the game 1 @-@ 0 . By 1881 both Ireland and Wales had representative teams , and in 1883 the first international competition , the Home Nations Championship had begun . 1883 is also the year of the first rugby sevens tournament , the Melrose Sevens , which is still held annually .
Two important overseas tours took place in 1888 : a British Isles team visited Australia and New Zealand — although a private venture , it laid the foundations for future British and Irish Lions tours ; and the 1888 – 89 New Zealand Native football team brought the first overseas team to British spectators .
During the early history of rugby union , a time before commercial air travel , teams from different continents rarely met . The first two notable tours both took place in 1888 — the British Isles team touring New Zealand and Australia , followed by the New Zealand team touring Europe . Traditionally the most prestigious tours were the Southern Hemisphere countries of Australia , New Zealand and South Africa making a tour of a Northern Hemisphere , and the return tours made by a joint British and Irish team . Tours would last for months , due to long traveling times and the number of games undertaken ; the 1888 New Zealand team began their tour in Hawkes Bay in June and did not complete their schedule until August 1889 , having played 107 rugby matches . Touring international sides would play Test matches against international opponents , including national , club and county sides in the case of Northern Hemisphere rugby , or provincial / state sides in the case of Southern Hemisphere rugby .
Between 1905 and 1908 , all three major Southern Hemisphere rugby countries sent their first touring teams to the Northern Hemisphere : New Zealand in 1905 , followed by South Africa in 1906 and Australia in 1908 . All three teams brought new styles of play , fitness levels and tactics , and were far more successful than critics had expected .
The New Zealand 1905 touring team performed a haka before each match , leading Welsh Rugby Union administrator Tom Williams to suggest that Wales player Teddy Morgan lead the crowd in singing the Welsh National Anthem , Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau , as a response . After Morgan began singing , the crowd joined in : the first time a national anthem was sung at the start of a sporting event . In 1905 France played England in its first international match .
Rugby union was included as an event in the Olympic Games four times during the early 20th century . No international rugby games and union @-@ sponsored club matches were played during the First World War , but competitions continued through service teams such as the New Zealand Army team . During the Second World War no international matches were played by most countries , though Italy , Germany and Romania played a limited number of games , and Cambridge and Oxford continued their annual University Match .
The first officially sanctioned international rugby sevens tournament took place in 1973 at Murrayfield , one of Scotland 's biggest stadiums , as part of the Scottish Rugby Union centenary celebrations .
= = = World Cup and professionalism = = =
In 1987 the first Rugby World Cup was held in Australia and New Zealand , and the inaugural winners were New Zealand . The first World Cup Sevens tournament was held at Murrayfield in 1993 . Rugby Sevens was introduced into the Commonwealth Games in 1998 and has been added to the Olympic Games of 2016 .
Rugby union was an amateur sport until the IRB declared the game " open " in 1995 , removing restrictions on payments to players . However , the pre @-@ 1995 period of rugby union was marked by frequent accusations of " shamateurism " , including an investigation in Britain by a House of Commons Select committee . Following the introduction of professionalism trans @-@ national club competitions were started , with the Heineken Cup in the Northern Hemisphere and Super Rugby in the Southern Hemisphere . The Tri Nations , an annual international tournament involving Australia , New Zealand and South Africa , kicked off in 1996 . In 2012 , this competition was extended to include Argentina , a country whose impressive performances in international games ( especially finishing in third place in the 2007 Rugby World Cup ) was deemed to merit inclusion in the competition . As a result of the expansion to four teams , the tournament was renamed The Rugby Championship .
= = Teams and positions = =
Each team starts the match with 15 players on the field and seven or eight substitutes . Players in a team are divided into eight forwards ( two more than in rugby league ) and seven backs .
= = = Forwards = = =
The main responsibilities of the forward players are to gain and retain possession of the ball . Players in these positions are generally bigger and stronger and take part in the scrum and line @-@ out . The forwards are often collectively referred to as the ' pack ' , especially when in the scrum formation .
Front row
The front row consists of three players : two props ( the loosehead prop and the tighthead prop ) and the hooker . The role of the two props is to support the hooker during scrums , to provide support for the jumpers during line @-@ outs and to provide strength and power in rucks and mauls . The third position in the front row is the hooker . The hooker is a key position in attacking and defensive play and is responsible for winning the ball in the scrum . Hookers normally throw the ball in at line @-@ outs .
Second row
The second row consists of two locks or lock forwards . Locks are usually the tallest players in the team , and specialise as line @-@ out jumpers . The main role of the lock in line @-@ outs is to make a standing jump , often supported by the other forwards , to either collect the thrown ball or ensure the ball comes down on their side . Locks also have an important role in the scrum , binding directly behind the three front row players and providing forward drive .
Back row
The back row , not to be confused with ‘ Backs ’ , is the third and final row of the forward positions , they are often referred to as the loose forwards . The three positions in the back row are the two flankers and the number 8 . The two flanker positions , called the blindside flanker and openside flanker , are the final row in the scrum . They are usually the most mobile forwards in the game . Their main role is to win possession through ' turn overs ' . The number 8 packs down between the two locks at the back of the scrum . The role of the number 8 in the scrum is to control the ball after it has been heeled back from the front of the pack and the position provides a link between the forwards and backs during attacking phases .
= = = Backs = = =
The backs ' role is to create and convert point @-@ scoring opportunities . They are generally smaller , faster and more agile than the forwards . Another distinction between the backs and the forwards is that the backs are expected to have superior kicking and ball handling skills , especially the fly @-@ half , scrum @-@ half and full @-@ back .
Half @-@ backs
The half @-@ backs consist of two positions , the scrum @-@ half and the fly @-@ half . The fly @-@ half is crucial to a team 's game plan , orchestrating the team 's performance . They are usually the first to receive the ball from the scrum @-@ half following a breakdown , lineout , or scrum , and need to be decisive with what actions to take and be effective at communicating with the outside backs . Many fly @-@ halfs are also their team 's goal kickers . The scrum @-@ half is the link between the forwards and the backs . They receive the ball from the lineout and remove the ball from the back of the scrum , usually passing it to the fly @-@ half . They also feed the scrum and sometimes have to act as a fourth loose forward .
Three quarters
There are four three quarter positions , the inside centre , outside centre and left and right wings . The centres will attempt to tackle attacking players ; whilst in attack they should employ speed and strength to breach opposition defences . The wings are generally positioned on the outside of the backline . Their primary function is to finish off moves and score tries . Wings are usually the fastest players in the team and are elusive runners who use their speed to avoid tackles .
Fullbacks
The fullback normally positions himself several metres behind the back line . He fields any opposition kicks and is often the last line of defence should an opponent break through the back line . Two of the most important attributes of a good fullback are dependable catching skills and a good kicking game .
= = Laws = =
= = = Scoring = = =
Rugby union is played between two teams – the one that scores more points wins the game . Points can be scored in several ways : a try , scored by grounding the ball in the in @-@ goal area ( between the goal line and the dead @-@ ball line ) , is worth 5 points and a subsequent conversion kick scores 2 points ; a successful penalty kick or a drop goal each score 3 points . The values of each of these scoring methods have been changed over the years .
= = = Playing field = = =
The field of play on a rugby pitch is as near as possible to a maximum of 144 metres ( 157 yd ) long by 70 metres ( 77 yd ) wide . In actual gameplay there should be a maximum of 100 metres ( 109 yd ) between the two try @-@ lines , with anywhere between 10 and 22 metres behind each try line to serve as the in @-@ goal area . Several lines cross the field , notably the half way line and the " twenty two " , which is 22 metres ( 24 yd ) from the goal line .
Stricter rules apply to the pitch size for matches between national representative teams . The same maximums apply in this case , but the distance between the two try @-@ lines must also be at least 94 metres ( 103 yd ) and the pitch must be at least 68 metres ( 74 yd ) wide .
Rugby goalposts are H @-@ shaped , and consist of two poles , 5 @.@ 6 metres ( 6 @.@ 1 yd ) apart , connected by a horizontal crossbar 3 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 yd ) above the ground .
= = = Match structure = = =
At the beginning of the game , the captains and the referee toss a coin to decide which team will kick off first . Play then starts with a drop kick , with the players chasing the ball into the opposition 's territory , and the other side trying to retrieve the ball and advance it . If the ball does not reach the opponent ’ s 10 @-@ metre line the opposing team has two choices : to have the ball kicked off again , or to have a scrum at the centre of the half @-@ way line . If the player with the ball is tackled , frequently a ruck will result .
Games are divided into 40 @-@ minute halves , with a break in the middle . The sides exchange ends of the field after the half @-@ time break . Stoppages for injury or to allow the referee to take disciplinary action do not count as part of the playing time , so that the elapsed time is usually longer than 80 minutes . The referee is responsible for keeping time , even when — as in many professional tournaments — he is assisted by an official time @-@ keeper . If time expires while the ball is in play , the game continues until the ball is " dead " , and only then will the referee blow the whistle to signal half @-@ time or full @-@ time ; but if the referee awards a penalty or free @-@ kick , the game continues .
In the knockout stages of rugby competitions , most notably the Rugby World Cup , two extra time periods of 10 minutes periods are played ( with an interval of 5 minutes in between ) if the game is tied after full @-@ time . If scores are level after 100 minutes then the rules call for 20 minutes of sudden @-@ death extra time to be played . If the sudden @-@ death extra time period results in no scoring a kicking competition is used to determine the winner . However , no match in the history of the Rugby World Cup has ever gone past 100 minutes into a sudden @-@ death extra time period .
= = = Passing and kicking = = =
Forward passing ( throwing the ball ahead to another player ) is not allowed ; the ball can be passed laterally or backwards . The ball tends to be moved forward in three ways — by kicking , by a player running with it or within a scrum or maul . Only the player with the ball may be tackled or rucked . When a ball is knocked forward by a player with his / her arms , a " knock @-@ on " is committed , and play is restarted with a scrum .
Any player may kick the ball forward in an attempt to gain territory . When a player anywhere in the playing area kicks indirectly into touch so that the ball first bounces in the field of play , the throw @-@ in is taken where the ball went into touch . If the player kicks directly into touch ( i.e. without bouncing in @-@ field first ) from within one 's own 22 @-@ metre line , the lineout is taken by the opposition where the ball went into touch , but if the ball is kicked into touch directly by a player outside the 22 @-@ metre line , the lineout is taken level to where the kick was taken .
= = = Breakdowns = = =
The aim of the defending side is to stop the player with the ball , either by bringing them to ground ( a tackle , which is frequently followed by a ruck ) , or by contesting for possession with the ball @-@ carrier on their feet ( a maul ) . Such a circumstance is called a breakdown and each is governed by a specific law .
Tackling A player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by holding them while bringing them to ground . Tacklers cannot tackle above the shoulder ( the neck and head are out of bounds ) , and the tackler has to attempt to wrap their arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle . It is illegal to push , shoulder @-@ charge , or to trip a player using feet or legs , but hands may be used ( this being referred to as a tap @-@ tackle or ankle @-@ tap ) . Tacklers may not tackle an opponent who has jumped to catch a ball until the player has landed .
Rucking Mauls occur after a player with the ball has come into contact with an opponent but the handler remains on his feet ; once any combination of at least three players have bound themselves a maul has been set . A ruck is similar to the maul , but in this case the ball has gone to ground with at least three attacking players binding themselves on the ground in an attempt to secure the ball .
= = = Set pieces = = =
= = = = Lineout = = = =
When the ball leaves the side of the field , a line @-@ out is awarded against the team which last touched the ball . Forward players from each team line up a metre apart , perpendicular to the touchline and between 5 m and 15 m from the touchline . The ball is thrown from the touchline down the centre of the lines of forwards by a player ( usually the hooker ) from the team that did not play the ball into touch . The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty , in which case the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in .
Both sides compete for the ball and players may lift their teammates . A jumping player cannot be tackled until they stand and only shoulder @-@ to @-@ shoulder contact is allowed ; deliberate infringement of this law is dangerous play , and results in a penalty kick .
= = = = Scrum = = = =
A scrum is a way of restarting the game safely and fairly after a minor infringement . It is awarded when the ball has been knocked or passed forward , if a player takes the ball over his own try line and puts the ball down , when a player is accidentally offside or when the ball is trapped in a ruck or maul with no realistic chance of being retrieved . A team may also opt for a scrum if awarded a penalty .
A scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team binding together in three rows . The front row consists of the two props ( loosehead and tighthead ) either side of the hooker . The second row consists of two locks and the two flankers . Behind the second row is the number 8 . This formation is known as the 3 – 4 – 1 formation . Once a scrum is formed the scrum @-@ half from the team awarded the feed rolls the ball into the gap between the two front @-@ rows known as the tunnel . The two hookers then compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet , while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to help gain possession . The side that wins possession transfers the ball to the back of the scrum , where it is picked up either by the number 8 or by the scrum @-@ half .
= = = Officials and offences = = =
There are three match officials : a referee , and two assistant referees . The latter , formerly known as touch judges , had the primary function of indicating when the ball had gone into " touch " ; their role has been expanded and they are now expected to assist the referee in a number of areas , such as watching for foul play and checking offside lines . In addition , for matches in high level competitions , there is often a television match official ( TMO ; popularly called the " video referee " ) , to assist with certain decisions , linked up to the referee by radio . The referees have a system of hand signals to indicate their decisions .
Common offences include tackling above the shoulders , collapsing a scrum , ruck or maul , not releasing the ball when on the ground , or being offside . The non @-@ offending team has a number of options when awarded a penalty : a " tap " kick , when the ball is kicked a very short distance from hand , allowing the kicker to regather the ball and run with it ; a punt , when the ball is kicked a long distance from hand , for field position ; a place @-@ kick , when the kicker will attempt to score a goal ; or a scrum . Players may be sent off ( signalled by a red card ) or temporarily suspended ( " sin @-@ binned " ) for ten minutes ( yellow card ) for foul play or repeated infringements , and may not be replaced .
Occasionally , infringements are not caught by the referee during the match and these may be " cited " by the citing commissioner after the match and have punishments ( usually suspension for a number of weeks ) imposed on the infringing player .
= = = Replacements and substitutions = = =
During the match , players may be replaced ( for injury ) or substituted ( for tactical reasons ) . A player who has been replaced may not rejoin play unless he was temporarily replaced to have bleeding controlled ; a player who has been substituted may return temporarily , to replace a player who has a blood injury or has suffered a concussion , or permanently , if he is replacing a front @-@ row forward . In international matches , eight replacements are allowed ; in domestic or cross @-@ border tournaments , at the discretion of the responsible national union ( s ) , the number of replacements may be nominated to a maximum of eight , of whom three must be sufficiently trained and experienced to provide cover for the three front row positions .
Prior to 2016 , all substitutions , no matter the cause , counted against the limit during a match . In 2016 , World Rugby changed the law so that substitutions made to replace a player deemed unable to continue due to foul play by the opposition would no longer count against the match limit . This change was introduced in January of that year in the Southern Hemisphere and June in the Northern Hemisphere .
= = Equipment = =
The most basic items of equipment for a game of rugby union are the ball itself , a rugby shirt ( also known as a " jersey " ) , rugby shorts , socks and boots . The rugby ball is oval in shape , ( technically a prolate spheroid ) , and is made up of four panels . The ball was historically made of leather , but in the modern era most games use a ball made from a synthetic material . The WR lays out specific dimensions for the ball , 280 @-@ 300mm in length , 740 @-@ 770mm in circumference of length and 580 @-@ 620mm in circumference of width . Rugby boots have soles with studs to allow grip on the turf of the pitch . The studs may be either metal or plastic but must not have any sharp edges or ridges .
Protective equipment is optional and strictly regulated . The most common items are mouthguards , which are worn by almost all players , and are compulsory in some rugby @-@ playing nations . Other protective items that are permitted include head gear ; thin ( not more than 10 mm thick ) , non @-@ rigid shoulder pads and shin guards ; which are worn underneath socks . Bandages or tape can be worn to support or protect injuries ; some players wear tape around the head to protect the ears in scrums and rucks . Female players may also wear chest pads . Although not worn for protection , some types of fingerless mitts are allowed to aid grip .
It is the responsibility of the match officials to check players ' clothing and equipment before a game to ensure that it conforms to the laws of the game .
= = Governing bodies = =
The international governing body of rugby union ( and associated games such as sevens ) is World Rugby ( WR ) . The WR headquarters are in Dublin , Ireland . WR , founded in 1886 , governs the sport worldwide and publishes the game 's laws and rankings . As of February 2014 , WR ( then known as the IRB , for International Rugby Board ) recorded 119 unions in its membership , 101 full members and 18 associate member countries . According to WR , rugby union is played by men and women in over 100 countries . WR controls the Rugby World Cup , the Women 's Rugby World Cup , Rugby World Cup Sevens , HSBC Sevens Series , HSBC Women 's Sevens Series , World Under 20 Championship , World Under 20 Trophy , Nations Cup and the Pacific Nations Cup . WR holds votes to decide where each of these events are be held , except in the case of the Sevens World Series for men and women , for which WR contracts with several national unions to hold individual events .
Six regional associations , which are members of WR , form the next level of administration ; these are :
Rugby Africa , formerly Confederation of African Rugby ( CAR )
Asia Rugby , formerly Asian Rugby Football Union ( ARFU )
Rugby Americas North , formerly North America Caribbean Rugby Association ( NACRA )
Rugby Europe , previously Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby ( FIRA @-@ AER )
Oceania Rugby , formerly Federation of Oceania Rugby Unions ( FORU )
Sudamérica Rugby , formerly Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby ( South American Rugby Confederation , or CONSUR )
SANZAAR ( South Africa , New Zealand , Australia and Argentina Rugby ) is a joint venture of the South African Rugby Union , the New Zealand Rugby Union , the Australian Rugby Union and the Argentine Rugby Union ( UAR ) that operates Super Rugby and The Rugby Championship ( formerly the Tri Nations before the entry of Argentina ) . Although UAR initially had no representation on the former SANZAR board , it was granted input into the organisation 's issues , especially with regard to The Rugby Championship , and became a full SANZAAR member in 2016 ( when the country entered Super Rugby ) .
National unions oversee rugby union within individual countries and are affiliated to WR . The WR Council has 26 seats . Each of the eight foundation unions – Scotland , Ireland , Wales , England , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and France – have two seats , and Argentina , Canada , Italy , Japan and the six regional associations each have one seat .
= = Global reach = =
The earliest countries to adopt rugby union were England , the country of inception , and the other three Home Nations , Scotland , Ireland and Wales . The spread of rugby union as a global sport has its roots in the exporting of the game by British expatriates , military personnel and over @-@ seas university students . The first rugby club in France was formed by British residents in Le Havre in 1872 , while the next year Argentina recorded its first game : ' Banks ' v ' City ' in Buenos Aires .
At least six countries have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport ; they are Fiji , Georgia , New Zealand , Samoa , Tonga and Wales .
= = = Oceania = = =
A rugby club was formed in Sydney , New South Wales , Australia in 1864 ; while the sport was said to have been introduced to New Zealand by Charles Monro in 1870 , who played rugby while a student at Christ 's College , Finchley .
Several island nations have embraced the sport of rugby . Rugby was first played in Fiji circa 1884 by European and Fijian soldiers of the Native Constabulary at Ba on Viti Levu island . Fiji then sent their first overseas team to Samoa in 1924 , who in turn set up their own union in 1927 . Along with Tonga , other countries to have national rugby teams in Oceania include the Cook Islands , Niue , Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands .
= = = North America and Caribbean = = =
In North America a club formed in Montreal in 1868 , Canada 's first club . The city of Montreal also played its part in the introduction of the sport in the United States , when students of McGill University played against a team from Harvard University in 1874 .
Although the exact date of arrival of rugby union in Trinidad and Tobago is unknown , their first club Northern RFC was formed in 1923 , a national team was playing by 1927 and due to a cancelled tour to British Guiana in 1933 , switched their venue to Barbados ; introducing rugby to the island . Other Atlantic countries to play rugby union include Jamaica and Bermuda .
= = = Europe = = =
The growth of rugby union in Europe outside the 6 Nations countries in terms of playing numbers has been sporadic . Historically , British and Irish home teams played the Southern Hemisphere teams of Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa , as well as France . The rest of Europe were let to play amongst themselves . During a period when it had been isolated by the British and Irish Unions , France , lacking international competition , became the only European team from the top tier to regularly play the other European countries ; mainly Belgium , the Netherlands , Germany , Spain , Romania , Poland , Italy and Czechoslovakia . In 1934 , instigated by the French Rugby Federation , FIRA ( Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur ) was formed to organise rugby union outside the authority of the IRFB . The founding members were Italy , Romania , Netherlands , Portugal , Czechoslovakia , and Sweden . Other European rugby playing nations of note include Russia , whose first officially recorded match is marked by an encounter between Dynamo Moscow and the Moscow Institute of Physical Education in 1933 . Rugby union in Portugal also took hold between the First and Second World Wars , with a Portuguese National XV set up in 1922 and an official championship started in 1927 .
In 1999 , FIRA agreed to place itself under the auspices of the IRB , transforming itself into a strictly European organising body . Accordingly , it changed its name to FIRA – AER ( Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby ) . It adopted its current name of Rugby Europe in 2014 .
= = = South America = = =
Although Argentina is the best @-@ known rugby playing nation in South America , founding the Argentine Rugby Union in 1899 , several other countries on the continent have a long history . Rugby had been played in Brazil since the end of the 19th century , but the game was played regularly only from 1926 , when São Paulo beat Santos in an inter @-@ city match . It took Uruguay several aborted attempts to adapt to rugby , led mainly by the efforts of the Montevideo Cricket Club ; these efforts succeeded in 1951 with the formation of a national league and four clubs . Other South American countries that formed a rugby union include Chile ( 1948 ) , and Paraguay ( 1968 ) .
= = = Asia = = =
Many Asian countries have a tradition of playing rugby dating from the British Empire . India began playing rugby in the early 1870s , the Calcutta Football Club forming in 1873 . However , with the departure of a local British army regiment , interest in rugby diminished in the area . In 1878 , The Calcutta Football Club was disbanded , and rugby in India faltered . Sri Lanka claims to have founded their union in 1878 , and although little official information from the period is available , the team won the All @-@ India cup in Madras in 1920 . The first recorded match in Malaysia was in 1892 , but the first confirmation of rugby is the existence of the HMS Malaya Cup which was first presented in 1922 and is still awarded to the winners of the Malay sevens .
Rugby union was introduced to Japan in 1899 by two Cambridge students : Ginnosuke Tanaka and Edward Bramwell Clarke . The Japan RFU was founded in 1926 and its place in rugby history was cemented with the news that Japan will host the 2019 World Cup . It will be the first country outside the Commonwealth , Ireland and France to host the event , and this is viewed by the IRB as an opportunity for rugby union to extend its reach , particularly in Asia . Other Asian playing countries of note include Singapore , South Korea , China and The Philippines , while the former British colony of Hong Kong is notable within rugby for its development of the rugby sevens game , especially the Hong Kong Sevens tournament which was founded in 1976 .
Rugby in the Middle East and the Gulf States has its history in the 1950s , with clubs formed by British and French Services stationed in the region after the Second World War . When these servicemen left , the clubs and teams were kept alive by young professionals , mostly Europeans , working in these countries . The official union of Oman was formed in 1971 . Bahrain founded its union a year later , while in 1975 the Dubai Sevens , the Gulf 's leading rugby tournament , was created . Rugby remains a minority sport in the region with Israel , as of 2011 , being the only member union from the Middle East to be included in the IRB World Rankings .
= = = Africa = = =
In 1875 , rugby was introduced to South Africa by British soldiers garrisoned in Cape Town . During the late 19th and early 20th century , the sport in Africa was spread by settlers and colonials who often adopted a " whites @-@ only " policy to playing the game . This resulted in rugby being viewed as a bourgeois sport by the indigenous people with limited appeal . The earliest countries to see the playing of competitive rugby include South Africa , and neighbouring Rhodesia ( modern @-@ day Zimbabwe ) , which formed the Rhodesia Rugby Football Union in 1895 .
In more recent times the sport has been embraced by several African nations . In the early 21st century Madagascar has experienced crowds of 40 @,@ 000 at national matches , while Namibia , whose history of rugby can be dated from 1915 , have qualified for the final stages of the World Cup four times since 1999 . Other African nations to be represented in the World Rugby Rankings as Member Unions include Côte d 'Ivoire , Kenya , Uganda and Zambia . South Africa and Kenya are among the 15 " core teams " that participate in every event of the men 's Sevens World Series .
= = Women 's rugby union = =
Records of women 's rugby football date from the late 19th century , with the first documented source being Emily Valentine 's writings , stating that she set up a rugby team in Portora Royal School in Enniskillen , Ireland in 1887 . Although there are reports of early women 's matches in New Zealand and France , one of the first notable games to prove primary evidence was the 1917 war @-@ time encounter between Cardiff Ladies and Newport Ladies ; a photo of which shows the Cardiff team before the match at the Cardiff Arms Park . In the past 30 years the game has grown in popularity among female athletes , and , according to WR , is now played in over 100 countries .
The English @-@ based Women 's Rugby Football Union ( WRFU ) , responsible for women 's rugby in England , Scotland Ireland and Wales , was founded in 1983 , and is the oldest formally organised national governing body for women 's rugby . This was replaced in 1994 by the Rugby Football Union for Women ( RFUW ) in England with each of the other Home Nations governing their own countries . The premier international competition in rugby union for women is the Women 's Rugby World Cup , first held in 1991 . Since 1994 it has been held every four years .
= = Major international competitions = =
= = = Rugby World Cup = = =
The most important tournament in rugby union is the Rugby World Cup , a men 's tournament that has taken place every four years since 1987 among national rugby union teams . New Zealand has won the Rugby World Cup the most ( 3 times ) and is the current cup holder , winning the 2015 Rugby World Cup held at Twickenham , beating Australia in the final . England ( 2003 ) were the first team from the Northern Hemisphere to win , the previous champions being New Zealand ( 1987 , 2011 and 2015 ) , Australia ( 1991 and 1999 ) , and South Africa ( 1995 and 2007 ) .
The Rugby World Cup has continued to grow since its inception in 1987 . The first tournament , in which 16 teams competed for the title , was broadcast to 17 countries with an accumulated total of 230 million television viewers . Ticket sales during the pool stages and finals of the same tournament was less than a million . The 2007 World Cup was contested by 94 countries with ticket sales of 3 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 over the pool and final stage . The accumulated television audience for the event , then broadcast to 200 countries , was 4 @.@ 2 billion .
= = = Regional tournaments = = =
Major international competitions are the Six Nations Championship and The Rugby Championship , held in Europe and the Southern Hemisphere respectively .
The Six Nations is an annual competition involving the European teams England , France , Ireland , Italy , Scotland and Wales . Each country plays the other five once . After the initial internationals between England and Scotland , Ireland and Wales began competing in the 1880s , forming the Home International Championships . France joined the tournament in the 1900s and in 1910 the term Five Nations first appeared . However , the Home Nations ( England , Ireland , Scotland , and Wales ) excluded France in 1931 amid a run of poor results , allegations of professionalism and concerns over on @-@ field violence . France then rejoined in 1939 – 1940 , though World War II halted proceedings for a further eight years . France has played in all the tournaments since WWII , the first of which was played in 1947 . In 2000 , Italy became the sixth nation in the contest and Rome 's Stadio Olimpico has replaced Stadio Flaminio , as the venue for their home games since 2013 . The current Six Nations champions are England .
The Rugby Championship is the Southern Hemisphere 's annual international series for that region 's top national teams . From its inception in 1996 through 2011 , it was known as the Tri Nations , as it featured the hemisphere 's traditional powers of Australia , New Zealand and South Africa . These teams have dominated world rankings in recent years , and many considered the Tri Nations to be the toughest competition in international rugby . The Tri Nations was initially played on a home and away basis with the three nations playing each other twice . In 2006 a new system was introduced where each nation plays the others three times , though in 2007 and 2011 the teams played each other only twice , as both were World Cup years . Since Argentina 's strong performances in the 2007 World Cup , after the 2009 Tri Nations tournament , SANZAR ( South Africa , New Zealand and Australian Rugby ) invited the Argentine Rugby Union ( UAR ) to join an expanded Four Nations tournament in 2012 . The competition has been officially rechristened as The Rugby Championship beginning with the 2012 edition . The competition reverted to the Tri Nations ' original home @-@ and @-@ away format , but now involving four teams . In 2015 , the first World Cup year after the entry of Argentina , an abbreviated tournament was held in which each team played the others only once . Australia are the current champions .
= = = Rugby within international tournaments = = =
Rugby union was played at the Olympic Games in 1900 , 1908 , 1920 and 1924 . As per Olympic rules , the nations of Scotland , Wales and England were not allowed to play separately as they are not sovereign states . In 1900 , France won the gold , beating Great Britain 27 points to 8 and defeating Germany 27 points to 17 . In 1908 , Australia defeated Great Britain , claiming the gold medal , the score being 32 points to three . In 1920 , the United States , fielding a team with many players new to the sport of rugby , upset France in a shock win , eight points to zero . In 1924 , the United States again defeated France 17 to 3 , becoming the only team to win gold twice in the sport . In 2009 the International Olympic Committee voted with a majority of 81 to 8 that rugby union be reinstated as an Olympic sport in at least the 2016 and 2020 games , but in the sevens , 4 @-@ day tournament format . This is something the rugby world has aspired to for a long time and Bernard Lapasset , president of the International Rugby Board , said the Olympic gold medal would be considered to be " the pinnacle of our sport " ( Rugby Sevens ) .
Rugby sevens has been played at the Commonwealth Games since the 1998 Games in Kuala Lumpur . The most gold medal holders are New Zealand who have won the competition on four successive occasions until South Africa beat them in 2014 . Rugby union has also been an Asian Games event since the 1998 games in Bangkok , Thailand . In the 1998 and 2002 editions of the games , both the usual fifteen @-@ a @-@ side variety and rugby sevens were played , but from 2006 onwards , only rugby sevens was retained . In 2010 , the women 's rugby sevens event was introduced . The event is likely to remain a permanent fixture of the Asian Games due to elevation of rugby sevens as an Olympic sport from the 2016 Olympics onwards . The present gold medal holders in the sevens tournament , held in 2010 , are Japan in the male event and Kazakhstan in the women 's .
= = = Women 's international rugby = = =
Women 's international rugby union began in 1982 , with a match between France and Netherlands played in Utrecht . As of 2009 over six hundred women 's internationals have been played by over forty different nations .
The first Women 's Rugby World Cup was held in Wales in 1991 , and was won by the United States . The second tournament took place in 1994 , and since that date the competition has been held every four years . The New Zealand Women 's team then won four straight World Cups ( 1998 , 2002 , 2006 , 2010 ) before England won in 2014 .
As well as the Women 's Rugby World Cup there are also other regular tournaments , including a Six Nations , run in parallel to the men 's competition . The Women 's Six Nations , first played in 1996 has been dominated by England , who have won the tournament on 13 occasions , including a run of seven consecutive wins from 2006 to 2012 . However , England have failed to win the tournament since ; Ireland and France have alternated titles in the last four editions , with France as the current holders .
= = Professional rugby = =
Rugby union has been professionalized since 1995 . The following table shows fully professional rugby competitions . ( Semi @-@ professional competitions are excluded ) .
= = Variants = =
The game of rugby union has spawned several variants of the full @-@ contact , 15 @-@ a @-@ side code . The two more common differences applied to the variants of the sport lie in either fewer players or reduced player contact . Of the variants , the oldest is Rugby sevens ( 7 's , or VIIs ) , a fast @-@ paced variant which originated in Melrose , Scotland in 1883 . In rugby sevens , there are only seven players per side , and each half is normally seven minutes . Major tournaments include the Hong Kong Sevens and Dubai Sevens , both held in areas not normally associated with the highest levels of the 15 @-@ a @-@ side game . A more recent variant of the sport is Rugby tens ( 10 's or Xs ) , a Malaysian variant with ten players per side .
Due to the physical nature of playing rugby , several variants have been created to introduce the sport to children with a reduced level of physical contact . Of these versions , Touch rugby , in which " tackles " are made by simply touching the ball carrier with two hands , is popular as a mixed sex version of the sport played by both children and adults . Tag Rugby , is a version in which the participants wear a belt with two hook @-@ and @-@ loop fastener tags , the removal of either counting as a ' tackle ' . Tag Rugby also varies in the fact that kicking the ball is not allowed . Mini rugby is another variant of rugby union aimed at fostering the sport in children . It is played with only eight players and on a smaller pitch . Similar to Tag Rugby , American Flag Rugby , ( AFR ) , is a mixed gender , non @-@ contact imitation of rugby union designed for American children entering grades K @-@ 9 . Both American Flag Rugby and Mini Rugby differ to Tag Rugby in that they introduce more advanced elements of rugby union as the participants age .
Other less formal variants include beach rugby and snow rugby .
= = Influence on other sports = =
Rugby union football , and its immediate ancestor rugby football , has had a strong influence on several other sports . Most obviously rugby league which originally was formed as an administrative break from the English union before changing its laws , becoming a code in its own right . The two sports continue to influence each other to this day .
The Gridiron codes , American football and Canadian football , are derived from early forms of rugby . Confusingly , in Canada , Canadian football has also frequently been referred to as " rugby football " , and a number of national and provincial bodies were called " Rugby Football Unions " or " Rugby Unions " , such as the Ontario and Quebec Rugby Football Unions . For example , in the Encyclopedia Canadiana , the entry Rugby Football begins by referring to " the Canadian development of rugby union or " English rugger " introduced into Canada in the third quarter of the nineteenth century " , but later states that " the Canadian game is a radical departure from rugby union " .
The primary influence on early Australian rules football was rugby football and other games originating in English public schools . Tom Wills , who is recognised as the principal founder of Australian football , also attended Rugby School .
James Naismith took aspects of many sports including rugby to invent basketball . The most obvious contribution is the jump ball 's similarity to the line @-@ out as well as the underhand shooting style that dominated the early years of the sport . Naismith played many years of rugby at McGill University .
Swedish football was a code whose rules were a mix of the association football rules and the rugby football rules . Some played the game with a round ball , while others played with an oval ball . It is no longer played .
Rugby lends its name to wheelchair rugby ( also known as " quad rugby " or " murderball " ) , and although the sport takes from wheelchair basketball , ice hockey and handball , it contains elements of rugby such as crossing a try line with the ball to score and the central theme of it being a full contact sport .
= = Statistics and records = =
According to a 2011 report by the Centre for the International Business of Sport , over four and a half million people play rugby union or one of its variants organised by the IRB . This is an increase of 19 percent since the previous report in 2007 . The report also claimed that since 2007 participation has grown by 33 percent in Africa , 22 percent in South America and 18 percent in Asia and North America . In 2014 the IRB published a breakdown of the total number of players worldwide by national unions . It recorded a total of 6 @.@ 6 million players globally , of those , 2 @.@ 36 million were registered members playing for a club affiliated to their country 's union .
The most capped international player from the tier 1 nations is New Zealand openside flanker and captain Richie McCaw who has played in 145 internationals . While the top scoring tier 1 international player is New Zealand 's Dan Carter , who has amassed 1442 points during his career . In April 2010 Lithuania broke the record of consecutive international wins previously held by New Zealand and South Africa , which was 17 consecutive wins against tier 1 nations , with their 18th win in tier 2 in a match against Serbia . The highest scoring international match between two recognised unions was Hong Kong 's 164 – 13 victory over Singapore on 27 October 1994 While the largest winning margin of 152 points is held by two countries , Japan ( a 155 – 3 win over Chinese Taipei ) and Argentina ( 152 – 0 over Paraguay ) both in 2002 .
The record attendance for a rugby union game was set on 15 July 2000 in which New Zealand defeated Australia 39 – 35 in a Bledisloe Cup game at Stadium Australia in Sydney before 109 @,@ 874 fans . The record attendance for a match in Europe of 104 @,@ 000 ( at the time a world record ) was set on 1 March 1975 when Scotland defeated Wales 12 – 10 at Murrayfield in Edinburgh during the 1975 Five Nations Championship .
= = In culture = =
Thomas Hughes 1857 novel Tom Brown 's Schooldays , set at Rugby School , includes a rugby football match , also portrayed in the 1940s film of the same name . James Joyce mentions Irish team Bective Rangers in several of his works , including Ulysses ( 1922 ) and Finnegans Wake ( 1939 ) , while his 1916 semi @-@ autobiographical work A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man has an account of Ireland international James Magee . Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , in his 1924 Sherlock Holmes tale The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire , mentions that Dr Watson played rugby for Blackheath .
Henri Rousseau 's 1908 work Joueurs de football shows two pairs of rugby players competing . Other French artists to have represented the sport in their works include Albert Gleizes ' Les Joueurs de football ( 1912 ) , Robert Delaunay 's Football . L 'Equipe de Cardiff ( 1916 ) and André Lhote 's Partie de Rugby ( 1917 ) . The 1928 Gold Medal for Art at the Antwerp Olympics was won by Luxembourg 's Jean Jacoby for his work Rugby .
In film , Ealing Studios ' 1949 comedy A Run for Your Money and the 1979 BBC Wales television film Grand Slam both centre on fans attending a match . Films that explore the sport in more detail include independent production Old Scores ( 1991 ) and Forever Strong ( 2008 ) . Invictus ( 2009 ) , based on John Carlin 's book Playing the Enemy , explores the events of the 1995 Rugby World Cup and Nelson Mandela 's attempt to use the sport to connect South Africa 's people post @-@ apartheid .
In public art and sculpture there are many works dedicated to the sport . There is a 27 ft bronze statue of a rugby line @-@ out by pop artist Gerald Laing at Twickenham and one of rugby administrator Sir Tasker Watkins at the Millennium Stadium . Rugby players to have been honoured with statues include Gareth Edwards in Cardiff and Danie Craven in Stellenbosch .
= = = Printed sources = = =
= = = Electronic sources = = =
" Laws of Rugby Union " . IRB . 2010 . Retrieved 16 January 2011 .
" IRB Regulations " . IRB . Retrieved 16 January 2011 .
Scrum.com Rugby guide
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= Mixco Viejo =
Mixco Viejo ( / ˈmisko ˈβieχo / ) ( " Old Mixco " ) , occasionally spelt Mixcu Viejo , is an archaeological site in the north east of the Chimaltenango department of Guatemala , some 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) to the north of Guatemala City and 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the junction of the rivers Pixcaya and Motagua . It is a moderate sized ruined city of the Postclassic Maya civilization .
The archaeological site and tourist attraction of Mixco Viejo was named after being erroneously associated with the Postclassic Poqomam capital referred to in colonial records by that name . The archaeological site has now been identified as Jilotepeque Viejo , the capital of the Chajoma Kaqchikel kingdom . To distinguish between the two , the ruins of the Chajoma capital are now referred to as Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) while the former Poqomam capital is referred to as Mixco Viejo ( Chinautla Viejo ) .
This confusion in the identification of the site has hindered study . The Chajoma capital has been investigated archaeologically , under the assumption that it was the Poqomam capital . Although the Chajoma ruins of Jilotepeque Viejo have been well described archaeologically , the archaeological data has been associated with the history of a different site entirely . Doubts about the identification of the archaeological site were first raised by Robert M. Carmack , who realised that the supposed Poqomam capital was not located within the Poqomam linguistic area but rather within the linguistic area of the Kaqchikels . The Poqomam who were settled in the new colonial settlement of Mixco by the Spanish had a long history of fine polychrome ceramic production , but no evidence of such production had been recovered during archaeological investigations , and the ruins were considered too distant from colonial Mixco .
Chinautla Viejo was attacked by the invading Spanish in 1525 ; the first two attacks against the heavily fortified city were unsuccessful . The besieged city received Poqomam reinforcements that were comprehensively defeated on an open field of battle , with the Spanish cavalry being decisive . The capture of Poqomam prisoners allowed the Spanish to discover the location of a cave providing a secret entrance to the city . A third assault broke the month @-@ long siege , allowing the Spanish to take the city . The surviving inhabitants were moved to another settlement and Pedro de Alvarado ordered the city to be burned .
Jilotepeque Viejo was settled by the Chajoma in order to provide a capital that was safer from attack from the hostile Iximche Kaqchikel kingdom than their previous capital . In spite of this , the city fell under the domination of Iximche and the city 's architecture , spread in a number of fortified groups along a ridge surrounded by deep ravines , shows a mixture of Chajoma and Kaqchikel styles . At the time of the Spanish conquest , the Chajoma of Jilotepeque Viejo may have initially allied themselves with the Spanish together with Iximche and have joined in the general Kaqchikel uprising against the Spanish in 1524 . The site was abandoned after the conquest and never reoccupied .
= = Mixco Viejo in history : Chinautla Viejo = =
The historical Mixco Viejo has been identified as Chinautla Viejo ( " Old Chinautla " ) , near the modern town of Mixco . Mixco Viejo ( " Old Mixco " ) was the capital of the Poqomam Maya kingdom , and was founded on a defensive mountain @-@ top location in the 12th century AD . The peak population in the early 16th century may have been around 10 @,@ 000 people .
In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent a small company to conquer Mixco Viejo ( Chinautla Viejo ) , the capital of the Poqomam . At the Spanish approach , the inhabitants remained enclosed in the fortified city . The Spanish attempted an approach from the west through a narrow pass but were forced back with heavy losses . Alvarado himself launched the second assault with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back . The Poqomam then received reinforcements , possibly from Chinautla , and the two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city . The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry , forcing the Poqomam reinforcements to withdraw . The leaders of the reinforcements surrendered to the Spanish three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave leading up from a nearby river , allowing the inhabitants to come and go .
Armed with the knowledge gained from their prisoners , Alvarado sent 40 men to cover the exit from the cave and launched another assault along the ravine from the west , in single file owing to its narrowness , with crossbowmen alternating with soldiers bearing muskets , each with a companion sheltering him from arrows and stones with a shield . This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through the pass and storm the entrance of the city . The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city , and were hunted down by the victorious conquistadors and their Mesoamerican allies . Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave , the survivors were captured and brought back to the city . The siege had lasted more than a month and because of the defensive strength of the city , Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco .
= = Archaeological site : Jilotepeque Viejo = =
Although the site now known as Mixco Viejo was traditionally considered the Poqomam capital , recent investigations have instead identified the ruins as the capital of the Kaqchikel @-@ speaking Chajoma Maya , and have suggested that its identification as the historical Mixco Viejo is the result of confusion in the interpretation of colonial records . The site was apparently known to the Chajoma by a variety of names , including Chuapec Kekacajol Nima Abaj ( also spelt Chuwa Pek Q 'eqak 'ajol Nima Ab 'aj ) , meaning " Great stone in front of the Cave of the Children of Night " , Zakicajol and Nimcakajpec . Jilotepeque Viejo is estimated to have had a population of approximately 1 @,@ 500 inhabitants . Jilotepeque was close to the San Martín Jilotepeque obsidian source , giving the inhabitants ready access to the resource .
The site is open to the public and has a small museum . The site was declared a protected archaeological zone by Ministerial Accord 1210 of the Guatemalan Ministry of Education on 12 June 1970 .
= = = Location = = =
The ruins are situated at the northeastern extreme of the department of Chimaltenango within the municipality of San Martín Jilotepeque ; they are strung out over 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) along a 880 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 890 ft ) high ridge approximately 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the point where the Pixcaya River flows into the Motagua River , which drains into the Caribbean Sea . The ruins are surrounded by deep ravines dropping off sharply into a tributary of the Pixcaya River . The site is 53 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 33 @.@ 1 mi ) from Guatemala City by road .
= = = History = = =
= = = = Known rulers = = = =
All dates are approximate .
= = = = Postclassic = = = =
Around 1450 the Chajoma , led by their king Lajuj No 'j , moved to Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) from Ochal to make their capital more inaccessible to their hostile neighbours . In spite of this , Iximche defeated the Chajoma and Jilotepeque Viejo became subject to the Kaqchikel kingdom . Groups C and E show Kaqchikel influence in their architectural styles , while groups A and B have a purer Chajoma architectural style . Both ballcourts appear to have been remodelled after the Kaqchikel fashion , with thick coatings of stucco .
Around the 13th century , Group A underwent a major remodelling , including the construction of a new retaining wall and the infilling of the 12 @-@ metre ( 39 ft ) wide area between the old and new walls , creating a much expanded terrace for the construction of the group 's architecture . Owing to its possession of two ballcourts , it is possible that Jilotepeque Viejo served as a regional centre for the Mesoamerican ballgame during the Postclassic ; no other Postclassic ballcourt has been identified in the area of San Martín Jilotepeque although three of four Classic period ballcourts at other sites appear to have continued in use . Shortly before the Spanish Conquest , the Chajoma under their lord Achi Q 'alel rebelled against the Kaqchikels of Iximche .
It is possible that the Chajoma of Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) initially allied themselves with the Spanish together with the Kaqchikel kingdom of Iximche , and that they also rebelled against the Spanish in 1524 . It is known that when the lords of Iximche broke their alliance with the conquistadors , they took refuge in Jilotepeque . The site was abandoned after the Spanish conquest and the inhabitants were moved by the Spanish to San Martín Jilotepeque , after which the area was never reoccupied .
= = = = Modern history = = = =
German geographer Karl Sapper visited the ruins in 1896 and published a brief description of the ruins together with a site map two years later in a 6 @-@ page pamphlet by the Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie of Leyden in the Netherlands , entitled Die Ruinen von Mixco , Guatemala . It was Sapper who labelled each of the archaeological groups and their attendant structures . American archaeologist A. Ledyard Smith visited the ruins in 1949 and wrote a chapter about the site in his Archaeological Reconnaissance in Central America , published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1955 . Archeological excavations were carried out from 1954 through 1967 by the Musée de l 'Homme of Paris under the direction of archaeologist Henri Lehmann , who certainly believed that he was excavating the Pocomam capital as described in Colonial records .
Although the site was restored during the archaeological investigations , it suffered considerable damage in the 1976 Guatemala earthquake . This resulted in destruction of some of the restoration work , although some of the damage has now been repaired .
= = = Site description = = =
The ruins consist of 15 groups containing the remains of over 120 major structures , including temples , palaces , and courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame . When the site was excavated , the surface was found to be littered with abundant obsidian blades and arrowheads . Originally the city had its main entrance on the western side , a modern road has now been cut through to the ruins from the west along a similar route .
The relatively short period of occupation at Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) led to an unusual unity of architectural styles for a Mesoamerican city . Almost all archaeological finds at the city , including both artefacts and earlier versions of later structures , date to the last few hundred years before the Spanish conquest . The architecture was built with mica and pumice slabs , in some cases this was coated with stucco . Stone sculpture is almost totally absent from the city , the only example being a ballcourt marker in the form of a serpent 's head with jaws agape and a human head emerging from its mouth . Originally some buildings were decorated with painted stucco but this is so poorly preserved that only a few fragments remain .
A population estimate derived from the number of residential remains suggests that the city had approximately 1450 to 1600 inhabitants .
= = = = Architectural groups = = = =
The architecture is divided into a number of groups and subgroups , labelled by archaeologists as Groups A through to L ; those subgroups belonging to Groups A , B , C and E that fall outside the city walls are indicated with the addition of an X or an apostrophe after the group name , to give Group A @-@ X , Group B @-@ X , Group C ' and Group E ' .
= = = = = Group A = = = = =
Group A is located on the northern end of the ridge . The group was extended during major remodelling work that included the building of the final versions of Platforms A2 and A3 on the north side ; this involved building a new retaining wall some 12 metres ( 39 ft ) further north , east and southeast and filling in the area between the new and old walls to create a greatly expanded terrace . Traces of charcoal at the base of the old retaining wall have been radiocarbon dated to the 13th century , indicating that the expansion of Group A took place no earlier than that .
Pyramid A1 is one of the principal structures of Group A , together with the ballcourt . The pyramid is 6 @.@ 9 metres ( 23 ft ) high and measures 15 @.@ 4 by 7 @.@ 25 metres ( 50 @.@ 5 by 23 @.@ 8 ft ) at the base . It was built using cut stone and has four stepped levels , each of which terminates in a cornice . The pyramid faces west onto the plaza and has two access stairways with 27 steps each . The stairways are flanked by smooth balustrades built from well @-@ fitted slabs . The summit of the pyramid supports a 60 @-@ centimetre ( 24 in ) high platform that once formed the base for the summit temple . The pyramid was built over another structure , a stucco platform with two levels , the upper of which terminated in a cornice .
Platform A2 is built along the edge of the retaining wall behind Pyramid A1 . It faces west towards the pyramid and has two access stairways . Three successive versions of the platform were built , each overlying the previous . The earliest version sat upon the early retaining wall , as did the second version . The final version was much larger and was built after the new retaining wall had extended the available area for Group A.
Platform A3 encloses the north side of the eastern part of the Group A plaza . It faces south onto the plaza and was accessed via two stairways on that side . The platform was built over an earlier structure that was built on top of an early tiered retaining wall ; the earlier structure extended 1 @.@ 27 metres ( 4 @.@ 2 ft ) above the retaining wall . The final version extended 4 metres ( 13 ft ) further to the west and 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) further to the north . It had two levels , each terminating in a cornice . On the north side a 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) wide bench extends along the base of the wall .
Platform A4 divides the Group A plaza in two . It was a later addition to Group A during the reorganisation of the group that involved the destruction of the earlier building under Platform A5 . When excavated it was very poorly reserved but was able to be reliably restored . There was no earlier version of the structure ; it consists of a platform with two levels that faces east towards the principal architecture of Group A. The upper level is topped with a cornice and access was via two stairways flanked by balustrades .
Platform A5 closes the north side of the Group A plaza . The platform has two levels upon a base and a cornice terminating the walls . The platform faces south towards the plaza and ballcourt . The platform was accessed via four stairways , each with nine steps ; they were flanked by steep ramps or balustrades . The visible version of Platform A5 covers the remains of an earlier structure . The earlier building was a large platform with a north @-@ south orientation as opposed to the east @-@ west orientation of Platform A5 . The surviving parts were investigated by archaeologists and consist of the north wall and parts of the west facade . The north wall was 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 30 ft ) wide , suggesting that the earlier platform was very large and probably extended south almost as far as the ballcourt . Two funerary urns were excavated from the earlier platform .
Platform A6 encloses the western extreme of the Group A plaza . The platform has two levels , the upper of which has a vertical cornice . The platform faces east onto the plaza ; access was via two stairways flanked by balustrades terminating in vertical cornices . Platform A6 was built over an older version of the same building ; this earlier construction phase was smaller and its stairways were destroyed in order to build the stairways of the final version . During restoration work carried out by archaeologists the back wall and a section of the facade were left exposed . Four funerary urns were found associated with the platform , mostly interred under the front of the building .
Structure A7 is a small square altar in the middle of the eastern part of the Group A plaza . It faces west with steps on that side .
Platform A8 is to the east of Pyramid A1 , on the eastern side of the Group A plaza . It faces northwest towards the pyramid and had two access stairways . Behind the platform was a finely paved terrace extending along the edge of the retaining wall .
Platform A9 is to the east of the ballcourt ( A11 ) and faces towards it . It had four access stairways set between corniced balustrades ; each stairway had nine steps .
Ballcourt A11 encloses the west side of the Group A plaza , separating it from the retaining wall dropping off to the ravine behind the ballcourt . It is a sunken ballcourt with a north @-@ south orientation and is entirely enclosed . A short sunken stairway leads from the plaza to the top of the south wall . Another stairway descends the south wall to the southern end zone of the ballcourt . A matching stairway in the northern end zone provides access from that direction . The interior of the ballcourt playing area measures 37 @.@ 21 metres ( 122 @.@ 1 ft ) north @-@ south and the playing alley is 9 @.@ 46 metres ( 31 @.@ 0 ft ) wide between the side benches . The walls were built of small stone slabs and have a slight slope ; as is common with the architecture of Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) , the walls were topped with vertical cornices . However , the end zone walls are all completely vertical . Fragments of stucco recovered around the ballcourt indicate that it was at least partly coated .
Structure A12 was a residential structure on the southwest side of the Group A plaza between the ballcourt and Platform A6 . All that remains of this structure is its outline marked in stones .
Structure A14 was a residential structure immediately northeast of Platform A5 .
Structures A31 and A32 were residential structures near platform A5 on the north side of the Group A plaza .
= = = = = Group A @-@ X = = = = =
Group A @-@ X defines a number of structures in two subgroups lying outside the walls of Group A , to the northeast and northwest of the main group .
= = = = = Group B = = = = =
Group B is near the centre of the site , roughly equidistant between Group A ( to the northeast ) and Group C ( to the southwest ) . The main plaza of Group B was at the northern end of the group and was enclosed by the ballcourt on the south side , a double pyramid on the east side and three platforms . A stairway with 28 steps descends the Group B retaining wall behind the northeast corner of the double pyramid , providing an access route towards Group D. On the north side of the group another stairway , with 18 steps divided into two flights , descends towards Group A.
Ballcourt B1 is immediately south of the Group B plaza , with the northern entrance to the ballcourt directly accessing the plaza itself . It is an enclosed sunken ballcourt , as was common in the Maya highlands during the Late Postclassic . The ballcourt is aligned north @-@ south with two transverse end zones forming a capital I shape . The ballcourt has two entrances in the form of inset stairways in the end zones , in the centre of the ballcourt 's north and south walls . The side walls of the playing alley are slightly sloped and are topped by a cornice ; the playing alley is flanked by two low benches set against the east and west walls . The end zones also possess sloping walls . All the ballcourt walls were built of large stones . The ballcourt playing area measures 44 @.@ 5 metres ( 146 ft ) north @-@ south and is 9 metres ( 30 ft ) wide between the benches . The end zones measure 17 @.@ 46 metres ( 57 @.@ 3 ft ) east @-@ west . The ballcourt was originally coated in stucco painted in a variety of colours ; very little of this coating now remains . A drain opening empties runoff rainwater from the east side of the northern end zone ; the drain continues under Platform B 2 and empties outside the retaining wall of Group B.
During archaeological investigation of the ballcourt a well @-@ preserved tennoned ballgame marker was found placed on the western bench . Its original placement was indicated by a hole in the upper part of the ballcourt wall . The second marker that would have been placed directly opposite the first has never been found and the area of the ballcourt wall where it would have been had collapsed prior to excavations . Replicas of the ballcourt marker have been placed in both walls ; the original is in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City .
Platform B2 is aligned northeast to southwest and faces northwest onto the Group B plaza . It had two access stairways flanked by steep balustrades topped with vertical cornices . Behind the platform two stairways descend Group B 's retaining wall towards Group B @-@ X.
Pyramid B3 is actually two pyramids built upon a single basal platform . Together they comprise the most important architectural unit in Group B. The northern pyramid of the pair is denominated B3a ; the southern is B3b . The two pyramids each have five stepped levels and face west onto the plaza . Each pyramid was accessed by a single stairway flanked by wide balustrades ; each had a small altar at the base of its stairway . Both stairways had nineteen steps and the pyramids stand 6 @.@ 17 metres ( 20 @.@ 2 ft ) high . Low platforms on their summits indicate where the temple buildings once stood . The double form of the twin pyramids had its origin in the Valley of Mexico and indicates foreign influences at the city . A broken stela was excavated from within the fill of Pyramid B3a ; it was a plain monument broken in two parts . The bottom section still stood , while the upper section was lying beside it . It is one of very few such monuments raised in the Maya highlands and such stelae are characteristic of the Classic Period ( c . 250 – 900 ) . It is possible that it stands where originally erected before the pyramid was built over it . A funerary urn was excavated from underneath the rear of Pyramid B3b .
A drain near the northeast corner of Pyramid B3 carries runoff rainwater from the Group B plaza and channels it outside the retaining wall to the area between Groups B and D.
Platform B4 encloses the north side of the Group B plaza . The platform consists of a single level set upon a base and possesses corniced walls . Access was via an inset stairway in the centre of the south side . The platform top was floored with slabs and possessed a low double terrace at the rear .
Platform B5 possesses two stepped levels with cornices and encloses the northern part of the west side of the Group B plaza . The lower level possesses a single inset stairway , while the upper terrace has two stairways flanked by balustrades , with a third balustrade dividing the two . The platform provides a broad view across the Pancaco River valley to the west . Structure B5 was built on top of an earlier construction phase , which is exposed along the upper portion of the back wall because restoration of the building only rebuilt the lower portion . It was built from stone slabs and was originally taller than the final version of the platform but was cut back to the reduced height of the new building .
Pyramid B6 enclosed the southern portion of the west side of the Group B plaza . It is very poorly preserved and the top of the pyramid has collapsed , leaving only the lower walls . Archaeological investigation revealed that the final version of the pyramid had been build over a preceding version .
Structure B7 was a small , well @-@ proportioned rectangular structure south of the main Group A plaza , between the north end of the ballcourt ( B1 ) to the east and Structure B9 to the west . This structure was likely to have been an altar shrine .
Platform B8 is a range structure on the west side of Group B. It consists of a basal platform supporting inward @-@ sloping walls that terminate in a cornice . The building faces east and possesses four access stairways separated by near @-@ vertical balustrades . The retaining wall of Group B drops away into the neighbouring ravine 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) behind Platform B8 . A great number of funerary urns were excavated around the base of this platform .
= = = = = Group B @-@ X = = = = =
Group B @-@ X includes a number of structures in three subgroups outside the walls of Group B ; they are to the northwest , northeast and east of Group B itself .
Structure B @-@ X3 is a step pyramid with sides so steep that it is almost cubic in shape . This temple platform would originally have supported a perishable superstructure but no trace of this now remains . The pyramid faces west and was accessed by an extremely steep stairway with fifteen steps that faces directly onto the massive 13 @-@ metre ( 43 ft ) high retaining wall of Group B. The stairway is flanked by wide balustrades that form the western facade of the temple platform . Structure B @-@ X3 has been restored .
Structure B @-@ X4 has also been restored . It is a south @-@ facing range structure with four inset access stairways .
= = = = = Group C = = = = =
Group C lies to the southwest of Group B and east of Group E. Group C is arranged around two large structures ( C1 and C2 ) . It possesses two small plazas ; the East Plaza is the larger of the two , enclosing an area to the east of the main temple , Pyramid C1 . The East Plaza was accessed via a narrow alley that ran between a large , low platform and a high @-@ status residential structure with a patio ( C8 ) . An inset stairway climbed outside of the retaining wall of Group C and accessed the East Plaza between the high @-@ status residence and a platform to its east . The West Plaza is located behind Platform C2 and is enclosed to the north by three platforms ( C9 , C10 and C17 ) .
Pyramid C1 is the principal structure in Group C. Archaeological investigation uncovered three versions of the pyramid , each built over the last . The archaeologists restored the pyramid in such a way as to make a part of each of the three construction phases visible . The first phase of construction consisted of a platform of cut pumice blocks . This was buried under the second construction phase , which consisted of a five @-@ level stepped pyramid . It had a double stairway on the west side ; each stairway had 16 steps . The stairways were flanked and separated by ramps that terminated in sizeable masonry blocks at the top . The top of the pyramid stood 6 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 ft ) high and was topped by a temple , parts of which survive and have been restored . The walls were built from packed earth coated with stucco ; a section of the northern portion of the rear wall still stands to a height of 1 @.@ 1 metres ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) . A wide stucco bench was built against the rear wall and a concave hollow in the floor was proably designed for the burning of incense . The roof of the temple was likely to have been thatched . The third and final construction phase was considerably larger than the preceding versions of the pyramid . In its final form the pyramid base measured 18 @.@ 25 by 9 @.@ 75 metres ( 59 @.@ 9 by 32 @.@ 0 ft ) ; it had five corniced levels and only possessed a single stairway in place of the earlier two.The stairway was flanked by two wide ramps , only the lower portion of the stairway and ramps survive . The top of the pyramid stood almost 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) higher than the preceding version and preserved parts of the earlier temple building in its infill ; the upper platform has largely collapsed and no trace remains of the final version of the temple superstructure . Both the second and third versions of the pyramid were originally coated in stucco , parts of which were preserved . New stucco was applied during restoration work to match the original coating . Although the pyramid was restored after it was excavated , the 1976 Guatemala earthquake caused considerable damage and the upper portion of the pyramid was reduced to rubble .
A burial was excavated from in front of the wall of the earliest version of the pyramid . The associated offerings included a number of clay vessels , a necklace of small gold bells and a copper axe . The earliest metal artefacts in the Maya region have been dated to the Terminal Classic period ( c.800 @-@ 900 ) ; the presence of metal artefacts associated with the earliest construction phase at Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) demonstrates the short span of the site and suggests that all three construction phases succeeded each other relatively rapidly . Further ceramic offerings were deposited under both of the latter two phases and an artificially deformed skull was interred under the central axis of the final version .
Platform C2 faces Pyramid C1 and borders the Group C Plaza . The platform is a long rectangular structure measuring 47 @.@ 3 by 14 metres ( 155 by 46 ft ) ( north @-@ south by east @-@ west ) and occupies the highest location of any structure at Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) . The platform has two levels and has a total height of 4 @.@ 4 metres ( 14 ft ) , the lower of which has a prominent cornice . The east side of the lower level has an inset stairway accessing the upper level . The upper level of the platform is recessed against the rear of the lower level and possesses an elaborate facade with four access stairways separated by corniced ramps . The entire platform was originally coated in stucco , of which only a few traces remain . On the upper level the stucco traces outline where walls once stood , leading archaeologists to conclude that several residential structures once stood on top . Platform C2 was built upon an earlier , shorter platform that possessed a facade composed of thin slabs . It is likely that Platform C2 provided restricted access to Pyramid C1 . A number of funerary urns were excavated from the base of Platform C2 .
Structure C6 was an observation platform that formed the south side of the East Plaza . It faced out southwards across the neighbouring valley .
Platform C7 is an L @-@ shaped platform that closes the east side and northeast corner of the East Plaza . Steps run the entire length of the platform .
Structure C8 is a residential compound that was accessed from the alley running to the East Plaza from behind Pyramid C1 . The entrance opened onto the alley from a patio situated in the southern portion of the compound . This patio was surrounded on the east , west and north sides by rooms , with the alley to the south . It was floored with stucco and Structure C8 was the only stuccoed residential building in the whole of the city . The north range of rooms backed directly onto the ravine immediately to the north of Group C ; the lower portion of the walls of the west room and of half of the north room still stand . The west room was square while the north room was narrow and probably extended the entire width of the patio . Wear marks in the stucco floor indicate that a door once accessed the north room from the west . The workmanship of Structure C8 was of very high quality and indicates that it was the residence of a member of the city 's elite . Its proximity to the large pyramid @-@ temple C1 has led archaeologist Henri Lehmann to speculate that it was once the house of the high priest .
Structure C11 was a small pyramid temple in the lower ( western ) section of Group C. It was built from small slabs of stone and faced west with an access stairway flanked by ramps . The structure overlies an earlier version that was built using pumice .
Structure C12 is a south @-@ facing platform built from pumice . It divides the West Plaza in two . The upper surface of the platform is marked by a circle of burnt clay formed by the burning of incense .
Structure C13 is a platform closing the southern half of the west side of the West Plaza .
Structure C14 is a platform in the lower part of Group C , close to Pyramid C11 .
= = = = = Group C ' = = = = =
Group C ' is a small group east of Group C ; it is immediately south of Group B and adjoins it .
Structure C ' 1 is an unexcavated mound .
Structure C ' 2 is another unexcavated mound ; it is smaller than Structure C ' 1 .
= = = = = Group D = = = = =
Group D is a dispersed group to the east of Group B.
Pyramid D1 is on the east side of the Group D plaza . The pyramid had three stepped levels erected upon a low base . It faces west towards the plaza and had a single access stairway flanked by sloping balustrades that terminate in vertical sections at the upper extremes . The pyramid was of fine workmanship using well @-@ cut stone slabs . However , itw was poorly preserved and the southern part had partially collapsed . The surviving portions of the building allowed it to be accurately restored by archaeologists .
Platform D2 is on the north side of the Group D plaza ; it has not been investegated by archaeologists .
Platform D3 is on the south side of the Group D plaza and has not been subject to archaeological investigation .
Structure D4 is a small altar in the centre of the Group D plaza .
Platform D5 is a south @-@ facing range structure of great length with just two access stairways . Excavations uncovered a number of funerary urns deposited under the back wall of the structure , the only example burial urns being interred behind such a platform .
= = = = = Group E = = = = =
Group E is located to the west of Group C. Group E is largely surrounded by steep ravines ; the inhabitants of the city cut the cliffs to make them steeper and more defensible , and reinforced them with a retaining wall . Archaeological investigations failed to find any access stairway through the retaining wall to Group E.
Pyramid E1 is located on the east side of the Group E plaza and was the most important building in Group E. The pyramid had three construction phases , the oldest of which was built from pumice upon a natural 2 @-@ metre ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high elevation and was found to be well preserved during excavations of the site . This early phase was packed with rounded pebbles to provide the infill for the second phase of construction . The second version of the pyramid was very poorly preserved ; excavations uncovered many stucco fragments but were unable to determine which of the first tow construction phases they belonged to . The third and final phase of construction was larger than the preceding versions of the building and encased both them and the natural elevation upon which they stood . The pyramid had four stepped levels upon a basal platform . It faced west with an access stairway flanked by two ramps that terminated in projecting masonry blocks at the top . A small altar was excavated at the base of the pyramid ; two stones were found placed upon it . One of these stones was ball @-@ shaped while the other was perforated and may have been a mace or club . A number of funerary urns were excavated at the base of the southern side of the pyramid .
Structure E2 is a range structure on the north side of the Group E plaza . It has not been subject to archaeological investigation .
Structure E3 is a square altar in the middle of the Group E plaza . It faces towards Pyramid E1 .
Structure E4 is a platform located behind Pyramid E1 and encloses the eastern side of the Group E plaza . It faces west onto the plaza and has two access stairways , both flanked by ramps built from small slabs of stone and with cornices at the top . The platform walls are of fine workmanship , being built with well @-@ cut and carefully fitted pumice . The front portion of the upper platform was paved with stone slabs , and a bench ran the entire length of the back of the platform . The clay floor between the paving and the bench was found to have been burnt . An offering was excavated from the central axis of the platform 's base , it consisted of two ring @-@ shaped clubs placed on either side of a stone ball .
Platform E6 is situated on the west side of the Group E plaza . It is roughly built from irregularly sized , poorly cut stones . The platform faces east towards Pyramid E1 and has four access stairways . The platform once supported perishable residences ; these were built from maize stalks bound together with clay , as evidenced by the imprint of the maize stalks in the fragments of clay wall recovered during excavations . The platform itself was once covered with stucco .
= = = = = Other groups = = = = =
Group E ' is a cluster of small buildings in the trough between the hilltops supporting Groups C and E.
Group F is to the west of Group E. Mound F is the main structure within Group F. It slopes gradually away to the west and was not easily defensible on that side , however it lay outside the strong retaining walls of the fortress and appears to have been an observation platform covering the western pass to the city . A retaining wall supported the mound above the pass and a round earth platform upon the mound may have supported a perishable watchtower .
Group G consists of a number of small structures strung out along the ridge to the north of Group A.
Group H is a small group to the northeast of Group A. Structure H1 is a platform that uses a natural mound as its base .
Group I is also known as the Campana Group . It is the northernmost group at Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) .
Group J is a cluster of small buildings immediately southwest of Group A and adjoining it .
= = = = Caves = = = =
Three small caves are found in the sides of the ridge supporting the ruins of the city ; archaeological investigations have revealed that two of these caves were artificially modified in antiquity .
Cueva de La Lola ( " Lola 's Cave " ) is situated below Group A , near the bank of the Pancaco River as it flows to the northwest of the ruins . The cave is 8 @.@ 7 metres ( 29 ft ) deep and 6 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 ft ) wide ; for most of its length it is 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high . The cave had been artificially widened and heightened . During the rain season rainwater filtering through the ground below the city flows out as a small waterfall at the bottom of the cave . The cave was used for ceremonial activities , related to the presence of the spring within it and the fact that the walls are formed from green phyllite ; greenstone was sacred to the Maya and was associated with water and fertility . Ritual activities in the cave have continued into modern times , with ceremonial fires being lit within .
Cueva del Murciélago ( " Cave of the Bat " ) is located at the southern extreme of the site . It is 14 @.@ 3 metres ( 47 ft ) deep ; at its widest point it is 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) wide and the cave is 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) high . It was artificially widened to permit access and was still used for Maya ceremonies in the late 20th century , when archaeologists found recent evidence of activity .
= = = Funerary offerings = = =
A large quantity of funerary urns have been excavated from the bases of buildings ; the deceased were cremated and their ashes collected in the urns . The sides of the urns were perforated with three holes , perhaps to represent the eyes and mouth of the deceased . The urns were decorated with polychrome motifs in the form of highly stylised serpent decorations painted in black , red and cream ; this style of Maya ceramics has been labelled as Chinautla Polychrome after the site where it was first identified . The Postclassic Maya custom of interring the cremated remains of the deceased in urns was restricted to the elite ; commoners where buried in simple tombs outside the city centre . In Jilotepeque Viejo urns were usually buried under the front of platform bases or under the sides of pyramids and altars . This was not a general practice among the highland Maya in the Postclassic and represents a tradition unique to the city . Funerary urns have been found interred under all the principal plazas of the city . Approximately equal proportions of urns were interred under platforms and under the ceremonial architecture represented by pyramids and altars , although it is impossible to say if those individuals buried under religious architecture had differing roles than those buried under secular architecture .
A total of 52 urns were excavated from the ruins of Jilotepeque Viejo ; 8 of these were destroyed by the 1976 earthquake leaving 44 available for study . Twelve of these were in the collection of the Musée de l 'Homme in Paris for approximately thirty years ; These urns , together with all other artefacts from Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) , were repatriated to Guatemala in 1998 . Each urn contained the cremated remains of a single adult . All of these appeared to be mature or elderly adults ; the remains of young adults were notably absent , indicating that elite warriors were buried in some other manner . The urns themselves represented a variety of highland ceramic types . Analysis of bone fragments in the cremated remains indicates that the entire body was burnt without any special treatment for the skull , although the offering of a skull was excavated from Pyramid C1 . Surviving skull fragments indicated the practice of artificial skull deformation among the elite inhabitants of the city . The remains of animal bones were found mixed among a significant portion of the contents of the urns ; where identifiable these included deer bones and those of a number of bird species , particularly parrots and birds of prey .
Only six of the urns contained associated funerary offerings :
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= Curtly Ambrose =
Sir Curtly Elconn Lynwall Ambrose , KCN ( born 21 September 1963 ) is a former cricketer from Antigua who played 98 Test matches for the West Indies . A fast bowler , he took 405 Test wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 99 and topped the ICC Player Rankings for much of his career to be rated the best bowler in the world . His great height — he is 6 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) tall — allowed him to make the ball bounce unusually high after he delivered it ; allied to his pace and accuracy , it made him a difficult bowler for batsmen to face . A man of few words during his career , he was notoriously reluctant to speak to journalists . He was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1992 ; after he retired he was entered into the International Cricket Council Hall of Fame and selected as one of West Indies all @-@ time XI by a panel of experts .
Born in Swetes , Antigua , Ambrose came to cricket at a relatively late age , having preferred basketball in his youth , but quickly made an impression as a fast bowler . Progressing through regional and national teams , he was first chosen for the West Indies in 1988 . He was almost immediately successful and remained in the team until his retirement in 2000 . On many occasions , his bowling was responsible for the West Indies winning matches which seemed lost , particularly in association with Courtney Walsh . Against Australia in 1993 , he took seven wickets while conceding a single run ; in 1994 he was largely responsible for bowling England out for 46 runs , taking six for 24 ( six wickets for 24 runs ) .
Ambrose 's bowling method relied on accuracy and conceding few runs ; several of his best performances came when he took wickets in quick succession to devastate the opposition . He was particularly successful against leading batsmen . From 1995 , Ambrose was increasingly affected by injury , and several times critics claimed that he was no longer effective . However , he continued to take wickets regularly up until his retirement , although he was sometimes less effective in the early matches of a series . In his final years , the West Indies team was in decline and often relied heavily on Ambrose and Walsh ; both men often bowled with little support from the other bowlers . Following his retirement , Ambrose has pursued a career in music as the bass guitarist in a reggae band .
= = Early life and career = =
Ambrose was born in Swetes , Antigua on 21 September 1963 , the fourth of seven children . His father was a carpenter from the village . The family had no background in cricket , but his mother was a fan , and Ambrose played in his youth , primarily as a batsman . At school , he performed well academically , particularly in mathematics and French , and became an apprentice carpenter upon leaving at the age of 17 . He briefly considered emigrating to America . At the time , his favourite sport was basketball , although he occasionally umpired cricket matches . Ambrose was not particularly tall until he reached his late teens , when he grew several inches to reach a height of 6 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) . Around this time , his mother encouraged him to become more involved in cricket . Success as a fast bowler in a softball cricket match persuaded Ambrose to play in some club matches at the age of 20 . He quickly attracted the attention of coaches and progressed to the St John 's cricket team . Selected in the Leeward Islands competition , he took seven for 67 ( seven wickets for 67 runs ) for Antigua against St Kitts . He made his first @-@ class debut for the Leeward Islands in 1985 – 86 and took four wickets in the game , but failed to retain his place the following year .
A Viv Richards scholarship provided funding for him to play club cricket in England for Chester Boughton Hall Cricket Club in the highly rated Liverpool Competition during 1986 where he took 84 wickets at an average of 9 @.@ 80 . The following year , he returned to England to play for Heywood Cricket Club in the Central Lancashire League , for whom he took 115 wickets in the season ; these experiences helped to improve his bowling technique .
Upon his return to Antigua , Ambrose practised intensely , regained his place in the Leeward Islands team and , in the absence of leading bowlers Winston Benjamin and Eldine Baptiste with the West Indies team , became the main attacking bowler in the side . He was no @-@ balled for throwing in the first match , which Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack later attributed to confusion caused by his attribute of flicking his wrist prior to releasing the ball to impart extra pace , and there were no subsequent doubts about the legality of his bowling action . Retaining his place when the international bowlers returned , he took 35 wickets — including 12 in a match against Guyana , of which nine were bowled — in five matches in the competition . Wisden 's report on the West Indian season said his performance was " dominant " , although few had heard of him previously . Identifying his yorker as his most effective delivery , it noted that he " never lost his pace , his accuracy , or his thirst for wickets " .
= = International bowler = =
= = = Debut and first years = = =
When Pakistan toured the West Indies in 1988 , Ambrose played in the One Day International ( ODI ) series , taking the place of the recently retired Joel Garner . He made his debut during the first match , on 12 March 1988 in Kingston , Jamaica , taking wickets with his third and ninth deliveries ; he ended the innings with four for 39 from 10 overs . In the second match , he took four for 35 and followed with another two wickets in the third . West Indies won those first three matches to take the series , and Ambrose did not play in the fourth or fifth game . In the Test series which followed , Ambrose was less effective . In the first Test , he took two for 121 as West Indies lost at home for the first time in 10 years . Wisden noted that his debut was " unimpressive " , but that he improved in the subsequent matches . He finished the series with seven wickets at an average of over 50 runs per wicket . Later that year , Ambrose was chosen to tour England . After appearing in early tour games , he was chosen for the first two ODIs , taking three wickets in total , but was omitted from the third . In the Test series , he played in all five matches to take 22 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 22 ; his best figures of four for 58 came in the fourth Test , in which he took seven wickets and was named man of the match . Writing in Wisden , commentator Tony Cozier described Ambrose as " a ready @-@ made replacement for Garner " ; the amount of bounce he generated after the ball pitched " made him a constant menace " .
In 1988 – 89 , West Indies took part in an ODI tournament in Sharjah . Ambrose took 8 wickets , and was man of the match with four for 29 when West Indies defeated Pakistan in the final . From there , West Indies travelled to Australia for a series in which Ambrose was a dominant figure . The West Indies won the Test series 3 – 1 , using controversial short @-@ pitched bowling tactics . Ambrose 's height made him difficult to play as made the ball bounce more than other bowlers . Writing in Wisden , John Woodcock noted : " As in England , earlier in 1988 , Ambrose 's bowling was a telling factor ... [ His ] advance compensated for something of a decline in [ Malcolm ] Marshall 's effectiveness " . In the first Test , he took seven wickets ; in the second , he took five wickets in a Test innings for the first time with five for 72 , and finished with eight in the game ; and in the third , he took six wickets . His performances earned him man of the match award in the first and third games , and he ended the series with 26 wickets at an average of 21 @.@ 46 . He was West Indies leading wicket @-@ taker and headed the team bowling averages . In the ODI tournament that took place during the tour , West Indies defeated Australia in the final ; Ambrose took 21 wickets in the series and twice took five wickets in an innings .
Suffering from fatigue and illness , Ambrose was less successful later in 1989 when India toured the West Indies : he took just five wickets in the four @-@ Test series at an average of 54 @.@ 60 .
= = = County cricketer and success against England = = =
Ambrose made his debut in the English County Championship for Northamptonshire County Cricket Club in 1989 — the club signed him for the 1988 season but as he was playing in the West Indies touring team , he was unavailable that year . He took a wicket with his first delivery for the club , but was not particularly successful in the first part of the season ; he settled down later and took 28 first @-@ class wickets at 28 @.@ 39 for Northamptonshire in nine games .
Early in 1990 , England toured the West Indies and played four Tests — a fifth was abandoned owing to rain . The visiting team dominated the first part of the series but West Indies eventually won 2 – 1 . Ambrose was unfit for the first Test , which West Indies lost , and the first four ODIs , but returned to take four for 18 in an ODI organised to replace the rained @-@ off second Test . After a drawn third Test , West Indies won the fourth game . The home captain , Viv Richards , set England 356 to win , but after losing early wickets , the English batsmen entered the last hour of the game with five wickets still to fall . Ambrose took the new ball and removed the last five batsmen for 18 runs in 46 deliveries , four of them leg before wicket . He finished with figures of eight for 45 , ten wickets in the match , and West Indies levelled the series with a 164 @-@ run win . Ambrose was man of the match . He took six wickets in the final match , to finish the series with 20 wickets at 15 @.@ 35 , finishing top of the West Indies ' averages . Ambrose , along with the other home bowlers , was described by Alan Lee in Wisden as an " awesome handful in the latter part of the series " , and described his match @-@ winning spell in the fourth Test as " unforgettable " . Ambrose 's other appearances for West Indies in 1989 – 90 were all in ODIs , although he did take more than two wickets in any innings except in the match against England . He also took 22 first @-@ class wickets for the Leeward Islands , and when he returned to England to play for Northamptonshire in 1990 , took 58 first @-@ class wickets to top the club 's bowling averages . In one @-@ day cricket for the county , he took 13 wickets while conceding an average of just 2 @.@ 53 runs per over .
= = Leading bowler in the Universe = =
= = = Series against Australia and England = = =
West Indies toured Pakistan in late 1990 , and Ambrose topped the team 's bowling averages in a three @-@ match series which was drawn 1 – 1 . He took 14 wickets at 17 @.@ 07 , but was overshadowed slightly by the performances of Ian Bishop . He played the first two ODIs , but missed the third after Pakistan had already won the series , and his best figures in the Tests came in the final match when he took five for 35 . Then , when Australia toured West Indies from February 1991 , Ambrose took 18 wickets in the five Tests at an average of 27 @.@ 38 . West Indies won the series 2 – 1 , and Ambrose was fourth in the averages , but Tony Cozier observed in Wisden that the whole West Indies attack was dependable . Ambrose made an impression batting as part of a West Indian lower batting order which repeatedly added crucial runs during the series . He took part in two important partnerships to help his team recover from a difficult situation , and in the third match , he scored his only half @-@ century in Tests . He also took 20 first @-@ class wickets for Leeward Islands .
West Indies ' next matches were in England . The Test series was drawn 2 – 2 and Ambrose was the team 's leading wicket @-@ taker with 28 ( averaging 20 @.@ 00 ) ; he also came top of the bowling averages . He had a particular impact on Graeme Hick , who was appearing in Test cricket for the first time , dismissing him six times in seven innings with short @-@ pitched bowling . Accurate bowling was important in the series , played on a series of slow @-@ paced pitches ; according to Scyld Berry , writing in Wisden , " Since the 1988 tour , Ambrose had improved his control to the point where a batsman had to play almost every ball — and not with a scoring stroke , either " . Berry suggests that West Indies may have won the series had Viv Richards used a different tactical approach with Ambrose 's bowling . The bowler was not fully fit in the final Test , which may have affected the outcome . Berry describes " Ambrose 's rise to the status of a giant — with the mannerism of celebrating each wicket by whirling his arms upwards , like a flock of doves taking to the air . " Ambrose twice took five wickets in an innings — his best figures were six for 52 in the first Test , when he twice took wickets with consecutive deliveries . Ambrose was named man @-@ of the @-@ match in the third Test and adjudged West Indies man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series . For his performances , Ambrose was named one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The citation remarked on his consistency and stated : " Ambrose has the ability to exert a debilitating psychological influence which so often precipitates a cluster of wickets after the initial breach has been made ... Moreover , he was arguably the essential difference between the two sides in what proved to be a zestful series . " The West Indies wicket @-@ keeper , Jeff Dujon , said : " He is mature beyond his years , has pace , accuracy , heart and determination , plus , importantly , real pride in economical figures . "
= = = Victory against South Africa = = =
During the 1991 – 92 season , West Indies played mainly one @-@ day cricket , taking part in tournaments in Sharjah — where Ambrose took seven wickets , including an analysis of five for 53 — and Australia , and took part in the World Cup in Australia and New Zealand . In this tournament , Ambrose took seven wickets in seven games at an average of 33 @.@ 57 and was the seventh most economical bowler among those who played more than one game . West Indies finished sixth in the qualifying table and failed to reach the semi @-@ finals . Ambrose returned home to play twice for the Leeward Islands in January 1992 .
In April 1992 , South Africa toured West Indies for the first time , and played their first Test match for 22 years . Ambrose played in all three ODIs , all of which were won by West Indies . The Test match was the first time West Indies bowled under a new playing regulation which permitted only one bouncer per over ; this seemed to affect the home bowlers , but Ambrose took two for 47 from 36 overs . South Africa began the final day of the match requiring 79 runs to win with just two batsmen out , but Ambrose and Courtney Walsh took the last eight wickets for 26 runs to bowl West Indies to a 52 @-@ run win . On a difficult pitch for batting , the ball bounced unevenly , and both bowlers concentrated on accuracy . Ambrose took six for 34 in the second innings , and was named joint man of the match ; in just over 60 overs , he took eight for 81 in the match .
Returning to play for Northamptonshire , he was less effective . Hampered by a knee injury , which necessitated surgery after the English season , and suffering from many dropped catches , he took 50 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 26 @.@ 14 , but his performance compared unfavourably with other bowlers on the team . He was more effective in the NatWest Trophy , a one @-@ day competition that Northamptonshire won that season , in which he conceded fewer than two runs per over across five games .
= = = Second tour of Australia = = =
The West Indies toured Australia in 1992 – 93 , recovering from losing the second Test to win the final two matches and take the series 2 – 1 . The team also won the annual World Series Cup . In the first three Tests , Ambrose was hampered by pitches which did not suit his bowling and , according to Tony Cozier writing in Wisden , was often unlucky when he bowled , although he took five for 66 in the first Test . In the final two Tests , he took 19 wickets . In the fourth he took ten wickets , including six for 74 in the first innings ; in the second innings , he took three wickets in 19 deliveries and the West Indies won the match by one run . According to Cozier , the captains of both teams , Richie Richardson and Allan Border , " paid tribute to the man who made the result possible : Ambrose consolidated his reputation as the world 's leading bowler " . On the first day of the decisive final Test , Ambrose took seven wickets at the cost of one run from 32 deliveries and finished with figures of seven for 25 . Cozier described it as " one of Test cricket 's most devastating spells " . West Indies won by an innings and Ambrose was named man of the series , having taken 33 wickets to equal the record in an Australia @-@ West Indies Test series . He topped the West Indian bowling averages with an average of 16 @.@ 42 . Cozier described Ambrose 's performance as " instrumental in winning [ the series ] " and his bowling as " flawless " .
In the one @-@ day tournament , Ambrose took 18 wickets at 13 @.@ 38 . He took eight wickets in the two @-@ match final — both games were won by the West Indies . In the first final , he took five for 32 , driven to bowl with more hostility when the Australian batsman Dean Jones asked him to remove his white wristbands while bowling . He followed up with three for 26 in the second match to be named player of the finals . After a one @-@ day tournament in South Africa , West Indies returned home for Test and ODI series against Pakistan . The ODI series was drawn , but the West Indies defeated Pakistan 2 – 0 in the Tests . Ambrose took nine wickets at 23 @.@ 11 to be fifth in the team bowling averages . The Wisden report suggested that he was suffering from fatigue after his team 's busy schedule , but although not at his best , he continued to take important wickets . For Northamptonshire in 1993 , Ambrose was second in the team first @-@ class bowling averages with 59 wickets at 20 @.@ 45 .
Having developed a slower ball , and using the yorker more sparingly , Ambrose took five wickets in three games as West Indies won an ODI tournament in Sharjah in late October and November 1993 . The team competed in another tournament , this time in India , later that November . They finished as runners @-@ up , and Ambrose took four wickets in five matches . Immediately following this , West Indies toured Sri Lanka to play three ODIs and a Test , a rain @-@ ruined match in which Ambrose took three wickets .
= = = More success against England = = =
When he returned to the West Indies , Ambrose took 19 first @-@ class wickets for the Leeward Islands at an average of 11 @.@ 68 , in his first appearances for the islands in two years , but as England arrived to tour West Indies , he complained of fatigue and there were rumours he planned to retire . He played in three times in the five @-@ match ODI series , taking two wickets , and took a further two wickets in the first Test , which West Indies won . In Wisden , Alan Lee described his performances at this time as " lethargic " , and in the Guardian , Paul Allott wrote that he bowled " like a shadow " owing to the effects of continuous cricket . Ambrose was ineffective at the start of the second Test , but recovered , ending the match with eight wickets ; according to Lee , he " struck the critical blows of the match " in the first innings . In the third Test , played in Trinidad , he took five for 60 in England 's first innings , but after the visiting team built a substantial lead , West Indies were bowled out to leave England needing 194 to win and an hour to bat on the fourth evening . Ambrose took six wickets to leave England 40 for eight at the close of play ; the next morning , they were bowled out for 46 and Ambrose had figures of six for 24 in the innings and match figures of 11 for 84 ; he was named man of the match . Lee described the collapse as " staggering " , and judged Ambrose bowling to be " of the highest calibre " . He continued : " He delivered one of the most devastating spells of even his career . " Allott called it " the definitive spell of fast bowling " .
Ambrose took four wickets in the fourth Test , but West Indies lost the match , their first defeat in Barbados for 59 years , and Ambrose was fined £ 1 @,@ 000 by the match referee for knocking down his stumps in frustration when he was the last man out . He took one more wicket in the drawn final Test to finish the series with 26 wickets and top the West Indian bowling averages . Writing in Wisden , Lee summarised Ambrose 's performances : " Ambrose was magnificent . He was deservedly named man of the series , not only for taking 26 wickets at an average of 19 @.@ 96 apiece and winning the Trinidad Test single @-@ handed , but for the more profound truth that West Indies now look to him whenever they need wickets ... [ He ] carried the attack alone " .
Ambrose returned to play for Northamptonshire in 1994 , but arrived later than scheduled . Claiming to need a rest , he missed his scheduled flight and arrived four days late . His absence may have contributed to Northamptonshire 's elimination in the preliminary stages of the Benson and Hedges Cup . At the time , members of the county were unhappy with Ambrose 's performances for the team ; the committee fined him , and he expressed contrition . During the remainder of the season , he bowled extremely effectively to take 77 first @-@ class wickets , the most for the club in 18 years , at an average of 14 @.@ 45 to top the national bowling averages . According to Andrew Radd in Wisden , the club were mollified by his success , but he wrote : " Rarely in Northamptonshire 's history have the performances and the personality of one cricketer dominated a season to the extent that Curtly Ambrose did in 1994 . " Ambrose missed the final match of the season with a shoulder problem .
= = Apparent decline = =
= = = Shoulder injury = = =
Ambrose 's shoulder injury , caused by his bowling workload , caused him to miss the West Indies ' tour of India in the last three months of 1994 . Although he returned to join the tour of New Zealand in early 1995 , he did not reach his full bowling pace ; he took one wicket in the ODI series and five in the two Test matches . He remained in the team when Australia toured the Caribbean later in 1995 ; the West Indies lost the Test series 2 – 1 , their first defeat in a Test series since 1980 . After taking two wickets in four ODIs , Ambrose took 13 wickets at 19 @.@ 84 in the four @-@ Test series to lead the West Indian averages . He took nine of these wickets in Trinidad during the third Test , when West Indies levelled the series having lost the first Test ( the second was drawn ) . Bowling on a pitch that was extremely difficult for batting , and which both teams considered to be unsatisfactory , Ambrose took nine for 65 in the match and was named man of the match . During the game , Ambrose had to be pulled away from a verbal confrontation with Steve Waugh by the captain , Richardson . But outside of this match , the Australian team judged his bowling to have declined in pace following his shoulder injury , and that he lacked the variety to adapt to a different role . The West Indies ' cricket manager , former Test bowler Andy Roberts , publicly claimed during the series that several of his team possessed " attitude problems " , and complained that the fast bowlers would not follow his advice .
During the tour of England which followed , Ambrose did not take a wicket in the three @-@ match ODI series ; according to journalist Simon Barnes , both Ambrose and the team lacked confidence following their defeat by Australia ; he lacked rhythm and displayed signs of frustration and unhappiness . He was more effective in the Test series , and according to Tony Cozier in Wisden , " was always captable of a spell of incisive , quality bowling " . But he was affected by injury throughout the six @-@ match series ; he withdrew injured from the third Test having bowled fewer than eight overs and missed the fifth Test completely . Other bowlers in the team overshadowed Ambrose , and it was not until the final Test that he reached his most effective form in taking five for 96 in the first innings and seven wickets in the match . Waving to the crowd as he left the field on the final day with an injury , Ambrose seemed to indicate that he would not tour England again . He ended the series third in the bowling averages with 21 wickets at 24 @.@ 09 . But according to Cozier , the senior players in the team caused problems for the management , and when the players returned home , Ambrose and three other members of the team were fined 10 per cent of their tour fee — in Ambrose 's case , the fine was for " general failings of behaviour and attitude " , and setting a bad example to younger team @-@ mates .
Along with other senior players , Ambrose was rested from West Indies ' next tour , an ODI tournament in October 1995 , but he returned to play in a three @-@ team ODI tournament in Australia in December and January . However , affected by the refusal of Brian Lara to tour following after being fined for his behaviour during the tour of England , the team failed to qualify for the final . Ambrose took ten wickets in the tournament , and took three wickets in consecutive innings ; in the latter game , he was man of the match . West Indies were more successful in the World Cup in India , Pakistan and Sri Lanka which began in February . They reached the semi @-@ finals , losing to Australia . Ambrose was man of the match with three for 28 in his team 's opening match , and took ten wickets at 17 @.@ 00 in the competition . He conceded an average of just three runs per over over the tournament , the second best among those who played in more than two games . In March , Ambrose played in a home series against New Zealand . In the five match ODI series , 10 wickets at 17 @.@ 60 , including four for 36 in the opening game . He took eight wickets in the two @-@ Test series at an average of 20 @.@ 50 , leading the team averages , and took five for 68 in the second match . During the English cricket season , he returned to Northamptonshire and took 43 wickets in nine games to lead the national bowling averages , but he missed several matches with recurring injuries and his contract was not renewed for the following year . He was replaced by the much younger Mohammad Akram as overseas player .
= = = Team in decline = = =
Following Australia 's victory in 1994 – 95 , when West Indies toured Australia in 1996 – 97 the series was heavily publicised as a re @-@ match . However , the visiting team were often ineffective , continuing a trend of decline , and depended heavily on their senior players , one of whom was Ambrose . He began the series poorly , continuing a pattern established in several preceding series , and critics suggested that he was no longer effective . After taking only three wickets in the first two Tests , both of which were lost by West Indies , Ambrose told his team @-@ mates that he would take ten wickets in the third . On a difficult pitch for batting , he managed to take nine in the match , including three in the first hour of the game , despite struggling with a hamstring injury . West Indies won , and Ambrose was named man of the match , but he missed the fourth Test with an injury . Writing in Wisden , Greg Baum suggested that Ambrose absence possibly affected the outcome of the series ; Australia won easily to ensure they won the series . Ambrose returned for the final match , and on another difficult batting pitch , took five for 43 on the first day . West Indies won and Ambrose was again man of the match . He led the West Indies bowling averages with 19 wickets at 23 @.@ 36 , but had been the driving factor in West Indies ' two wins . Ambrose also played in an ODI tournament during the tour of Australia , taking nine wickets at 27 @.@ 33 . Later in the season , between March and May 1997 , India toured West Indies ; Ambrose took ten wickets at 30 @.@ 10 in the Test series , including five for 87 in the second Test , but was no longer the home team 's most effective bowler . Then in June , Sri Lanka played a two @-@ Test series , won 1 – 0 by West Indies . In the first , Ambrose took five for 37 in the first innings , and eight wickets in the game , to be named man of the match . This included his 300th wicket in Test matches ; he was the 12th bowler , and fourth West Indian , to reach this landmark . Ambrose also played five ODIs during the West Indies home season , taking nine wickets .
West Indies ' loss of form continued in late 1997 when they lost every international match during their tour of Pakistan . Ambrose played in two out of West Indies ' three matches in an ODI tournament , taking one wicket , but his performance in taking one wicket in the two Test matches he played — he missed the third match with injury — prompted Fazeer Mohammed , writing in Wisden , to describe Ambrose as " a shadow of his former self " . Any danger that Ambrose might have retired after this series was forestalled when Brian Lara was appointed West Indies captain and immediately spoke to Ambrose and Walsh to ask them to continue in the team . When England toured the West Indies between January and April 1998 , he took 30 wickets at 14 @.@ 26 to top the bowling averages for the series . Many of the pitches during the tour were poor for batting , but Ambrose was very effective , particularly in the second , third and fourth Tests . In addition , he dismissed Mike Atherton , the England captain , six times in the series . Scyld Berry wrote in Wisden that Ambrose was " back to something near his peak form ... [ He ] defied every prediction that he was finished after his tour of Pakistan . " In the second Test , Ambrose took eight wickets ; he conceded only 23 runs from 26 overs in the first innings and bowled a spell of five wickets for 16 runs from 47 deliveries in the second to complete figures of five for 52 . Having won the second match , West Indies lost the third , but according to Matthew Engel , " Ambrose 's abiding power was the most constant feature of a fluctuating match " . His eight wickets in the game , including five for 25 in the first innings , took him past fifty Test wickets in Trinidad . He followed up with six wickets in West Indies victory in the fourth Test , taking four for 38 in the final innings . Tony Cozier wrote that Ambrose " thundered in , arms and knees pumping like pistons , to generate all of his old pace . " Following the Test series , which West Indies won 3 – 1 , Ambrose played in the first three matches of the ODI series , and took three wickets .
= = Final years of career = =
Ambrose and Walsh missed the Mini World Cup ODI tournament in October 1998 , in Ambrose 's case following damage to his house caused by Hurricane Georges . They returned to the team for West Indies ' first ever tour of South Africa , and Ambrose took 13 wickets in the series at an average of 23 @.@ 76 , but West Indies lost every game of the five @-@ match series . In the first Test match , Ambrose and Walsh bowled effectively but lacked support from the other members of the attack . In the second Test , the pair again lacked support , but bowled well . The visiting team generally bowled too many bouncers to be effective , but Ambrose took eight wickets in the game , including six for 51 in the second innings . He was ineffective in the third Test , and despite bowling what Geoffrey Dean in Wisden called a " superb opening spell " , could not prevent South Africa building up a large total against an attack lacking two other main bowlers . Ambrose pulled out of the attack himself later in the innings with a back injury , and did not bowl in the second innings . He missed the final Test with a hamstring injury . He was fit to play in the first six games of a seven @-@ match ODI series , won 6 – 1 by South Africa , and took six wickets . In March 1999 , West Indies then faced Australia in a home series , and contrary to expectations , West Indies drew the series 2 – 2 . The outcome of the series was decided by a small group of players , including Ambrose , whom Mike Coward described in Wisden as " five of the most distinguished cricketers of all time " . Ambrose took 19 wickets at 22 @.@ 26 , second to Walsh in the averages . His best figures came in the fourth and final Test , when he took five for 94 in the first innings and eight wickets in the match , but in the third match , although he only took four wickets in total , Coward described Ambrose as " rampant " and wrote that Steve Waugh , who scored 199 , had to survive " some extraordinary pace bowling from Ambrose " . He played four of the ODIs which followed in April , taking three wickets . The following month , Ambrose took part in the 1999 World Cup in England , and he was the second most economical bowler in the tournament in conceding an average 2 @.@ 35 runs per over while taking seven wickets at 13 @.@ 42 . West Indies went out in the group stages , and Matthew Engel suggested that the bowlers were tired and judged the team " outright failures " .
Following the World Cup , the West Indian selectors chose to rest Ambrose , along with Walsh , from alternate ODI tournaments . Ambrose consequently missed two ODI series , but in October 1999 he played two ODIs in a series against Bangladesh in Dhaka and three in a tournament in Sharjah . In the latter competition , Ambrose conceded five runs from ten overs against Sri Lanka , the second most economical bowling figures from a full allocation of 10 overs in all ODIs . However , in all five matches , he took just one wicket , and he injured his elbow in Sharjah which forced him to miss West Indies ' tour of New Zealand which began in December . Ambrose recovered in time to play for the Leeward Island in domestic cricket , taking 31 wickets at 12 @.@ 03 in seven first @-@ class games . When Zimbabwe toured the West Indies , he returned to the West Indies team to be named man of the match in the first Test — Zimbabwe were bowled out for 63 when chasing 99 runs to win . He took a wicket in the second and final Test , and four wickets in six matches during a three @-@ way ODI series also involving Zimbabwe and Pakistan . These were his final ODIs ; in 176 matches , he took 225 wickets at an average of 24 @.@ 12 and conceding 3 @.@ 48 runs per over . Pakistan subsequently played a three @-@ Test series against West Indies ; in his last home series , Ambrose took 11 wickets at 19 @.@ 90 to head the West Indian bowling averages .
Before his next series , a five @-@ match series in England , Ambrose announced that he would retire after the final Test , although the president of the West Indies Cricket Board unavailingly tried to persuade him to continue for a little longer . West Indies lost the series 3 – 1 , Tony Cozier , reviewing the series , suggested that only Ambrose and Walsh of the West Indian team emerged from the series with any credit . The other bowlers were ineffective , and Ambrose publicly commented during the series on the lack of support that he and Walsh received . He was second in the averages to Walsh with 17 wickets at 18 @.@ 64 . After taking just one wicket in the first Test , although Martin Johnson , in Wisden , suggested he bowled very well , Ambrose took five wickets in the second Test but was again unlucky as the batsmen were beaten by many deliveries that he bowled . After this match , Ambrose returned to the West Indies having been rested from an ODI tournament involving England and Zimbabwe . He took four wickets in the first innings of both the third and fourth Tests , passing 400 wickets in the latter match . After he took three wickets in his final Test match , the crowd gave him a standing ovation and the England players formed a guard @-@ of @-@ honour when he came out to bat . In 98 Test matches , he took 405 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 99 ; according to Mike Selvey , in Swetes , his mother rang a bell each time he took a Test wicket .
Having retired from cricket , Ambrose has concentrated on music , playing with several bands . He played bass guitar with the reggae band Big Bad Dread and the Baldhead ; one fellow band member was his former team @-@ mate Richie Richardson . Ambrose was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Nation ( KCN ) by the Antiguan Barbudan government on 28 February 2014 , alongside Richardson and Andy Roberts .
= = Style and technique = =
Mike Selvey wrote in The Guardian in 1991 that Ambrose had " the sort of easy , repetitive , no @-@ sweat action which is the key to unyielding accuracy . There is no respite and all his other qualities are byproducts . " At his peak , Ambrose did not rely on pronounced swing or seam movement of the ball . Instead , he repeatedly bowled into the same areas of the pitch and the height from which he delivered the ball made him extremely difficult to face . The ball bounced sharply after pitching , sometimes deviating slightly from a straight line after pitching on the seam , and frequently took the edge of the batsman 's bat to be caught behind the wicket . His 1992 citation as Wisden Cricketer of the Year states that he had " outright pace and he generates a disconcerting , steepling bounce from fuller @-@ length deliveries ... His height and a slender , sinewy wrist contribute greatly to the final velocity [ of the ball ] , the wrist snapping forward at the instant of release to impart extra thrust " . Writing in 2001 following Ambrose 's retirement , Michael Atherton , whom Ambrose dismissed more often than any other batsman , said : " At his best , there is no doubt that [ Ambrose ] moved beyond the fine line that separates the great from the very good . Quality bowlers essentially need two of three things : pace , movement and accuracy . Ambrose had all three . "
Ambrose 's height , and the accuracy with which he bowled , made it difficult for batsmen to play forward to the ball ; instead they were forced to play with their weight going back . His accuracy meant that he was effective if the pitch favoured batsmen . He bowled an effective yorker , and unlike other fast bowlers , used short @-@ pitched deliveries sparingly , although he could bowl a hostile bouncer , and concentrated on bowling a full length aimed at the wickets . Ambrose rarely engaged in verbal sparring with batsmen , although in later years he occasionally inspected the pitch in an area close to the batsman before an innings began and rubbed his hands to suggest that he would enjoy bowling there . He always aimed to concede as few runs as possible when bowling , and frequently berated himself when he offered an easy delivery from which to score . Following his dismissal of a batsman , Ambrose often celebrated by pumping the air with his fists . With Courtney Walsh , Ambrose developed a reputation for performing at his best when his team seemed likely to lose , and he often took wickets in clusters which devastated the opposition . In addition , he was often most effective against the leading batsmen on a team ; he was also capable of exploiting vulnerabilities in the techniques of other batsmen .
As of 2012 , Ambrose 's 405 Test wickets place him 11th on the list of leading Test wicket @-@ takers . Of those who have taken over 200 Test wickets , Ambrose has the third best bowling average behind Malcolm Marshall and Joel Garner , and has the eighth best economy rate ; he rises to third if only those who have taken over 250 wickets are included . For much of his career , Ambrose was rated the world 's best bowler in the ICC player rankings , first reaching the top in 1991 ; he rarely dropped below second and was ranked in the top 10 from 1989 until the end of his career . His highest rating of 912 in the rankings , which he achieved in 1994 , is the equal sixth best rating of all time . In 2010 , Ambrose was chosen by a panel of writers and experts as a member of ESPNcricinfo 's " All @-@ Time XI " for West Indies . The following year , he was inducted into the International Cricket Council Hall of Fame . During his playing days , Ambrose had a reputation for reticence , and rarely spoke to journalists or the opposition . His response to a request for an interview in 1991 — " Curtly talks to no @-@ one " — became associated with him throughout his career , but he was more willing to talk to journalists after he retired .
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= Book embedding =
In graph theory , a book embedding is a generalization of planar embedding of a graph to embeddings into a book , a collection of half @-@ planes all having the same line as their boundary . Usually , the vertices of the graph are required to lie on this boundary line , called the spine , and the edges are required to stay within a single half @-@ plane . The book thickness of a graph is the smallest possible number of half @-@ planes for any book embedding of the graph . Book thickness is also called pagenumber , stacknumber or fixed outerthickness . Book embeddings have also been used to define several other graph invariants including the pagewidth and book crossing number .
Every graph with n vertices has book thickness at most <formula> , and this formula gives the exact book thickness for complete graphs . The graphs with book thickness one are the outerplanar graphs . The graphs with book thickness at most two are the subhamiltonian graphs , which are always planar ; more generally , every planar graph has book thickness at most four . All minor @-@ closed graph families , and in particular the graphs with bounded treewidth or bounded genus , also have bounded book thickness . It is NP @-@ hard to determine the exact book thickness of a given graph , with or without knowing a fixed vertex ordering along the spine of the book .
One of the original motivations for studying book embeddings involved applications in VLSI design , in which the vertices of a book embedding represent components of a circuit and the wires represent connections between them . Book embedding also has applications in graph drawing , where two of the standard visualization styles for graphs , arc diagrams and circular layouts , can be constructed using book embeddings .
In transportation planning , the different sources and destinations of foot and vehicle traffic that meet and interact at a traffic light can be modeled mathematically as the vertices of a graph , with edges connecting different source @-@ destination pairs . A book embedding of this graph can be used to design a schedule that lets all the traffic move across the intersection with as few signal phases as possible . In bioinformatics problems involving the folding structure of RNA , single @-@ page book embeddings represent classical forms of nucleic acid secondary structure , and two @-@ page book embeddings represent pseudoknots . Other applications of book embeddings include abstract algebra and knot theory .
There are several open problems concerning book thickness . It is unknown whether the book thickness of an arbitrary graph can be bounded by a function of the book thickness of its subdivisions . Testing the existence of a three @-@ page book embedding of a graph , given a fixed ordering of the vertices along the spine of the embedding , has unknown computational complexity : it is neither known to be solvable in polynomial time nor known to be NP @-@ hard . And , although every planar graph has book thickness at most four , it is unknown whether there exists a planar graph whose book thickness is exactly four .
= = History = =
The notion of a book , as a topological space , was defined by C. A. Persinger and Gail Atneosen in the 1960s . As part of this work , Atneosen already considered embeddings of graphs in books . The embeddings he studied used the same definition as embeddings of graphs into any other topological space : vertices are represented by distinct points , edges are represented by curves , and the only way that two edges can intersect is for them to meet at a common endpoint .
In the early 1970s , Paul C. Kainen and L. Taylor Ollman developed a more restricted type of embedding that came to be used in most subsequent research . In their formulation , the graph 's vertices must be placed along the spine of the book , and each edge must lie in a single page . Important milestones in the later development of book embeddings include the proof by Mihalis Yannakakis in the late 1980s that planar graphs have book thickness at most four , and the discovery in the late 1990s of close connections between book embeddings and bioinformatics .
= = Definitions = =
A book is a particular kind of topological space , also called a fan of half @-@ planes . It consists of a single line ℓ , called the spine or back of the book , together with a collection of one or more half @-@ planes , called the pages or leaves of the book , each having the spine as its boundary . Books with a finite number of pages can be embedded into three @-@ dimensional space , for instance by choosing ℓ to be the z @-@ axis of a Cartesian coordinate system and choosing the pages to be the k half @-@ planes whose dihedral angle with respect to the xz @-@ plane is an integer multiple of 2π / k .
A book drawing of a finite graph G onto a book B is a drawing of G on B such that every vertex of G is drawn as a point on the spine of B , and every edge of G is drawn as a curve that lies within a single page of B. The k @-@ page book crossing number of G is the minimum number of crossings in a k @-@ page book drawing .
A book embedding of G onto B is a book drawing that forms a graph embedding of G into B. That is , it is a book drawing of G on B that does not have any edge crossings . Every finite graph has a book embedding onto a book with a large enough number of pages . For instance , it is always possible to embed each edge of the graph on its own separate page . The book thickness , pagenumber , or stack number of G is the minimum number of pages required for a book embedding of G. Another parameter that measures the quality of a book embedding , beyond its number of pages , is its pagewidth . This is the maximum number of edges that can be crossed by a ray perpendicular to the spine within a single page . Equivalently ( for book embeddings in which each edge is drawn as a monotonic curve ) , it is the maximum size of a subset of edges within a single page such that the intervals defined on the spine by pairs of endpoints of the edges all intersect each other .
It is crucial for these definitions that edges are only allowed to stay within a single page of the book . As Atneosen already observed , if edges may instead pass from one page to another across the spine of the book , then every graph may be embedded into a three @-@ page book . For such a three @-@ page topological book embedding in which spine crossings are allowed , every graph can be embedded with at most a logarithmic number of spine crossings per edge , and some graphs need this many spine crossings .
= = Specific graphs = =
As shown in the first figure , the book thickness of the complete graph K5 is three : as a non @-@ planar graph its book thickness is greater than two , but a book embedding with three pages exists . More generally , the book thickness of every complete graph with n ≥ 4 vertices is exactly <formula> . This result also gives an upper bound on the maximum possible book thickness of any n @-@ vertex graph .
The two @-@ page crossing number of the complete graph Kn is
<formula>
matching a still @-@ unproven conjecture of Anthony Hill on what the unrestricted crossing number of this graph should be . That is , if Hill 's conjecture is correct , then the drawing of this graph that minimizes the number of crossings is a two @-@ page drawing .
The book thickness of the complete bipartite graph Ka , b is at most min ( a , b ) . To construct a drawing with this book thickness , for each vertex on the smaller side of the bipartition , one can place the edges incident with that vertex on their own page . This bound is not always tight ; for instance , K4,4 has book thickness three , not four . However , when the two sides of the graph are very unbalanced , with b > a ( a − 1 ) , the book thickness of Ka , b is exactly a .
For the Turán graph T ( kr , r ) ( a complete multipartite graph Kk , k , ... formed from r independent sets of k vertices per independent set , with an edge between every two vertices from different independent sets ) the book thickness t is sandwiched between
<formula>
and when r is odd the upper bound can be improved to
<formula>
The book thickness of binary de Bruijn graphs , shuffle @-@ exchange graphs , and cube @-@ connected cycles ( when these graphs are large enough to be nonplanar ) is exactly three .
= = Properties = =
= = = Planarity and outerplanarity = = =
The book thickness of a given graph G is at most one if and only if G is an outerplanar graph . An outerplanar graph is a graph that has a planar embedding in which all vertices belong to the outer face of the embedding . For such a graph , placing the vertices in the same order along the spine as they appear in the outer face provides a one @-@ page book embedding of the given graph . ( An articulation point of the graph will necessarily appear more than once in the cyclic ordering of vertices around the outer face , but only one of those copies should be included in the book embedding . ) Conversely , a one @-@ page book embedding is automatically an outerplanar embedding . For , if a graph is embedded on a single page , and another half @-@ plane is attached to the spine to extend its page to a complete plane , then the outer face of the embedding includes the entire added half @-@ plane , and all vertices lie on this outer face .
Every two @-@ page book embedding is a special case of a planar embedding , because the union of two pages of a book is a space topologically equivalent to the whole plane . Therefore , every graph with book thickness two is automatically a planar graph . More precisely , the book thickness of a graph G is at most two if and only if G is a subgraph of a planar graph that has a Hamiltonian cycle . If a graph is given a two @-@ page embedding , it can be augmented to a planar Hamiltonian graph by adding ( into any page ) extra edges between any two consecutive vertices along the spine that are not already adjacent , and between the first and last spine vertices . The Goldner – Harary graph provides an example of a planar graph that does not have book thickness two : it is a maximal planar graph , so it is not possible to add any edges to it while preserving planarity , and it does not have a Hamiltonian cycle . Because of this characterization by Hamiltonian cycles , graphs that have two @-@ page book embeddings are also known as subhamiltonian graphs .
All planar graphs whose maximum degree is at most four have book thickness at most two . Planar 3 @-@ trees have book thickness at most three . More generally , all planar graphs have book thickness at most four . It has been claimed by Mihalis Yannakakis in 1986 that there exist some planar graphs that have book thickness exactly four . However , a detailed proof of this claim , announced in a subsequent journal paper , has never been published . For this reason , Dujmović & Wood ( 2007 ) list the problem of determining the maximum book thickness of planar graphs as still unsolved .
= = = Behavior under subdivisions = = =
Subdividing every edge of a graph into two @-@ edge paths , by adding new vertices within each edge , may sometimes increase its book thickness . For instance , the diamond graph has book thickness one ( it is outerplanar ) but its subdivision has book thickness two ( it is planar and subhamiltonian but not outerplanar ) . However , this subdivision process can also sometimes significantly reduce the book thickness of the subdivided graph . For instance , the book thickness of the complete graph Kn is proportional to its number of vertices , but subdividing each of its edges into a two @-@ edge path produces a subdivision whose book thickness is much smaller , only <formula> . Despite the existence of examples such as this one , Blankenship & Oporowski ( 1999 ) conjectured that a subdivision 's book thickness cannot be too much smaller than that of the original graph . Specifically , they conjectured that there exists a function f such that , for every graph G and for the graph H formed by replacing every edge in G by a two @-@ edge path , if the book thickness of H is t then the book thickness of G is at most f ( t ) . As of 2013 , the Blankenship – Oporowski conjecture remains unproven .
= = = Relation to other graph invariants = = =
Book thickness is related to thickness , the number of planar graphs needed to cover the edges of the given graph . A graph G has thickness θ if it can be drawn in the plane , and its edges colored with θ colors , in such a way that edges of the same color as each other do not cross . Analogously , a graph G has book thickness θ if it can be drawn in a half plane , with its vertices on the boundary of the half plane , with its edges colored with θ colors with no crossing between two edges of the same color . In this formulation of book thickness , the colors of the edges correspond to the pages of the book embedding . However , thickness and book thickness can be very different from each other : there exist graphs ( subdivisions of complete graphs ) that have unbounded book thickness , despite having thickness two .
Graphs of treewidth k have book thickness at most k + 1 and this bound is tight for k > 2 . Graphs with m edges have book thickness <formula> , and graphs of genus g have book thickness <formula> . More generally , every minor @-@ closed graph family has bounded book thickness . On the other hand , the 1 @-@ planar graphs , which are not closed under minors , have also bounded book thickness , but some 1 @-@ planar graphs including K2,2,2,2 have book thickness at least four .
Every shallow minor of a graph of bounded book thickness is a sparse graph , whose ratio of edges to vertices is bounded by a constant that depends only on the depth of the minor and on the book thickness . That is , in the terminology of Nešetřil & Ossona de Mendez ( 2012 ) , the graphs of bounded book thickness have bounded expansion . However , even the graphs of bounded degree , a much stronger requirement than having bounded expansion , can have unbounded book thickness .
Because graphs of book thickness two are planar graphs , they obey the planar separator theorem : they have separators , subsets of vertices whose removal splits the graph into pieces with at most 2n / 3 vertices each , with only <formula> vertices in the separator . Here , n refers to the number of vertices in the graph . However , there exist graphs of book thickness three that do not have separators of sublinear size .
The edges within a single page of a book embedding behave in some ways like a stack data structure . This can be formalized by considering an arbitrary sequence of push and pop operations on a stack , and forming a graph in which the stack operations correspond to the vertices of the graph , placed in sequence order along the spine of a book embedding . Then , if one draws an edge from each pop operation that pops an object x from the stack , to the previous push operation that pushed x , the resulting graph will automatically have a one @-@ page embedding . For this reason , the page number of a graph has also been called its stack number . In the same way , one may consider an arbitrary sequence of enqueue and dequeue operations of a queue data structure , and form a graph that has these operations as its vertices , placed in order on the spine of a single page , with an edge between each enqueue operation and the corresponding dequeue . Then , in this graph , each two edges will either cross or cover disjoint intervals on the spine . By analogy , researchers have defined a queue embedding of a graph to be an embedding in a topological book such that each vertex lies on the spine , each edge lies in a single page , and each two edges in the same page either cross or cover disjoint intervals on the spine . The minimum number of pages needed for a queue embedding of a graph is called its queue number .
= = = Computational complexity = = =
Finding the book thickness of a graph is NP @-@ hard . This follows from the fact that finding Hamiltonian cycles in maximal planar graphs is NP @-@ complete . In a maximal planar graph , the book thickness is two if and only if a Hamiltonian cycle exists . Therefore , it is also NP @-@ complete to test whether the book thickness of a given maximal planar graph is two .
If an ordering of the vertices of a graph along the spine of an embedding is fixed , then a two @-@ page embedding ( if it exists ) can be found in linear time , as an instance of planarity testing for a graph formed by augmenting the given graph with a cycle connecting the vertices in their spine ordering . Unger ( 1992 ) claimed that finding three @-@ page embeddings with a fixed spine ordering can also be performed in polynomial time although his writeup of this result omits many details . However , for graphs that require four or more pages , the problem of finding an embedding with the minimum possible number of pages remains NP @-@ hard , via an equivalence to the NP @-@ hard problem of coloring circle graphs , the intersection graphs of chords of a circle . Given a graph G with a fixed spine ordering for its vertices , drawing these vertices in the same order around a circle and drawing the edges of G as line segments produces a collection of chords representing G. One can then form a circle graph that has the chords of this diagram as vertices and crossing pairs of chords as edges . A coloring of the circle graph represents a partition of the edges of G into subsets that can be drawn without crossing on a single page . Therefore , an optimal coloring is equivalent to an optimal book embedding . Since circle graph coloring with four or more colors is NP @-@ hard , and since any circle graph can be formed in this way from some book embedding problem , it follows that optimal book embedding is also NP @-@ hard . For a fixed vertex ordering on the spine of a two @-@ page book drawing , it is also NP @-@ hard to minimize the number of crossings when this number is nonzero .
If the spine ordering is unknown but a partition of the edges into two pages is given , then it is possible to find a 2 @-@ page embedding ( if it exists ) in linear time by an algorithm based on SPQR trees . However , it is NP @-@ complete to find a 2 @-@ page embedding when neither the spine ordering nor the edge partition is known . Finding the book crossing number of a graph is also NP @-@ hard , because of the NP @-@ completeness of the special case of testing whether the 2 @-@ page crossing number is zero .
As a consequence of bounded expansion , the subgraph isomorphism problem , of finding whether a pattern graph of bounded size exists as a subgraph of a larger graph , can be solved in linear time when the larger graph has bounded book thickness . The same is true for detecting whether the pattern graph is an induced subgraph of the larger graph , or whether it has a graph homomorphism to the larger graph . For the same reason , the problem of testing whether a graph of bounded book thickness obeys a given formula of first order logic is fixed @-@ parameter tractable .
Bekos , Kaufmann & Zielke ( 2015 ) describe a system for finding optimal book embeddings by transforming the problem into an instance of the Boolean satisfiability problem and applying a SAT solver to the resulting problem . They state that their system is capable of finding an optimal embedding for 400 @-@ vertex maximal planar graphs in approximately 20 minutes , and that it was successfully applied to a 600 @-@ vertex graph that Yannakakis had proposed as requiring four pages , but that turned out to require only three pages .
= = Applications = =
= = = Fault @-@ tolerant multiprocessing = = =
One of the main motivations for studying book embedding cited by Chung , Leighton & Rosenberg ( 1987 ) involves an application in VLSI design , to the organization of fault @-@ tolerant multiprocessors . In the DIOGENES system developed by these authors , the CPUs of a multiprocessor system are arranged into a logical sequence corresponding to the spine of a book ( although this sequence may not necessarily be placed along a line in the physical layout of this system ) . Communication links connecting these processors are grouped into " bundles " which correspond to the pages of a book and act like stacks : connecting one of the processors to the start of a new communications link pushes all the previous links upward in the bundle , and connecting another processor to the end of a communication link connects it to the one at the bottom of the bundle and pops all the other ones down . Because of this stack behavior , a single bundle can handle a set of communications links that form the edges of a single page in a book embedding . By organizing the links in this way , a wide variety of different network topologies can be implemented , regardless of which processors have become faulty , as long as enough non @-@ faulty processors remain to implement the network . The network topologies that can be implemented by this system are exactly the ones that have book thickness at most equal to the number of bundles that have been made available . Book embedding may also be used to model the placement of wires connecting VLSI components into the layers of a circuit .
= = = Stack sorting = = =
Another application cited by Chung , Leighton & Rosenberg ( 1987 ) concerns sorting permutations using stacks . An influential result of Donald Knuth ( 1968 ) showed that a system that processes a data stream by pushing incoming elements onto a stack and then , at appropriately chosen times , popping them from the stack onto an output stream can sort the data if and only if its initial order is described by a permutation that avoids the permutation pattern 231 . Since then , there has been much work on similar problems of sorting data streams by more general systems of stacks and queues . In the system considered by Chung , Leighton & Rosenberg ( 1987 ) , each element from an input data stream must be pushed onto one of several stacks . Then , once all of the data has been pushed in this way , the items are popped from these stacks ( in an appropriate order ) onto an output stream . As Chung et al. observe , a given permutation can be sorted by this system if and only if a certain graph , derived from the permutation , has a book embedding with the vertices in a certain fixed order along the spine and with a number of pages that is at most equal to the number of stacks .
= = = Traffic control = = =
As Kainen ( 1990 ) described , a book embedding may be used to describe the phases of a traffic signal at a controlled intersection . At an intersection , the incoming and outgoing lanes of traffic ( including the ends of pedestrian crosswalks and bicycle lanes as well as lanes for motor vehicles ) may be represented as the vertices of a graph , placed on the spine of a book embedding in their clockwise order around the junction . The paths through the intersection taken by traffic to get from an incoming lane to an outgoing lane may be represented as the edges of an undirected graph . For instance , this graph might have an edge from an incoming to an outgoing lane of traffic that both belong to the same segment of road , representing a U @-@ turn from that segment back to that segment , only if U @-@ turns are allowed at the junction . For a given subset of these edges , the subset represents a collection of paths that can all be traversed without interference from each other if and only if the subset does not include any pair of edges that would cross if the two edges were placed in a single page of a book embedding . Thus , a book embedding of this graph describes a partition of the paths into non @-@ interfering subsets , and the book thickness of this graph ( with its fixed embedding on the spine ) gives the minimum number of distinct phases needed for a signalling schedule that includes all possible traffic paths through the junction .
= = = Graph drawing = = =
Book embedding has also been frequently applied in the visualization of network data . Two of the standard layouts in graph drawing , arc diagrams and circular layouts , can be viewed as book embeddings , and book embedding has also been applied in the construction of clustered layouts , simultaneous embeddings , and three @-@ dimensional graph drawings .
An arc diagram or linear embedding places vertices of a graph along a line , and draws the edges of the graph as semicircles either above or below this line , sometimes also allowing edges to be drawn on segments of the line . This drawing style corresponds to a book embedding with either one page ( if all semicircles are above the line ) or two pages ( if both sides of the line are used ) , and was originally introduced as a way of studying the crossing numbers of graphs . Planar graphs that do not have two @-@ page book embeddings may also be drawn in a similar way , by allowing their edges to be represented by multiple semicircles above and below the line . Such a drawing is not a book embedding by the usual definition , but has been called a topological book embedding . For every planar graph , it is always possible to find such an embedding in which each edge crosses the spine at most once .
In another drawing style , the circular layout , the vertices of a graph are placed on a circle and the edges are drawn either inside or outside the circle . Again , a placement of the edges within the circle ( for instance as straight line segments ) corresponds to a one @-@ page book drawing , while a placement both inside and outside the circle corresponds to a two @-@ page book drawing .
For one @-@ page drawings of either style , it is important to keep the number of crossings small as a way of reducing the visual clutter of the drawing . Minimizing the number of crossings is NP @-@ complete , but may be approximated with an approximation ratio of O ( log2 n ) where n is the number of vertices . Minimizing the one @-@ page or two @-@ page crossing number is fixed @-@ parameter tractable when parameterized by the cyclomatic number of the given graph , or by a combination of the crossing number and the treewidth of the graph . Heuristic methods for reducing the crossing complexity have also been devised , based e.g. on a careful vertex insertion order and on local optimization .
Two @-@ page book embeddings with a fixed partition of the edges into pages can be interpreted as a form of clustered planarity , in which the given graph must be drawn in such a way that parts of the graph ( the two subsets of edges ) are placed in the drawing in a way that reflects their clustering . Two @-@ page book embedding has also been used to find simultaneous embeddings of graphs , in which two graphs are given on the same vertex set and one must find a placement for the vertices in which both graphs are drawn planarly with straight edges .
Book embeddings with more than two pages have also been used to construct three @-@ dimensional drawings of graphs . In particular , Wood ( 2002 ) used a construction for book embeddings that keep the degree of each vertex within each page low , as part of a method for embedding graphs into a three @-@ dimensional grid of low volume .
= = = RNA folding = = =
In the study of how RNA molecules fold to form their structure , the standard form of nucleic acid secondary structure can be described diagrammatically as a chain of bases ( the RNA sequence itself ) , drawn along a line , together with a collection of arcs above the line describing the basepairs of the structure . That is , although these structures actually have a complicated three @-@ dimensional shape , their connectivity ( when a secondary structure exists ) can be described by a more abstract structure , a one @-@ page book embedding . However , not all RNA folds behave in this simple way . Haslinger & Stadler ( 1999 ) have proposed a so @-@ called " bi @-@ secondary structure " for certain RNA pseudoknots that takes the form of a two @-@ page book embedding : the RNA sequence is again drawn along a line , but the basepairs are drawn as arcs both above and below this line . In order to form a bi @-@ secondary structure , a graph must have maximum degree at most three : each base can only participate in one arc of the diagram , in addition to the two links to its neighbors in the base sequence . Advantages of this formulation include the facts that it excludes structures that are actually knotted in space , and that it matches most known RNA pseudoknots .
Because the spine ordering is known in advance for this application , testing for the existence of a bi @-@ secondary structure for a given basepairing is straightforward . The problem of assigning edges to the two pages in a compatible way can be formulated as either an instance of 2 @-@ satisfiability , or as a problem of testing the bipartiteness of the circle graph whose vertices are the basepairs and whose edges describe crossings between basepairs . Alternatively and more efficiently , as Haslinger & Stadler ( 1999 ) show , a bi @-@ secondary structure exists if and only if the diagram graph of the input ( a graph formed by connecting the bases into a cycle in their sequence order and adding the given basepairs as edges ) is a planar graph . This characterization allows bi @-@ secondary structures to be recognized in linear time as an instance of planarity testing .
Blin et al . ( 2007 ) used the connection between secondary structures and book embeddings as part of a proof of the NP @-@ hardness of certain problems in RNA secondary structure comparison . And if an RNA structure is tertiary rather than bi @-@ secondary ( that is , if it requires more than two pages in its diagram ) , then determining the page number is again NP @-@ hard .
= = = Computational complexity theory = = =
Pavan , Tewari & Vinodchandran ( 2012 ) used book embedding to study the computational complexity theory of the reachability problem in directed graphs . As they have observed , reachability for two @-@ page directed graphs may be solved in unambiguous logarithmic space ( the analogue , for logarithmic space complexity , of the class UP of unambiguous polynomial @-@ time problems ) . However , reachability for three @-@ page directed graphs requires the full power of nondeterministic logarithmic space . Thus , book embeddings seem intimately connected with the distinction between these two complexity classes .
The existence of expander graphs with constant page number is the key step in proving that there is no subquadratic @-@ time simulation of two @-@ tape non @-@ deterministic Turing machines by one @-@ tape non @-@ deterministic Turing machines .
= = = Other areas of mathematics = = =
McKenzie & Overbay ( 2010 ) study applications of book thickness in abstract algebra , using graphs defined from the zero divisors of a finite local ring by making a vertex for each zero divisor and an edge for each pair of values whose product is zero .
In a multi @-@ paper sequence , Dynnikov has studied the topological book embeddings of knots and links , showing that these embeddings can be described by a combinatorial sequence of symbols and that the topological equivalence of two links can be demonstrated by a sequence of local changes to the embeddings .
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= Morning / Evening =
Morning / Evening is the eighth full @-@ length solo album by British electronic musician Kieran Hebden , released under his alias Four Tet in 2015 by Hebden 's own Text Records and via the online music store Bandcamp . As a child , Hebden had inherited a collection of Hindu devotional music from his late grandfather but did not listen to it until his maternal grandmother died during the making of his 2013 album , Beautiful Rewind . After sampling the voice of Indian playback singer Lata Mangeshkar , Hebden was inspired to make a record with a similar structure to Indian music , particularly the raga mode and decided to break the album into a " Morning Side " and an " Evening Side " . Alongside the sampled vocals , Morning / Evening contains complex drum programming , electronic sounds and manipulated found sounds .
Morning / Evening was announced in May 2015 , with an expected release date of July 2015 . It was made available to stream and download from Hebden 's Bandcamp page on 21 June 2015 to celebrate the summer solstice . Music critics praised Hebden for continuing to release challenging and unique electronic music . The physical release of Morning / Evening became Hebden 's second highest @-@ charting album , peaking at number 48 in the UK Albums Chart .
= = Recording and composition = =
Kieran Hebden , who is of Indian descent , acquired a collection of Hindu devotional music from his late grandfather when he was ten years old but had never listened to it . When his maternal grandmother died during the making of his 2013 album Beautiful Rewind , Hebden played some of the records and began experimenting by looping a vocal sample of Indian playback singer Lata Mangeshkar for three days before deciding to base an album around it .
Hebden wanted to make a record with a similar structure to Indian music , particularly the raga mode , and decided to divide the album into a " Morning Side " and an " Evening Side " since many ragas relate to certain times of the day . Hebden also drew influences from English electronic music group Autechre and early electronic music , including American electronic composer Morton Subotnick 's 1967 composition Silver Apples of the Moon , and wanted the album 's production to sound like a low fidelity recording , while maintaining moments of high fidelity .
Morning / Evening contains two tracks of electronic sounds and " skittering " drum programming with a total running time of 40 minutes . " Morning Side " features prominent vocal samples from Mangeshkar 's performance of " Main Teri Chhoti Behana Hoon " , recorded for the 1983 Hindi @-@ language feature film Souten , coupled with complex drum programming and arpeggiated synthesizers . " Evening Side " , which also features a sample of filmi music , begins with guitar , drones and " sparse " keyboards . It contains a conclusion that features a garage rhythm , with Hebden wanting the end of the album to feature " the most hectic , percussive part " to emphasise an evening 's relationship with nightclubs . The song fades out " to implicate that the music went to infinity . " Hebden recorded the album between August 2014 and February 2015 , using a laptop running the digital audio workstation Ableton Live to control VST synthesizers and manipulate found sounds .
= = Release = =
Hebden announced Morning / Evening on 6 May 2015 with a release date of July 2015 . Although no marketing campaign was used , Hebden performed the album for the first time at the Mayfield Depot in Manchester as part of The Warehouse Project on 17 June 2015 . He decided to issue the album early , making it available to stream and download from his page at online music store Bandcamp on 21 June 2015 to celebrate the summer solstice because he thought it was " a lovely day " . He included tracks from Morning / Evening in his live set at the 2015 Electric Forest Festival in Rothbury , Michigan . It was released on compact disc and vinyl on 10 July by Hebden 's label , Text Records . Morning / Evening entered the UK Albums Chart during the week commencing 23 July 2015 and became Hebden 's second highest @-@ charting album , peaking at number 48 .
= = Reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Morning / Evening received an average score of 77 based on 17 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Exclaim ! reviewer Chad Barnes called it " a gorgeous , daring album " , saying that " Hebden spins intricate sonic gold while subtly exploring a range of moods and moments on the complex , constantly morphing compositions " . Kitty Empire , writing for The Observer , said that it was a " low key treat " that contained " effortless prettiness . " Pitchfork Media reviewer Andy Beta called the album " daring and expansive " and said that " the scope and ambition of Morning / Evening is profound , and will hopefully inspire producers to take bigger chances and not be satisfied with pop- or club @-@ friendly lengths . " NME called " Morning Side " " one of the most moving pieces of music Hebden has ever put his name to " and said the album ranked " alongside Four Tet 's very best work . " Critic Nina Corcoran of Consequence of Sound said that " Hebden has done what he does best : create an atmosphere so encompassing that you lose sight of wherever you are while you 're listening " . Spin 's Dan Weiss called the album " ambitious " and " beautiful in its own right , if you ’ re patient . "
In his review for PopMatters , Casey Hardmeyer called the album both " classic Four Tet " and " a step in a new direction for the veteran producer " . Hardmeyer felt the vocal sample on " Morning Side " was too prominent in the mix , saying that " Side two , ' Evening Side ' , is where Hebden really shines " , and praised Hebden for continuing to release challenging and unique music " in an electronica landscape that 's increasingly devoid of it " . XLR8R 's Chas Reynolds said that while the album 's " narrative ambivalence " might not make Morning / Evening Hebden 's most " immediate " record , it lent Morning / Evening a " near infinite replay value " . AllMusic 's Andy Kellman said that the album " isn 't among the most substantive Four Tet albums , but it does reward repeated casual listening . " Angus Finlayson , reviewing the album for Resident Advisor , called the album " the prettiest Four Tet record in some time " and said that " in its best moments , Morning / Evening is perfectly paced . " Finlayson highlighted the " vagueness " of the record 's " disparate material " but concluded that " even with these faults [ ... ] Hebden has brought a refreshing addition to his discography . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Kieran Hebden .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Kieran Hebden – music , production
Additional personnel
Matt Cooper – design
Jason Evans – photography , design
= = Charts = =
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= Elephant =
Elephants are large mammals of the family Elephantidae and the order Proboscidea . Two species are traditionally recognised , the African elephant ( Loxodonta africana ) and the Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) , although some evidence suggests that African bush elephants and African forest elephants are separate species ( L. africana and L. cyclotis respectively ) . Elephants are scattered throughout sub @-@ Saharan Africa , South Asia , and Southeast Asia . Elephantidae is the only surviving family of the order Proboscidea ; other , now extinct , members of the order include deinotheres , gomphotheres , mammoths , and mastodons . Male African elephants are the largest extant terrestrial animals and can reach a height of 4 m ( 13 ft ) and weigh 7 @,@ 000 kg ( 15 @,@ 000 lb ) . All elephants have several distinctive features , the most notable of which is a long trunk or proboscis , used for many purposes , particularly breathing , lifting water and grasping objects . Their incisors grow into tusks , which can serve as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging . Elephants ' large ear flaps help to control their body temperature . Their pillar @-@ like legs can carry their great weight . African elephants have larger ears and concave backs while Asian elephants have smaller ears and convex or level backs .
Elephants are herbivorous and can be found in different habitats including savannahs , forests , deserts and marshes . They prefer to stay near water . They are considered to be keystone species due to their impact on their environments . Other animals tend to keep their distance where predators such as lions , tigers , hyenas , and wild dogs usually target only the young elephants ( or " calves " ) . Females ( " cows " ) tend to live in family groups , which can consist of one female with her calves or several related females with offspring . The groups are led by an individual known as the matriarch , often the oldest cow . Elephants have a fission – fusion society in which multiple family groups come together to socialise . Males ( " bulls " ) leave their family groups when they reach puberty , and may live alone or with other males . Adult bulls mostly interact with family groups when looking for a mate and enter a state of increased testosterone and aggression known as musth , which helps them gain dominance and reproductive success . Calves are the centre of attention in their family groups and rely on their mothers for as long as three years . Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild . They communicate by touch , sight , smell and sound ; elephants use infrasound , and seismic communication over long distances . Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans . They appear to have self @-@ awareness and show empathy for dying or dead individuals of their kind .
African elephants are listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , while the Asian elephant is classed as endangered . One of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade , as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks . Other threats to wild elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people . Elephants are used as working animals in Asia . In the past they were used in war ; today , they are often controversially put on display in zoos , or exploited for entertainment in circuses . Elephants are highly recognisable and have been featured in art , folklore , religion , literature and popular culture .
= = Etymology = =
The word " elephant " is based on the Latin elephas ( genitive elephantis ) ( " elephant " ) , which is the Latinised form of the Greek ἐλέφας ( elephas ) ( genitive ἐλέφαντος ( elephantos ) ) , probably from a non @-@ Indo @-@ European language , likely Phoenician . It is attested in Mycenaean Greek as e @-@ re @-@ pa and e @-@ re @-@ pa @-@ to in Linear B syllabic script . As in Mycenaean Greek , Homer used the Greek word to mean ivory , but after the time of Herodotus , it also referred to the animal . The word " elephant " appears in Middle English as olyfaunt ( c.1300 ) and was borrowed from Old French oliphant ( 12th century ) . Loxodonta , the generic name for the African elephants , is Greek for " oblique @-@ sided tooth " .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Classification , species and subspecies = = =
Elephants belong to the family Elephantidae , the sole remaining family within the order Proboscidea . Their closest extant relatives are the sirenians ( dugongs and manatees ) and the hyraxes , with which they share the clade Paenungulata within the superorder Afrotheria . Elephants and sirenians are further grouped in the clade Tethytheria . Traditionally , two species of elephants are recognised ; the African elephant ( Loxodonta africana ) of sub @-@ Saharan Africa , and the Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) of South and Southeast Asia . African elephants have larger ears , a concave back , more wrinkled skin , a sloping abdomen and two finger @-@ like extensions at the tip of the trunk . Asian elephants have smaller ears , a convex or level back , smoother skin , a horizontal abdomen that occasionally sags in the middle and one extension at the tip of the trunk . The looped ridges on the molars are narrower in the Asian elephant while those of the African are more diamond @-@ shaped . The Asian elephant also has dorsal bumps on its head and some patches of depigmentation on its skin . In general , African elephants are larger than their Asian cousins .
Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus first described the genus Elephas and an elephant from Sri Lanka ( then known as Ceylon ) under the binomial Elephas maximus in 1758 . In 1798 , Georges Cuvier classified the Indian elephant under the binomial Elephas indicus . Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck described the Sumatran elephant in 1847 under the binomial Elephas sumatranus . English zoologist Frederick Nutter Chasen classified all three as subspecies of the Asian elephant in 1940 . Asian elephants vary geographically in their colour and amount of depigmentation . The Sri Lankan elephant ( Elephas maximus maximus ) inhabits Sri Lanka , the Indian elephant ( E. m. indicus ) is native to mainland Asia ( on the Indian subcontinent and Indochina ) , and the Sumatran elephant ( E. m. sumatranus ) is found in Sumatra . One disputed subspecies , the Borneo elephant , lives in northern Borneo and is smaller than all the other subspecies . It has larger ears , a longer tail , and straighter tusks than the typical elephant . Sri Lankan zoologist Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala described it in 1950 under the trinomial Elephas maximus borneensis , taking as his type an illustration in National Geographic . It was subsequently subsumed under either E. m. indicus or E. m. sumatranus . Results of a 2003 genetic analysis indicate its ancestors separated from the mainland population about 300 @,@ 000 years ago . A 2008 study found that Borneo elephants are not indigenous to the island but were brought there before 1521 by the Sultan of Sulu from Java , where elephants are now extinct .
The African elephant was first named by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in 1797 as Elephas africana . The genus Loxodonta was commonly believed to have been named by Georges Cuvier in 1825 . Cuvier spelled it Loxodonte and an anonymous author romanised the spelling to Loxodonta ; the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature recognises this as the proper authority . In 1942 , 18 subspecies of African elephant were recognised by Henry Fairfield Osborn , but further morphological data has reduced the number of classified subspecies , and by the 1990s , only two were recognised , the savannah or bush elephant ( L. a. africana ) and the forest elephant ( L. a. cyclotis ) ; the latter has smaller and more rounded ears and thinner and straighter tusks , and is limited to the forested areas of western and Central Africa . A 2000 study argued for the elevation of the two forms into separate species ( L. africana and L. cyclotis respectively ) based on differences in skull morphology . DNA studies published in 2001 and 2007 also suggested they were distinct species , while studies in 2002 and 2005 concluded that they were the same species . Further studies ( 2010 , 2011 , 2015 ) have supported African savannah and forest elephants ' status as separate species . The two species are believed to have diverged 6 million years ago . The third edition of Mammal Species of the World lists the two forms as full species and does not list any subspecies in its entry for Loxodonta africana . This approach is not taken by the United Nations Environment Programme 's World Conservation Monitoring Centre nor by the IUCN , both of which list L. cyclotis as a synonym of L. africana . Some evidence suggests that elephants of western Africa are a separate species , although this is disputed . The pygmy elephants of the Congo Basin , which have been suggested to be a separate species ( Loxodonta pumilio ) are probably forest elephants whose small size and / or early maturity are due to environmental conditions .
= = = Evolution and extinct relatives = = =
Over 161 extinct members and three major evolutionary radiations of the order Proboscidea have been recorded . The earliest proboscids , the African Eritherium and Phosphatherium of the late Paleocene , heralded the first radiation . The Eocene included Numidotherium , Moeritherium and Barytherium from Africa . These animals were relatively small and aquatic . Later on , genera such as Phiomia and Palaeomastodon arose ; the latter likely inhabited forests and open woodlands . Proboscidean diversity declined during the Oligocene . One notable species of this epoch was Eritreum melakeghebrekristosi of the Horn of Africa , which may have been an ancestor to several later species . The beginning of the Miocene saw the second diversification , with the appearance of the deinotheres and the mammutids . The former were related to Barytherium , lived in Africa and Eurasia , while the latter may have descended from Eritreum and spread to North America .
The second radiation was represented by the emergence of the gomphotheres in the Miocene , which likely evolved from Eritreum and originated in Africa , spreading to every continent except Australia and Antarctica . Members of this group included Gomphotherium and Platybelodon . The third radiation started in the late Miocene and led to the arrival of the elephantids , which descended from , and slowly replaced , the gomphotheres . The African Primelephas gomphotheroides gave rise to Loxodonta , Mammuthus and Elephas . Loxodonta branched off earliest , around the Miocene and Pliocene boundary , while Mammuthus and Elephas diverged later during the early Pliocene . Loxodonta remained in Africa , while Mammuthus and Elephas spread to Eurasia , and the former reached North America . At the same time , the stegodontids , another proboscidean group descended from gomphotheres , spread throughout Asia , including the Indian subcontinent , China , southeast Asia and Japan . Mammutids continued to evolve into new species , such as the American mastodon .
At the beginning of the Pleistocene , elephantids experienced a high rate of speciation . Loxodonta atlantica became the most common species in northern and southern Africa but was replaced by Elephas iolensis later in the Pleistocene . Only when Elephas disappeared from Africa did Loxodonta become dominant once again , this time in the form of the modern species . Elephas diversified into new species in Asia , such as E. hysudricus and E. platycephus ; the latter the likely ancestor of the modern Asian elephant . Mammuthus evolved into several species , including the well @-@ known woolly mammoth . In the Late Pleistocene , most proboscidean species vanished during the Quaternary glaciation which killed off 50 % of genera weighing over 5 kg ( 11 lb ) worldwide .
Proboscideans experienced several evolutionary trends , such as an increase in size , which led to many giant species that stood up to 4 m ( 13 ft ) tall . As with other megaherbivores , including the extinct sauropod dinosaurs , the large size of elephants likely developed to allow them to survive on vegetation with low nutritional value . Their limbs grew longer and the feet shorter and broader . Early proboscideans developed longer mandibles and smaller craniums , while more advanced ones developed shorter mandibles , which shifted the head 's centre of gravity . The skull grew larger , especially the cranium , while the neck shortened to provide better support for the skull . The increase in size led to the development and elongation of the mobile trunk to provide reach . The number of premolars , incisors and canines decreased . The cheek teeth ( molars and premolars ) became larger and more specialized , especially after elephants started to switch from C3 @-@ plants to C4 @-@ grasses , which caused their teeth to undergo a three @-@ fold increase in teeth height as well as substantial multiplication of lamellae after about five million years ago . Only in the last million year or so did they return to a diet mainly consisting of C3 trees and shrubs . The upper second incisors grew into tusks , which varied in shape from straight , to curved ( either upward or downward ) , to spiralled , depending on the species . Some proboscideans developed tusks from their lower incisors . Elephants retain certain features from their aquatic ancestry such as their middle ear anatomy and the internal testes of the males .
There has been some debate over the relationship of Mammuthus to Loxodonta or Elephas . Some DNA studies suggest Mammuthus is more closely related to the former , while others point to the latter . However , analysis of the complete mitochondrial genome profile of the woolly mammoth ( sequenced in 2005 ) supports Mammuthus being more closely related to Elephas . Morphological evidence supports Mammuthus and Elephas as sister taxa , while comparisons of protein albumin and collagen have concluded that all three genera are equally related to each other . Some scientists believe a cloned mammoth embryo could one day be implanted in an Asian elephant 's womb .
= = = = Dwarf species = = = =
Several species of proboscideans lived on islands and experienced insular dwarfism . This occurred primarily during the Pleistocene , when some elephant populations became isolated by fluctuating sea levels , although dwarf elephants did exist earlier in the Pliocene . These elephants likely grew smaller on islands due to a lack of large or viable predator populations and limited resources . By contrast , small mammals such as rodents develop gigantism in these conditions . Dwarf proboscideans are known to have lived in Indonesia , the Channel Islands of California , and several islands of the Mediterranean .
Elephas celebensis of Sulawesi is believed to have descended from Elephas planifrons . Elephas falconeri of Malta and Sicily was only 1 m ( 3 ft ) , and had probably evolved from the straight @-@ tusked elephant . Other descendants of the straight @-@ tusked elephant existed in Cyprus . Dwarf elephants of uncertain descent lived in Crete , Cyclades and Dodecanese , while dwarf mammoths are known to have lived in Sardinia . The Columbian mammoth colonised the Channel Islands and evolved into the pygmy mammoth . This species reached a height of 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 – 6 ft ) and weighed 200 – 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 440 – 4 @,@ 410 lb ) . A population of small woolly mammoths survived on Wrangel Island , now 140 km ( 87 mi ) north of the Siberian coast , as recently as 4 @,@ 000 years ago . After their discovery in 1993 , they were considered dwarf mammoths . This classification has been re @-@ evaluated and since the Second International Mammoth Conference in 1999 , these animals are no longer considered to be true " dwarf mammoths " .
= = Anatomy and morphology = =
Elephants are the largest living terrestrial animals . African elephants stand 3 – 4 m ( 10 – 13 ft ) and weigh 4 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 kg ( 8 @,@ 800 – 15 @,@ 400 lb ) while Asian elephants stand 2 – 3 @.@ 5 m ( 7 – 11 ft ) and weigh 3 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 6 @,@ 600 – 11 @,@ 000 lb ) . In both cases , males are larger than females . Among African elephants , the forest form is smaller than the savannah form . The skeleton of the elephant is made up of 326 – 351 bones . The vertebrae are connected by tight joints , which limit the backbone 's flexibility . African elephants have 21 pairs of ribs , while Asian elephants have 19 or 20 pairs .
An elephant 's skull is resilient enough to withstand the forces generated by the leverage of the tusks and head @-@ to @-@ head collisions . The back of the skull is flattened and spread out , creating arches that protect the brain in every direction . The skull contains air cavities ( sinuses ) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength . These cavities give the inside of the skull a honeycomb @-@ like appearance . The cranium is particularly large and provides enough room for the attachment of muscles to support the entire head . The lower jaw is solid and heavy . Because of the size of the head , the neck is relatively short to provide better support . Lacking a lacrimal apparatus , the eye relies on the harderian gland to keep it moist . A durable nictitating membrane protects the eye globe . The animal 's field of vision is compromised by the location and limited mobility of the eyes . Elephants are considered dichromats and they can see well in dim light but not in bright light . The core body temperature averages 35 @.@ 9 ° C ( 97 ° F ) , similar to a human . Like all mammals , an elephant can raise or lower its temperature a few degrees from the average in response to extreme environmental conditions .
= = = Ears = = =
Elephant ears have thick bases with thin tips . The ear flaps , or pinnae , contain numerous blood vessels called capillaries . Warm blood flows into the capillaries , helping to release excess body heat into the environment . This occurs when the pinnae are still , and the animal can enhance the effect by flapping them . Larger ear surfaces contain more capillaries , and more heat can be released . Of all the elephants , African bush elephants live in the hottest climates , and have the largest ear flaps . Elephants are capable of hearing at low frequencies and are most sensitive at 1 kHz .
= = = Trunk = = =
The trunk , or proboscis , is a fusion of the nose and upper lip , although in early fetal life , the upper lip and trunk are separated . The trunk is elongated and specialised to become the elephant 's most important and versatile appendage . It contains up to 150 @,@ 000 separate muscle fascicles , with no bone and little fat . These paired muscles consist of two major types : superficial ( surface ) and internal . The former are divided into dorsals , ventrals and laterals , while the latter are divided into transverse and radiating muscles . The muscles of the trunk connect to a bony opening in the skull . The nasal septum is composed of tiny muscle units that stretch horizontally between the nostrils . Cartilage divides the nostrils at the base . As a muscular hydrostat , the trunk moves by precisely coordinated muscle contractions . The muscles work both with and against each other . A unique proboscis nerve – formed by the maxillary and facial nerves – runs along both sides of the trunk .
Elephant trunks have multiple functions , including breathing , olfaction , touching , grasping , and sound production . The animal 's sense of smell may be four times as sensitive as that of a bloodhound . The trunk 's ability to make powerful twisting and coiling movements allows it to collect food , wrestle with conspecifics , and lift up to 350 kg ( 770 lb ) . It can be used for delicate tasks , such as wiping an eye and checking an orifice , and is capable of cracking a peanut shell without breaking the seed . With its trunk , an elephant can reach items at heights of up to 7 m ( 23 ft ) and dig for water under mud or sand . Individuals may show lateral preference when grasping with their trunks : some prefer to twist them to the left , others to the right . Elephants can suck up water both to drink and to spray on their bodies . An adult Asian elephant is capable of holding 8 @.@ 5 L ( 2 @.@ 2 US gal ) of water in its trunk . They will also spray dust or grass on themselves . When underwater , the elephant uses its trunk as a snorkel .
The African elephant has two finger @-@ like extensions at the tip of the trunk that allow it to grasp and bring food to its mouth . The Asian elephant has only one , and relies more on wrapping around a food item and squeezing it into its mouth . Asian elephants have more muscle coordination and can perform more complex tasks . Losing the trunk would be detrimental to an elephant 's survival , although in rare cases individuals have survived with shortened ones . One elephant has been observed to graze by kneeling on its front legs , raising on its hind legs and taking in grass with its lips . Floppy trunk syndrome is a condition of trunk paralysis in African bush elephants caused by the degradation of the peripheral nerves and muscles beginning at the tip .
= = = Teeth = = =
Elephants usually have 26 teeth : the incisors , known as the tusks , 12 deciduous premolars , and 12 molars . Unlike most mammals , which grow baby teeth and then replace them with a single permanent set of adult teeth , elephants are polyphyodonts that have cycles of tooth rotation throughout their lives . The chewing teeth are replaced six times in a typical elephant 's lifetime . Teeth are not replaced by new ones emerging from the jaws vertically as in most mammals . Instead , new teeth grow in at the back of the mouth and move forward to push out the old ones . The first chewing tooth on each side of the jaw falls out when the elephant is two to three years old . The second set of chewing teeth falls out when the elephant is four to six years old . The third set is lost at 9 – 15 years of age , and set four lasts until 18 – 28 years of age . The fifth set of teeth lasts until the elephant is in its early 40s . The sixth ( and usually final ) set must last the elephant the rest of its life . Elephant teeth have loop @-@ shaped dental ridges , which are thicker and more diamond @-@ shaped in African elephants .
= = = = Tusks = = = =
The tusks of an elephant are modified incisors in the upper jaw . They replace deciduous milk teeth when the animal reaches 6 – 12 months of age and grow continuously at about 17 cm ( 7 in ) a year . A newly developed tusk has a smooth enamel cap that eventually wears off . The dentine is known as ivory and its cross @-@ section consists of crisscrossing line patterns , known as " engine turning " , which create diamond @-@ shaped areas . As a piece of living tissue , a tusk is relatively soft ; it is as hard as the mineral calcite . Much of the incisor can be seen externally , while the rest is fastened to a socket in the skull . At least one @-@ third of the tusk contains the pulp and some have nerves stretching to the tip . Thus it would be difficult to remove it without harming the animal . When removed , ivory begins to dry up and crack if not kept cool and moist . Tusks serve multiple purposes . They are used for digging for water , salt , and roots ; debarking or marking trees ; and for moving trees and branches when clearing a path . When fighting , they are used to attack and defend , and to protect the trunk .
Like humans , who are typically right- or left @-@ handed , elephants are usually right- or left @-@ tusked . The dominant tusk , called the master tusk , is generally more worn down , as it is shorter with a rounder tip . For the African elephants , tusks are present in both males and females , and are around the same length in both sexes , reaching up to 3 m ( 10 ft ) , but those of males tend to be thicker . In earlier times elephant tusks weighing over 200 pounds ( more than 90 kg ) were not uncommon , though it is rare today to see any over 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) .
In the Asian species , only the males have large tusks . Female Asians have very small ones , or none at all . Tuskless males exist and are particularly common among Sri Lankan elephants . Asian males can have tusks as long as Africans ' , but they are usually slimmer and lighter ; the largest recorded was 3 @.@ 02 m ( 10 ft ) long and weighed 39 kg ( 86 lb ) . Hunting for elephant ivory in Africa and Asia has led to natural selection for shorter tusks and tusklessness .
= = = Skin = = =
An elephant 's skin is generally very tough , at 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) thick on the back and parts of the head . The skin around the mouth , anus and inside of the ear is considerably thinner . Elephants typically have grey skin , but African elephants look brown or reddish after wallowing in coloured mud . Asian elephants have some patches of depigmentation , particularly on the forehead and ears and the areas around them . Calves have brownish or reddish hair , especially on the head and back . As elephants mature , their hair darkens and becomes sparser , but dense concentrations of hair and bristles remain on the end of the tail as well as the chin , genitals and the areas around the eyes and ear openings . Normally the skin of an Asian elephant is covered with more hair than its African counterpart .
An elephant uses mud as a sunscreen , protecting its skin from ultraviolet light . Although tough , an elephant 's skin is very sensitive . Without regular mud baths to protect it from burning , insect bites , and moisture loss , an elephant 's skin suffers serious damage . After bathing , the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dust onto its body and this dries into a protective crust . Elephants have difficulty releasing heat through the skin because of their low surface @-@ area @-@ to @-@ volume ratio , which is many times smaller than that of a human . They have even been observed lifting up their legs , presumably in an effort to expose their soles to the air .
= = = Legs , locomotion and posture = = =
To support the animal 's weight , an elephant 's limbs are positioned more vertically under the body than in most other mammals . The long bones of the limbs have cancellous bone in place of medullary cavities . This strengthens the bones while still allowing haematopoiesis . Both the front and hind limbs can support an elephant 's weight , although 60 % is borne by the front . Since the limb bones are placed on top of each other and under the body , an elephant can stand still for long periods of time without using much energy . Elephants are incapable of rotating their front legs , as the ulna and radius are fixed in pronation ; the " palm " of the manus faces backward . The pronator quadratus and the pronator teres are either reduced or absent . The circular feet of an elephant have soft tissues or " cushion pads " beneath the manus or pes , which distribute the weight of the animal . They appear to have a sesamoid , an extra " toe " similar in placement to a giant panda 's extra " thumb " , that also helps in weight distribution . As many as five toenails can be found on both the front and hind feet .
Elephants can move both forwards and backwards , but cannot trot , jump , or gallop . They use only two gaits when moving on land , the walk and a faster gait similar to running . In walking , the legs act as pendulums , with the hips and shoulders rising and falling while the foot is planted on the ground . With no " aerial phase " , the fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running , although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals , with the hips and shoulders falling and then rising while the feet are on the ground . Fast @-@ moving elephants appear to ' run ' with their front legs , but ' walk ' with their hind legs and can reach a top speed of 18 km / h ( 11 mph ) . At this speed , most other quadrupeds are well into a gallop , even accounting for leg length . Spring @-@ like kinetics could explain the difference between the motion of elephants and other animals . During locomotion , the cushion pads expand and contract , and reduce both the pain and noise that would come from a very heavy animal moving . Elephants are capable swimmers . They have been recorded swimming for up to six hours without touching the bottom , and have travelled as far as 48 km ( 30 mi ) at a stretch and at speeds of up to 2 @.@ 1 km / h ( 1 mph ) .
= = = Internal and sexual organs = = =
The brain of an elephant weighs 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 kg ( 10 – 12 lb ) compared to 1 @.@ 6 kg ( 4 lb ) for a human brain . While the elephant brain is larger overall , it is proportionally smaller . At birth , an elephant 's brain already weighs 30 – 40 % of its adult weight . The cerebrum and cerebellum are well developed , and the temporal lobes are so large that they bulge out laterally . The throat of an elephant appears to contain a pouch where it can store water for later use .
The heart of an elephant weighs 12 – 21 kg ( 26 – 46 lb ) . It has a double @-@ pointed apex , an unusual trait among mammals . When standing , the elephant 's heart beats approximately 30 times per minute . Unlike many other animals , the heart rate speeds up by 8 to 10 beats per minute when the elephant is lying down . The lungs are attached to the diaphragm , and breathing relies mainly on the diaphragm rather than the expansion of the ribcage . Connective tissue exists in place of the pleural cavity . This may allow the animal to deal with the pressure differences when its body is underwater and its trunk is breaking the surface for air , although this explanation has been questioned . Another possible function for this adaptation is that it helps the animal suck up water through the trunk . Elephants inhale mostly through the trunk , although some air goes through the mouth . They have a hindgut fermentation system , and their large and small intestines together reach 35 m ( 115 ft ) in length . The majority of an elephant 's food intake goes undigested despite the process lasting up to a day .
A male elephant 's testes are located internally near the kidneys . The elephant 's penis can reach a length of 100 cm ( 39 in ) and a diameter of 16 cm ( 6 in ) at the base . It is S @-@ shaped when fully erect and has a Y @-@ shaped orifice . The female has a well @-@ developed clitoris at up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) . The vulva is located between the hind legs instead of near the tail as in most mammals . Determining pregnancy status can be difficult due to the animal 's large abdominal cavity . The female 's mammary glands occupy the space between the front legs , which puts the suckling calf within reach of the female 's trunk . Elephants have a unique organ , the temporal gland , located in both sides of the head . This organ is associated with sexual behaviour , and males secrete a fluid from it when in musth . Females have also been observed with secretions from the temporal glands .
= = Behaviour and life history = =
= = = Ecology and activities = = =
The African bush elephant can be found in habitats as diverse as dry savannahs , deserts , marshes , and lake shores , and in elevations from sea level to mountain areas above the snow line . Forest elephants mainly live in equatorial forests , but will enter gallery forests and ecotones between forests and savannahs . Asian elephants prefer areas with a mix of grasses , low woody plants and trees , primarily inhabiting dry thorn @-@ scrub forests in southern India and Sri Lanka and evergreen forests in Malaya . Elephants are herbivorous and will eat leaves , twigs , fruit , bark , grass and roots . They are born with sterile intestines , and require bacteria obtained from their mothers feces to digest vegetation . African elephants are mostly browsers while Asian elephants are mainly grazers . They can consume as much as 150 kg ( 330 lb ) of food and 40 L ( 11 US gal ) of water in a day . Elephants tend to stay near water sources . Major feeding bouts take place in the morning , afternoon and night . At midday , elephants rest under trees and may doze off while standing . Sleeping occurs at night while the animal is lying down . Elephants average 3 – 4 hours of sleep per day . Both males and family groups typically move 10 – 20 km ( 6 – 12 mi ) a day , but distances as far as 90 – 180 km ( 56 – 112 mi ) have been recorded in the Etosha region of Namibia . Elephants go on seasonal migrations in search of food , water and mates . At Chobe National Park , Botswana , herds travel 325 km ( 202 mi ) to visit the river when the local waterholes dry up .
Because of their large size , elephants have a huge impact on their environments and are considered keystone species . Their habit of uprooting trees and undergrowth can transform savannah into grasslands ; when they dig for water during drought , they create waterholes that can be used by other animals . They can enlarge waterholes when they bathe and wallow in them . At Mount Elgon , elephants excavate caves that are used by ungulates , hyraxes , bats , birds and insects . Elephants are important seed dispersers ; African forest elephants ingest and defecate seeds , with either no effect or a positive effect on germination . The seeds are typically dispersed in large amounts over great distances . In Asian forests , large seeds require giant herbivores like elephants and rhinoceros for transport and dispersal . This ecological niche cannot be filled by the next largest herbivore , the tapir . Because most of the food elephants eat goes undigested , their dung can provide food for other animals , such as dung beetles and monkeys . Elephants can have a negative impact on ecosystems . At Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda , the overabundance of elephants has threatened several species of small birds that depend on woodlands . Their weight can compact the soil , which causes the rain to run off , leading to erosion .
Elephants typically coexist peacefully with other herbivores , which will usually stay out of their way . Some aggressive interactions between elephants and rhinoceros have been recorded . At Aberdare National Park , Kenya , a rhino attacked an elephant calf and was killed by the other elephants in the group . At Hluhluwe – Umfolozi Game Reserve , South Africa , introduced young orphan elephants went on a killing spree that claimed the lives of 36 rhinos during the 1990s , but ended with the introduction of older males . The size of adult elephants makes them nearly invulnerable to predators , though there are rare reports of adult elephants falling prey to tigers . Calves may be preyed on by lions , spotted hyenas , and wild dogs in Africa and tigers in Asia . The lions of Savuti , Botswana , have adapted to hunting juvenile elephants during the dry season , and a pride of 30 lions has been recorded killing juvenile individuals between the ages of four and eleven years . Elephants appear to distinguish between the growls of larger predators like tigers and smaller ones like leopards ( which have not been recorded killing calves ) ; the latter they react less fearfully and more aggressively to . Elephants tend to have high numbers of parasites , particularly nematodes , compared to other herbivores . This is due to lower predation pressures that would otherwise kill off many of the individuals with significant parasite loads .
= = = Social organisation = = =
Female elephants spend their entire lives in tight @-@ knit matrilineal family groups , some of which are made up of more than ten members , including three pairs of mothers with offspring , and are led by the matriarch which is often the eldest female . She remains leader of the group until death or if she no longer has the energy for the role ; a study on zoo elephants showed that when the matriarch died , the levels of faecal corticosterone ( ' stress hormone ' ) dramatically increased in the surviving elephants . When her tenure is over , the matriarch 's eldest daughter takes her place ; this occurs even if her sister is present . The older matriarchs tend to be more effective decision @-@ makers .
The social circle of the female elephant does not necessarily end with the small family unit . In the case of elephants in Amboseli National Park , Kenya , a female 's life involves interaction with other families , clans , and subpopulations . Families may associate and bond with each other , forming what are known as bond groups . These are typically made of two family groups . During the dry season , elephant families may cluster together and form another level of social organisation known as the clan . Groups within these clans do not form strong bonds , but they defend their dry @-@ season ranges against other clans . There are typically nine groups in a clan . The Amboseli elephant population is further divided into the " central " and " peripheral " subpopulations .
Some elephant populations in India and Sri Lanka have similar basic social organisations . There appear to be cohesive family units and loose aggregations . They have been observed to have " nursing units " and " juvenile @-@ care units " . In southern India , elephant populations may contain family groups , bond groups and possibly clans . Family groups tend to be small , consisting of one or two adult females and their offspring . A group containing more than two adult females plus offspring is known as a " joint family " . Malay elephant populations have even smaller family units , and do not have any social organisation higher than a family or bond group . Groups of African forest elephants typically consist of one adult female with one to three offspring . These groups appear to interact with each other , especially at forest clearings .
The social life of the adult male is very different . As he matures , a male spends more time at the edge of his group and associates with outside males or even other families . At Amboseli , young males spend over 80 % of their time away from their families when they are 14 – 15 . The adult females of the group start to show aggression towards the male , which encourages him to permanently leave . When males do leave , they either live alone or with other males . The former is typical of bulls in dense forests . Asian males are usually solitary , but occasionally form groups of two or more individuals ; the largest consisted of seven bulls . Larger bull groups consisting of over 10 members occur only among African bush elephants , the largest of which numbered up to 144 individuals . A dominance hierarchy exists among males , whether they range socially or solitarily . Dominance depends on the age , size and sexual condition . Old bulls appear to control the aggression of younger ones and prevent them from forming " gangs " . Adult males and females come together for reproduction . Bulls appear to associate with family groups if an oestrous cow is present .
= = = Sexual behaviour = = =
= = = = Musth = = = =
Adult males enter a state of increased testosterone known as musth . In a population in southern India , males first enter musth at the age of 15 , but it is not very intense until they are older than 25 . At Amboseli , bulls under 24 do not go into musth , while half of those aged 25 – 35 and all those over 35 do . Young bulls appear to enter musth during the dry season ( January – May ) , while older bulls go through it during the wet season ( June – December ) . The main characteristic of a bull 's musth is a fluid secreted from the temporal gland that runs down the side of his face . He may urinate with his penis still in his sheath , which causes the urine to spray on his hind legs . Behaviours associated with musth include walking with the head held high and swinging , picking at the ground with the tusks , marking , rumbling and waving only one ear at a time . This can last from a day to four months .
Males become extremely aggressive during musth . Size is the determining factor in agonistic encounters when the individuals have the same condition . In contests between musth and non @-@ musth individuals , musth bulls win the majority of the time , even when the non @-@ musth bull is larger . A male may stop showing signs of musth when he encounters a musth male of higher rank . Those of equal rank tend to avoid each other . Agonistic encounters typically consist of threat displays , chases and minor sparring with the tusks . Serious fights are rare .
= = = = Mating = = = =
Elephants are polygynous breeders , and copulations are most frequent during the peak of the wet season . A cow in oestrus releases chemical signals ( pheromones ) in her urine and vaginal secretions to signal her readiness to mate . A bull will follow a potential mate and assess her condition with the flehmen response , which requires the male to collect a chemical sample with his trunk and bring it to the vomeronasal organ . The oestrous cycle of a cow lasts 14 – 16 weeks with a 4 – 6 @-@ week follicular phase and an 8 – 10 @-@ week luteal phase . While most mammals have one surge of luteinizing hormone during the follicular phase , elephants have two . The first ( or anovulatory ) surge , could signal to males that the female is in oestrus by changing her scent , but ovulation does not occur until the second ( or ovulatory ) surge . Fertility rates in cows decline around 45 – 50 years of age .
Bulls engage in a behaviour known as mate @-@ guarding , where they follow oestrous females and defend them from other males . Most mate @-@ guarding is done by musth males , and females actively seek to be guarded by them , particularly older ones . Thus these bulls have more reproductive success . Musth appears to signal to females the condition of the male , as weak or injured males do not have normal musths . For young females , the approach of an older bull can be intimidating , so her relatives stay nearby to provide support and reassurance . During copulation , the male lays his trunk over the female 's back . The penis is very mobile , being able to move independently of the pelvis . Prior to mounting , it curves forward and upward . Copulation lasts about 45 seconds and does not involve pelvic thrusting or ejaculatory pause .
Homosexual behaviour is frequent in both sexes . As in heterosexual interactions , this involves mounting . Male elephants sometimes stimulate each other by playfighting and " championships " may form between old bulls and younger males . Female same @-@ sex behaviours have been documented only in captivity where they are known to masturbate one another with their trunks .
= = = Birthing and calves = = =
Gestation in elephants typically lasts around two years with interbirth intervals usually lasting four to five years . Births tend to take place during the wet season . Calves are born 85 cm ( 33 in ) tall and weigh around 120 kg ( 260 lb ) . Typically , only a single young is born , but twins sometimes occur . The relatively long pregnancy is maintained by five corpus luteums ( as opposed to one in most mammals ) and gives the foetus more time to develop , particularly the brain and trunk . As such , newborn elephants are precocial and quickly stand and walk to follow their mother and family herd . A new calf is usually the centre of attention for herd members . Adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn , touching and caressing it with their trunks . For the first few days , the mother is intolerant of other herd members near her young . Alloparenting – where a calf is cared for by someone other than its mother – takes place in some family groups . Allomothers are typically two to twelve years old . When a predator is near , the family group gathers together with the calves in the centre .
For the first few days , the newborn is unsteady on its feet , and needs the support of its mother . It relies on touch , smell and hearing , as its eyesight is poor . It has little precise control over its trunk , which wiggles around and may cause it to trip . By its second week of life , the calf can walk more firmly and has more control over its trunk . After its first month , a calf can pick up , hold and put objects in its mouth , but cannot suck water through the trunk and must drink directly through the mouth . It is still dependent on its mother and keeps close to her .
For its first three months , a calf relies entirely on milk from its mother for nutrition after which it begins to forage for vegetation and can use its trunk to collect water . At the same time , improvements in lip and leg coordination occur . Calves continue to suckle at the same rate as before until their sixth month , after which they become more independent when feeding . By nine months , mouth , trunk and foot coordination is perfected . After a year , a calf 's abilities to groom , drink , and feed itself are fully developed . It still needs its mother for nutrition and protection from predators for at least another year . Suckling bouts tend to last 2 – 4 min / hr for a calf younger than a year and it continues to suckle until it reaches three years of age or older . Suckling after two years may serve to maintain growth rate , body condition and reproductive ability . Play behaviour in calves differs between the sexes ; females run or chase each other , while males play @-@ fight . The former are sexually mature by the age of nine years while the latter become mature around 14 – 15 years . Adulthood starts at about 18 years of age in both sexes . Elephants have long lifespans , reaching 60 – 70 years of age . Lin Wang , a captive male Asian elephant , lived for 86 years .
= = = Communication = = =
Touching is an important form of communication among elephants . Individuals greet each other by stroking or wrapping their trunks ; the latter also occurs during mild competition . Older elephants use trunk @-@ slaps , kicks and shoves to discipline younger ones . Individuals of any age and sex will touch each other 's mouths , temporal glands and genitals , particularly during meetings or when excited . This allows individuals to pick up chemical cues . Touching is especially important for mother – calf communication . When moving , elephant mothers will touch their calves with their trunks or feet when side @-@ by @-@ side or with their tails if the calf is behind them . If a calf wants to rest , it will press against its mother 's front legs and when it wants to suckle , it will touch her breast or leg .
Visual displays mostly occur in agonistic situations . Elephants will try to appear more threatening by raising their heads and spreading their ears . They may add to the display by shaking their heads and snapping their ears , as well as throwing dust and vegetation . They are usually bluffing when performing these actions . Excited elephants may raise their trunks . Submissive ones will lower their heads and trunks , as well as flatten their ears against their necks , while those that accept a challenge will position their ears in a V shape .
Elephants produce several sounds , usually through the larynx , though some may be modified by the trunk . Perhaps the most well known is the trumpet , which is made during excitement , distress or aggression . Fighting elephants may roar or squeal , and wounded ones may bellow . Rumbles are produced during mild arousal and some appear to be infrasonic . Infrasonic calls are important , particularly for long @-@ distance communication , in both Asian and African elephants . For Asian elephants , these calls have a frequency of 14 – 24 Hz , with sound pressure levels of 85 – 90 dB and last 10 – 15 seconds . For African elephants , calls range from 15 – 35 Hz with sound pressure levels as high as 117 dB , allowing communication for many kilometres , with a possible maximum range of around 10 km ( 6 mi ) .
At Amboseli , several different infrasonic calls have been identified . A greeting rumble is emitted by members of a family group after having been separated for several hours . Contact calls are soft , unmodulated sounds made by individuals that have been separated from their group and may be responded to with a " contact answer " call that starts out loud , but becomes softer . A " let 's go " soft rumble is emitted by the matriarch to signal to the other herd members that it is time to move to another spot . Bulls in musth emit a distinctive , low @-@ frequency pulsated rumble nicknamed the " motorcycle " . Musth rumbles may be answered by the " female chorus " , a low @-@ frequency , modulated chorus produced by several cows . A loud postcopulatory call may be made by an oestrous cow after mating . When a cow has mated , her family may produce calls of excitement known as the " mating pandemonium " .
Elephants are known to communicate with seismics , vibrations produced by impacts on the earth 's surface or acoustical waves that travel through it . They appear to rely on their leg and shoulder bones to transmit the signals to the middle ear . When detecting seismic signals , the animals lean forward and put more weight on their larger front feet ; this is known as the " freezing behaviour " . Elephants possess several adaptations suited for seismic communication . The cushion pads of the feet contain cartilaginous nodes and have similarities to the acoustic fat found in marine mammals like toothed whales and sirenians . A unique sphincter @-@ like muscle around the ear canal constricts the passageway , thereby dampening acoustic signals and allowing the animal to hear more seismic signals . Elephants appear to use seismics for a number of purposes . An individual running or mock charging can create seismic signals that can be heard at great distances . When detecting the seismics of an alarm call signalling danger from predators , elephants enter a defensive posture and family groups will pack together . Seismic waveforms produced by locomotion appear to travel distances of up to 32 km ( 20 mi ) while those from vocalisations travel 16 km ( 10 mi ) .
= = = Intelligence and cognition = = =
Elephants exhibit mirror self @-@ recognition , an indication of self @-@ awareness and cognition that has also been demonstrated in some apes and dolphins . One study of a captive female Asian elephant suggested the animal was capable of learning and distinguishing between several visual and some acoustic discrimination pairs . This individual was even able to score a high accuracy rating when re @-@ tested with the same visual pairs a year later . Elephants are among the species known to use tools . An Asian elephant has been observed modifying branches and using them as flyswatters . Tool modification by these animals is not as advanced as that of chimpanzees . Elephants are popularly thought of as having an excellent memory . This could have a factual basis ; they possibly have cognitive maps to allow them to remember large @-@ scale spaces over long periods of time . Individuals appear to be able to keep track of the current location of their family members .
Scientists debate the extent to which elephants feel emotion . They appear to show interest in the bones of their own kind , regardless of whether they are related . As with chimps and dolphins , a dying or dead elephant may elicit attention and aid from others , including those from other groups . This has been interpreted as expressing " concern " , however , others would dispute such an interpretation as being anthropomorphic ; the Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour ( 1987 ) advised that " one is well advised to study the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion " .
= = Conservation = =
= = = Status = = =
African elephants were listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) in 2008 , with no independent assessment of the conservation status of the two forms . In 1979 , Africa had an estimated minimum population of 1 @.@ 3 million elephants , with a possible upper limit of 3 @.@ 0 million . By 1989 , the population was estimated to be 609 @,@ 000 ; with 277 @,@ 000 in Central Africa , 110 @,@ 000 in eastern Africa , 204 @,@ 000 in southern Africa , and 19 @,@ 000 in western Africa . About 214 @,@ 000 elephants were estimated to live in the rainforests , fewer than had previously been thought . From 1977 to 1989 , elephant populations declined by 74 % in East Africa . After 1987 , losses in elephant numbers accelerated , and savannah populations from Cameroon to Somalia experienced a decline of 80 % . African forest elephants had a total loss of 43 % . Population trends in southern Africa were mixed , with anecdotal reports of losses in Zambia , Mozambique and Angola , while populations grew in Botswana and Zimbabwe and were stable in South Africa . Conversely , studies in 2005 and 2007 found populations in eastern and southern Africa were increasing by an average annual rate of 4 @.@ 0 % . Due to the vast areas involved , assessing the total African elephant population remains difficult and involves an element of guesswork . The IUCN estimates a total of around 440 @,@ 000 individuals for 2012 .
African elephants receive at least some legal protection in every country where they are found , but 70 % of their range exists outside protected areas . Successful conservation efforts in certain areas have led to high population densities . As of 2008 , local numbers were controlled by contraception or translocation . Large @-@ scale cullings ceased in 1988 , when Zimbabwe abandoned the practice . In 1989 , the African elephant was listed under Appendix I by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , making trade illegal . Appendix II status ( which allows restricted trade ) was given to elephants in Botswana , Namibia and Zimbabwe in 1997 and South Africa in 2000 . In some countries , sport hunting of the animals is legal ; Botswana , Cameroon , Gabon , Mozambique , Namibia , South Africa , Tanzania , Zambia , and Zimbabwe have CITES export quotas for elephant trophies .
In 2008 , the IUCN listed the Asian elephant as endangered due to a 50 % population decline over the past 60 – 75 years , while CITES lists the species under Appendix I. Asian elephants once ranged from Syria and Iraq ( the subspecies Elephas maximus asurus ) , to China ( up to the Yellow River ) and Java . It is now extinct in these areas , and the current range of Asian elephants is highly fragmented . The total population of Asian elephants is estimated to be around 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 , although this may be a loose estimate . It is likely that around half of the population is in India . Although Asian elephants are declining in numbers overall , particularly in Southeast Asia , the population in the Western Ghats appears to be increasing .
= = = Threats = = =
The poaching of elephants for their ivory , meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence . Historically , numerous cultures made ornaments and other works of art from elephant ivory , and its use rivalled that of gold . The ivory trade contributed to the African elephant population decline in the late 20th century . This prompted international bans on ivory imports , starting with the United States in June 1989 , and followed by bans in other North American countries , western European countries , and Japan . Around the same time , Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks . CITES approved an international ban on ivory that went into effect in January 1990 . Following the bans , unemployment rose in India and China , where the ivory industry was important economically . By contrast , Japan and Hong Kong , which were also part of the industry , were able to adapt and were not badly affected . Zimbabwe , Botswana , Namibia , Zambia , and Malawi wanted to continue the ivory trade and were allowed to , since their local elephant populations were healthy , but only if their supplies were from elephants that had been culled or died of natural causes .
The ban allowed the elephant to recover in parts of Africa . In January 2012 , 650 elephants in Bouba Njida National Park , Cameroon , were killed by Chadian raiders . This has been called " one of the worst concentrated killings " since the ivory ban . Asian elephants are potentially less vulnerable to the ivory trade , as females usually lack tusks . Still , members of the species have been killed for their ivory in some areas , such as Periyar National Park in India . China was the biggest market for poached ivory but announced they would phase out the legal domestic manufacture and sale of ivory products in May , 2015 , and in September 2015 China and the United States " said they would enact a nearly complete ban on the import and export of ivory . "
Other threats to elephants include habitat destruction and fragmentation . The Asian elephant lives in areas with some of the highest human populations . Because they need larger amounts of land than other sympatric terrestrial mammals , they are the first to be affected by human encroachment . In extreme cases , elephants may be confined to small islands of forest among human @-@ dominated landscapes . Elephants cannot coexist with humans in agricultural areas due to their size and food requirements . Elephants commonly trample and consume crops , which contributes to conflicts with humans , and both elephants and humans have died by the hundreds as a result . Mitigating these conflicts is important for conservation . One proposed solution is the provision of ‘ urban corridors ’ which allow the animals access to key areas .
= = Elephants and humans = =
= = = Working animal = = =
Elephants have been working animals since at least the Indus Valley Civilization and continue to be used in modern times . There were 13 @,@ 000 – 16 @,@ 500 working elephants employed in Asia as of 2000 . These animals are typically captured from the wild when they are 10 – 20 years old , when they can be trained quickly and easily , and will have a longer working life . They were traditionally captured with traps and lassos , but since 1950 , tranquillisers have been used . Individuals of the Asian species are more commonly trained to be working animals , although the practice has also been attempted in Africa . The taming of African elephants in the Belgian Congo began by decree of Leopold II of Belgium during the 19th century and continues to the present with the Api Elephant Domestication Centre .
Asian elephants perform tasks such as hauling loads into remote areas , moving logs into trucks , transporting tourists around national parks , pulling wagons and leading religious processions . In northern Thailand , the animals are used to digest coffee beans for Black Ivory coffee . They are valued over mechanised tools because they can work in relatively deep water , require relatively little maintenance , need only vegetation and water as fuel and can be trained to memorise specific tasks . Elephants can be trained to respond to over 30 commands . Musth bulls can be difficult and dangerous to work with and are chained until the condition passes . In India , many working elephants are alleged to have been subject to abuse . They and other captive elephants are thus protected under the The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960 .
In both Myanmar and Thailand , deforestation and other economic factors have resulted in sizable populations of unemployed elephants resulting in health problems for the elephants themselves as well as economic and safety problems for the people amongst whom they live .
= = = Warfare = = =
Historically , elephants were considered formidable instruments of war . They were equipped with armour to protect their sides , and their tusks were given sharp points of iron or brass if they were large enough . War elephants were trained to grasp an enemy soldier and toss him to the person riding on them or to pin the soldier to the ground and impale him .
One of the earliest references to war elephants is in the Indian epic Mahabharata ( written in the 4th century BCE , but said to describe events between the 11th and 8th centuries BCE ) . They were not used as much as horse @-@ drawn chariots by either the Pandavas or Kauravas . During the Magadha Kingdom ( which began in the 6th century BCE ) , elephants began to achieve greater cultural importance than horses , and later Indian kingdoms used war elephants extensively ; 3 @,@ 000 of them were used in the Nandas ( 5th and 4th centuries BCE ) army , while 9 @,@ 000 may have been used in the Mauryan army ( between the 4th and 2nd centuries BCE ) . The Arthashastra ( written around 300 BCE ) advised the Mauryan government to reserve some forests for wild elephants for use in the army , and to execute anyone who killed them . From South Asia , the use of elephants in warfare spread west to Persia and east to Southeast Asia . The Persians used them during the Achaemenid Empire ( between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE ) , while Southeast Asian states first used war elephants possibly as early as the 5th century BCE and continued to the 20th century .
Alexander the Great trained his foot soldiers to injure the animals and cause them to panic during wars with both the Persians and Indians . Ptolemy , who was one of Alexander 's generals , used corps of Asian elephants during his reign as the ruler of Egypt ( which began in 323 BCE ) . His son and successor Ptolemy II ( who began his rule in 285 BCE ) obtained his supply of elephants further south in Nubia . From then on , war elephants were employed in the Mediterranean and North Africa throughout the classical period . The Greek king Pyrrhus used elephants in his attempted invasion of Rome in 280 BCE . While they frightened the Roman horses , they were not decisive and Pyrrhus ultimately lost the battle . The Carthaginian general Hannibal took elephants across the Alps during his war with the Romans and reached the Po Valley in 217 BCE with all of them alive , but they later succumbed to disease .
= = = Zoos and circuses = = =
Elephants were historically kept for display in the menageries of Ancient Egypt , China , Greece and Rome . The Romans in particular pitted them against humans and other animals in gladiator events . In the modern era , elephants have traditionally been a major part of zoos and circuses around the world . In circuses , they are trained to perform tricks . The most famous circus elephant was probably Jumbo ( 1861 – 15 September 1885 ) , who was a major attraction in the Barnum & Bailey Circus . These animals do not reproduce well in captivity , due to the difficulty of handling musth bulls and limited understanding of female oestrous cycles . Asian elephants were always more common than their African counterparts in modern zoos and circuses . After CITES listed the Asian elephant under Appendix I in 1975 , the number of African elephants in zoos increased in the 1980s , although the import of Asians continued . Subsequently , the US received many of its captive African elephants from Zimbabwe , which had an overabundance of the animals . As of 2000 , around 1 @,@ 200 Asian and 700 African elephants were kept in zoos and circuses . The largest captive population is in North America , which has an estimated 370 Asian and 350 African elephants . About 380 Asians and 190 Africans are known to exist in Europe , and Japan has around 70 Asians and 67 Africans .
Keeping elephants in zoos has met with some controversy . Proponents of zoos argue that they offer researchers easy access to the animals and provide money and expertise for preserving their natural habitats , as well as safekeeping for the species . Critics claim that the animals in zoos are under physical and mental stress . Elephants have been recorded displaying stereotypical behaviours in the form of swaying back and forth , trunk swaying or route tracing . This has been observed in 54 % of individuals in UK zoos . Elephants in European zoos appear to have shorter lifespans than their wild counterparts at only 17 years , although other studies suggest that zoo elephants live as long those in the wild .
The use of elephants in circuses has also been controversial ; the Humane Society of the United States has accused circuses of mistreating and distressing their animals . In testimony to a US federal court in 2009 , Barnum & Bailey Circus CEO Kenneth Feld acknowledged that circus elephants are struck behind their ears , under their chins and on their legs with metal @-@ tipped prods , called bull hooks or ankus . Feld stated that these practices are necessary to protect circus workers and acknowledged that an elephant trainer was reprimanded for using an electric shock device , known as a hot shot or electric prod , on an elephant . Despite this , he denied that any of these practices harm elephants . Some trainers have tried to train elephants without the use of physical punishment . Ralph Helfer is known to have relied on gentleness and reward when training his animals , including elephants and lions . In January 2016 Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey circus announced it would retire its touring elephants in May 2016 .
= = = Disease transmission = = =
Like many mammals , elephants can contract and transmit diseases to humans , one of which is tuberculosis . In 2012 , two elephants in Tete d ’ Or zoo , Lyon were diagnosed with the disease . Due to the threat of transmitting tuberculosis to other animals or visitors to the zoo , their euthanasia was initially ordered by city authorities but a court later overturned this decision . At an elephant sanctuary in Tennessee , a 54 @-@ year @-@ old African elephant was considered to be the source of tuberculosis infections among eight workers .
As of 2015 , tuberculosis appears to be widespread among captive elephants in the US . It is believed that the animals originally acquired the disease from humans , a process called reverse zoonosis . Because the disease can spread through the air to infect both humans and other animals , it is a public health concern affecting circuses and zoos .
= = = Attacks = = =
Elephants can exhibit bouts of aggressive behaviour and engage in destructive actions against humans . In Africa , groups of adolescent elephants damaged homes in villages after cullings in the 1970s and 1980s . Because of the timing , these attacks have been interpreted as vindictive . In India , male elephants regularly enter villages at night , destroying homes and killing people . Elephants killed around 300 people between 2000 and 2004 in Jharkhand , while in Assam 239 people were reportedly killed between 2001 and 2006 . Local people have reported their belief that some elephants were drunk during their attacks , although officials have disputed this explanation . Purportedly drunk elephants attacked an Indian village a second time in December 2002 , killing six people , which led to the killing of about 200 elephants by locals .
= = = Cultural depictions = = =
Elephants have been represented in art since Paleolithic times . Africa in particular contains many rock paintings and engravings of the animals , especially in the Sahara and southern Africa . In the Far East , the animals are depicted as motifs in Hindu and Buddhist shrines and temples . Elephants were often difficult to portray by people with no first @-@ hand experience with them . The ancient Romans , who kept the animals in captivity , depicted anatomically accurate elephants on mosaics in Tunisia and Sicily . At the beginning of the Middle Ages , when Europeans had little to no access to the animals , elephants were portrayed more like fantasy creatures . They were often depicted with horse- or bovine @-@ like bodies with trumpet @-@ like trunks and tusks like a boar ; some were even given hooves . Elephants were commonly featured in motifs by the stonemasons of the Gothic churches . As more elephants began to be sent to European kings as gifts during the 15th century , depictions of them became more accurate , including one made by Leonardo da Vinci . Despite this , some Europeans continued to portray them in a more stylised fashion . Max Ernst 's 1921 surrealist painting The Elephant Celebes depicts an elephant as a silo with a trunk @-@ like hose protruding from it .
Elephants have been the subject of religious beliefs . The Mbuti people believe that the souls of their dead ancestors resided in elephants . Similar ideas existed among other African tribes , who believed that their chiefs would be reincarnated as elephants . During the 10th century AD , the people of Igbo @-@ Ukwu buried their leaders with elephant tusks . The animals ' religious importance is only totemic in Africa but is much more significant in Asia . In Sumatra , elephants have been associated with lightning . Likewise in Hinduism , they are linked with thunderstorms as Airavata , the father of all elephants , represents both lightning and rainbows . One of the most important Hindu deities , the elephant @-@ headed Ganesha , is ranked equal with the supreme gods Shiva , Vishnu , and Brahma . Ganesha is associated with writers and merchants and it is believed that he can give people success as well as grant them their desires . In Buddhism , Buddha is said to have been a white elephant reincarnated as a human . In Islamic tradition , the year 570 , when Muhammad was born , is known as the Year of the Elephant . Elephants were thought to be religious themselves by the Romans , who believed that they worshipped the sun and stars . The ' Land of a Million Elephants ' was the name of the ancient kingdom of Lan Xang and later the Lan Chang Province and it is now a nickname for Laos .
Elephants are ubiquitous in Western popular culture as emblems of the exotic , especially since – as with the giraffe , hippopotamus and rhinoceros – there are no similar animals familiar to Western audiences . The use of the elephant as a symbol of the US Republican Party began with an 1874 cartoon by Thomas Nast . As characters , elephants are most common in children 's stories , in which they are generally cast as models of exemplary behaviour . They are typically surrogates for humans with ideal human values . Many stories tell of isolated young elephants returning to a close @-@ knit community , such as " The Elephant 's Child " from Rudyard Kipling 's Just So Stories , Disney 's Dumbo and Kathryn and Byron Jackson 's The Saggy Baggy Elephant . Other elephant heroes given human qualities include Jean de Brunhoff 's Babar , David McKee 's Elmer and Dr. Seuss 's Horton .
Several cultural references emphasise the elephant 's size and exotic uniqueness . For instance , a " white elephant " is a byword for something expensive , useless and bizarre . The expression " elephant in the room " refers to an obvious truth that is ignored or otherwise unaddressed . The story of the blind men and an elephant teaches that reality may be viewed by different perspectives .
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= Jailhouse Rock ( film ) =
Jailhouse Rock is a 1957 American musical drama film directed by Richard Thorpe and starring Elvis Presley , Judy Tyler , and Mickey Shaughnessy . Distributed by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) and dramatized by Guy Trosper from a story written by Nedrick Young , the film is about a young man sentenced to prison for manslaughter who is mentored in music by his prison cellmate who realizes his musical abilities . After his release from jail , while looking for a job as a club singer , the young man meets a musical promoter who helps him launch his career . As he develops his musical abilities and becomes a star , his self @-@ centered personality begins to affect his relationships .
The wife of producer Pandro S. Berman convinced him to create a film with Presley in the last role . Berman delegated the casting to Benny Thau , head of the studio and Abraham Lastfogel , the then president of William Morris Agency . Berman hired Richard Thorpe , who was known for shooting productions quickly . The production of Jailhouse Rock began on May 13 , 1957 , and concluded on June 17 of that year . The dance sequence to the film 's title song " Jailhouse Rock " is often cited as " Presley 's greatest moment on screen " .
Before pre @-@ production began , songwriters Mike Stoller and Jerry Leiber were commissioned to integrate the film 's soundtrack . In April , Leiber and Stoller were called for a meeting in New York City to show the progress of the repertoire . The writers , who had not produced any material , toured the city and were confronted in a hotel room by Jean Aberbach , who locked them into their hotel room by blocking the hotel room door with a sofa until they wrote the material . Presley recorded the soundtrack at Radio Recorders in Hollywood on April 30 and May 3 , with an additional session at the MGM Soundstage on May 9 . During post @-@ production , the songs were dubbed into the films scenes , in which Presley mimed the lyrics .
Jailhouse Rock premiered on October 17 , 1957 in Memphis , Tennessee and was released nationwide on November 8 , 1957 . It peaked at number 3 on the Variety box office chart , and reached number 14 in the year 's box office totals , grossing $ 4 million . Jailhouse Rock earned mixed reviews , with most of the negative reception directed towards Presley 's persona . In 2004 , the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry .
= = Plot = =
Construction worker Vince Everett ( Elvis ) accidentally kills a drunken and belligerent man in a barroom brawl . He is sentenced to between one and ten years in the state penitentiary for manslaughter . His new cellmate , washed @-@ up country singer Hunk Houghton ( Shaughnessy ) , starts teaching Vince to play the guitar after hearing Vince sing and strum Hunk 's guitar . Hunk then convinces Vince to participate in an upcoming inmate show , which is broadcast on nationwide television . Vince receives numerous fan letters as a result ; but out of apparent jealousy , Hunk ensures they are not delivered to Vince . Hunk then convinces Vince to sign a " contract " to become equal partners in his act . Meanwhile , during an inmate riot in the mess hall , a guard shoves Vince , who retaliates by striking the guard . As a result , the warden orders Vince to be lashed with a whip . Afterwards , it was discovered that Hunk attempted to bribe the guards to drop the punishment , but to no avail .
Upon Vince 's release 20 months later , the warden gives Vince his fan mail . Hunk then promises Vince a singing job at a nightclub owned by a friend , where Vince meets Peggy Van Alden ( Tyler ) , a promoter for pop singer Mickey Alba . Vince is surprised when the club owner denies him a job as a singer but offers him a job as a bar boy . Undeterred , Vince takes the stage when the house band takes a break and starts singing " Young and Beautiful . " But one of the customers laughs obnoxiously throughout the performance , enraging Vince , who smashes his guitar on the customer 's table and leaves the club . Peggy follows Vince and persuades him to record a demo so that he can listen to himself sing . Vince records " Don 't Leave Me Now , " which Peggy takes to Geneva Records . The manager seems unimpressed , but he reluctantly agrees to play the tape for his boss in New York . The next day , Peggy informs Vince that the song has been sold . She then takes him to a party at her parents ' home , but Vince leaves after he offends a guest he mistakenly believes is belittling him . ( The guests were talking about progressive jazz , a genre that Vince hates as much as Elvis himself hated jazz , which he could not understand in real life . ) Angry and offended , Peggy confronts Vince , who kisses her brutally . Peggy resentfully calls the gesture " cheap tactics , " to which Vince replies , " Them ain 't tactics , honey ; it 's just the beast in me . "
Later , Vince and Peggy visit a local record store to check out Vince 's new single , but they are shocked to discover that the Geneva Records manager gave the song to Mickey Alba , who recorded and released the song himself , thereby stealing Vince 's song . Outraged , Vince blurts , " He stole my style , my arrangements , my EVERYTHING ! " With that , Vince storms into the label 's office and confronts the manager , violently slapping him around . To avoid making the same mistake twice , Vince suggests that he and Peggy should form their own label . They do , naming the new label Laurel Records and hiring an attorney , Mr. Shores ( Vaughn Taylor ) . Vince then records " Treat Me Nice " and begins pitching it , but it is universally rejected . Peggy convinces her friend , disc jockey Teddy Talbot ( Dean Jones ) , to air the song . He does , and it becomes an immediate hit . Later that evening , Vince asks Peggy out to celebrate the success of his new single , but is disappointed when he learns that she has accepted a dinner date for that evening with Teddy .
Meanwhile , Vince makes arrangements for another television show . During a party , Hunk visits him after being paroled and persuades Vince to give him a spot on the upcoming show . Prior to taping , Vince rehearses " Jailhouse Rock " in a stylized cell block ( a performance Elvis himself choreographed ) . Hunk 's number is cut because of his outdated music style . Afterwards , Vince informs Hunk that according to his lawyer , the above @-@ mentioned " contract " they signed in prison was worthless . However , as a consolation , and never forgetting that Hunk tried to intercede on his behalf when he was punished for striking the prison guard , Vince offers Hunk a job with his entourage for a fee equal to ten percent of Vince 's annual gross , which Hunk accepts .
Within a few months , Vince officially became a star . However , Peggy is no longer on speaking terms with Vince , as his success has made him arrogant . Vince then signs a movie deal with Climax Studios . The studio head asks him to spend the day with Sherry Wilson ( Jennifer Holden ) , the studio 's new leading lady , for publicity purposes . The conceited actress is less than thrilled with her co @-@ star at first ; but she eventually falls in love with Vince after shooting a kissing scene , saying that she 's " come all unglued " ( indicating that she 's no longer " stuck up " ) .
Meanwhile , Hunk grows tired of Vince 's self @-@ centered attitude . When Peggy shows up unexpectedly at another of Vince 's parties , Vince is happy to see her at first but becomes upset when she says the purpose of her visit is to talk about business . Mr. Shores then approaches Vince with an offer from Geneva Records to purchase Laurel Records and sign him to a rich contract . Peggy refuses to sell , but Vince announces that he will close the deal since he owns a controlling interest , which deeply devastates Peggy . Enraged by Vince 's attitude — and his treatment of Peggy — Hunk provokes Vince to fight , who refuses to fight back . Hunk then strikes Vince in the throat , endangering his voice and therefore his singing ability . Vince is then rushed to a hospital , where he forgives Hunk and realizes he loves Peggy and she loves him . After being released from the hospital , Vince 's doctor informs him that his vocal cords are fully recovered , but Vince is worried that his voice might have been affected . To test it , he sings " Young and Beautiful " to Peggy , which reassures him that his fears are unfounded .
= = Cast = =
Elvis Presley as Vince Everett , a prisoner who , after being released , becomes a star for his singing talent . Producer Pandro S. Berman 's wife convinced him to make a film with Presley starring in the leading role . Berman contacted Presley 's manager , Colonel Thomas Parker , and asked if he could send Presley or Parker the script to read it . Parker was uninterested and denied the request . Berman asked Parker under which conditions would he take the project , to which Parker replied that he was only interested in the music score of the movie and owning the rights for record sales and publishing royalties . Presley 's payment was settled at US $ 250 @,@ 000 and 50 % of the royalties from the distribution of the movie .
Judy Tyler as Peggy Van Alden , a music promoter who helps Vince build his career and eventually becomes his lover . Tyler was previously known for her part as Princess Summerfall Winterspring in the television show Howdy Doody and her role as Suzy in the Broadway musical Pipe Dream ( 1955 ) . Tyler took a three @-@ month leave of absence from Howdy Doody to shoot the movie . Tyler and her husband were both killed in a car crash on July 3 , days after production of the movie was completed and before the movie premiered . For this reason , Presley refused to watch the film .
Mickey Shaughnessy as Hunk Houghton , Vince 's cellmate and a former country and western singer . He teaches Vince to improve his guitar skills , and after his release from jail becomes Vince 's assistant . Shaughnessy was known for his role as Leva in From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) . He was also a comedian ; Variety reported before the production of the film that during one of his shows in Omaha , Nebraska , Shaughnessy performed a forty @-@ five @-@ minute routine that derided Presley . Elaine Dundy , author of the book Elvis and Gladys ( 1985 ) , considered that his casting was an " odd choice " , and a product of Berman 's disinterest and his decision to delegate the casting of the actors .
Vaughn Taylor as Mr. Shores , an attorney whom Vince and Peggy hire to manage Vince 's financial affairs .
Jennifer Holden as Sherry Wilson , a starlet of Climax Studios and Vince 's co @-@ star . The movie was Holden 's debut ; she auditioned for the role at MGM in May 1956 and was selected immediately for the role . She studied drama with Lillian Roth and participated in a small role in a play at the Palace Theatre in New York City .
Dean Jones as Teddy Talbot , a disc jockey who plays Vince 's debut record as a favor to Peggy . Jones himself was formerly a blues singer , and he was coached for the role by disc jockeys Ira Cooke and Dewey Phillips .
" Jailhouse Rock " co @-@ writer Mike Stoller ( of the Leiber and Stoller songwriting partnership ) and Presley 's regular band during that period — Scotty Moore , Bill Black and D. J. Fontana — appeared as Vince 's band throughout the film , but were uncredited .
= = Production = =
Jailhouse Rock was Presley 's third film and his first for MGM . It was filmed at the MGM studios in Culver City , California . Filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , the film was the first production that MGM filmed with the recently developed 35 mm anamorphic lens by Panavision . The film was originally titled The Hard Way , which was changed to Jailhouse Kid before MGM finally settled on Jailhouse Rock . It was not listed with the studio 's planned releases for the year , which it published in Variety magazine , because it was based on an original story by Nedrick Young , a blacklisted writer . In addition , the studio traditionally did not produce any original scripts that were not adaptations of already @-@ successful works such as books or theater plays . During the production of the movie , Pandro Berman 's attention was centered on another of his productions , the 1958 film The Brothers Karamazov . He let the head of the studio , Benny Thau , and Abe Lastfogel , president of the William Morris Agency , decide the cast . Richard Thorpe , who had the reputation of quickly finishing his projects , was chosen to direct the film .
The first scene to be filmed was the title dance sequence to the song " Jailhouse Rock " . Brett Farmer places the " orgasmic gyrations " of the dance sequence within a lineage of cinematic musical numbers that offer a " spectacular eroticization , if not homoeroticization , of the male image " ; it has often been cited as Presley 's greatest moment on screen . Alex Romero , who created moves inspired by Fred Astaire and Gene Kelly , choreographed the sequence . Presley was not convinced by Romero 's initial choreography , so Romero played some music and asked Presley to dance , using his own moves to choreograph the final sequence . Impressed with the dance sequence , Kelly himself applauded one of the rehearsals during a visit to the set .
Shooting of the film began on May 13 , 1957 , with the newly created choreography . Presley 's characteristic hairstyle and sideburns were covered with a wig and makeup for the scenes in musical number and those set in the jail . During the performance , one of Presley 's dental caps fell out and became lodged in his lung . He was taken to the Cedars of Lebanon Hospital , where he spent the night after the cap was removed . Shooting was resumed the next day . Throughout the film , Presley mimed the songs , which had been previously recorded in the studio and were added to the finished scenes . Thorpe , who usually filmed scenes in a single take , finished the rest of the movie by June 17 , 1957 . Jailhouse Rock was Judy Tyler 's last film ; she died in an automobile accident that also killed her husband two weeks after shooting was completed . Presley , moved by the death of his co @-@ star , did not attend the film premiere .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Before the production began , rock ' n ' roll songwriting partners Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller were commissioned to create the film 's soundtrack . The writers , who accepted the work , did not send any material to MGM for months . In April 1957 , the studio called a meeting with the writers in New York City to be updated on the progress of the work . Leiber and Stoller , who had not written any material , traveled to New York where , instead of working , they toured the city . They were confronted in their hotel room by Jean Aberbach , director of Hill & Range music publishing company , who asked to see the songs . When he was told that there was no material , Aberbach decided to lock the songwriters in their hotel room by blocking the door with a sofa . Aberbach told them that they would not leave the room until they had created the material . Four hours later , Leiber and Stoller had written " I Want to Be Free " , " Treat Me Nice " , " ( You 're So Square ) Baby I Don 't Care " , and " Jailhouse Rock " .
Presley recorded the finished songs at Radio Recorders in Hollywood on April 30 and May 3 , 1957 , with an additional session at the MGM soundstage in Hollywood on May 9 for " Don 't Leave Me Now " . Leiber and Stoller were invited to the recording session of April 30 , where they met Presley . During the session , Stoller helped Presley with the song " Treat Me Nice " and taught him , using a piano , the method he should use while recording the song . Presley was impressed by Stoller and convinced MGM to cast him as the band 's pianist in the film .
The following songs in the film were performed by Elvis unless otherwise noted :
" One More Day " ( Sid Tepper , Roy C. Bennett ) – performed by Mickey Shaughnessy
" Young and Beautiful " ( Abner Silver , Aaron Schroeder )
" I Want to Be Free " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller )
" Don 't Leave Me Now " ( Aaron Schroeder , Ben Weisman )
" Treat Me Nice " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller )
" Jailhouse Rock " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller ) – dance routine was also choreographed by Elvis Presley
" ( You 're So Square ) Baby I Don 't Care " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller ) - Presley also played electric bass
= = Release = =
Jailhouse Rock premiered on October 17 , 1957 , at Loews State Theater in Memphis , Tennessee . It opened nationally on November 8 .
= = = Box Office = = =
The film peaked at number 3 on the Variety box office chart , and reached number 14 for the year at the box office .
According to MGM records the film earned $ 3 @.@ 2 million in the US and Canada and $ 1 @,@ 075 @,@ 000 elsewhere during its initial theatrical run , resulting in a profit of $ 1 @,@ 051 @,@ 000 .
In 1957 , Presley was ranked the fourth leading box office commodity in the film industry . According to Variety , by 1969 , Jailhouse Rock 's gross income in the United States and Canada was comparable to that of The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Despite the success in the box office , Jailhouse Rock earned mixed reviews from critics . It was looked upon as scandalous once it was released because it portrayed Vince Everett as an anti @-@ heroic character , presented a convict as a hero , used the word " hell " as a profanity , and included a scene showing Presley in bed with co @-@ star Tyler . The Parent @-@ Teacher Association described the movie as " a hackneyed , blown @-@ up tale with cheap human values . " The New York Times criticized Guy Trosper for writing a screenplay where the secondary characters whom Mickey Shaughnessey and Judy Tyler acted out were " forced to hang on to the hero 's flying mane and ego for the entire picture . " Cue magazine called the film " [ an ] unpleasant , mediocre and tasteless drama . "
Some publications criticized Presley . Time criticized his onstage personality , while The Miami News compared the film with horror movies , and said , " Only Elvis Presley and his ' Jailhouse Rock ' can keep pace with the movie debut of this ' personality , ' the records show . In estimating the lasting appeal of their grotesque performer . " Jazz magazine Down Beat said Presley 's acting was " amateurish and bland . " British magazine The Spectator described Presley 's evolution from his " silly " performance in Loving You to " dangerously near being repulsive . "
Other reviewers responded positively to the film . Louise Boyca of the The Schenectady Gazette wrote that " it 's dear Elvis that gets the soft focus camera and the arty photography . " Boyca remarked upon the low production costs of the film , and said that Presley was " in top singing and personality form . " The Gadsden Times said , " Elvis Presley not only proves himself as a dramatic actor ... but also reveals his versatility by dancing on the screen for the first time . The movie ... also contains Elvis ' unique style of singing . " Look favored the movie , describing the reception of an audience in a Los Angeles theater that " registered , loud and often , its approval of what may accurately be described as the star 's first big dramatic singing role . "
Author Thomas Doherty wrote in his 2002 book Teenagers and Teenpics : The Juvenalization of American Movies in the 1950s : " In Jailhouse Rock , the treatment of rock ' n ' roll music , both as narrative content and as cinematic performance is knowing and respectful ... The elaborate choreography for the title tune , the long takes and uninterrupted screen time given to the other numbers , and the musical pacing — the rock ' n ' roll builds in quality and intensity — all show an indigenous appreciation of Presley 's rock ' n ' Roll . " Critic Hal Erickson of AllRovi wrote that the film " is a perfect balance of song and story from beginning to end " . Mark Deming , also a critic for AllRovi , wrote that Jailhouse Rock it was " one of [ Presley 's ] few vehicles which really caught his raw , sexy energy and sneering charisma on film . "
= = = Accolades = = =
In 1991 , Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller were awarded with an ASCAP Award for Most Performed Feature Film Standards for the song " Jailhouse Rock " . In 2004 , Jailhouse Rock was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry , as it was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . " The film is famous for the dance sequence ( also choreographed by Presley ) in which Presley sings the title track while on stage , cavorting with other " inmates " through a set which resembles a block of jail cells . The sequence is widely acknowledged as the most memorable musical scene in Presley 's 30 narrative movies , and is credited by music historians as the prototype for the modern music video . Jailhouse Rock ranked 495th on Empire 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time . The review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an overall 79 % " Fresh " approval rating based on 14 reviews , with a rating average of 6 @.@ 9 out of 10 .
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= Blaine Anderson =
Blaine Devon Anderson is a fictional character from the American musical comedy @-@ drama television series Glee . Played by Darren Criss , Blaine was introduced in the sixth episode of the second season as the openly gay lead singer of the Dalton Academy Warblers , a rival show choir to New Directions , the show 's primary musical group . Blaine initially served as a mentor for New Directions member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) . Chemistry between the two , combined with fan support for the couple , led series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy to pair them romantically . Their relationship has been well received by critics , and they have been named " one of the most beloved TV couples of the millennium " by Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post . At the beginning of the third season , Blaine transfers to McKinley High and joins New Directions ; concurrently , Criss was promoted from recurring guest star to the show 's main cast .
Criss auditioned for Glee several times before being cast as Blaine , including for the lead role of Finn Hudson . He believed he would be ill @-@ suited to that character , but identifies with Blaine , having been raised among the " gay community " . He plays Blaine as charismatic and confident , and finds his youthful self @-@ acceptance a fitting counterpoint to common media portrayals of gay characters .
As the Warblers ' lead vocalist and subsequent New Directions member , Blaine has performed a number of songs on the television series . His first , a cover version of " Teenage Dream " by Katy Perry , became the fastest @-@ selling Glee single , reached number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , and was certified gold in the U.S. Tracks by the Warblers have sold over 1 @.@ 3 million copies . The songs became popular enough to warrant a Warbler soundtrack album , Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers . Blaine has received mostly positive reviews from critics ; Criss has been awarded a Rising Star accolade from the Gay and Lesbian Entertainment Critics Association for his portrayal . While the Blaine – Kurt ( " Klaine " ) relationship has been met with acclaim , an episode storyline in which Blaine questioned his sexuality attracted negative reviews for undermining his previous characterization as a confident gay teenager .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 2 = = =
Blaine Anderson is introduced in the episode " Never Been Kissed " as the lead soloist of the Dalton Academy Warblers a cappella musical group . He meets Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , a member of the rival glee club New Directions . When Kurt asks if Blaine is gay , Blaine matter @-@ of @-@ factly says he is ; Kurt tells Blaine that he is being bullied at school for being gay , and Blaine reveals that he too was harassed at his old school , so he transferred to Dalton Academy , which enforces a no @-@ bullying policy . Blaine befriends Kurt , and helps him stand up to his tormentor , Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) . When the threats and violence against Kurt reach a dangerous level , he transfers to Dalton Academy . He falls in love with Blaine , who is initially oblivious to Kurt 's feelings even as their friendship grows . Blaine enlists Kurt 's help to serenade his crush Jeremiah ( Alexander Nifong ) , the assistant manager at a local Gap store . Jeremiah is subsequently fired and rebuffs Blaine . Kurt confesses his feelings , and Blaine tells Kurt that he cares for him , but is terrible at romance and does not want to risk damaging their friendship .
Kurt and Blaine attend a party hosted by New Directions co @-@ captain Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) . The attendees play spin the bottle , which results in Rachel and Blaine kissing . In the aftermath , Blaine wonders whether he might be bisexual , and goes on a date with Rachel . When she kisses him again while they are both sober , he concludes that he is indeed gay , which relieves Kurt .
After learning of Kurt ’ s ignorance of sexual matters , Blaine visits Kurt 's father , Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) , and prompts him to give Kurt " the talk " about sex . As the Warblers prepare to perform at the Regional show choir competition , Kurt admits that he is jealous of how many solos Blaine gets . At a subsequent group meeting , Kurt arrives late and announces that the group 's mascot canary is dead ; he sings " Blackbird " in honor of the bird . While Kurt is singing , Blaine has a revelation , and later tells Kurt that he reciprocates his feelings and kisses him . At Regionals , the two sing a duet of " Candles " by Hey Monday . The Warblers lose to New Directions , but while Kurt is very disappointed , Blaine tells him that even though they lost , in reality , they won each other which makes losing Regionals worth it . After Kurt transfers back to McKinley , he invites Blaine to be his date at his junior prom in " Prom Queen " ; both are shocked when Kurt wins Prom Queen due to having received an overwhelming number of unwanted write @-@ in votes in the secret balloting . Karofsky , the Prom King , leaves to avoid dancing with a guy in the traditional dance between King and Queen , and Kurt dances with Blaine instead . After Kurt returns from Nationals in New York , he and Blaine admit their love for one another .
= = = Season 3 = = =
In the first episode of the third season , " The Purple Piano Project " , Blaine transfers to McKinley High at the beginning of his junior year to be closer to Kurt , who is a senior , and joins New Directions . He later auditions for the role of Bernardo in the school musical West Side Story , so as not to compete against Kurt who wants to play the male lead , Tony , but is cast as Tony himself . In the episode " The First Time " , Blaine is pursued by Sebastian Smythe ( Grant Gustin ) , a new Dalton Academy Warbler . Kurt and Blaine meet up with Sebastian at a gay bar , Blaine gets drunk , and afterward tries to get Kurt to have sex with him in the car . Kurt refuses , they have a fight , and Blaine decides to walk home . After the West Side Story opening night , they apologize to each other , and decide to go to Blaine 's house . They are later shown in bed together , apparently having just had sex for the first time . When New Directions and the Warblers informally compete in " Michael " to determine which club can perform Michael Jackson 's music at the upcoming show choir Regionals , Sebastian throws a slushie containing rock salt at Kurt , but Blaine interposes himself and is hit in the eye ; his cornea is badly scratched and requires surgery . His eye heals , and he is back in time for New Directions to defeat the Warblers at Regionals . Blaine 's older brother Cooper ( Matt Bomer ) , a successful actor in commercials , visits Ohio , and the two achieve a rapprochement . Blaine 's relationship with Kurt is later strained when Kurt text @-@ flirts with a boy he met while preparing for his NYADA audition , and by Kurt 's eagerness to leave for New York after graduation , which would separate the two at least until Blaine graduated the following year . The two patch things up , the glee club wins at Nationals , and the pair is still a couple at the end of the school year , though Blaine is still uneasy about the prolonged physical separation facing them .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In the first episode of the fourth season , " The New Rachel " , Blaine becomes the lead singer of New Directions and successfully prompts Kurt to follow his New York City dreams . In addition , Blaine successfully runs for senior class president with Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) , and the two subsequently develop a friendship . Kurt inadvertently pulls away from Blaine due to his Vogue.com internship ; distraught and feeling isolated from his friends , Blaine cheats on Kurt . After confessing to Kurt of his infidelity , Kurt severs all ties . New Directions ' Nationals trophy is stolen by Hunter Clarington ( Nolan Gerard Funk ) , the new captain of the Dalton Academy Warblers . When Blaine goes to Dalton Academy to retrieve it , Hunter and Sebastian attempt to seduce Blaine into returning to the Warblers . Blaine becomes conflicted , believing that he does not belong in New Directions . Sam ultimately convinces him that , despite having done a bad thing to Kurt , Blaine is still a good person and an important member of New Directions .
Kurt begins to mend their relationship in " Thanksgiving " , just before New Directions loses at Sectionals to the Warblers , and they spend Christmas together in New York City . Though he and Kurt continue to be on good terms , Blaine finds himself developing a crush on his best friend , Sam , which he knows will come to nothing as he knows Sam is not gay ; the two of them team up to find evidence that the Warblers cheated at Sectionals , which means New Directions will be competing at Regionals . He ends up going to the Sadie Hawkins dance with Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) , who has developed a crush on him , but as friends only . When Kurt comes to Lima for the wedding of glee club director Will ( Matthew Morrison ) and Emma ( Jayma Mays ) — which Emma flees — he and Blaine make out beforehand , and sleep together afterward , though they do not resume a permanent relationship .
Blaine had briefly joined the Cheerios when it looked like New Directions would be disbanding after their Sectionals loss , and cheerleading coach Sue ( Jane Lynch ) blackmails Blaine into rejoining ; Blaine and Sam hatch up a plan to bring Sue down from the inside . Blaine eventually confesses to Sam that he has feelings for him , to which Sam assures him that he is somewhat flattered by Blaine 's honesty and attraction , and that it would not change the fact that Blaine is still Sam 's best friend . Blaine still loves Kurt and asks Burt for his permission to propose to Kurt , but Burt tells him they 're too young to marry , and advises him to wait . Blaine remains determined , however , and while shopping for a ring , he meets Jan ( Patty Duke ) , a lesbian jeweler who has been with her partner Liz ( Meredith Baxter ) for over thirty years . Jan offers to be a mentor to him , and Blaine and Kurt later have dinner with Jan and Liz , where Jan and Liz explain how their relationship evolved over the years and their experience with the growing mainstream acceptance of gay people . New Directions wins at Regionals , and Will and Emma get married immediately afterward , with the glee club , plus some graduates including Kurt , in attendance . Blaine is shown , after the ceremony is over , holding a jewelry box behind his back .
= = = Season 5 = = =
In the season premiere , " Love Love Love " , Blaine and Kurt agree to be boyfriends again . Blaine still wants to marry Kurt , and stages an elaborate and successful marriage proposal at Dalton Academy where he and Kurt first met , accompanied by New Directions , and all their rival show choir groups , including the Warblers . He auditions for NYADA and is accepted . New Directions comes in second at Nationals , and is disbanded by Sue for not being champions . Blaine graduates as class valedictorian , and then moves to New York to be with Kurt . They start off living together , but though they remain engaged , Blaine ultimately moves out because the two of them realize they still need their own space . The relationship between them goes through rocky patches , including Blaine 's insecurity when Kurt becomes popular at school , and when an influential socialite and NYADA supporter hears Blaine perform and takes an interest in his future career , though she is not impressed by Kurt and ultimately tries to break them up , though she fails and ultimately supports them both . Their engagement is strengthened by having weathered these storms , and Blaine moves back in with Kurt .
= = = Season 6 = = =
Blaine returns to Lima after Kurt ended their engagement , having become so despondent that his schoolwork suffered and he was cut by NYADA . He becomes the coach of the Dalton Academy Warblers , and begins dating Dave Karofsky after a chance encounter at the local gay bar . Kurt , having realized he still loves Blaine and regretting that he ended the engagement , arranges for his NYADA off @-@ campus semester to be in Lima , helping Rachel to coach a reinstated New Directions — Will had left McKinley High to coach Vocal Adrenaline . Unfortunately , by the time he arrives , Blaine and Karofsky are already a couple , and there is further strain between Kurt and Blaine as coaches of rival show choirs . In " The Hurt Locker , Part Two " , Sue , who " ships Klaine " and is desperate for Kurt and Blaine to reunite , locks them both in a fake elevator and refuses to let them leave until they kiss . After resisting for a great many hours , Blaine and Kurt share a passionate kiss , but do not reunite afterward . In " Transitioning " , Blaine sings a duet with Kurt , " Somebody Loves You " , and afterward , kisses Kurt . The following day , Blaine , knowing that he is still in love with Kurt , breaks up with Karofsky ; however , Kurt is still seeing an older man , Walter . In " A Wedding " , Kurt tells Walter that he is going to Brittany and Santana 's wedding with Blaine , not him , and on Walter 's advice , returns to Blaine ; the two again become a couple . At the wedding , Brittany insists that Kurt and Blaine get married alongside her and Santana . Though skeptical at first , Kurt and Blaine agree and get married , with Burt officiating the joint ceremony . Dalton Academy burns down in " The Rise and Fall of Sue Sylvester " , and the Warblers who transfer to McKinley are accepted into New Directions , with Blaine joining Rachel and Kurt as the coaches of the combined glee club . In the series finale , " Dreams Come True " , after New Directions wins Nationals , Blaine and Kurt leave for New York , with Blaine attending NYU and Kurt returning to NYADA along with a reinstated Rachel . The episode jumps ahead to 2020 , and Blaine and Kurt are shown to be actors and a celebrity married couple ; they also visit schools to entertain and talk about acceptance . Rachel , who is married to Jesse , is pregnant with Blaine and Kurt 's child .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Blaine is portrayed by actor Darren Criss , who had auditioned for Glee several times for several roles before the character Blaine was created . He originally auditioned to play Finn Hudson . Criss made several audition videos for Glee , of which he posted only one to the social networking website MySpace where he sang a cover of Bill Withers ' song Lean on Me . Although the series writers have seen them , he considers them supplemental to his main audition , which was for series creator Ryan Murphy . Murphy had not seen any of Criss 's previous auditions , but knew he was the right actor for Blaine as soon as he saw this one . The actor cut his long hair before auditioning , to suit the " serious and preppy " role .
Prior to the production of season two , rumors circulated that upcoming episodes would feature a love interest for Kurt . Initial fan and media speculation suggested that Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) was created to fill this role ; however , according to Overstreet , Sam 's storyline quickly paired him with Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) as a result of the chemistry the producers detected between him and Agron . In September 2010 , it was confirmed that Criss would join the show in a " much @-@ talked @-@ about new gay role " . Media speculation suggested that Blaine would be Kurt 's new love interest . His original character description was : " a cute and charismatic gay student from a rival Glee club named the Dalton Academy Warblers — will maintain a strictly platonic friendship with McKinley High 's most out and proud pupil . But could that change as the season progresses ? Yes , it could . " Murphy stated that Blaine 's arc would be a significant one . He explained , " He sort of becomes Kurt 's mentor and then maybe love [ ... ] Kurt really admires him and respects him . "
Following his first few appearances , it was reported that Criss had been confirmed as a series regular for the remainder of season two and for season three of Glee . This was based on comments by Murphy , who said : " Darren has become such a sensation in one week , which I love . I think there 's a hunger for him and a positive relationship role model . He ’ ll definitely continue through the year and longer . " However , the actor later denied that his role had been upgraded and said : " It 's never really been officially confirmed to me . I think the option is there and that they want to keep Blaine around . " Murphy revealed that Blaine may join New Directions during the third season . Criss hoped that this would not come to pass , as he enjoys being at Dalton Academy , but conceded : " it 's not my call . I 'm happy to serve whatever story they want . " For the third season of Glee , Criss was promoted to a series regular , and Blaine did join New Directions when he transferred to McKinley High to be with Kurt .
= = = Characterization = = =
Upon Blaine 's first appearance , Criss described his character as being a " very charismatic , put @-@ together , composed guy . " He stated that although Blaine is gay , he is not " overly queeny , and not too butch either , " and that while his sexuality is a " huge part of who he is " , it is not a major facet of how he wishes to be perceived . Due to similarities which stem from their shared sexuality , Blaine " sees a lot of himself in Kurt , in terms of experiences and the way they feel about the world around them . He feels the need to impart his knowledge , be a source of strength for him , and really help him through what he 's going through . " Initially , Criss felt that the most important element of his character was to give Kurt " someone he can relate to " , and demonstrate that Kurt could have " a young out male friend , a support system " .
Criss discussed his personal connection with Blaine in an interview with Vanity Fair . He explained that he grew up among the " gay community " , being with theater performers , so was raised without a concept of sexuality being an issue . Criss stated that , although he identifies as straight , " it really doesn 't come into play with me in this role . As an actor , your objective is always to play the scene . And this in case , he happens to be a gay teen . " Talk show host and media personality Ellen DeGeneres deemed Blaine " a very confident gay teen , which is something you don 't see much on television . " However , Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times assessed that " despite the image he projects , he , too , is just a kid trying to figure things out as he goes along . " Criss feels that Blaine 's confidence is an important aspect of his character , as it is rare for gay teenagers on television to be so " sure of themselves . " He hopes that " all the kids struggling with this issue can look to a guy like Blaine and feel [ inspired ] by his confidence . "
= = = Relationships = = =
The Kurt – Blaine relationship , sometimes referred to by the portmanteau " Klaine " by Glee fans and the media , developed slowly . As the series showrunner , Murphy felt tasked with keeping the two apart as long as possible . He was initially unsure whether the relationship would become a romantic one , and intended to gauge public response to their friendship before planning future developments . He commented , " Part of me thinks he should be the boyfriend , part of me thinks he should just be the mentor . I didn 't want to decide that until we got into sort of the middle of the season . " In December 2010 , Colfer said , " Fans really want it to happen . It 's funny how many people want to see these boys hook up . We 'll see . " Based on the characters ' chemistry and the " immediate outcry " from fans who wanted to see them as a couple , Murphy decided to have Blaine become Kurt 's love interest . Criss noted : " We all want to see Kurt happy , and like all great love stories , if you have two people that can be together you 've got to hold it up . "
Considering Blaine and Kurt 's potential future together , Murphy planned to treat them the same as all other Glee relationships , by making their pairing " as flawed and as exposed as everyone else 's . " This sentiment was re @-@ iterated by executive producer Brad Falchuk , after the characters kissed for the first time . He revealed that their relationship would not run smoothly , and observed that once couples start dating , " Everything goes to hell . " Colfer suggested that Kurt returning to McKinley may cause difficulties in their relationship , but noted " Distance makes the heart grow fonder , right ? That ’ s what they tell me . So even if they do go through some bumps in the road , it would be very realistic . " In a Q & A with Billboard on the day " Born This Way " ran with Kurt 's McKinley return , Criss stated that Blaine and Kurt were " in the honeymoon stages " of their relationship , and would still be " at the end of the [ second ] season " .
In a July 2012 interview with E ! News , Colfer said , " I would like to do something besides say ' I love you , ' and I think Darren [ Criss ] and I agree on that . We 're ready for the next step . They 've been together for a while . Let 's throw some spice and drama into that . " Colfer quipped that he did not know what was in store for the couple , " I hear mixed things . I hear they 're still together but then maybe they 're breaking up . " In September 2012 , Criss seconded Colfer , " We 're like an old married couple now . Let 's shake it up ! "
In the second season episode " Sexy " , Blaine reveals he has a strained relationship with his father .
= = Musical performances = =
As Blaine , Criss features in many musical performances , which have been released as singles , available for download . His first performance , " Teenage Dream " by Katy Perry , was featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 4 . It reached number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 in the week ending November 27 , 2010 , and was the best @-@ selling song in the U.S. that week , selling 214 @,@ 000 copies : the largest figure for a Glee title . It was only the second U.S.-certified gold single in the show 's history . Both Billboard 's Jillian Mapes and Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone deemed " Teenage Dream " the best song of " Never Been Kissed " , the episode in which it featured . The Daily News 's Anthony Benigno gave the song an " A " , and noted that it was " flawless " and improved on Perry 's original . The performance was nominated for the Best Gay Moment of the Year and Favorite Music Video awards at the 2010 AfterElton.com Visibility Awards . A Billboard cover @-@ feature on Criss noted that the performance " arguably ushered in the trend of more current pop hits being reworked by the [ Glee ] cast . "
Later songs performed by Blaine and the Warblers became popular enough to warrant a Warbler soundtrack album , Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers . The tracks had sold over 1 @.@ 3 million copies as singles by the time the album was released . Blaine performed the lead vocal on covers of Train 's " Hey , Soul Sister " , which peaked at number 32 in Canada , " Bills , Bills , Bills " by Destiny 's Child , which reached number 44 in the U.S. , and Robin Thicke 's " When I Get You Alone " , which got to number 47 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Criss downplayed his performance of " Bills , Bills , Bills " , and jested that he ought to issue the group 's lead singer , Beyoncé Knowles , an apology for his cover . Blaine also led on " Silly Love Songs " by Wings , and Maroon 5 's " Misery " , which reached 45 and 52 respectively in the U.S. , and Pink 's " Raise Your Glass " , which peaked at number 30 in Australia .
Blaine duetted with Kurt on Frank Loesser 's " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " , which was included on Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album and reached number 53 in Canada . It was reportedly the most downloaded track of the album , and called " by far the gayest thing that has ever been on TV " by Colfer . Murphy expressed his pride in the number for " push [ ing ] the envelope a bit . " Jessica Ronayne of Zap2it called the duet one of the Christmas episode 's few saving graces . Blaine and Kurt also duetted on Neon Trees ' " Animal " and Hey Monday 's " Candles " , which peaked at 62 and 71 in the U.S. respectively . In an April 2011 interview , Criss stated that he did not feel established enough within the cast to make song suggestions , but had mentioned liking " Animal " to Murphy , who included it in a script soon thereafter . Blaine shared a duet of " Don 't You Want Me " by The Human League with Rachel , which Reiter deemed a musical highlight of the episode " Blame It on the Alcohol " . It was included on Glee : The Music , Volume 5 , and peaked at number 44 in Australia .
Over the course of the season , Blaine 's musical performances leading the Warblers became so prevalent that he was called out for it on @-@ screen . Criss offered the insight : " Blaine definitely had his moment in the sun . I think it 's time to focus back on the characters that fans of the show really know and love . Completely objectively from watching the show , I was like , ' Why does Blaine get all these songs ? This is ridiculous . I want to hear other people doing stuff . ' I think we 're focusing a little more back on New Directions and taking a little bit of a break from the Warblers . "
In the first episode of season three of Glee , " The Purple Piano Project " , Blaine sings " It 's Not Unusual " by Tom Jones when he transfers to McKinley and quits the Warblers for New Directions . After successfully auditioning later in the season for the school 's production of West Side Story with " Something 's Coming " from the musical , he sings " Tonight " in rehearsal and " One Hand , One Heart " in performance , both with his co @-@ star Rachel . He sings lead or co @-@ lead on several songs with New Directions , including " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " ; " Perfect " and " Let It Snow ! Let It Snow ! Let It Snow ! " with Kurt ; " Control " and " Man in the Mirror " with Artie and others ; and his first original song , the duet " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " , with Rachel .
In special tribute episode to Michael Jackson , " Michael " , Blaine sings " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . Futterman wrote that Blaine 's " slick showmanship " made him a " natural for lead vocals " , and TVLine 's Michael Slezak called it " the best use of Darren Criss ' voice on Glee in quite some time " and gave it an " A − " . Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch also gave it an " A − " , and said Criss " captured the excitement and the spunky bravado of the original " . MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan was another fan of " the sheer awesomeness of Darren Criss " on the song , and characterized it as " a tribute that 's more respectful than any other in the episode " . In the fourteenth episode of the third season , " On My Way " , Blaine performs " Cough Syrup " by Young the Giant , which is sung during the Dave Karofsky suicide sequence . Futterman said Blaine " flawlessly deliver [ ed ] the vocal " . Lynch called it a " chilling rendition " that was " hard to shake " and gave it an " A − " , the same grade given by Slezak , who wrote , " taken on its own , Blaine 's vocal was strong and passionate — perhaps better than the original " . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle said it was the " best " of the episode , and added that the " scene was really , really well done and carried maximum emotional punch " . In the following episode , " Big Brother " , Blaine shares a duet of Gotye 's " Somebody That I Used to Know " with his brother Cooper ( Matt Bomer ) . Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV called it the " highlight of the episode " , and it was Hankinson 's favorite performance : " Bomer and Criss did a fantastic job bringing it to life " . Futterman said that " it was initially disconcerting to envision " two brothers singing about a " former love " , but she noted that it " was less weird in context " . In its first week , the cover sold 152 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US , and was number twenty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Reception = =
Blaine has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Ellen DeGeneres praised Criss 's portrayal , and described him as one of Glee 's breakout stars . Entertainment Weekly named him one of the breakout stars of 2010 , with the comment : " It took about 2 minutes and 11 seconds on Glee for Darren Criss to turn into a bona fide Gleek phenomenon . [ ... ] And it doesn 't hurt that his character Blaine 's warm relationship with the show 's other openly gay character , Chris Colfer 's Kurt , continues to resonate with fans . " In November 2010 , the publication also named Criss the series ' best guest @-@ star to date , and praised him for " seamlessly entering the fold with his charm and great voice . " Ronayne deemed him " a much better addition to the show than Chord Overstreet " . Following his Glee debut , Criss won the We 're Wilde About You Rising Star Award at the 2011 Dorian Awards , presented by the Gay and Lesbian Entertainment Critics Association . He also won the 2011 Teen Choice Award for Choice TV Breakout Star .
Indecision over his sexuality in the episode " Blame It on the Alcohol " drew some negative reviews of Blaine . Reiter noted that , " So much of Blaine 's charm has been his certainty about who he is . " Though she found his subplot with Rachel " fun " , she commented : " Blaine 's overwrought speech in the coffee shop after Rachel asks him out just felt off @-@ key . Saying ' bye ' to the Blaine sexual @-@ confusion storyline wouldn 't make us angry at all . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club also criticised the storyline , which , he wrote , " seemed like it might be an interesting , complicated look at teenage sexuality and how it can seem formed but might be more fluid than most teens would give it credit for , then lost its nerve and took the easy way out . " AfterElton.com 's Chris O 'Guinn felt that the only aspect of the storyline handled acceptably was Blaine questioning whether he was bisexual , rather than outright straight . He criticized the shallow examination of his feelings , and wrote : " Bisexuality is such a contentious issue that it should not be fumbled this way . For a character to say ' maybe I 'm bi ' in one scene and then the next say , ' nope , definitely gay ' is almost cruel in how dismissive it is toward bisexuals by trivializing the intense confusion that many bisexual people feel in coming to terms with their orientation . " In a more positive review , Canning opined that Blaine and Kurt 's conversation about sexuality was " great " . He was " glad it wasn 't an easy talk for either of them " and said that it " felt very real for kids in this situation . "
Blaine and Kurt 's relationship has been generally well received . They were named Favorite TV Couple at the 2010 AfterElton.com Visibility Awards , and have been lauded for " leading the way " in representing gay teenagers on television by Entertainment Weekly . Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post referred to them as " one of the most beloved TV couples of the millennium " . When they " finally solidified what their relationship actually is " in the episode " Silly Love Songs " , IGN 's Robert Canning noted that his opinion of Blaine improved . He commented : " I love that the [ serenading of Jeremiah ] blew up in Blaine 's face . The character has always come off to me as annoyingly arrogant , but " Silly Love Songs " humanized the guy . Guess I may have to like him now . " Their first kiss , in the episode " Original Song " , was met with critical acclaim . Mark Perigard of The Boston Herald wrote , " It was utterly , sweetly romantic , and Criss sold the hell out of the moment . It 's long overdue and it will silence the growing legion of critics out there who were unhappy with the pace of this story . " Entertainment Weekly 's Mandi Bierly was so impressed with the scene that she was initially concerned it may be a dream sequence , " because we don 't get romantic , unapologetic first kisses like that between young gay characters on network TV . " She wrote , " Relationships aren 't easy . They ’ ll make mistakes . But if they stay true to themselves , and continue to be as open and honest with each other , we 're in for something special . " Kevin Fallon of The Atlantic thought the kiss was " sweet " , and stated that he was pleased that it attracted no controversy whatsoever . Aly Semigran of MTV praised the interaction between Blaine and Kurt . She called the kiss scene a " sweet , real and , shockingly , un @-@ hyped moment " , and praised Criss and Colfer for " handl [ ing ] it with dignity and honesty " .
While Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter was pleased Blaine 's season three transfer to McKinley in the first episode increased Criss ' screen time with Colfer and the New Directions cast , she stated that the move " screams of co @-@ dependency . " In contrast , Entertainment Weekly 's Abby West found it romantic , and noted : " Blaine and Kurt , with their budding love and witty , pseudo @-@ urbane ways , are my favorite couple to watch . ... I look forward to hearing [ Blaine ] sing more , watching him bump up against the insular Glee clubbers , and seeing him show off his non @-@ uniform attire . Several reviewers were unhappy with the second episode 's revelation that Blaine was a junior , not a senior like Kurt , as had been implied in the previous season . VanDerWerff wrote that Blaine " seems to have simultaneously gotten younger and had a complete personality transplant over the summer " , Billboard 's Rae Votta noted " the continuity @-@ bending plot point that he 's somehow a Junior and not a Senior like his boyfriend " , and Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News allowed her exasperation to show : " Oh really , Glee ? Blaine 's a junior ? Blaine 's younger than Kurt ? Fine . FINE . "
Kurt and Blaine make the decision to have sex for the first time in " The First Time " episode ; many critics were enthusiastic about the fact that a gay couple was being given such a storyline . Canning said that Kurt and Blaine 's " attempts to get a little wild " , and " trying to grow up faster than they should " , were " the better parts of the episode as they felt the most realistic " . Futterman praised their departure from the bar as a " very faithful and honest scene " . VanDerWerff and BuddyTV contributor John Kubicek both had issues with Blaine 's characterization . The latter asserted that he " just behaves however the writers need him to behave in order for the scene to work " , while the former said that Blaine 's season three storyline " hasn ’ t been bad by any means , but it does feel like Darren Criss is playing someone who ’ s quite a bit different from the guy he was playing last season " . Bell was impressed by the way the characters ' relationship " inspires gay youth in a way that we haven 't seen on network television yet " and called them " amazing role models for all teens " , and The Atlantic writer Kevin Fallon said it was " remarkable " and a " milestone " that " the decision by gay teen characters to lose their virginities is given equal weight to that of a straight couple " .
Discussing public response to his character , Criss stated that he particularly enjoyed comments from " people from parts of the world who are maybe not as exposed to certain ideologies " , but had reconsidered their stance on relationships and human rights as a result of the Blaine – Kurt storyline . He called this response " phenomenal " , and said : " I was a straight kid growing up in a very gay community and it 's something that I 've had to watch so many friends have to struggle with and have no place to go to identify in kind of a grander media culture . To be a small piece of that machine is incredibly wonderful . "
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= Michael Walker , Baron Walker of Aldringham =
Field Marshal Michael John Dawson Walker , Baron Walker of Aldringham , GCB , CMG , CBE , DL ( born 7 July 1944 ) is a retired British Army officer . Commissioned in 1966 , he served in Cyprus , Northern Ireland , and in a variety of staff posts in the United Kingdom until 1984 . After being given command of a battalion , he was mentioned in despatches for his service during a second tour of duty in Northern Ireland , this time in Derry , and subsequently served a tour on Gibraltar . He was promoted to brigadier , unusually having never held the rank of colonel , and took command of 20th Armoured Brigade in Germany before becoming I Corps chief of staff .
As a major general , Walker was appointed General Officer Commanding , Eastern District , before becoming Assistant Chief of the Defence Staff at the Ministry of Defence . He took command of NATO 's Allied Rapid Reaction Corps ( ARRC ) , which deployed to the Balkans in 1995 , Walker becoming the first officer to command the land component of the NATO @-@ led Implementation Force . For his service with the multi @-@ national forces in the Balkans , he was awarded the American Legion of Merit . After relinquishing command of the ARRC , Walker spent three years as Commander in Chief , Land Command , before being appointed Chief of the General Staff — the professional head of the British Army — in 2000 . In 2003 , he was promoted to Chief of the Defence Staff ( CDS ) — the professional head of all the British Armed Forces . While CDS , Walker attracted controversy during the modernisation of the armed forces , over allegations of prisoner abuse during the Iraq War , and over comments that the media coverage of Iraq may have endangered British troops .
Walker retired in 2006 and was subsequently appointed Governor of the Royal Hospital Chelsea , a post he held until 2011 . He is married and has three children .
= = Early and personal life = =
Born in Salisbury in the British colony of Southern Rhodesia ( modern @-@ day Zimbabwe ) to William Hampden Dawson Walker and Dorothy Helena Walker ( née Shiach ) , Walker was educated both in Southern Rhodesia and in Yorkshire , first at Milton School , Bulawayo , and then at Woodhouse Grove School , West Yorkshire . He spent 18 months teaching in a Preparatory School before joining the British Army . Walker married Victoria ( " Tor " , née Holme ) , in 1973 and the couple have three children — two sons and one daughter . He lists his interests as sailing , shooting , tennis , skiing and golf .
= = Early military career = =
After attending the Royal Military Academy , Sandhurst , Walker was commissioned into the Royal Anglian Regiment as a second lieutenant on 29 July 1966 . He served as a platoon commander with the 1st Battalion and was promoted to lieutenant on 29 January 1968 . In 1969 he was posted to Cyprus for a two @-@ year tour , and served in Northern Ireland during The Troubles , before attending the Staff College , Camberley . He was promoted to captain on 29 July 1972 .
After serving in a staff position at the Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) , Walker was promoted to major at the end of 1976 , and rejoined 1st Battalion , to become a company commander , based in Tidworth , Wiltshire . In 1979 , he took up another staff post at the MoD , after which he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1982 . Until 1985 , he served as Military Assistant ( MA ) to the Chief of the General Staff . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the New Year Honours List in December 1984 .
In command of the 1st Battalion from 1985 to 1987 , Walker served another tour in Northern Ireland , this time in Derry , and later a tour on Gibraltar . He was mentioned in despatches in 1987 " in recognition of gallant and distinguished service " in Northern Ireland . Unusually , Walker was promoted directly to brigadier at the end of 1987 , without having held the rank of colonel . He took command of 20th Armoured Brigade , based in Germany , from 1987 to 1989 , before holding the post of Chief of Staff , I Corps between 1989 and 1991 .
= = High command = =
Walker attained general officer status with promotion to acting major general in 1991 and took command of North East District and 2nd Infantry Division . Having served in the Gulf War , he was promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) later in 1991 . He was granted the substantive rank of major general on 2 December 1991 , with seniority from 14 February 1991 , going on to serve as General Officer Commanding of the Eastern District and then as Assistant Chief of the General Staff from 11 December 1992 to 3 October 1994 .
On 8 December 1994 , Walker was appointed commander of NATO 's Allied Rapid Reaction Corps ( ARRC ) , which had its headquarters in Rheindahlen , Germany , and promoted to acting lieutenant general . He was granted the substantive rank of lieutenant general on 15 March 1995 , and knighted in the 1995 Queen 's Birthday Honours when he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath . Under Walker 's command , the ARRC deployed to the Balkans in December 1995 . There , he became the first commander of the land component of the NATO @-@ led Implementation Force ( IFOR ) , until his return to the UK in November 1996 .
His IFOR command in Bosnia was indirectly criticised by Richard Holbrooke for his refusal to use his authority to also perform nonmilitary implementation tasks , including arresting indicted war criminals :
Based on Shalikashvili 's statement at White House meetings , Christopher and I had assumed that the IFOR commander would use his authority to do substantially more than he was obligated to do . The meeting with [ Admiral Leighton ] Smith shattered that hope . Smith and his British deputy , General Michael Walker , made clear that they intended to take a minimalist approach to all aspects of implementation other than force protection . Smith signalled this in his first extensive public statement to the Bosnian people , during a live call @-@ in program on Pale Television – an odd choice for his first local media appearance .
He was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George at the end of 1996 .
Succeeded as COMARRC by Sir Mike Jackson , Walker was promoted to acting general and appointed Commander in Chief , Land Command on 27 January 1997 . He was granted the substantive rank of general on 2 April 1997 . In recognition of his service with IFOR between 1995 and 1996 , Walker was awarded the American Legion of Merit ( Degree of Commander ) , and granted unrestricted permission to wear the decoration , in May 1997 . In September 1997 , he was appointed Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp General to Queen Elizabeth II , succeeding General Sir Michael Rose , until he in turn was succeeded by General Sir Richard Dannatt . He was promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the New Year Honours List at the end of 1999 .
Having served just over three years as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Walker was appointed Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) — the professional head of the British Army — on 17 April 2000 , taking over from General Sir Roger Wheeler . He remained CGS for three years , after which he was promoted to Chief of the Defence Staff ( CDS ) — the professional head of all the British Armed Forces — on 2 May 2003 , succeeding Admiral Sir Michael Boyce ( later Lord Boyce ) . As CDS , Walker criticised some of the media coverage of British deployments in Iraq . In particular , he claimed that attacks on the Black Watch were " enhanced " due to news reports on their location . He went on to say that " [ as a result of the media coverage ] , there could well have been a response by those who wished us ill to go and meet us with something like a bomb " . His comments were rejected by a spokesman for the National Union of Journalists , who retaliated " When generals turn around and start blaming reporters for their own mistakes , it is a sign they aren 't doing their own jobs properly " . Also in 2004 , Walker , along with General Sir Mike Jackson , then Chief of the General Staff , attracted controversy over reforms of the armed forces , which included the amalgamation of several army regiments to form larger regiments , leading to the loss of historic names .
In an interview with the BBC in October 2005 , Walker suggested that the army 's recruitment had been adversely affected by the Iraq War . He also commented on the war in Afghanistan , on which he said " There 's a lot of work to be done , of which the military is only a very small part . Ten years , 15 years , long @-@ term . This is not going to be solved in a short term " . In the same month , he gave an interview for The Sunday Times , in which he said that soldiers ' morale had been damaged by the unpopularity of the war among the British public . Later in 2005 , Walker was instrumental in drawing up new procedures for the treatment of British service personnel accused of abusing Iraqi prisoners , following claims that the army had abandoned those soldiers charged in connection with the prisoner abuses . In February 2006 , Walker headed up a military delegation to Bulgaria to discuss military cooperation between the British and Bulgarian governments .
Walker gave evidence to the Iraq Inquiry on 1 February 2010 , in which he spoke about funding for the invasion of Iraq and subsequent planning .
= = = Honorary roles = = =
Lord Walker has held a variety of honorary and ceremonial roles in different regiments . He was granted the honorary titles of Colonel Commandant and Deputy Colonel of Queen 's Division ( of which the Royal Anglian Regiment is part ) in April 1992 and Honorary Colonel , 3rd Battalion Duke of Wellington 's Regiment ( West Riding ) ( Yorkshire Volunteers ) , in October 1993 , which he relinquished on 30 June 1999 . In 1994 , he succeeded General Sir John Learmont as Colonel Commandant of the Army Air Corps and held the title until April 2004 , when he was relieved by then Lieutenant General Sir Richard Dannatt ( later General Lord Dannatt ) . In 1997 , he was appointed honorary Colonel , The Royal Anglian Regiment , in succession to Major General Patrick Stone , and was himself succeeded as Deputy Colonel by Brigadier John Sutherell . Sutherell , then a major general , went on to succeed Walker as Honorary Colonel in February 2000 .
= = Retirement = =
Walker relinquished his appointment as Chief of the Defence Staff in April 2006 and retired from the Army , succeeded as CDS by Air Chief Marshal Jock Stirrup . In September 2006 , Walker was appointed Governor of the Royal Hospital Chelsea , holding the post until February 2011 when he resigned suddenly . On 24 November 2006 , it was announced that he would receive a life peerage , and , on 19 December , he was created Baron Walker of Aldringham , of Aldringham in the county of Suffolk , sitting in the House of Lords as a crossbencher . He was given the ceremonial appointment of Deputy Lieutenant of Greater London in 2007 . Walker was appointed as an honorary field marshal in the Queen 's 2014 Birthday Honours .
= = Arms = =
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= Valentine 's Day ( The Office ) =
" Valentine 's Day " is the sixteenth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's twenty @-@ second episode overall . Written by Michael Schur and directed by Greg Daniels , the episode first aired in the United States on February 9 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Craig Anton , Andy Buckley , Charles Esten , and Conan O 'Brien as himself .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) travels to New York City to give a presentation , but accidentally tells everyone that he " hooked up " with Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) . Meanwhile , the rest of the office is jealous when Phyllis Lapin 's ( Phyllis Smith ) boyfriend Bob Vance gives her several gifts . Also , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) gives Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) a bobblehead model of himself .
The episode was the first time that Pam Beesly ( Fischer ) had a different hairstyle . In addition , many of the scenes were improvised , including Dwight 's line about ham and Michael 's antics in New York . " Valentine 's Day " received mostly positive reviews from television critics and was watched by 8 @.@ 95 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
Before a Valentine 's Day meeting at the corporate offices in New York City with Jan Levinson and the new CFO David Wallace , Michael Scott accidentally lets slip to the other branch managers that he and Jan " hooked up " . At the meeting , instead of simply providing the financial status of his branch as asked , Michael shows a heartwarming video called " The Faces of Scranton " before reluctantly providing the information requested . Craig , from the Albany branch , is completely unprepared for the meeting and attempts to cover for it by suggesting that " maybe I should 've slept with [ Jan ] , too . " In a private conversation with Michael , Jan is convinced that her career is over , but Michael defuses the situation by explaining to the CFO that it was a bad joke and accepts responsibility for the situation . As Michael leaves , Jan kisses him in the elevator , but then groans when she realizes they were caught on camera .
Meanwhile , back in the office , Angela Martin gives Dwight Schrute a " Dwight " bobblehead doll , and he gives her a key to his home . Phyllis Lapin is inundated with gifts from her boyfriend Bob Vance , while Pam Beesly is irritated with Roy Anderson when the only thing he gives her for Valentine 's Day is the promise of the " best sex of [ her ] life " . Jim Halpert is forced to listen to , and witness Ryan Howard turn Kelly Kapoor down for a date . At the end of the day , Jim tells Pam " Happy Valentine 's Day " and she watches him longingly as he leaves .
= = Production = =
This episode was the fourth episode of the series directed by series creator Greg Daniels . Daniels had previously directed the first season episode " Basketball " , along with the second season episodes " The Dundies " and " The Client " . " Valentine 's Day " was written by Michael Schur , who plays Dwight 's Amish cousin Mose . In the DVD commentary for this episode , Greg Daniels described how some of Michael 's actions in this episode , such as having the requested branch info , unlike Craig , and saving Jan 's job by deflecting Craig 's comments when talking to David Wallace , were scripted to show how he plausibly remains employed .
For the first time ever on The Office , Pam Beesly 's ( Jenna Fischer ) hair is in a different style . Several hairstyles were shown to Greg Daniels before the one used in the episode was selected . Dwight 's line about a ham being a romantic gift was written during filming on the set . The writers did not have a punchline in the scene , so they came up with several alternatives , including ham , as well as " a boombox " . Most of the street scenes in New York City were improvised . They had to be kept short because crowds quickly formed around Steve Carell when he was recognized . Conan O 'Brien appeared in a cameo in the episode . He previously worked with Daniels on the writing staffs for Not Necessarily the News , Saturday Night Live and The Simpsons and the two also went to Harvard University together .
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael handing out plastic roses , Michael choosing the most attractive part of a woman , Creed calling everybody " Ace " , Michael meeting Devon in New York , the Vance Refrigeration employees getting into a fistfight , Michael wondering why his meeting is on Valentine 's Day , Jim learning that Dwight has a girlfriend , and Kevin learning that his fiancée has returned to town .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael notes that New York is the " city so nice they named it twice " . He then proceeds to explain that the other name is Manhattan , failing to realize the limerick refers to the city of New York , which also lies in the state of New York . Later , he eats pizza at a Sbarro restaurant , a chain restaurant , but calls it his " favorite New York pizza joint " . At Rockefeller Center , Michael thinks he sees Tina Fey , but it turns out to be a random person . Unbeknownst to Michael , Conan O 'Brien walks past him . Near the end of the episode , Michael is posing in front of a Broadway sign for Fiddler on the Roof , and he says " Oy , vey ! Schmear ! " in a Yiddish accent . Michael 's " Faces of Scranton " video plays over " With or Without You " by the Irish rock band U2 . Michael later quotes a line from the 1980 comedy film Airplane ! when he talks to Jan : " Don 't call me Shirley " .
= = Reception = =
" Valentine 's Day " originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 9 , 2006 . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 95 million viewers . This marked a dramatic improvement from the previous episode " Boys and Girls " , which was viewed by only 5 @.@ 42 million viewers .
" Valentine 's Day " received mostly positive reviews . Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad wrote that " The Office continues to deliver outstanding episodes week after week . " Sciannamea went on to say that the episode was " one of their best " and that it left him " wanting more " . " M. Giant " of Television Without Pity graded the episode with a " A " . Brendan Babish of DVD Verdict was pleased with the entry and awarded it an " A – " . He named the highlight of the episode " Michael 's overwrought ' The Faces of Scranton ' presentation played over U2 's ' With or Without You . ' " Betsy Bozdech of DVD Journal called the episode " memorable " and noted that it illustrated Pam and Jim 's relationship ebb and flow . Francis RizzoIII of DVD Talk declared that Ryan 's statement about beginning to date Kelly before Valentine 's Day was " one of the funniest lines in the entire season . "
After the episode , fans wanted their own bobblehead dolls of Dwight . A petition was started to get NBC to sell them at their online store . NBC responded by creating an initial run of 4 @,@ 000 bobblehead dolls , which sold out almost immediately . The network decided to make more , and since then , the bobblehead has become the best @-@ selling merchandise on the NBC website , and has sold over 150 @,@ 000 units .
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= Hale Barns =
Hale Barns is a village near Altrincham in the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford , Greater Manchester , England . Historically part of Cheshire , Hale Barns lies about 12 miles ( 19 km ) south of Manchester city centre , 2 miles west of Manchester Airport and close to the River Bollin . At the 2001 census , the village had a population of 9 @,@ 143 , increasing to 9 @,@ 736 at the 2011 Census .
During the medieval period , Hale Barns was originally an outlying area of the township of Hale but the growth in prosperity of the area led Hale Barns to become established as a separate settlement . The village gets its name from the tithe barn that used to stand in Hale Barns . Before the industrial revolution , Hale Barns was an agricultural village , but since then evolved into a commuter settlement . Today the village is a rural place with ' The Square ' as its economic centre which is currently undergoing redevelopment . The Roman Catholic boys grammar school St Ambrose College is in Hale Barns . The village is also home to Ringway golf club . Cotteril Clough , in Hale Barns , is a Site of Special Scientific Interest for its ancient and diverse woodland where Ben Smith wandered as a child .
= = History = =
What were thought to be fragments of Roman pottery tiles were found in Hale Barns in the 1880s near the site of what is now St Ambrose College . The artefacts were lost before their antiquity could be confirmed , but led local historian W. Thompson Wakin to suggest there was probably a Roman villa in the area .
The first reference to Hale is contained within the Domesday Book , at the time ' Hale Barns ' was just an outlying hamlet contained within the manor of Hale . According to the Domesday Book , the manor of Hale was owned by a Saxon thegn Aelfward , who was replaced by the Norman , Hamon de Massey who also gained possession of Dunham and Bowdon and would remain barons of the area until the 14th century . The manor was considered prosperous in comparison to other manors in the north west of England .
The settlements of Hale and Hale Barns are closely linked ; what would later become Hale Barns spent most of the medieval period as an extension of the more dominant Hale . During this era the land around Hale and Hale Barns was used agriculturally because although the soil is poor draining , it is fertile . By the middle of the 15th century Hale Barns had established an identity completely separate from neighbouring Hale as demonstrated by the tithe barn which was established around this time . The tithe barn was for storing the tithes – a tenth of the farm 's produce which was to be given to the church . Such an establishment can be seen as a sign of the area 's prosperity . The original barn no longer survives but there is a drawing of it ( from 1844 ) . It is the source of the village 's name . The first explicit reference to the village of Hale Barns – rather than Hale – is in a document from 1616 .
The English Civil War affected all of England ; even families were split over Royalist or Parliamentarian loyalties . Little is recorded over the divisions within Hale Barns , but Hale and Hale Barns did emerge from the Civil War more or less untouched by events – though there was a heavy tax to pay to support the Parliamentarian army they avoided much of the requisitioning of supplies and animals for passing armies . None of the Royalists in Hale and Hale Barns had their lands confiscated or was forced to pay fines .
Having long been agricultural land , in the 18th century the town was divided up into five farms : Tanyard , Partington , Oakfield , Broadoak , and Elm . Hale Chapel was established in Hale Barns by Nonconformists in 1723 on what is now Chapel Lane . It underwent alterations around 1880 . The chapel is the earliest place of worship in either Hale or Hale Barns and is a Grade II * listed building , one of only nine in Trafford . It also houses an eighteenth @-@ century pulpit and nineteenth @-@ century stained glass . In 1740 , a school was founded by the Unitarian minister of Hale – a time when education was a rare commodity – and can be seen on a map of 1800 along with a tithe barn , two inns , five farms , four cottages , the school house and school rooms .
In the late 19th century a building called " Manor House " was built on the site of the old Tanyard farm , for the purpose of the owner 's retirement . In 2006 a timber @-@ framed barn built around 1701 – originally belonging to the Tanyard Farm and later converted to stables for Manor House – was torn down due to lack of funds to maintain the building . The Grade II listed building – known as " Manor House Stables " – was the last timber @-@ framed building in Hale Barns .
During the 20th century , urbanisation affected Hale Barns , turning the place from an agricultural village into the commuter settlement it is today , focused around ' The Square ' – a shopping precinct . Its main A538 road – Hale Road – runs through the centre of Hale Barns and leads towards Manchester Airport and Wilmslow .
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name Hale , which occurs throughout Britain , derives from the Anglo @-@ Saxon halh meaning a nook or shelter , as supported by the surrounding area which has natural features that would provide shelter . The ' Barns ' element of Hale Barns comes from the Old Tithe Barn .
= = Governance = =
Hale Barns is part of Trafford Metropolitan Borough of Greater Manchester . Up until local government reforms in 1974 , Hale Barns formed part of the administrative county of Cheshire . The Hale Barns ward has three out of sixty @-@ three seats on Trafford Council , and at the 2012 local election all three seats were held by the Conservatives . Since 1997 , Hale Barns has formed part of the Altrincham and Sale West Constituency , before that it was encompassed by the Altrincham and Sale constituency . Since the formation of the Altrincham and Sale West constituency in 1997 it had been represented in the House of Commons by the Conservative MP , Graham Brady .
= = Geography = =
Hale Barns is located at 53 ° 22 ′ 3 @.@ 36 ″ N 2 ° 19 ′ 4 @.@ 8 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 3676 , − 2 @.@ 318 ) , 12 miles ( 19 km ) to the south of Manchester city centre . It is just east of Hale and south east of Altrincham . The town is bounded by the River Bollin to the south , the M56 to the east and the residential areas of Altrincham to the west and Newhall Green to the north . The ward profile produced by Trafford MBC describes its location and economic nature as follows .
" Hale Barns lies at the southern tip of the Borough ( of Trafford ) ... The Ward contains a large amount of agricultural land including two private golf courses . There is also a number of private sports clubs within the Ward providing facilities for tennis , bowling and football . It is generally considered to be an affluent Ward in the top 10 % wealthiest areas in England . "
— Trafford MBC 2006
The climate of Hale Barns – and Greater Manchester as a whole – is generally temperate , with few extremes of temperature or weather . The mean temperature is slightly above average for the United Kingdom ; whereas annual rainfall and average amount of sunshine is slightly below the average for the UK .
= = Demography = =
At the 2001 UK census , the village of Hale Barns had a total population of 9 @,@ 143 and 3732 households . Of those households , 44 % were married couples living together , 5 % were co @-@ habiting couples and 6 % were lone parents . The town had a high percentage of households made up of married couples ( 44 % ) compared to the figure for the rest of Trafford ( 37 % ) and England ( also 37 % ) . The average household size was 2 @.@ 45 . For every 100 females , there were 93 @.@ 9 males .
The ethnicity of the Hale Barns is 91 @.@ 9 % white , 1 @.@ 1 % mixed race , 0 @.@ 4 % black , 5 @.@ 4 % non @-@ Chinese Asian , and 1 @.@ 2 % Chinese . The age distribution was 6 % aged 0 – 4 years , 15 % aged 5 – 15 years , 4 % aged 16 – 19 years , 27 % aged 20 – 44 years , 27 % aged 45 – 64 years and 22 % aged 65 years and over . The town had a high percentage of residents over 65 , compared with the national average of 16 % .
The Trafford MBC Ward Profile for the Hale Barns ward describes it as being
" Diverse in nature and home to a large Jewish and Muslim community groups . "
– Trafford MBC 2006
= = Religion = =
According to the 2001 census , the religious make up of Hale Barns is 70 @.@ 4 % Christian , 7 @.@ 9 % Jewish , 4 @.@ 1 % Muslim , 1 @.@ 5 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 3 % Buddhist and 0 @.@ 1 % Sikh . 9 @.@ 5 % were recorded as having no religion , 0 @.@ 1 % had an alternative religion and 6 @.@ 2 % did not state their religion . Hale Barns is located in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury. and the Church of England Diocese of Chester . Places of worship include Holy Angels ' Church a large Roman Catholic Church linked to St Ambrose College which is situated in Wicker Lane at the junction with Hale Road at the western end of the village centre ; All Saints ' Church belongs to the Church of England and was built 1967 on the site . Hale and District Synagogue serves Hale and Hale Barns and is situated on Shay Lane in Hale Barns . It was rebuilt on its previous site in 2003 ; the modern structure has a synagogue , nursery , function suite and dedicated study room Beit HaMidrash . It is also the site of the South Manchester Mikveh with a utensil mikveh that is adjuncted to the main mikveh building .
= = Education = =
Because of its small size , Hale Barns has few schools . Amongst them are St Ambrose College which provides education for 11- to 18 @-@ year @-@ olds and Elmridge Primary .
Primary schools
Elmridge Primary School is a co @-@ educational day school . It had 240 pupils in the 2011 / 12 school year .
Secondary schools
St. Ambrose College is a Catholic Boy 's Secondary School situated adjacent to Holy Angels Church and Hale Road , near the centre of Hale Barns village . The Christian Brothers came to England from Guernsey during the Second World War and remained to establish the college in 1946 . The college celebrated its 60th anniversary in 2006 . The school is a specialist Maths and Computing College .
In 2005 around 800 pupils attended the school . The College was awarded funding in the summer of 2006 for rebuilding on the current site as part of the Building Schools for the Future Programme . In 2006 , 98 @.@ 3 % of pupils achieved at least 5 A * -C grades at GCSE compared to an average of 66 @.@ 7 % for all secondary schools in Trafford and a national UK average of 61 @.@ 3 % ; 97 @.@ 5 % of its pupils gained at least 5 A * -C grades at GCSE including English and maths , ranking the school 4th out of Trafford 's 19 secondary schools .
In December 2012 , the college was implicated in a child sex abuse case involving teaching staff carrying out alleged acts of abuse both on and off school grounds , although no current staff are said to be involved . More than fifty former pupils contacted police , either as victims of , or witnesses to , sexual abuse . The alleged sexual abuse , including molestation of children while corporal punishment was administered , stemmed from 1962 onwards and continued over four decades .
= = Economy = =
According to Trafford MBC , Hale Barns is in the top 10 % wealthiest areas in England . At the 2001 UK census , the Hale Barns ward had a possible workforce of approximately 6 @,@ 449 people . The economic activity of residents in the Hale Barns electoral ward was 36 % in full @-@ time employment , 12 % in part @-@ time employment , 28 % self @-@ employed , 1 @.@ 5 % unemployed , 1 @.@ 7 % students with jobs , 4 @.@ 7 % students without jobs , 18 @.@ 7 % retired , 7 @.@ 3 % looking after home or family , 2 @.@ 6 % permanently sick or disabled and 2 @.@ 2 % economically inactive for other reasons . Hale Barns has a very high rate of self @-@ employment ( 28 % ) compared with rest of Trafford ( 16 % ) and England ( 17 % ) . Hale Barns also has low rates of unemployment ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) compared with Trafford ( 2 @.@ 7 % ) and England ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) . The Office for National Statistics estimated that during the period of April 2001 to March 2002 the average gross weekly income of households in Hale Barns was £ 660 ( £ 34 @,@ 320 per year ) .
According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of residents in Hale Barns was 22 @.@ 9 % property and business services , 15 @.@ 7 % retail and wholesale , 12 @.@ 1 % health and social work , 11 @.@ 0 % manufacturing , 9 @.@ 4 % education , 6 @.@ 8 % transport and communications , 4 @.@ 7 % finance , 4 @.@ 5 % construction , 3 @.@ 9 % hotels and restaurants , 3 @.@ 2 % public administration and defence , 0 @.@ 6 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 5 % agriculture , and 4 @.@ 6 % other . This was roughly in line with national figures , except for the town 's relatively high percentage of workers in property and business services .
A shopping centre was built in Hale Barns in the 1960s called " The Square Shopping Centre " . The site was being considered for redevelopment and proposals were subjected to consultation in 2005 . In 2007 the Council and Developer participated in a Planning Inquiry after the council refused planning permission for the proposed redevelopment . However , in 2013 , the council agreed , and the new shopping Centre , containing a Booths and a Costa Coffee , is now open .
= = Leisure and Recreation = =
There are a number of private sports clubs within the Hale Barns providing facilities for tennis , bowling and football . This includes the home of Hale Barns Cricket Club .
Halecroft Park
Halecroft Park is near the centre of Hale Barns and was crowned North West region winner in the prestigious ' Britain 's Best Park ' competition . Designed by Edgar Wood , the ornamental gardens of Halecroft Park were created in 1891 as part of Halecroft House . The park was winner of the Green Flag Award 3 years running ( 2003 – 2006 ) for setting a standard for parks and green spaces in England and Wales .
The Tennis Club Hale Barns
Private members tennis club with 5 astroturf courts , one floodlit , established in 1924 at The Pavilion , Chapel Lane .
Ringway Golf Club
Covering 18 holes and 6 @,@ 482 yards , Ringway Golf Club was designed by Harry Colt in 1909 and further developed by James Braid .
Cotteril Clough
Cotteril Clough is a Site of Special Scientific Interest situated close to the River Bollin . It has been designated due to its ancient woodland which is among the most diverse in Greater Manchester . It is managed by the Cheshire Wildlife Trust .
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= Goodrich Castle =
Goodrich Castle is a now ruinous Norman medieval castle situated to the north of the village of Goodrich in Herefordshire , England , controlling a key location between Monmouth and Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye . It was praised by William Wordsworth as the " noblest ruin in Herefordshire " and is considered by historian Adrian Pettifer to be the " most splendid in the county , and one of the best examples of English military architecture " .
Goodrich Castle was probably built by Godric of Mappestone after the Norman invasion of England , initially as an earth and wooden fortification . In the middle of the 12th century the original castle was replaced with a stone keep , and was then expanded significantly during the late 13th century into a concentric structure combining luxurious living quarters with extensive defences . The success of Goodrich 's design influenced many other constructions across England over the following years . It became the seat of the powerful Talbot family before falling out of favour as a residence in late Tudor times .
Held first by Parliamentary and then Royalist forces in the English Civil War of the 1640s , Goodrich was finally successfully besieged by Colonel John Birch in 1646 with the help of the huge " Roaring Meg " mortar , resulting in the subsequent slighting of the castle and its descent into ruin . At the end of the 18th century , however , Goodrich became a noted picturesque ruin and the subject of many paintings and poems ; events at the castle provided the inspiration for Wordsworth 's famous 1798 poem " We are Seven " . By the 20th century the site was a well @-@ known tourist location , now owned by English Heritage and open to the public .
= = Architecture = =
Goodrich Castle stands on a high rocky sandstone outcrop overlooking the River Wye . It commands a crossing of the river , known as Walesford or Walford , Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye , about 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) from Hereford and 6 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) from Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye . The castle guards the line of the former Roman road from Gloucester to Caerleon as it crosses from England into Wales .
At the heart of the castle is an early Norman square keep of light grey sandstone , with Norman windows and pilaster buttresses . Although the keep had thick walls , its relatively small size – the single chambers on each floor measure only 5 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 by 15 ft ) internally – would have made it more useful for defence than for day @-@ to @-@ day living . The keep originally had a first @-@ storey door for safety , this was later turned into a window and the entrance brought down to the ground floor . The keep would originally have had an earth mound built up against the base of it to protect against attack , and the stone work remains rougher in the first few courses of masonry .
Around the keep is an essentially square structure guarded by three large towers , all built during the 1280s from somewhat darker sandstone . On the more vulnerable southern and eastern sides of the castle , ditches 27 metres ( 90 ft ) long and 9 metres ( 28 ft ) deep have been cut into the rock , exploiting a natural fissure . These towers have large " spurs " , resulting from the interface of a solid , square @-@ based pyramid with the circular towers rising up against the walls . This feature is characteristic of castles in the Welsh Marches , including St Briavel 's and Tonbridge Castle , and was intended to prevent the undermining of the towers by attackers .
The castle 's fourth corner forms its gatehouse . Here the classic Edwardian gatehouse design has been transformed into an asymmetrical structure , with one tower much larger than the other . The gatehouse included portcullises , murder @-@ holes and a drawbridge . Beyond the gatehouse lies a large barbican , inspired by a similar design of the period at the Tower of London and possibly built by the same workmen , designed to protect the causeway leading to the gatehouse . The barbican today is only half of its original height , and includes its own gate , designed to trap intruders within the inner defences . The gatehouse and barbican are linked by a stone causeway .
The gatehouse 's eastwards @-@ facing tower contains the chapel , an unusual arrangement driven by a lack of space , with a recently restored east window of reset 15th @-@ century glass designed by Nicola Hopwood , which illuminates the priest 's seat , or sedile . The 15th @-@ century window frame itself replaced an even taller , earlier 13th @-@ century window . The chapel 's west window is modern , and commemorates British servicemen who died between 1936 – 76 in radar development . The altar itself is particularly old , possibly pre @-@ dating the castle .
The bailey was designed to include a number of spacious domestic buildings . These include a great hall , a solarium , kitchen , buttery and pantry , with a luxuriously large number of gardrobes and fireplaces . The large towers provided additional accommodation . The design of the domestic buildings was skilfully interlocked to support the defensive arrangements of the bailey . The great hall for example , 20 by 9 metres ( 66 by 30 ft ) , was placed in the strongest position overlooking the river Wye , allowing it to benefit from multiple large windows and a huge fireplace without sacrificing defensive strength . Water for the castle was originally raised from the courtyard well , but was later piped in from a spring across the valley ; the castle kitchens had acquired running water by the beginning of the 17th century . The design of the buildings ensured that the servants and nobility were able to live separately from one another in the confined space of the castle , revolutionary at the time .
Beyond the main bailey walls lies the stable block , now ruined but with a visible cobble floor . The stables and the north and west sides of the castle were protected by another , smaller curtain wall , but this is now largely ruined . Accounts suggest that the original stables could hold around 60 horses , although by the 17th century they had been expanded to accommodate more .
= = History = =
= = = Medieval history = = =
= = = = 11th and 12th centuries = = = =
Goodrich Castle appears to have been in existence by 1101 , when it was known as Godric ’ s Castle , named probably after Godric of Mappestone , a local Anglo @-@ Saxon thane and landowner mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 . Victorian historians , however , believed the castle to date back further to the pre @-@ Norman conquest days of King Canute , and the site may have been among a small number of Saxon fortifications along the Welsh border . By Norman times , Goodrich formed part of the Welsh Marches , a sequence of territories granted to Norman nobles in , and alongside , Wales . Although Goodrich lay on the safer , English side of the border , the threat of raids and attacks continued throughout most of the period .
During the 12th century the attitudes of the English nobility towards the Welsh began to harden ; the policies of successive rulers , but especially Henry II , began to become more aggressive in the region . In the mid @-@ 12th century Godric 's original earth and timber fortification was dismantled and replaced by a tall but relatively small square keep built of stone , sometimes known as " Macbeth 's Tower " . The keep was designed to be secure and imposing but relatively cheap to build . It is uncertain , however , precisely who was responsible for this rebuilding or the date of the work , which may have been between 1120 and 1176 .
At the beginning of the 12th century , the castle had passed from Godric to William Fitz Baderon , thought to be his son @-@ in @-@ law , and on to his son , Baderon of Monmouth , in the 1120s . England descended into anarchy , however , during the 1130s as the rival factions of Stephen and his cousin the Empress Matilda vied for power . Baderon of Monmouth married Rohese de Clare , a member of the powerful de Clare family who usually supported Stephen , and there are records of Baderon having to seize Goodrich Castle during the fighting in the region , which was primarily held by supporters of Matilda . Some suspect that Baderon may have therefore built the stone keep in the early years of the conflict . Stephen went on , however , to appoint Baderon 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Gilbert de Claire , the Earl of Pembroke , and Gilbert de Clare eventually acquired Goodrich Castle himself . Gilbert 's son , Richard de Clare , known as " Strongbow " , succeeded him in 1148 , and Richard is another candidate for the construction of the keep . In 1154 Richard fell out of favour with King Henry II because of the de Clares ' support for Stephen , and the castle was taken into royal hands . Some argue that the king himself may have ordered the construction of the great keep .
= = = = 13th and 14th centuries = = = =
During the following reigns of King Richard I and his brother John , the castle and manor were held by the Crown . King John , however , lost many of his lands in France which in turn deprived key English nobles of their own estates – John became concerned about possible opposition to his rule . Accordingly , in 1203 John transferred Goodrich Castle and the surrounding manor to William Marshal , Earl of Pembroke , to partially compensate him for his lost lands on the continent . Marshal was a famous English knight with reputation as a heroic warrior , and he expanded Goodrich by building an additional towered curtain wall in stone , around the existing keep . Marshal had to intervene to protect Goodrich Castle from Welsh attack , most famously in 1216 when he was obliged to leave Henry III 's coronation feast in Gloucester to hurry back to Goodrich to reinforce the castle .
Marshal 's sons inherited the castle after their father 's death ; Marshal left the castle to his eldest son , William , who in turn gave it to his younger brother , Walter . After William 's death , however , Marshal 's second son , Richard , took over the castle . Richard led the baronial opposition to Henry III and allied himself with the Welsh , resulting in King Henry besieging Goodrich Castle in 1233 and retaking personal control for a period . Walter was eventually given Goodrich back once more , but died shortly afterwards in 1245 .
The castle briefly reverted to the Crown again , but in 1247 passed by marriage to William de Valence , half brother to Henry III . De Valence was a French nobleman from Poitiers and a noted soldier who spent most of his life fighting in military campaigns ; Henry arranged his marriage to Joan de Munchensi , one of the heiresses to the Marshal estate . The marriage made Valence immensely rich and gave him the title of Earl of Pembroke .
The Welsh border situation remained unsettled however , and in the decades after 1250 security grew significantly worse , as the Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd conducted numerous raids into English territories . The Wye valley and Goodrich were particularly affected by these raids .
Accordingly , William de Valence began to build a much larger castle around the original keep from the 1280s onwards , demolishing Marshal 's earlier work . As part of the extremely expensive construction work , Valence used oak trees drawn from several royal forests . Valence was building at the same time that his nephew Edward I was constructing his major castles in the north of Wales , and the concentric castle that he built at Goodrich is both very similar in design and a rarity in England itself . Valence 's son , Aymer de Valence built an additional line of outer defences before his death in 1324 , including the external barbican , inspired by that at the Tower of London , and for which the earlier Valence barbican at Pembroke may have been an experimental forerunner . The effect was an early success in converting a fortress into a major dwelling , without damaging its defensive arrangements , and influenced the later castle conversion at Berkeley .
The castle then passed to Aymer 's niece , Elizabeth de Comyn , a well @-@ connected young noblewoman . By the middle of the 1320s , however , England was in the grip of the oppressive rule of the Marcher lords Hugh le Despenser the older and his son Hugh Despenser the younger , the royal favourites of King Edward II . As part of a " sweeping revenge " on their rivals , especially in the Marches , the Despensers illegally seized a wide range of properties , particularly from vulnerable targets such as widows , wives whose husbands were out of favour with the king or unmarried women . Upon her inheritance , Hugh le Despenser the younger promptly kidnapped Elizabeth in London and transported her to Herefordshire to be imprisoned in her own castle at Goodrich . Threatened with death , Elizabeth was finally forced to sign over the castle and other lands to the Despensers in April 1325 . Elizabeth then married Richard Talbot , the 2nd Baron Talbot , who seized back the castle in 1326 shortly before Queen Isabella of France landed in England and deposed both the Despensers and her husband Edward II ; Talbot and Elizabeth regained their legal title to the castle the following year . Richard later received permission from Isabella 's son Edward III to create a dungeon under the keep for holding prisoners .
= = = = 15th and 16th centuries = = = =
Goodrich remained the favourite home of the Richard Talbot 's descendants for many years . During the early years , the security situation in Wales remained of concern . Owain Glyndŵr rebelled against English rule in 1402 and Welsh forces invaded the Goodrich area in 1404 and 1405 . Gilbert Talbot was responsible for fighting back the Welsh advance and securing the castle . As time went on , however , the threat began to diminish . During the 15th century the Talbots considerably expanded the size of the lord 's quarters in the castle and provided additional accommodation for servants and retainers .
The Talbots became the Earls of Shrewsbury in 1442 , shortly before the Wars of the Roses in which they supported the Lancastrian faction . The wars meant that the Talbots were frequently fighting elsewhere in England , and often staying at their castle in Sheffield . John Talbot died in the Lancastrian defeat at Northampton in 1460 , and the castle was forfeited and transferred to the Yorkist William Herbert . John 's son , also called John Talbot , later made his peace with the king , however , and regained control of his lands and Goodrich Castle before his death in 1473 .
By the 16th century the castle was becoming less fashionable as a residence . Goodrich was too distant from London to be a useful power base , and was gradually abandoned in favour of more stylish residences , Goodrich continued to be used as a judicial centre however ; the antiquarian John Leland noted that some of the castle was used to hold prisoners for the local court during the 1530s , and the castle ditch was sometimes used to store confiscated cattle taken from local farmers .
In 1616 , Gilbert Talbot died with no male heir and Goodrich passed into the hands of Henry Grey , Earl of Kent . The Greys chose not to live at Goodrich , but instead rented the castle to a series of tenants .
= = = English Civil War = = =
Goodrich Castle became the scene of one of the most desperate sieges during the English Civil War in the 1640s , which saw the rival factions of Parliament and the king vie for power across England . In the years before the war , there had been a resurgence of building at the castle . Richard Tyler , a local lawyer , became the tenant and constable of the castle , and during the early 1630s there had been considerable renovation work . Shortly after the outbreak of war , the Earl of Stamford , with support from Tyler , garrisoned the castle for Parliament until December 1643 , when increasing Royalist pressure in the region forced his withdrawal to Gloucester . The castle was then occupied by a garrison led by the Royalist Sir Henry Lingen . The occupation was not peaceful , with Royalist troops burning surrounding farm buildings – Tyler himself was imprisoned by Lingen , although not before he had begun to sell off his livestock and other moveable property . Some references to Goodrich Castle during this period refer to it as Guthridge Castle , a variant on the name Goodrich .
As the Royalist situation deteriorated , the south @-@ west became one of the few remaining Royalist strongholds . Lingen , with 200 men and 90 horses at Goodrich Castle , conducted raids on Parliamentary forces in the region , representing a continuing challenge . No action had been taken , however , to strengthen the castle 's defences with more modern 17th @-@ century earthworks , and the castle remained essentially in its medieval condition .
In 1646 , the Parliamentary Colonels John Birch and Robert Kyrle marched south from their successful Siege of Hereford and besieged the castle , with the aim of eliminating one of the few remaining Royalist strongholds . There was some personal animosity between Lingen and Birch , and both were outspoken , impulsive men . Birch 's first move was to prevent further attacks from Lingen , and on 9 March he burned the weakly defended stables in a surprise night attack , driving away the Royalist horses and temporarily denying the Royalist forces ' mobility . Birch was unable to press home his advantage however , and over the next few months Lingen succeeded in replacing some of his horses and resumed his attacks on Parliamentary forces .
In June , Birch returned and besieged the castle itself . He found that it was too strong to be taken by direct attack , and instead began laying down trenches to allow him to bring artillery to bear on the structure . Parliamentary attacks broke the pipe carrying water into the castle , and the cisterns in the courtyard were destroyed by exploding shells , forcing the garrison to depend on the older castle well . With the castle still holding out , Colonel Birch built an enormous mortar called " Roaring Meg " , able to fire a gunpowder @-@ filled shell 85 – 90 kilograms ( 187 – 198 lb ) in weight , in a local forge .
Birch concentrated his efforts on the north @-@ west tower , using his mortar against the masonry and undermining the foundations with his sappers . Lingen responded with a counter @-@ mine dug out under Parliament 's own tunnel . This would probably have succeeded , but Birch brought his mortar forward under the cover of darkness and launched a close @-@ range attack on the tower , which collapsed and buried Lingen 's counter @-@ mine . Down to their last four barrels of gunpowder and thirty barrels of beer , and with a direct assault now imminent , the Royalists surrendered . According to tradition , the garrison left to the tune of " Sir Henry Lingen 's Fancy " .
Despite the damage , Tyler was able to move back into his castle , which was now protected by a small Parliamentary garrison . After investigation by Parliamentary agents Brown and Selden , however , the castle was slighted the following year , which rendered it impossible to defend . The Countess of Kent , the new owner of the castle , was given £ 1 @,@ 000 in damages , but chose not to rebuild the fortification as it was by then virtually uninhabitable .
= = = 18th and 19th @-@ century history = = =
After the Civil War , Goodrich Castle remained with the Earls of Kent until 1740 , when it was sold by Henry Grey to Admiral Thomas Griffin . Griffin undertook some restoration of the castle but retained it as a ruin .
During the 1780s the concept of the picturesque ruin was popularised by the English clergyman William Gilpin . Goodrich Castle was one of the ruins he captured in his book Observations on the River Wye in 1782 , writing that the castle was an example of the " correctly picturesque " landscape . By this time , the castle was in a slow state of decay . Theodore Fielding , an early Victorian historian , noted how the " castle 's situation , far from human dwellings , and the stillness which that solitude , insures to its precinct , leaves contemplation to all the solemnity , that is inspired by the sight of grandeur sinking in dignity , into decay " . The Regency and Victorian watercolour artists David Cox and William Callow also captured Goodrich Castle and its landscape in paint , again invoking the picturesque , romantic mood of the setting at the time .
The castle was praised by William Wordsworth as the " noblest ruin in Herefordshire " . Wordsworth first visited Goodrich Castle in 1793 , and an encounter with a little girl he met while exploring the ruins led him to write the poem We are Seven in 1798 . Other poets from this period were also inspired by the castle , including Henry Neele in 1827 .
By the 1820s , visitors could purchase an early guidebook at the site outlining the castle 's history , and Victorian tourists recorded being charged six @-@ pence to wander around the castle . In the early 1820s , the antiquarian Sir Samuel Rush Meyrick attempted to purchase the site , with the aim of converting the castle back into a private dwelling , but was unable to convince the owners to sell . Instead , Meyrick built the neo @-@ gothic Goodrich Court in a similar style next door , which greatly displeased Wordsworth when he returned to Goodrich in 1841 and found the view spoilt by the new building . The new bridge over the river Wye , built in 1828 , and the 1873 railway line added to the number of visitors .
Goodrich Castle then passed through various hands , until in 1915 the Office of Works began discussions with its then owner , Mrs Edmund Bosanquet ; large @-@ scale collapses of parts of the north @-@ west tower and curtain wall in 1919 contributed to Bosanquet 's decision to grant the castle to the Commissioner of Works in 1920 . The Commissioners began a programme of repairs to stabilise the ruin in its current state .
= = Today = =
Today , the castle at Goodrich is considered by historians to be the " most splendid in the county , and one the best examples of English military architecture " . The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument .
Substantial remains still exist and are open to the public , managed by English Heritage . The adjacent Victorian castle of Goodrich Court was demolished in 1949 , restoring the original landscape . The Roaring Meg mortar , preserved by Herefordshire Council , has been returned to the site , along with a number of civil war cannonballs found at Goodrich during excavations in the 1920s .
= = Folklore = =
Several legends surround the castle at Goodrich . The Great Keep has the alternative name of the " Macbeth tower " , after stories of an Irish chieftain held prisoner there . According to some tales , he died attempting to escape and his ghost is said to still haunt the tower .
The events of the English Civil War also have left their mark . Local stories tell that Colonel Birch 's niece , Alice Birch , fell in love with a handsome Royalist , Charles Clifford ; according to these stories the two attempted to escape before the final assault but died in a flash flood while trying to cross the River Wye , and live on as ghosts on the site .
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= Nathaniel Parker Willis =
Nathaniel Parker Willis ( January 20 , 1806 – January 20 , 1867 ) , also known as N. P. Willis , was an American author , poet and editor who worked with several notable American writers including Edgar Allan Poe and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . He became the highest @-@ paid magazine writer of his day . For a time , he was the employer of former slave and future writer Harriet Jacobs . His brother was the composer Richard Storrs Willis and his sister Sara wrote under the name Fanny Fern .
Born in Portland , Maine , Willis came from a family of publishers . His grandfather Nathaniel Willis owned newspapers in Massachusetts and Virginia , and his father Nathaniel Willis was the founder of Youth 's Companion , the first newspaper specifically for children . Willis developed an interest in literature while attending Yale College and began publishing poetry . After graduation , he worked as an overseas correspondent for the New York Mirror . He eventually moved to New York and began to build his literary reputation . Working with multiple publications , he was earning about $ 100 per article and between $ 5 @,@ 000 and $ 10 @,@ 000 per year . In 1846 , he started his own publication , the Home Journal , which was eventually renamed Town & Country . Shortly after , Willis moved to a home on the Hudson River where he lived a semi @-@ retired life until his death in 1867 .
Willis embedded his own personality into his writing and addressed his readers personally , specifically in his travel writings , so that his reputation was built in part because of his character . Critics , including his sister in her novel Ruth Hall , occasionally described him as being effeminate and Europeanized . Willis also published several poems , tales , and a play . Despite his intense popularity for a time , at his death Willis was nearly forgotten .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and family = = =
Nathaniel Parker Willis was born on January 20 , 1806 , in Portland , Maine . His father Nathaniel Willis was a newspaper proprietor there and his grandfather owned newspapers in Boston , Massachusetts and western Virginia . His mother was Hannah Willis ( née Parker ) from Holliston , Massachusetts and it was her husband 's offer to edit the Eastern Argus in Maine that caused their move to Portland . Willis 's younger sister was Sara Willis Parton , who would later become a writer under the pseudonym Fanny Fern . His brother , Richard Storrs Willis , became a musician and music journalist known for writing the melody for " It Came Upon the Midnight Clear " . His other siblings were Lucy Douglas ( born 1804 ) , Louisa Harris ( 1807 ) , Julia Dean ( 1809 ) , Mary Perry ( 1813 ) , Edward Payson ( 1816 ) , and Ellen Holmes ( 1821 ) .
In 1816 , the family moved to Boston , where Willis 's father established the Boston Recorder and , nine years later , the Youth 's Companion , the world 's first newspaper for children . The elder Willis 's emphasis on religious themes earned him the nickname " Deacon " Willis . After attending a Boston grammar school and Phillips Academy at Andover , Nathaniel Parker Willis entered Yale College in October 1823 where he roomed with Horace Bushnell . Willis credited Bushnell with teaching him the proper technique for sharpening a razor by " drawing it from heel to point both ways ... the two cross frictions correct each other " . At Yale , he further developed an interest in literature , often neglecting his other studies . He graduated in 1827 and spent time touring parts of the United States and Canada . In Montreal , he met Chester Harding , with whom he would become a lifelong friend . Years later , Harding referred to Willis during this period as " the ' lion ' of the town " . Willis began publishing poetry in his father 's Boston Periodical , often using one of two literary personalities under the pen names " Roy " ( for religious subjects ) and " Cassius " ( for more secular topics ) . The same year , Willis published a volume of poetical Sketches .
= = = Literary career = = =
In the latter part of the 1820s , Willis began contributing more frequently to magazines and periodicals . In 1829 , he served as editor for the gift book The Token , making him the only person to be editor in the book 's 15 @-@ year history besides its founder , Samuel Griswold Goodrich . That year , Willis founded the American Monthly Magazine , which began publishing in April 1829 until it was discontinued in August 1831 . He blamed its failure on the " tight purses of Boston culture " and moved to Europe to serve as foreign editor and correspondent of the New York Mirror . In 1832 , while in Florence , Italy , he met Horatio Greenough , who sculpted a bust of the writer . Between 1832 and 1836 , Willis contributed a series of letters for the Mirror , about half of which were later collected as Pencillings by the Way , printed in London in 1835 . The romantic descriptions of scenes and modes of life in Europe sold well despite the then high price tag of $ 7 a copy . The work became popular and boosted Willis 's literary reputation enough that an American edition was soon issued .
Despite this popularity , he was censured by some critics for indiscretion in reporting private conversations . At one point he fought a bloodless duel with Captain Frederick Marryat , then editor of the Metropolitan Magazine , after Willis sent a private letter of Marryat 's to George Pope Morris , who had it printed . Still , in 1835 Willis was popular enough to introduce Henry Wadsworth Longfellow to important literary figures in England , including Ada Byron , daughter of Lord Byron .
While abroad , Willis wrote to a friend , " I should like to marry in England " . He soon married Mary Stace , daughter of General William Stace of Woolwich , on October 1 , 1835 , after a month @-@ long engagement . The couple took a two @-@ week honeymoon in Paris . The couple moved to London where , in 1836 , Willis met Charles Dickens , who was working for the Morning Chronicle at the time .
In 1837 , Willis and his wife returned to the United States and settled at a small estate on Owego Creek in New York , just above its junction with the Susquehanna River . He named the home Glenmary and the 200 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) rural setting inspired him to write Letters from under a Bridge . On October 20 , 1838 , Willis began a series of articles called " A New Series of Letters from London " , one of which suggested an illicit relationship between writer Letitia Elizabeth Landon and editor William Jordan . The article caused some scandal , for which Willis 's publisher had to apologize .
On June 20 , 1839 , Willis 's play Tortesa , the Usurer premiered in Philadelphia at the Walnut Street Theatre . Edgar Allan Poe called it " by far the best play from the pen of an American author " . That year , he was also editor of the short @-@ lived periodical The Corsair , for which he enlisted William Makepeace Thackery to write short sketches of France . Another major work , Two Ways of Dying for a Husband , was published in England during a short visit there in 1839 – 1840 . Shortly after returning to the United States , his personal life was touched with grief when his first child was stillborn on December 4 , 1840 . He and Stace had a second daughter , Imogen , who was born June 20 , 1842 .
Later that year , Willis attended a ball in honor of Charles Dickens in New York . After dancing with Dickens 's wife , Willis and Dickens went out for " rum toddy and broiled oysters " . By this time , his fame had grown enough that he was often invited to lecture and recite poetry , including his presentation to the Linonian Society at Yale on August 17 , 1841 . Willis was invited to submit a column to the each weekly issue of Brother Johnathan , a publication from New York with 20 @,@ 000 subscribers , which he did until September 1841 . By 1842 , Willis was earning the unusually high salary of $ 4 @,@ 800 a year . As a later journalist remarked , this made Willis " the first magazine writer who was tolerably well paid " .
In 1842 , Willis employed Harriet Jacobs , an escaped slave from North Carolina , as a house servant and nanny . When her owners sought to have her returned to their plantation , Willis 's wife bought her freedom for $ 300 . Nearly two decades later , Jacobs would write in her fictionalized autobiography Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl , which she began composing while working for the Willis family , that she " was convinced that ... Nathaniel Parker Willis was proslavery " . Willis is depicted as " Mr. Bruce " , an unattractive Southern sympathizer in the book . One of Willis 's tales , " The Night Funeral of a Slave " , featured an abolitionist who visits the South and regrets his anti @-@ slavery views ; Frederick Douglass later used the work to criticize Northerners who were pro @-@ slavery .
= = = Evening Mirror = = =
Returning to New York City , Willis reorganized , along with George Pope Morris , the weekly New York Mirror as the daily Evening Mirror in 1844 with a weekly supplement called the Weekly Mirror , in part due to the rising cost of postage . By this time , Willis was a popular writer ( a joke was that Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was Germany 's version of N. P. Willis ) and one of the first commercially successful magazine writers in America . In the fall of that year , he also became the first editor of the annual gift book The Opal founded by Rufus Wilmot Griswold . During this time , he became the highest @-@ paid magazine writer in America , earning about $ 100 per article and $ 5 @,@ 000 per year , a number which would soon double . Even the popular poet Longfellow admitted his jealousy of Willis 's salary .
As a critic , Willis did not believe in including discussions of personalities of writers when reviewing their works . He also believed that , though publications should discuss political topics , they should not express party opinions or choose sides . The Mirror flourished at a time when many publications were discontinuing . Its success was due to the shrewd management of Willis and Morris and the two demonstrated that the American public could support literary endeavors . Willis was becoming an expert in American literature and so , in 1845 , Willis and Morris issued an anthology , The Prose and Poetry of America .
While Willis was editor of the Evening Mirror , its issue for January 29 , 1845 , included the first printing of Poe 's poem " The Raven " with his name attached . In his introduction , Willis called it " unsurpassed in English poetry for subtle conception , masterly ingenuity of versification , and consistent , sustaining of imaginative lift ... It will stick to the memory of everybody who reads it " . Willis and Poe were close friends , and Willis helped Poe financially during his wife Virginia 's illness and while Poe was suing Thomas Dunn English for libel . Willis often tried to persuade Poe to be less destructive in his criticism and concentrate on his poetry . Even so , Willis published many pieces of what would later be referred to as " The Longfellow War " , a literary battle between Poe and the supporters of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , whom Poe called overrated and guilty of plagiarism . Willis also introduced Poe to Fanny Osgood ; the two would later carry out a very public literary flirtation .
Willis 's wife Mary Stace died in childbirth on March 25 , 1845 . Their daughter , Blanche , died as well and Willis wrote in his notebook that she was " an angel without fault or foible " . He brought his surviving daughter Imogen to England to be with her mother 's family and left her behind when he returned to the United States . In October 1846 , he married Cornelia Grinnell , a wealthy Quaker from New Bedford and the adopted daughter of a local Congressman . She was two decades younger than Willis at the time and vocally disliked slavery , unlike her new husband . After the marriage , Willis 's daughter Imogen came to live with the newlyweds in New York .
= = = Home Journal = = =
In 1846 , Willis and Morris left the Evening Mirror and attempted to edit a new weekly , the National Press , which was renamed the Home Journal after eight months . Their prospectus for the publication , published November 21 , 1846 , announced their intentions to create a magazine " to circle around the family table " . Willis intended the magazine for the middle and lower classes and included the message of upward social mobility , using himself as an example , often describing in detail his personal possessions . When discussing his own social climbing , however , he emphasized his frustrations rather than his successes , endearing him to his audience . He edited the Home Journal until his death in 1867 . It was renamed Town & Country in 1901 , and it is still published under that title as of 2011 . During Willis 's time at the journal , he especially promoted the works of women poets , including Frances Sargent Osgood , Anne Lynch Botta , Grace Greenwood , and Julia Ward Howe . Willis and his editors favorably reviewed many works now considered important today , including Henry David Thoreau 's Walden and Nathaniel Hawthorne 's The Blithedale Romance .
= = = Idlewild = = =
In 1846 , Willis settled near the banks of Canterbury Creek near the Hudson River in New York and named his new home Idlewild . When Willis first visited the property , the owners said it had little value and that it was " an idle wild of which nothing could ever be made " . He built a fourteen @-@ room " cottage " , as he called it , at the edge of a plateau by Moodna Creek next to a sudden 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) drop into a gorge . Willis worked closely with the architect , Calvert Vaux , to carefully plan each gable and piazza to fully take advantage of the dramatic view of the river and mountains .
Because of failing health Willis spent the remainder of his life chiefly in retirement at Idlewild . His wife Cornelia was also recovering from a difficult illness after the birth of their first child together , a son named Grinnell , who was born April 28 , 1848 . They had four other children : Lilian ( born April 27 , 1850 ) , Edith ( born September 28 , 1853 ) , Bailey ( born May 31 , 1857 ) , and a daughter that died only a few minutes after her birth on October 31 , 1860 . Harriet Jacobs was re @-@ hired by Willis to work for the family .
During these last years at Idlewild , Willis continued contributing a weekly letter to the Home Journal . In 1850 he assisted Rufus Wilmot Griswold in preparing an anthology of the works of Poe , who had died mysteriously the year before . Griswold also wrote the first biography of Poe in which he purposely set out to ruin the dead author 's reputation . Willis was one of the most vocal of Poe 's defenders , writing at one point : " The indictment ( for it deserves no other name ) is not true . It is full of cruel misrepresentations . It deepens the shadows unto unnatural darkness , and shuts out the rays of sunshines that ought to relieve them " .
Willis was involved in the 1850 divorce suit between the actor Edwin Forrest and his wife Catherine Norton Sinclair Forrest . In January 1849 , Forrest had found a love letter to his wife from fellow actor George W. Jamieson . As a result , he and Catherine separated in April 1849 . He moved to Philadelphia and filed for divorce in February 1850 though the Pennsylvania legislature denied his application . Catharine went to live with the family of Parke Godwin and the separation became a public affair , with newspapers throughout New York reporting on supposed infidelities and other gossip .
Willis defended Catharine , who maintained her innocence , in the Home Journal and suggested that Forrest was merely jealous of her intellectual superiority . On June 17 , 1850 , shortly after Forrest had filed for divorce in the New York Supreme Court , Forrest beat Willis with a gutta @-@ percha whip in New York 's Washington Square , shouting " this man is the seducer of my wife " . Willis , who was recovering from a rheumatic fever at the time , was unable to fight back . His wife soon received an anonymous letter with an accusation that Willis was in an adulterous relationship with Catherine Forrest . Willis later sued Forrest for assault and , by March 1852 , was awarded $ 2 @,@ 500 plus court costs . Throughout the Forrest divorce case , which lasted six weeks , several witnesses made additional claims that Catherine Forrest and Nathaniel Parker Willis were having an affair , including a waiter who claimed he had seen the couple " lying on each other " . As the press reported , " thousands and thousands of the anxious public " awaited the court 's verdict ; ultimately , the court sided with Catherine Forrest and Willis 's name was cleared .
= = = Ruth Hall = = =
Willis arbitrarily refused to print the work of his sister Sara Willis ( " Fanny Fern " ) after 1854 , though she previously had contributed anonymous book reviews to the Home Journal . She had recently been widowed , became destitute , and was publicly denounced by her abusive second husband . Criticizing what he perceived as her restlessness , Willis once made her the subject of his poem " To My Wild Sis " . As Fanny Fern , she had published Fern Leaves , which sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies the year before . Willis , however , did not encourage his sister 's writings . " You overstrain the pathetic , and your humor runs into dreadful vulgarity sometimes ... I am sorry that any editor knows that a sister of mine wrote some of these which you sent me " , he wrote . In 1854 she published Ruth Hall , a Domestic Tale of the Present Time , a barely concealed semi @-@ autobiographical account of her own difficulties in the literary world . Nathaniel Willis was represented as " Hyacinth Ellet " , an effeminate , self @-@ serving editor who schemes to ruin his sister 's prospects as a writer . Willis did not publicly protest but in private he asserted that , despite his fictitious equivalent , he had done his best to support his sister during her difficult times , especially after the death of her first husband .
Among his later works , following in his traditional sketches about his life and people he has met , were Hurry @-@ Graphs ( 1851 ) , Out @-@ Doors at Idlewild ( 1854 ) , and Ragbag ( 1855 ) . Willis had complained that his magazine writing prevented him from writing a longer work . He finally had the time in 1856 , and he wrote his only novel , Paul Fane , which was published a year later . The character Bosh Blivins , who served as comic relief in the novel , may have been based on painter Chester Harding . His final work was The Convalescent ( 1859 ) , which included a chapter on his time spent with Washington Irving at Sunnyside .
= = = Final years and death = = =
In July 1860 , Willis took his last major trip . Along with his wife , he stopped in Chicago and Yellow Springs , Ohio , as far west as Madison , Wisconsin , and also took a steamboat down the Mississippi River to St. Louis , Missouri , and returned through Cincinnati , Ohio and Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . In 1861 , Willis allowed the Home Journal to break its pledge to avoid taking sides in political discussions when the Confederate States of America was established , calling the move a purposeful act to bring on war . On May 28 , 1861 , Willis was part of a committee of literary figures — including William Cullen Bryant , Charles Anderson Dana , and Horace Greeley — to invite Edward Everett to speak in New York on behalf of maintaining the Union . The Home Journal lost many subscribers during the American Civil War , Morris died in 1864 , and the Willis family had to take in boarders and for a time turned Idlewild into a girls ' school for income .
Willis was very sick in these final years : he suffered from violent epileptic seizures and , early in November 1866 , fainted in the streets , prompting Harriet Jacobs to return to help his wife . Willis died on his sixty @-@ first birthday , January 20 , 1867 , and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge , Massachusetts . Four days later , the day of his funeral , all bookstores in the city were closed as a token of respect . His pallbearers included Longfellow , James Russell Lowell , Oliver Wendell Holmes , Samuel Gridley Howe , and James Thomas Fields .
= = Reputation = =
Throughout his literary career , Willis was well liked and known for his good nature amongst friends . Well traveled and clever , he had a striking appearance at six feet tall and was typically dressed elegantly . Many , however , remarked that Willis was effeminate , Europeanized , and guilty of " Miss Nancyism " . One editor called him " an impersonal passive verb — a pronoun of the feminine gender " . A contemporary caricature depicted him wearing a fashionable beaver hat and tightly closed coat and carrying a cane , reflecting Willis 's wide reputation as a " dandy " . Willis put considerable effort into his appearance and his fashion sense , presenting himself as a member of an upcoming American aristocracy . As Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. once said , Willis was " something between a remembrance of Count D 'Orsay and an anticipation of Oscar Wilde " . Publisher Charles Frederick Briggs once wrote that " Willis was too Willisy " . He described his writings as the " novelty and gossip of the hour " and was not necessarily concerned about facts but with the " material of conversation and speculation , which may be mere rumor , may be the truth " . Willis 's behavior in social groups annoyed fellow poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . " He is too artificial " , Longfellow wrote to his friend George Washington Greene . " And his poetry has now lost one of its greatest charms for me — its sincerity " . E. Burke Fisher , a journalist in Pittsburgh , wrote that " Willis is a kind of national pet and we must regard his faults as we do those of a spoiled stripling , in the hope that he will amend " .
Willis built up his reputation in the public at a time when readers were interested in the personal lives of writers . In his writings , he described the " high life " of the " Upper Ten Thousand " , a phrase he coined . His travel writings in particular were popular for this reason as Willis was actually living the life he was describing and recommending to readers . Even so , he manufactured a humble and modest persona , questioned his own literary merit , and purposely used titles , such as Pencillings by the Way and Dashes at Life With Free Pencil , which downplayed their own quality . His informally toned editorials , which covered a variety of topics , were also very successful . Using whimsicality and humor , he was purposely informal to allow his personality to show in his writing . He addressed his readers personally , as if having a private conversation with them . As he once wrote : " We would have you ... indulge us in our innocent egotism as if it were all whispered in your private ear and over our iced Margaux " . When women poets were becoming popular in the 1850s , he emulated their style and focused on sentimental and moral subjects .
In the publishing world , Willis was known as a shrewd magazinist and an innovator who focused on appealing to readers ' special interests while still recognizing new talent . In fact , Willis became the standard by which other magazinists were judged . According to writer George William Curtis , " His gayety [ sic ] and his graceful fluency made him the first of our proper ' magazinists ' " . For a time , it was said that Willis was the " most @-@ talked @-@ about author " in the United States . Poe questioned Willis 's fame , however . " Willis is no genius – a graceful trifler – no more " , he wrote in a letter to James Russell Lowell . " In me , at least , he never excites an emotion . " Minor Southern writer Joseph Beckham Cobb wrote : " No sane person , we are persuaded , can read his poetry " . Future senator Charles Sumner reported : " I find Willis is much laughed at for his sketches " . Even so , most contemporaries recognized how prolific he was as a writer and how much time he put into all of his writings . James Parton said of him :
Of all the literary men whom I have ever known , N. P. Willis was the one who took the most pains with his work . It was no very uncommon thing for him to toil over a sentence for an hour ; and I knew him one evening to write and rewrite a sentence for two hours before he had got it to his mind .
By 1850 and with the publication of Hurry @-@ Graphs , Willis was becoming a forgotten celebrity . In August 1853 , future President James A. Garfield discussed Willis 's declining popularity in his diary : " Willis is said to be a licentious man , although an unrivaled poet . How strange that such men should go to ruin , when they might soar perpetually in the heaven of heavens " . After Willis 's death , obituaries reported that he had outlived his fame . One remarked , " the man who withdraws from the whirling currents of active life is speedily forgotten " . This obituary also stated that Americans " will ever remember and cherish Nathaniel P. Willis as one worthy to stand with Fenimore Cooper and Washington Irving " . In 1946 , the centennial issue of Town & Country reported that Willis " led a generation of Americans through a gate where weeds gave way to horticulture " . More modern scholars have dismissed Willis 's work as " sentimental prattle " or refer to him only as an obstacle in the progress of his sister as well as Harriet Jacobs . As biographer Thomas N. Baker wrote , Willis is today only referred to as a footnote in relation to other authors .
= = Selected list of works = =
Prose
Sketches ( 1827 )
Pencillings by the Way ( 1835 )
Inklings of Adventure ( 1836 )
À l 'Abri ; or , The Tent Pitched ( 1839 )
Loiterings of Travel ( 1840 )
The Romance of Travel ( 1840 )
American Scenery ( 2 volumes 1840 )
Canadian Scenery ( 2 volumes 1842 )
Dashes at Life with a Free Pencil ( 1845 )
Rural Letters and Other Records of Thoughts at Leisure ( 1849 )
People I Have Met ( 1850 )
Life Here and There ( 1850 )
Hurry @-@ Graphs ( 1851 )
Summer Cruise in the Mediterranean ( 1853 )
Fun Jottings ; or , Laughs I have taken a Pen to ( 1853 )
Health Trip to the Tropics ( 1854 )
Ephemera ( 1854 )
Famous Persons and Places ( 1854 )
Out @-@ Doors at Idlewild ; or , The Shaping of a Home on the Banks of the Hudson ( 1855 )
The Rag Bag . A Collection of Ephemera ( 1855 )
Paul Fane ; or , Parts of a Life Else Untold . A Novel ( 1857 )
The Convalescent ( 1859 )
Plays
Bianca Visconti ; or , The Heart Overtasked . A Tragedy in Five Acts ( 1839 )
Tortesa ; or , The Userer Matched ( 1839 )
Poetry
Fugitive Poetry ( 1829 )
Melanie and Other Poems ( 1831 )
The Sacred Poems of N. P. Willis ( 1843 )
Poems of Passion ( 1843 )
Lady Jane and Humorous Poems ( 1844 )
The Poems , Sacred , Passionate , and Humorous ( 1868 )
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= Bobby Bauer =
Robert Theodore " Bobby " Bauer ( February 16 , 1915 – September 16 , 1964 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey right winger who played 10 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Boston Bruins . He was a member of the famed " Kraut Line " with teammates Milt Schmidt and Woody Dumart . The trio led the Bruins to two Stanley Cup championships and became the first line to finish first , second and third in NHL scoring , in 1939 – 40 . Bauer was named to the All @-@ Star Team four times and was a three @-@ time winner of the Lady Byng Trophy , awarded for gentlemanly conduct combined with a high calibre of play . He recorded only 36 penalties in minutes in 327 games .
Prior to his NHL career , Bauer won the Memorial Cup with the St. Michael 's Majors in 1934 as junior champions of Canada . He joined the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1942 and won the Allan Cup with the Ottawa RCAF Flyers as senior champions that year . Bauer turned to coaching following his NHL career and guided the Kitchener @-@ Waterloo Dutchmen to two Allan Cup championships . The Dutchmen were sent to represent Canada at the 1956 Winter Olympics where Bauer coached the team to a bronze medal . He also coached the Canadian entry at the 1960 Winter Olympics that won a silver medal . Bauer assisted his brother David in creating the Canadian national hockey team in the 1960s . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1996 .
= = Early life = =
Bauer was born on February 16 , 1915 , in Waterloo , Ontario . He was the second of 11 children to Edgar and Alice Bauer ; His elder brother Frank was later Mayor of Waterloo and he had nine younger siblings : Eugene , Jerome , Alice , David , Raymond , Mary , Rita , Therese and Margaret . Edgar was a Knight of the Order of St. Sylvester , Waterloo city councilor and executive in the Bauer family 's automotive parts business .
The Bauer children learned to play hockey in a backyard rink , and Bobby grew up playing youth hockey in Kitchener – Waterloo before moving to Toronto in 1930 where he attended St. Michael 's College and played junior first with the St. Michael 's Buzzers in 1930 – 31 followed by three years with the St. Michael 's Majors . In 1933 – 34 , Bauer recorded 15 points in 13 Memorial Cup playoff games to help the Majors capture the Dominion junior championship . Bauer played his final year of junior in 1934 – 35 with the Kitchener Greenshirts where he first played with Milt Schmidt and Woody Dumart , who was then a defenceman .
= = Playing career = =
All three players were signed by the Boston Bruins , and Bauer was assigned to the Boston Cubs of the Canadian @-@ American Hockey League ( CAHL ) for the 1935 – 36 season . He scored 15 goals for the Cubs in 48 games , then was promoted to the Providence Reds of the International @-@ American Hockey League ( IAHL ) in 1936 – 37 . It was with the Reds that Bauer as right wing , Schmidt at centre and Dumart , who moved up to left wing , were first placed together as a line . Owing to their shared German heritage , the trio were initially called the " Sauerkrauts " by Providence coach Albert Leduc , though the name was shortened and they were known as the " Kraut Line " for the majority of their careers . Following a season in which Bauer recorded 18 points in 44 games with the Reds , the Bruins recalled him to Boston for the team 's final game of the regular season . He made his NHL debut on March 21 , 1937 , and scored his first goal in a 6 – 1 victory over the Chicago Black Hawks .
The Kraut Line earned full @-@ time spots in Boston beginning in 1937 – 38 ; Bauer recorded a team @-@ leading 20 goals in his rookie season as the trio led the Bruins to the team 's first of four consecutive Prince of Wales Trophy wins as the NHL 's best team in the regular season . Following a 31 @-@ point regular season in 1938 – 39 , Bauer added five points in 12 playoff games and was named to the NHL 's second All @-@ Star Team . The Bruins eliminated the New York Rangers , then defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs four games to one to capture Boston 's first Stanley Cup championship in ten years . In 1939 – 40 , Schmidt led the NHL in points with 52 while Dumart and Bauer finished second and third respectively with 43 each . It was the first time in league history that three linemates finished in the top three spots in NHL scoring . Bauer was again named a second team All @-@ Star , and with only two penalties in minutes ( PIM ) , won the Lady Byng Trophy for the first time .
A 39 @-@ point season in 1940 – 41 with only two PIM earned Bauer his third consecutive appearance on the All @-@ Star Team and a second Lady Byng Trophy . In the playoffs , the Bruins reached the 1941 Stanley Cup Finals where they defeated the Detroit Red Wings in four straight games . Bauer scored the Stanley Cup winning goal midway through the second period of a 3 – 1 victory in the deciding game . Following the outbreak of the Second World War , all three members of the Kraut Line enlisted with the Canadian military by signing up for home defence . At the same time , anti @-@ German sentiment led to efforts to change the trio 's nickname . They were briefly called the " Buddy Line " and the " Kitchener Kids " , though they were again referred to as the Kraut Line following the war .
The trio were called to active duty in January 1942 , forcing them to leave the Bruins midway through the 1941 – 42 season . In their final game with the Bruins , the Kraut Line recorded eight points in a dominating victory over the Montreal Canadiens . Following the contest , players from both teams fêted the trio , hoisting them up on their shoulders and parading them around the ice . Bauer was overwhelmed by the moment : " The ovation , at the height of my youth , sort of grabbed me . " Schmidt , Dumart and Bauer were the first NHL players to join the Royal Canadian Air Force , and while training in Ottawa , they joined the Ottawa RCAF Flyers of the Quebec Senior Hockey League ( QSHL ) . The trio helped the Flyers win the Allan Cup as Canadian senior champions . Bauer was sent to Halifax to continue his training and played with the Dartmouth RCAF team in 1942 – 43 . Bauer , who served as a radio technician , was dispatched to the United Kingdom where he , Schmidt and Dumart were members of a bomber squadron . However , he was returned to Canada in 1944 after being ruled invalid due to a bout of sciatica caused by an old hockey injury . He played with a team in Toronto until the war 's conclusion .
Returning to the Bruins for the 1945 – 46 NHL season , Bauer was reunited with his Kraut Line teammates . Unlike many players who had left for the war , he remained in peak form . However , after scoring 22 points that season , Bauer contemplated retirement . He chose to return for one additional season and was named the Bruins captain for 1946 – 47 . Bauer had his best year in the NHL : he recorded a team @-@ leading 30 goals and finished seventh overall in league scoring with 54 points . He was named to a fourth All @-@ Star Team and won the Lady Byng Trophy for the third time . Following the season , he announced his retirement .
= = Coaching career = =
Returning to Kitchener , Bauer joined his father @-@ in @-@ law 's hockey equipment business . He also began his coaching career with the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) ' s Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters and , late in the 1947 – 48 season , joined the Kitchener @-@ Waterloo Dutchmen in the OHA senior division . After recording 15 points in eight games , Bauer scored 38 and 24 points in the following two seasons and helped the Dutchmen reach the OHA finals in three consecutive years between 1948 and 1950 . He again retired as a player in 1950 , but came back in 1951 – 52 for a final season with Kitchener @-@ Waterloo . Late in the season , he also played in one final game with the Bruins . The team was celebrating " Milt Schmidt @-@ Woody Dumart appreciation night " and convinced Bauer to come out of retirement to reunite the Kraut Line for one game on March 18 , 1952 . The trio were presented gifts in honour of their service to the team and sport . In the contest itself , Bauer scored one goal in a 4 – 0 victory over Toronto and assisted ( along with Dumart ) on Schmidt 's 200th career goal – at the time a rare feat ; Schmidt was one of only five active players at that point to have reached the mark .
Ending his playing career , Bauer became coach , general manager and president of the Dutchmen in 1952 . He coached the team to two OHA senior championships and Allan Cup victories : 1952 – 53 and 1954 – 55 . As the top senior team in the nation , the Dutchmen were sent to Italy to represent Canada at the 1956 Winter Olympics . Bauer was pleased with the way his team adapted to European rules and the Dutchmen were expected to bring home the gold medal . However , the team was shocked by the American entry , a 4 – 1 loss . Though they still had a chance at gold due to the round robin format of the tournament , the Dutchmen were defeated by the Soviet Union – at the time a relatively unknown and emerging hockey power – by a 2 – 0 score despite outshooting the Soviets 23 – 9 . Canada was relegated to the bronze medal , at the time the worst finish in the nation 's Olympic hockey history .
Bauer retired as a coach following the Olympics . However , the Dutchmen , augmented by players loaned from other teams , were again sent to represent Canada at the 1960 Winter Olympics . The team 's coach , Bill Durnan resigned following a six @-@ game losing streak , and after several other candidates were unable to take the necessary time off to coach the squad at the tournament , the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association ( CAHA ) convinced Bauer to return . The Canadians lost only one game in the tournament , to the United States . The final game of the tournament had been scheduled between Canada and the Soviet Union as it was expected to be the gold medal match @-@ up . However the Americans won all of their games . Consequently , the match determined the silver medal , which Canada claimed with an 8 – 5 victory .
= = Personal life = =
Bauer partnered in a Guelph @-@ based electronics company and resided in Kingston with his wife Marguerite and sons Bobby Jr . , and Bradley . He also partnered with Woody Dumont in a stick manufacturing company and was a director of the Kitchener Rangers hockey club . His brother , Father David Bauer , convinced CAHA officials in 1962 to abandon the practice of sending a club team to represent Canada internationally in favour of building a true Canadian National Team . Bobby assisted his brother 's efforts in creating the team by sharing his coaching knowledge and helping to formulate how the team was to be formed . The first national team played at the 1964 Winter Olympics where it finished a controversial fourth . On September 16 , 1964 , Bauer suffered a heart attack while golfing and died at the age of 49 . He was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame by the veterans committee in 1996 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= North & South ( TV serial ) =
North & South is a British television drama serial , produced by the BBC and originally broadcast in four episodes on BBC One in November and December 2004 . It follows the story of Margaret Hale ( Daniela Denby @-@ Ashe ) , a young woman from southern England who has to move to the North after her father decides to leave the clergy . The family struggles to adjust itself to the industrial town 's customs , especially after meeting the Thorntons , a proud family of cotton mill owners who seem to despise their social inferiors . The story explores the issues of class and gender , as Margaret 's sympathy for the town mill workers clashes with her growing attraction to John Thornton ( Richard Armitage ) .
The serial is based on the 1855 Victorian novel North and South by Elizabeth Gaskell . It was adapted for television by Sandy Welch and directed by Brian Percival .
= = Plot = =
Margaret Hale ( Daniela Denby @-@ Ashe ) and her parents Maria ( Lesley Manville ) and Richard ( Tim Pigott @-@ Smith ) move to the ( fictional ) industrial town of Milton , Darkshire , in the north of England because her father , a clergyman , decides to leave the Church of England and become a Nonconformist . Thanks to his friend , Mr. Bell ( Brian Protheroe ) , he is able to find a house and gains employment as a private tutor . One of his pupils is local mill @-@ owner John Thornton ( Richard Armitage ) , who gets off to a bad start with Margaret when she witnesses him beating a worker whom he has caught smoking in the mill , thus endangering all the workers . Gradually , Margaret gets used to Thornton , but his mother Hannah ( Sinéad Cusack ) and sister Fanny ( Jo Joyner ) disapprove of her , believing her haughty and alien to the customs of the North . In the meantime , Margaret attempts to do charitable work among the working classes , and thus comes into contact with Nicholas Higgins ( Brendan Coyle ) and his daughter , Bessy ( Anna Maxwell Martin ) , who contracted Pneumoconiosis from exposure to the cotton @-@ fibres in the mills . When Bessy became ill at Hamper 's Mill , her father moved her to Marlborough Mills , Thornton 's mill , because the working environment is better there . In a meeting with fellow mill owners , Thornton says he had a wheel for ventilation installed in all of the rooms of his factory , despite the fact that it costs a great deal of money . The other industrialists had refused to install a wheel because of the expense .
Margaret 's mother is falling ill . Mrs Hale desires to see her son Frederick ( Rupert Evans ) before she dies . Frederick , a naval officer was involved in a mutiny and he cannot return to England without risking his life . However , without telling her father , Margaret writes to her brother in Cádiz , Spain , to tell him that their mother is dying . Margaret calls on the Thorntons to borrow a water mattress for her mother and is trapped while mill workers riot during a strike . When the angry mob threatens John 's safety as he confronts them after Margaret 's goading , Margaret defends him from the rioters and is injured by a thrown stone .
Margaret recovers and returns home , telling nobody about what had happened at the Mill , mainly to protect the health of her mother . When Thornton proposes to her the next day , she scorns him , thinking he believes himself superior because of the difference in their financial circumstances . He denies this and tells her that he is in love with her , but she insists that her actions were not personal .
Meanwhile , Bessy Higgins dies and Thornton stops coming for lessons from Mr. Hale . As a distraction for Mrs. Hale and for herself , Margaret visits the Great Exhibition with her Aunt Shaw ( Jane Booker ) , her cousin Edith and Edith 's husband . Margaret meets Thornton at the exhibition , where he is discussing the machinery with a group of gentlemen , all of whom are listening with great respect and admiration for his simple good sense . Margaret is embarrassed to meet Thornton so soon after her rejection but defends him when Henry Lennox ( John Light ) , Edith 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and an admirer of Margaret , tries to belittle him for being in trade . Henry 's sophistication and reliance on fashionable wit and sarcasm compares unfavourably with Thornton 's honesty when Margaret sees them together .
When Margaret returns home , her mother has taken a turn for the worse . Margaret 's brother arrives just in time to see his mother on her death @-@ bed . While Frederick is in the house , Thornton comes to visit his friend Mr. Hale , but he cannot be allowed in , in case he sees Fred . Thornton interprets this as Margaret refusing to see him . The family 's servant , Dixon ( Pauline Quirke ) , sees a former member of Frederick 's crew in Milton town , and it is decided that Frederick must leave at once , before he is discovered and arrested . He and Margaret are seen together at the railway station by Thornton , who thinks Margaret has a lover .
Thornton gives employment to Higgins after Bessy 's death , and master and hand get along surprisingly well , despite their differences . They come up with a plan to feed the workers cheaply in a communal kitchen , and Thornton comes to a greater understanding with his workers as they share ideas . However , because of the strike , Thornton 's business is in trouble , and he is forced to close the mill .
Margaret 's father dies in Oxford and she leaves the north to stay with relatives in London , but her godfather , Mr Bell , makes over his fortune to her when he finds out that he has a terminal illness and chooses to move to Argentina for the better climate . Margaret becomes the owner of Marlborough Mills and John Thornton 's landlord . Thornton , having discovered the truth about Fred from Mr Higgins , goes south to see Margaret 's home town , and on the way back meets her returning from a visit to the north . She proposes a business deal by which the factory can be reopened ; after this the two share a kiss . Their final scene takes place on the railway station platform with both going " home " to Milton .
= = Cast = =
Daniela Denby @-@ Ashe – Margaret Hale
Richard Armitage – John Thornton
Tim Pigott @-@ Smith – Mr Richard Hale
Lesley Manville – Mrs Maria Hale
Sinéad Cusack – Mrs Hannah Thornton
Jo Joyner – Fanny Thornton
Brendan Coyle – Mr Nicholas Higgins
Anna Maxwell Martin – Bessy Higgins
Kay Lyon – Mary Higgins
Pauline Quirke – Dixon
Rupert Evans – Frederick Hale
Brian Protheroe – Mr. Bell
John Light – Henry Lennox
Emma Ferguson – Edith Shaw Lennox
Jane Booker – Aunt Shaw
Will Houston – John Boucher
= = Production = =
= = = Origins = = =
Sandy Welch started adapting Elizabeth Gaskell 's 1855 North and South in 2001 , making a few changes to emphasise the industrial landscape of the story . Welch 's story , for example , begins and ends with the main character Margaret Hale travelling by train , which is not the starting and ending point of the novel ( although Gaskell describes the Hales travelling from the South to the North by train ) . Welch also made the main characters visit the Great Exhibition of 1851 . These are changes Welch believed Gaskell would have done " if she 'd had the time " , since Gaskell had complained of being under pressure to complete the novel by her editor Charles Dickens . In the summer of 2003 Kate Bartlett was brought to the project as a producer and a ten @-@ week period of pre @-@ production started at the beginning of February .
= = = Casting = = =
Daniela Denby @-@ Ashe had not originally auditioned for the role of Margaret Hale but for that of Fanny Thornton , and was not sure she would be participating on the project , but the producers had been looking for the right Margaret for a long time and Denby @-@ Ashe 's " directness , energy and charm " as well as the chemistry she had with would @-@ be co @-@ star Richard Armitage proved decisive . Armitage himself had been the first actor to read for the role of John Thornton and even though his performance had impressed producer Kate Bartlett and casting director Jill Trevellick , they still had to see many other possible Thorntons . Three weeks after casting had begun , Trevellick decided to recapitulate the first auditions , realising that Armitage was " perfect " .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming took place from the end of April 2004 until July 2004 . Gaskell 's fictional town of Milton , Darkshire , was loosely based on Manchester , but the producers decided to shoot many of the town scenes in Edinburgh , which maintains more of its visual and architectural heritage from the industrial Victorian era . Keighley in West Yorkshire became one of the main locations , the cotton mill 's exteriors were filmed at Dalton Mill . The scenes inside the mill were shot at Helmshore Textile Museum in Rossendale and Queen Street Mill on the outskirts of Burnley , Lancashire . London was another main location , all the interior scenes were shot at the Ealing Studios in west London and the Great Exhibition scene was shot at Alexandra Palace in North London . Other locations were Selkirk , a town in the Scottish Borders , Burnley in Lancashire , and the Bluebell Railway in Sussex , where the final and the beginning scenes were shot . Additional railway sequences were filmed in Yorkshire , using carriages provided by the Vintage Carriages Trust
As a costume drama , North & South required substantial work from the art department . In 2005 the serial 's production designer Simon Elliot received a British Academy Television Award nomination for Best Production Design .
= = = Music = = =
Martin Phipps composed the score for North & South . The short piano tune is played throughout the whole series in different rhythms . The music is especially loud and clear whenever there is a turning point in the relationship between Margaret and Thornton .
= = Reception = =
As the BBC had low expectations for the series , it was not well publicised and went almost unnoticed by critics . Audiences , however , were more receptive ; hours after the first episode aired in November 2004 , the message board of the programme ’ s website crashed because of the number of visitors the site was receiving , forcing host bbc.co.uk to shut it down . This sudden interest on the serial was attributed to Richard Armitage , a relatively unknown actor , whose portrayal of the emotionally restrained John Thornton drew parallels with Colin Firth 's portrayal of Fitzwilliam Darcy on the BBC 's 1995 mini @-@ series Pride and Prejudice , and the reception he later received . Armitage himself claims that the series was a success because of the " industrial landscape and the attention [ that the series gives ] to the working classes and the way they develop " . The reaction to the series was a surprise to the BBC , who then decided to release the DVD on 11 April 2005 .
North & South was voted " Best Drama " in the BBC drama website 's annual poll in 2004 . Richard Armitage was voted " Most Desirable Drama Star " and " Best Actor " , Daniela Denby @-@ Ashe was voted " Best Actress " ( Sinead Cusack came in third ) and three different scenes were voted as the year 's " Favourite Moments " , with the final scene winning the number one spot .
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= Mary Bell ( aviator ) =
Mary Teston Luis Bell ( 3 December 1903 – 6 February 1979 ) was an Australian aviator and founding leader of the Women 's Air Training Corps ( WATC ) , a volunteer organisation that provided support to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . She also helped establish the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) , the first and largest women 's wartime service in the country , which grew to number more than 18 @,@ 000 members by 1944 . Born Mary Fernandes in Tasmania , she married RAAF officer John Bell in 1923 and obtained a pilot 's licence in 1927 . Given temporary command of the WAAAF on its formation in 1941 , she was passed over as its inaugural Director in favour of corporate executive Clare Stevenson . Bell refused the post of Deputy Director and resigned , but subsequently rejoined and served until the final months of the war . She and her husband later became farmers . Nicknamed " Paddy " , Mary Bell died in 1979 at the age of seventy @-@ five .
= = Early life and WATC = =
Born on 3 December 1903 in Launceston , Tasmania , Mary Bell was the daughter of Rowland Walker Luis Fernandes , an English @-@ born clerk , and his wife Emma . She attended Church of England Girls ' Grammar School , Launceston and St Margaret 's School , Devonport , before commencing work in a solicitor 's office at the age of fourteen . She married John Bell ( 1889 – 1973 ) , a Royal Australian Air Force officer and World War I veteran of Gallipoli and the Australian Flying Corps , at St Andrew 's Anglican Church in Brighton , Victoria on 19 March 1923 . They had one daughter .
From 1925 until early 1928 , the Bells lived in Britain while John attended RAF Staff College , Andover and acted as RAAF liaison officer to the Royal Air Force . Interested in aviation since her teens , Mary learnt to fly in England and in April 1927 qualified for a Grade ' A ' private pilot 's licence . Returning to Australia , she was the first female to gain a pilot 's licence in Victoria , on 20 March 1928 . The following year , she became the first Australian woman to qualify as a ground engineer .
By 1939 , the Bells had moved to Brisbane , where John was Queensland manager for Airlines of Australia Ltd , having left the RAAF in 1929 . Mary became leader of forty or so members of the Women 's National Emergency Legion Air Wing who had volunteered to assist with aircraft maintenance during times of war . Determining that their objectives would not be met in their existing organisation , on 17 July they formed a new paramilitary group , the Women 's Air Training Corps ( WATC ) , and elected Bell its commander . She soon expanded the WATC into a national organisation , with Commandants leading each state 's chapter , and herself as Australian Commandant . Bell wrote to Air Vice Marshal Richard Williams , with whom she was acquainted via her husband and through aviation circles , advocating the establishment of a women 's branch of the RAAF similar to the RAF 's Women 's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ) . Among other things , she pointed out that female volunteers such as hers were already supporting the Air Force in driving , nursing and clerical duties . The WATC was one of several women 's voluntary organisations whose members were keen to support the military , arguing that their personnel provided a ready @-@ made pool of skilled staff for auxiliary services , saving the government time and money training unskilled labour .
= = World War II and WAAAF = =
Australia having declared war on 3 September 1939 , the RAAF Air Board met in November to discuss Mary Bell 's letter , but postponed taking any further action . Bell continued to lobby , as did various women 's groups seeking to support the war effort and free male staff for overseas postings . In July 1940 , the new Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , invited her to produce a proposal for a women 's auxiliary , supervised by her husband John , who had rejoined the Air Force at the war 's outbreak and was now a wing commander in the Directorate of Organisation at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . Mary recommended forming the new service under the Air Force Act to permit women to enlist for the duration of the war under conditions similar to RAAF members , rather than enrolling on a short @-@ term contractual basis , a radical idea at the time which would not be put in place until 1943 . She also suggested a volunteer reserve or ' citizen ' force to augment the enlisted women , effectively the existing WATC , though this was seen as placing too much emphasis on her personal command . Various senior Air Force officers , including the recently promoted Air Marshal Williams , and the Director of Personnel Services , Group Captain Joe Hewitt , opposed a women 's service . Burnett , an RAF member who appreciated how the WAAF proved its worth during the Battle of Britain , championed its establishment as the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) .
Bell was appointed to the RAAF 's Personnel Branch as Staff Officer ( Administrative ) with the probationary rank of section officer ( acting flight officer ) on 24 February 1941 , in order to " get the organisation going " . Formally established on 25 March , the WAAAF was the first uniformed women 's branch of an armed service in Australia , predating similar organisations in the Army and Navy . Bell led the WAAAF for the first three months of its existence , recruiting approximately two hundred women by June ; of the first six officers she appointed , five were former members of the WATC . On 21 May 1941 , Berlei corporate executive Clare Stevenson was appointed Director WAAAF with Bell as her Deputy Director , effective from 9 June . The Air Member for Personnel , Air Vice Marshal Henry Wrigley , chose Stevenson on the basis of her management background and because she was not a " socialite " . Notwithstanding her aviation experience and familiarity with the RAAF , he considered Bell to be " tangled up with the WATC " , where she " waved the flag and obtained a great deal of publicity for herself " . She may also have alienated Burnett by not including his daughter Sybil @-@ Jean , a founding member of the WAAF , among the initial intake of staff .
Bell chose to resign on learning of Stevenson 's appointment , rather than stay on and report to someone from outside the service fraternity ; she later rejoined at Wrigley 's request , on the condition that she received no promotion higher than flight officer . Two of her original officer appointees also resigned when Bell was passed over , later describing her as " a thorough and effective organiser " and the " obvious choice " as Director . After Bell returned to the WAAAF on 5 October 1942 , she served at RAAF Headquarters in various directorates , mainly that of Medical Services . Despite her recommendation in July 1940 that they be enlisted into the WAAAF as permanent staff , women were at first enrolled only for renewable twelve @-@ month contracts ; they did not become part of the Permanent Air Force , with the benefits that entailed , until 1943 . Pay was only ever two @-@ thirds that of male equivalents . The organisation nevertheless grew rapidly , peaking in strength at over 18 @,@ 600 members in October 1944 , or twelve per cent of all RAAF personnel . By the end of the war a total of 27 @,@ 000 women had served in the WAAAF , comprising over thirty @-@ one per cent of ground staff and filling sixty @-@ one trades , all previously occupied by men .
= = Later life = =
Ranked flight officer , Mary Bell was discharged from the WAAAF at her own request on 11 April 1945 . Her husband John was acting air commodore when he left the RAAF on 15 October that year . The WAAAF , first and largest of Australia 's wartime women 's services , was disbanded on 30 September 1946 . The Bells became farmers , first in Victoria and then in Tasmania , before retiring in 1968 . Survived by her daughter , Mary Bell died in Ulverstone , Tasmania on 6 February 1979 . She was buried at Mersey Vale Memorial Park cemetery in Spreyton , near Devonport , beside her husband , who had died in 1973 .
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= Indicud =
Indicud is the third studio album by American hip hop recording artist Kid Cudi . The album was released on April 12 , 2013 , by Republic Records . It was the first album of Cudi 's solo career to not be an installment of his Man on the Moon series . The album 's cover artwork was designed by Kid Cudi himself , who also served as an executive producer of Indicud . It was Cudi 's goal to make more uptempo and positive music with the album . He described it as a completely new format compared to his previous albums .
The album 's record production was handled entirely by Cudi as well , with only record producer Hit @-@ Boy co @-@ producing one track , while Cudi 's WZRD bandmate Dot da Genius , provided drums on two . The album features guest appearances from fellow American rappers King Chip , Kendrick Lamar , Too Short , RZA and ASAP Rocky as well as appearances from American singer @-@ songwriters Father John Misty and Michael Bolton along with indie rock band Haim .
During the early release of Indicud , it was preceded by four singles – " Just What I Am " featuring King Chip , " King Wizard " , " Immortal " and " Girls " featuring Too Short . Indicud debuted at number 2 in the United States . With sales of 139 @,@ 000 copies and debuted at number 32 on the UK Albums Chart , becoming Cudi 's highest @-@ charting album on the chart , while entering at number 2 on the UK R & B Chart . The album received generally mixed reviews from music critics .
= = Background = =
After his crossover into rock music with Dot da Genius , on their project WZRD ( 2012 ) , Cudi soon began working on his third solo studio album . The album was initially going to be the third installment to his Man on the Moon series , which he announced when he revealed he would not be releasing the A Man Named Scott mixtape , to focus on his rock project and " MOTM3 " . Be that as it may , in the summer of 2012 Cudi announced the title of his third studio album when he tweeted : " My new album is entitled indicud , it will be my version of The Chronic 2001 , some songs i 'll produce , others i 'll feat & / or play songwriter " . On June 8 , 2012 , Cudi announced Indicud , would be a double @-@ disc album , until tweeting on October 28 , 2012 that " Indicud will not be a double disc but will contain a maximum of 17 brand new jams . " Kid Cudi also tweeted : " The overall tone of indicud is positive and confident , " adding : " The energy of Indicud is its own new thing . New format with some of my favorite musical tricks here and there . The album moves dope " .
Before the album 's release , in December 2012 , Cudi dedicated Indicud to the late Ben Breedlove and all his fans who died , continuing : " My journey shall continue in your honor . Never forgotten . " The dedication was ultimately included in the album 's liner notes . The album is upbeat and optimistic , very much unlike his previous studio album Man on the Moon II : The Legend of Mr. Rager ( 2010 ) , which was considered darkly erratic . The positive vibe stems from Cudi 's desire to always change and reinvent :
" I always try to push myself to the next level with everything I do . Since I 've been in the business , critics have known that about me . When I started working on Indicud , I just wanted to bring more energy into my sound . Most of my old music was driven towards relaxed , chilled out smoke music . And that was my goal first coming in . Now it 's like , ' What ’ s a side of me that people haven ’ t seen ? ' The only time people have seen me on up @-@ tempos is on remixes or some shit . So I just wanted to take the energy to the next level . That ultimately inspired the subject matter . It was a chain reaction . With the up @-@ tempos came more positive lyrics . It just brightened up the whole shit . "
After announcing his departure from GOOD Music , Cudi revealed Indicud would be his last album under the label , adding that only the first 200 @,@ 000 copies printed would have the GOOD Music logo on it ; making them collector 's items .
= = Recording = =
In April 2012 , in Geneseo , New York , Cudi performed before a sold out crowd and premiered a hip hop song , his first since 2010 . During his set , he performed a new record , tentatively titled " The Leader of the Delinquents " , which he did a cappella . On April 25 , 2012 Cudi was officially back to rapping with the release of " Dennis , Hook Me Up with Some More of That Whiskey ! " . The song , the first ever solely produced by Cudi himself , samples his 2010 song " Ghost ! " . On July 10 , 2012 via his Twitter feed , Cudi announced collaborations on the album thus far , as the album had not yet been completed , to be Pusha T , Jaden Smith and Kendrick Lamar , along with more familiar collaborators Kanye West , King Chip and Cage . He also revealed he was hoping to collaborate with 50 Cent , Lloyd Banks , Diplo and MGMT . In September , he had also expressed interest in working with Harlem @-@ bred rapper ASAP Rocky on Indicud . On October 1 , 2012 Cudi confirmed that production from electronic rock duo Ratatat , with whom he collaborated on " Pursuit of Happiness " and " Alive " from his debut album Man on the Moon : The End of Day ( 2009 ) , would be featured on Indicud .
On October 9 and 12 , Cudi released pictures of him and Dot da Genius in the studio working on the album . On November 6 , 2012 , Cudi made it known that he was in the studio that day working with fellow American rapper J. Cole . On November 17 , 2012 , via his Twitter feed , Cudi announced the song he recorded with Kendrick Lamar was produced by himself and is titled " Solo Dolo , Part II " . He also stated his former GOOD Music label @-@ mate Common would be featured on the album , on a song produced by Dot da Genius and Cudi 's mentor 88 @-@ Keys . On February 13 , 2013 , via Twitter , Cudi revealed he previewed the album to friend and fellow American actor , Mark Webber , and asked him to share his thoughts on the album , as a favor to the fans . During his barrage of tweets , Webber gave insight on the album , revealing Too Short and Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's RZA as features , as well as praising Cudi 's production , rapping and singing . Unlike his previous albums , Indicud is primarily produced by Cudi himself .
In an interview with Billboard , released March 2013 , Cudi confirmed he was working closely with ASAP Rocky , while also revealing Haim , an all @-@ female indie rock band , would appear on the album on a song produced by high @-@ profile American record producer Hit @-@ Boy and himself . On April 2 , 2013 Hit @-@ Boy , claimed besides Cudi , he was the only other person to provide production on the album . Cudi later confirmed the statement via Twitter . Cudi and Hit @-@ Boy had been working on the aforementioned song since January 2011 . The track is also the first record the two of them ever worked on together .
= = Production = =
Cudi also incorporated quotes from his favorite movies into the album , wherever he saw fit . The first release with a movie quote was " Immortal " , where Cudi sampled Adam Sandler in his 1995 film Billy Madison : " That ’ s one of my favorite movies , man . From my childhood , straight up . I love Adam Sandler . Throughout the album I wanted to include clips from some of my favorite movies to kind of narrate the album a bit and liven it up and give it some personality . " He declared that throughout the album , people will hear scenes from several different movies :
" Yeah , different actors will pop up periodically . That ’ s how I felt when I finished the song . ' Oh my God . It 's so good ! ' [ Laughs ] So there had to be a way that I could express myself . So I had to find some of my favorite quotes from my favorite movies . I put on Billy Madison and just watched that . There were so many lines that I picked that were great . But “ I ’ m the smartest man alive ! ” resonated with me . And Adam Sandler is like a god to me . He ’ s so amazing . I just wanted to pay homage through song and let him know , like , ' You ’ re the shit ! ' "
With Indicud , on several tracks Cudi took a backseat in vocals to rather showcase his production skills . " The focus was on producing the record for Kendrick , I wanted to shine as a producer first . I wanted to show that side off more than anything else and that 's why I had my one verse then let Kendrick go ape @-@ sh-- crazy all over the rest of it . " As for the A $ AP Rocky feature on " Brothers , " Cudi explained that he made the decision to go with a minimal hook and let the Harlem rapper dominate the track : " I felt like that was a perfect beat for A $ AP to get on there and speak some truths and talk to the younger generation , because he 's in a place where a lot of kids are up to him and Kendrick . I just wanted to hear him say something a little bit more thoughtful , and he did that — he showed up . I was blown away by his craftsmanship , his professionalism and his overall mojo . "
= = Release and promotion = =
On October 28 , 2012 , after previously announcing hopes of releasing the album in late 2012 , Cudi changed the estimate release date from late 2012 to early 2013 . In late November , Cudi made it known he would be withholding the album 's exact release date , until it was certain , to avoid push backs . On December 18 , 2012 , the same day promotional single " King Wizard " was officially released , Cudi revealed the album would be released in March 2013 . On February 12 , he announced the album 's release date to be April 23 , 2013 . After the album leaked online in its entirety on April 9 , 2013 , Kid Cudi decided to push the album 's release date up to April 16 .
In early January , the album was named the ninth most anticipated album of 2013 by Complex and the 14th most anticipated album by XXL . In early 2013 , Cudi covered Complex 's February / March 2013 issue . In January 2013 , Cudi took to Twitter to express his frustrations with record label , Universal Republic , not supporting and promoting his music . After providing facts about singles " Just What I Am " and " King Wizard " , defending their strong online presence and lamenting about not getting radio play , Cudi tweeted , " if things dont change soon , theres gonna be some problems . "
On March 14 , 2013 Kid Cudi performed at Myspace 's South by Southwest ( SXSW ) secret show in Austin , Texas and after performing his many hits , he previewed a new verse from Indicud . He also revealed that the album would feature 18 tracks , while officially confirming ASAP Rocky and Michael Bolton as featured guests . On March 16 , Cudi announced that he would release the album 's track list and cover art on April 2 . Three days later , Kid Cudi announced via Twitter that the album had officially been completed and turned in to his label , Universal Republic . On March 26 , the album 's cover art and track list was unveiled by Walmart and later Complex . After the album cover 's unveiling , Cudi took to Twitter to explain his decision for the artwork : " The album art represents me . A ball of flames in a rose gold frame . " The cover 's art direction was handled by Cudi himself . In December 2013 , it would be named the sixteenth best album cover of 2013 by Complex . Later that day , Cudi appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and performed the album 's lead singles ; " Just What I Am " and " Immortal " , as well as premiering " Mad Solar " , which he performed a cappella .
During late 2013 , Kid Cudi toured in support of Indicud on The Cud Life Tour 2013 . The tour was announced on July 15 , with tickets going on sale the following day . Supporting acts on the tour include Big Sean , Tyler , The Creator and Logic . The tour took place in the United States beginning on August 22 and ran through October 18 , 2013 .
= = Singles = =
On August 12 , 2012 Kid Cudi released the lead single from Indicud , a song titled " Just What I Am " , featuring his longtime collaborator and friend , fellow Cleveland rapper King Chip . On October 2 , 2012 , " Just What I Am " , was released to iTunes as the first single from the album . The single 's music video , which marked Cudi 's directorial debut , was released November 6 , 2012 , via Kid Cudi 's Vevo . The song has since peaked at number 74 on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
On September 29 , 2012 , Cudi released a podcast where he previewed " King Wizard " , a new song he was " very excited about " . On October 3 , 2012 , one day after " Just What I Am " , the album 's lead single was officially released via iTunes , Cudi liberated " King Wizard " as the second offering from Indicud via SoundCloud . Cudi who also produced the track , had teamed up with Samsung Mobile to release the clean version of the newly mastered “ King Wizard ” as a free download . The download was available by heading to Samsung Mobile USA ’ s Facebook page under the “ music ” tab . The explicit version and the music video were officially released via iTunes , on December 18 , 2012 as the album 's second single .
On October 29 , Cudi announced he would be releasing the album 's second official single at the end of November . On November 7 , he revealed the upcoming single 's title to be " Immortal " , and that it again was produced by himself like the two previous releases , " Just What I Am " and " King Wizard " . He claimed the song " will make you feel amazing in the heart and soul . " However , on November 30 , he revealed " Immortal " would not be released until 2013 . " Immortal " would be premiered on March 1 , 2013 via SoundCloud . The song was produced by Cudi , with the main sample being a track from one of his favorite bands MGMT 's , " Congratulations " . He reversed the song , sped it up , and produced over it . The song was officially released via iTunes on March 14 , 2013 as the album 's third single .
On April 2 , 2013 Cudi released " Girls " for digital download via the iTunes Store , as the album 's fourth single . The song features fellow American rapper Too Short , and was produced by Cudi .
= = Commercial performance = =
In its first week of release Indicud debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , selling 139 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and debuted at number 32 on the UK Albums Chart , becoming Cudi 's highest @-@ charting album on the chart , while entering at number 2 on the UK R & B Chart . In its second week the album sold 36 @,@ 000 more copies . In its third week the album sold 15 @,@ 000 more copies , bringing its total sales in the United States to 183 @,@ 000 . As of December 19 , 2013 the album has sold 260 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
The album also earned a level of commercial success internationally . In Canada it peaked at number three on the Canadian Albums Chart and peaked at number 32 on the UK Albums Chart . It also peaked at number 23 in Australia , number 32 in Denmark and number 33 in New Zealand . Indicud also charted on the main albums chart in Belgium , France , Germany , Switzerland and Ireland .
= = Critical response = =
Indicud received generally mixed reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 58 , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " , based on 16 reviews . Chris Dart of Exclaim ! said , " It 's also a smart , fun , eclectic record full of psychedelic influences and great , massive choruses . " Steve Jones of USA Today said , " Scott Mescudi handles the production of his third album , creating moody , surreal soundscapes to bolster rhymes that run the gamut of emotions . But whether he 's feeling invincible or despondent , you get a true sense of where his head 's at . " David Jeffries of AllMusic stated , " It 's an entertaining , vibrant , and artistically filling album , so consider it a " presents " effort and enjoy the show . " Mosi Reeves of Spin said , " None of the guest actors here distract from Cudi 's signature self @-@ mythologizing and inner turmoil . And most of the time , it 's his inner turmoil that beckons you in , rather than merely pushing you out . " Dan Buyanovsky of XXL stated , " As a whole , Cudi ’ s version of 2001 is an original and bold project [ ... ] This ambitious project does not fall flat , and credit is due to Cudi for continuing to challenge himself post @-@ WZRD , taking on a new skill @-@ set and concept rather than throwing together a collection of identically moody anthems . "
Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club stated , " For the first time , Cudi is more interested in throwing an actual party than a pity party , and with his bass @-@ engulfed beats and chewy , sing @-@ along hooks , he ’ s well @-@ suited to the task . In spite of its brighter outlook , though , Indicud is still a Kid Cudi record . " Logan Smithson of PopMatters said , " If you 've heard a Kid Cudi album before , you probably know what you ’ re going to get from Indicud , and for those who have been patiently awaiting his latest release , that 's great news . Indicud features some of Kid Cudi ’ s best songs to date , and is an overall enjoyable listen from start to finish . " Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound stated , " It 's ass @-@ backwards to make other people look the best on your solo album . Still , that might demonstrate the path of Kid Cudi isn 't about being a rapper , a singer , or something in between . The point is , this record just proves that Kid Cudi has a lot of sorting to do , and continuing down the same old path simply won ’ t cut it in the long @-@ run . " Joe Gross of Rolling Stone said , " Someday this Cleveland MC / producer / former weed enthusiast will find the lyrical and vocal charisma to match the scrumptiously dark , quasi @-@ industrial tenor of his moody beats . But Cudi ’ s pitchy @-@ dawg voice remains his own worst enemy . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Closing out the year , the album was named to multiple album of the year lists . Complex ranked the album at number 26 , on their list of the 50 best albums of 2013 . They commented saying , " the album 's cinematic feel puts Cudi in the director 's seat as he compiles a diverse ensemble cast of luminaries , ranging from rap legends like RZA to indie rockers like Haim to West Coast spitters like Kendrick Lamar . The final product is proof Cudi can make a soundscape that others can easily adapt to , not the other way around . " XXL positioned it at number 25 on their list of the best albums of 2013 . In December 2013 , HipHopDX placed it on their list of the top 25 albums of the year saying , " In a manner akin to Robert Johnson selling his soul to the devil to become a magician of a bluesman , Kid Cudi also clearly sold his soul to the demons that once claimed it in order to craft this album . There ’ s no singles here , just an intense and very listenable journey . " The Source ranked it at number 23 on their list , saying " it delivered , sonically and conceptually . The album was an honest representation of the maturation of Cudi ’ s space age sound and middle finger to the world attitude . "
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Indicud .
( co . ) denotes co @-@ producer .
Sample credits
" The Resurrection of Scott Mescudi " contains a excerpt from the film The Good Son ( 1993 ) .
" Unfuckwittable " contains an excerpt from the film The Good Son ( 1993 ) .
" Young Lady " contains a sample of " Hollywood Forever Cemetery Sings " performed by Father John Misty .
" Immortal " contains a sample of " Congratulations " performed by MGMT . The song also contains excerpts from the films Billy Madison ( 1995 ) and The Good Son ( 1993 ) .
" Solo Dolo , Part II " contains a sample of " Going the Distance " performed by Menahan Street Band , which was originally composed by Bill Conti .
" Girls " contains an interpolation of " Pretty Girls " , written by Carl Brown , Shelly Goodhope , Tanesa Tavin , Daniel Brattain , Veronica Mendez , Darrell Mitchell , Albert Cota , Chantel Roquemore and Michael Monagan . The song also contains a sample of " Bitches ( Reply ) " performed by Dion " DJ Jimi " Norman .
" Beez " contains a sample of " Mind Playing Tricks on Me " performed by Geto Boys .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Indicud taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Prado Navarette v. California =
Prado Navarette v. California , 572 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2014 ) , was a case in which the United States Supreme Court clarified when police officers may make arrests or conduct temporary detentions based on information provided by anonymous tips . In 2008 , police in California received a 911 call that a pickup truck was driving recklessly along a rural highway . Officers spotted a truck matching the description provided in the 911 call and followed the truck for five minutes , but did not observe any suspicious behavior . Nevertheless , officers conducted a traffic stop and discovered 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) of marijuana in the truck . At trial , the occupants of the car argued that the traffic stop violated the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution , because the tip was unreliable , and officers did not personally observe criminal activity . Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice Clarence Thomas held that the 911 call was reliable , and that officers need not personally observe criminal activity when acting upon information provided by an anonymous 911 call .
Justice Antonin Scalia wrote a " scathing " dissenting opinion , in which he argued that the tip was unreliable , and that the majority 's opinion threatened the freedom and liberty of all citizens . Likewise , many commentators have noted Navarette represented a departure from earlier precedent , and that the opinion opened the door for expansive new police powers . Some commentators have also noted that the case leaves open several important questions , including the unanswered question of whether anonymous reports of extremely dangerous behavior require fewer indicia of reliability before police may act upon those reports . Other scholars have argued it was highly unlikely that Lorenzo and Jose Prado Navarette were actually driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol when they were stopped by police .
= = Background = =
= = = Fourth Amendment guidelines for traffic stops = = =
Although criminal detentions usually require probable cause that the suspect has engaged in criminal activity , an officer may conduct a traffic stop if the officer has a reasonable , articulable suspicion that the driver is engaging in criminal activity . Officers may not rely upon a mere " hunch " , but the level of suspicion required to conduct a traffic stop is “ considerably less than proof of wrongdoing by a preponderance of the evidence ” , and less than is necessary for probable cause . However , the Supreme Court of the United States has clarified that the reasonable suspicion required to justify a traffic stop depends upon " both the content of information possessed by police and its degree of reliability " , while taking into account “ the totality of the circumstances — the whole picture . ”
= = = Fourth Amendment searches and seizures based on anonymous tips = = =
In Illinois v. Gates , the Supreme Court established that courts should apply a " totality of the circumstances " test to determine whether an anonymous tip is sufficiently reliable to provide probable cause to issue an arrest warrant . Although officers in Gates did not personally witness any criminal activity , the Supreme Court held that the anonymous tip in question was reliable , because officers could verify several events predicted by the anonymous tip . Seven years after Gates , the Supreme Court held in Alabama v. White that an anonymous tip was sufficiently reliable to provide reasonable suspicion to justify a temporary detention , because the tip accurately predicted several key details . Although the Court conceded that White was a " close case " , the tip in question " exhibited sufficient indicia of reliability " to justify a temporary detention . The Court explained that if " an informant is shown to be right about some things , he is probably right about other facts that he has alleged , including the claim that the object of the tip is engaged in criminal activity . "
However , in Florida v. J.L. , the Supreme Court ruled that police officers did not have reasonable suspicion to detain a suspect based on an anonymous tip “ that a young black male standing at a particular bus stop and wearing a plaid shirt was carrying a gun . ” The Court held that the tip " lacked the moderate indicia of reliability present in White and essential to the Court ’ s decision in that case . The anonymous call concerning J.L. provided no predictive information , and therefore left the police without means to test the informant ’ s knowledge or credibility . ” The Court declined to create a " firearm exception " for anonymous tips , but the court noted in dicta that a tip describing a bomb threat need not bear the indicia of reliability otherwise required of other anonymous tips . The Supreme Court of California would later rely upon this " bomb exception " in People v. Wells , when it ruled that an anonymous tip that accurately described a vehicle “ weaving all over the roadway ” justified a traffic stop . The California court held that “ considerations of public safety and common sense ” permit officers to conduct traffic stops based on anonymous tips " to confirm the officer ’ s reasonable suspicion of intoxicated driving before a serious traffic accident can occur . ”
= = = Arrest and Trial of Lorenzo and Jose Prado Navarette = = =
On August 23 , 2008 , a California Highway Patrol ( " CHP " ) dispatcher in Humboldt County , California received a 911 call from an anonymous caller . According to the dispatcher , the caller reported a silver Ford F150 pickup with the license plate number " 8D94925 " ran them off the highway . The caller stated that the truck was last seen heading southbound on California State Route 1 . CHP dispatchers relayed the report to officers in the geographic area , and the vehicle was soon spotted traveling southbound at mile marker 66 near Fort Bragg , California . Officers pulled over the vehicle and discovered that Lorenzo Prado Navarette and Jose Prado Navarette were the only occupants . After standing next to the cab of the pickup truck , the officers noticed " a very distinct smell of marijuana coming from the vehicle " . Officers then searched the vehicle and found four large bags containing 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) of marijuana , an unopened box of oven bags , clippers , and fertilizer in the bed of the truck .
On August 26 , 2008 , a felony complaint was filed in Mendocino County Superior Court , charging Lorenzo Prado Navarette and Jose Prado Navarette with transportation of marijuana in violation of section 11360 ( a ) of the California Health and Safety Code , and possession of marijuana for sale in violation of section 11359 of the California Health and Safety Code . On June 26 , 2009 , Lorenzo Prado Navarette and Jose Prado Navarette filed a motion to suppress evidence , claiming that the traffic stop violated the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution , because officers " lacked reasonable suspicion of criminal activity " . However , the magistrate who presided over the suppression hearing , and the superior court , both rejected the motion . Lorenzo Prado Navarette and Jose Prado Navarette subsequently pleaded guilty to transporting marijuana , and were sentenced to 90 days in prison and three years of probation .
Lorenzo Prado Navarette and Jose Prado Navarette filed an appeal in the California Court of Appeal , but the court affirmed the judgment of the Superior Court . Relying on the " public safety " exception established in People v. Wells , the court held that " ongoing danger to other motorists [ justified ] the stop without direct corroboration of the vehicle 's illegal activity " . The court noted that the vehicle was traveling on an " undivided two @-@ lane road , thus raising the risk of a collision with oncoming traffic , which poses a particular risk to human life and limb . " However , the court also held that the " anonymous tip itself had several indicia of reliability — the content of the tip strongly suggested it came from the victim and the tipster accurately described the appearance , location and direction of the vehicle . " Lorenzo and Jose appealed again to the Supreme Court of California , but the Court declined to review their case . They then appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States , which granted their petition for certiorari on October 1 , 2013 .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice Clarence Thomas held that the 911 call contained sufficient indicia of reliability to justify the traffic stop . Although he acknowledged that this was a " close case " , Justice Thomas concluded that indicia of the 911 caller 's reliability were stronger than those in Florida v. J.L. , where the Court held a " bare @-@ bones " tip was unreliable . Justice Thomas began his opinion by emphasizing that the Supreme Court had " firmly rejected the argument that reasonable cause for an investigative stop can only be based on the officer ’ s personal observation , rather than on information supplied by another person . ” By identifying the make , model , and license plate number of the pickup truck , Justice Thomas argued that " the caller necessarily claimed eyewitness knowledge of the alleged dangerous driving , " and that basis of knowledge supported the tip 's reliability . Furthermore , Justice Thomas concluded that " [ a ] driver ’ s claim that another vehicle ran her off the road , however , necessarily implies that the informant knows the other car was driven dangerously . " Justice Thomas also noted that the calls made through the 911 emergency system are particularly reliable , because calls are recorded and individuals may face prosecution for making false reports .
Justice Thomas also clarified that officers need not " rule out the possibility of innocent conduct " before making a traffic stop based on an anonymous tip . In light of the facts described in the 911 call , Justice Thomas argued that the reckless driving described in the 911 call " [ bear ] too great a resemblance to paradigmatic manifestations of drunk driving to be dismissed as an isolated example of recklessness . " He concluded that officers therefore acted reasonably " under these circumstances in stopping a driver whose alleged conduct was a significant indicator of drunk driving " . Justice Thomas noted that many drivers will behave more cautiously when followed by police officers , and he concluded that there was no need to conduct " [ e ] xtended observation " in this case , because " allowing a drunk driver a second chance for dangerous conduct could have disastrous consequences " .
= = = Dissenting opinion of Justice Scalia = = =
In his dissenting opinion , Justice Antonin Scalia argued that the majority 's opinion was a " freedom @-@ destroying cocktail . " Although he recognized anonymous tips may sometimes be reliable , he rejected the majority 's conclusion that " anonymous 911 reports of traffic violations are reliable so long as they correctly identify a car and its location . " He wrote , " [ t ] his is not my concept , and I am sure would not be the Framers ’ , of a people secure from unreasonable searches and seizures . " Justice Scalia argued that anonymous tips are inherently unreliable , because anonymous tipsters can " lie with impunity . " While he admitted 911 calls are , in fact , easily traceable , Justice Scalia argued that there was no evidence the 911 caller knew they could be identified when they placed the call . Additionally , Justice Scalia distinguished the tip in this case from the tip in White , where " the reliability of the tip was established by the fact that it predicted the target ’ s behavior in the finest detail — a detail that could be known only by someone familiar with the target ’ s business . " He argued that the general details provided in this case 's 911 call were unreliable , because " everyone in the world who saw the car would have that knowledge , and anyone who wanted the car stopped would have to provide that information . " Likewise , Justice Scalia argued that there was no evidence that the report of being run off the road was actually true .
Justice Scalia also criticized the majority 's conclusion that the tip provided reasonable suspicion that Lorenzo and Jose Prado Navarette were driving while drunk , because " the truck might have swerved to avoid an animal , a pothole , or a jaywalking pedestrian .... Or , indeed , he might have intentionally forced the tipster off the road because of some personal animus , or hostility to her ' Make Love , Not War ' bumper sticker . " Furthermore , Justice Scalia argued that one discrete instance of irregular driving does not give rise to the reasonable suspicion of an ongoing threat of an intoxicated driver on the road . Justice Scalia also argued that the anonymous tip 's claims of reckless driving were ultimately discredited by the fact that officers followed Lorenzo and Jose for five minutes , but observed nothing suspicious . He wrote , " I take it as a fundamental premise of our intoxicated @-@ driving laws that a driver soused enough to swerve once can be expected to swerve again — and soon . If he does not , and if the only evidence of his first episode of irregular driving is a mere inference from an uncorroborated , vague , and nameless tip , then the Fourth Amendment requires that he be left alone . " In his concluding remarks , Justice Scalia wrote " [ d ] runken driving is a serious matter , but so is the loss of our freedom to come and go as we please without police interference .... After today ’ s opinion all of us on the road , and not just drug dealers , are at risk of having our freedom of movement curtailed on suspicion of drunkenness , based upon a phone tip , true or false , of a single instance of careless driving . "
= = Subsequent developments = =
Many federal circuit courts and state supreme courts interpreting Navarette have affirmed the rule that officers need not personally corroborate incriminating details before making an arrest based on information provided by an anonymous tip . However , other courts interpreting Navarette have held that uncorroborated anonymous tips are not sufficient to provide reasonable suspicion of ongoing criminal activity . Additionally , courts in some jurisdictions have held that in order for officers to act upon an anonymous tip , the tip must provide a report of an ongoing crime , rather than a report of an isolated event that occurred in the past . Some courts have also rejected the assertion that the availability of caller information makes 911 calls inherently reliable . However , some courts have agreed with the notion that 911 calls are more reliable because callers may face criminal prosecution for making false reports . Other courts interpreting Navarette have held that the case established that less reliability is required when anonymous tips report " serious crime [ s ] or potential danger " .
= = Analysis and commentary = =
= = = Immediate reactions = = =
After the Court released its opinion , many commentators suggested that Navarette represented a significant expansion of the police 's power to stop drivers on the road . Lyle Denniston , for example , remarked that the Court 's opinion " gave police broad new authority . " In its review of cases from the 2013 term , the Harvard Law Review suggested that " Navarette may add to the police 's already expansive power , " and that the case " heralds unwarranted curtailment of Fourth Amendment protections . " Other commentators remarked that the case " seemed to lower the bar for assessments of anonymous tipsters . " Paul Kleven , attorney for Lorenzo and Jose Prado Navarette , said that the ruling " makes it easier for anonymous tipsters to call in and sic police on people they don 't like , " while a spokesperson for the California Attorney General 's office said " [ w ] e are pleased with the court 's ruling , which supports the hard work of law enforcement . "
= = = Scholarly analysis = = =
Scholars have observed that Navarette marked a departure from earlier precedent on the subject of anonymous tips , and some have argued that the case signifies a " dilution " of the Fourth Amendment 's reasonable suspicion standard . One analyst argued that this departure " could encourage passive and sloppy policing , for officers will be tempted to rely on easily acquired anonymous tips rather than engage in arduous collection of evidence . " Commentators have argued that Justice Kennedy 's endorsement of the reliability of anonymous 911 calls signified a departure from earlier decisions that analyzed the reliability of tips under a totality of the circumstances framework . These commentators suggest that this departure " increases the risk of fabricated tips . " Some analysts have also observed that the Court 's opinion left several questions unanswered from earlier anonymous tip cases , including the question of whether there was an exception for dangerous crimes , and that the Court " missed an opportunity to give lower courts some much needed guidance . " One commentator wrote , " [ t ] he time bomb mentioned in J.L. is still ticking " . Another commentator argued that because Lorenzo Prado Navarette 's driving was " irreproachable " for at least five minutes , " the probability that Lorenzo Navarette was legally drunk was surely less than the probability for the average daytime driver of a pickup truck ; indeed , it ostensibly was all but zero . "
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= 2004 FA Community Shield =
The 2004 FA Community Shield was the 82nd FA Charity Shield , an annual English football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Premier League and FA Cup . It was contested on 8 August 2004 by Arsenal , champions of the 2003 – 04 Premier League , and Manchester United , who beat Millwall in the final of the 2003 – 04 FA Cup . Watched by a crowd of 63 @,@ 317 at the Millennium Stadium , Arsenal won the match 3 – 1 .
This was Manchester United 's 23rd Community Shield appearance and Arsenal 's 18th . Manchester United were without seven of their first @-@ choice players for the game , which meant David Bellion and Eric Djemba @-@ Djemba came into the starting 11 . Cesc Fàbregas started alongside Gilberto Silva in midfield for Arsenal as captain Patrick Vieira was absent . After a goalless first half , Arsenal took the lead when Gilberto scored in the 50th minute . Striker Alan Smith equalised for Manchester United soon after , but José Antonio Reyes put Arsenal back in front after United 's defenders failed to clear the ball . Mikaël Silvestre scored an own goal 11 minutes before the end that ensured Arsenal 's victory .
Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson was complimentary of his opponents afterwards and was pleased there were no new injuries to report . Opposing manager Arsène Wenger praised Fàbregas 's performance and reiterated his desire to keep Vieira at Arsenal , after speculation regarding the player 's impending transfer to Real Madrid .
= = Background = =
Founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield , the FA Community Shield began as a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , although in 1913 , it was played between an Amateurs XI and a Professionals XI . In 1921 , it was played by the league champions of the top division and FA Cup winners for the first time . Wembley Stadium acted as the host of the Shield from 1974 . Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium was hosting the Shield for the fourth time ; it took over as the venue for the event while Wembley Stadium underwent a six @-@ year renovation between 2001 and 2006 .
Arsenal qualified for the 2004 FA Community Shield as winners of the Premier League . They finished their league campaign without a single defeat and earned the nickname " The Invincibles " , akin to the Preston North End team that went unbeaten in the inaugural Football League season . The other Community Shield place went to Manchester United who had defeated Millwall 3 – 0 in the 2004 FA Cup Final . This was the fifth meeting between the two clubs in the Community Shield ; Arsenal had won three of those meetings to Manchester United 's two .
Meetings between Manchester United and Arsenal were often eventful encounters , as both clubs vied for domestic honours . A goalless draw between the two clubs in September 2003 , in which Ruud van Nistelrooy missed a penalty in stoppage time , resulted in an altercation between both teams . Several Arsenal players were charged and fined accordingly by The Football Association ( FA ) for instigating the brawl ; the club was later fined £ 175 @,@ 000 , the largest ever given to a club by the FA .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson said in his press conference : " The game will be competitive . Prestige comes into it , pride comes into it , so it is always competitive when we play Arsenal . " He wanted to use the game as a means of preparing his team for their UEFA Champions League third qualifying round game against Dinamo București the following Wednesday . Ferguson was concerned about the state of his squad , with several first team players injured . He was irked that senior players Cristiano Ronaldo and Gabriel Heinze were absent , on duty for their respective national teams at the Summer Olympics : " Apparently , it 's supposed to be for amateurs , and money earned is put in trust , but we will be paying their wages while they are away so I don 't know what that 's all about . "
When asked about Arsenal 's unbeaten run and whether it would be repeated in English football , Ferguson replied :
" That was a one @-@ off . Arsenal accumulated most points last season so they won the title fairly enough , but they didn 't display championship form . They had too many draws . I think they came to a point around January where they realised they could go through the season undefeated , and that was a great driving force for them , but they had to stay undefeated to compensate for the number of draws . It was still an incredible achievement , though . "
Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger responded by saying : " Everybody has the freedom to make a judgement . In the last 20 minutes of every game last season , we were never behind . That means we had already done the job before . " He insisted the draws did not reflect on his team 's negative tactics , but " because of other teams coming back into the game " . On the issue of Patrick Vieira 's anticipated move to Real Madrid , Wenger told reporters the player would remain at Arsenal . Wenger acknowledged his team were short on experience as a result of selling players and missing Vieira , Sol Campbell and Thierry Henry , who all were injured . He considered this to be a disadvantage , but argued " ... the younger ones have to be given a chance . They all have to take some responsibility . "
Tickets for the game went on general sale on 28 July 2004 . They were advertised on the FA website at a cost of between £ 15 and £ 40 . Sir Geoff Hurst was named as the event 's chief guest .
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
For Arsenal , Thierry Henry was declared fit to start and played alongside Dennis Bergkamp up front . 17 @-@ year @-@ old Cesc Fàbregas partnered Gilberto Silva in central midfield , with José Antonio Reyes and Jermaine Pennant providing width on either side . Manchester United were without seven of their first @-@ team players , including Ruud van Nistelrooy , who required surgery on his hernia . Wes Brown and Louis Saha were also ruled out because of injury , so David Bellion and Eric Djemba @-@ Djemba came into the first team .
= = = Summary = = =
Arsenal kicked @-@ off the match and within the first two minutes forced Manchester United defender Gary Neville to concede a throw @-@ in . In the fifth minute , Manchester United won a free kick , but nothing came out of it as José Antonio Reyes blocked Paul Scholes 's shot . Good play by Reyes and Henry fashioned a chance for Bergkamp in the ninth minute , but his strike was off target . Two minutes later a shot by Bergkamp from outside the box was saved by Manchester United goalkeeper Tim Howard . Before Henry was about to take a corner for Arsenal in the 16th minute , a cigarette lighter was thrown at him from the section occupied by Manchester United supporters – this resulted in police making two arrests during the game . Quinton Fortune used his pace to get the better of Lauren , but his cross into the Arsenal penalty area was cleared by Pascal Cygan . Arsenal continued to threaten – Henry 's free kick prompted Howard to make a save and tip the ball over the crossbar , and Bergkamp came close to scoring in the 27th minute after clever play to lose his marker John O 'Shea . The football continued to move from one end to the other , with Giggs and Reyes causing problems for their respective defences . In stoppage time at the end of the first half , Henry had his shot saved by Howard , while Scholes was similarly denied by Arsenal goalkeeper Jens Lehmann .
Manchester United made a slight change before the second half commenced , with Neville and O 'Shea switching positions , while Arsenal brought Robin van Persie on in place of Henry . Arsenal began the half more strongly – Reyes sprinted past the Manchester United defence and went past Howard in the 48th minute , but his shot hit the side @-@ netting . A minute later Arsenal scored . Bergkamp 's pass put Reyes clear to run down the right @-@ hand side of the pitch . He squared the ball to Gilberto , who side @-@ footed it into the empty goal net . Manchester United responded by making three substitutions – Fortune , Giggs and Roy Keane off for Phil Neville , Diego Forlán and Darren Fletcher . Five minutes after going behind , Alan Smith equalised for Manchester United . A mistake in the Arsenal defence presented him with the chance to hit a half @-@ volley ; the ball dipped over Lehmann in goal . Arsenal retook the lead in the 59th minute – a disjointed move that ended with Reyes shooting the ball low in the bottom left hand corner . Phil Neville was shown the game 's first yellow card in the 62nd minute , after fouling Reyes . Van Persie 's free kick a minute later was deflected for a corner , which came to nothing . Jérémie Aliadière who came on for Bergkamp sustained a knee injury and had to come off after only a few minutes on the field . He was replaced by Gaël Clichy , whose arrival according to journalist Henry Winter " … accelerated Arsenal 's drive further , particularly down the left where he kept combining well with Ashley Cole . " In the 72nd minute , Eric Djemba @-@ Djemba and Cole were each shown a yellow card for clashing with one another . Arsenal scored their third goal of the match 11 minutes before the end . Cole carried the ball into United 's penalty box and his attempted cross hit defender Mikaël Silvestre , who was helpless to prevent the ball going into his own net .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match and aftermath = =
Wenger clarified Vieira 's future after the match : " My intention is clear : to keep him [ … ] The challenge in front of us is hugely difficult and we need a complete focus . I 'm not resigned to let the story go on . It has all to be sorted out before the season . " He added that if Vieira chose to leave , the club could sufficiently replace him : " We 've worked very hard in the last five years to get good young players in and you saw that today . " Reyes , who was named man of the match , was frustrated at his missed chance early in the second half , but continued : " I set one up and then scored myself so I was much happier . " Bergkamp was impressed with Fàbregas 's performance in the match : " Normally at 17 , you might be a bit unsure when you step out . But with players like Cesc , the way he has developed in one year is quite amazing . "
Ferguson congratulated Arsenal on their win and said of the game : " It was about trying to make sure everyone was fit for Wednesday . I think we have managed to do that . There are no new injuries so far . Hopefully by tomorrow morning it will be a definite . " He believed it was important to substitute Giggs and Keane early in the second half in order for them to recuperate in time for the Dinamo București game . Scholes , however , " … needed a game , which is why I left him on that bit longer . " Ferguson felt Manchester United 's preparations to the new season were hampered because of the injuries : " It 's got a lot to do with summer football . It 's not down to the European Championship , but you do wonder why the Copa América can 't be at the same time . That harmony is never quite right , from Africa to America to Europe . Something should be done about that . " Giggs said Manchester United needed to take the positives out of the match and anticipated Arsenal as their main rivals in the league : " [ They ] know what to do and how to handle the pressure when it comes around . "
The two clubs next faced each other in a league fixture at Old Trafford on 23 October 2004 , where Arsenal 's unbeaten league run of 49 matches came to an end as Manchester United beat them 2 – 0 .
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= Radcliffe , Greater Manchester =
Radcliffe is a town in the Metropolitan Borough of Bury , Greater Manchester , England . It lies in the Irwell Valley 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) south @-@ west of Bury and 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) north @-@ northwest of Manchester and is contiguous with Whitefield to the south . The disused Manchester , Bolton & Bury Canal bisects the town .
Historically a part of Lancashire , evidence of Mesolithic , Roman and Norman activity has been found in Radcliffe and its surroundings . A Roman road passes through the area , along the border between Radcliffe and Bury . Radcliffe appears in an entry of the Domesday Book as " Radeclive " and in the High Middle Ages formed a small parish and township centred on the Church of St Mary and the manorial Radcliffe Tower , both of which are Grade I listed buildings .
Coal lies under the area of mines opened in the Industrial Revolution , providing fuel for the cotton spinning and papermaking industries . By the mid @-@ 19th century , Radcliffe was an important mill town with cotton mills , bleachworks and a road , canal and railway network .
With a population of 34 @,@ 239 , falling to 29 @,@ 950 at the Census in 2011 . Radcliffe is predominantly a residential area whose few remaining cotton mills are now occupied by small businesses .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name Radcliffe is derived from the Old English words read and clif , meaning " the red cliff or bank " , on the River Irwell in the Irwell Valley . The Domesday Book records the name as " Radeclive " . Other archaic spellings include " Radclive " ( recorded in 1227 ) , and " Radeclif " ( recorded in 1309 and 1360 ) . The Radcliffe family took its name from the town .
= = = Early history = = =
The first human settlements in the area , albeit seasonal , are thought to have been as far back as 6,000BC during the Mesolithic period . Archaeological excavations in 1949 at Radcliffe E 'es ( a level plain along the north bank of the Irwell , formed by retreating glacial deposits during the previous ice age ) found evidence of pre @-@ historic activity , suggesting a lake village site , but dating techniques of the time were unreliable . Further investigations in 1961 revealed rows of sharpened posts and worked timbers , but no further dating evidence was collected . In 1911 while repairs to the bridge at Radcliffe bridge were underway , a stone axe @-@ hammer was found in the river bed . The 8 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 22 cm ) large tool artefact weighs 4 pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) and is made from polished Quartzite , with a bore to take a shaft .
South of the present @-@ day Withins reservoir is a possible location for a Hengi @-@ form Tumulus . The town also has Roman associations ; a Roman road passes through the town , along the border between Radcliffe and Bury on a south @-@ east to north @-@ west route . It allowed easy travel between the Roman forts at Manchester ( Mamucium ) and Ribchester ( Bremetennacum ) . The approximate route was through Higher Lane in nearby Whitefield , through Dales Lane and across the Irwell over Radcliffe E 'es through the site of the former East Lancashire Paper Mill . The route passes up Croft Lane , over Cross Lane and over the route of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal under the 10 3 / 4 milestone . It then crosses Bury and Bolton Road , and heads through Higher Spen Moor .
Other than placenames , little information about the area survives from the Dark Ages . Radcliffe was likely moorland and swamps .
Following the 11th century Norman conquest of England , Radcliffe became a parish and township in the hundred of Salford , and county of Lancashire . One of only four parishes from the hundred mentioned in the Domesday Book and held by Edward the Confessor as a Royal Manor , it initially consisted of two hamlets ; Radcliffe , near to the border with Bury and centred on the Medieval Church of St Mary and the manorial Radcliffe Tower , and further to the west Radcliffe Bridge , at a crossing of the Irwell . As a Royal Manor , the hide may originally have been up to four times the size it was when it was recorded in 1212 as being held by William de Radeclive , of the " Radclyffes of the Tower " family .
In the 15th century the Pilkington family who , during the Wars of the Roses , supported the House of York , owned much of the land around the parish . Thomas Pilkington was at this time lord of many estates in Lancashire . In 1485 Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth . The Duke of Richmond , representing the House of Lancaster , was crowned Henry VII . Sir William Stanley may have placed the crown upon his head . As a reward for the support of his family , on 27 October 1485 Henry made Thomas Stanley the Earl of Derby . Thomas Pilkington was attainted , and in February 1489 Earl Thomas was given many confiscated estates including those of Pilkington , which included the township of Pilkington , and Bury . During the English Civil War Radcliffe , along with nearby Bolton , fought on the side of the Parliamentarians against the Royalist Bury .
In 1561 after about 400 years rule by the Radclyffes , Robert Assheton ( Lord of the Manor of Middleton ) bought the manor of Radcliffe for 2 @,@ 000 Marks . From 1765 the Assheton estates were divided between the two daughters of the late Ralph Assheton , one of whom married Thomas Egerton , 1st Earl of Wilton . The manor of Radcliffe appears to have been included in her share , and thereafter was included in the Wilton estates .
= = = Textiles and the Industrial Revolution = = =
The first documented reference to industry in Radcliffe is after 1680 , in the Radcliffe parish registers , which make increasing mention of occupations such as woollen webster ( weaving ) , linen webster , and whitster ( bleacher ) . These were cottage industries which worked alongside local agriculture . In 1780 Robert Peel built the first factory in the town , several hundred yards upstream from Radcliffe Bridge ( at the end of Peel Street ) . With a weir and goit providing motive power for a water wheel , the factory was built for throstle spinning and the weaving of cotton — a relatively new introduction to Britain . The water wheel proved to be insufficient , and so around 1804 the goit was extended . The weir ( known as Rectory Weir ) was made from timber . Conditions were poor ; the mill employed child labour bought from workhouses in Birmingham and London . Children were boarded on an upper floor of the building , and bound until they reached the age of 21 . They were unpaid , and were kept locked up each night . Shifts were typically 10 – 10 @.@ 5 hours in length , and children returning from a day shift would sleep in the same bed as children leaving for a night shift . Peel himself admitted that conditions at the mill were " very bad " . In 1784 an outbreak of typhoid prompted Lord Grey de Wilton to inform the magistrates of the Salford Hundred ; keen to prevent the spread of the disease to neighbouring towns and villages , they sent doctors to assess the situation . Their recommendations included leaving the windows of the mill open at night , fumigation of rooms with tobacco ( as this was thought to discourage disease ) , regular cleaning of rooms and toilets and occasional bathing of children . The report forced the magistrates , led by Thomas Butterworth Bayley , to abandon the practice of binding parish apprentices to any mill not adhering to these conditions . The report also prompted Peel to introduce an Act of Parliament to improve factory hygiene , which later became the Factory Act of 1802 . Over time , conditions at the mill improved ; in the mid @-@ 1790s the physician John Aikin , a critic of the factory system , praised working conditions at the mill , and in 1823 inspections by local magistrates of conditions in mills across the county revealed that unlike many others , the factory at Radcliffe was adhering to all requirements of the Factory Acts .
The underlying coal measures throughout the parish were a valuable source of fuel . Radcliffe already had an established textile industry before the arrival of steam power . The first recorded instance of coal getting in the North West of England was in 1246 , when Adam de Radeclyve was fined for digging de minera on common land in the Radcliffe area . Coal outcroppings were not uncommon ; as recently as 1936 members of the public were seen carrying away large pieces of coal from a seam revealed by the landslip caused when the Manchester , Bolton & Bury Canal breached at Ladyshore . Mining was initially limited to bell pits until the arrival of steam engines , which along with improved ventilation , made possible much deeper pits . The earliest known local use of such an engine was in 1792 at Black Cat Colliery . The parish of Radcliffe was once home to as many as 50 pits , but with the exceptions of Outwood Colliery and Ladyshore Colliery , all were either exhausted or closed by the end of the 19th century . During the 1926 General Strike many striking miners illegally took coal from exposed seams around the Coney Green area of the town , to sell to local housewives . In the 1950s to the north of the town the National Coal Board did some open cast mining near Radcliffe Moor Road , but the last legal instance of coal mining in Radcliffe was between 1931 and 1949 , close to Bury and Bolton Road .
The transformation of the area from an industry based upon water power , to one based upon steam power , may not have been without problems . A story in W. Nicholl 's History and Traditions of Radcliffe ( 1900 ) tells of a " great crowd " of protesters from Bury who marched on Bealey 's Works , demanding that work be halted . James Booth ordered the gates closed , gave the ringleaders £ 5 , and promised to halt work the next day . The crowd then marched on other businesses within the town before heading along the canal to Bolton , at which point they were apparently turned back by news of approaching soldiers .
There were many smaller textile concerns in the parish . Thomas Howarth owned a cottage in Stand Lane from where he sent yarn to be dyed and sized . He made his own warps which were weaved in the town . He would then travel to Preston and Kendal where drapers would purchase his products . His nephews founded A. & J. Hoyle 's Mill in Irwell Street , which employed power weaving to produce their specialities in Ginghams and shirting . The mill closed in 1968 . Messrs Stott & Pickstone 's Top Shop on Stand Lane was the first company to employ powered looms and spinning around 1844 . Many of their employees would eventually leave to start their own businesses , such as Spider Mill , built by Robert and William Fletcher , and John Pickstone . This mill closed around 1930 .
Radcliffe was at one time home to around 60 textile mills and 15 spinning mills , along with 18 bleachworks of which the Bealey family were prominent owners . However , the textile industry was not the town 's major employer ; other industries such as mining and paper making were also important sources of employment .
Mount Sion Mill along Sion Street was founded in the early 19th century and during the First World War manufactured guncotton . A weir was constructed along with a goit , used to turn a water wheel which powered a beam engine to pump water to the reservoirs above .
Radcliffe became well known for its paper industry ; its mills included the East Lancashire Paper Mill and Radcliffe Paper Mill . The former was founded by the Seddon family on 29 March 1860 , along the banks of the Irwell . Its construction provided much @-@ needed employment : in the 1860s living standards within the town were poor , and local mills often operated on " short time " . A reduction in the demand for coal had placed many colliers out of work , and the Lancashire Cotton Famine was starving Lancashire of raw materials , especially cotton . Soup kitchens were opened by local benefactors , and many local residents were on poor relief . The mill began producing low grade paper and newsprint , moving on to other products including high quality printing and writing papers . Radcliffe Paper Mill was formed during the First World War , when it took over from a paper mill and a pipe plant . It originally produced paper suitable for roofing felt , to cater for a national shortage . After World War II the mill employed over 600 people and produced 70 @,@ 000 tons of paper annually . British Plaster Board Industries ( BPB ) took over the company in 1961 .
Other industries in the town included brick making and chimney pot manufacture . Raw materials were sourced from local collieries . In Mill Street carts , waggons , and bicycles were manufactured from 1855 , and elsewhere motor vehicles were also produced until the late 1950s . John Cockerill moved to the town from Haslingden before leaving for continental Europe to become the founder of Cockerill @-@ Sambre . James Cockerill , employed Radcliffe man William Yates as his manager . Several foundries and machine manufacturers were located around the town , including Dobson and Barlow at Bradley Fold , and Wolstenholme 's along Bridgewater Street . Munitions , aircraft and tank components were manufactured during the Second World War . Chemicals were manufactured by companies such as Bealey 's and J. & W. Whewell .
= = = Post @-@ industrial history = = =
From the 1950s Radcliffe 's textile industry went into terminal decline , and although its paper industry survived to the end of the 20th century , both the town 's largest paper mills have now been closed and demolished . One of the larger mills in Radcliffe was the Pioneer Mill , built between 1905 and 1906 , and which ceased weaving in July 1980 — the last mill in Radcliffe to use cotton . The building is now occupied by several different businesses .
Although the town retains much of its existing Victorian and Edwardian housing stock , new estates have been built on former brownfield land including that of the Radcliffe Paper Mill Company . Since deindustrialisation the local population has continued to grow . Radcliffe 's housing stock of 23 @,@ 790 properties is a mixture of mainly semi @-@ detached and terraced housing , with smaller percentages of detached housing and flats . In 1974 the town became a part of the Metropolitan Borough of Bury , and as a result has been described as losing its independence , and to some extent its identity .
= = Governance = =
Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , Radcliffe formed part of the Bury Poor Law Union , an inter @-@ parish unit established to provide social security . Radcliffe 's first local authority was an early form of local government in England . In July 1866 the Radcliffe Local Board of Health was established . With reference to the Local Government Act 1858 , it was a regulatory body consisting of 12 members , responsible for standards of hygiene and sanitation in the township . Richard Bealey J.P. was chairman of the local board until April 1876 In the same year , the parish was extended to include parts of the former township of Pilkington , formerly in the parish of Prestwich @-@ cum @-@ Oldham .
Radcliffe became a part of the Municipal Borough of Bury in 1876 , but following the Local Government Act 1894 it left the district ( by then the County Borough of Bury ) , becoming an urban district within the administrative county of Lancashire . The district boundary was extended to include the Stand Lane district The extension made the area covered by Radcliffe Urban District 3 @,@ 084 acres ( 12 @.@ 48 km2 ; 4 @.@ 819 sq mi ) . Radcliffe Urban District was governed by a council of 24 members , made from six councillors from each of the four wards , Radcliffe Hall , Radcliffe Bridge , Black Lane , and Stand Lane . Alker Allen J.P. was the first chairman of the new council . A town hall was built in 1911 , replacing an earlier building on the junction of Water Street and Spring Lane . It formed the public administrative centre for the district with a large council chamber on the first floor , with public gallery , and four committee rooms .
The Lancashire ( Southern Areas ) Review Order of 1933 extended the district to include the township of Ainsworth , and a portion of the township of Outwood . This increased the area covered by Radcliffe District to 4 @,@ 915 acres ( 19 @.@ 89 km2 ) . A new ward was created for Ainsworth , comprising the former township and a portion of the Black Lane ward . Three councillors were added to the council , and the total number of electors became 15 @,@ 009 . On 21 September 1935 the urban district received a charter as a municipal borough , which gave it borough status , and elevated it to the Municipal Borough of Radcliffe .
Under the Local Government Act 1972 the town 's urban district status was abolished , and Radcliffe has , since 1 April 1974 , formed an unparished area of the Metropolitan Borough of Bury , a local government district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .
For electoral purposes , Radcliffe is now divided into three wards ; Radcliffe North , Radcliffe East , and Radcliffe West . It is in the Bury South constituency and is represented in the House of Commons by Labour Party member Ivan Lewis .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 33 ′ 41 ″ N 2 ° 19 ′ 36 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5615 ° , − 2 @.@ 3268 ° ) and 170 miles ( 274 km ) northwest of central London , Radcliffe lies in the Irwell Valley on the course of the River Irwell . The larger towns of Bury and Bolton lie to the northeast and northwest . For the purposes of the Office for National Statistics , Radcliffe forms a northerly part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , with Manchester city centre 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) to the south @-@ southeast .
Radcliffe 's position on the River Irwell has proved important in its history and development as the river provided a source of water for local industry . Radcliffe E 'es , a level plain formed along the north bank of the Irwell during the previous ice age , is now derelict and the planned location of a new school . From a highpoint of 500 feet ( 152 m ) above sea level in the northwest of Radcliffe , the surface gradually descends , particularly in the south and east , being the lowest along the River Irwell . The geology is represented by coal measure .
Radcliffe is surrounded by open space and rural land , much of which is visible from the town centre . To the east of the town the River Roch flows under Blackford Bridge , and joins the Irwell shortly thereafter , along which several weirs and goits were built as it passes through the town . Flowing from east to west the river divides the town on the north and south sides of the valley respectively . The town centre sits on the north side of the valley . Two road bridges cross the river : one in the former hamlet of Radcliffe Bridge , and another newer bridge built as part of the A665 Pilkington Bypass . Another bridge crosses the river along the eastern border with Bury . Various smaller pedestrian footbridges and two railway viaducts ( one disused ) also exist .
= = Demography = =
According to the Office for National Statistics , at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Radcliffe had a population of 34 @,@ 239 . The population density in 2001 was 9 @,@ 132 inhabitants per square mile ( 3 @,@ 526 / km2 ) , with a 100 to 94 @.@ 9 female – male ratio . Of those over 16 years old , 28 @.@ 6 % were single ( never married ) and 42 @.@ 8 % married . Radcliffe 's 14 @,@ 036 households included 28 @.@ 1 % one @-@ person , 39 @.@ 0 % married couples living together , 9 @.@ 2 % were co @-@ habiting couples , and 12 @.@ 3 % single parents with their children . The figures for married couples households was below the borough ( 48 @.@ 5 % ) and national average ( 47 @.@ 3 % ) , and single parent households were slightly above the average for the whole of Bury ( 11 @.@ 6 % ) and England ( 10 @.@ 5 % ) . Of those aged 16 – 74 , 31 @.@ 1 % had no academic qualifications , slightly higher than averages of Bury ( 29 @.@ 2 % ) and England ( 28 @.@ 9 % ) .
The residential areas of Radcliffe both to the north and the south of the town centre operate as suburbs of Bury and Manchester , such that their populations are not necessarily linked to the town . The socio @-@ demographic characteristics of the town 's population includes a mix of working and suburban middle classes , the layout of which are both linked to neighbouring towns .
Radcliffe is within the Manchester Larger Urban Zone , and within the Manchester Travel to Work Area .
= = Economy = =
Radcliffe 's first market was built by the Earl of Wilton and opened in 1851 . The town was home to twelve Co @-@ op stores , the largest of which was on Stand Lane . The four storey structure , built in 1877 , had shops and offices on the ground floor , and a large area for public meetings on the second floor . The building was truncated to two stories in June 1971 , and eventually demolished . Two more Co @-@ op stores were located on Bury Street and Cross Lane . The current market hall , built in 1937 on a different site to the old market , suffered a devastating fire in 1980 but was later restored . Radcliffe was once served by several banks including the Lancashire and Yorkshire Bank , the Manchester and Liverpool District Bank , the Union Bank of Manchester , and Parr 's Bank ltd . Today both the Royal Bank of Scotland and Halifax bank have branches in the town .
Radcliffe has two weekly newspapers , the Radcliffe Times , based at the Bury Times offices , in Bury , and the Salford @-@ based The Advertiser , which also covers the neighbouring areas of Prestwich and Whitefield .
The construction in the 1980s of the A665 Pilkington Way Bypass relieved traffic congestion along the traditional route through the town , Blackburn Street . A new bridge across the Irwell was constructed for the road , and part of Blackburn Street was pedestrianised . The road has attracted developments along former industrial land to the west of the town , including a large Asda supermarket , although it has exacerbated the decline of the retail outlets in the town centre . The bypass has created problems for cyclists and pedestrians who appear reluctant to cross the road and visit the town centre . One solution presently under consideration would involve a partial reopening of the pedestrianised section of Blackburn Street to traffic .
The closure of the East Lancashire and Radcliffe Paper Mills , both of which employed thousands of people , has left a large gap in the town 's local economy . Along with the decline of local industry the town 's shopping centre has suffered a severe loss of trade and is now barely viable as a retail outlet . Radcliffe 's market hall compares poorly with the neighbouring Bury Market . Amongst other shops , the town 's central shopping precinct retains a Boots . A Dunelm Mill store now occupies the former site of the town 's Asda supermarket .
" Re @-@ inventing Radcliffe " is the name given on a report of a proposed improvement scheme . The report envisages several initiatives , and includes the creation of new housing both to the north and south of the town . Existing industry to the west of the town and along Milltown Street would be retained and improved , along with sections of the former Radcliffe Paper Mill and Pioneer Mill . The market would be redeveloped along with the Kwik Save site and bus station , and the town could become a centre for the arts . To improve transport links , new crossings of the Irwell and canal are proposed , along with a new school to replace the two closed secondary schools . Finally , the report suggests improving the image of Radcliffe within the Bury area .
" Newlands " is a regeneration programme run by the Forestry Commission . One site under consideration for regeneration is the former waste tip of Radcliffe E 'es .
= = = Population and employment change = = =
In 1921 2 @,@ 394 men and 3 @,@ 680 women were employed in the textile industry . By 1951 these figures had fallen respectively to 981 and 1 @,@ 852 . A more drastic fall is evident in the numbers of people employed in the mining and quarrying industries ; in 1921 591 people were employed in both , but in 1951 this had dropped to only 57 , reflecting the number of mines in and around Radcliffe that had by that time been completely exhausted .
By 2001 , from a working population of 15 @,@ 972 between the ages of 16 – 74 only six people were employed in mining . 3 @,@ 011 people were employed in manufacturing , 103 in public utilities , and 985 in construction . 3 @,@ 371 people worked in wholesale and retailing ; repair of motor vehicles , 682 in hotels and catering , and 1 @,@ 185 in transport ; storage and communication . 642 people worked in financial intermediation , 1 @,@ 711 in real estate , 694 in public administration and defence , 987 in education , 1 @,@ 876 in health and social work , and 657 in other work .
= = Landmarks = =
Radcliffe Tower is all that remains of an early 15th @-@ century stone @-@ built manor house . The structure is a Grade I listed building and protected as a Scheduled Monument . The construction of a nearby tithe barn is not documented , but it was probably built between 1600 and 1720 . It was used for storage of the local tithes ( a tenth of a farm 's produce ) . Along with Radcliffe Tower , the Parish Church of St Mary is a Grade I listed building . The town also has two Grade II * listed buildings ; Dearden Fold Farmhouse , completed during the 16th century , and Radcliffe Cenotaph , built in 1922 to commemorate the First World War . Outwood Viaduct , and Radcliffe 's most visible landmark , St Thomas ' Church , are Grade II listed buildings . St Thomas ' took nine years to complete . The first stone was laid by Viscount Grey de Wilton ( grandson of the Countess Grosvenor ) on 21 July 1862 , and it was consecrated in 1864 by the first Bishop of Manchester , James Prince Lee . Construction of the tower began in 1870 and the building was completed in 1871 . The building cost £ 7 @,@ 273 , ( £ 610 thousand today ) and the tower cost £ 1 @,@ 800 ( £ 150 thousand today ) . The first vicar was the Reverend Robert Fletcher .
Radcliffe 's first public ornament was a drinking fountain located at the bottom of Radcliffe New Road . It was presented to the town by a Mrs Noah Rostron in memory of her husband , and erected in August 1896 . The fountain no longer exists at this location .
Built in 1911 the town hall was on the junction of Water Street and Spring Lane . For many years after the town lost its urban district status , the building was unoccupied . It was converted to private accommodation in 1999 .
= = Transport = =
The Manchester to Blackburn packhorse route passed through the town ( hence the name Blackburn Street ) . The bridge across the Irwell was likely first erected during the late Medieval period at the site of a ford . An Act of Parliament in 1754 authorised the first turnpike through the hamlet of Radcliffe Bridge , and included Manchester to Bury via Crumpsall , and from Prestwich to Radcliffe . An Act of 1821 created a turnpike from Bury to Radcliffe , Stoneclough and Bolton . An Act of 1836 created a turnpike from Starling Lane to Ainsworth , and Radcliffe to Bury and Manchester Road ( near Fletcher Fold ) . A turnpike from Whitefield to Radcliffe Bridge via Stand Lane was created in 1857 with toll houses at Besses o ' th ' Barn , Stand Lane , the junction of Dumers Lane and Manchester Road , on Bolton Road near Countess Lane , and on Radcliffe Moor Road at Bradley Fold . Radcliffe New Road was created in an Act of 1860 which enabled the construction of a toll road between Radcliffe and Whitefield . To prevent damage to the road surfaces , weighing machines were used at various strategic positions including at the bridge end of Dumers Lane , at Sandiford turning , and on Ainsworth Road .
During the Industrial Revolution , as local cottage industries were gradually supplanted by the factory system the roads became inadequate for use . A convoy of horse @-@ drawn lorries carrying salt between Bealey 's Bleach Works and Northwich would take up to two weeks to make a return journey . These problems gave rise to the construction of the Manchester , Bolton & Bury Canal , which reached the town in 1796 and which was navigable throughout in 1808 . For 38 years the canal was the town 's main route for trade and transport , with a wharf near Hampson Street . The proprietors later converted into a railway company and built a line between Salford and Bolton , which opened in 1838 . A branch from this line was to have been built to Bury , along the line of the canal , but due to technical constraints this did not happen . Radcliffe 's closest railway connection therefore remained several miles distant at Stoneclough .
The opening of the Manchester , Bury and Rossendale Railway ( later known as the East Lancashire Railway ( ELR ) ) in 1846 brought the town a direct connection to Manchester and Bury . Two stations served the town , Radcliffe Bridge station , and Withins Lane station ( although this closed in 1851 after only a few years of operation ) . Ringley Road station was located to the south of the parish , close to the civil parish of Pilkington . The line crossed the Irwell over Outwood Viaduct , an impressive structure which remains to this day .
The Liverpool and Bury Railway ( L & BR ) opened on 28 November 1848 , with a station to the north of the town , called Black Lane station . On 18 July 1872 the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway ( L & YR ) , which had amalgamated with the ELR some years previously , gained an Act of Parliament to construct a railway between Manchester and Bury , via Whitefield and Prestwich . This opened in 1879 with a new station , known as Radcliffe New Station , with a link to the L & BR line at Bradley Fold ( near the present day Chatsworth Road ) , and a new station along Ainsworth Road , Ainsworth Road Halt . The new L & YR route joined the existing ELR route near Withins Lane ( North Junction ) , whereon they shared the connection to Bury . The L & YR gained a further Act of 1877 to construct a link between North Junction and Coney Green Farm ( West Junction ) . The LY & R line was electrified in 1916 for which a substation was constructed , between the canal and the West Fork .
The town also had an extensive tram network . The first tram ran from Black Lane ( latterly Ainsworth Road ) in 1905 , with a terminus next to St Andrew 's Church on Black Lane Bridge . In 1907 a branch was built to connect to the Bury to Bolton part of the network . A large bus station is located between Dale Street and the river . Officially abandoned in 1961 , the canal is currently undergoing restoration on the Salford arm , although a rebuilt bridge along Water Street presents a barrier to its full restoration .
Public transport in Radcliffe is now coordinated by the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive ( GMPTE ) , a county @-@ wide public body with direct operational responsibilities such as supporting ( and in some cases running ) local bus services , and managing integrated ticketing in Greater Manchester .
The town is now served only by a single light rail system and regular bus services . The Metrolink opened on 6 April 1992 along the L & YR line between Manchester and Bury / Bury and Altrincham ( Manchester also servers as a change point for the rest of the Metrolink system as it expands to cover a greater portion of the region , including Oldham ) . Trams leave from the town 's station every six minutes between 7 : 15 am and 6 : 30 pm , and every 12 minutes at other times of the day . Radcliffe Bridge station closed on 5 July 1958 , and has since been replaced by the path of the A665 Pilkington Way ( the new road has been built below the level of the old station ) . The path of the ELR line is still quite visible from aerial photography , with Outwood Viaduct fully restored , and the route of the line southwest of the town converted for use as a nature trail forming part of the Irwell Sculpture Trail .
= = Education = =
One of the earliest schools in the parish was the Close Wesleyan Day School , a Dame school opened around 1840 . St Thomas 's day school was opened on 4 March 1861 , and housed over 500 children . Due to overcrowding and the risk of subsidence caused by local mining activity , the school was rebuilt on a new site along School Street , provided by the Earl of Wilton . It was opened in October 1877 by Lady Wilton . On the opposite side of the town St John 's school started life in 1860 as an institute along Irwell Street , and by 1864 contained 120 children . The buildings were enlarged in 1869 . In 1897 eight teachers and a monitor taught 358 children . In 1899 the school leaving age was twelve , and many of the senior class were " half @-@ timers " who would spend half the day at school , and the other half at work . This system was abolished in 1919 . Regular epidemics of scarlet fever , chicken pox , mumps , and especially measles , meant that in 1897 and 1903 the school was temporarily closed . St John 's School and the nearby church were demolished in the 1970s . Radcliffe also had a technical school on Whittaker Street . Formally opened by Lord Stanley on 7 November 1896 , it adjoined the public baths on Whittaker Street . The building is now used as council offices .
Radcliffe County Secondary School was founded in 1933 on the former Peel Park Ground near School Street , but Radcliffe 's first secondary school ( apart from an endowed grammar school in nearby Stand ) was held at the New Jerusalem schoolroom from the early 1860s . Radcliffe East , latterly known as Coney Green County Comprehensive School , was built in 1975 on the site of the former railway goods yard alongside Radcliffe East Fork . Part of the school , known as " Phase One " , opened in September 1975 , with 150 first @-@ year pupils , and 70 second @-@ year pupils ( from Radcliffe County Secondary School ) . The remainder , known as " Phase Two " , opened two years later .
Radcliffe has ten primary schools , but no secondary schools . A new school was proposed to replace the former Coney Green and Radcliffe High schools , but recent developments make the construction of this school uncertain .
= = Religious sites = =
In Romano – British times , Radcliffe was in the Diocese of York ; in Saxon times in the Diocese of Lindesfarne , then of York ; in Norman times in the Diocese of Lichfield ; after 1540 in the Diocese of Chester and since 1847 in the Diocese of Manchester .
Based on the subdivisions of the dioceses , before 1535 Radcliffe ancient parish was in Manchester and Blackburn Rural Deanery . Between this date and 1850 the ancient parish was placed in Manchester Rural Deanery . From 1850 to 1851 it was placed in Bury Rural Deanery ; from 1851 to 1872 it was in Prestwich Rural Deanery ; from 1872 to 1912 , it was placed in Prestwich and Middleton Rural Deanery ; and since 1872 it has been in Radcliffe and Prestwich Rural Deanery .
= = = Church of England = = =
Radcliffe was an ancient parish which in its early history had duties which combined both ecclesiastical and civil matters . In 1821 Radcliffe St. Thomas ecclesiastical parish was created from the ancient parish , and it was re @-@ founded in 1839 . In 1873 further parts of the ancient parish were taken to form Bury St. Peter 's ecclesiastical parish . In 1878 parts of the ancient parish as well as part of Radcliffe St. Thomas were taken to form Radcliffe St. Andrew , Black Lane ecclesiastical parish . The Parish Church of St Mary was built during the 14th century , and the tower added in the 15th century . In 1966 it was designated a Grade I listed building by English Heritage under its former name of the Church of St Mary and St Bartholomew . In 1991 some local parishes were merged , and the church adopted its present name .
Radcliffe is also served by the Parish of St Thomas and St John . St Thomas ' is visible on the horizon for many miles . The original church was built in 1819 by Countess Grosvenor and is visible above in the image of Radcliffe Bridge . The building was later considered too small , and in 1862 was demolished and replaced with the present structure ( see landmarks ) . The Church of St John was consecrated on 19 February 1866 at the bottom of Radcliffe New Road . Built at a cost of about £ 4 @,@ 000 ( £ 330 thousand today ) the site was donated to the church by the Earl of Derby , who in 1897 also made a grant of land for the site of the Mission Church at Chapelfield . The parishes of St John and St Philip were merged with St Thomas ' in 1975 – 76 . Radcliffe is also home to the Church of St Andrew on Ainsworth Road , which was consecrated in 1877 .
= = = Other faiths = = =
Radcliffe was also home to many smaller churches . The main Roman Catholic church , St. Mary & St. Philip Neri , on Spring Lane , was built in 1894 . Other churches included Stand Independent , a Quaker church on Foundry Street , Water Lane Congregational , and several Wesleyan churches , including one on Bridgefield Street , which in March 2008 was destroyed by fire . The church was built in 1892 . The United Reformed Church has two congregations within the town , one on Lord Street , and the other on Stand Lane . The church was originally formed from a Congregational school in 1848 . A Methodist New Connexion church has existed along Smyrna Street since 1844 . Other faiths are also catered for , with a mosque on Bridgefield Street , and a centre for Swedenborgianism on Radcliffe New Road .
= = Sports = =
Radcliffe has a rich history of sport , including football , rugby , cricket and swimming , but entertainment in Radcliffe once included bear @-@ baiting , bull @-@ baiting , and cock @-@ fighting . Cock fights were prevalent in the town and took place in local " hush @-@ shops " , generally viewed by invitation only . Bull and bear baiting was held in the Radcliffe Bridge area of the parish . In Nicholls ' History and Traditions of Radcliffe ( 1900 ) the author describes the contents of the diary of a Lord Kenyon , who wrote " W.M. Robt . James , and Thomas Radcliffe , were fined for causing a Bayre to be bayted upon Saturday being the 18th of March 1587 – 8 , at the Bull @-@ Ringe neere the conduite in Manchester . " Trained dogs were used to attack a bull , which was donated by the Earl of Wilton . Such entertainment took place where the bridge now stands , along the banks of the river near the ford . Such spectacles were eventually outlawed by Act of Parliament , and the last bull bait in the town was held on 26 September 1838 . Horse racing replaced the sport the following year , with a course alongside the river . During the first year of racing the main spectator stand collapsed , injuring many spectators . In 1876 events were moved to a new course approximately one mile in circumference at Radcliffe Moor , upon which site the town 's cricket club now stands .
The town is home to Central Lancashire Cricket League side Radcliffe Cricket Club . For many years Sir Frank Worrell played for the club , and a street near the cricket ground was named in his honour . Sir Garfield Sobers joined the club in 1958 at the age of 21 . The town also has two Football teams , Radcliffe Town , and Radcliffe Borough . Former players include Paul Gascoigne and Matt Derbyshire .
Radcliffe was also home to Nellie Halstead , who in her time was known as " Britain ’ s greatest woman athlete " . A multiple world record holder , she represented Great Britain at the 1932 Olympic Games in Los Angeles .
= = Public services = =
= = = History = = =
The Rivers Pollution Prevention Act 1876 posed a problem for the local authorities ; disposal of sewage was generally an expensive proposition , and efforts to resolve the practical problems involved were often unsatisfactory . After initial experiments , in 1894 contracts were let for work . Chairman of the Local Board Samuel Walker Esq cut the first sod on 23 April 1894 , and the works were completed in the following year .
The town was provided with electricity by a coal @-@ fired power station along the south bank of the river , to the west of the town . Authorised by the Radcliffe Electric Lighting Order of 1894 , and inaugurated on 5 October 1904 , Radcliffe Power Station was opened by the Earl of Derby on 9 October 1905 . It originally had two 1 @,@ 500 kW turbo sets made by British Thomson @-@ Houston , and was the first power station in the country to transmit electricity over bare electrical conductors .
In 1921 the Radcliffe and Little Lever Joint Gas Board purchased the Radcliffe & Pilkington Gas Company . Constituted in 1921 by an Act of Parliament , the board consisted of six members of the Radcliffe Council and one member of the Little Lever Council . The area supplied included all the districts of Radcliffe and Little Lever , and also Prestwich , Whitefield , Unsworth , Outwood , and Ainsworth . In 1935 the company supplied 263 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 7 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gas to 16 @,@ 748 consumers , and provided gas for public street lighting . Water supplies were provided both by upland watersheds and by the Bury & District Joint Water Board , of which Radcliffe was a constituent authority .
By 1935 a fire brigade and ambulances were available to protect the town during emergencies . The Gamewell system of fire alarms was used and consisted of 16 alarm boxes spread throughout the district . Three motor ambulances and a motorised utility van were kept at the fire station , operated by permanent staff .
= = = Modern services = = =
The North West Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport , and the statutory emergency fire and rescue service is now provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service .
Home Office policing in Radcliffe is provided by the Greater Manchester Police . The force 's " ( N ) Division " has a police station in Radcliffe , along Railway Street . Waste management is coordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . Radcliffe 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is United Utilities .
= = Notable people = =
Born in Radcliffe , Private First World War veteran James Hutchinson was a recipient of the Victoria Cross . Radcliffe was also the birthplace of Canadian author Donald Jack and also the home of Olympic Medal @-@ winning cyclist Harry Hill who took bronze at the 1936 Summer Olympics . Nellie Halstead was a runner who represented Great Britain in both the 1932 Summer Olympics and 1936 Summer Olympics . Radcliffe was also the birthplace of Oscar @-@ winning film director Danny Boyle and the three times World Champion snooker player , John Spencer .
= = Culture = =
Radcliffe 's wealth as a mill town gave rise to many outlets for the entertainment of its population . These included cinemas and public houses . Several cinemas were built in the town , including the Picturedrome in Water Street , and an Odeon cinema , built in 1937 along Dale Street . Whittaker Street public baths were built in 1898 and demolished in 1971 . Radcliffe Pool ( as of 2015 due to storm damage the main building has been condemned , with temporary facilities under construction at a local school ) now provides swimming facilities for the local population . A public library was opened in 1907 on a site donated by Andrew Carnegie , who also contributed £ 5 @,@ 000 ( £ 480 thousand today ) towards the cost of the building . Two branch libraries were opened in Ainsworth between 1933 and 1935 . A museum was located in the upper rooms of Close House before it was demolished in March 1969 .
Radcliffe Brass Band has performed in the town since 1914 , when it accompanied one of the Whit Walks that used to take place on Whit Friday . Popular as these were , support later dwindled to a point where they were abandoned around 1977 . Rushcart processions were once popular , held on the first Saturday of September , finishing on the following Sunday at the Parish Church .
The town has several parks , including Coronation Park near Radcliffe Bridge and Close Park near Radcliffe Tower . Much of the land for Coronation Park was in 1900 donated by the Earl of Derby . Close House and the grounds around it were formerly the home of the Bealey family , and were donated by the Bleachers ' Association . The town is also along the route of the Irwell Sculpture Trail .
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= Burmese Indians =
Burmese Indians ( Burmese : ကုလားလူမျိုး ; MLCTS : ku. la : lu myui : ) are a group of people of Indian origin who live in Burma . While Indians have lived in Burma for many centuries , most of the ancestors of the current Burmese Indian community emigrated to Burma from the start of British rule in the mid @-@ 19th century to the separation of British Burma from British India in 1937 . During British times , ethnic Indians formed the backbone of the government and economy serving as soldiers , civil servants , merchants and moneylenders . A series of anti @-@ Indian riots beginning in 1930 and mass emigration during the Japanese occupation of Burma followed by the forced expulsion of 1962 left ethnic Indians with a much reduced role in Burma .
Ethnic Indians today account for approximately 2 % ( about 950 @,@ 000 ) of the population of Burma and are concentrated largely in the two major cities ( Yangon and Mandalay ) and old colonial towns ( Pyin U Lwin and Kalaw ) . They are largely barred from the civil service and military and are disenfranchised by being labeled as ' foreigners ' and ' non @-@ citizens ' of Burma . Amongst the well @-@ known Burmese Indians is S. N. Goenka , a leading practitioner and teacher of vipassanā meditation and Helen , a well @-@ known Bollywood film actress who is also of Anglo @-@ Burmese descent .
= = History = =
The term " Burmese Indian " refers to a broad range of ethnic groups from India , most notably from present @-@ day South Asian countries such as Bangladesh , India and also Pakistan . Indians have a long history in Burma with over 2000 years of active engagement in politics , religion , culture , arts and cuisine . Within Burma , they are often referred to as ka @-@ la or ka @-@ laar ( a term generally used for dark @-@ skinned foreigners from India , Africa and the west ) , a term that is considered derogatory or Kala Lumyo . Its root is believed to be ku la meaning either " to cross over ( the Bay of Bengal ) " or " person " depending on the way it is pronounced . An alternative explanation is that the word is derived from “ Ku lar ” , meaning the people who adhere to a caste system .
The majority of Indians arrived in Burma whilst it was part of British India . Starting with the annexation of Tenasserim and Western Burma after the First Anglo @-@ Burmese War , a steady stream of Indians moved to Burma as civil servants , engineers , river pilots , soldiers , indentured labourers and traders . Following the annexation of Upper Burma in 1885 , numerous infrastructure projects started by the British colonial government and increases in rice cultivation in the delta region caused an unprecedented economical boom in Burma that drew many Indians , particularly from southern India , to the Irrawaddy Delta region .
= = = Anti @-@ Indian sentiments = = =
After the First World War , anti @-@ Indian sentiments began to rise for a number of reasons . The number of ethnic Indians was growing rapidly ( almost half of Yangon 's population was Indian by the Second World War ) . Indians played a prominent role in the British administration and became the target of Burmese nationalists . Racial animosity toward Indians because of their skin @-@ color and appearance also played a role . Meanwhile , the price of rice plummeted during the economic depression of the 1930s and the Chettiar from South India , who were prominent moneylenders in the rice belt , began to foreclose on land held by native Burmese .
In May 1930 , a British firm of stevedores at the port of Rangoon employed Burmese workers in an attempt to break a strike organized by its Indian workers . When , on May 26 , the strike ended and the Indians returned to work , clashes developed between the returning Indian workers and the Burmese workers who had replaced them . The clashes soon escalated into large @-@ scale anti @-@ Hindu and anti @-@ Muslim riots in the city . Over two hundred Indians were killed and their bodies flung into the river . Authorities ordered the police to fire upon any assembly of five or more who refused to lay down their arms , under Section 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code . Within two days the riot spread throughout the country to locations such as Maymyo .
= = = The Second World War and after = = =
At the start of World War II , almost half of Rangoon 's ( Yangon ) population was Indian , and about 16 % of the population of Burma was ethnically Indian . As a consequence of the Japanese invasion of 1942 , half a million members of the Indian community fled Burma overland into Assam , largely on foot . The refugees suffered terribly and thousands died . Some of the Indian community remained in Burma during the war , others returned after the war , although many never did . After Independence , Burmese law treated a large percentage of the Indian community as " resident aliens " . Though many had long ties to Burma or were born there , they were not considered citizens under the 1982 Burma citizenship law which restricted citizenship for groups immigrating before 1823 .
After he seized power through a military coup in 1962 , General Ne Win ordered a large @-@ scale expulsion of Indians . Although many Indians had been living in Burma for generations and had integrated into Burmese society , they became a target for discrimination and oppression by the junta . This , along with a wholesale nationalization of private ventures in 1964 , led to the emigration of over 300 @,@ 000 ethnic Indians from Burma . Indian @-@ owned businesses were nationalized and their owners were given 175 kyat for their trip to India . This caused a significant deterioration in Indian @-@ Burmese relations and the Indian government arranged ferries and aircraft to lift Burmese of Indian ethnicity out of Burma .
= = Culture = =
India has been particularly influential in Burmese culture as the cradle of Buddhism , and ancient Hindu traditions can still be seen in Brahmans presiding over important ceremonies such as weddings and ear @-@ piercings but most notably in Thingyan , the Burmese New Year festival . The Burmese poetry tradition of niti ( notably the Dhammaniti ) also has Indian origins . Traditions of kingship including coronation ceremonies and formal royal titles as well as those of lawmaking were also Hindu in origin . Many Burmese dishes and breads came as a result of Indian influence , prominently reflected in the Burmese version of Indian biryani .
Burmese Indians came from various groups from different parts of India , including Tamils , Telugus , Hindi speakers , Bengali , Gujarati , Oriya , and Punjabis . Today they form approximately 2 % ( about 950 @,@ 000 ) of the population , according to the CIA World Factbook 2006 , although exact figures do not exist due to uncertainties over census results and methods in Myanmar . Disaffected young Indians often flee the cities and join ethnic resistance movements . The All Burma Muslim Union whose members consist largely of Muslims of Indian origin is routinely labeled by the government as " Muslim terrorist insurgents " . In actuality it operates alongside the Karen National Union and , despite a swelling of its ranks following anti @-@ Muslim riots in the eighties , remains a very minor force .
= = = Religion = = =
Burmese Indians practise Hinduism , Islam , Sikhism , Buddhism and Christianity . Burmese Muslims , some of them of mixed blood born of Burmese mothers and some of them with full Burmese blood , call themselves Bama Musalin ( ဗမာမူစလင ္ ) ; the majority are Sunni with small numbers of Twelvers . The Burmese call them Zaydabayi .
The constitution grants limited rights to freedom of religion ; however , some articles in the constitution , as well as other laws and policies , restrict those rights . In practice the government enforced those restrictions . " Muslims continue to experience the most severe forms of legal , economic , religious , educational , and social restrictions and discrimination " . The military dictatorship rejects or ignores their requests when they want to build mosques in the country or to go abroad for religious ceremonies . Although there is freedom of religion in Burma , Muslims decided not to hold Eid al @-@ Adha in 2012 due to Rakhine @-@ Rohingya strikes in Rakhine State .
= = = Language = = =
Burmese Indians are from an array of ethnic backgrounds . There are Tamils from Tamil Nadu , Telugus from Andhra Pradesh and Marwaris from the Marwar region of India 's Rajasthan state as well as Bengalis hailing from the Indian state of West Bengal as well as the present @-@ day independent nation of Bangladesh . Prior to the expulsion of Indians , there were also Urdu @-@ speaking Pashtuns from North India , Malayalis from Kerala , Odias , Punjabis from the state of Punjab who are mostly Sikhs and two groups of Gujaratis , both Gujarati @-@ speaking Parsis and Gujaratis proper who are mostly Hindus or Muslims by faith hailing from the state of Gujarat . All can and were able to communicate in Burmese due to years of assimilation and lack of education in languages other than English . Other languages used by Burmese Indians include Tamil , Telugu and small pockets of Malayalam speakers .
= = Economic role = =
Historically , Burmese Indians have made their livelihoods as merchants , traders and shopkeepers as well as manual labourers such as coolies , dockers , municipal workers , rickshaw men , pony cart drivers , malis and durwans . They were also heavily represented in certain professions such as civil servants , university lecturers , pharmacists , opticians , lawyers and doctors . They dominated several types of businesses such as auto parts and electrical goods , ironmongery and hardware , printing and bookbinding , books and stationery , paper and printing ink , tailoring and dry @-@ cleaning , English tuition , and money lending . They traded in textiles , gold and jewellery , where the market was traditionally dominated by Burmese women . The Chettiars of Burma functioned as moneylenders and have been thought crucial in the growth in agricultural output of Burma during the colonial era . Today , many Indians live in central Rangoon on both sides of the Su Lei Paya Road and are largely involved in businesses , including restaurants , jewellery shops and money exchanges .
= = Notable Burmese Indians and Others = =
Karim Ghani was born in Sodugudi , Ilayangudi , a politician in South @-@ East Asia of Indian origin . Before the Second World War Karim Ghani was a parliamentary secretary in Burma under Dr. Ba Maw .
Ba Than Haq - Professor of Geology and Minister of Mines . Of mixed Afghan and Danu descent .
Bahadur Shah II or Bahadur Shah Zafar , the last Mughal Emperor was exiled to Rangoon after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . He , along with his wife Zeenat Mahal and granddaughter Raunaq Zamani Begum , is buried at the Mazar ( mausoleum ) at No. 6 Theatre Road in Yangon .
T. S. S. Rajan - Indian freedom @-@ fighter and Minister of Health in Madras Presidency from 1937 to 1940 .
S. N. Goenka - eminent Vipassana Buddhist meditation teacher ( born 1924 )
Parshuram Verma ( Freedom Fighter in Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose army in Myanmar , social worker and leader of repatriated Indian Burmese in Bihar & UP . He pioneered the repatriation of Indian Burmese in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh who were migrated from these areas to Myanmar at the time of British era and started migrating into India at the time of unrest during General Nevin regime in 1969 . He dedicated his most of life to address their problems and find the solutions with the help of various Indian Government Ministries and Authorities .
H. N. Goshal aka Thakin Ba Tin - Communist leader and founding member from the 1940s to the 1960s killed in an internal purge in 1967 . He was an ethnic Bengali .
Helen of Bollywood . Born Helen Jairag Richardson Khan in Rangoon on July 14 , 1938 , she fled to India during World War II and became famous for playing the vamp in Indian cinema .
Dr. Maung Di - Department chair and dean of Rangoon Arts and Science University ( now Yangon University ) , Deputy Education Minister . Son of the Dean of Islamic Religious College in Kanbalu .
U Razak ( 20 January 1898 – 19 July 1947 ; Arabic : Abdul Razak ) was a Burmese politician who was a respected educationalist . He is a Tamil Muslim ( Choliyah ) . While his brothers and sisters chose to be Buddhists , he maintained the Muslim name Razak , in honor of his father . Although nominally Muslim , Razak was a secularist who deeply loved Burma and encouraged unity in diversity . Razak initiated calls for unity between Burmese Muslims and Buddhists . He was a Muslim , but maintained ties to Buddhism , educating himself on Pali , the sacred script of Theravada Buddhism , and helped found the Mandalay College ( modern Mandalay University ) . Razak fathered three children . He was a minister at Aung San 's pre @-@ independence interim government and was assassinated , along with Aung San and other members , on 19 July 1947 . July 19 is celebrated in Myanmar today as Martyrs ' Day . U Razak was Minister of Education and National Planning , and was chairman of the Burma Muslim Congress .
Dr. B.S. Joshi - ( 4 / 3 / 1912 @-@ 15 / 10 / 2009 ) Surgeon Par Excellence @-@ Civil Surgeon Burma Medical Services . Graduated Medical College Rangoon with Honours receiving the Bishop Bigandit Medal ( 1936 ) . There has been only 1 recipient up to date . Married Dr. Ratna Sundari Misra D / o Dr. Matabadal Misra and she was one of the only female doctors in Burma . Together they had hospitals sanctioned and constructed throughout the districts of Burma . Both Dr. B.S. Joshi and his wife were committed doctors and dedicated to the people of Burma . Besides his duties as a surgeon general to the Union of Burma he was also District Health Officer , Municipal Health Officer of every district with extensive experience in Public Health Work . In the beginning of his career , he was a teacher of clinical surgery in Rangoon General Hospital . Then Assistant Surgeon Thayetmyo / Officer in charge of Hospitals in Nyanglebin , Mandalay and Moulmein and later Chief Medical Officer Sagain and finally Rangoon as surgeon of Rangoon Hospital . Later surgeon general in Lashio , Tavoy . Mergui , Myaumgmya , Moulmein and was also in charge of 13 hospitals in the Northern Shan States with headquarters at Lashio . Dr. B.S. Joshi was a loyal friend to both General Ne Win and U Nu , a leading Nationalist and political figure of the Union of Burma .
S. Mukerjee aka Pyu Win - Communist trade union leader killed in the 1950s
Dr. Nath aka Tun Maung - Communist leader and founding member killed in the 1960s
Captain Ohn Kyaw Myint - Martyred after failed attempt of coup d 'état
Saya Rajan aka Aung Naing - Communist trade union leader captured in the 1950s
M. A. Rashid - Government Minister in the 1950s
Thakin Tha Khin ( Shan Indian ) - Government Minister in the 1950s
U Balwant Singh -A Jat Sikh from Burma sent to the United States by Burmese Govt ( U NU ) to work at the United Nations during the term of U Thant ( Sec General of UN whose father was Indian also ) .
Dr Ram Bax Singh - A Jat Sikh Served as the Port Health director for Port of Rangoon till early 1960 .
Dr Santosh Sureen ( Shwe Mann ) - Municipal Health Minister during the 1960s
Chaudhry Charan Das - Originally hailing from Gujranwala ( now in Pakistan ) , Chaudhary Charan Das moved to Burma in the early 1900s to establish a soap factory in Mandalay ( Burma ) under the banner S. Sagar & Co . Decades later during Japanese invasion the family then returned and settled in Rawalpindi . During India @-@ Pakistan partition in 1947 , the family eventually settled in Kapurthala ( India ) where Chaudhary Charan Das 's eldest son Dr. Shanti Sagar Verma soon established himself as a very prominent and successful doctor and where he opened one of the first private multi @-@ speciality hospitals in the city .
B.N. Verma- One of the famous high school English teachers in Myanmar .
U Myo Nyunt ( Myo Nyunt Mathematics ) - A Mathematics tuition teacher who have taught over 50 @,@ 000 students .
Bhanumati Devi - Oriya film and theater actress who was born in Burma .
U. A. Khader - U. A. Khader ( 1935- ) is a noted Malayalee novelist and literary personality . He has written about fifty works in Malayalam , which include novels , novellas , short @-@ stories , travelogues and non @-@ fiction .
Alan Basil de Lastic - ( 1929 – 2000 ) was the fourth Archbishop of Delhi . He was born in Maymyo of mixed Burmese , Irish and French ancestry .
Daw Tint Tint @ Usha wife of former President of India , K. R. Narayanan . Usha Narayanan ( 1923 – 2008 ) worked on several social welfare programs for women and children in India and had completed her Masters in Social Work from Delhi School of Social Work . She also translated and published several Burmese short stories ; a collection of translated stories by Thein Pe Myint , titled Sweet and Sour , appeared in 1998 . She is the only woman of foreign origin to have become the First Lady .
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