Subset (4)

wikitext-103-raw-v1 · 29.6k rows

Split (3)

train · 29.4k rows

page stringlengths 23 146k
= Faryl Smith = Faryl Smith ( born 23 July 1995 ) is a British mezzo @-@ soprano who rose to fame after appearing on the second series of the ITV television talent show Britain 's Got Talent in 2008 . She received praise throughout the competition , and although the favourite to win after the second round , she finished outside the top three in the live final on 31 May . During the competition , she was tutored by singing coach Yvie Burnett and received offers from various record labels . After the show , she , unlike other finalists , did not sign with Simon Cowell 's Syco , although she did appear on fellow finalist Andrew Johnston 's debut album , One Voice . Smith signed a contract with Universal Classics and Jazz for a £ 2 @.@ 3 million advance in December 2008 , the largest ever granted to a schoolgirl . Her debut album , Faryl , was recorded from December 2008 to January 2009 and released in March 2009 . Faryl became the fastest @-@ selling solo classical album in British chart history , selling 29 @,@ 200 copies in the first week . It debuted at number six and rose to number four the following week , making Smith the third Britain 's Got Talent contestant to have a top ten album . In 2010 , on account of Faryl , Smith was nominated for two Classical BRIT Awards and became the youngest artist ever to receive a double nomination . Smith 's second album , Wonderland , was released in November 2009 . A concept album based on Alice in Wonderland , the album was well received by critics , but was not successful in the charts . After the release of Wonderland , Smith 's contract with Universal ended . In addition to releasing her albums , she featured on a charity cover of " The Prayer " , released in March 2010 , provided vocals for the 2012 album The Magic of a Thousand Strings by the International Harp Ensemble , and has performed at numerous events , including the 2009 Royal Variety Performance . Smith currently attends the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London , where she is studying music . = = History = = = = = Britain 's Got Talent = = = Before her appearance on television , Smith had performed competitively in the Kettering , Northamptonshire Eisteddfod , the Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod , the Pontins Junior Starquest competition and Festival 4 Stars . She auditioned for the second series of the ITV reality show Britain 's Got Talent , giving what Jon O 'Brien , of Allmusic , called a " mature " performance of " Ave Maria " , and was put through to the live shows . Simon Cowell described her audition as " the best audition I 've heard in years " . Before performing live , she and Andrew Johnston were favourites to win . She won her semi @-@ final by the public vote , performing a cover of Sarah McLachlan 's " Angel " . This placed her in the final , and left her as the favourite to win . During her first live show , Cowell described her as " literally one in a million " . She then performed in the live final , where she was described by Cowell as one of the five acts ( along with George Sampson , Johnston , Signature and Kate and Gin ) who had a chance of winning . She again performed " Ave Maria " , but finished outside the top three . Sampson eventually won the show as a result of the phone @-@ in , with Signature second , and Johnston third . As a result of her final performance of " Ave Maria " , Smith was invited to be a guest singer at a songwriting awards ceremony in London . She then went on to perform in the Britain 's Got Talent Live Tour with other contestants , where she first performed a duet of " Walking in the Air " with Johnston . While Smith was competing in Britain 's Got Talent , Cowell arranged for her to receive free singing lessons from leading vocal coach Yvie Burnett , who had previously coached 2007 Britains Got Talent winner Paul Potts and 2006 The X Factor winner Leona Lewis . The story was broken by The Sunday Mirror ; writing for the paper , Lara Gould characterised the lessons as " secret " , while writers for The Daily Mail claimed that the lessons were " likely to upset fellow contestants " , and were evidence that Smith was " already being groomed for stardom " . During her participation in the competition , Smith was offered record deals , but she and her family turned them down . Her father , Tony Smith , said " We have had offers from people interested in Faryl . But when Simon Cowell , the big man , says your daughter is special , you listen . " Cowell described Smith 's potential career during the show , saying " I know she says Katherine [ Jenkins ] is her idol but she is far better than her . She is by far the most talented youngster I 've ever heard . When she opens her mouth her voice is just incredible . " = = = Record deal = = = The day after the Britain 's Got Talent finals , Max Clifford , speaking for Simon Cowell , said that it was " quite possible " that Cowell would be signing some of the finalists , including Smith . Though she did not sign with Syco , Cowell 's record label , she did record a duet of " Walking in the Air " with Johnston , which appeared on his debut album , One Voice , and was tipped as a potential Christmas number @-@ one . Before the release of One Voice , it was revealed that Smith and her father , Tony Smith , were finalising the details of her record deal . In November , it was announced that Smith would be performing on stage in Kettering with Sylvia Berryman , a vocal tutor who had worked with Smith prior to her appearance on Britain 's Got Talent . Smith said that she was " really looking forward to singing locally again " , and it was again reported that Smith hoped to soon sign her own record deal . In December 2008 the Daily Mail reported that Smith had signed a £ 2 @.@ 3 million , multi @-@ album deal with Universal Music Group that was the " most lucrative recording contract ever handed to a schoolgirl " . Smith said " I 'm honoured to be joining such a fantastic record company , especially since it 's where [ Jenkins ] started . " Dickon Stainer , speaking on behalf of Universal , said " as soon as we saw Faryl , it became an ambition to sign her . " Universal claimed it intended to market Smith as a pop star . Smith signed the contract at the Royal Albert Hall , following which she performed with Katherine Jenkins . Neil Fisher , writing for The Times , described Smith as " heir apparent " to Jenkins ; the pair had first met when Smith won a competition at the Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod . By 2009 , Jenkins was acting as a mentor to Smith . In January 2009 plans were released for Smith to perform with Plácido Domingo , an idea originally suggested by him . In an interview with the Metro , Smith talked about her future plans , insisting that she did not wish to be dubbed as the next Charlotte Church . She later said that " In the papers , it sounded like I was snobby when I said ' I don 't want to be like Charlotte Church ' , but I didn 't mean it like that . " She has also spoken of her desire to appear in films on top of her musical career . She said " Films and movies are something I 'd really like to do . I 've always wanted to act so doing a film would be amazing . " = = = Faryl = = = Smith 's first album , Faryl , was recorded at Air Studios , London , in December 2008 , during Smith 's Christmas holiday ; it was completed on 3 January 2009 and features a 60 @-@ piece orchestra . Smith described the song " River of Light " by saying that The Blue Danube " music now has words put to it . I like it because it 's different . Everyone knows the tune and everybody has got high hopes for it . " Smith said that her favourite song on the album was her version of the Welsh hymn , " Calon Lân " . Other songs include Smith 's version of " Amazing Grace " , a cover of John Denver 's " Annie 's Song " , and a version of " The Way Old Friends Do " , rewritten for Smith by Björn Ulvaeus . Smith spoke about the song , saying " It was about divorce ... They didn 't think it was appropriate for me to sing about that , so Björn changed the lyrics so it 's about friendship . " The album was produced by Jon Cohen , who had previously worked with artists including the Operababes and Vanessa Mae . Promotion began in January , with performances at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel and appearances at the debut of 2009 London revival of Oliver ! . A television advert and music video for " River of Light " were recorded to further publicise the release , and Smith appeared on the cover of April 's Classic FM Magazine . More promotional appearances in the weeks leading up to the release of Faryl included Loose Women , The Paul O 'Grady Show , BBC Radio 4 , Radio Five Live and BBC Breakfast . She also appeared at the Children 's Champion Awards and met Gordon Brown at 10 Downing Street . On the day of the release , there was an album signing in Smith 's hometown of Kettering , at the HMV branch . Smith said " I definitely want to be at home for the launch . I want to be surrounded by my friends and family because obviously , it 's a big deal for me . " Pete Paphides , writing for The Times , said that the songs were performed " with power and restraint " and that the " arrangements by Jon Cohen suggest some kind of aesthetic endeavour beyond the basic thing for which they exist " . He compared it favourably to three other Mothering Sunday releases : Lionel Richie 's Just Go , Ronan Keating 's Songs for My Mother and Barry Manilow 's The Greatest Songs of the Eighties . He awarded Faryl 3 out of a possible 5 , the highest rating of the four . Retailers in the United Kingdom ordered more than 80 @,@ 000 copies of the album in the week before release , which Simon Cable , writing for the Daily Mail , noted was more copies than U2 's recent No Line on the Horizon . It also topped the Amazon.co.uk presale chart . On the day of the release the album was at the number one spot on the UK Albums Chart , based on presales alone . The album became the fastest @-@ selling classical solo album in British history , selling 20 @,@ 000 copies in the first four days . The previous record holder had been Hayley Westenra 's Pure . The first week resulted in sales of 29 @,@ 200 copies , which is higher than any other debut album of a classical singer . Faryl officially entered the charts at number six and rose to fourth place the next week . The success of the album left Smith the third Britain 's Got Talent contestant to achieve a top ten album , after Potts ( with One Chance ) and Johnston ( with One Voice ) . In April 2009 Smith travelled to Los Angeles to begin her promotion of Faryl in the United States . She appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in early May as part of her promotional tour . Faryl was released in the US on 5 May . Smith said before the release that she did not expect it to sell as well as it did in the UK . She said that " in the US it 's a lot harder because I 'm not as well @-@ known . " Smith travelled back to the UK in early May , and , on 23 May , Faryl peaked at 31st place on Top Heatseekers Albums chart and at sixth place on the Classical Albums chart , remaining in the charts for one and 17 weeks respectively . Smith opened the 2009 Classical BRIT Awards , where , according to Elisa Roche of the Daily Express , she " captivated the best names in classical music " . She is the youngest performer ever to sing at the Classical BRITs . On 30 May , Smith became the youngest person to sing the United Kingdom national anthem , " God Save The Queen " , at an FA Cup final when she performed during the opening ceremony at the 2009 final , held in the Wembley Stadium . In June , Smith performed a duet with José Carreras at the Hampton Court Palace Festival , and in July , she attended the O2 Silver Clef Awards , winning the Classical Award . In February 2010 , after the release of Smith 's second album , Faryl was nominated for a Classical BRIT Award in the album category . The category is voted for by the public , and the shortlist comprises the ten best @-@ selling classical albums of the previous year . Faryl lost to Only Men Aloud 's Band of Brothers . Smith also lost in the young British classical performer category to Jack Liebeck , a violinist . Smith became the youngest artist ever to receive a double nomination . In November , Smith was awarded the best classical award at the 2009 Variety Club awards , the youngest ever recipient in the awards ' 57 @-@ year history . = = = Wonderland = = = In July 2009 it was announced that Smith was hoping to release her second album later in the year . In an interview , she expressed surprise and pleasure that the label wanted her to do another album so soon after the first . In September , further details about the album were released , including its name , Wonderland , and planned release date , 30 November . Smith claimed that Faryl " was an introduction to me and an introduction for me to recording " , while Cohen , producer of both Faryl and Wonderland , said Smith had " matured as an artist since the first album and I have no doubt that once again , people will be astonished and moved by her performances " . The album , which was recorded at Sarm Studios in Notting Hill , London , was completed in early October , and is loosely based on Lewis Carroll 's Alice in Wonderland . Wonderland was released on 30 November . To publicise the album , Smith appeared on numerous radio shows , as well as television appearances including Ready Steady Cook , Blue Peter , the BBC News Channel , The Alan Titchmarsh Show and Sky News Sunrise . Wonderland was well received by critics ; Paul Callan , reviewing the album for the Daily Express , described it as " a joy " . He compared it to other Christmas albums , saying that " [ t ] oo many are tired , much @-@ repeated carol selections . " He described Smith 's " control , tone and warmth " as " very moving " . Andy Gill , reviewing Wonderland for The Independent , gave a less positive review . He said that the influence of Alice in Wonderland was often hard to perceive and that Cohen and Smith had " sweetened the classical elements " . However , he praised the arrangements of " Adiemus " , " Barcarolle " , " Merry Christmas , Mr Lawrence " and " Blow The Wind Southerly " , but noted that on tracks including " Close To You " , " the lack of emotional weight is telling . " Overall , Gill gave Wonderland 3 out of 5 . However , the album failed to perform as well as Faryl ; it entered the British album charts at number 56 for the week ending 12 December before dropping to number 92 the following week and then out of the top 100 . After Wonderland , Smith 's contract with Universal ended , and she subsequently received less attention from the press . Smith described the break with the label as mainly her decision , as she needed to focus on her A levels , which would allow her to get to university , explaining in an interview that " It wasn 't like it ended horribly . " Smith performed at the 2009 Royal Variety Performance in front of Queen Elizabeth II , where she sang " God Save the Queen " with The Soldiers . She later said that the experience , including subsequently meeting the Queen , as the highlight of her year . Smith also performed elsewhere with The Soldiers , including at St Paul 's Cathedral and Great Ormond Street Children 's Hospital . = = = " The Prayer " and The Magic of a Thousand Strings = = = In the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake , Smith and 22 other classical musicians from the UK recorded a cover version of " The Prayer " , which was released for download on 14 March . The proceeds of the single went to the Disasters Emergency Committee . Smith said " It 's a real honour to be a part of something that is being done for the first time , and I hope that all music lovers get involved and help raise money for the campaign . I really hope that we can make a difference together to help the horrible situation that Haiti is in at the moment . " The group , dubbed " Classical Band Aid " , recorded the track at Metropolis Studios and were backed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . Each vocalist in the group performed their own solo lines , and the entire group came together for the finale . " The Prayer " was the first ever classical charity single ; Smith noted that " Pop singers do things like this a lot but it 's unusual for classical singers to get involved so I 've been really excited . " In the summer of 2010 Smith performed at various festivals and events . Her father stated that " because she is still so young , we don 't want her doing complete shows on her own and we don 't want her doing too much . " Appearances included the Mercedes @-@ Benz World Summer Concert in Weybridge on 4 July , That Glorious Noise charity concert in aid of muscular dystrophy in Cleethorpes on 17 July and the Last Night of the Kenwood Proms on 21 August , as well as the wedding of Eamonn Holmes and Ruth Langsford . Smith also opened the Serenata festival . Angela Young , reviewing the festival for the Bournemouth Daily Echo , said " Faryl Smith was my personal highlight of the Thursday night line @-@ up , her bizarrely powerful voice ( considering her diminutive size and age ) taking my breath away and it contrasted so well with her naivete as she said ' at least it 's not raining ' – just as the heavens opened . " In October Smith performed for the first time in Ireland , at the National Concert Hall , Dublin . She continued to perform publicly throughout 2011 . In May , she performed at a Help for Heroes charity concert , which raised £ 2 @,@ 000 , and in both June and October , she performed at concerts to celebrate the 90th year of the Royal British Legion . She again appeared at the Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod in July , where she sang with Russell Watson . Smith 's father described the appearance as " like a homecoming " , due to her previous appearance at the competition . In further charitable events later in the year , she raised £ 2 @,@ 700 for a hospice in Cransley , and performed in aid of the Salvation Army in Portsmouth . During the Christmas period , Smith performed for the Great Ormond Street Hospital Children 's Charity in their annual Christmas carol concert , and at the North Wales Choral Festival at Llandudno . She also appeared as a guest on Rhydian Roberts 's talent show on S4C in December . In 2012 , she performed with the Mousehole Male Voice Choir in Penzance , and in 2013 , she continued to perform locally in Kettering . From 2012 – 3 , Smith performed several times with the International Harp Ensemble , a Surrey @-@ based group of harpists who produce a variety of different styles of harp music , including appearing with the group on a September episode of Songs of Praise . She also guest @-@ featured on the group 's 2012 album The Magic of a Thousand Strings , singing on five tracks . Further shows with the International Harp Ensemble were planned into 2014 . While working with the International Harp Ensemble , Smith began training with vocal coach Joy Mammen , who also teaches Lesley Garrett , as well as learning German and Italian , with the intention of moving from classical crossover towards opera . She continued to perform publicly in 2015 , singing at Wembley again in August . = = Personal life = = Smith was born in Kettering , Northamptonshire , England , on 23 July 1995 . She originally attended Henry Gotch Primary School in Kettering and then became a student at Southfield School for Girls , although she received private tutoring while working . She completed her GCSEs in 2011 , and she studied for her A levels , with the intention of going to university afterwards . In 2015 , aged 20 , she started to study music at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London . While at school , Smith enjoyed playing football ; she played for the Kettering Generals Under @-@ 11s girls ' team when they reached the Weetabix League cup final , as well as for the club 's Under @-@ 13 girls . She attended a theatre club , played the guitar and piano and sang in two choirs , including the Masquerade Youth Choir . Smith 's father , Tony , is a health and safety inspector , and for a time worked full @-@ time overseeing Smith 's activities . Her mother , Linda , is a hairdresser , and she has an older brother , Shea . = = Discography = = = = = Studio albums = = =
= Episode 6 ( Twin Peaks ) = " Episode 6 " , also known as " Realization Time " , is the seventh episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by Harley Peyton , and directed by Caleb Deschanel . " Episode 6 " features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Sherilyn Fenn and Eric Da Re , with guest appearances by Chris Mulkey and David Patrick Kelly . Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) agent Dale Cooper ( MacLachlan ) and Twin Peaks sheriff Harry Truman ( Ontkean ) continue to investigate a murder in the small mountain town of Twin Peaks ; while local businessman Benjamin Horne ( Beymer ) schemes to burn down the town 's sawmill to further his property empire . Deschanel has noted that the episode , like most in the series , was filmed from a relatively short teleplay ; he feels that this has contributed to its ability to develop characterization and subtextual inferences in addition to advancing its narrative . Peyton has described writing dialogue for MacLachlan 's character Dale Cooper as being particularly tricky , though he found Fenn 's character Audrey Horne to be enjoyable to write for . First airing on May 17 , 1990 , " Episode 6 " was viewed by approximately 17 percent of the available audience during its broadcast . The episode has received positive reviews from critics . = = Plot = = = = = Background = = = The small town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her friend Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . FBI special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has come to the town to investigate , and initial suspicion has fallen upon Palmer 's boyfriend Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and the man with whom she was cheating on Briggs , James Hurley ( James Marshall ) . However , other inhabitants of the town have their own suspicions : the violent , drug @-@ dealing truck driver Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) is seen as a possible suspect ; especially to his wife Shelley ( Mädchen Amick ) , who has found a bloodstained shirt among his belongings . Meanwhile , Cooper finds the possible scene of the murder , at the home of drug smuggler Jacques Renault ( Walter Olkewicz ) ; Renault 's myna bird is taken in as evidence . = = = Events = = = Cooper returns to his hotel room to find Audrey Horne ( Sherilyn Fenn ) waiting in his bed ; he cautions her about being unable to get involved with her due to his position and goes to the hotel restaurant to get malts and fries for them both . The next morning he and Sheriff Truman ( Michael Ontkean ) plan to pay an undercover visit to One Eyed Jacks , a casino and brothel over the Canadian border , to which Renault is connected . They bring along Ed Hurley ( Everett McGill ) , with Cooper having requisitioned $ 10 @,@ 000 from the FBI to pass as high @-@ stakes gamblers . Johnson , alive but injured , is spying on his own home , watching Briggs visit Shelley . Shelley is terrified that Johnson will return and kill her ; but Briggs reassures her he will take care of things . Johnson is also listening to a police radio in his truck , and hears that Renault 's myna bird is being considered a witness as its ability to mimic speech might provide a clue ; he drives off immediately . That night , he shoots the bird dead through the sheriff station 's window . However , a voice @-@ activated tape recorder had been left by the bird 's cage ; Cooper is able to find the words " Leo , no ! " among the phrases it had repeated that evening . James Hurley , Donna Hayward ( Lara Flynn Boyle ) and Madeline Ferguson ( Lee ) listen to cassette tapes found in Laura 's bedroom ; they are all monologues addressed to psychiatrist Laurence Jacoby ( Russ Tamblyn ) . One dated to the night of her death is missing ; the group plan to use Ferguson 's resemblance to Laura to distract Jacoby long enough to steal it from his office . Jacoby falls for the ruse long enough ; however , Hurley and Hayward are watched from afar by Briggs , who is in turn being spied on by an unseen party . Briggs hides a bag of cocaine in the gas tank of Hurley 's motorcycle . Audrey , meanwhile , has begun working at her father 's department store , in a position both Laura and Pulaski occupied before their abduction . Audrey spies on another coworker being showered with gifts and offered a job in " hospitality " by the store 's manager , and later finds both Laura 's and Pulaski 's names in the manager 's private ledger . Having found an address for One Eyed Jacks , Audrey visits and applies under a false name . The brothel 's madam , Blackie O 'Reilly ( Victoria Catlin ) is hesitant to hire her but is convinced when Audrey ties a cherry stem in a knot with her tongue . Catherine Martell ( Piper Laurie ) learns that a new life insurance policy has been taken out in her name , by Josie Packard ( Joan Chen ) and Benjamin Horne ( Richard Beymer ) . Martell had been planning with Horne to burn down Packard 's sawmill in order to cheaply purchase the land it occupies . Packard speaks to Horne over the telephone , cooperating with the sawmill arson , but arranging to burn it down with Martell inside . As Packard hangs up , it is seen that the recently paroled killer Hank Jennings ( Chris Mulkey ) has been beside her . = = Production = = " Episode 6 " was the second of the series to be written by Harley Peyton , who had previously scripted " Episode 3 " ; Peyton returned to pen a number of other episodes across both seasons . The episode was directed by noted cinematographer Caleb Deschanel , who later helmed two episodes in the second season . Each episode of Twin Peaks was written sequentially ; this allowed the overall plot to gather momentum as it progressed but allowed for the organic process of adding new elements as the writers thought of them ; a process favored by series co @-@ creator David Lynch . It also allowed Mark Frost , Lynch 's partner in creating the series , to plan ahead to ensure plot details and threads would be revisited as necessary . Deschanel recalls the teleplay for the episode being approximately 40 – 45 pages long , which he felt offered the show a " leisurely " pace compared to modern television episode , which are filmed from teleplays of up to 120 pages . This allowed the series to dwell on its subtext and unexpressed desires of its characters , rather than focusing solely on narrative action . Deschanel and Peyton have described the episode as exemplifying the need to " be a fan " of the series to fully enjoy it , as the progression and development of the characters occurs over multiple episodes and rewards the attention of a regular viewer . Peyton has noted that the distinct personalities of the series ' characters meant that he considered some of them much more difficult to convincingly write for than others . He found Cooper to be particularly tricky to write for , as the character had an idiosyncratic view of the world which needed to be maintained ; but found Audrey Horne to be his favourite to work on as he considered the character — and actress Sherilyn Fenn — to be both sexy and smart , and to have developed substantially as the series progressed . The character of Madeline Ferguson was named for characters in Alfred Hitchcock 's 1958 film Vertigo — Kim Novak 's Madeleine Elster and James Stewart 's Scottie Ferguson . Ferguson 's cousin , the murdered schoolgirl Laura Palmer , was similarly named after the titular character in Otto Preminger 's 1944 film Laura ; while other characters in the series would also be named for film noir characters . The popular " cherry stem " scene was inspired by an incident in Peyton 's life ; he had been dining with friends during the time he was writing the script when a female friend demonstrated to the group that she could knot a cherry stem with her tongue . Peyton immediately added this to the script , finding it fascinating that he could witness something on one day , write it the next , and two weeks later see newspapers discussing his version of it . Fenn has admitted that she was unable to actually perform the trick , simply switching the stem for a tied one already hidden in her mouth ; however , co @-@ star Mädchen Amick has since demonstrated it during television interviews . Scenes filmed in the One Eyed Jacks casino and brothel were shot on location at a house on the shore of California 's Malibou Lake ; footage for several episodes were shot on the same day by different directors so as to scatter the scenes throughout the episodes that required them . Deschanel has expressed regret over the use of a " house style " in the series ' direction and cinematography , feeling that he lit certain scenes in this episode in a way he would not usually have done ; preferring to have employed a chiaroscuro use of shadow as opposed to the reddish tints used throughout . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Episode 6 " was first broadcast on the ABC Network on May 17 , 1990 . In its initial airing , it was viewed by 10 @.@ 6 percent of US households , representing 17 percent of the available audience . This marked a slight decrease from the previous episode , which had attracted 11 @.@ 5 percent of the population and 18 percent of the available audience . " Episode 6 " was the fortieth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week , tying with Family Matters , which aired on the same network . Writing for The A.V. Club , Keith Phipps rated the episode an " A − " , finding that the death of Waldo the myna bird acted as a summation of the tone of the series — noting that it " should be goofy but it 's completely chilling " . Phipps also compared the episode to Hitchcock 's Vertigo , describing it as he could " imagine Brian DePalma watching and wishing he 'd thought of first " . AllRovi 's Andrea LeVasseur awarded the episode four stars out of five . Daniel J. Blau of Television Without Pity found the scene featuring Waldo being shot to have been directed well ; Blau felt the minimal and straightforward approach taken was in stark contrast to the over @-@ the @-@ top direction taken by newer crew members in the series ' second season .
= Applesauce cake = Applesauce cake is a dessert cake prepared using apple sauce , flour and sugar as primary ingredients . Various spices are typically used , and it tends to be a moist cake . Applesauce cake prepared with chunky @-@ style apple sauce may be less moist . Several additional ingredients may also be used in its preparation , and it is sometimes prepared and served as a coffee cake . The cake dates back to early colonial times in the United States . National Applesauce Cake Day occurs annually on June 6 in the U.S. = = History = = The preparation of applesauce cake dates back to early colonial times in the New England Colonies of the northeastern United States . From 1900 to the 1950s , recipes for applesauce cake frequently appeared in American cookbooks . In the United States , National Applesauce Cake Day occurs annually on June 6 . = = Ingredients and preparation = = Applesauce cake is a dessert cake prepared using apple sauce , flour and sugar as main ingredients . Store @-@ bought or homemade applesauce may be used in its preparation . Additional ingredients may include eggs , butter , margarine or oil , raisins and plumped raisins , dates , chopped apple , chopped nuts ( such as walnuts and pecans ) , cocoa powder , and spices such as cinnamon , clove , nutmeg and allspice . Some versions include dried or fresh , finely grated ginger . After baking , applesauce cake is sometimes topped with an icing , frosting or glaze , such as a caramel glaze . It also may be served topped with a dusting of confectioner 's sugar or whipped cream . Gluten @-@ free applesauce cake may be prepared using rice flour . Applesauce cake tends to be moist because of the liquid content present in the apple sauce . The use of a chunky @-@ style apple sauce can result in a cake with less moisture , compared to using standard apple sauce . Letting it sit for one or two days before serving can increase its flavor , as this allows time for the ingredients to intermingle within the cake . It may be prepared using various types of cake pans , such as a ring @-@ shaped bundt cake using a bundt pan , in loaf form using a loaf pan , or as a sheet cake with a sheet cake pan . Applesauce cake is sometimes prepared in the form of cupcakes . = = Variations = = Applesauce cake may be prepared and served as a type of coffee cake , which may include a sweet crumb topping . Simple versions may be prepared using prepared coffee cake mix , apple sauce , and other various ingredients . Fruits such as blueberries , cranberries and raisins may also be used in applesauce coffee cake .
= Kelpie = Kelpie , or water kelpie , is the Scots name given to a shape @-@ shifting water spirit inhabiting the lochs and pools of Scotland . It has usually been described as appearing as a horse , but is able to adopt human form . Some accounts state that the kelpie retains its hooves when appearing as a human , leading to its association with the Christian idea of Satan as alluded to by Robert Burns in his 1786 poem " Address to the Deil " . Almost every sizeable body of water in Scotland has an associated kelpie story , but the most extensively reported is that of Loch Ness . Parallels to the general Germanic neck and the Scandinavian bäckahäst have been observed . More widely , the wihwin of Central America and the Australian bunyip have been seen as counterparts . The origin of the belief in malevolent water horses has been proposed as originating in human sacrifices once made to appease gods associated with water , but narratives about the kelpie also served a practical purpose in keeping children away from dangerous stretches of water , and warning young women to be wary of handsome strangers . Kelpies have been portrayed in their various forms in art and literature , most recently in two 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) high steel sculptures in Falkirk , The Kelpies , completed in October 2013 . = = Etymology = = The etymology of the Scots word kelpie is uncertain , but it may be derived from the Gaelic calpa or cailpeach , meaning " heifer " or " colt " . The first recorded use of the term to describe a mythological creature , then spelled kaelpie , appears in the manuscript of an ode by William Collins , composed some time before 1759 and reproduced in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh of 1788 . The place names Kelpie hoall and Kelpie hooll are reported in A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue as appearing in the 1674 burgh records for Kirkcudbright . = = Folk beliefs = = = = = Description and common attributes = = = Douglas Harper , historian and founder of the Online Etymology Dictionary , defines kelpie as " the Lowland name of a demon in the shape of a horse " . It is the most common water spirit in Scottish folklore , but the name is attributed to several different forms in narratives recorded throughout the country . The late 19th century saw the onset of an interest in transcribing folklore , but the recorders were inconsistent in spelling and frequently anglicised words , which could result in differing names for the same spirits . Commentators have disagreed over the kelpie 's aquatic habitat . Folklorists who define kelpies as spirits living beside rivers , as distinguished from the Celtic lakeside @-@ dwelling water horse ( each @-@ uisge ) , include 19th @-@ century minister of Tiree John Gregorson Campbell and 20th @-@ century writers Lewis Spence and Katharine Briggs . This distinction is not universally applied however ; Sir Walter Scott for instance claims that the kelpie 's range may extend to lochs . Mackillop 's dictionary reconciles the discrepancy , stating that the kelpie was " initially thought to inhabit ... streams , and later any body of water . " But the distinction should stand argues one annotator , who suggests that people are led astray when an each uisge in a " common practice of translating " are referred to as kelpies in English accounts , and thus mistakenly attribute lake @-@ dwelling habits to the latter . Others ascribe the term kelpie to a wide variety of mythical creatures . Counterparts in some regions of Scotland include the shoopiltee and nuggle of Shetland and the tangie of Orkney ; in other parts of the United Kingdom they include the Welsh ceffyl dŵr and the Manx cabbyl @-@ ushtey . Parallels to the general Germanic neck and the Scandinavian bäckahäst have been observed ; Nick Middleton observes that " the kelpie of Scottish folklore is a direct parallel of the [ sic ] bäckahästen [ of Scandinavian folklore ] " . The wihwin of Central America and the Australian bunyip are seen as similar creatures in other parts of the world . The mythological kelpie is usually described as a powerful and beautiful black horse inhabiting the deep pools of rivers and streams of Scotland , preying on any humans it encounters , One of the water @-@ kelpie 's common identifying characteristics is that its hooves are reversed as compared to those of a normal horse , a trait also shared by the nykur of Iceland . An Aberdeenshire variation portrays the kelpie as a horse with a mane of serpents , whereas the resident equine spirit of the River Spey was white and could entice victims onto its back by singing . The creature 's nature was described by Walter Gregor , a folklorist and one of the first members of the Folklore Society , as " useful " , " hurtful " , or seeking " human companionship " ; in some cases , kelpies take their victims into the water , devour them , and throw the entrails to the water 's edge . In its equine form the kelpie is able to extend the length of its back to carry many riders together into the depths , a common theme in the tales is of several children clambering onto the creature 's back while one remains on the shore . Usually a little boy , he then pets the horse but his hand sticks to its neck . In some variations the lad cuts off his fingers or hand to free himself ; he survives but the other children are carried off and drowned , with only some of their entrails being found later . Such a creature said to inhabit Glen Keltney in Perthshire is considered to be a kelpie by 20th @-@ century folklorist Katharine Mary Briggs , but a similar tale also set in Perthshire has an each uisge as the culprit and omits the embellishment of the young boy . The lad does cut his finger off when the event takes place in Thurso , where a water kelpie is identified as the culprit . The same tale set at Sunart in the Highlands gives a specific figure of nine children lost , of whom only the innards of one are recovered . The surviving boy is again saved by cutting off his finger , and the additional information is given that he had a Bible in his pocket . Gregorson Campbell considers the creature responsible to have been a water horse rather than a kelpie , and the tale " obviously a pious fraud to keep children from wandering on Sundays " . Kelpie myths usually describe a solitary creature , but a fairy story recorded by John F. Campbell in Popular Tales of the West Highlands ( 1860 ) has a different perspective . Entitled Of the Drocht na Vougha or Fuoah , which is given the translation of the bridge of the fairies or kelpies , it features a group of voughas . The spirits had set about constructing a bridge over the Dornoch Firth after becoming tired of travelling across the water in cockleshells . It was a magnificent piece of work resplendent with gold piers and posts , but sank into the water to become a treacherous area of quicksand after a grateful onlooker tried to bless the kelpies for their work . The same story is recorded by Folklore Society member and folklore collector Charlotte Dempster simply as The Kelpie 's Bridge ( 1888 ) with no mention of Voughas or Fuoah . Quoting the same narrative Jennifer Westwood , author and folklorist , uses the descriptor water kelpies , adding that in her opinion " Kelpies , here and in a few other instances , is used in a loose sense to mean something like ' imps ' " . Progeny resulting from a mating between a kelpie and a normal horse were impossible to drown , and could be recognised by their shorter than normal ears , a characteristic shared by the mythical water bull or tarbh uisge in Scottish Gaelic , similar to the Manx tarroo ushtey . = = = Shapeshifting = = = Kelpies have the ability to transform themselves into non @-@ equine forms , and can take on the outward appearance of human figures , in which guise they may betray themselves by the presence of water weeds in their hair . In their human form , kelpies are almost invariably male . One of the few stories describing the creature in female form is set at Conon House in Ross and Cromarty . It tells of a " tall woman dressed in green " , with a " withered , meagre countenance , ever distorted by a malignant scowl " , who overpowered and drowned a man and a boy after she jumped out of a stream . Gregor described a kelpie adopting the guise of a wizened old man continually muttering to himself while sitting on a bridge stitching a pair of trousers . Believing it to be a kelpie , a passing local struck it on the head , causing it to revert to its equine form and scamper back to its lair in a nearby pond . Other accounts describe the kelpie when appearing in human form as a " rough , shaggy man who leaps behind a solitary rider , gripping and crushing him " , or as tearing apart and devouring humans . A folk tale from Barra tells of a lonely kelpie that transforms itself into a handsome young man to woo a pretty young girl it was determined to take for its wife . But the girl recognises the young man as a kelpie and removes his silver necklace ( his bridle ) while he sleeps . The kelpie immediately reverts to its equine form , and the girl takes it home to her father 's farm , where it is put to work for a year . At the end of that time the girl rides the kelpie to consult a wise man , who tells her to return the silver necklace . Once again transformed into the handsome young man she had first met the wise man asks the kelpie whether if given the choice it would choose to be a kelpie or a mortal . The kelpie in turn asks the girl whether , if he were a man , she would agree to be his wife . She confirms that she would , after which the kelpie chooses to become a mortal man , and the pair are married . The arrival of Christianity in Scotland in the 6th century resulted in some folk stories and beliefs being recorded by scribes , usually Christian monks , instead of being perpetuated by word of mouth . Some accounts state that the kelpie retains its hooves even in human form , leading to its association with the Christian notion of Satan , just as with the Greek god Pan . Robert Burns refers to such a Satanic association in his " Address to the Deil " ( 1786 ) : = = = Capture and killing = = = When a kelpie appeared in its equine persona without any tack , it could be captured using a halter stamped with the sign of a cross , and its strength could then be harnessed in tasks such as the transportation of heavy mill stones . One folk tale describes how the Laird of Morphie captured a kelpie and used it to carry stones to build his castle . Once the work was complete , the laird released the kelpie , which was evidently unhappy about its treatment . The curse it issued before leaving – " Sair back and sair banes / Drivin ' the Laird o ' Morphies 's stanes , / The Laird o ' Morphie 'll never thrive / As lang 's the kelpy is alive " – was popularly believed to have resulted in the extinction of the laird 's family . Some kelpies were said to be equipped with a bridle and sometimes a saddle , and appeared invitingly ready to ride , but if mounted they would run off and drown their riders . If the kelpie was already wearing a bridle , exorcism might be achieved by removing it . A bridle taken from a kelpie was endowed with magical properties , and if brandished towards someone , was able to transform that person into a horse or pony . Just as with cinematic werewolves , a kelpie can be killed by being shot with a silver bullet , after which it is seen to consist of nothing more than " turf and a soft mass like jelly @-@ fish " according to an account published by Spence . When a blacksmith 's family were being frightened by the repeated appearances of a water kelpie at their summer cottage , the blacksmith managed to render it into a " heap of starch , or something like it " by penetrating the spirit 's flanks with two sharp iron spears that had been heated in a fire . = = Loch Ness = = Almost every sizeable Scottish body of water has a kelpie story associated with it , but the most widely reported is the kelpie of Loch Ness . Several stories of mythical spirits and monsters are attached to the loch dating back to 6th @-@ century reports of Saint Columba defeating a monster there . The early 19th @-@ century kelpie that haunted the woods and shores of Loch Ness was tacked up with its own saddle and bridle . A fable attached to the notoriously nasty creature has the Highlander James MacGrigor taking it by surprise and cutting off its bridle , the source of its power and life , without which it would die within twenty @-@ four hours . As the kelpie had the power of speech , it attempted unsuccessfully to bargain with MacGrigor for the return of its bridle . After following MacGrigor to his home , the kelpie asserted that MacGrigor would be unable to enter his house while in possession of the bridle , because of the presence of a cross above the entrance door . But MacGrigor outwitted the creature by tossing the bridle through a window , so the kelpie accepted its fate and left , cursing and swearing . The myth is perpetuated with further tales of the bridle as it is passed down through the family . Referred to as " Willox 's Ball and Bridle " , it had magical powers of healing ; a spell was made by placing the items in water while chanting " In the name of the Father , the Son and of the Holy Ghost " ; the water could then be used as a cure . A popular and more recent explanation for the Loch Ness monster among believers is that it belongs to a line of long @-@ surviving plesiosaurs , but the kelpie myth still survives in children 's books such as Mollie Hunter 's The Kelpie 's Pearls ( 1966 ) and Dick King @-@ Smith 's The Water Horse ( 1990 ) . = = Origins = = Folklorist Gary R. Varner has suggested that the origin of the belief in water horses that preyed on and devoured humans may be a reflection of the human sacrifices once made to appease the gods of water . The association with horses may have its roots in horse sacrifices performed in ancient Scandinavia . Stories of malevolent water spirits served the practical purpose of keeping children away from perilous areas of water , and of warning adolescent women to be wary of attractive young strangers . The stories were also used to enforce moral standards , as they implied that the creatures took retribution for bad behaviour carried out on Sundays . The intervention of demons and spirits was possibly a way to rationalise the drowning of children and adults who had accidentally fallen into deep , fast flowing or turbulent water . Historian and symbologist Charles Milton Smith has hypothesised that the kelpie myth might originate with the water spouts that can form over the surface of Scottish lochs , giving the impression of a living form as they move across the water . Sir Walter Scott alludes to a similar explanation in his epic poem The Lady of the Lake ( 1810 ) , which contains the lines in which Scott uses " River Demon " to denote a " kelpy " . Scott may also have hinted at an alternative rational explanation by naming a treacherous area of quicksand " Kelpie 's Flow " in his novel The Bride of Lammermoor ( 1818 ) . = = Artistic representations = = Pictish stones dating from the 6th to 9th centuries featuring what has been dubbed the Pictish Beast may be the earliest representations of a kelpie or kelpie @-@ like creature . Other depictions show kelpies as poolside maidens , as in Draper 's 1913 oil on canvas . Thomas Millie Dow had also sketched the kelpie in 1895 as a melancholy dark @-@ haired maiden balanced on a rock , a common depiction for artists of the period . Folklorist Nicola Bown has suggested that painters such as Millie Dow and Draper deliberately ignored earlier accounts of the kelpie and reinvented it by altering its sex and nature . Two 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) high steel sculptures in Falkirk on the Forth and Clyde Canal , named The Kelpies , borrow the name of the mythical creature to associate with the strength and endurance of the horse ; designed by sculptor Andy Scott , they were built as monuments to Scotland 's horse @-@ powered industrial heritage . Construction was completed in October 2013 and the sculptures were opened for public access from April 2014 .
= The Boat Race 1869 = The 26th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 17 March 1869 . Oxford won by three lengths in a time of 20 minutes and 4 seconds . It was their ninth consecutive victory and was , at that point , the fastest time ever recorded in the event . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Cambridge by six lengths in the previous year 's race and led overall with fifteen wins to Cambridge 's ten . Having lost the last eight Boat Races , the Cambridge University Boat Club president William Anderson wrote to G. Morrison of Balliol College , Oxford , inviting him to coach the trials eights and the University eight . Morrison had rowed in the 1859 , 1860 and 1861 races and had also acted as a non @-@ rowing president for the 1862 race . The decision to engage a member of the opposing university was greeted with consternation and considered by many Cantabrigians as " a disgrace to the Club " . Indeed , five Old Blues refused to row , only William MacMIchael agreed to row again . After the usual difficulty to agree arrangements , Cambridge eventually sent the traditional challenge and the date of the race was set for 17 March 1869 . Cambridge arrived at Putney a fortnight beforehand and made several practice rows in variable conditions , the worst of which included heavy snow , three days prior to the race . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle . = = Crews = = The Oxford crewed weighed an average of 12 st 0 @.@ 25 lb ( 76 @.@ 1 kg ) , 2 @.@ 125 pounds ( 1 @.@ 0 kg ) more than their opponents . The Cambridge crew contained three returning Blues , William MacMichael , William Anderson ( for his third Boat Race ) and John Still ( his fourth ) , while Oxford saw the return of five rowers , including their boat club president J. C. Tinné for his third appearance and Frank Willan in his fourth Boat Race . = = Race = = According to The Field , " the weather was not the most agreeable for a boat @-@ race ... a raw wind ... leaden @-@ coloured clouds overhanging the river " . Oxford , who were strong pre @-@ race favourites , won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey station to Cambridge . Although the Light Blues made the faster start , Oxford soon pulled alongside them and by the London Rowing Club boathouse , held a lead of around 10 feet ( 3 m ) . Cambridge closed the gap but Oxford pulled away again . The lead was exchanged once again and Oxford took the lead at Craven Cottage . Despite erratic steering from Oxford 's cox Darbishire , Oxford held the advantage until the crews shot Hammersmith Bridge , at which point the Light Blues held the lead by one third of a length . Still in the lead by The Doves pub , Cambridge steered too close to the bank and allowed Oxford to close the gap and passed Chiswick Eyot in the lead , with a half @-@ length advantage by Chiswick Church . The Dark Blues passed under Barnes Bridge with a two @-@ length lead and completed the course , passing the Ship Tavern three lengths clear in a time of 20 minutes 4 seconds . It was their ninth consecutive victory and took the overall record to 16 – 10 in their favour . The winning time was the fastest ever , beating the previous record set in 1868 by 52 seconds , although some doubt was cast over the positioning of the finish which was believed to have made the course approximately 100 yards ( 91 m ) shorter . The record would stand until the 1873 race .
= Black currawong = The black currawong ( Strepera fuliginosa ) , also known locally as the black jay , is a large passerine bird endemic to Tasmania and the nearby islands within the Bass Strait . One of three currawong species in the genus Strepera , it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie within the family Artamidae . It is a large crow @-@ like bird , around 50 cm ( 20 in ) long on average , with yellow irises , a heavy bill , and black plumage with white wing patches . The male and female are similar in appearance . Three subspecies are recognised , one of which , Strepera fuliginosa colei of King Island , is vulnerable to extinction . Within its range , the black currawong is generally sedentary , although populations at higher altitudes relocate to lower areas during the cooler months . The habitat includes densely forested areas as well as alpine heathland . It is rare below altitudes of 200 m ( 660 ft ) . Omnivorous , it has a diet that includes a variety of berries , invertebrates , and small vertebrates . Less arboreal than the pied currawong , the black currawong spends more time foraging on the ground . It roosts and breeds in trees . = = Taxonomy = = The black currawong was first described by ornithologist John Gould in 1836 as Cracticus fuliginosus , and in 1837 as Coronica fuliginosa . The specific epithet is the Late Latin adjective fuliginosus " sooty " from Latin fūlīgo " soot " , and refers to the black plumage . American ornithologist Dean Amadon regarded the black currawong as a subspecies of the pied currawong ( Strepera graculina ) , seeing it as part of a continuum with subspecies ashbyi of the latter species , the complex having progressively less white plumage as one moves south . Subsequent authors have considered it a separate species , although Richard Schodde and Ian Mason describe it as forming a superspecies with the pied currawong . Common names include black currawong , sooty currawong , black bell @-@ magpie , black or mountain magpie , black or sooty crow @-@ shrike , and muttonbird . Black jay is a local name applied to the species within Tasmania . The species is often confused with the local dark @-@ plumaged subspecies of the grey currawong ( S. versicolor ) , known as the clinking currawong or hill magpie . There are three subspecies of the black currawong : the nominate form Strepera fuliginosa fuliginosa of Tasmania ; Strepera fuliginosa parvior of Flinders Island , described by Schodde and Mason in 1999 ; and Strepera fuliginosa colei of King Island , described by Gregory Mathews in 1916 . The two island subspecies have identical plumage to the nominate , but are slightly smaller with shorter wings and tails , subspecies colei having a shorter tail than parvior . Together with the pied and grey currawong , the black currawong forms the genus Strepera . Although crow @-@ like in appearance and habits , currawongs are only distantly related to true crows , and are instead closely related to the Australian magpie and the butcherbirds . The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature . Ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between the woodswallows and the butcherbirds and relatives in 1985 , and combined them into a Cracticini clade , which later became the family Artamidae . = = Description = = The black currawong is about 50 cm ( 20 in ) long with an 80 cm ( 31 in ) wingspan . The male is slightly larger and heavier than the female ; males of the nominate subspecies average 405 g ( 14 @.@ 3 oz ) to females ' 340 g ( 12 oz ) . Male wings average around 27 cm ( 11 in ) and tails 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) , while female wings average 25 @.@ 8 cm ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) and tails 18 @.@ 5 cm ( 7 @.@ 3 in ) . Data for the two island subspecies is limited , but males of subspecies colei have been measured at 360 and 398 g ( 12 @.@ 7 and 14 @.@ 0 oz ) with 26 cm ( 10 in ) wings on average , and a female at 335 g ( 11 @.@ 8 oz ) with a 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) wing , and subspecies parvior at 370 – 410 g ( 13 – 14 oz ) for males with 26 cm ( 10 in ) wings on average , and 308 g ( 10 @.@ 9 oz ) and 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) wing for a female . The sexes are similar in plumage , which is all black except for white patches at the tips of the wings and tail feathers . The bill and legs are black and the eyes bright yellow . The white tips line the trailing edges of the wings in flight , and a paler arc across the bases of the primary flight feathers is also visible on the underwing . Although there is no seasonal variation to the plumage , the black may fade a little to a dark brown with wear . Immature birds have browner @-@ tinged plumage , and a yellow gape until they are two years old . The oldest recorded age of a black currawong has been 15 years ; a bird was sighted in July 2004 near Fern Tree , Tasmania , less than 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from where it had been banded in July 1989 . = = = Voice = = = The black currawong is a loud and vocal species , and makes a variety of calls . Its main call is markedly different from the pied or grey currawongs and has been described as a combination of alternating kar and wheek sounds , killok killok , or even akin to part song and part human laughter . Although often noisy when flying in flocks , it can be silent when seeking prey or thieving food . Before or around dawn and at nightfall appear to be periods of increased calling , and birds are reported to be more vocal before rain or storms . Parents also make a long fluting whistle to summon their young . = = = Similar species = = = The black currawong is commonly confused with the clinking currawong , but the latter species has a white rump and larger white wing patches . The black currawong has a heavier bill and a characteristic call unlike the clink @-@ clink call of the clinking . The forest and little ravens are similar in size but lack the white wing patches , and instead have entirely black plumage and white , rather than yellow eyes . The black currawong is unlikely to be mistaken for the closely related pied currawong as the latter does not reach Tasmania , but it has a longer and deeper bill and lacks the white rump and undertail coverts . = = Distribution and habitat = = The black currawong is endemic to Tasmania where it is widespread , although it is uncommon or absent from areas below 200 m ( 660 ft ) altitude . It breeds mainly in the Central Highlands , with scattered records elsewhere in Tasmania . Reports of breeding are rare from the northeast . It is found on many islands of Bass Strait , including the Hunter and Furneaux Groups . It was recorded historically from the Kent Group , but its status there is unknown . Within its range it is largely sedentary , although some populations at higher altitudes may move to lower altitudes during winter . Flocks have also been recorded making the 20 km ( 12 mi ) long journey across water from Maria Island to the mainland in the morning and returning at nightfall , as well as moving between islands in the Maatsuyker group . The black currawong has expanded into the northeast corner of the island , to Musselroe Bay and Cape Portland . The black currawong is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . One of its subspecies , Strepera fuliginosa colei of King Island , has declined over much of its range on King Island , possibly due to clearing of its forest habitat , and has been listed as Vulnerable . There are estimated to be around 500 birds . It is unclear whether competition with the more numerous forest raven is impacting on the subspecies there . The black currawong is generally found in wetter eucalypt forests , dominated by such species as alpine ash ( Eucalyptus delegatensis ) , messmate ( E. obliqua ) , and mountain gum ( E. dalrympleana ) , sometimes with a beech ( Nothofagus ) understory . It also frequents cool rainforest of beech , king billy pine ( Athrotaxis selaginoides ) . In lowlands it is more restricted to denser forests and moist gullies , while it also occurs in alpine scrubland and heathland at altitude . In dryer more open forest , it is replaced by the clinking currawong , although the two may co @-@ occur in places such as the Central Highlands and Eastern Tiers . Both the Flinders and King island subspecies are found across their respective islands , but prefer more forested habitats there . The black currawong has been recorded in gardens in Hobart in Tasmania 's southeast , and around Mount Wellington , on Hobart 's outskirts , in winter . Some remained to breed in Hobart in 1994 after a year of severe weather . = = Behaviour = = Black currawongs are found singly or in pairs , but may gather into groups of 20 to 80 birds . Birds have been observed digging wet yellow clay out of a drain and applying it all over their plumage . Wiping the carpal areas of wings in particular with their bills , they did not appear to wash afterwards , using the procedure as a form of dirt bath . The black currawong has an undulating flight pattern in time with its wing beats , and often cocks its tail in the air for balance when it lands . Play behaviour has been observed , particularly with subadult individuals . Black currawongs have been observed wrestling with each other , where a bird would attempt to force its opponent on its back , at Maydena , while others have been reported rolling on their backs and juggling with food items such as pears with their feet . One species of chewing lice , Australophilopterus curviconus , has been recovered and described from a black currawong near Launceston . = = = Feeding = = = No systematic studies have been done on the diet of the black currawong , but it is known to be omnivorous , feeding on a wide variety of foodstuffs including insects and small vertebrates , carrion , and berries . Birds forage on the ground most often , but also in tree canopies . They use their bills to probe the ground or turn over clods of earth or small rocks looking for food . Birds have been seen using walking tracks to forage along . A group of ten birds were observed trying to break open ice on a frozen lake . They have been recorded foraging along the beach for fly larvae in beached kelp . Most commonly , black currawongs forage in pairs , but they may congregate in larger groups — flocks of 100 birds have descended on orchards to eat apples or rotten fruit . The species has been observed in a mixed @-@ species flocks with forest ravens ( Corvus tasmanicus ) , and silver gulls ( Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae ) , white @-@ faced herons ( Egretta novaehollandiae ) , white @-@ fronted chats ( Epthianura albifrons ) , and European starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ) on the beach at Sundown Point . They have been observed securing dead larger prey to ease subsequent dismemberment ; a parent currawong had wedged a dead chicken 's wings under a log to facilitate pulling off portions such as legs and entrails to feed to its young , and another time hooked a dead rabbit on a spur of a log to rip it into pieces . The black currawong consumes the berries of the heath species Leptecophylla juniperina , and Astroloma humifusum , and the native sedge Gahnia grandis , as well as domestic pea , and apples . Invertebrates consumed include earthworms ( Lumbricidae ) and many types of insects , such as ants , moths , flies , crickets , grasshoppers and beetles like weevils , scarabs and leaf beetles . It is adaptable , and has learnt to eat the introduced European wasp ( Vespula germanica ) . A bird that was being harassed by three scarlet robins ( Petroica boodang ) was seen to suddenly turn on them and catch and eat one . Other vertebrates recorded as prey include the house mouse ( Mus musculus ) , small lizards , tadpoles , chickens , ducklings , the young of domestic turkey , Tasmanian nativehen ( Gallinula mortierii ) , flame robin ( Petroica phoenicea ) and rabbit . It can become quite bold and tame , much like its close relative , the pied currawong on the Australian mainland , especially in public parks and gardens where people make a habit of feeding it . Black currawongs have been recorded taking young peas from pods , raiding orchards , seizing chickens from poultry yards , and entering barns in search of mice . Black currawongs are very common around picnic areas in Tasmania 's two most popular National Parks , Freycinet and Cradle Mountain @-@ Lake St Clair , and are often fed by tourists there . The National Parks Authority tolerated this practice until 1995 , when they found the birds were becoming a nuisance and began discouraging people from feeding wildlife . However , the agile currawongs are adept at snatching fragments of food left by picnickers so the birds may only ultimately be discouraged by an ( impractical ) ban on food in National Parks . Birds also take other items such as soap or cutlery from campsites to examine . = = = Breeding = = = Breeding occurs from August to December . Like all currawongs , it builds a large cup @-@ nest out of sticks , lined with softer material , and placed in the fork of a tree from 3 to 20 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 65 @.@ 6 ft ) high . Old nests are sometimes tidied up and reused in following years . A typical clutch has two to four pale grey @-@ brown , purplish @-@ buff , spotted , blotched red @-@ brown or purplish @-@ brown eggs . As in all passerines , the chicks are born naked , and blind ( altricial ) , and remain in the nest for an extended period ( nidicolous ) . Both parents feed the young , but the male feeds them alone after leaving the nest and as they become more independent , and also moves from giving food directly to them to placing it on the ground near them so they learn to eat for themselves .
= The Curse of the Black Spot = " The Curse of the Black Spot " is the third episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . Written by Stephen Thompson , and directed by Jeremy Webb , the episode was first broadcast on 7 May 2011 on BBC One in the United Kingdom and on BBC America in the United States . It features the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) . In the episode , the TARDIS materialises in the 17th century on board a pirate ship whose crew is being terrorised by a Siren @-@ like creature . After receiving an injury , however minor , a black spot appears on their palms and then the creature apparently disintegrates them . The producers wished to develop a pirate @-@ themed episode for the sixth series and allow the protagonists to " sit back and have some fun " on the adventure . The episode was primarily filmed at a dock in Cornwall and Upper Boat Studios in Wales . " The Curse of the Black Spot " was seen by 7 @.@ 85 million viewers and received generally mixed reviews from critics . It gained an audience Appreciation Index of 86 – considered excellent . = = Plot = = = = = Prequel = = = On 30 April 2011 , immediately following the broadcast of " Day of the Moon " , the BBC released a " prequel " to " The Curse of the Black Spot " . The prequel consists of a short montage of atmospheric shots of the pirate ship , bridged by a narration in the form of Captain Avery 's journal for " April the first , 1699 ; the good ship Fancy . " Avery describes how his ship has been becalmed for eight days , and the crew are being taken one by one by " an enemy " ; he fears that they are all doomed to die there . = = = Synopsis = = = Following a distress signal , the TARDIS lands aboard a 17th @-@ century pirate ship stranded in the middle of an ocean . The ship 's crew have been terrorised by a Siren @-@ like creature ( Lily Cole ) who marks people with black spots on their palms after they are injured . Her song then lulls victims into a trance , making them want to go to her , which apparently disintegrates them . Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) receives a cut during a tussle with the pirates , and finds a black spot on his hand , but is prevented from succumbing to the song of the Siren by Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) . Surmising the Siren is using water as a portal , the Doctor instructs everyone to seek refuge in the ship 's dry magazine . There , they find Toby Avery ( Oscar Lloyd ) , the son of the ship 's captain Henry Avery ( Hugh Bonneville ) , who stowed away on the ship in order to join the crew after his mother died , unaware of his father 's illicit deeds . He too has a black spot on his palm due to a fever . In an attempt to escape , the Doctor and Avery board the TARDIS , but find it is acting haphazardly , and are forced to evacuate , and they watch as it dematerializes by itself . After another shipmate is taken by the Siren in a dry room , the Doctor realises the Siren is using reflection to appear . In response they rid the ship of reflective surfaces , including the ship 's stolen treasure . When a storm begins , the crew start to set sail . Toby drops a polished crown while bringing his father a coat . The Siren is summoned and takes Toby . Soon , Rory falls into the ocean , and the Doctor rationalises that the Siren has shown intelligence and will likely get to Rory before he drowns . Believing the victims are not dead , the Doctor convinces Avery and Amy to prick themselves . The Doctor 's suspicions are confirmed when the Siren 's touch actually teleports them to an alien spaceship , invisible in the same spot the pirate ship is located . The Doctor finds the spaceship 's crew long dead from exposure to a human virus . The trio then discover a sickbay where Avery 's entire crew , Toby and Rory are in medical care . The Siren turns out to be the ship 's virtual doctor , caring for the injured humans ; the black spots are tissue samples used as references . Amy convinces the Siren to release Rory into her care . Using Rory 's nursing knowledge , Amy and the Doctor remove him from life support and are able to resuscitate him . Meanwhile , Avery decides to stay with his son and his crew , unable to go back to England himself while the ship will care for his crew . Avery takes the helm of the spaceship and , along with Toby and his crew , sets off to explore the stars . = = = Continuity = = = The historical pirate Henry Avery was previously mentioned in the 1966 serial The Smugglers , which deals with the search for " Avery 's gold " . " The Curse of the Black Spot " re @-@ asserts unresolved plot points from the previous two episodes , " The Impossible Astronaut " and " Day of the Moon " ; Amy and Rory express concern over the Doctor 's future death , Madame Kovarian appears briefly to Amy , and the Doctor again uses the TARDIS scanner to perform a pregnancy test on Amy , the results of which remain unclear . = = Production = = = = = Writing and casting = = = In January 2011 , it was announced that Downton Abbey actor Hugh Bonneville would make a guest appearance as a " pirate captain " in an episode of the sixth series of Doctor Who . Matt Smith and Karen Gillan felt that working with the actor was " great fun . " He previously played Sir Sidney Herbert and Tzar Nicholas I of Russia in the Seventh Doctor audio drama The Angel of Scutari . Later in February 2011 , it was announced actress and model Lily Cole was cast as a sea creature . The producers were looking for an actress who is " beautiful , " " striking , " and yet somewhat " spooky . " Cole came early into the casting suggestions , and accepted the role when she was approached . The episode was written by Stephen Thompson . The producers wished to develop a Doctor Who episode set on " the high seas . " The episode was also made to allow the Doctor and his companions to " kick back and have some fun . " As the episode was pirate @-@ themed , the producers wanted to fit in as many elements as possible from pirate fiction , including treasure , mutinies , a stowaway boy , walking the plank , storms , swords , and a pirate with a " good heart " who " isn 't really evil . " " The Curse of the Black Spot " was originally planned to be ninth in the series , but was moved forward prior to filming as executive producer Steven Moffat felt the first half of the series was too dark . = = = Filming and effects = = = Filming took place primarily in Cornwall and the Upper Boat Studios in Wales . The exterior of the pirate ship was filmed at a dock in Cornwall , while the lower decks were built from a set at the studio . The principal challenge to film at the dock was to ensure the audience would not see it . The crew set up smoke machines to simulate fog . To create the storm the crew used wind and rain machines , the latter of which went through 15 @,@ 000 litres of water . The loud noise from the wind machines caused communication difficulties during takes . Anticipating they would get soaked , the cast present on the deck wore dry suits underneath their clothes . Before filming began on the storm sequences , Darvill heard that he would perform the stunt where he is thrown into the sea , and was willing to perform it . The stunt would later be performed by a double . The scenes in which Cole appeared on the ship were done by using a harness as if she was flying . Because the actress wore green dress and makeup , the normal greenscreen was replaced by bluescreens in the studio . Cole felt it was fun to fly on the harness , but found it painful after a few hours . Gillan was allowed to perform several of her own stunts in the episode . She was excited to learn that her character would fight pirates with swords , and was taught how to handle one with basic moves . Gillan was also allowed to swing across the ship . However , a stunt double was required to film the sequence where Amy is thrown across the deck by the Siren . The sickbay set was also built in a studio . Because the beds were attached to strings , they were prone to swaying . The cast members who were asked to lie on the beds were instructed to stay still and not breathe heavily to limit movement . = = Broadcast and reception = = = = = Broadcast and ratings = = = " The Curse of the Black Spot " was first broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom on Saturday , 7 May 2011 , from 6 : 15 pm to 7pm . It was shown on BBC America in the United States the same day as the UK broadcast . In the UK , the episode received preliminary overnight ratings of 6 @.@ 21 million viewers . Based on these estimated figures , viewership was up by 800 @,@ 000 from " Day of the Moon " . Final consolidated ratings for the episode increased to 7 @.@ 85 million viewers , with a 35 @.@ 5 per cent audience share . It was the second largest audience of the night , behind Britain 's Got Talent on ITV1 . In addition nearly one million viewed the episode on BBC iPlayer . It was given an Appreciation Index of 86 , placing it in the " excellent " category . = = = Critical reception = = = The episode was met with generally mixed reviews from television critics . Dan Martin of The Guardian thought that " The Curse of the Black Spot " was " a little bit anticlimactic " in comparison to the opening two @-@ part episode of the series , though it was " a nice old @-@ fashioned runaround bolstered by some high concepts and cute moments " , much like the classic episodes . He praised Lily Cole as the Siren but criticised the character of Avery . Martin later rated it the worst episode of the first twelve of the series ( the finale , which had not aired at the time , was not included in the list ) . IGN 's Matt Risley gave it an overall " good " score of 7 out of 10 , admitting that there were " some great lines " and the " Space Pirate " twist was " a refreshingly sci @-@ fi spin on the well @-@ worn genre plot " , but he criticised the Siren for lacking qualities to become " a credible and terrifying Who villain " . Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph did not feel the episode was believable enough , citing Bonneville 's performance , saying he " didn 't come across as a ruthless , greedy killer despite what his crew claimed of him , " and if the crew had been " nastier , " it could have given more potency to the Siren threat . Fuller felt that Cole did " a decent enough job , " claiming that the Siren was the " best @-@ realised thing " about the episode , " only slightly ahead of Karen Gillan looking very fetching in a pirate outfit . " Simon Brew of Den of Geek started by comparing the episode to Lost 's " massive , intriguing " cliffhangers , " and then sauntered off to other less interesting stuff , " mainly criticising that the little girl 's regeneration in " Day of the Moon " was left unresolved . However , Brew " still enjoyed " " The Curse of the Black Spot " , reacting positively to the episode 's production values and the reveal of the black spots . Nick Setchfield of the science @-@ fiction based magazine SFX opined that the high points of the episode were that it was " high on shivery maritime atmosphere , " and the Doctor for not being " in instant possession of all the facts , but who reloads his thinking as events unfold . " However , Setchfield was critical of the story , claiming " pirates and Who should be as combustive a mix as gunpowder and a trusty flintlock , but ultimately this grog @-@ time yarn falls short of its promise . " Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy wrote " following on from that game @-@ changing two @-@ part premiere , this week 's Doctor Who provides us with a real change of pace , with a moody and atmospheric pre @-@ titles sequence setting the scene for a far more traditional adventure . " Jeffery praised the performance of Bonneville , but was critical of Cole 's role for her not being " given much to do except float around and look ethereal , " but added " the English model certainly looks the part , with well @-@ judged special effects aiding her performance as the beautiful yet unsettling Siren . " Jeffery also thought that Amy 's revival of Rory was " well @-@ acted by both Karen Gillan and Arthur Darvill , " but criticised the series for the numerous " Rory 's dead " scenes , negatively comparing Rory with the South Park character Kenny McCormick . Jeffery rated the episode three stars out of five for being somewhat underwhelming in comparison with " The Impossible Astronaut " and " Day of the Moon " .
= Oxbow ( horse ) = Oxbow ( foaled March 26 , 2010 ) , an American Thoroughbred racehorse , is best known for winning the second jewel in the United States Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing , the 2013 Preakness Stakes . A bay colt , sired by a winner of the Breeders ' Cup Classic and out of a full sister to another Breeders ' Cup Classic winner , Oxbow was sold as a yearling at Keeneland for $ 250 @,@ 000 and is owned by Brad Kelley of Calumet Farm . He was trained by D. Wayne Lukas and was ridden in his Triple Crown races by Gary Stevens . Oxbow had a reputation as a front @-@ runner who was difficult to rate during his races . Plagued with frequent turnover in jockeys prior to the Triple Crown series , and often running from poor starting gate post positions , he had only two wins prior to his victory in the Preakness . That success was Calumet Farm 's first win in a Triple Crown race in 45 years and breeder Richard Santulli 's first win in a Triple Crown classic race . It also was Stevens ' first Triple Crown win since 2001 , following his return to riding in early 2013 after a seven @-@ year retirement , and Lukas ' first Triple Crown win since 2000 . Oxbow 's second @-@ place finish in the Belmont Stakes in June made him the third horse that year to reach $ 1 million in purse wins . Following the Belmont , he was ranked the top three @-@ year @-@ old racehorse in the United States by the National Thoroughbred Racing Association ( NTRA ) . He was pulled up shortly after finishing fourth in the Haskell Invitational , and was found to have suffered a soft tissue injury , was taken out of competition for the remainder of his three @-@ year @-@ old season , and retired in October 2013 . He stands at stud for the 2015 breeding season at Calumet Farms . = = Background = = Oxbow is a bay horse , marked with an irregularly shaped white star on his forehead and white on his lower lip . He is 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) tall . Oxbow was bred by Richard Santulli 's New Jersey @-@ based Colts Neck Stables , and foaled in Kentucky at Burleson Farms . His sire is 1998 Breeders ' Cup Classic winner Awesome Again , and his dam is Tizamazing , an unraced full sister to the two @-@ time Breeders ' Cup Classic winner Tiznow . Oxbow 's win in the Preakness Stakes was the first win in a Triple Crown classic race for Santulli 's breeding program . As a yearling , Oxbow was sent to the Keeneland sales , where he was purchased for $ 250 @,@ 000 by bloodstock agent Eddie Kane , acting on behalf of Brad M. Kelley 's Bluegrass Hall . In 2012 , the Calumet Investment Group bought Calumet Farm and leased it to Kelley , who moved his Bluegrass Hall racing operation and 200 horses from his Hurricane Hill farm to the historic Calumet property in early 2013 . Prior to 2013 , Calumet Farm had not had a winning horse in a Triple Crown race since 1968 . Although officially registered with The Jockey Club as a bay , Oxbow has white hairs scattered throughout his coat , therefore his trainer , D. Wayne Lukas , describes him as a roan . Oxbow was listed as " gray / roan " when he was sold as a yearling at Keeneland . = = Early racing career = = = = = 2012 : Two @-@ year @-@ old season = = = Oxbow 's racing career began on August 3 , 2012 , at Saratoga Race Course in an $ 80 @,@ 000 maiden race at 5 @.@ 5 furlongs ( 0 @.@ 7 mi ; 1 @.@ 1 km ) under jockey Junior Alvarado . Listed at odds of 22 – 1 , he was slow out of the gate and in sixth early on . He took an awkward step going into the turn , and as a result , his jockey pulled him up and he was taken off the track in a horse ambulance . In October , Oxbow was given another chance in a $ 50 @,@ 000 maiden race at 7 furlongs ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ; 1 @.@ 4 km ) at Keeneland Race Course . At 11 – 1 under jockey Jon Court , he broke sharply and led the field at the quarter @-@ mile post . At the top of the homestretch he was caught by Winning Cause , and ultimately finished fourth with a speed figure of 73 . On October 31 , he ran in another $ 50 @,@ 000 maiden race at seven furlongs at Lukas ' home track , Churchill Downs . At 17 – 1 under jockey Terry Thompson , Oxbow came out of the gate ninth , but as in his previous race , had the lead by the quarter @-@ mile post . He ultimately placed third , with an improved speed figure of 85 . Oxbow 's first win was a month later on the undercard of the Clark Handicap , in another $ 50 @,@ 000 maiden race at Churchill Downs . He went off as the 2 – 1 favorite in a race of 7 furlongs ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ; 1 @.@ 4 km ) with jockey Joe Rocco . He started from the far outside at the tenth post position and broke from the gate in seventh but jumped out to the lead within a few strides and led going into the turn by a half length . Oxbow increased his lead throughout the race and won by almost five lengths , earning a 90 speed figure . After Oxbow 's maiden win , he was flown to Hollywood Park in California to run in the Grade I CashCall Futurity at a mile and one @-@ sixteenth ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) on a synthetic surface . He was the longest shot in the field at 61 – 1 , and drew the far outside post at number eleven . Ridden by Corey Nakatani , his fifth jockey in five races , Oxbow broke well coming out the gate . He ran close to the front throughout the race , despite losing ground by being four horses wide around the first turn and three wide around the final turn . Oxbow finished fourth , nine lengths back , but earned his first Road to the Kentucky Derby point , and a speed figure of 87 . = = = 2013 : Three @-@ year @-@ old season = = = Oxbow was moved with the rest of Lukas ' horses to winter headquarters at Oaklawn Park in Hot Springs , Arkansas . He started his Triple Crown prep season on January 19 , 2013 , with a win at the Fair Grounds Race Course in New Orleans in the mile and 70 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 672 m ) Grade III Lecomte Stakes . Ridden for the second time by Jon Court , he went off as the fourth choice at 5 – 1 and had a favorable number four post position . He came out of the gate quickly and was the front @-@ runner throughout the race . At the top of the homestretch , he was only a half length in front of the field , but then he drew away and won by more than eleven and a half lengths . Horses he beat that day included Golden Soul , who later placed second in the Kentucky Derby , and I 've Struck a Nerve , who Oxbow faced again later in the Risen Star Stakes . He earned a speed figure of 94 and an additional ten points towards qualification for the Derby . That month , Lukas also contacted veteran Hall of Fame jockey Gary Stevens , who had just returned to racing after a seven @-@ year retirement , and discussed having Stevens ride Oxbow in future races . Five weeks later , Oxbow was entered in the Grade II mile and one @-@ sixteenth ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) Risen Star Stakes . Ridden for the third time by Jon Court , Oxbow was assigned the far outside post at number ten , and was the second favorite at 4 – 1 . He broke fifth from the gate , moved to third passing the stands , but lost ground by being five horses wide around the first turn . In the stretch , Oxbow took the lead but could not hold it and finished fourth , although he and the three top @-@ placed horses all ended the race within a length and a half of each other in a blanket finish . The winner was I 've Struck a Nerve , at odds of 135 – 1 . Oxbow again progressed in performance , earning a speed figure of 98 and five more points toward Derby qualification . Three weeks later , Lukas entered Oxbow in Oaklawn Park 's key preparatory race for the Arkansas Derby , the Grade II Rebel Stakes . For the fourth time in five races , Oxbow started on the far outside at post ten . He went off as the favorite for the second time in his career , at 4 – 1 . Lukas switched Jon Court to ride stablemate Will Take Charge , and Oxbow was given yet another jockey , Mike Smith . Oxbow was third out of the gate . He took the lead down the backstretch and stayed in front until the end of the race where he was narrowly defeated by Will Take Charge . Oxbow lost by half a head , but earned his first triple @-@ digit speed figure at 101 , along with 20 Derby qualification points . After the Rebel Stakes , Oxbow was ranked as one of the top ten horses in some Triple Crown pre @-@ race polls , and secured eligibility to run in the Derby with 36 points . Four weeks after the Rebel , Oxbow entered his last preparatory race before the Triple Crown campaign , the Grade I Arkansas Derby , held on April 13 . This race marked the first time Oxbow was ridden by 50 @-@ year @-@ old Stevens , who was Oxbow 's seventh jockey in nine races . The horse was the favorite at 3 – 1 , but once again drew an unfavorable , far @-@ outside post at ten . Oxbow came out ninth at the break and was almost seven lengths behind the leader at the start . He had developed a reputation for running in front and wearing out his exercise riders , so Stevens unsuccessfully attempted to rate Oxbow and make him run off the pace , behind other horses . Oxbow , described by observers as " very rank " , and by Stevens as " pissed off ... [ and ] upset with me that he didn 't get the running style he wanted " , was tossing his head and fighting Stevens into the clubhouse turn . After running last at one point in the race , Oxbow improved his position and finished fifth , less than a length behind second @-@ place Frac Daddy . Oxbow earned a speed figure of 90 , the same as in his maiden win . Stevens viewed his attempt to make Oxbow run off the pace as a mistake . " It just turned out to be a nightmare trip and I take full ( responsibility ) for that " , he said . Lukas agreed , stating , " That will not be in [ Stevens ' ] grandchildren 's highlight film " . = = Triple Crown Series = = = = = Kentucky Derby = = = Oxbow ran in the Kentucky Derby at Churchill Downs as a 25 – 1 long shot , ridden by Stevens , who had been on Oxbow in workouts since the Arkansas Derby , and as Lukas said , had " gotten to know the horse a little better throughout the last two weeks " . Following the scratch of Black Onyx in post position one , Oxbow had the inside number two post in the field of 19 starters and was closest to the rail . His position was further complicated by being next to Revolutionary with jockey Calvin Borel at number three . Between the size of the field and Borel 's well @-@ known preference for riding the rail , Oxbow had to use his speed early to get out front and avoid being pushed into the rail or being hemmed in behind traffic . He broke fifth and was soon close to leader Palace Malice , who ran the second fastest initial quarter- and half @-@ miles in Derby history , a pace described as " suicidal " . Oxbow maintained his position near the front , and at the top of the homestretch passed the tired @-@ out speed horses to lead the race for a sixteenth of a mile . He then faded and finished in sixth place , six lengths behind winner Orb , though his performance was still viewed as " respectable " and " promising " . Oxbow earned a speed figure of 101 , the same as he had in the Rebel , and observers noted that he was the only horse that ran near the front of the pack in the opening half @-@ mile to also finish in the top six ; none of the other horses out front early finished better than twelfth . = = = Preakness Stakes = = = Oxbow next went to Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore to run in the 2013 Preakness Stakes . In the week prior to the race , he had another workout with Stevens , who stated that it was the " first time [ Oxbow ] had listened to me " , later amending his comments to say , " maybe it 's the first time I 've listened to him . " Oxbow drew a favorable spot in the gate at post position six , his first good draw since his win in the Lecomte , and kept the same rider for three straight races for the first time in his career . At the start of the race , Will Take Charge veered in and brushed Oxbow , who broke third but took the lead within a few strides and soon led by one and a half lengths . Once in front , Stevens got Oxbow to relax , and they ran the first quarter @-@ mile in 0 : 23 @.@ 94 , the half mile in 0 : 48 @.@ 60 , and three @-@ quarters at 1 : 13 : 26 . Despite the modest pace , what one sportswriter called " lullaby fractions " , described by Stevens as " just walking the dog " , the colt was one and a half lengths in front at the three @-@ quarter @-@ mile mark . Although Steven said the horse " rated himself " , sportswriters speculated that once in front , the experienced Stevens had slowed the pace , leaving Oxbow with enough reserves for the final push . Turning for home , Oxbow " exploded off the turn " and led by three lengths . Never seriously challenged , he recorded a 15 – 1 upset victory by one and three quarter lengths in front of runner @-@ up Itsmyluckyday . Mylute finished third and Derby champion Orb was fourth . Oxbow earned a career @-@ high speed figure of 112 , which was higher than Orb 's had been in the Derby . In post @-@ race interviews , Stevens said , " His mind was right " , " when I hit the half @-@ mile pole ... The race was over at that point " , and " [ t ] hey gave me a free three @-@ quarters of a mile today . " Stevens later tweeted that Oxbow was the " most intelligent horse I have ever ridden " . He noted the horse was not particularly tired after the race and described him as a " happy horse " in the winner 's circle . Lukas said , " He never even broke a sweat . " The victory was 77 @-@ year @-@ old Lukas ' sixth career Preakness win and his 14th Triple Crown win , surpassing the record of " Sunny Jim " Fitzsimmons . It was Lukas ' first win in any Triple Crown race since Commendable won the Belmont Stakes in 2000 . Oxbow 's success was Stevens ' third career Preakness win and his ninth Triple Crown win , but the first since winning the Preakness and Belmont on Point Given in 2001 . = = = Belmont Stakes = = = Fourteen horses started at the 2013 Belmont Stakes . Oxbow drew the number seven post position , with rival Orb at post five . There were concerns about Stevens ' fitness as he had missed races after being thrown from a horse the previous week , but medical tests showed no sign of injury . Oxbow was the third favorite at 5 – 1 on the morning line , but by race time his odds were at 10 – 1 . In the race Oxbow broke third out of the gate and settled behind pacesetters Frac Daddy and Freedom Child , completing a quarter mile in 23 seconds . As usual , Oxbow wanted to run close to the front , Stevens knew better than to fight with him , and so , as in the Derby , horse and rider once again chased the speed horses at fractions described as " suicidal " . At the half @-@ mile pole Oxbow was a neck off the leader , who clocked at 0 : 46 @.@ 66 , and on the backstretch , Oxbow went to the front , reaching the three @-@ quarter mile mark at 1 : 10 @.@ 95 , running the second fastest half- and three @-@ quarter mile fractions at that point in the race since Secretariat 's 1973 record @-@ setting performance . Oxbow was still in front by a half length at the mile post . At the top of the homestretch , Palace Malice and Oxbow were nose and nose but Oxbow tired , and finished second by three lengths to Palace Malice with Kentucky Derby winner Orb third , 1 3 ⁄ 4 lengths behind Oxbow . His speed figure for the Belmont was 98 , the same as in the Risen Star Stakes . The second @-@ place finish in the Belmont earned Oxbow $ 200 @,@ 000 and pushed him over the $ 1 million mark in career earnings , making him the third horse in 2013 to reach $ 1 million in purse wins , behind Orb and a fellow Awesome Again son , the six @-@ year @-@ old gelding Game On Dude . Although the $ 1 million bonus for the horse winning the highest combined Triple Crown points has long been discontinued , Oxbow would have won it over Orb owing to his win in the Preakness and second in the Belmont . Further , his placing in the Belmont put him at number one in the post @-@ Belmont June 10 NTRA poll of top three @-@ year @-@ olds , and in the top ten for race horses of all ages . = = Remainder of season = = Oxbow came out of the Belmont feeling good , or as Lukas put it , " full of himself . " He returned to Churchill Downs , and resumed scheduled workouts sooner than usual . Lukas then shipped Oxbow to Saratoga to prepare him to run in the Grade I , $ 1 million Haskell Invitational on July 28 , 2013 , with sportswriters hoping to see him meet up again with Orb and Palace Malice in the Travers Stakes later in the summer . In an attempt to get Oxbow past what had been described as his " one @-@ dimensional " front @-@ running style , Lukas turned to a training regimen at Saratoga where the horse had no clocked workouts , but instead was conditioned by jogging and galloping clockwise ( the " wrong way " ) on the training track for long one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to two @-@ mile trips each time out . Oxbow drew post position five for the Haskell , carried the highest weight at 122 pounds , and was the second favorite in the race behind Verrazano . Leading for the early part of the race , Oxbow was challenged for the lead by Verrazano at the three @-@ quarter @-@ mile marker , then weakened and finished fourth , earning another $ 60 @,@ 000 . Stevens felt something was wrong with Oxbow at the half @-@ mile pole , later saying the horse " didn ’ t feel like he did in any of the Triple Crown races " , and Lukas stated the jockey " kind of held " Oxbow from that point on . Oxbow was pulled up soon after crossing the finish line , then his rider jumped off and removed the saddle when Oxbow failed to jog sound on the track . The horse walked back to the barn without obvious sign of injury , and radiographs of his right front ankle revealed no fracture , but he did have a soft tissue injury to the area , described as a " sprain " . Of Oxbow 's overall health , Lukas commented , " he had a pretty set of X @-@ rays . It 's amazing . For a horse with that many [ starts ] , they were really clean . " Nonetheless , as a result of the soft tissue injury , Oxbow was taken out of races for the duration of the summer , and after three weeks of hand @-@ walking at Saratoga was shipped home to Calumet in mid @-@ August , with an announcement that he was not anticipated to run again in 2013 . Lukas said : " He 's been a warrior and a hell of a nice horse for us and I don 't want to do anything to jeopardize his future down the line . " On October 25 , 2013 , Calumet Farm announced the decision to retire Oxbow . Combined with his winnings in his two @-@ year @-@ old season , his lifetime race earnings were $ 1 @,@ 243 @,@ 500 . He stood at stud for the 2014 breeding season at Taylor Made Stallions in Lexington , Kentucky , for an introductory stud fee of $ 20 @,@ 000 . He closed out the year ranked 17th in earnings with $ 1 @,@ 146 @,@ 000 won in 2013 . For the 2015 season he moves to Calumet Farms , where he joins seven other stallions , including English Channel , who sired 2014 Travers Stakes winner V.E. Day . = = Racing statistics = = = = Pedigree = = Oxbow was sired by the Canadian @-@ bred Awesome Again , winner of the 1998 Breeders ' Cup Classic . At stud , Awesome Again has sired many stakes winners , including Paynter , who placed second in the 2012 Belmont Stakes and won the 2012 Haskell Invitational ; Ghostzapper , who was 2004 American Horse of the Year and a 2004 Breeders ' Cup winner ; and Game On Dude , two @-@ time winner of the Santa Anita Handicap . Oxbow is almost a full brother to Paynter ; the two horses are out of full sisters . Oxbow 's older full brother , Awesome Patriot , won the 2011 Alydar Stakes . Oxbow 's younger full brother , Expect a Lot , is in race training . Oxbow 's dam Tizamazing was bred back to Awesome Again in 2013 , and in June 2013 was confirmed to be in foal . Tizamazing is a full sister to Tiznow , who was 2000 American Horse of the Year and won the Breeders ' Cup Classic twice . Tizamazing sold for $ 1 million at Keeneland as a yearling , but owing to a training injury she never raced . Tizamazing 's dam , Cee 's Song , is credited with raising the respect breeders have for her female breeding line , Thoroughbred family 26 , as one of the top distaff lines in America . Five full siblings out of Cee 's Song were either race winners or the dams of race winners : Tiznow , Tizbud and Tizdubai are all stakes winners , Oxbow 's dam Tizamazing and Paynter 's dam Tizso both produced stakes winners . Another offspring of Cee 's Song , the gelding Budroyale , was second in the 1999 Breeders ' Cup Classic . Oxbow 's pedigree is outcrossed for four generations , with very little inbreeding . Oxbow is only inbred 4x5x5 to Northern Dancer , meaning that this horse appears once in the fourth and twice in the fifth generation of Oxbow 's pedigree .
= Morchella populiphila = Morchella populiphila is a species of morel fungus ( family Morchellaceae ) native to northwestern North America . Described as new to science in 2012 , its specific epithet refers to its association with black cottonwood ( Populus trichocarpa ) . The morel used to be referred to as Morchella semilibera in western North American field guides until molecular analysis established that to be a strictly European species . M. populiphila occurs in California , Nevada and Oregon . Its fruit bodies grow up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) tall with a ridged and pitted conical cap that attaches about halfway down the stipe . The cap ridges are dark brown to black in maturity , while the pits are yellowish to brownish . The fungus is edible , although not as highly valued as other morels . Morchella populiphila is one of three species of fungi commonly referred to as " half @-@ free " morels , the others being Morchella punctipes in eastern North America and Morchella semilibera in Europe . = = Taxonomy = = Morchella populiphila was one of 14 new Morchella species described in 2012 by Michael Kuo and colleagues as a result of the Morel Data Collection Project , which was aimed at clarifying the biology , taxonomy , and distribution of morel species in the United States and Canada . The type locality is in Jackson County , Oregon . The fungus used to be referred to as Morchella semilibera ( the " half @-@ free morel " ) in western North American field guides until molecular analysis established that to be a strictly European species . It was previously referred to as phylogenetic species Mel @-@ 5 ( i.e. , identified based on DNA sequence ) in a 2011 publication . The specific epithet populiphila refers to its association with the tree species Populus trichocarpa . = = Description = = The fruit bodies are 4 – 15 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) high with a conical cap that is 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) tall and 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide at the widest point . The cap surface has pits and ridges , formed by the intersection of 12 – 20 primary vertical ridges and infrequent shorter , secondary vertical ridges and transecting horizontal ridges . The cap is attached in a skirt @-@ like manner to the stipe , roughly halfway from the top , with a sinus 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) deep . The ridges are smooth and colored yellowish brown to honey brown when young , but darken in age to brown , dark brown or black . When young the ridges are up to 1 mm wide and flat with sharp edges but usually become rounded , sharp or eroded in age . The pits are smooth and vertically elongated . Initially whitish to pale brown when immature , they become brownish to yellowish or grayish brown at maturity . The fragile stipe measures 2 @.@ 5 – 11 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) tall by 1 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick and is roughly the same width throughout its length , or tapered towards the top . It is often hidden by the cap when young but becomes longer as it matures , often developing shallow longitudinal furrows . In warm , wet conditions the stipe sometimes becomes inflated , especially near the base . White to whitish or watery brownish in color , its texture is occasionally nearly smooth but more commonly covered with mealy whitish granules that sometimes darken to brown . Orson K. Miller likened the stipe texture to that of a cow tongue . The fragile , whitish to watery tan flesh is 1 – 2 mm thick in the hollow cap , and sometimes forms chambers or layers near the base . The whitish to brownish sterile inner surface of the cap is covered in mealy granules . In deposit , the spores are bright yellowish orange . Ascospores are smooth , elliptical , and typically measure 20 – 25 by 12 – 16 µm . Asci ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are eight @-@ spored , cylindrical , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 225 – 325 by 15 – 22 @.@ 5 µm . Paraphyses are septate , and cylindrical with tips that are rounded to club @-@ shaped , and measure 150 – 275 by 7 – 15 µm . Hyphal cells on sterile ridges are septate , measuring 100 – 175 by 10 – 25 µm . They are tightly packed in an even layer . The terminal hyphae are club @-@ shaped to somewhat rectangular with a flattened to broadly rounded tip . Although Morchella populiphila is an edible species , it is not as highly valued as other morels because of its fragile nature and its inferior flavor . = = = Similar species = = = Morchella populiphila is a distinct morel because of its cap attachment and its habitat , and it is unlikely to be mistaken for other species . Verpa bohemica is somewhat similar in appearance , but its cap hangs free from attachment to the stipe . The other North American half @-@ free morel , Morchella punctipes , is very similar in appearance to M. populiphila , and they cannot be reliably distinguished on morphology alone . The distribution of M. punctipes extends from the Great Plains eastward . The widespread European species Morchella semilibera is morphologically indistinguishable from M. populiphila , in both macroscopic and microscopic characteristics . = = Habitat and distribution = = Like many morel species , the ecological mode of Morchella populiphila is not known with certainty , but it is suspected of being both saprobic ( obtaining its nourishment from nonliving or decaying organic matter ) and mycorrhizal ( symbiotic with trees ) at different stages in its life cycle . Fruit bodies grow singly , scattered , or in groups . It is found in Oregon to Nevada and northern California , where it grows on dried @-@ out riverbeds . Fruiting , which occurs in the spring , tends to occur shortly after the emergence of Verpa mushrooms , and before the appearance of other morels . M. populiphila has been found in Europe , but is suspected to have been introduced with trees from North America .
= Rædwald of East Anglia = Rædwald ( Old English : Rædwald , ' power in counsel ' ) , also written as Raedwald or Redwald , was a 7th @-@ century king of East Anglia , a long @-@ lived Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom which included the present @-@ day English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk . He was the son of Tytila of East Anglia and a member of the Wuffingas dynasty ( named after his grandfather , Wuffa ) , who were the first kings of the East Angles . Details about Rædwald 's reign are scarce , primarily because the Viking invasions of the 9th century destroyed the monasteries in East Anglia where many documents would have been kept . Rædwald reigned from about 599 until his death around 624 , initially under the overlordship of Æthelberht of Kent . In 616 , as a result of fighting the Battle of the River Idle and defeating Æthelfrith of Northumbria , he was able to install Edwin , who was acquiescent to his authority , as the new king of Northumbria . During the battle , both Æthelfrith and Rædwald 's son Rægenhere were killed . From around 616 , Rædwald was the most powerful of the English kings south of the River Humber . According to Bede he was the fourth ruler to hold imperium over other southern Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms : he was referred to in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , written centuries after his death , as a bretwalda ( an Old English term meaning ' Britain @-@ ruler ' or ' wide @-@ ruler ' ) . He was the first king of the East Angles to become a Christian , converting at Æthelberht 's court some time before 605 , whilst at the same time maintaining a pagan temple . In receiving the faith he helped to ensure the survival of Christianity in East Anglia during the apostasy of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms of Essex and Kent . He is generally considered by historians to be the most favoured candidate for the occupant of the Sutton Hoo ship @-@ burial , although other theories have been advanced . = = The context of Rædwald 's kingdom = = The Anglo @-@ Saxons , who are known to have included Angles , Saxons , Jutes and Frisians , began to arrive in Britain in the 5th century . By 600 , a number of kingdoms had begun to form in the conquered territories . By the beginning of the 7th century , southern England was almost entirely under their control . During Rædwald 's youth , the establishment of other ruling houses was accomplished . Sometime before 588 , Æthelberht of Kent married Bercta , the Christian daughter of the Frankish ruler Charibert . As early as 568 , Ceawlin of Wessex , the most powerful ruler south of the River Humber , repulsed Æthelberht . According to later sources , Mercia was founded by Creoda in 585 , although a paucity of sources makes it difficult to know how the Mercian royal line became established . North of the Humber , the kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia possessed rival royal dynasties . Ælla ruled Deira until his death in 588 , leaving his daughter Acha , his son Edwin , and another unknown sibling . The Bernician dynasty , allied by kinship to the kingdom of Wessex , gained ascendancy over Deira , forcing Edwin to live in exile in the court of Cadfan ap Iago of Gwynedd . In various wars , Æthelfrith of Bernicia consolidated the Northumbrian state , and in around 604 he was able to bring Deira under his dominion . = = Family = = Rædwald , which in Old English means ' power in counsel ' , was born around 560 – 580 . The son of Tytila , whom he succeeded , he was the elder brother of Eni . According to Bede , he was descended from Wuffa , the founder of the Wuffingas dynasty : ' filius Tytili , cuius pater fuit UUffa ( ' the son of Tytil , whose father was Wuffa ' ) . At some time during the 590s , Rædwald married a woman whose name is unknown , though it is known from Bede that she was pagan . By her he fathered at least two sons , Rægenhere and Eorpwald . He also had an older son , Sigeberht , whose name is unlike other Wuffingas names but which is typical of the East Saxon dynasty . It has been suggested that Rædwald 's queen had previously been married to a member of the Essex royal family and that Sigeberht was Rædwald 's stepson , as was stated by William of Malmesbury in the 12th century . Sigeberht earned the enmity of his step @-@ father , who drove him into exile in Gaul , possibly to protect the Wuffingas bloodline . For a family tree that includes the descendants of Eni , see Wuffingas . = = Early reign and baptism = = Events that occurred during the early years of Rædwald 's reign include the arrival of Augustine of Canterbury and his mission from Rome in 597 , the conversions of Æthelberht of Kent and Saeberht of Essex , and the establishment of new bishoprics in their kingdoms . Bede , when relating the conversion of Rædwald 's son Eorpwald in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , mentioned that Rædwald received the Christian sacraments in Kent . This happened in perhaps 604 or later , presumably at the invitation of Æthelberht , who may have been his baptismal sponsor . The date of his conversion is unknown , but it would have occurred after the arrival of the Gregorian mission in 597 . Since it is claimed that Augustine , who died in about 605 , dedicated a church near Ely , it may have followed Saebert 's conversion fairly swiftly . Rædwald 's marriage to a member of the royal dynasty of Essex helped form a diplomatic alliance between the neighbouring kingdoms of East Anglia and Essex . His conversion in Kent would have affiliated him with Æthelberht , bringing him directly into the sphere of Kent . In East Anglia , Rædwald 's conversion was not universally accepted by his household or his own queen . According to the historian Steven Plunkett , she and her pagan teachers persuaded him to default in part from his commitment to the Christian faith . As a result , he kept in the temple two altars , one pagan and another dedicated to Christ . Bede , writing decades later , described how Ealdwulf of East Anglia , a grandson of Rædwald 's brother Eni , recalled seeing the temple when he was a boy . It was located at Rendlesham , the regio of the Wuffing dynasty , according to Plunkett . Barbara Yorke explains the dual nature of the temple by suggesting that Rædwald would have been unprepared to reject his old religion and fully embrace Christianity , as this act would have been a public acknowledgment of his inferiority to Æthelberht . Rædwald 's lack of commitment towards Christianity earned him the enmity of Bede , who regarded him as a renouncer of the faith . = = Rædwald and Edwin of Northumbria = = = = = Edwin 's exile = = = Æthelfrith of Northumbria may have married Acha , who was the mother of his son Oswald ( born in about 604 ) , according to Bede . Æthelfrith pursued her exiled brother Edwin in an attempt to destroy him and ensure that the Bernician rulership of Northumbria would be unchallenged . Edwin found hospitality in the household of Cearl of Mercia and later married Cearl 's daughter . Edwin 's nephew Hereric , an exile in the British kingdom of Elmet , was slain there under treacherous circumstances . Edwin eventually sought the protection of Rædwald , where he was received willingly . Rædwald promised to protect him , and Edwin lived with the king amongst his royal companions . When news of Edwin reached Æthelfrith in Northumbria , he sent messengers to Rædwald offering money in return for Edwin 's death , but Rædwald refused to comply . Æthelfrith sent messengers a second and a third time , offering even greater gifts of silver and promising war if these were not accepted . Rædwald then weakened and promised either to kill Edwin or to hand him over to ambassadors . When a chance arose for him to escape to a safe country , Edwin chose to remain at Rædwald 's court . He was then visited by a stranger who was aware of Rædwald 's deliberations . The source for this story , written at Whitby , stated that the stranger was Paulinus of York , a member of the Canterbury mission , who offered Edwin the hope of Rædwald 's support and held out the prospect that Edwin might someday attain greater royal power than any previous English king . Paulinus was assured by Edwin that he would accept his religious teaching . His vision of Paulinus was afterwards made the means of his decision to embrace Christianity , on the condition that he survived and achieved power . If , as is supposed by some , Paulinus appeared to him in the flesh , the bishop 's presence at Rædwald 's court would throw some light on the king 's position regarding religion . Rædwald 's pagan queen admonished him for acting in a manner dishonourable for a king by betraying his trust for the sake of money and wanting to sell his imperiled friend in exchange for riches . As a result of her admonishment , once Æthelfrith 's ambassadors had gone , Rædwald resolved on war . = = = The Battle of the River Idle = = = In 616 or 617 , Rædwald assembled an army and marched north , accompanied by his son Rægenhere , to confront Æthelfrith . They met on the western boundary of the kingdom of Lindsey , on the east bank of the River Idle . The battle was fierce and was long commemorated in the saying , ‘ The river Idle was foul with the blood of Englishmen ’ . During the fighting , Æthelfrith and Rædwald 's son Rægenhere were both slain . Edwin then succeeded Æthelfrith as the king of Northumbria , and Æthelfrith 's sons were subsequently forced into exile . A separate account of the battle , given by Henry of Huntingdon , stated that Rædwald 's army was split into three formations , led by Rædwald , Rægenhere , and Edwin . With more experienced fighters , Æthelfrith attacked in loose formation . At the sight of Rægenhere , perhaps thinking he was Edwin , Æthelfrith 's men cut their way through to him and slew him . After the death of his son , Rædwald furiously breached his lines , killing Æthelfrith amid a great slaughter of the Northumbrians . D.P. Kirby has argued that the battle was more than a clash between two kings over the treatment of an exiled nobleman but was " part of a protracted struggle to determine the military and political leadership of the Anglian peoples " at that time . = = Rædwald 's imperium = = On 24 February 616 , the year of the Battle of the River Idle , Æthelberht of Kent died and was succeeded by his pagan son Eadbald . After the death of the Christian Saebert of Essex , his three sons shared the kingdom , returning it to pagan rule , and drove out the Gregorian missionaries led by Mellitus . The Canterbury mission had removed to Gaul before Eadbald was brought back into the fold . During this period the only royal Christian altar in England belonged to Rædwald . By the time of his death , the mission in Kent had been fully re @-@ established . Rædwald 's power became great enough for Bede to recognise him as the successor to the imperium of Æthelberht . Bede also called him Rex Anglorum , the ' King of the Angles ' , a term that Rædwald 's contemporaries would have used for their overlord . It is unclear where his power was centred or even how he established his authority over the Angles of eastern England . By Edwin 's debt of allegiance to him , Rædwald became the first foreign king to hold direct influence in Northumbria . He would have been instrumental in Edwin 's secure establishment as king of both Diera and Bernicia . = = The development of Gipeswic = = During the first quarter of the 7th century , the quayside settlement at Gipeswic ( Ipswich ) became an important estuarine trading centre , receiving imported goods such as pottery from other trading markets situated around the coasts of the North Sea . Steven Plunkett suggests that the founding of Gipeswic took place under Wuffingas supervision . It took another hundred years for the settlement to develop into a town , but its beginnings can be seen as a reflection of the personal importance of Rædwald during the period of his supremacy . The excavated grave @-@ goods of the Anglo @-@ Saxon cemetery at Gipeswic , including those found in burials under small barrows , were not particularly wealthy or elaborate . They lacked the strong characterization of a neighbouring late 6th century cemetery at a higher crossing of the river . One exception was a furnished grave that it has been suggested could have been that of a visitor from the Rhineland . = = Death = = Rædwald is considered to have died in around 624 : his death can be located only within a few years . He must have reigned for some time after Æthelberht died , in order for him to have been noted as a bretwalda . Barbara Yorke suggests that he died before Edwin converted to Christianity in 627 and also before Paulinus became bishop of Northumbria in 625 . His death is recorded twice by Roger of Wendover , in 599 and in 624 , in a history that dates from the 13th century but appears to include earlier annals of unknown origin and reliability . Plunkett notes that the earlier date of 599 is now taken as a mistaken reference to the death of Rædwald ’ s father , Tytila , and the later date is commonly given for the death of Rædwald . He was succeeded by his pagan son Eorpwald , who was later persuaded to adopt Christianity by Edwin of Northumbria . = = = Sutton Hoo = = = Rædwald lived at a time when eminent individuals were buried in barrows at the cemetery at Sutton Hoo , near Woodbridge , Suffolk . There , large mounds — which were originally much higher and more visible — can still be seen , overlooking the upper estuary of the River Deben . In 1939 , a mound at Sutton Hoo , now known as Mound 1 , was discovered to contain an Anglo @-@ Saxon ship @-@ burial of unparalleled richness . The mound enclosed a ship , 27 metres ( 89 ft ) long , which had seen use on the seas and had been repaired . In the centre of the ship was a chamber containing a collection of jewellery and other rich grave goods , including silver bowls , drinking vessels , clothing and weaponry . One unusual item was a large ' sceptre ' in the form of a whetstone that showed no sign of previous use as a tool : it has been suggested that this was a symbol of the office of bretwalda . The gold and garnet body @-@ equipment found with the other goods was produced for a patron who employed a goldsmith the equal or better than any in Europe and was designed to project an image of imperial power . The Mediterranean silverware in the grave is a unique assemblage for its period in Europe . The magnificence of the objects , both the personal possessions and those items designed to denote the authority of the dead individual , point to the death of a person connected with the royal court , according to Rupert Bruce @-@ Mitford , who regards the burial as " very likely the monument of the High King or bretwalda Raedwald " . Yorke suggests that the treasures buried with the ship reflect the size of the tribute paid to Rædwald by subject kings during his period as bretwalda . Bruce @-@ Mitford has suggested that the inclusion of bowls and spoons amongst the treasures fits with Bede 's account of Raedwald 's conversion : the spoons may have been a present for a convert from paganism and the bowls had Christian significance . Coins found in the burial have been dated to the approximate date of Rædwald 's death . The controversy surrounding the identity of the person for whom the mound was built are reflected in the comments in the article on Rædwald in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ( " It has been argued , more strongly than convincingly , that Rædwald must be the man buried in Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo " ) and by McClure and Collins , who note that the evidence for Raedwald is " almost non @-@ existent " . Alternative suggestions as candidates include other East Anglian kings or a prestigious foreign visitor . There are alternative explanations : the person may have been a wealthy status @-@ seeker , rather than a king , though Rendlesham , a known residence of the East Anglian kings , is only 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away . Swedish cultural influence has been detected at Sutton Hoo : there are strong similarities in both the armour and the burial with Vendel @-@ age finds from Sweden . Bruce @-@ Mitford suggested that the connection is close enough to imply that the Wuffing dynasty came from that part of Scandinavia . There are also significant differences , and exact parallels with the workmanship and style of the Sutton Hoo artefacts cannot be found elsewhere ; as a result the connection is generally regarded as unproven . It is also possible that the mound is actually a cenotaph rather than a grave , the only sign of body was a chemical stain which could have had other origins , indeed the site includes burials of both meat and companion animals . Further there is a lack of shroud ties , and no clear evidence of items which might have adorned a body being left in the expected places in relation to the stain . The cenotaph theory may be consistent with the transition from pagan burial to Christian burial , certainly as far as Rædwald is concerned , he could have received a Christian burial , and the mound , whether completed before or after his conversion being used as a memorial and as symbol of the status of the Kingship of East Anglia .
= William Sterling Parsons = Rear Admiral William Sterling " Deak " Parsons ( 26 November 1901 – 5 December 1953 ) was an American naval officer who worked as an ordnance expert on the Manhattan Project during World War II . He is best known for being the weaponeer on the Enola Gay , the aircraft which dropped the Little Boy atomic bomb on Hiroshima , Japan in 1945 . To avoid the possibility of a nuclear explosion if the aircraft crashed and burned on takeoff , he decided to arm the bomb in flight . While the aircraft was en route to Hiroshima , Parsons climbed into the cramped and dark bomb bay , and inserted the powder charge and detonator . He was awarded the Silver Star for his part in the mission . A 1922 graduate of the United States Naval Academy , Parsons served on a variety of warships beginning with the battleship USS Idaho . He was trained in ordnance and studied ballistics under L.T.E. Thompson at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren , Virginia . In July 1933 , Parsons became liaison officer between the Bureau of Ordnance and the Naval Research Laboratory . He became interested in radar and was one of the first to recognize its potential to locate ships and aircraft , and perhaps even track shells in flight . In September 1940 , Parsons and Merle Tuve of the National Defense Research Committee began work on the development of the proximity fuze , a radar @-@ triggered fuze that would explode a shell in the proximity of the target . The fuze , eventually known as the VT ( variable time ) fuze , Mark 32 , went into production in 1942 . Parsons was on hand to watch the cruiser USS Helena shoot down the first enemy aircraft with a VT fuze in the Solomon Islands in January 1943 . In June 1943 , Parsons joined the Manhattan Project as Associate Director at the research laboratory at Los Alamos , New Mexico under J. Robert Oppenheimer . Parsons became responsible for the ordnance aspects of the project , including the design and testing of the non @-@ nuclear components of nuclear weapons . In a reorganization in 1944 , he lost responsibility for the implosion @-@ type fission weapon , but retained that for the design and development of the gun @-@ type fission weapon , which eventually became Little Boy . He was also responsible for the delivery program , codenamed Project Alberta . He watched the Trinity nuclear test from a B @-@ 29 . After the war , Parsons was promoted to the rank of rear admiral without ever having commanded a ship . He participated in Operation Crossroads , the nuclear weapon tests at Bikini Atoll in 1946 , and later the Operation Sandstone tests at Enewetak Atoll in 1948 . In 1947 , he became deputy commander of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project . He died of a heart attack on 5 December 1953 . = = Early life = = William Sterling Parsons was born in Chicago , Illinois , on 26 November 1901 , the oldest of three children of a lawyer , Harry Robert Parsons , and his wife Clara , née Doolittle . In 1909 , the family moved to Fort Sumner , New Mexico , where William learned to speak fluent Spanish . He attended the local schools in Fort Sumner and was home schooled by his mother for a time . He commenced at Santa Rosa High School , where his mother taught English and Spanish , rapidly advancing through three years in just one . In 1917 he attended Fort Sumner High School , from which he graduated in 1918 . In 1917 Parsons travelled to Roswell , New Mexico to take the United States Naval Academy exam for one of the appointments by Senator Andrieus A. Jones . He was only an alternate , but passed the exam while more favored candidates did not , and received the appointment . As he was only 16 , two years younger than most candidates , he was shorter and lighter than the physical standards called for , but managed to convince the examining board to admit him anyway . He entered the Naval Academy at Annapolis , Maryland in 1918 , and eventually graduated 48th out of 539 in the class of 1922 , in which Hyman G. Rickover graduated 107th . At the time , it was customary for midshipmen to acquire nicknames , and Parsons was called " Deacon " , a play on his last name . This became shortened to " Deak " . = = Ordnance = = On graduating in June 1922 , Parsons was commissioned as an ensign and posted to the battleship USS Idaho , where he was placed in charge of one of the 14 @-@ inch gun turrets . In May 1927 , Parsons , now a lieutenant ( junior grade ) , returned to Annapolis , where he commenced a course in ordnance at the Naval Postgraduate School . He became friends with Lieutenant Jack Crenshaw , a fellow officer attending the same training course . Jack asked Parsons to be best man at his wedding to Betty Cluverius , the daughter of the Commandant of the Norfolk Navy Yard , Rear Admiral Wat Tyler Cluverius , Jr . , at the Norfolk Navy Chapel . As best man , Parsons was paired with Betty 's maid of honor , her sister Martha . Parsons and Martha got along well , and in November 1929 , they too were married at the Norfolk Navy Chapel . This time , Jack and Betty were best man and maid of honor . The ordnance course was normally followed by a relevant field posting , so Parsons was sent to the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren , Virginia to further study ballistics under L.T.E. Thompson . Following the usual pattern of alternating duty afloat and ashore , Parsons was posted to the battleship USS Texas in June 1930 , with the rank of lieutenant . In November , the Commander in Chief United States Fleet , Admiral Jehu V. Chase , hoisted his flag on the Texas , bringing Cluverius with him as his chief of staff . This was awkward for Parsons , but Cluverius understood , being himself the son @-@ in @-@ law of an admiral , in his case , Admiral William T. Sampson . In July 1933 , Parsons became liaison officer between the Bureau of Ordnance and the Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) in Washington , DC . At the NRL he was briefed by the head of its Radio Division , A. Hoyt Taylor , who told him about experiments that had been carried out into what the Navy would later name radar . Parsons immediately recognized the potential of the new invention to locate ships and aircraft , and perhaps even track shells in flight . For this , he realized that he was going to need high frequency microwaves . He discovered that no one had attempted this . The scientists had not considered all the applications of the technology , and the Navy bureaus had not grasped their potential . He was able to persuade the scientists to establish a group to investigate microwave radar , but without official sanction it had low priority . Parsons submitted a memorandum on the subject to the Bureau of Ordnance ( BuOrd ) requesting $ 5 @,@ 000 per annum for research . To his dismay , the BuOrd and Bureau of Engineering , which was responsible for the NRL , turned his proposal down . Some thought that Parsons was ruining his career with his advocacy of radar , but he acquired one powerful backer . The Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics ( BuAer ) , Rear Admiral Ernest J. King , supported the use of radar as a means of determining aircraft altitude . When the Bureau of Engineering protested that such a device would necessarily be too large to carry on a plane , King told them that it would still be worthwhile , even if the only aircraft in the Navy big enough to carry it was the airship USS Macon . Parson 's marriage produced three daughters . The first , Hannah , was born in 1932 ; the second , Margaret ( Peggy ) , followed in 1934 . Hannah died of polio in April 1935 . Parsons returned to sea in June 1936 as the executive officer of the destroyer USS Aylwin . He was promoted to lieutenant commander in May 1937 . His third daughter , Clara ( Clare ) , was born the same year . On that occasion , Parsons left Martha with the newborn and three @-@ year @-@ old Peggy to care for and reported for duty the next day , believing that his first responsibility was to his ship . His skipper , Commander Earl E. Stone , did not agree , and sent him home . In March 1938 , Rear Admiral William R. Sexton had Parsons assigned to his flagship , the cruiser USS Detroit , as gunnery officer . Parson 's task was to improve the gunnery scores of his command , and in this he succeeded . = = Proximity fuze = = Parsons was posted back to Dahlgren in September 1939 as experimental officer . The atmosphere had changed considerably . In June 1940 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved the creation of the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) , under the direction of Vannevar Bush . Richard C. Tolman , dean of the graduate school at Caltech , was given responsibility for the NDRC 's Armor and Ordnance Division . Tolman met with Parsons and Thompson in July 1940 , and discussed their needs . Within the Navy , too , there was a change of attitude , with Captain William H. P. ( Spike ) Blandy as the head of BuOrd 's Research Desk . Blandy welcomed the assistance of NDRC scientists in improving and developing weapons . In September 1940 , Parsons and Merle Tuve of NDRC began work on a new concept . Shooting down an aircraft with an anti @-@ aircraft gun was a difficult proposition . As a shell had to hit a speeding aircraft at an uncertain altitude , the only hope seemed to be to fill the sky with ammunition . A direct hit was not actually required ; an aircraft might be destroyed or critically damaged by a shell detonating nearby . With this in mind , anti @-@ aircraft gunners used time fuzes to increase the possibility of damage . The question then arose as to whether radar could be used to create an explosion in the proximity of an aircraft . Tuve 's first suggestion was to have an aircraft drop a radar @-@ controlled bomb on a bomber formation . Parsons saw that while this was technically feasible , it was tactically problematic . The ideal solution was a proximity fuze inside an artillery shell , but there were numerous technical difficulties with this . The radar set had to be made small enough to fit inside a shell , and its glass vacuum tubes had to first withstand the 20 @,@ 000 g force of being fired from a gun , and then 500 rotations per second in flight . A special Section T of NDRC was created , chaired by Tuve , with Parsons as special assistant to Bush and liaison between NDRC and BuOrd . On 29 January 1942 , Parsons reported to Blandy that a batch of fifty proximity fuzes from the pilot production plant had been test fired , and 26 of them had exploded correctly . Blandy therefore ordered full @-@ scale production to begin . In April 1942 , Bush , now the Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , placed the project directly under OSRD . The research effort remained under Tuve but moved to the Johns Hopkins University 's Applied Physics Laboratory ( APL ) , where Parsons was BuOrd 's representative . In August 1942 , a live firing test was conducted with the newly commissioned cruiser USS Cleveland . Three pilotless drones were shot down in succession . Parsons had the new proximity fuzes , now known as VT ( variable time ) fuze , Mark 32 , flown to the Mare Island Navy Yard , where they were mated with 5 " / 38 caliber gun rounds . Some 5 @,@ 000 of them were then shipped to the South Pacific . Parsons flew there himself , where he met with Admiral William F. Halsey at his headquarters in Noumea . He arranged for Parsons to take VT fuzes out with him on the cruiser USS Helena . On 6 January 1943 , Helena was part of a cruiser force that bombarded Munda in the Solomon Islands . On the return trip , the cruisers were attacked by four Aichi D3A ( Val ) dive bombers . Helena fired at one with a VT fuze . It exploded close to the aircraft , which crashed into the sea . To preserve the secret of the weapon , its use was initially permitted only over water , where a dud round could not fall into enemy hands . In late 1943 , the Army obtained permission for it to be used over land . It proved particularly effective against the V @-@ 1 flying bomb over England , and later Antwerp in 1944 . The use of a version fired from howitzers against ground targets was authorized in response to the German Ardennes Offensive in December 1944 , with deadly effect . By the end of 1944 , VT fuzes were coming off the production lines at the rate of 40 @,@ 000 per day . = = Manhattan Project = = = = = Project Y = = = Parsons returned to Dahlgren in March 1943 . Around this time , a research laboratory was established at Los Alamos , New Mexico under the direction of J. Robert Oppenheimer as Project Y , which was part of the Manhattan Project , the top @-@ secret effort to develop an atomic bomb . The creation of a practical weapon would necessarily require an expert in ordnance , and Oppenheimer tentatively pencilled in Tolman for the role , but getting him released from OSRD was another matter . Until then , Oppenheimer had to do the job himself . In May 1943 , the Manhattan Project 's director , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , took up the matter with the Military Policy Committee , the high @-@ level committee that oversaw the Manhattan Project . It consisted of Vannevar Bush as its chairman , Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer who represented the Army , and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell as the Navy 's representative . Groves told them that he was looking for someone with " a sound understanding of both practical and theoretical ordnance – high explosives , guns and fusing – a wide acquaintance and an excellent reputation among military ordnance people and an ability to gain their support ; a reasonably broad background in scientific development ; and an ability to attract and hold the respect of scientists . " He said that a military officer would be his ideal , as the job might involve planning and coordinating the use of the bomb , but added that he knew of no Army officer who fit the bill . Bush then suggested Parsons , a nomination supported by Purnell . The next morning , Parsons received a phone call from Purnell , ordering him to report to Admiral King , who was now the Commander in Chief , US Fleet ( Cominch ) . In a terse ten @-@ minute meeting , King briefed Parsons on the Project , which he said had his full backing . That afternoon , Parsons met with Groves , who quickly sized him up as the right man for the job . Parsons was relieved of his duties at Dahlgren and officially assigned to Admiral King 's Cominch staff on 1 June 1943 , with a promotion to the rank of captain . On 15 June 1943 he arrived at Los Alamos as Associate Director . Parsons would be Oppenheimer 's second in command . Parsons and his family moved into one of the houses on " Bathtub Row " that had formerly belonged to the headmaster and staff of the Los Alamos Ranch School . Bathtub row , so @-@ called because the houses were the only ones at Los Alamos with bathtubs , was the most prestigious address at Los Alamos . Parsons became Oppenheimer 's next @-@ door neighbor , and in fact his house was slightly larger , because Parsons had two children and Oppenheimer , at this point , had only one . With two school @-@ age children , Parsons took a keen interest in the construction of the Central School at Los Alamos , and became president of the school board . Instead of the temporary two @-@ story structure that Groves had envisioned in the interest of economy and not misusing the project 's high priorities for labor and materials , Parsons had a well @-@ built , modern , single @-@ story school constructed . On seeing the result , Groves said : " I 'll hold you personally responsible for this , Parsons . " Oppenheimer had already recruited key people for Parson 's Ordnance Division . Edwin McMillan was a physicist who headed the Proving Ground Group . His first task was to establish the ordnance test area . Later he became Parsons ' deputy for the gun @-@ type fission weapon . Charles Critchfield , a mathematical physicist with ordnance experience at the Army 's Aberdeen Proving Ground , was in charge of the Target , Projectile and Source Group . Kenneth Bainbridge arrived in August to take charge of the Instrumentation Group . Parsons recruited Robert Brode from the proximity fuze project to become head of the Fuze Development Group . Joseph Hirschfelder was brought in as an expert on internal ballistics , and headed the Interior Ballistics Group . From the beginning , Parsons wanted Norman Ramsey as the head of the delivery group . Edward L. Bowles , the scientific adviser to the Secretary of War , Henry L. Stimson , was reluctant to part with Ramsey , but gave way under pressure from Groves , Tolman and Bush . Perhaps the most controversial group head would be Seth Neddermeyer , the head of the Implosion Experimentation Group ; for the time being , Parson accorded a relatively low priority to this work . He also recruited Hazel Greenbacker as his secretary . Groves , among others , felt that Parsons had a tendency to fill positions with Naval officers . There was some aspect of service parochialism , and Parsons believed that involvement in the Manhattan Project would be important for the future of the Navy , but it was also due to the difficulty of getting highly skilled people from any source in wartime . Parsons simply found it easiest to get them through Navy channels . Lieutenant Commander Norris Bradbury said that he did not wish to join Project Y , but was soon on his way to Los Alamos anyway . Parsons recruited Commander Francis Birch , who replaced McMillan at Anchor Ranch . Commander Frederick Ashworth was a Naval ordnance officer and aviator who was senior aviator at Dahlgren when he was brought in to work on the delivery side . By the end of the war , there were 41 Naval officers at Los Alamos . Over the next few months , Parsons ' division designed the gun @-@ type plutonium weapon , codenamed Thin Man . It was assumed that a uranium @-@ 235 weapon would be similar in nature . Hirschfelder 's group considered various designs , and evaluated different propellants . The ordnance test area , which became known as " Anchor Ranch " , was established on a nearby ranch , where Parsons conducted test firings with a 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft gun . Work on implosion lagged by comparison , but this was not initially a major concern , because it was expected that the gun @-@ type would work with both uranium and plutonium . However , Oppenheimer , Groves and Parsons lobbied Purnell and Tolman to get John von Neumann to have a look at the problem . Von Neumann suggested the use of shaped charges to initiate implosion . Oppenheimer considered that there was a " reciprocal lack of confidence " between Parsons and Neddermeyer , and in October 1943 he brought in George Kistiakowsky , who began a new attack on the implosion design . Kistiakowsky clashed with both Parsons and Neddermeyer , but felt that " my disagreements with Deak Parsons were very minor compared to my disagreements with Neddermeyer . " The implosion design acquired a new urgency in April 1944 , when studies of reactor @-@ produced plutonium confirmed that it could not be used in a gun @-@ type weapon . An accelerated effort was called for to design and build the implosion @-@ type weapon , codenamed Fat Man . Two new groups were created at Los Alamos : X ( for explosives ) Division headed by Kistiakowsky , and G ( for gadget ) Division under Robert Bacher . Parsons was placed in charge of O ( for ordnance ) Division , with responsibility for both the gun @-@ type design and delivery . The uranium gun @-@ type weapon known as Little Boy did prove to be simpler than Thin Man . The gun velocity needed to be only 1 @,@ 000 feet per second ( 300 m / s ) , a third that of Thin Man . A corresponding reduction in the barrel length reduced the bomb 's overall length to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . In turn , this made it much easier to handle , and permitted a conventional bomb shape , resulting in a more predictable flight . The main concerns with Little Boy were its safety and reliability . = = = Project Alberta = = = The delivery program , codenamed Project Alberta , got underway under Ramsey 's direction in October 1943 . Starting in November , the Army Air Forces Materiel Command at Wright Field , Ohio , began Silverplate , the codename for the modification of B @-@ 29s to carry the bombs . Parsons arranged for a test program at Dahlgren using scale models of Thin Man and Fat Man . Test drops were carried out at Muroc Army Air Field , California and the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern , California using full @-@ size replicas of Fat Man known as pumpkin bombs . The ungainly and non @-@ aerodynamic shape of Fat Man proved to be the main difficulty , but many other problems were encountered and overcome . Parsons , wrote Oppenheimer , " has been almost alone in this project to appreciate the actual military and engineering problems which we would encounter . He has been almost alone in insisting on facing these problems at a date early enough so that we might arrive at their solution . " In July 1944 , Parsons joined Jack Crenshaw , who was investigating the Port Chicago disaster . The two men surveyed the disaster area , where 1 @,@ 500 tons of munitions had exploded and 320 men had lost their lives . A year later , Parsons watched the Trinity nuclear test from a circling B @-@ 29 . Afterwards , Parsons flew to Tinian , where the B @-@ 29s of Colonel Paul W. Tibbets ' 509th Composite Group were preparing to deliver the weapons . En route , he stopped off in San Diego to visit his eighteen @-@ year @-@ old half @-@ brother Bob , a marine who had been badly wounded in the Battle of Iwo Jima . Parsons also met with Captain Charles B. McVay III , the skipper of the cruiser USS Indianapolis , in Purnell 's office at the Embarcadero in San Francisco and gave McVay his orders : You will sail at high speed to Tinian where your cargo will be taken off by others . You will not be told what the cargo is , but it is to be guarded even after the life of your vessel . If she goes down , save the cargo at all costs , in a lifeboat if necessary . And every day you save on your voyage will cut the length of the war by just that much . Parsons was in charge of scientists and technicians from Project Alberta on Tinian , who were nominally organized as the 1st Technical Service Detachment . Their role was the handling and maintenance of the nuclear weapons . Parsons was joined by Purnell , who represented the Military Liaison Committee , and Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell , Groves ' Deputy for Operations . They became , informally , the " Tinian Joint Chiefs " , with decision @-@ making authority over the nuclear mission . Before Farrell left for Tinian , Groves had told him : " Don 't let Parsons get killed . We need him ! " In the space of a week on Tinian , four B @-@ 29s crashed and burned on the runway . Parsons became very concerned . If a B @-@ 29 crashed with a Little Boy , the fire could cook off the explosive and detonate the weapon , with catastrophic consequences . He raised the possibility of arming the bomb in flight with Farrell , who agreed that it might be a good idea . Farrell asked Parsons if he knew how to perform this task . " No sir , I don 't " , Parsons conceded , " but I 've got all afternoon to learn . " The night before the mission , Parsons repeatedly practiced inserting the powder charge and detonator in the bomb in the poor visibility and cramped conditions of the bomb bay . Parsons participated in the bombing of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 , flying on the Enola Gay as weaponeer and Senior Military Technical Observer . Shortly after takeoff , he clambered into the bomb bay and carefully carried out the procedure that he had rehearsed the night before . It was Parsons and not Tibbetts , the pilot , who was in charge of the mission . He approved the choice of Hiroshima as the target , and gave the final approval for the bomb to be released . For his part in the mission , Parsons was awarded the Silver Star , and was promoted to the wartime rank of commodore on 10 August 1945 . For his work on the Manhattan Project , he was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . = = Postwar career = = In November 1945 , King created a new position of Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Special Weapons , which was given to Vice Admiral Blandy . Parsons became Blandy 's assistant . In turn , Parsons had two assistants of his own , Ashworth and Horacio Rivero , Jr . He also brought Greenbacker from Los Alamos to help set up the new office . Parsons was a strong supporter of research into the use of nuclear power for warship propulsion , but disagreed with Rear Admiral Harold G. Bowen , Sr. , the head of the Office of Research and Inventions , who wanted the Navy to initiate its own nuclear project . Parsons felt that the Navy should work with the Manhattan Project , and arranged for Naval officers to be assigned to Oak Ridge . The most senior of them was his former classmate Rickover , who became assistant director there . They immersed themselves in the study of nuclear energy , laying the foundations for a nuclear @-@ powered navy . On 11 January 1946 , Blandy was appointed to command Joint Task Force One ( JTF @-@ 1 ) , a special force created to conduct a series of nuclear weapon tests at Bikini Atoll , which he named Operation Crossroads , to determine the effect of nuclear weapons on warships . Parsons , who was promoted to the rank of rear admiral on 8 January 1946 , became Blandy 's Deputy Commander for Technical Direction and Commander Task Group 1 @.@ 1 . Parsons worked hard to make a success of the operation , which he described as " the largest laboratory experiment in history " . In addition to the 95 target ships , there was a support fleet of more than 150 ships , 156 aircraft , and over 42 @,@ 000 personnel . Parsons witnessed the first explosion , Able , from the deck of the task force flagship , the command ship USS Mount McKinley . An airburst like the Hiroshima blast , it was unimpressive , and even Parsons thought that it must have been smaller than the Hiroshima bomb . It failed to sink the target ship , the battleship USS Nevada , mainly because it missed it by a considerable distance . This made it difficult to assess the amount of damage caused , which was the objective of the exercise . Blandy then announced that the next test , Baker , would occur in just three weeks . This meant that Parsons had to carry out the evaluation of Able simultaneously with the preparations for Baker . This time he assisted with the final preparations on USS LSM @-@ 60 before heading back to seaplane tender USS Cumberland Sound for the test . The underwater Baker explosion was no larger than Able , but the dome and water column made it look far more spectacular . The real problem was the radioactive fallout , as Colonel Stafford L. Warren , the Manhattan Project 's medical advisor , had predicted . The target ships proved impossible to decontaminate and , lacking targets , the test series had to be called off . For his part in Operation Crossroads , Parsons was awarded the Legion of Merit . The Special Weapons Office was abolished in November 1946 , and the Manhattan Project followed suit at the end of the year . A civilian agency , the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) , was created by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 to take over the functions and assets of the Manhattan Project , including development , production and control of nuclear weapons . The law provided for a Military Liaison Committee ( MLC ) to advise the AEC on military matters , and Parsons became a member . A joint Army @-@ Navy organization , the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) , was created to handle the military aspects of nuclear weapons . Groves was appointed to command the AFSWP , with Parsons and Air Force Major General Roscoe C. Wilson as his deputies . In this capacity , Parsons pressed for the development of improved nuclear weapons . During the Operation Sandstone series of nuclear weapon tests at Enewetak Atoll in 1948 , Parsons once again served as deputy commander . Parsons hoped that his next posting would be to sea , but he was instead sent to the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group in 1949 . He finally returned to sea duty in 1951 , this time as Commander , Cruiser Division 6 , despite having never commanded a ship . Parsons and his cruisers conducted a tour of the Mediterranean showing the flag . He then became Deputy Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance in March 1952 . = = Death and legacy = = Parsons remained in contact with Oppenheimer . The two men and their wives visited each other from time to time , and the Parsons family especially enjoyed visiting its former neighbors at their new home at Olden Manor , a 17th @-@ century estate with a cook and groundskeeper , surrounded by 265 acres ( 107 ha ) of woodlands at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey . Parsons was disturbed by the rise of McCarthyism in the early 1950s . In 1953 he wrote a letter to Oppenheimer expressing his hope that " the anti @-@ intellectualism of recent months may have passed its peak " . On 4 December that year , Parsons heard of President Dwight Eisenhower 's " blank wall " directive , blocking Oppenheimer from access to classified material . Parsons became visibly upset , and that night began experiencing severe chest pains . The next morning , he went to Bethesda Naval Hospital , where he died while the doctors were still examining him . He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery alongside his daughter Hannah . He was survived by his father , brother , half @-@ brother and sister , as well as his wife Martha and daughters Peggy and Clare . The Rear Admiral William S. Parsons Award for Scientific and Technical Progress was established by the Navy in his memory . It is awarded " to a Navy or Marine Corps officer , enlisted person , or civilian who has made an outstanding contribution in any field of science that has furthered the development and progress of the Navy or Marine Corps . " The Forrest Sherman @-@ class destroyer USS Parsons was named in his honor . Her keel was laid down by Ingalls Shipbuilding of Pascagoula , Mississippi on 17 June 1957 and was launched by his widow Martha on 17 August 1958 . When it was rechristened as a guided missile destroyer ( DDG @-@ 33 ) in 1967 , Clare , now a Naval officer herself , represented her family . Parsons was decommissioned on 19 November 1982 , stricken from the Navy list on 1 December 1984 , and disposed of as a target on 25 April 1989 . The Deak Parsons Center , headquarters of Afloat Training Group , Atlantic , in Norfolk , Virginia , was also named for him . Parsons ' portrait is among a series of paintings related to Operation Crossroads . His papers are in the Naval Historical Center in Washington , DC .
= Mario Party 5 = Mario Party 5 ( Japanese : マリオパーティ5 , Hepburn : Mario Pāti Faibu ) is a party video game developed by Hudson Soft and published by Nintendo . It is the second game in the Mario Party series for Nintendo GameCube . It was released in North America on November 10 , 2003 ; in Japan on November 28 , 2003 ; and in Europe and Australia on December 5 , 2003 . Mario Party 5 is the fifth installment in the Mario Party series . The game is set in the fictional world of the Dream Depot , consisting of seven game boards . The single @-@ player " Story " mode involves the player winning multiple games against the Koopa Kids to prevent Bowser from conquering the Dream Depot . The main multiplayer game mode consists of four characters from Mario series playing a board game , with each board having a set theme . The game also features several minigames , which are played after every set of turns . Mario Party 5 introduces the " Super Duel " mode to the franchise , which requires players to assemble and control custom made battle vehicles which can be used in combat against other machines . The game features ten playable characters , with playable debuts to the series from Toad , Boo , and Koopa Kid . Mario Party 5 received " average " reviews by the media ; reviewers enjoyed the new minigames of the series , although a perceived lack of originality was criticized . The game became part of the Nintendo Player 's Choice label in 2004 , and won the Console Children 's Award at the 2004 Interactive Achievement Awards . = = Gameplay = = Mario Party 5 retains the fundamental gameplay featured in previous installments , which is based upon a themed board game played by characters of the Mario series . The player 's objective is to obtain the most stars by the end of the board game , which are usually purchased when passing the designated star space on the game board . Coins are earned mainly by winning minigames , which occur after all players have rolled the die . " Party Mode " is the main multiplayer mode , and involves four characters competing in a standard board game either independently or in opposing pairs . As with its predecessors , players can adjust the number of turns in a game by multiples of five , and determine the difficulty of artificial intelligence opponents , among others . Mario Party 5 features ten playable characters , including three additional characters to the series : Toad , Boo , and Koopa Kid . Hudson omitted Donkey Kong as a playable character from the series in this installment , instead featuring him in the " DK space " , which initiates an event granting the possibility of a star or coins whenever landed on . Like previous installments , blue and red spaces add or deduct three coins from players when they land on them . " Bowser spaces " return from Mario Party 4 . While the series ' predecessors used item shops as a means to obtain items , Mario Party 5 introduces the capsule system . Capsules are containers that hold a single item which are acquired when passing the " Capsule Machine " on the board . The items contained within them serve a variety of purposes , from increasing the range of the die and thus movement , to deducting ten coins from an opponent . The capsules can only be thrown up to ten spaces ahead of the current position . During a game , the gameplay is altered for the last five turns with the options selected randomly via a roulette wheel ; such changes include tripling the coin benefit or deficit from coloured spaces . The game 's boards incorporate the theme of the Dream Depot , with each having " Dream " at the end of the board 's title , except for the " Bowser 's Nightmare " board . Themes of the boards include dreams of toys and treasure hunting , among others . Each board consists of multiple types of spaces , some of which grant special types of minigames that cannot be accessed regularly . Some spaces , specifically " happening " spaces , will incorporate the relevant theme ; for example , a giant robot resembling Mecha Bowser will shoot any character back to the start when landing on its " happening " space in the Toy Dream board . Players can choose to play minigames separate from the board game context via " Minigame Mode " . The minigames are categorized by their character structure , with " 4 @-@ player " , " 1 vs. 3 " , and " 2 vs. 2 " available . Besides these standard versions , there are also the " DK " and " Bowser " minigames , which are themed to reflect their titular character ; " Battle " minigames are retained from the previous three Mario Party games . " Duel " minigames , which involve two players competing against each other , are re @-@ introduced . The set of minigames are available without a structure ( " Free play " ) in this mode , but can be formatted into tournaments and separate objectives like in " Mini @-@ game circuit " , involving the characters winning minigames to reach the finish line first . A total of 75 minigames can be played , but they all must be unlocked via " Party mode " and " Story mode " before they can be played in " Minigame Mode " . In " Bonus mode " , a set of three larger games that do not appear in usual play can be accessed ; this involves a card @-@ based board game ( " Card party " ) , as well as Beach volleyball and Ice hockey . Mario Party 5 introduced the " Super @-@ Duel Mode " , a game involving the player assembling and controlling a combat vehicle . Each component of the vehicle can be bought separately ; these do not necessarily have to fit with other parts stylistically , and contribute to the vehicle 's general statistics regarding fields such as health and speed . Once the vehicle is assembled and named , it can engage AI or human opponents in a single match or in tournaments . Variants of this are available , including a capture the flag mode and another requiring the player to shoot mechanical rabbits . = = = Plot and setting = = = The story mode in Mario Party 5 is completely different from the story modes of Mario Party 3 and Mario Party 4 . Players face three Koopa Kids ( red , green , and blue ) . The only way to defeat them and clear the board is to take all their coins away , mostly by beating them in minigames . Players must take all coins from a Koopa Kid to defeat him . If players lose all of the coins or don 't defeat the Koopa Kids within fifteen turns , the game is over . After players win five boards , they face Bowser in a final stage mini @-@ game called " Frightmare " , which is a one @-@ on @-@ one mini @-@ game with Bowser . There are four parts to the battle . First , players go against Mechakoopas ( robotic versions of Koopa Troopas ) . Next , players have to move and jump around to avoid three rings of fire for a short time . Then players face Bowser directly ; they must make him jump onto a tile three times to clear the third part . The final part of the minigame is the final battle , where Bowser grows . After throwing fireballs and hitting Bowser with them five times , the game is cleared and the final board is unlocked . = = Development = = Like its predecessors , Mario Party 5 was published by Nintendo and developed by Hudson Soft . It is the first Mario Party game to have Donkey Kong as a non @-@ playable character . It is also the first Mario Party game to have Wario wearing his current short @-@ sleeve shirt . It is the last Mario Party game where Daisy is voiced by Jen Taylor ; for later games , Jen Taylor is replaced by Deanna Mustard . It is the fifth and final Mario Party game to have Bowser 's sound effects from the first four Mario Party games . Nintendo first unveiled the game at the E3 conference of 2003 , where eight mini @-@ games were available in a playable demonstration . Following release , Nintendo announced Mario Party 5 as a " Player 's Choice " title , which is a label for Nintendo titles that had sold more than one million copies to be sold at a bargain price . Super Mario Fushigi no Korokoro Party Super Mario : The Mysterious Rolling Party is an arcade version of Mario Party 5 released exclusively in Japan in 2004 . It was developed by Capcom instead of Hudson Soft . = = Reception = = Mario Party 5 received " average " reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic . Game Informer 's Andrew Reiner cited the example of coin redistribution in the game , which meant that " You could win every minigame and collect the most coins but still end up in last place " , when giving a second opinion of the game . While acknowledging issues relating to the waiting times during board games , IGN 's Peer Schneider praised this installment for relieving the problem slightly , specifically referring to the Mini Bowsers , who all take their turns at the same time in " Story " mode . The quantity and accessibility of the minigames was lauded by GameSpot , although the reviewer Ryan Davis proceeded to note " If you bought Mario Party 4 last year , Mario Party 5 is hard to recommend . " , noting a lack of change to the series formula . Generally , critics cited having a fun experience in Mario Party 5 , although the minigames received a more enthusiastic reaction than the actual board game , with GameSpy commenting that " the sheer volume can keep you compelled . If only you didn 't have to deal with all that BS in @-@ between " when referring to gameplay of the actual board game . Features introduced in the game received a mixed response . The three games in " Bonus " mode were praised , although reviewers were least enthusiastic about " Card Party " , with GameSpot commenting that " This mode is proof that the minigames are really what make Mario Party fun , as it 's pretty dull . " The capsule system was generally criticised as the pertaining animations seemed to exacerbate the game 's slow place . Despite other reviewers ' claims that the capsule system contributed to the game 's dependence on chance , IGN commended the system for contributing to a more dynamic game board experience . The " Super Duel " mode was praised as a reasonably fun feature , although the gameplay was rated as " sluggish " . GameSpy noted the seemingly increased board sizes from previous installments , which apparently made obtaining stars and using ranged items more difficult The game 's graphics received a mediocre response , with GameSpot commenting that the presentation is " starting to seem a bit antiquated " when noting that the character models did not seem to have been updated from Mario Party 4 . Despite this , IGN commented that Mario Party 5 " isn 't a bad looking game " , noting the level of detail and variety given to the game 's board game 's and maps . GameSpot noted that the game 's audio did fit the game , although they commented that it " is largely recycled from Mario Party 4 " . IGN criticized the " cheesy " and unadventurous soundtrack , as well as a lack of voice acting . The game won the Console Children 's Award at the 2004 Interactive Achievement Awards .
= Paweł Jasienica = Paweł Jasienica was the pen name of Leon Lech Beynar ( 10 November 1909 – 19 August 1970 ) , a Polish historian , journalist and soldier . During World War II , Jasienica ( then , Leon Beynar ) fought in the Polish Army , and later , the Armia Krajowa resistance . Near the end of the war , he was also working with the anti @-@ Soviet resistance , which later led to him taking up a new name , Paweł Jasienica , to hide from the communist government of the People 's Republic of Poland . He was associated with the Tygodnik Powszechny weekly and several other newspapers and magazines . He is best known for his 1960s books on Polish history — on the Kingdom of Poland under the Piast Dynasty , the Jagiellon Dynasty , and the elected kings of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . Those books , still popular , played an important role in popularizing Polish history among several generations of readers . Jasienica became an outspoken critic of the censorship in the People 's Republic of Poland , and as a notable dissident , he was persecuted by the government . He was subject to significant invigilation by the security services , and his second wife was in fact an agent of the communist secret police . For a brief period marking the end of his life , his books were prohibited from being distributed or printed . = = Life = = = = = Youth = = = Beynar was born on 10 November 1909 in Simbirsk , Russia , to Polish parents , Mikołaj Beynar and Helena Maliszewska . His paternal grandfather , Ludwik Beynar , fought in the January Uprising and married a Spanish woman , Joanna Adela Feugas . His maternal grandfather , Wiktor Maliszewski , fought in the November Uprising . Both of his grandfathers eventually settled in the Russian Empire . His father , Mikołaj , worked as an agronomist . Beynar 's family lived in Russia and Ukraine — they moved from Simbirsk to a location near Bila Tserkva and Uman , then to Kiev until the Russian Revolution of 1917 , after which they decided to settle in the independent Poland . After brief stay in Warsaw , during the Polish – Soviet War , his family settled in Opatów , and in 1924 , moved to Grodno . Beynar graduated from gymnasium ( secondary school ) in Wilno ( Vilnius ) and graduated in history from Stefan Batory University in Wilno ( his thesis concerned the January Uprising ) . At the university he was an active member of several organizations including Klub Intelektualistów ( Intellectuals ' Club ) and Akademicki Klub Włóczęgów ( Academic Club of Vagabonds ) . After graduating , he finished training for the officer cadet ( podchorąży ) in the Polish Army . From 1928 to 1937 he lived in Grodno , where he worked as a history teacher in a gymnasium ; later he was employed as an announcer for Polish Radio Wilno . Here also , Beynar embarked on his career as author and essayist , writing for a local newspaper , Słowo Wileńskie ( The Wilno Word ) . On 11 November 1934 he marred Władysława Adamowicz , and in 1938 his daughter Ewa was born . In 1935 he published his first history book - about king Zygmunt August , Zygmunt August na ziemiach dawnego Wielkiego Księstwa ( Sigismund Augustus on the Lands of the Former Grand Duchy [ of Lithuania ] ) . = = = World War II = = = During World War II , Beynar was a soldier in the Polish Army , fighting the German Wehrmacht when it invaded Poland in September 1939 . He commanded a platoon near Sandomierz and was eventually taken prisoner by the Germans . While in a temporary prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp in Opatów , he was able to escape with the help of some old school friends from the time his family lived there in the early 1920s . He joined the Polish underground organization , " Związek Walki Zbrojnej " ( Association for Armed Combat ) , later transformed into the " Armia Krajowa " ( " AK " ; the Home Army ) , and continued the fight against the Germans . In the resistance he had the rank of lieutenant , worked in the local Wilno headquarters and was an editor of an underground newspaper " Pobudka " . He was also involved in the underground teaching . In July 1944 he took part in the operation aimed at the liberation of Wilno from the Germans ( Operation Ostra Brama ) . In the wake of this operation , around 19 – 21 August , his partisan unit , like many others , was intercepted and attacked by the Soviets . He was taken prisoner ; sources vary as to whether he was to be exiled to Siberia or conscripted into the Polish People 's Army . Either way he escaped and rejoined AK partisans ( the Home Army 5th Wilno Brigade ) . For a while , he was an aide to Major Zygmunt Szendzielarz ( Łupaszko ) and was member of the anti @-@ Soviet resistance , Wolność i Niezawisłość ( WiN , Freedom and Independence ) . He was promoted to the rank of captain . Wounded in August 1945 , he left the Brigade before it was destroyed by the Soviets , and avoided the fate of most of its officers who were sentenced to death . While recovering from his wounds , he found shelter in the village of Jasienica . = = = Post @-@ war = = = After recovering from his wounds in 1945 , Beynar decided to leave the resistance , and instead began publishing in an independent Catholic weekly Tygodnik Powszechny . It was then that he took the pen @-@ name Jasienica ( from the name of the place where he had received treatment for his injuries ) in order not to endanger his wife , who was still living in Soviet @-@ controlled Vilnius , Lithuania . Soon he became a member of the weekly 's staff and then an editor . In 1948 he was arrested by the Polish secret police ( Polish : Urząd Bezpieczeństwa ) but after several weeks was released after the intervention of Bolesław Piasecki from the PAX Association . In gratitude to Piasecki , he worked with PAX in the future , leaving Tygodnik Powszechny for PAX in 1950 . From 1950 he was a director of Polish Caritas charity . His essays were published in Dziś i Jutro , Słowo Powszechne , Życie Warszawy , Po Prostu . From at least this period till his death he would live in Warsaw . His wife Władysława died 29 March 1965 . Over time he became increasingly involved in various dissident organizations . In December 1959 he became a vice president of the Union of Polish Writers ( Związek Literatów Polskich , ZLP ) . He also published in the magazine Świat ( 1951 – 1969 ) . In 1962 he was the last president of the literary discussion society , Klub Krzywego Koła . In 1966 he was a vice president of the PEN Club . While in the late 1940s and 1950s he focused mostly on journalistic activity , later he turned to writing popular history in book format . In the 1960s he wrote his most famous works , historical books about history of Poland - the Kingdom of Poland in the times of the Piast dynasty , the Jagiellonian dynasty , and the era of elected kings ( the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ) . His book on the Jagiellonian Poland was recognized as the best book of the year by the readers . Jasienica was , however , very outspoken in his criticism of the censorship in the People 's Republic of Poland . On 29 February 1968 during a ZLP meeting , Jasienia presented a harsh critique of the government . These acts , and in particular his signing of the dissident Letter of 34 in 1964 against censorship and his involvement in the 1968 protests led to his being labeled a political dissident , for which he suffered government persecution . Partly as a response to government 's persecution of Jasienica , in 1968 the satirist Janusz Szpotański dedicated one of his anti @-@ government poems , Ballada o Łupaszce ( The Ballad of Łupaszko ) , written while Szpotański was in Mokotów Prison , to the writer . In the aftermath of the 1968 events , Polish communist media , and communist leader , Władysław Gomułka , on 19 March 1968 , alleged that in 1948 Jasienica was freed because he collaborated with the communist regime ; this allegation caused much controversy and damaged Jasienica 's reputation . He was subject to much invigilation by the security services . In December 1969 , five years after his first wife 's death , he became married again . This marriage , after his death , proven to be highly controversial , as his second wife was in fact a secret police informant before the marriage , and continued to write reports about him throughout their marriage . Since then , till his death , his books were prohibited from being distributed or printed . Jasienica died from cancer on 19 August 1970 in Warsaw . Some publicists later speculated to what extent his death was caused by " hounding from the party establishment " . He is buried in Warsaw 's Powązki Cemetery . His funeral was attended by many dissidents and became a political manifestation ; Adam Michnik recalls seeing Antoni Słonimski , Stefan Kisielewski , Stanisław Stomma , Jerzy Andrzejewski , Jan Józef Lipski and Władysław Bartoszewski . Bohdan Cywiński read a letter from Antoni Gołubiew . = = Work = = Jasienica book publishing begun with a historical book , Zygmunt August na ziemiach dawnego Wielkiego Księstwa ( Sigismund Augustus in the lands of the former Grand Duchy ; 1935 ) . He is best known for his highly acclaimed and popular historical books from the 1960s about Piast Poland , Jagiellon Poland and the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth : Polska Piastów ( Piast Poland , 1960 ) , Polska Jagiellonów ( Jagiellon Poland , 1963 ) and the trilogy Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów ( The Commonwealth of Both Nations , 1967 – 1972 ) . This trilogy made him one of the most popular Polish history writers . Throughout his life he avoided writing about modern history , to minimize the influence that the official , communist Marxist historiography would have on his works . This was also one of the reasons for the popularity of his works , which were seen as a rare , legally obtainable alternative to the official version of history . His books , publication of which resumed once again after his death , were labeled as " best @-@ selling " , and became the most reprinted postwar history of Poland . His Dwie drogi ( Two ways , 1959 ) about the January Uprising of the 1860s represent the latest historical period he has tackled . His other popular historical books include Trzej kronikarze , ( Three chroniclers ; 1964 ) , a book about three medieval chroniclers of Polish history ( Thietmar of Merseburg , Gallus Anonymus and Wincenty Kadłubek ) , in which he discusses the Polish society through ages ; and Ostatnia z rodu ( Last of the Family ; 1965 ) about the last queen of the Jagiellon dynasty , Anna Jagiellonka . His Rozważania o wojnie domowej ( 1978 ; Thoughts on Civil War ) were the last book he has finished ; unlike majority of his other works , this book is ostensibly about the civil war ( Chouannerie ) in Brittany , France . This work does however contains numerous arguments applicable to more modern Polish history ; arguments that Jasienica thought would not be allowed by the censors if the book discussed Polish history . In addition to historical books , Jasienica , wrote a series of essays about archeology - Słowiański rodowód ( Slavic genealogy ; 1961 ) and Archeologia na wyrywki . Reportaże ( Archeological excerpts : reports ; 1956 ) , journalistic travel reports ( Wisła pożegna zaścianek , Kraj Nad Jangtse ) and science and technology ( Opowieści o żywej materii , Zakotwiczeni ) . Those works were mostly created around the 1950s and 1960s . His Pamiętnik ( Diary ) was the work that he begun shortly before his death , and that was never finished . In 2006 , Polish journalist and former dissident Adam Michnik said that : I belong to the generation ' 68 , a generation that has special debt to Paweł Jasienica - in fact he paid with his life for daring to defend us , the youth . I want for somebody to be able to write , at some point , that in my generation there were people who stayed true to his message . Those who never forgot about his beautiful life , his wise and brave books , his terrible tragedy . Polish historian Henryk Samsonowicz echoes Michnik 's essay in his introduction to a recent ( 2008 ) edition of Trzej kronikarze , describing Jasienica as a person who did much to popularize Polish history . Hungarian historian Balázs Trencsényi notes that " Jasienica 's impact of the formation of the popular interpretation of Polish history is hard to overestimate " . British historian Norman Davies , himself an author of a popular account of Polish history ( God 's Playground ) , notes that Jasienica , while more of " a historical writer than an academic historian " , had " formidable talents " , gained " much popularity " and that his works would find no equals in the time of communist Poland . Samsonowicz notes that Jasienica " was a brave writer " , going against prevailing system , and willing to propose new hypotheses and reinterpret history in innovative ways . Michnik notes how Jasienica was willing to write about Polish mistakes , for example in the treatment of Cossacks . Ukrainian historian Stephen Velychenko also positively commented on Jasienica 's extensive coverage of the Polish @-@ Ukrainian history . Both Michnik and Samsonowicz note how Jasienica 's works contain hidden messages in which Jasienica discusses more contemporary history , such as in his Rozważania .... = = Awards = = Medals : Order of Polonia Restituta , Grand Cross , awarded on 3 May 2007 ( posthumously ) Order of Polonia Restituta , Knight 's Cross , awarded on 22 July 1956 Cross of Valour , awarded by the Wilno Region Headquarters of Armia Krajowa in 1944 , confirmed by Polish Ministry of Defense in 1967 Armia Krajowa Cross , awarded in 1967 in London Awards : 2007 laureate of Poland 's " Custodian of National Memory " Prize .
= Young Girls = " Young Girls " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Bruno Mars . It was composed by Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence and Ari Levine , Jeff Bhasker , and Emile Haynie for Mars ' second studio album Unorthodox Jukebox ( 2012 ) . " Young Girls " is a midtempo pop ballad , which incorporates elements of doo @-@ wop , and reminiscent of the song " It Will Rain " and Lana Del Rey 's work . Its music is largely based on drums , synths , piano and " bits of " electronic music . " Young Girls " was released as the first promotional single and later as the fifth overall single from Unorthodox Jukebox , being first serviced to Contemporary hit radio in Australia on November 26 , 2013 . It received generally mixed to positive reviews . Many music critics noted the complex instrumental and praised Mars ' vocals on the record . Its lyrics , detail the fact of the singer being unable to resist to his attraction to young girls were met with criticism ; with reviewers calling it a " recognizing sin " and " impassioned shame " . The single was recognized as the Best Pop of 2013 at the MelOn Music Awards . Commercially , " Young Girls " charted in some countries , along with the released of its parent album , such as South Korea , where it reached number one , United Kingdom and Canada . Before it was cancelled as the second single it peaked in Australia and New Zealand at 62 and 23 , respectively . As the fifth single it reached the position of 19 in Canada and 32 in the United States . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting digital sales of over half a million copies in the US . The track was performed live on Saturday Night Live and occasionally on the Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 @-@ 2015 ) . = = Background and writing = = During a MTV interview , Mars explained why the track was the first on the tracklist of the album " It really shows you what this album is going to be , and just where I was when I started this album " . He felt that anyone can easily relate to the record " There 's a moment in your life where you start going out every night , and it 's so fun , but then you start to lose yourself ; you get lost in the sauce " . The singer compared the song 's sentiment to " Lookin ' for Love In All the Wrong Places " , adding " It 's another confession " . Mars stated that he wasn 't willing to stay too far from his roots when it comes to writing lyrics for his album . " I 'm not there yet ... to sing about politics " . He concluded , that writing and singing songs about girls is what he knows best , " I 'm not going to preach what I don 't know . As much as I love 2 Chainz 's " All I Want For My Birthday " . A demo of the song , only featuring the vocals and an acoustic guitar , was exclusively released as bonus track on the Target edition of the album , on December 11 , 2012 . Almost a year later , on November 5 , 2013 , the demo of the song was also included on the deluxe edition of the album , released worldwide . = = Production and release = = " Young Girls " was written by Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence and Ari Levine , Jeff Bhasker and Emile Haynie , while production was handled by the former three under their alias , The Smeezingtons , along with Bhasker and Haynie . The record was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , California and David Kutch mastered it . " Young Girls " was recorded by Levine at Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , California . Charles Moniz served as the track 's additional engineer , while the engineering of the Big Drums was handled by Brent Kolapalo and Ken Lewis . " Young Girls " was first performed on Saturday Night Live and was released as the first promotional single taken from Unorthodox Jukebo , on November 6 , 2012 on iTunes . Later , it was reported by Mars that the record was scheduled to be the second single from the album . This release involved little planning according to Mars " I felt [ it ] was good . None of these things are planned , which one goes first , which one goes second . One day I wake up and I say , ' You know what ? I want the world to hear this song that I wrote called ' Young Girls , ' and I put it out " . However , a week later , while performing " When I Was Your Man " on the third season finale of The Voice , he announced that the track played would be the second official single from the album . The fifth and overall single , " Young Girls " , was first liberated on Australian contemporary hit radio , on November 26 , 2013 , after being promoted by Mars in radio station , Nova . Subsequently , the song was released to United States and United Kingdom contemporary hit radios on December 10 , 2013 and February 17 , 2014 , respectively . Italian radio stations began adding the track onto their playlist on February 26 , 2014 . = = Composition and lyrics = = " Young Girls " is a pop song , performed as a " woeful " midtempo ballad . The " pop anthem " is also influenced by a groove from Mars ' debut studio album , noticeable on the backing vocals , and it contains elements of " the shaded earnestness " found in " It Will Rain " . According to the sheet music published at Music Notes by Alfred Music , the song is composed in the key of A major with a time signature in common time , and a moderate groove of 125 beats per minute . Mars 's vocals range spans from the low note of F4 to the high note C6 . The song opens with " methodical strings " mixed with " quadruplets , floppy and fuzz wind in the opening bars " , along with synths and a piano as Mars ' vocal delivery " soars " . The music progresses with a " thumping martial beat " on the percussion of the " heavy drums " , reminding " Phil Spector – esque tom @-@ toms " , and they " counterpoint to the ascendant melody " with " bits of electro " fading in the background . The chorus would fit in a " 60 's girl group " due to the join forces of Mars ' " retro crooner sensibilities with modern sonic flourishes " . Carl Williot of Idolator noted that the " delicate but dynamic production " on " Young Girls " is reminiscent of Lana Del Rey . The lyrics to " Young Girls " follow the verse – pre @-@ chorus – chorus pattern . It begins with the singer " dumbly " trying to get noticed by " these bright @-@ eyed honeys " , since he can 't help to fall for their " dubious charms " , despite " recognizing [ the ] sin while indulging in it " . The song 's lyrics are in the same vein as Gary Puckett & The Union Gap 's " Young Girl " and The Knack 's " My Sharona " as pointed out by HitFix 's Melinda Newman . She added , the lyrics are " sweet " and tortuous as he sings " Oh , I still dream of a simple life / Boy meets girl / makes her his wife / But love don ’ t exist when you live like this ... All these roads steer me wrong / But I still drive them all night long / all night long " . There is a sentiment of " lament " in the song , " Oh you young wild girls / You ’ ll be the death of me " . = = Critical reception = = " Young Girls " debuted to mixed and positive reviews among critics . After its premiere during Mars ' performance on Saturday Night Live , it became available as a studio version with Chris Martins of Spin labeling it an " epic studio @-@ recorded glory " . On a more thorough review , Idolator 's Carl Williott found the production " dynamic " comparing it to compositions by Lana Del Rey and while " the pre @-@ chorus could be from a 60 's girl group " , the " percussion and electro flitting in the background " is what makes pop music nowadays . He concluded , that it 's " a flipside " to Mars ' lead single . HitFix 's critic Melinda Newman gave the track a B- rating , praising the melody and Mars ' vocal delivery , writing " he makes it all sound so sweet , and as if he really is tortured by these young girls " , but ultimately calling the lyrics " a little skeevy " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times , while reviewing the album , believed that it " swells something serious . The ambition is undeniable " . He compared it to the works U2 and Daughtry . Jessica Sager , music reviewer , of Pop Crush thought the track was pleasant as " a woeful ballad " giving a positive note to Mars ' vocals , ultimately calling the song " a good choice as the first track " on the album . On mixed review , Andy Gill of The Independent , while describing Mars ' " impassioned shame " on the lyrics called the track " enjoyable " . The lyrics have not gone undecided for PopMatters ' Matt Cibula who named them a " classic lament " and added " is as widescreen and wide @-@ open as things get these days " . The same could be said for Jason Lipshut who , while writing for Billboard , found Mars ' " recognizing sin while indulging in it " on the " sleek " lyrics and compostion . However , a " throwback vibe ( established from the backing vocals ) remain from Doo @-@ Wops " , while prospecting the earnest from " It Will Rain " . On the other hand , Paste 's Ryan Reed criticized Mars ' for playing safe on " Young Girls " , unlike most of the other tracks on the album . He explained that the singer " steps sideways " and the record " is a ' shout @-@ out @-@ to @-@ the @-@ honeys ' belter " for various reasons . = = = Accolade = = = In 2013 , " Young Girls " received an award at the MelOn Music Awards for the category " Best Pop " . = = Chart performance = = " Young Girls " was able to chart in the United States on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 , which acts as an extension of the Billboard Hot 100 , at number 2 and entered at number 64 on the Canadian Hot 100 on November 24 , 2012 , two weeks after the song was released as a promotional single . Following the release of Unorthodox Jukebox , on December 12 , 2012 , the track re @-@ entered at number 63 on the latter chart , it debuted in France at number 123 , in the United Kingdom at number 141 and the song debuted at the top spot on the South Korea International Singles chart . As of 2016 , it has sold over 431 @,@ 878 copies . In Australia , when the record was scheduled to be the second single from the album , it debuted at number 62 and it made its first appearance at number 27 in the New Zealand charts , peaking at number 23 around the same time . On November 26 , 2013 , it was released as an official single in Australia . On the following week , it was the most added track to radio stations . Despite that , the highest position the single was able to peak was at number 62 , when the song was set to be released as the second single . Nevertheless , the record was certified dold by the Australian Record Industry Association ( ARIA ) . " Young Girls " reached its highest mark at number 83 in the United Kingdom , after its official release . The track peaked at number 32 on the Hot 100 and stayed there for 14 weeks . In the Mainstream Top 40 the aforementioned song peaked inside the top 10 , at number 9 , something which the previous single was unable to do , thus ending the top 10 streak . It was certified gold on June 26 , 2014 , by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . In Canada , the song peaked at number 19 and Music Canada ( MC ) awarded a gold certification to it , and made the 2013 year end list of the Canadian Hot 100 . = = Live performances and covers = = " Young Girls " made its debut during a performance on Saturday Night Live on October 2012 . On December 4 , 2012 Mars recorded performance on the Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show , aired on CBS . His performance happened during the Calendar Girls . Sam Lansky of Idolator said the performance during the Calendar Girls was " impressive " , despite the singer not being " runway @-@ friendly as RiRi " . On December 7 , 2012 , Mars and his band sung the record on , the German show , " Sat 1 Frühstücksfernsehen " and on December 31 , 2012 at the New Year Alan Carr 's Specstacular . It was performed occasionally on the Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 @-@ 2014 ) . The song was recorded by Mark Kozelek for his 2013 acoustic cover songs album Like Rats . It was also covered by Chris Jamison and Jonathan Wyndham during their Battle Round in the season 7 of The Voice and was made available for purchase on October 13 , 2014 . = = Music Video = = On December 12 , 2012 , it was reported for the first time that " Young Girls " would be the second single , a music video was already in production as of December 6 , 2012 and was set to be directed by Cameron Duddy . Mars addmited to be spending a lot of his time thinking about the processing of the video , saying " It ’ s going to be something I ’ ve never done before , I promise you that " . A day before the performance on Victoria 's Secret show an official audio video of the song was uploaded to YouTube . The official music video was never released . = = Track listing = = = = Credits and personnel = = Recording Recorded at Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , California Mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , California . Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unorthodox Jukebox = = Charts and certifications = = = = Release = =
= SMS Szent István = SMS Szent István was a Tegetthoff @-@ class dreadnought of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the only one built in the Hungarian part of Austria @-@ Hungary . The Ganz & Company 's Danubius Yard in Hungarian @-@ owned Fiume ( current @-@ day Rijeka ) was awarded the contract to build the battleship in return for the Hungarian government agreeing to the 1910 and 1911 naval budgets . She was named after Hungary 's first Christian king , Saint Stephen ( Hungarian : Szent István ) . She and her sister ships were regarded as very compact and powerful ships and were the first dreadnoughts in service with triple main @-@ gun turrets . Her completion was delayed by the start of World War I , but she was commissioned in December 1915 . She spent the bulk of the war at anchor in Pola ( Pula ) , leaving harbour generally only for gunnery training . Her final mission began on the evening of 9 June 1918 when she sailed to rendezvous with the other dreadnoughts for an attack on the Otranto Barrage , scheduled for the following day . Two Italian MAS , a type of motor torpedo boat employed by the Regia Marina , discovered Szent István and her half @-@ sister Tegetthoff early in the morning of 10 June 1918 while returning after a night patrol off the Dalmatian coast . They penetrated past her escorts and torpedoed her twice abreast her boiler rooms . They flooded , which knocked out power to the pumps , and Szent István capsized less than three hours after being torpedoed . All but 89 of her crew were rescued . She is the only battleship whose sinking was filmed during World War I. Her wreck was discovered in the mid @-@ 1970s , upside down , off the Croatian island of Premuda . She has been declared a protected site by the Croatian Ministry of Culture and casual diving is forbidden . = = Design = = Szent István differed from her half @-@ sisters mainly in her machinery . She only had two shafts and two turbines , unlike the four shaft arrangement of the other ships of her class . External differences included a platform built around the fore funnel which extended from the bridge to the after funnel and on which several searchlights were installed . A further distinguishing feature was the modified ventilator trunk in front of the mainmast . She was the only ship of her class not to be fitted with torpedo nets . = = = General characteristics = = = Szent István had an overall length of 152 @.@ 18 metres ( 499 ft 3 in ) , a beam of 28 metres ( 91 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 8 @.@ 6 metres ( 28 ft 3 in ) at deep load . She displaced 20 @,@ 008 tonnes ( 19 @,@ 692 long tons ) at load and 21 @,@ 689 tonnes ( 21 @,@ 346 long tons ) at deep load . The skeg for each propeller shaft was a solid , blade @-@ like fitting , unlike the strut @-@ type skegs used in her half @-@ sisters , that had such a high transversal resistance that the rudder could only be laid at a maximum angle of 10 ° at full speed to avoid a heavy list . The hull was built with a double bottom 1 @.@ 22 metres ( 4 ft 0 in ) deep with a reinforced inner bottom that consisted of two layers of 25 @-@ millimetre ( 1 in ) plates . She was fitted with two AEG @-@ Curtis steam turbines , each of which was housed in a separate engine @-@ room . The turbines were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox boilers in two boiler rooms . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 388 kW ) , enough for her designed speed of 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) , but no figures from her trials are known to exist . She carried 1 @,@ 844 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 815 @.@ 4 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 267 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 263 @.@ 0 long tons ) of fuel oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) . Szent István mounted twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) / 45 @-@ caliber K 10 guns in four triple turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) / 50 K 10 guns mounted in casemates amidships . Twelve 66 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) / 50 K 10 guns were mounted on open pivot mounts on the upper deck , above the casemates . Three more 66 @-@ mm K 10 guns were mounted on the upper turrets for anti @-@ aircraft duties . Four 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted , one each in the bow , stern and on each broadside ; twelve torpedoes were carried . The waterline armour belt of the Tegetthoff @-@ class dreadnoughts measured 280 millimetres ( 11 in ) thick between the midpoints of the fore and aft barbettes and thinned to 150 millimetres further towards the bow and stern , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . It was continued to the bow by a small patch of 110 – 130 @-@ millimetre ( 4 – 5 in ) armour . The upper armour belt had a maximum thickness of 180 millimetres ( 7 in ) , but it thinned to 110 millimeters from the forward barbette all the way to the bow . The casemate armour was also 180 millimetres thick . The sides of the main gun turrets , barbettes and main conning tower were protected by 280 millimetres ( 11 in ) of armour , except for the turret and conning tower roofs which were 60 to 150 millimetres ( 2 to 6 in ) thick . The thickness of the decks ranged from 30 to 48 millimetres ( 1 to 2 in ) in two layers . The underwater protection system consisted of the extension of the double bottom up to the lower edge of the waterline armour belt , with a thin 10 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) plate acting as the outermost bulkhead . It was backed by a torpedo bulkhead that consisted of two layered 25 @-@ millimetre plates . The total thickness of this system was only 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 ft 3 in ) which made it incapable of containing a torpedo warhead detonation or mine explosion without rupturing . = = Construction = = The ship was laid down on 29 January 1912 at Ganz & Company 's Danubius yard at Fiume ( current @-@ day Rijeka ) , the only large Hungarian shipyard in Croatia as Hungarian : János Hunyadi , commemorating the Hungarian national hero . Ganz & Company was awarded the contract to build the battleship in return for the Hungarian government agreeing to the 1910 and 1911 naval budgets . This involved great expense by the Hungarian government , as the yard had hitherto only built smaller merchant ships for , amongst others , Österreichischer Lloyd , and therefore had to be itself refitted for the building of larger vessels . However she was renamed Szent István by order of the Emperor Franz Joseph before she was launched on 17 January 1914 . It was customary for either the Emperor or his heir to be present at the launching of a major warship , but Franz Joseph was too feeble and his heir , Archduke Franz Ferdinand , refused to be there as a consequence of his anti @-@ Hungarian attitudes . Franz Joseph sent a telegram of congratulations that negated the snub offered by his heir . During the launching itself there was an accident when the starboard anchor had to be dropped to prevent the ship from hitting a ship carrying spectators , but the anchor chain had not been shackled to the ship and it struck two dockworkers , killing one and crushing the arm of the other . Her fitting out was delayed by the start of the war , but she was finally commissioned on 13 December 1915 . = = Service = = Szent István was based at Pola ( Pula ) for the duration of her career . In fact she rarely left port except for gunnery practice in the nearby Fažana Strait . She only spent 54 days at sea during her 937 days in service and made only a single , two @-@ day , trip to Pag Island . Only 5 @.@ 7 % of her life was spent at sea ; for the rest of the time she swung at anchor in Pola Harbour . She was never even drydocked to get her bottom cleaned . Her tenure in Pola was enlivened by a visit from the new Emperor Karl I on 15 December 1916 and another by Kaiser Wilhelm on 12 December 1917 during his inspection of the German submarine base there . The Italians conducted no fewer than eighty air raids on Pola between 1915 and 1917 which undoubtedly kept the crews of her anti @-@ aircraft gun busy . = = = Sinking = = = By 1918 , the Allies had strengthened their blockade on the Strait of Otranto . As a result , it was becoming more difficult for German and Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boats to get through the strait and into the Mediterranean . In response to these new measures at blockading the straits , the new commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Konteradmiral Miklós Horthy decided to launch an attack on the Allied defenders with battleships , scout cruisers , and destroyers . During the night of 8 June , Horthy left the naval base of Pola with Viribus Unitis and Prinz Eugen . At about 11 : 00 pm on 9 June 1918 Szent István and Tegetthoff , escorted by one destroyer and six torpedo boats , departed Pola , after some troubles getting the harbour defense barrage opened . They were en route to the harbour at Slano , north of Dubrovnik ( Ragusa ) to rendezvous with Viribus Unitis and Prinz Eugen , for a coordinated attack on the Otranto Barrage . At about 3 : 15 am on 10 June , two Italian MAS boats , MAS 15 and MAS 21 , spotted the smoke from the Austrian ships while returning from an uneventful patrol off the Dalmatian coast . The MAS platoon was commanded by Capitano di corvetta Luigi Rizzo , who had sunk the Austro @-@ Hungarian coastal defense ship SMS Wien in Trieste six months before . The individual boats were commanded by Capo timoniere Armando Gori and Guardiamarina di complemento Giuseppe Aonzo respectively . Both boats successfully penetrated the escort screen and split to engage each of the dreadnoughts . MAS 21 attacked Tegetthoff , but her torpedoes failed to hit the ship . MAS 15 fired her two torpedoes successfully at 3 : 25 am at Szent István . Both boats evaded any pursuit although MAS 15 had to discourage the Austro @-@ Hungarian torpedo boat Tb 76 T by dropping depth charges in her wake . Tegetthoff thought that the torpedoes were fired by submarines and pulled out of the formation and started to zigzag to throw off any further attacks . She repeatedly fired on suspected submarine periscopes until she rejoined her half @-@ sister at 4 : 45 . Szent István was hit by two 45 @-@ centimetre ( 18 in ) torpedoes abreast her boiler rooms . The aft boiler room quickly flooded and gave the ship a 10 ° list to starboard . Counterflooding of the portside trim cells and magazines reduced the list to 7 ° , but efforts to use collision mats to plug the holes failed . While this was going on the dreadnought steered for the nearby Bay of Brgulje at low speed . However , water continued to leak into the forward boiler room and eventually doused all but the two boilers on the port side . This killed the power for the pumps and only left enough electricity to run the lights . The turrets were trained to port in a futile effort to counter the list and their ready ammunition was thrown overboard . An attempt by Tegetthoff to take the crippled battleship into tow was also abandoned after it became clear that Szent István was doomed . Flooding continued , and the ship capsized at 6 : 05 am off Premuda Island . Only 89 sailors died — 41 from Hungary — the low death toll partly attributed to the fact that all sailors with the KuK Navy had to learn to swim before entering active service . Film footage exists of Szent István 's last half @-@ hour , taken by Linienschiffsleutnant Meusburger of the Tegetthoff with his own camera as well as by an official film crew . The two films were later spliced together and exhibited in the United States during the Great Depression . The wreck of the Szent István was located in the mid @-@ 1970s by the SFR Yugoslav Navy . She is upside down at a depth of 66 metres ( 217 ft ) . Her bow broke off when it hit the seabed while the stern was still afloat , but is immediately adjacent to the rest of the heavily encrusted hull . The two holes from the torpedo hits are visible in the side of the ship as is another deep hole which may be from a torpedo fired at Tegetthoff by MAS 21 . She is a protected site of the Croatian Ministry of Culture and diving is forbidden without permission . In 2008 , divers from Hungary placed a wreath on the Szent István 's wreck during a ceremony that was attended by members of the Austrian and Croatian governments . All three countries were once part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . = = Consequences = = Konteradmiral Miklós Horthy , commander of the proposed attack , cancelled the attack because he thought that the Italians had discovered his plan and ordered the ships to return to Pola . In fact the Italians did not even discover that the Austrian dreadnoughts had departed Pola until later on 10 June when aerial reconnaissance photos revealed that they were no longer there . Capitano di fregata Luigi Rizzo was awarded his second Gold Medal of Military Valor , his first was for sinking the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Wien in 1917 , and appointed a knight in the Order of the Crown of Italy . After the war MAS 15 was installed in the Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II as part of the Museo del Risorgimento in Rome . The anniversary of the sinking has been celebrated by the Regia Marina , and its successor , the Marina Militare , as its Navy Day ( Italian : Festa della Marina ) .
= Masako Katsura = Masako Katsura ( 桂マサ子 , Katsura Masako , 1913 – 1995 ) listen , nicknamed " Katsy " and sometimes called the " First Lady of Billiards " , was a Japanese carom billiards player who was most active in the 1950s . Katsura blazed a trail for women in the sport by competing and placing among the best in the male @-@ dominated world of professional billiards . First learning the game from her brother @-@ in @-@ law and then under the tutelage of Japanese champion Kinrey Matsuyama , Katsura became Japan 's only female professional player . In competition in Japan she took second place in the country 's national three @-@ cushion billiards championship three times . In exhibition she was noted for running 10 @,@ 000 points at the game of straight rail . After marrying a U.S. Army non @-@ commissioned officer in 1950 , Katsura emigrated with him to the United States in 1951 . There she was invited to play in the 1952 U.S.-sponsored World Three @-@ Cushion Championship , ultimately taking seventh place at that competition . Katsura was the first woman ever to be included in any world billiards tournament . Her fame cemented , Katsura went on an exhibition tour of the United States with eight @-@ time world champion Welker Cochran , and later with 51 @-@ time world champion Willie Hoppe . In 1953 and 1954 she again competed for the world three @-@ cushion crown , taking fifth and fourth places respectively . Little was seen of Katsura for the next few years . She made 30 exhibition appearances in 1958 , and went on a one @-@ week exhibition engagement the following year with Harold Worst , but did not compete in any professional tournaments . In 1959 , she made two television appearances on ABC 's You Asked for It , and one on the CBS primetime television hit What 's My Line ? . Katsura returned to competition in 1961 , playing a challenge match for the World Three @-@ Cushion title against Worst , then reigning world champion , and was defeated by him . Katsura disappeared from the sport thereafter , only making a brief impromptu appearance in 1976 . She moved back to Japan in about 1990 and died in 1995 . = = Life and career = = = = = Early years = = = Little is known about Katsura 's childhood in Japan . Katsura had three sisters and a brother . Their father died when Katsura was 12 years old and she went to live with her older sister and her sister 's husband , Tomio Kobashi , who owned a billiard parlor . By 13 she was spending time in her brother @-@ in @-@ law 's billiard room , and by 14 she was working as a billiard attendant there . Kobashi was a fine player and taught Katsura the fundamentals of various carom billiards games . Katsura also had a billiard table at home , bought by her family after she showed intense interest in the sport . Katsura practiced diligently , and began competing against Japanese men and beating them . At just 15 , Katsura won the women 's championship straight rail tournament of Japan . " Then I turned professional and began touring with a sister all over Japan , China and Formosa " , said Katsura in a 1959 interview . Katsura 's two younger sisters , Noriko and Tadako , also won the women 's straight rail championship in other years . In 1937 , Katsura met Kinrey Matsuyama , who had won Japan 's national three @-@ cushion championship multiple times . Matsuyama was also U.S. national champion in 1934 , runner @-@ up three other times and had four second @-@ place finishes in world competition at 18 @.@ 2 balkline prior to World War II . Matsuyama was impressed with Katsura and began teaching her top level play . By 1947 , Katsura was a long @-@ established billiard star in Japan — the country 's only female professional player . = = = Marriage and titles in Japan = = = During 1947 Katsura caught the eye of American serviceman Vernon Greenleaf ( no relation to the pool and carom billiards champion Ralph Greenleaf ) , a master sergeant in the U.S. Army 's Quartermaster Corps who had been in the armed services for 22 years . Katsura and Greenleaf first met in a Tokyo service club where she was giving billiard exhibitions . Greenleaf began taking lessons from Katsura and was quickly smitten with her . They were married on November 30 , 1950 , but never had any children . At the time of their marriage Katsura already boasted two second @-@ place finishes at Japan 's national three @-@ cushion championship ; one from the year prior to their wedding . She claimed the runner @-@ up spot for a third time the year of her marriage . About that time she accomplished the lofty feat of scoring 10 @,@ 000 contiguous points at straight rail in an exhibition by nursing the balls around the table 27 times over about 4 1 ⁄ 2 hours . She stopped at 10 @,@ 000 points only because it was a benchmark round number . In later years she said that her high run in three @-@ cushion billiards ( number of points scored consecutively in a single inning ) was 19 . = = = Emigration to the U.S. = = = In 1951 Greenleaf was transferred to a U.S. post from Haneda Air Base in Tokyo . He and Katsura , who spoke little English , set sail for the United States on the USS Breckinridge , debarking in San Francisco at the end of December 1951 , just a few months before the 1952 World Three @-@ Cushion Billiards tournament was scheduled to begin in that city on March 6 . Katsura had been conditionally invited to play at the world championship after Cochran , whose billiard parlor was hosting the tournament , had heard of her brilliance from Matsuyama . Cochran was an 8 @-@ time world champion having won the world crown at three @-@ cushion billiards in 1933 , 1935 , 1937 , 1938 , 1944 and 1945 , and at 18 @.@ 2 balkline , in 1927 and 1934 . Cochran sent his son , W. R. ( Dick ) Cochran , a naval officer stationed in Japan , to investigate and received back a glowing report that said ( possibly to Cochran 's annoyance ) , " this girl is better than you are ! " Though the decision was ultimately in the hands of the Billiard Congress of America as tournament sponsor , they gave Cochran the option to invite her . After Katsura arrived in the U.S. , she gave a private exhibition for Cochran , who wanted to make sure she was as good as reported before finalizing the invitation . At that meeting she clicked off runs of 300 and 400 at straight rail , made in the words of Cochran " almost unbelievable shots " after switching to balkline , and showed high competence at three @-@ cushion , consistently scoring . Cochran made the invite " final " and stated : " She 's the most marvelous thing I ever saw ... She 's liable to beat anybody , even Willie Hoppe ... I could not see any weak spots ... She 's going to give lots of those players fits . " As a warm @-@ up for the competition Katsura gave a number of billiard exhibitions during February 1952 . = = 1952 World Three @-@ Cushion Billiards tournament = = = = = First woman to compete for a world title = = = Katsura 's participation in the 1952 World Three @-@ Cushion Billiards title marked the first time that a woman had competed for any world billiards title . This was only ten years after Ruth McGinness became the first woman to have ever been invited to play in any men 's professional billiard championship ( the New York State Championship of 1942 ) . The defending champion was the then 64 @-@ year @-@ old internationally renowned Willie Hoppe , who would retire later that year with 51 world titles to his name between 1906 and 1952 in three forms of carom billiards , three @-@ cushion , ( four sub @-@ disciplines of ) balkline and cushion caroms . Before the tournament , speculation had it that when Hoppe met Katsura in the championship in the race to 50 points format , he would defeat her with Katsura still needing at least 40 . After seeing her play , Hoppe said " she has a fine stroke and can make shots with either hand . I look forward to playing with her . " The public was fascinated by the novelty of a woman player . Life magazine reported that " San Franciscans who did not know a cue from a cucumber crowded in to see her ... Katy [ sic ] ... stole the show . " = = = Tournament roster = = = The 10 champions slated to play in the round robin format tournament were Katsura , her mentor , Matsuyama , favorite and defending champion Willie Hoppe , Mexican champion Joe Chamaco , Herb Hardt of Chicago , New York 's Art Rubin , Los Angeles ' Joe Procita , Ray Kilgore of San Francisco , Jay Bozeman of Vallejo and Binghamton 's Irving Crane . The championship between the invitees was to take place at Cochran 's 924 Club , with 45 total games to be played ( each player to play every other once ) over the 17 @-@ day tournament ending on March 22 , 1952 . The tournament was reported to have " The greatest billiard field since before World War II " . First place earned a $ 2 @,@ 000 purse ( today $ 17 @,@ 800 ) , plus thousands in exhibition fees . Following behind to eight places were prizes of $ 1 @,@ 000 , $ 700 , $ 500 , $ 350 , $ 300 , $ 250 and $ 250 respectively . = = = Detail of play = = = On the second day of the competition , March 7 , 1952 , Katsura drew Irving Crane for her first match . They made quite a contrast as Crane was the tallest player at the tourney , while Katsura was described by reporter Curley Grieve of the San Francisco Examiner as " so small and doll @-@ like she looks like a figurine in her flowing , gold @-@ satin gown . " Crane 's main discipline was straight pool , at which he won numerous championships , including six world titles . The match was close , but Crane prevailed 50 to 42 in 57 innings . On March 10 , Katsura defeated Herb Hardt 50 to 42 in 58 innings . Katsura was significantly behind at one point but counted 15 points in five innings to take the lead . On March 11 , she lost to Chamaco , 50 to 35 , but the following day Katsura upset Procita 50 – 43 in 63 innings , with runs of six , five and four . " Spectators exclaimed ' brilliant ' and ' sensational ' at some of her shots . " On March 14 , Katsura faced the undefeated Hoppe , losing 50 to 31 in 36 innings . Though Hoppe was a darling of the public , the crowd of more than 500 spectators was clearly rooting for Katsura throughout . The next day she faced her mentor , Matsuyama , considered the contender with the best shot at beating Hoppe . Matsuyama edged out his protégé with a close 50 to 48 finish in 51 innings . By the 21st inning Matsuyama held a 29 – 21 lead . Katsura battled back , the score 43 – 42 in her favor by inning 33 , but Matsuyama ran three in the 46th inning , and Katsura could not close the gap . Mentor and protégé alike posted high runs of six in the match On March 18 Katsura trounced Art Rubin 50 – 28 in 58 innings. but was handed a worse defeat in her next match on March 20 , losing to Bozeman 50 to 18 in 52 innings . In her last match on March 21 , Katsura pulled off a 50 – 46 win against Kilgore in 61 innings . This was the biggest upset of the tournament . Kilgore , the " Giant Killer " , was the only player other than Matsuyama who was considered to have a fighting chance at dethroning Hoppe . Between this win and her earlier win over Procita , Katsura had beaten the only two players in the tournament that had won their matches against Hoppe . That evening a separate exhibition match between Katsura and Kilgore was featured on KRON @-@ TV , with commentary provided by Cochran . The next day the tournament concluded with Hoppe repeating as champion as he had so many times before . Katsura took seventh place , ahead of Procita at eighth place , Chamaco at ninth and Rubin at tenth . Above her were Crane at sixth , Rubin at fifth , Kilgore at fourth , Bozeman at third and Matsuyama as runner @-@ up . Following the competition , Jay Bozeman , said " We 've found it hard to believe that a woman could actually step into the best billiard championship in the world and hold her own . Miss Katsura is one of the finest players I 've faced in a world 's tournament , while Welker Cochran , five @-@ time holder of the Billiards World Crown , predicted : " Given another two or three years of American competition and she will be the world 's champion .... Masako has opened a new field for women . Her presence has made the game attractive to women for the first time . She has the power of a man and strokes beautifully . Her maneuvers with the cue ball are fantastic . All she needs is a bit more experience and she will be unbeatable . " = = Exhibition tours = = Soon after the 1952 championship , Cochran announced he was coming out of a seven @-@ year retirement to play an exhibition tour with Katsura . " Millions of fans want to see this charming first lady of billiards " he said , " now some of them can . " The duo previewed their tour with a three @-@ day engagement at the Garden City Parlor in San Jose starting on April 18 , 1952 . Thereafter , they planned stops in Kansas City ( May 2 – 3 ) ; Chicago ( May 5 – 11 ) ; Detroit in mid @-@ May ; and on to tentative stops in Cleveland , Buffalo , Boston , Philadelphia , Dallas , San Diego , Los Angeles and Long Beach . The format was to be a 100 @-@ point straight @-@ rail match , followed by a 50 @-@ point three @-@ cushion game played under tournament conditions with trick or " fancy " shots to follow . Katsura stated prior to departing : " I hope my tour will convince women that billiards is not only a man 's game . Women can play just as well as men . " Billiards champion Tex Zimmerman ( Cochran 's partner in the 924 Club ) and well known pool hustler Danny McGoorty had a hand in organizing the tour . In preparation , they played up Katsura 's exoticness and her physical attractiveness . Tex Zimmerman 's wife sewed tight @-@ fitting kimonos for Katsura , slit up the side , which she wore during her exhibitions with high heels . Katsura was a tiny woman , weighing between 88 and 96 pounds. and standing 5 feet tall — just about the height of a standard cue stick . McGoorty later mused : " Masako was cute ! She was thirty @-@ nine years old but she looked twenty @-@ nine . She hopped around that table on her high heels , giving the fans a little smile , and everybody loved her . " It was Katsura 's playing ability , though , rather than her other charms , that made her a phenomenon . When Cochran returned from his tour with Katsura he told McGoorty , who was a world class player in his own right , " you will have trouble with her . " When they finally got a chance to play , the match drew crowds . " They could have sold seats in the toilet ! " McGoorty exclaimed . After the match , McGoorty confirmed Cochran 's prediction : I had trouble with her . I played hard and I threw her all the dirtiest stuff I knew , and I was lucky to win five out of the ten games . If you had the slightest idea of easing up on her because she was only a cute little girl , you were dead . She would murder you . I found out damn quick you could not leave her an open shot . If you did she would take those balls away from you and stick them right up your pooper . The killer instinct — that broad had it , and never mind the little smile . A number of pre @-@ booked stops on the tour suffered from lack of attendance . Cochran was very bitter about it . NEA sports editor , Harry Grayson indicated that the game was in general decline , and said that Cochran " traces the decline of championship and exhibition billiards to manufacturers taking the stars off the payroll during the depression . " In a previous exhibition tour by Cochran and Hoppe in 1945 , they had sold out in 13 cities . Despite some lackluster stops , upon her return to California , Katsura continued to play exhibition matches with the game 's greats . Katsura and Kilgore put on a week @-@ long exhibition in San Francisco in January 1953 , where they seesawed back and forth . On January 12 , Katsura beat Kilgore in their first match with runs of seven and ten , but lost to him in their second . The total points scored by the two at that time was 349 for Katsura to Kilgore 's 379 . Katsura started another exhibition series with Cochran at his club in February 1953 and , tuning up for the 1953 world tournament , to start on March 26 , went on a nationwide tour with Willie Hoppe in the latter part of February 1953 . The 30 @-@ day tour of the northeastern U.S. included Chicago , Boston and other locations . Her husband accompanied her to provide translation . In their multiple @-@ day exhibition match in Chicago , it was reported in the midst that Katsura had unsurprisingly won only one out of four matches against Hoppe , often pegged as the greatest player of all time . = = 1953 – 1954 = = = = = 1953 World Three @-@ Cushion tournament = = = With Hoppe retired as of 1952 , there was excitement over who would take the 1953 world three @-@ cushion crown , to be held in Chicago at the Chicago Town Club in the Sheraton Hotel . Eleven competitors were slated to play , many repeats of the prior year , including Chamaco , Katsura , Matsuyama , Bozeman , Kilgore , Procita and Rubin . New to the field were Harold Worst of Grand Rapids , Hollywood 's John Fitzpatrick , Mel Lundberg of Minneapolis and Ezequiel Navarra of Argentina . Navarra was considered the favorite by experts , having won championships that year in Cuba , Colombia , Peru and Argentina and having just come off an exhibition tour with Cochran in which Navarra averaged a formidable 1 @.@ 16 , scoring 1 @,@ 295 three @-@ cushions in 1 @,@ 120 innings over the length of the tour . In Katsura 's first match she defeated Lundberg 50 – 44 , in 71 innings . Thereafter she : lost to Matsuyama 50 to 37 in 39 innings ; lost to Rubin , 50 – 37 , in 52 innings ; beat Fitzpatrick 50 – 38 in 50 innings , undefeated to that point ; beat Chamaco 50 to 44 , in 56 innings with a high run of eight ; upset favorite Navarra 50 to 40 in 43 innings ; followed by a loss to Kilgore , 50 to 41 , in 42 innings ; and a loss to Harold Worst 50 to 42 , in 52 innings ; but then defeated Bozeman 50 – 48 in 60 innings in her last match . When the dust had settled , Katsura shared fifth place with Matsuyama , each having won and lost five matches . The winner of the world crown was Kilgore with an eight @-@ win , two @-@ loss record . Navarra and Bozeman tied for second . = = = Exhibitions and death of Matsuyama = = = After the 1953 championship wrapped up , Katsura and Matsuyama gave an exhibition together in Long Beach , California ( advertisement at right ) . The format was 100 points at balkline , followed by a race to 40 at three @-@ cushion and then a trick shot exhibition . Katsura crushed her teacher , 100 – 11 and 100 – 3 at balkline , but Matsuyama won both the three @-@ cushion matches , 40 – 34 and 40 – 39 . This was Katsura and Matsuyama 's last close interaction . After returning to Japan , Matsuyama suffered a heart attack and died on December 20 , 1953 . He had had plans to move to Honolulu with his family , become an American citizen , and purchase a billiard parlor . His eldest son , Hideo , 18 , was attending a San Francisco high school at the time . He was said to have taught all of Japan 's top players , among which Katsura was the star pupil . Next , Katsura played a five @-@ day , 600 point three @-@ cushion exhibition series with Ray Kilgore in San Francisco , March 12 – 17 , 1953 . At the end Kilgore was the winner with a final score of 600 to 547 . Kilgore said : " She played really remarkable billiards and I played a little over my head . " The next week Katsura faced Kilgore again in another exhibition at Welker Cochran 's room , beating him 50 – 33 in 45 innings . = = = 1954 World Three @-@ Cushion tournament = = = The 1954 World Three @-@ Cushion tournament was held in Buenos Aires with only 8 contestants : Katsura ; Ray Miller of Jackson , Michigan ; Harold Worst ; Argentinian brothers Juan and Ezequiel Navarra ; Welker Cochran , who had come out of retirement ; Chamaco ; and defending champion , Kilgore . As usual , Katsura was the sole female contestant . In her first round she was victorious over Miller , 60 – 47 in 76 innings , then beat Chamaco 60 – 55 , but followed with a loss to Ezequiel Navarra 60 – 28 in 48 innings . Katsura then beat his brother , Juan Navarra , 60 – 52 in 77 innings in her last match to take fourth place overall . On the last day Harold Worst and Ezequiel Navarra ended in a tie with a playoff to be held initially to 60 points , later raised to a 350 point format , at which Worst ultimately prevailed on October 25 , 1954 . = = 1955 – 1961 = = = = = Hiatus and exhibition = = = Little was seen of Katsura for the next few years . She made 30 exhibition appearances in 1958 but had been in " virtual retirement " for about five years . During this break the second of Katsura 's two billiards instruction books came out in Japan : 撞球上達法 ( 1956 ) ( " Improve Your Billiards " ) . An earlier primer , 撞球入門 ( " Introduction to Billiards " ) , was published in 1952 . In 1959 it was announced that Katsura and Harold Worst would compete in a one week exhibition match to 1 @,@ 200 points , beginning February 9 at Randolph Recreations in Chicago . Worst and Katsura moved their show to Philadelphia next where they played six matches at three @-@ cushion billiards to 50 points , and thereafter went to exhibit in New York . = = = TV spots = = = On March 1 , 1959 , Katsura appeared on CBS ' popular primetime television show , What 's My Line ? The show was in the format of a guessing game , in which a panel attempted to determine the line ( occupation ) , or in the case of a famous " mystery guest " , the identity of the contestant . After she signed in using Japanese characters on a chalk board , show officials listed Katsura 's occupation for the audience as " Professional Billiard Player ( World 's Women 's Champion ) " . Panelist Arlene Francis was successful in guessing Katsura 's occupation , though she admitted that she had read about her but said she had never seen her picture . Later that month Katsura made a guest appearance on ABC 's You Asked For It , going behind the scenes of westerns to show how television productions set up and filmed a covered wagon rolling over and crashing on cue . She appeared again on You Asked For It in a November 25 , 1960 broadcast , this time operating in her bailiwick , demonstrating trick shots for the camera . = = = 1961 title match with Worst = = = By 1961 and for a few years prior , there was no longer an organized world three @-@ cushion championship . Accordingly , Harold Worst , the reigning champion since 1954 , issued a challenge match to Katsura to defend his title , with the match to take place March 13 – 18 of that year at the Pantlind Hotel in Grand Rapids , Michigan , for a purse of $ 2 @,@ 000 . The preceding year Worst had issued a similar title @-@ defending challenge to Joe Chamaco of Mexico , which also took place in Grand Rapids at the same venue . Worst even took unsuccessful legal action to block an Argentinian three @-@ cushion tournament , billed as a " world title " event , that was scheduled to overlap the dates of his title match with Katsura . Worst defeated Katsura in six out of seven matches , with total three @-@ cushions scored between them , respectively , of 350 and 276 . Meanwhile , Chamaco claimed the world crown as well , after winning the tournament in Argentina . = = After 1961 = = Little was heard from Katsura for many years after the 1961 world championship . McGoorty lamented her retirement , stating various theories that he had heard bandied about in billiard circles , such as that her husband ( who died in June 1967 ) kept her from playing for various reasons . In 1976 Katsura made an impromptu appearance at Palace Billiards in San Francisco . She borrowed a cue from someone present and proceeded to run 100 points at straight rail without problem . Prolific pool and billiard author Robert Byrne wrote that after Katsura finished that 100 @-@ point run , " without a miss she smiled and bowed to the applauding crowd , stepping away from the spotlight , and disappeared forever from the American billiard stage . " Katsura returned to Japan in or about 1990 to live with her sister , Noriko , where she said she planned to live out her days . Katsura died in 1995 . In September 2002 a memorial tournament for Katsura , billed as Katsura Memorial : The First Ladies Three Cushion Grandprix , was held in Japan and aired on SKY PerfecTV !
= Interstate 195 ( Maryland ) = Interstate 195 ( I @-@ 195 ) is an Interstate highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The highway runs 4 @.@ 71 miles ( 7 @.@ 58 km ) from I @-@ 95 in Arbutus east to Baltimore / Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport ( BWI Airport ) in Linthicum . I @-@ 195 , which is also known as Metropolitan Boulevard , is the main connection between the airport terminal and highways leading to Baltimore , Washington , and Annapolis , including I @-@ 95 , MD 295 , and I @-@ 97 . The Interstate highway also has an interchange with MD 170 , which forms part of the Airport Loop that provides access to various airport @-@ related services . I @-@ 195 also links I @-@ 95 with Catonsville and the University of Maryland , Baltimore County ( UMBC ) , via a westward continuation of Metropolitan Boulevard that is part of MD 166 . I @-@ 195 was constructed in three sections . The first section was a connection between MD 295 and the airport . This segment was built as Maryland Route 46 and completed in 1951 shortly after the opening of the airport , which was originally named Friendship International Airport . The second segment was completed at the opposite end of the highway in the mid @-@ 1970s , connecting U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) and I @-@ 95 with MD 166 and UMBC . The first two segments were connected when the portion between MD 295 and US 1 was constructed in the late 1980s . The whole length of the highway was completed and was marked as I @-@ 195 in 1990 . = = Route description = = I @-@ 195 begins at the western edge of its interchange with I @-@ 95 . The freeway continues west as MD 166 , which has a partial interchange for UMBC Boulevard , which leads to the UMBC campus , before ending next to a park and ride facility at Rolling Road , on which MD 166 continues north toward Catonsville . The I @-@ 95 interchange is a partial cloverleaf that has flyover ramps from northbound I @-@ 95 to westbound I @-@ 195 and from southbound I @-@ 95 to eastbound I @-@ 195 . I @-@ 195 heads southeast as a four @-@ lane freeway with a speed limit of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) across CSX 's Baltimore Terminal Subdivision and meets US 1 at a four @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange . The highway crosses over I @-@ 895 ( Harbor Tunnel Thruway ) with no access and curves south on a viaduct to cross the Patapsco River , where the freeway passes from Baltimore County to Anne Arundel County , and the Amtrak Northeast Corridor , which also carries MARC 's Penn Line . I @-@ 195 parallels the railroad south to its partial cloverleaf interchange with MD 295 ( Baltimore – Washington Parkway ) , which contains a flyover ramp from southbound MD 295 to eastbound I @-@ 195 . I @-@ 195 curves southeast and passes under the BWI Trail ahead of its partial cloverleaf interchange with MD 170 ( Aviation Boulevard ) , also known as the Airport Loop . The Airport Loop provides access to long @-@ term parking lots , the consolidated rental car facility , hotels , cargo and general aviation facilities , and the BWI Rail Station . The circumferential highway also provides indirect access to I @-@ 97 for traffic heading to Annapolis or the Chesapeake Bay Bridge . The Interstate 's speed limit drops to 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) as it arrives at its eastern terminus at the entrance to BWI Airport . The eastbound roadway continues southeast into the airport proper , where it features a left exit for the hourly parking garage and then splits into two roadways for arriving and departing flights . After the two roadways — arriving flights on the lower level and departing flights on the upper level — loop between the terminal and the hourly parking garage , the roadways merge . The westbound direction of I @-@ 195 heads northwest from the airport after it issues a ramp toward long @-@ term parking and a U @-@ turn toward the terminal . Like all Interstates , I @-@ 195 is a part of the National Highway System for its entire length . = = History = = Friendship International Airport was constructed between 1947 and 1950 as the new primary airport for Baltimore . To directly connect the airport with Baltimore , an access road was planned to link the new Baltimore – Washington Expressway , later designated MD 295 , with the airport terminal . The first portion of the Friendship International Airport Access Road was completed from a full Y interchange at the expressway to an interchange with MD 170 in October 1949 and designated MD 46 . The access road was completed from MD 170 to the airport terminal in July 1951 , about the same time the expressway was completed between MD 46 and downtown Baltimore . The remainder of what is now I @-@ 195 was planned as early as 1969 , when the portion of Metropolitan Boulevard north of US 1 was placed under construction . The freeway opened from the US 1 ramps northwest through the I @-@ 95 interchange to an intersection with Sulphur Spring Road just south of the modern Selford Road overpass in August 1974 . The freeway was extended to its present terminus at Rolling Road and the ramps to UMBC Boulevard were constructed in 1975 . Metropolitan Boulevard south of the I @-@ 95 interchange was marked as a second segment of MD 46 from when it opened . North of I @-@ 95 , the freeway was marked as a relocation of MD 166 . That segment of MD 46 was renumbered as an extension of MD 166 by 1981 . The missing connection between US 1 and MD 295 resulted in a circuitous path for traffic between I @-@ 95 and BWI Airport . In 1974 , that route involved exiting I @-@ 95 at MD 100 , which then served as a connector between the Interstate and US 1 . Traffic took US 1 south to MD 176 , then took MD 176 east to MD 295 and north to the western end of MD 46 . Construction on the missing link , which by then was planned as part of I @-@ 195 , began in 1987 , when the highway 's bridges over US 1 and I @-@ 895 were constructed . The remainder of the highway from MD 295 to the I @-@ 895 overpass was completed , including reconstruction of the interchange with MD 295 , and the intermediate section opened in June 1990 . The I @-@ 195 designation was applied to the highway 's present length at the same time , and MD 166 was truncated to its present southern terminus . In 2002 , as part of an expansion project at the airport , several new ramps were constructed to access parking lots and facilitate an easier U @-@ turn for motorists leaving the terminal who wish to return to the terminal . = = Exit list = =
= SM UB @-@ 12 = SM UB @-@ 12 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The submarine disappeared in August 1918 . UB @-@ 12 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 12 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 12 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Antwerp for reassembly . She was launched and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 12 in March 1915 . UB @-@ 12 spent her entire career in the Flanders Flotilla and sank 22 merchant ships , about half of them British fishing vessels . The U @-@ boat was also responsible for sinking the British destroyer HMS Laforey in 1917 . By early 1917 , UB @-@ 12 had been converted into a minelayer with the replacement of her torpedo tubes with four mine chutes . UB @-@ 12 disappeared after 19 August 1918 . = = Design and construction = = After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 t ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes . UB @-@ 12 was part of the initial allotment of seven submarines — numbered UB @-@ 9 to UB @-@ 15 — ordered on 15 October from AG Weser of Bremen , just shy of two months after planning for the class began . UB @-@ 12 was laid down by Weser in Bremen on 7 November . As built , UB @-@ 12 was 27 @.@ 88 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Körting 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 7 @.@ 45 knots ( 13 @.@ 80 km / h ; 8 @.@ 57 mph ) , surfaced , and 6 @.@ 24 knots ( 11 @.@ 56 km / h ; 7 @.@ 18 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 12 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds . UB @-@ 12 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 12 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men . After work on UB @-@ 12 was complete at the Weser yard , she was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . In February 1915 , the sections of UB @-@ 12 were shipped to Antwerp for assembly in what was typically a two- to three @-@ week process . After UB @-@ 12 was assembled and launched on 2 March , she was loaded on a barge and taken through canals to Bruges where she underwent trials . = = Early career = = The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 12 on 29 March 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Kapt . ) Hans Nieland , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . On 18 April , UB @-@ 12 joined the Flanders Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) , which had been organized on 29 March . When UB @-@ 12 joined the flotilla , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom , were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag . On 24 July , Nieland and UB @-@ 12 sank four British fishing vessels while patrolling between 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Lowestoft . All four of the sunken ships were smacks — sailing vessels traditionally rigged with red ochre sails — which were stopped , boarded by crewmen from UB @-@ 12 , and sunk with explosives . UB @-@ 12 similarly sank a pair of smacks off Lowestoft on 4 August , and another trio from 23 to 25 August . On 21 November , Nieland was succeeded by Oberleutnant zur See ( Oblt . ) Wilhelm Kiel in command of UB @-@ 12 . Under Kiel 's command , UB @-@ 12 sank three ships on 21 February 1916 : the 100 @-@ ton Belgian fishing ship La Petite Henriette , the largest sunk to @-@ date by UB @-@ 12 , and another pair of British smacks , Oleander and W.E. Brown . UB @-@ 12 sank her largest ship , Silksworth Hall of 4 @,@ 777 gross register tons ( GRT ) , on 10 April . The British @-@ registered ship was en route from Hull to Philadelphia in ballast when Kiel torpedoed her without warning a little more than one nautical mile ( two kilometers ) from the Corton Lightvessel . Other ships picked up 31 survivors from Silksworth Hall , but 3 men were lost . Later in the month , Admiral Reinhardt Scheer , the newest commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the High Seas Fleet , called off the merchant shipping offensive and ordered all boats at sea to return , and all boats in port to remain there . = = Grand Fleet ambush attempts = = In mid @-@ May , Scheer completed plans to draw out part of the British Grand Fleet . The German High Seas Fleet would sortie for a raid on Sunderland , luring the British fleet across " ' nests ' of submarines and mine @-@ fields " . In support of the operation , UB @-@ 12 and five other Flanders boats set out at midnight 30 / 31 May to form a line 18 nautical miles ( 33 km ; 21 mi ) east of Lowestoft . This group was to intercept and attack the British light forces from Harwich , should they sortie north to join the battle . Unfortunately for the Germans , the British Admiralty had intelligence reports of the departure of the submarines which , coupled with an absence of attacks on shipping , aroused British suspicions . A delayed departure of the German High Seas Fleet for its sortie ( which had been redirected to the Skagerrak ) and the failure of several of the U @-@ boats stationed to the north to receive the coded message warning of the British advance caused Scheer 's anticipated ambush to be a " complete and disappointing failure " . In UB @-@ 12 's group , only UB @-@ 10 sighted the Harwich forces , and they were too far away to mount an attack . The failure of the submarine ambush to sink any British capital ships allowed the full Grand Fleet to engage the numerically inferior High Seas Fleet in the Battle of Jutland , which took place 31 May – 1 June . Kapitänleutnant Georg Gerth took command of UB @-@ 12 on 26 June , after Oblt . Kiel was assigned to command the new minelaying submarine UC @-@ 18 . Two months later , Admiral Scheer set up another ambush for the British fleet with plans for another High Seas Fleet raid on Sunderland ( as had been the original intention in May ) . The German fleet planned to depart late in the day on 18 August and shell military targets the next morning . As in May , UB @-@ 12 was part of a group intended to attack the Harwich forces . As one of five boats forming the second line of boats from the Flanders Flotilla , UB @-@ 12 was stationed off Texel by the morning of 20 August . Once again , British intelligence had given warning of the impending attack and ambush , causing the Grand Fleet to sortie at 16 : 00 on 18 August , five hours before the German fleet sailed . Faulty intelligence caused Scheer initially to divert from Sunderland , and then to eventually call off the whole operation . Although U @-@ boats to the north sank two British light cruisers , UB @-@ 12 and her group played no part in the action . In September , Gerth led UB @-@ 12 in sinking two more ships and capturing a third ship as a prize . The 313 @-@ ton Norwegian steamer Rilda was sunk on 6 September , while the 55 @-@ ton Marjorie was sunk on the 28th . In between the Dutch ship Niobe was seized as a prize on the 7th . = = Conversion to minelayer = = UB @-@ 12 and three sister boats — UB @-@ 10 , UB @-@ 16 , and UB @-@ 17 — were all converted to minelaying submarines . UB @-@ 12 was at the dockyard from November 1916 to January 1917 , and it is likely the boat was converted during this timeframe . The conversion involved removing the bow section containing the pair of torpedo tubes from each U @-@ boat and replacing it with a new bow containing four mine chutes capable of carrying two mines each . In the process , the boats were lengthened to 105 feet ( 32 m ) , and the displacement increased to 147 t ( 145 long tons ) on the surface , and 161 t ( 158 long tons ) below the surface . During this same time , Kapt . Gerth was transferred to SM UC @-@ 61 , and replaced on UB @-@ 12 by Oblt . Friedrich Moecke in early November . Moecke was , in turn , replaced by Oblt . Ernst Steindorff in January 1917 . By March , the newly converted submarine had begun laying mines off the French coast . The French Navy trawler Elisabeth struck one of UB @-@ 12 's mines off Calais on 13 March and sank . Five days later , the British auxiliary minesweeper Duchess of Montrose sank with a loss of 12 men after detonating a mine laid by UB @-@ 12 off Gravelines . On 23 March , HMS Laforey , a destroyer with the Dover Patrol , struck one of UB @-@ 12 's mines off Cape Gris @-@ Nez and went down with the loss of 59 men . In May , UB @-@ 12 was on a patrol with UB @-@ 39 in the English Channel . On the night of 14 / 15 May while UB @-@ 12 was on the surface , Steindorff noted a large underwater explosion some miles away in a British minefield , and when UB @-@ 39 failed to return to Zeebrugge , one of the bases for the Flanders Flotilla , reported what was likely the demise of UB @-@ 39 at the hands of a British mine . April found two more victims added to UB @-@ 12 's tally . On the 20th , Nepaulin , another British auxiliary minesweeper was lost on one of UB @-@ 12 's mines near the Dyck Lightvessel . Six days later , the British steamer Alhama was mined while loaded with pit props destined for Dunkirk . The 1 @,@ 744 @-@ ton cargo ship was the largest ship sunk by UB @-@ 12 since the Silksworth Hall , sunk the previous April . UB @-@ 12 sank another two ships under Steindorff 's command , one each in June and July . The steamer Dulwich — carrying coal from Seaham for London — was mined and sunk with the loss of five men on 10 June . One month later , the French patrol vessel Jupiter I was mined off Calais . These were the last two ships credited to mines from UB @-@ 12 for the next fourteen months . = = Fate = = UB @-@ 12 's activities over the next year are not well documented , and no specific record of her can be found in English @-@ language sources . However , it is known that during this period , she was helmed by four different commanders , with the final officer , Oblt . Ernst Schöller , assuming command in May 1918 . Under Schöller 's command , UB @-@ 12 departed Zeebrugge on 19 August to lay mines in the Downs off the Kentish coast , but never returned . According to one British source , UB @-@ 12 was herself mined off Helgoland sometime in August . Author Dwight Messimer considers this unlikely given that Helgoland is nowhere near the route that UB @-@ 12 could have taken to get to the Downs . A postwar German study concluded the two most likely fates for UB @-@ 12 were that she either struck a British mine or was destroyed by one of her own mines that malfunctioned during deployment . Messimer also considers it possible that UB @-@ 12 may have had a diving accident related to her conversion to a minelayer . Some two months after UB @-@ 12 's presumed loss , she was credited with the sinking of her final ship . On 27 October , two weeks before the end of the war , the 92 @-@ ton British ship Calceolaria struck one of UB @-@ 12 's mines near the Elbow Lightvessel and sank . = = Summary of raiding history = = = = External Links = = 'UB @-@ 12 off Ramsgate : Marine Geophysical Survey and Archaeological Report ' ' Historic England project to research First World War submarines'
= Wulfstan ( died 1023 ) = Wulfstan ( sometimes Lupus ; died 28 May 1023 ) was an English Bishop of London , Bishop of Worcester , and Archbishop of York . He should not be confused with Wulfstan I , Archbishop of York , or Wulfstan , Bishop of Worcester . He is thought to have begun his ecclesiastical career as a Benedictine monk . He became the Bishop of London in 996 . In 1002 he was elected simultaneously to the diocese of Worcester and the archdiocese of York , holding both in plurality until 1016 , when he relinquished Worcester ; he remained archbishop of York until his death . It was perhaps while he was at London that he first became well known as a writer of sermons , or homilies , on the topic of Antichrist . In 1014 , as archbishop , he wrote his most famous work , a homily which he titled the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos , or the Sermon of the Wolf to the English . Besides sermons Wulfstan was also instrumental in drafting law codes for both kings Æthelred the Unready and Cnut the Great of England . He is considered one of the two major writers of the late Anglo @-@ Saxon period in England . After his death in 1023 , miracles were said to have occurred at his tomb , but attempts to have him declared a saint never bore fruit . = = Life = = Wulfstan 's early life is obscure , but he was certainly the uncle of one Beorhtheah , his successor at Worcester but one , and the uncle of Wulfstan of Worcester . About Wulfstan 's youth we know nothing . He probably had familial ties to the Fenlands in East Anglia , and to Peterborough specifically . Although there is no direct evidence of his ever being monastic , the nature of Wulfstan 's later episcopal career and his affinity with the Benedictine Reform argue that he had once studied and professed as a Benedictine monk , perhaps at Winchester . According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Wulfstan was consecrated bishop of London in 996 , succeeding Aelfstan . Besides the notice in the Chronicle , the first record of his name is in a collection of nine Latin penitential letters collected by him , three of which were issued by him as bishop of London , and one by him as " Archbishop of the English " . The other five letters in the collection ( only one of which is addressed to Wulfstan , as archbishop ) were issued by Pope Gregory V and by a Pope John ( either Pope John XVII or Pope John XVIII ) . In the letters issued by Wulfstan as bishop of London he styles himself " Lupus episcopus " , meaning " the bishop Wolf " . " Lupus " is the Latin form of the first element of his Old English name , which means " wolf @-@ stone " . In 1002 Wulfstan was elected Archbishop of York and was immediately translated to that see . Holding York also brought him control over the diocese of Worcester , as at that time it was practice in England to hold " the potentially disaffected northern archbishopric in plurality with a southern see . " He held both Worcester and York until 1016 , resigning Worcester to Leofsige while retaining York . There is evidence , however , that he retained influence over Worcester even after this time , and that Leofsige perhaps acted " only as a suffragan to Wulfstan . " Although holding two or more episcopal sees in plurality was both uncanonical and against the spirit of the Benedictine Reform , Wulfstan had inherited this practice from previous archbishops of York , and he was not the last to hold York and Worcester in plurality . Wulfstan must have early on garnered the favour of powerful men , particularly Æthelred king of England , for we find him personally drafting all royal law codes promulgated under Æthelred 's reign from 1005 to 1016 . There is no doubt that Wulfstan had a penchant for law ; his knowledge of previous Anglo @-@ Saxon law ( both royal and ecclesiastical ) , as well as ninth @-@ century Carolingian law , was considerable . This surely made him a suitable choice for the king 's legal draftsman . But it is also likely that Wulfstan 's position as archbishop of York , an important centre in the then politically sensitive northern regions of the English kingdom , made him not only a very influential man in the North , but also a powerful ally for the king and his family in the South . It is indicative of Wulfstan 's continuing political importance and savvy that he also acted as legal draftsman for , and perhaps advisor to , the Danish king Cnut , who took England 's West Saxon throne in 1016 . = = Homilist = = Wulfstan was one of the most distinguished and effective Old English prose writers . His writings cover a wide range of topics in an even greater range of genres , including homilies ( or sermons ) , secular laws , religious canons , and political theory . With Ælfric of Eynsham , he is one of the two major vernacular writers in early eleventh @-@ century England , a period which , ecclesiastically anyway , was still very much enamoured of and greatly influenced by the Benedictine Reform . The Benedictine Reform was a movement which sought to institute monastic standards among the secular clergy , a movement made popular by the churchmen of the Carolingian Empire in the ninth and tenth centuries . The Reform promoted a regular ( i.e. based on a regula , or rule ) life for priests and clerics , a strict church hierarchy , the primacy of the Roman see , the authority of codified or canonical church law , and stressed the importance of catholic , that is universal , church practices throughout all Christendom . These ideas could only thrive in a social and political atmosphere which recognised the importance of both the clergy 's and the laity 's obedience to the authority of the church on all things spiritual , and also on many things secular and juridical . This was one of the main theoretical models behind much of Wulfstan 's legal and quasi @-@ legal writings . But Wulfstan was not blind to the fact that , in order for this Reform model to thrive in England , the English clergy and laity ( especially the laity ) needed to be educated in the basic tenets of the faith . Nothing less than the legitimacy of English Christendom rested on Englishmen 's steadfastness on certain fundamental Christian beliefs and practices , like , for example , knowledge of Christ 's life and passion , memorisation of the Pater Noster and the Apostles ' Creed , proper baptism , and the correct date and method of celebrating Easter mass . It is towards the promotion of such beliefs and practices , that Wulfstan engaged in writing a number of homilies dedicated to educating both clergy and laity in those Christian fundamentals which he saw as so important for both the flourishing of Christian lives and the success of the English polity . In a series of homilies begun during his tenure as Bishop of London , Wulfstan attained a high degree of competence in rhetorical prose , working with a distinctive rhythmical system based around alliterative pairings . He used intensifying words , distinctive vocabulary and compounds , rhetorical figures , and repeated phrases as literary devices . These devices lend Wulfstan 's homilies their tempo @-@ driven , almost feverish , quality , allowing them to build toward multiple climaxes . An example from one of his earliest sermons , titled Secundum Lucam , describes with vivid rhetorical force the unpleasantries of Hell ( notice the alliteration , parallelism , and rhyme ) : Wa þam þonne þe ær geearnode helle wite . Ðær is ece bryne grimme gemencged , & ðær is ece gryre ; þær is granung & wanung & aa singal heof ; þær is ealra yrmða gehwylc & ealra deofla geþring . Wa þam þe þær sceal wunian on wite . Betere him wære þæt he man nære æfre geworden þonne he gewurde . " Woe then to him who has earned for himself the torments of Hell . There there is everlasting fire roiling painfully , and there there is everlasting filth . There there is groaning and moaning and always constant wailing . There there is every kind of misery , and the press of every kind of devil . Woe to him who dwells in torment : better it were for him that he were never born , than that he become thus . " This type of heavy @-@ handed , though effective , rhetoric immediately made Wulfstan 's homilies popular tools for use at the pulpit . There is good evidence that Wulfstan 's homiletic style was appreciated by his contemporaries . While yet bishop of London , in 1002 he received an anonymous letter in Latin praising his style and eloquence . In this letter , an unknown contemporary refuses to do a bit of translation for Wulfstan because he fears he could never properly imitate the Bishop 's style The Chronicle of Ely said of his preaching that " when he spoke , it was as if his listeners were hearing the very wisdom of God Himself . " Though they were rhetorically ornate , Wulfstan 's homilies show a conscious effort to avoid the intellectual conceits presumably favoured by educated ( i.e. monastic ) audiences ; his target audience was the common English Christian , and his message was suited to everyone who wished to flock to the cathedral to hear it . Wulfstan refused to include in his works confusing or philosophical concepts , speculation , or long narratives – devices which other homilies of the time regularly employed ( likely to the dismay of the average parishioner ) . He also rarely used Latin phrases or words , though a few of his homilies do survive in Latin form , versions that were either drafts for later English homilies , or else meant to be addressed to a learned clergy . Even so , even his Latin sermons employ a straightforward approach to sermonising . Wulfstan 's homilies are concerned only with the " bare bones , but these he invests with a sense of urgency of moral or legal rigorism in a time of great danger " . The canon of Wulfstan 's homiletic works is somewhat ambiguous , as it is often difficult to tell if a homily in his style was actually written by Wulfstan , or is merely the work of someone who had appreciated Wulfstanian style and imitated it . However , throughout his episcopal career , he is believed to have written upwards of 30 sermons in Old English . The number of his Latin sermons has not yet been established . He may also have been responsible , wholly or in part , for other extant anonymous Old English sermons , for his style can be detected in a range of homiletic texts which cannot be directly attributed to him . However , as mentioned , some scholars believe that Wulfstan 's powerful rhetorical style produced imitators , whose homilies would now be difficult to distinguish from genuine Wulfstanian homilies . Those homilies which are certainly by Wulfstan can be divided into ' blocks ' , that is by subject and theme , and in this way it can be seen that at different points in his life Wulfstan was concerned with different aspects of Christian life in England . The first ' block ' was written ca . 996 – 1002 and is concerned with eschatology , that is , the end of the world . These homilies give frequent descriptions of the coming of Antichrist and the evils that will befall the world before Christ 's Second Coming . They likely play on the anxiety that surely developed as the end of the first millennium AD approached . The second ' block ' , written around 1002 – 1008 , is concerned with the tenets of the Christian faith . The third ' block ' , written around 1008 – 1020 , concerns archiepiscopal functions . The fourth and final ' block ' , written around 1014 – 1023 , known as the " Evil Days " ' block ' , concerns the evils that befall a kingdom and people who do not live proper Christian lives . This final block contains his most famous homily , the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos , where Wulfstan rails against the deplorable customs of his time , and sees recent Viking invasions as God 's punishment of the English for their lax ways . About 1008 ( and again in a revision about 1016 ) he wrote a lengthy work which , although not strictly homiletic , summarises many of the favourite points he had hitherto expounded upon in his homilies . Titled by modern editors as the Institutes of Polity , it is a piece of ' estates literature ' which details , from the perspective of a Christian polity , the duties of each member of society , beginning with the top ( the king ) and ending at the bottom ( common folk ) . = = Language = = Wulfstan was a native speaker of Old English . He was also a competent Latinist . As York was at the centre of a region of England that had for some time been colonised by people of Scandinavian descent , it is possible that Wulfstan was familiar with , or perhaps even bilingual in , Old Norse . He may have helped incorporate Scandinavian vocabulary into Old English . Dorothy Whitelock remarks that " the influence of his sojourns in the north is seen in his terminology . While in general he writes a variety of late West Saxon literary language , he uses in some texts words of Scandinavian origin , especially in speaking of the various social classes . " In some cases , Wulfstan is the only one known to have used a word in Old English , and in some cases such words are of Scandinavian origin . Some words of his that have been recognised as particularly Scandinavian are : þræl " slave , servant " ( cf . Old Norse þræll ; cp . Old English þeowa ) bonda " husband , householder " ( cf . Old Norse bondi ; cp . Old English ceorl ) eorl " nobleman of high rank , ( Danish ) jarl " ( cf . Old Norse jarl ; cp . Old English ealdorman ) fysan " to make someone ready , to put someone to flight " ( cf . Old Norse fysa ) genydmaga " close kinsfolk " ( cf . Old Norse nauðleyti ) laga " law " ( cf . Old Norse lag ; cp . Old English æw ) Some Old English words which appear only in works under his influence are : werewulf " were @-@ wolf " sibleger " incest " leohtgescot " light @-@ scot " ( a tithe to churches for candles ) tofesian ægylde morðwyrhta = = Church reform and royal service = = Wulfstan was very involved in the reform of the English church , and was concerned with improving both the quality of Christian faith and the quality of ecclesiastical administration in his dioceses ( especially York , a relatively impoverished diocese at this time ) . Towards the end of his episcopate in York , he established a small monastery in Gloucester , which had to be re @-@ established in 1058 after being burned . In addition to his religious and literary career , Wulfstan enjoyed a lengthy and fruitful career as one of England 's foremost statesmen . Under both Æthelred II and Cnut , Wulfstan was primarily responsible for the drafting of English law codes relating to both secular and ecclesiastical affairs , and seems to have held a prominent and influential position at court . He drew up the laws that Æthelred issued at Enham in 1008 , which dealt with the cult of St Edward the Martyr , the raising and equipping of ships and ship 's crews , the payment of tithes , and a ban on the export of ( Christian ) slaves from the kingdom . Pushing for religious , social , political , and moral reforms , Wulfstan " wrote legislation to reassert the laws of earlier Anglo @-@ Saxon kings and bring order to a country that had been unsettled by war and influx of Scandinavians . " In 1009 Wulfstan wrote the edict that Æthelred II issued calling for the whole nation to fast and pray for three days during Thorkell 's raids on England , in a national act of penance . Only water and bread were to be eaten , people should walk to church barefoot , a payment of one penny from each hide of land was to be made , and everyone should attend Mass every day of the three days . Anyone not participating would be fined or flogged . After Cnut conquered England , Wulfstan quickly became an advisor to the new king , as evidenced by Wulfstan 's influence on the law code issued by Cnut . After the death of Lyfing , Archbishop of Canterbury in 1020 , Wulfstan consecrated his successor Æthelnoth in 1020 , and wrote to Cnut asking the king to grant the same rights and dignities for the new archbishop that previous archbishops had held . Wulfstan also wrote the laws that were issued by Cnut at Winchester in 1021 or 1022 . These laws continued in force throughout the 11th century , as they were the laws referred to in Domesday Book as " the law of King Edward " . = = Death and legacy = = Wulfstan died at York on 28 May 1023 . His body was taken for burial to the monastery of Ely , in accordance with his wishes . Miracles are ascribed to his tomb by the Liber Eliensis , but it does not appear that any attempt to declare him a saint was made beyond this . The historian Denis Bethell called him the " most important figure in the English Church in the reigns of Æthelred II and Cnut . Wulfstan 's writings influenced a number of writers in late Old English literature . There are echoes of Wulfstan 's writings in the 1087 entry of the Peterborough Chronicle , a version of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle written at Peterborough Abbey . This entry has long been famous as it deals with the death of King William the Conqueror , and contrasts his worldly power with his status after death . Other suggestions of Wulfstan 's writing occur in works of Old English including the Soul 's Address to the Body . His law codes , which were written under Æthelred and Cnut , remained in effect through the reign of King Edward the Confessor , and were still being reaffirmed in 1100 , when King Henry I of England swore a coronation oath to observe the laws of King Edward . The unique 11th century manuscript of the Early English Apollonius of Tyre may only have survived because it was bound into a book together with Wulfstan 's homilies . = = Works = = Wulfstan wrote some works in Latin , and numerous works in Old English , then the vernacular . He has also been credited with a few short poems . His works can generally be divided into homiletic , legal , and philosophical categories . Wulfstan 's best @-@ known homily is Sermo Lupi ad Anglos , or Sermon of the Wolf to the English . In it he proclaims the depredations of the " Danes " ( who were , at that point , primarily Norwegian invaders ) a scourge from God to lash the English for their sins . He calls upon them to repent of their sinful ways and " return to the faith of baptism , where there is protection from the fires of hell . " He also wrote many homilies relating to the Last Days and the coming of the Antichrist . Age of the Antichrist was a popular theme in Wulfstan 's homilies , which also include the issues of death and Judgment Day . Six homilies that illustrate this theme include : Secundum Matheum , Secundum Lucam , De Anticristo , De Temporibus Antichrist , Secundum Marcum and " De Falsis Deis " . De Antichristo was the " first full development of the Antichrist theme " , and Wulfstan addressed it to the clergy . Believing that he lived at the time right before the Antichrist was to come , he felt compelled to diligently warn and teach the clergy to withstand the dishonest teaching of the enemies of God . These six homilies also include : emphasis that the hour of the Antichrist is very near , warnings that the English should be aware of false Christs who will attempt to seduce men , warnings that God will pass judgement on man 's faithfulness , discussion of man 's sins , evils of the world , and encouragement to love God and do his will . He wrote the Canons of Edgar and The Law of Edward and Guthrum which date before 1008 . The Canons was written to instruct the secular clergy serving a parish in the responsibilities of their position . The Law of Edward and Guthrum , on the other hand , is an ecclesiastical law handbook . Modern editors have paid most attention to his homilies : they have been edited by Arthur Napier , by Dorothy Whitelock , and by Dorothy Bethurum . Since that publication , other works that were likely authored by Wulfstan have been identified ; a forthcoming edition by Andy Orchard will update the canon of Wulfstan 's homilies . Wulfstan was also a book collector ; he is responsible for amassing a large collection of texts pertaining to canon law , the liturgy , and episcopal functions . This collection is known as Wulftan 's Commonplace Book . A significant part of the Commonplace book consists of a work once known as the Excerptiones pseudo @-@ Ecgberhti , though it has most recently been edited as Wulfstan 's Canon Law Collection ( a.k.a. Collectio canonum Wigorniensis ) . This work is a collection of conciliar decrees and church canons , most of which he culled from numerous ninth and tenth @-@ century Carolingian works . This work demonstrates the wide range of Wulfstan 's reading and studies . He sometimes borrowed from this collection when he wrote his later works , especially the law codes of Æthelred . There are also a number of works which are associated with the archbishop , but whose authorship is unknown , such as the Late Old English Handbook for the Use of a Confessor . = = Style = = Wulfstan ’ s style is highly admired by many sources , easily recognisable and exceptionally distinguished . “ Much Wulfstan material is , more @-@ over , attributed largely or even solely on the basis of his highly idiosyncratic prose style , in which strings of syntactically independent two @-@ stress phrases are linked by complex patterns of alliteration and other kinds of sound play . Indeed , so idiosyncratic is Wulfstan ’ s style that he is even ready to rewrite minutely works prepared for him by Ǣlfric ” ( Blackwell , 495 ) . From this identifiable style , 26 sermons can be attributed to Wulfstan , 22 of which are written in Old English , the others in Latin . However , it ’ s suspected that many anonymous materials are Wulfstan ’ s as well , and his handwriting has been found in many manuscripts , supplementing or correcting material ( 495 ) . He wrote more than just sermons , including law @-@ codes and sections of prose . Certainly he must have been a very talented writer , gaining a reputation of eloquence while he still lived in London ( Bethurum , 58 ) . In a letter to him , “ the writer asks to be excused from translating something Wulfstan had asked him to render into English and pleads as an excuse his lack of ability in comparison with the bishop ’ s skill ” ( 58 ) . Similarly , “ [ o ] ne early student of Wulfstan , Einenkel , and his latest editor , Jost , agree in thinking he wrote verse and not prose ” ( Continuations , 229 ) . This suggests Wulfstan ’ s writing is not only eloquent , but poetic , and among many of his rhetorical devices is marked rhythm ( 229 ) . Taking a look at Wulfstan ’ s actual manuscripts , presented by Volume 17 of Early English Manuscripts in Facsimile , it becomes apparent that his writing was exceptionally neat and well @-@ structured – even his notes in the margins are well @-@ organised and tidy , and his handwriting itself is ornate but readable .
= Norse funeral = Norse funerals , or the burial customs of Viking Age North Germanic Norsemen ( early medieval Scandinavians ) , are known both from archaeology and from historical accounts such as the Icelandic sagas , Old Norse poetry , and notably from the account of Ahmad ibn Fadlan . Throughout Scandinavia , there are many remaining tumuli in honour of Viking kings and chieftains , in addition to runestones and other memorials . Some of the most notable of them are at the Borre mound cemetery , in Norway , at Birka in Sweden and Lindholm Høje , and Jelling in Denmark . A prominent tradition is that of the ship burial , where the deceased was laid in a boat , or a stone ship , and given grave offerings in accordance with his earthly status and profession , sometimes including sacrificed slaves . Afterwards , piles of stone and soil were usually laid on top of the remains in order to create a tumulus . = = Grave goods = = It was common to leave gifts with the deceased . Both men and women received grave goods , even if the corpse was to be burnt on a pyre . A Norseman could also be buried with a loved one or house thrall , who were buried alive with the person , or in a funeral pyre . The amount and the value of the goods depended on which social group the dead person came from . It was important to bury the dead in the right way so that he could join the afterlife with the same social standing that he had had in life , and to avoid becoming a homeless soul that wandered eternally . The usual grave for a thrall was probably not much more than a hole in the ground . He was probably buried in such a way as to ensure both that he did not return to haunt his masters and that he could be of use to his masters after they died . Slaves were sometimes sacrificed to be useful in the next life . A free man was usually given weapons and equipment for riding . An artisan , such as a blacksmith , could receive his entire set of tools . Women were provided with their jewellery and often with tools for female and household activities . The most sumptuous Viking funeral discovered so far is the Oseberg ship burial , which was for a woman ( probably a queen or a priestess ) who lived in the 9th century . = = Funerary monuments = = A Viking funeral could be a considerable expense , but the barrow and the grave goods were not considered to have been wasted . In addition to being a homage to the deceased , the barrow remained as a monument to the social position of the descendants . Especially powerful Norse clans could demonstrate their position through monumental grave fields . The Borre mound cemetery in Vestfold is for instance connected to the Yngling dynasty , and it had large tumuli that contained stone ships . Jelling , in Denmark , is the largest royal memorial from the Viking Age and it was made by Harald Bluetooth in memory of his parents Gorm and Tyra , and in honour of himself . It was only one of the two large tumuli that contained a chamber tomb , but both barrows , the church and the two Jelling stones testify to how important it was to mark death ritually during the pagan era and the earliest Christian times . On three locations in Scandinavia , there are large grave fields that were used by an entire community : Birka in Mälaren , Hedeby at Schleswig and Lindholm Høje at Ålborg . The graves at Lindholm Høje show a large variation in both shape and size . There are stone ships and there is a mix of graves that are triangular , quadrangular and circular . Such grave fields have been used during many generations and belong to village like settlements . = = Rituals = = Death has always been a critical moment for those bereaved , and consequently death is surrounded by taboo @-@ like rules . Family life has to be reorganized and in order to master such transitions , people use rites . The ceremonies are transitional rites that are intended to give the deceased peace in his or her new situation at the same time as they provide strength for the bereaved to carry on with their lives . Despite the warlike customs of the Vikings , there was an element of fear surrounding death and what belonged to it . If the deceased was not buried and provided for properly , he might not find peace in the afterlife . The dead person could then visit the bereaved as a revenant or draugr . Such a sight was frightful and ominous and usually it was interpreted as a sign that additional family members would die . It was first and foremost in times of starvation , when communities were struck with a series of misfortunes , that rumours about revenants began to flourish . The sagas tell of drastic precautions being taken after a revenant had appeared . The dead person had to die anew ; a stake could be put through the corpse , or its head might be cut off in order to stop the deceased from finding its way back to the living . Other rituals involved the preparation of the corpse . Snorri Sturluson in the Prose Edda references a concern funeral rite involving the cutting of nails lest unpared nails from the dead be available for the completion of the construction of Naglfar , the ship used to transport the army of jötunn at Ragnarök . = = = Ibn Fadlan account = = = A 10th @-@ century Arab Muslim writer named Ahmad ibn Fadlan produced a description of a funeral of a Scandinavian , probably Swedish , chieftain who was on an expedition on the eastern route . The account is a unique source on the ceremonies surrounding the Viking funeral of a chieftain . Regardless of ethnic attribution ( Norse , Slavic or else ) the source says " Rus " ( Rūsiyyah ) , and the attribution is still disputed . The dead chieftain was put in a temporary grave , which was covered for ten days until they had sewn new clothes for him . One of his thrall women volunteered to join him in the afterlife and she was guarded day and night , being given a great amount of intoxicating drinks while she sang happily . When the time had arrived for cremation , they pulled his longship ashore and put it on a platform of wood , and they made a bed for the dead chieftain on the ship . Thereafter , an old woman referred to as the " Angel of Death " put cushions on the bed . She was responsible for the ritual . Then they disinterred the chieftain and gave him new clothes . In his grave , he received intoxicating drinks , fruits , and a stringed instrument . The chieftain was put into his bed with all his weapons and grave offerings around him . Then they had two horses run themselves sweaty , cut them to pieces , and threw the meat into the ship . Finally , they sacrificed a hen and a cock . Meanwhile , the thrall girl went from one tent to the other and had sexual intercourse with the men . Every man told her : " Tell your master that I did this because of my love to him " . In the afternoon , they moved the thrall girl to something that looked like a door frame , where she was lifted on the palms of the men three times . Every time , the girl told of what she saw . The first time , she saw her father and mother , the second time , she saw all her relatives , and the third time she saw her master in the afterworld . There , it was green and beautiful and together with him , she saw men and young boys . She saw that her master beckoned for her . By using intoxicating drinks , they thought to put the thrall girl in an ecstatic trance that made her psychic and through the symbolic action with the door frame , she would then see into the realm of the dead . The same ritual also appears in the Icelandic short story " Völsa þáttr , " where two pagan Norwegian men lift the lady of the household over a door frame to help her look into the otherworld . Thereafter , the thrall girl was taken away to the ship . She removed her bracelets and gave them to the old woman . Thereafter she removed her finger rings and gave them to the old woman 's daughters , who had guarded her . Then they took her aboard the ship , but they did not allow her to enter the tent where the dead chieftain lay . The girl received several vessels of intoxicating drinks and she sang and bade her friends farewell . Then the girl was pulled into the tent and the men started to beat on the shields so her screams could not be heard . Six men entered the tent to have intercourse with the girl , after which they forced her onto her master 's bed . Two men grabbed her hands , and two men her wrists . The angel of death put a rope around her neck and while two men pulled the rope , the old woman stabbed the girl between her ribs with a knife . Thereafter , the relatives of the dead chieftain arrived with a burning torch and set the ship aflame . It is said that the fire facilitates the voyage to the realm of the dead . Afterwards , a round barrow was built over the ashes , and in the centre of the mound they erected a staff of birch wood , where they carved the names of the dead chieftain and his king . Then they departed in their ships . = = = Human sacrifice = = = Thralls could be sacrificed during a funeral so they could serve their master in the next world . The sexual rites with the slave girl symbolize her role as a vessel for the transmission of life force to the deceased chieftain . Sigurðarkviða hin skamma contains several stanzas in which the Valkyrie Brynhildr gives instructions for the number of slaves to be sacrificed for the funeral of the hero Sigurd , and how their bodies were to be arranged on the pyre , as in the following stanza : Occasionally in the Viking Age , a widow was sacrificed at her husband ’ s funeral . = = = Cremation = = = It was common to burn the corpse and the grave offerings on a pyre , in which the temperature reached 1 @,@ 400 ° C ( 2 @,@ 550 ° F ) — much higher than modern crematorium furnaces attain . Only some incinerated fragments of metal and of animal and human bones would remain . The pyre was constructed to make the pillar of smoke as massive as possible , in order to elevate the deceased to the afterlife . The symbolism is described in the Ynglinga saga : " Thus he ( Odin ) established by law that all dead men should be burned , and their belongings laid with them upon the pile , and the ashes be cast into the sea or buried in the earth . Thus , said he , every one will come to Valhalla with the riches he had with him upon the pile ; and he would also enjoy whatever he himself had buried in the earth . For men of consequence a mound should be raised to their memory , and for all other warriors who had been distinguished for manhood a standing stone ; which custom remained long after Odin 's time . " = = = Funeral ale and the passing of inheritance = = = On the seventh day after the person had died , people celebrated the sjaund ( the word both for the funeral ale and the feast , since it involved a ritual drinking ) . The funeral ale was a way of socially demarcating the case of death . It was only after drinking the funeral ale that the heirs could rightfully claim their inheritance . If the deceased were a widow or the master of the homestead , the rightful heir could assume the high seat and thereby mark the shift in authority . Several of the large runestones in Scandinavia notify of an inheritance , such as the Hillersjö stone , which explains how a lady came to inherit the property of not only her children but also her grandchildren and the Högby Runestone , which tells that a girl was the sole heir after the death of all her uncles . They are important proprietary documents from a time when legal decisions were not yet put to paper . One interpretation of the Tune Runestone from Østfold suggests that the long runic inscription deals with the funeral ale in honor of the master of a household and that it declares three daughters to be the rightful heirs . It is dated to the 5th century and is , consequently , the oldest legal document from Scandinavia that addresses a female 's right to inheritance .
= Kratos ( God of War ) = Kratos , the " Ghost of Sparta " , is a video game character from Sony Santa Monica 's God of War series , which is loosely based on Greek mythology . Kratos first appeared in the 2005 video game God of War , which led to the development of six additional games featuring the character as the protagonist . Another installment is in development , which will take the character to Norse mythology . Kratos also appears as the protagonist of the God of War comic series and novels . The character was voiced by Terrence C. Carson from 2005 to 2013 , with Christopher Judge taking over the role in the upcoming God of War . Antony Del Rio voiced the character as a child in God of War : Ghost of Sparta . In the series , Kratos embarks on a series of often forced adventures in attempts to avert disaster or to change his fate . He is usually portrayed as being oblivious to all else , often engaging in morally ambiguous activities and performing acts of extreme violence . He is a Spartan warrior who becomes the " Ghost of Sparta " after accidentally killing his family on behalf of Ares ' trickery . He becomes the God of War after killing Ares , and is eventually revealed to be a demigod and the son of Zeus , who betrays Kratos . Each adventure forms part of a saga with vengeance as a central theme , providing additional information about Kratos ' origins and his relationships with his family and the gods . The God of War franchise is a flagship title for the PlayStation brand and Kratos is one of its most popular characters . The character has been well received by critics and has become a video game icon , a relative newcomer among more established franchise characters , such as Mario , Sonic the Hedgehog , and Lara Croft . The character is now associated with other products and has had various cameos in PlayStation games outside of the God of War series . = = Concept and design = = God of War creator and game director David Jaffe attempted to create a character that looked brutal , but did not resemble a typical traditional Greek hero . The character would not wear traditional armor as Jaffe wanted him to be individualistic . Although the idea of using a fully masked character was approved , the concept was abandoned as the design seemed soulless and lacked a defined personality . Some models included unconventional elements , such as portraying him carrying an infant on his back , while others had excessive detail , such as hair and other " flowing things " . Charlie Wen , director of visual development on God of War and God of War II , is responsible for designing Kratos . Wen said that his direction for designing Kratos was as much influenced by similarly themed films as it was by pop culture , which led him to sketch a series of images of Kratos on napkins at a restaurant , introducing the idea of the double @-@ chained blades and eventually Kratos ' iconic design . Double @-@ chained blades were chosen as Kratos ' signature weapon because they emphasized the character 's animal nature while also allowing combat to remain fluid . Jaffe said of the final version of the character , " [ Kratos ] may not totally feel at home in Ancient Greece from a costume standpoint , I think he achieves the greater purpose which is to give players a character who they can play who really does just let them go nuts and unleash the nasty fantasies that they have in their head . " Kratos ’ most noticeable feature is his ash @-@ white complexion , a story development which earns him the title " Ghost of Sparta . " Other distinctive features include a scar across his right eye , and a large , red tattoo that threads from his left eye , circles his left torso , and ends at his left shoulder . The tattoo was originally blue , but was changed late in production . The scar is eventually revealed to be the result of a childhood encounter with the Olympian God , Ares , while the tattoo is a tribute to his dead brother Deimos , who had similar birth markings . Other changes that occur during the course of the series include the temporary addition of divine armor when Kratos is the God of War , an abdominal scar , ability @-@ enhancing armor such as an epaulet called the Golden Fleece ( all God of War II ) , and the Boots of Hermes ( God of War III ) . According to an early God of War script , the character is 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) to 6 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) . Kratos ' appearance can be altered in bonus play ; completing the game at certain levels of difficulty and in challenge modes will unlock bonus costumes . Several costumes were available exclusively via pre @-@ order and other promotions ( e.g. God of War III , which features three costumes based on early sketches of the character ) from the PlayStation Store . Although many bonus costumes are consistent with story themes , others are humorous or farcical — such as the female costume " Athena " and the " Spud of War " . 26 bonus costumes are available for use throughout the series and two are available in two games respectively ( " God of War Armor " in God of War II and Ghost of Sparta , and " Deimos " in Ghost of Sparta and God of War III ) . = = Role in the God of War series = = = = = Backstory and comics ( past ) = = = Throughout the series , Kratos is portrayed as an antihero , often performing questionable actions . Although backstory is seen in the original God of War , Kratos ' childhood is revealed in Ghost of Sparta and the birth of his daughter is explored in the God of War comic series . In Ghost of Sparta , it is revealed that an oracle had foretold that the demise of Olympus would not happen by the hands of the Titans — imprisoned after the Great War — but rather by a mortal , a marked warrior . The Olympians Zeus and Ares believed this warrior to be Deimos , Kratos ' younger brother , who had strange birthmarks . Ares interrupted the childhood training of Kratos and Deimos in Sparta and kidnapped Deimos . Kratos attempted to stop Ares , but Ares swept him aside and scarred him across his right eye . Taken to Death 's Domain , Deimos was imprisoned and tortured for many years by the god of death , Thanatos . Believing Deimos to be dead , Kratos marked himself with a red tattoo , identical to his brother 's birthmark , to honor his sibling . Through flashbacks in the comic series written by Marv Wolfman , Kratos meets his wife Lysandra and they have a daughter named Calliope . Upon birth , Calliope was stricken with the plague . In order to save his daughter , Kratos was granted a quest to find the Ambrosia of Asclepius , an elixir with magical healing properties . Five of the gods entered into a wager with Ares : each chose a champion to search for the Ambrosia with Ares ' champion being Kratos . Kratos overcame all obstacles , including , among others , Hades ' champion the Barbarian Prince Alrik , who eventually became the Barbarian King , and saved his daughter . Via flashbacks in God of War , it is revealed that Kratos became the youngest captain of Sparta 's army ( also shown in the comics ) , but had a thirst for power . When Kratos was faced with total defeat at the hands of a barbarian horde led by the Barbarian King , the Spartan called to the Olympian god Ares for aid . Kratos was given the Blades of Chaos , destroyed his enemies , and blindly followed Ares , killing hundreds in his name . After Ares tricked Kratos into murdering his wife Lysandra and daughter Calliope in a temple dedicated to Athena , the Spartan was shocked out of his bloodlust and renounced service to Ares . As the temple burned , a village oracle cursed Kratos and condemned him to wear the " mark of his terrible deed " ; the ashes of his family , which turn his skin white , earning him the title " Ghost of Sparta " . = = = Ascension , Chains of Olympus , and God of War = = = In Ascension , it is revealed that because Kratos renounced Ares , it broke his blood oath to the god and as such , Kratos was imprisoned and tortured by the three Furies . He was helped by the oath keeper Orkos and eventually overcame and killed the Furies . In order to completely be free of Ares ' oath , Kratos was forced to kill Orkos , who begged Kratos to do so . Although free of his oath to the god , he was flooded with memories of killing his family . He then vowed to serve the other gods in order to receive forgiveness and relief from the nightmares of his past deeds , but he was openly defiant . In Chains of Olympus , Kratos is reluctant to help the gods when Helios was kidnapped , and openly abandoned them when Persephone offered him a chance to be reunited with his daughter . Kratos , however , was forced to reverse his decision when Persephone used the Titan Atlas in a bid to destroy the world and in turn , the spirit of Calliope . Knowing that while intervention would save Calliope , it would separate him from his family forever , a bitter Kratos killed Persephone , imprisoned Atlas , and freed Helios . By the time of God of War , Kratos had been serving the gods for ten years and had grown tired of his service and nightmares . When he confronted his patron Athena , she advised him that if he killed the rampaging Ares , the gods would forgive his sins . With this selfish motive , he again agreed , and after finding and using Pandora 's Box , he was successful . Despite being freed of Ares ' influence , including the Blades of Chaos , Kratos was forgiven , but was not relieved of his nightmares . A dissatisfied and despairing Kratos tried to commit suicide , but was saved by Athena , who guided him to Olympus . Awarded the Blades of Athena , Kratos became the new God of War . = = = Comics ( present ) , Ghost of Sparta , and Betrayal = = = The comic series also shows Kratos ' present search for the Ambrosia of Asclepius . This time , he plans to destroy the Ambrosia to prevent the worshipers of Ares from resurrecting their former master . In this quest , Kratos overcame several enemies , including the Chaos Giant Gyges , before destroying the Ambrosia . Still haunted by the visions of his mortal past in Ghost of Sparta , and against the advice of Athena , Kratos embarked on a quest to find his mother , Callisto , in the city of Atlantis . Callisto attempted to reveal the identity of Kratos ' father before being transformed against her will into a beast that Kratos was forced to kill . Before dying , Callisto advised Kratos to search for his brother Deimos in Sparta . Kratos first freed the Titan Thera from imprisonment , which caused the destruction of Atlantis . In Sparta , Kratos learned of Deimos ' location : the Domain of Death . He found and freed Deimos , who remained hostile toward his brother . After a skirmish between the siblings , Thanatos attacked Deimos , but after being rescued by Kratos , the pair joined forces to battle their foe . Although Thanatos killed Deimos , the god was in turn killed by Kratos . Kratos then returned to Olympus , enraged at the gods . In Betrayal , Kratos had been shunned by the other gods and decided to lead his Spartan army to overrun Greece . He was falsely accused of murdering Argos , and he killed Ceryx , the son of Hermes , for interfering in his search for the true assassin , who escaped . = = = God of War II = = = Kratos then joined the Spartan army in Rhodes , intent on destruction . Zeus , however , weakened Kratos and tricked him into abandoning his godly powers into the Blade of Olympus , which Zeus used to kill Kratos . Although he overcame all obstacles , Kratos was stunned at Zeus ' betrayal and swore revenge as he died . Kratos fell into the Underworld , but was rescued by the Titan Gaia . Banished to Tartarus with the other surviving Titans after the First Great War , Gaia and her brethren seek the death of Zeus . Kratos , fueled by anger at his betrayal , agreed to aid the Titans and was instructed to find the Sisters of Fate , who are capable of returning him to the moment of Zeus ' treachery . Kratos became determined and utterly ruthless — in the pursuit of his goal he wounded a Titan , killed several Greek heroes without hesitation , and deliberately sacrificed two scholars . All three of the Sisters of Fate were killed when they opposed Kratos , who was prepared to kill Zeus in a final confrontation . Zeus was only saved when Athena intervened and sacrificed herself for him ; only then does Kratos show remorse . He learned from a dying Athena that Zeus is in fact his father , a fact Zeus kept secret because he wished to avoid a repetition of what he did to his own father , Cronos . Kratos rejected any notion of a relationship and vowed to kill Zeus and destroy Olympus . Encouraged by Gaia , Kratos used the power of the Fates to retrieve the Titans before their defeat in the Great War , and with their assistance , stormed Mount Olympus . = = = God of War III = = = Although Kratos killed Poseidon , he was abandoned by Gaia when his first encounter with Zeus went poorly . Stranded in the Underworld and now betrayed by both the Olympians and Titans , Kratos learned from the spirit of Athena , who also provided the Blades of Exile , that he needed to find the Flame of Olympus , which is the key to defeating Zeus . Kratos murdered both Titans and gods , ignoring the warnings of his victims as he sought the Flame . Realizing the key to pacifying the Flame and reaching Pandora 's Box ( engulfed by the Flame ) is Pandora herself , Kratos came to care for Pandora , who reminded him of his lost daughter Calliope . Kratos showed humanity when he attempted to stop Pandora from sacrificing herself to quench the Flame , but reluctantly allowed the act when she said there was no other option . Finding the box empty , and driven berserk by Zeus ' mockery , Kratos attacked his father . Although Gaia interrupted and tried to kill Kratos and Zeus , she was destroyed by Kratos , who then apparently defeated Zeus . Zeus returned in spirit form and attacked Kratos , who retreated into his psyche . Kratos forgave himself for his past sins with the help of Lysandra . Pandora later appeared and told Kratos that hope would save him . Kratos was revived and easily destroyed Zeus . Athena confronted Kratos and demanded that he return the power of hope ; the contents of Pandora 's Box . In a selfless act , Kratos refused , stated his need for vengeance was gone , and impaled himself with the Blade of Olympus , which dispersed the power across the world for mankind 's use . Athena , disappointed with Kratos , removed the Blade and departed as Kratos collapsed next to the Blade of Olympus . The post @-@ credits scene showed a trail of blood leading away from the Blade with Kratos ' whereabouts unknown . = = = Upcoming God of War = = = Many years after the events of God of War III , Kratos has ended up in the world of Norse mythology . He now has a son and Kratos teaches the boy hunting and survival skills . A mentor and protector of his son , who seeks his father 's respect , Kratos must master the rage that has driven him for many years . He hopes to teach his son and make amends for his past . Since Kratos lost his infamous double @-@ chained blades in his climactic battle with Zeus , he now uses a magical battle axe . His attire and personality have also changed as he now sports a full beard and presents a calmer demeanor than the previous games . = = Other appearances = = = = = Guest appearances = = = Kratos has been featured as a playable character in several PlayStation games outside of the God of War series . On August 21 , 2008 , Kratos was released as a downloadable character in Hot Shots Golf : Out of Bounds along with his Clubs of Chaos . As a pre @-@ order bonus for LittleBigPlanet from GameStop , customers received a Sackboy Kratos costume along with ones for Medusa and a Minotaur , as well as a God of War level sticker kit . These were later released for purchase on January 26 , 2009 . Kratos is a guest character in 2009 's Soulcalibur : Broken Destiny , which includes his own story mode . As a pre @-@ order bonus for ModNation Racers from GameStop , customers received a Kratos Mod along with his Kart of Chaos . These were later released for purchase on November 2 , 2010 . Kratos ' next guest appearance was in the PlayStation 3 version of 2011 's Mortal Kombat ( and the PlayStation Vita version released in 2012 ) , which features his own fighting stage and arcade ladder mode . The character then appeared in the 2012 crossover fighting game , PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale , which includes two God of War inspired stages , several God of War items , as well as series antagonist Zeus , who was released as a downloadable character on March 19 , 2013 . As part of the God of War franchise 's tenth anniversary , Kratos appeared in the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , and PlayStation Vita versions of Shovel Knight ( released April 21 , 2015 ) , where he is a secret boss battle . His next guest appearance brought him back to the world of LittleBigPlanet in LittleBigPlanet 3 as a new Sackboy costume in his Fear Kratos form , along with Sackboy costumes of Zeus , Hercules , Poseidon , and Athena , and a costume of Hades for new character Toggle . The costumes ' release coincided with the release of God of War III Remastered on PlayStation 4 in July 2015 . A costume of Kratos as well as God of War custom decorations were included in the " Crafted Edition " of Tearaway Unfolded , which released on PlayStation 4 on September 8 , 2015 . TC Carson provided Kratos ' voice in all of his guest appearances , except for LittleBigPlanet , ModNation Racers , LittleBigPlanet 3 , and Tearaway Unfolded where the character is only a costume , and in Shovel Knight which only has text dialogue . The character has been parodied twice in The Simpsons franchise . He appeared as the " God of Wharf " on a billboard advertising a chowder restaurant in The Simpsons Game . He later appeared on the Guts of War II : Entrails of Intestinox kiosk at " E4 " — a parody of the Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) — in The Simpsons television episode , " The Food Wife " . Kratos has also been parodied by Adult Swim 's clay @-@ mation television series , Robot Chicken . He was first parodied in season 5 , episode 15 , " The Core , The Thief , His Wife and Her Lover " , where it is shown how far Kratos ( voiced by Brian Austin Green ) will go to collect blood orbs . Sony later teamed up with Robot Chicken to produce a marketing campaign advertisement for PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale that parodied Kratos and other characters from the game . = = = Novels and film = = = Kratos is also the main character in novelizations of the game series by Matthew Stover and Robert E. Vardeman . The novels are a retelling of the games and offer deeper insights into their stories . The first novel , titled God of War , was published in May 2010 , and the second novel , titled God of War II , was published in February 2013 . A film adaptation of the original God of War was announced in 2005 , but has remained in development hell . In 2010 , Jaffe stated that the " script went out a year and a half ago to Daniel Craig who plays [ James ] Bond , but he turned it down . " He also said that another actor had since been signed to the role of Kratos , and that " this new person is pretty good , if that ends up true . " The film 's new writers , Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan , were announced in July 2012 , and in August 2012 , the writers stated that they plan to humanize Kratos and explore his past . = = Cultural impact = = = = = Merchandise and promotion = = = Two series of action figures based on God of War II have been produced by the National Entertainment Collectibles Association ( NECA ) . The first set included two versions of Kratos ; one wielding the Blades of Athena , and the second wearing the Golden Fleece and holding a Gorgon 's head . The second set included a twelve @-@ inch figure that plays six game quotes . A second two @-@ figure set was also released , with Kratos wearing the God of War armor . In October 2009 , United Cutlery created a scaled replica of Kratos ' Blades of Chaos , which included a custom display stand with the God of War logo . Kratos was also featured in a line of action figures released by DC Unlimited and based on God of War III , which included the characters Zeus , Hades , and Hercules . Between February 1 , 2010 and March 31 , 2010 , 7 @-@ Eleven sold a limited @-@ edition Slurpee drink called " Kratos Fury " , in addition to four exclusive God of War III cups , which featured codes that could be used to access God of War III and Slurpee @-@ themed downloadable content on the Slurpee website . Kratos ' visage has appeared on the PlayStation Portable Chains of Olympus exclusive bundle pack , and on the PlayStation 3 God of War III sweepstakes prize video game consoles . A limited @-@ edition 10 inches ( 250 mm ) figurine of Kratos was the grand prize of a sweepstakes in a promotion for God of War Collection in November 2009 . A 6 inches ( 150 mm ) figure of Kratos was included in the God of War : Ascension — Collector 's Edition . In June 2014 , a Kratos Pop ! Vinyl Figure was released . The same year , Sony partnered with Gaming Heads to produce a limited @-@ edition ( 500 units ) life @-@ size bust of Kratos . It is 28 inches ( 710 mm ) tall and sits upon a Greek @-@ inspired column . A " Fear Kratos " version of the bust was also produced ( 100 units ) that year , based on the Fear Kratos costume from God of War III . In 2015 , Sony again partnered with Gaming Heads to produce a limited @-@ edition ( 1 @,@ 250 units ) lunging Kratos statue . The statue is 19 inches ( 480 mm ) tall and features Kratos wielding the Blades of Exile . For the God of War franchise 's tenth anniversary ( March 2015 ) , Gaming Heads produced two limited @-@ edition " Kratos on the Throne " statues , depicting the final scene of the original God of War . Both statues are 29 inches ( 740 mm ) tall and the Regular Edition ( 1 @,@ 250 units ) features Kratos in his normal attire and the Exclusive Edition ( 500 units ) features Kratos in his God of War armor . In November 2015 , Sony announced a new Kratos statue to be released the following month , which is also in celebration of God of War 's ten @-@ year anniversary . The limited edition ( 500 units ) statue made of polystone was designed by Santa Monica and stands over 26 inches ( 660 mm ) tall with details such as leather , cloth , and metal pieces . = = = Reception = = = Kratos ' character received positive response by video game publications . GameSpot regarded Kratos as a " sympathetic antihero " and a " badass " , and described him as endearing due to his unforgiving demeanor , but added that the slowly @-@ developing story offered players " no understanding [ of him ] " in the game 's early stages . IGN said he was ruthless , merciless and savage , noting the character 's main motive is vengeance and " all he desires is murder . " IGN also stated that in time the player would begin to " love and loathe Kratos and hate Ares . " GamePro said it was " Kratos ' tragic fall and brutal ascension to the peaks of Mount Olympus that made the original God of War so memorable . " PlayStation Universe said he was " certainly a unique character and a warrior to be reckoned with , " and that " this iconic PlayStation anti @-@ hero will surely not be forgotten . " At the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards , Kratos was nominated for " Character of the Year " and awarded the " Biggest Badass " award . He was included in GameSpot 's " All Time Greatest Video Game Hero " contest and reached the " Elite Eight " round before losing to Mario . The 2011 Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition lists Kratos as the ninth most popular video game character . In 2011 , Empire ranked him as the 15th @-@ greatest video game character . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked Kratos , " one of PlayStation ’ s most popular representatives , " as the eighteenth- " most memorable , influential , and badass " protagonist in games : " Being insanely violent isn ’ t exactly an uncommon trait amongst game characters , but driven by a rage wrought from his guilt ( slaughtered thousands , including — oops — his wife and daughter ) Kratos kills with such convincing visceral aggression it elevates him way beyond the status of brain @-@ dead murder @-@ bot . " In 2010 , Game Guru said that " practically anyone , even if they hadn 't played any of the God of War games , would know about Kratos . " Kratos has been included on several top video game character lists : GamesRadar listed him as one of the 25 best new characters of the decade , stating that while he appears at first to be a generic character , players eventually learn that he is both an " unstoppable force of nature " and a " broken , tragic man " . Knowing of the talks regarding a God of War film , both IGN and UGO Networks listed Kratos as a character who deserved his own movie . In 2008 , IGN listed him as one of the characters wanted for an " ultimate fighting " game , featuring characters from all consoles and all eras of gaming . He was included on the list of the best anti @-@ heroes by IGN in 2012 . In 2011 , Complex listed several of his finishing moves in their fifty " craziest fatalities in video games " list at 30th , 28th , 24th , 14th , and number @-@ one spots for his finishing moves on Hades , Hercules , Helios , the Hydra , and Poseidon , respectively . The " Dairy Bastard " alternate costume from the original God of War was included in UGO 's list of the " most stylin ' alternate costumes " . GameFront listed Kratos in 2011 as one of the top five video game characters with the " biggest daddy issues " . Complex ranked him as having the best fighting game cameos for his guest appearances in Soulcalibur : Broken Destiny and Mortal Kombat in 2012 and as the sixth " most badass " video game character of all time in 2013 . Kratos ' Blades of Chaos were included on GameSpot 's " 15 Most Badass Swords in Video Game History " list . On the other hand , Kratos ' character has also been given criticism . Prince of Persia producer Ben Mattes said in an interview that he considers Kratos " a supercool character , but it 's black and white ; his personality is pure rage , his dialogue is pure rage , his character design is pure rage — it 's kind of easy . " Jeremy " Norm " Scott , creator of the comic strip Hsu and Chan , stated in Electronic Gaming Monthly that Kratos was average and " did not exist , except as an avatar for the player . " In 2009 , IGN listed Kratos as the sixth @-@ most overrated video game character . Cheat Code Central also listed Kratos as the sixth @-@ most overrated video game character in a 2011 top @-@ ten list .
= Triangle Link = The Triangle Link ( Norwegian : Trekantsambandet ) is a fixed link with three branches that connects the islands of Stord and Bømlo to each other and to the mainland at Sveio , Norway . It consists of the underwater Bømlafjord Tunnel from Sveio to the island of Føyno , the Stord Bridge from there to Stord , and a road including the Bømla Bridge and the Spissøy Bridge to Bømlo . The section from Sveio to Stord is part of European Route E39 , while the branch to Bømlo is part of County Road 542 . The Bømlo Tunnel is 7 @,@ 860 meters ( 25 @,@ 790 ft ) long and reaches 260 meters ( 850 ft ) below mean sea level . It is the longest subsea tunnel in Norway and was the deepest in the world when it opened . The Stord Bridge and Bømla Bridge are both suspension bridges , with lengths of 1 @,@ 077 and 998 metres ( 3 @,@ 533 and 3 @,@ 274 ft ) and main spans of 677 and 577 meters ( 2 @,@ 221 and 1 @,@ 893 ft ) . The Spissøy Bridge is a 283 @-@ meter ( 928 ft ) beam bridge . The link is 21 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 13 @.@ 4 mi ) long toll road with a toll plaza on Føyno . The section from Stord to Bømlo has a pedestrian and bicycle path . Plans for a link between Bømlo and Stord were first launched as a pontoon bridge in the 1960s . In the late 1980s , the plans evolved into a triangular project . There was controversy surrounding the project , in particular from environmentalists . The Parliament of Norway passed the plans in 1996 , and construction started the following year . The bridges and link between Stord and Bømlo opened on 28 December 2000 , while the tunnel opened on 30 April 2001 . The link cost 1 @.@ 8 billion Norwegian krone ( NOK ) after substantial cost overruns and will remain a toll road until 30 April 2013 . = = Route description = = The Triangle Link is part of two routes , European Route E39 and County Road 542 . The section from Stord to Sveio , including the Stord Bridge and the Bømlafjord Tunnel , is part of E39 — the Coastal Highway — which runs along the west coast of Norway . The section from the interchange on Føyno , including the Bøla Bridge and the Spissøy Bridge , is on County Road 542 . The link acts both as a mainland connection for Stord and Bømlo to the mainland at Sveio , as well as a link between the two island communities , which have a combined population of 30 @,@ 000 . The Bømlafjord Tunnel is a 7 @,@ 860 @-@ meter ( 25 @,@ 790 ft ) long subsea tunnel which crosses Bømlafjorden . It is 11 meters ( 36 ft ) wide , 4 @.@ 7 meters ( 15 ft ) tall and reaches 260 @.@ 4 meters ( 854 ft ) below mean sea level . The tunnel has three lanes , one downhill and two uphill , with the direction of the extra lane switching at the bottom . When it opened , it was the longest and second @-@ deepest subsea tunnel in Europe . Stord Bridge is a suspension bridge which crosses Digernessundet , connecting Stord with Føyno . It is 1 @,@ 077 meters ( 3 @,@ 533 ft ) long and has a main span ( distance between the pylons , or towers ) of 677 meters ( 2 @,@ 221 ft ) . The bridge is 13 @.@ 5 meters ( 44 ft ) wide and has a clearance of 18 meters ( 59 ft ) . It has two 97 @-@ meter ( 318 ft ) tall pylons , one foundationed on Digernesklubben and one on Føyno . The pylons were built in concrete , while the deck is built as 19 in steel sections , each 36 meters ( 118 ft ) long and weighing 150 tonnes ( 150 long tons ; 170 short tons ) . Stord Bridge has the second @-@ longest span in Norway , after the Askøy Bridge . Bømla Bridge is a suspension bridge which crosses Spissøysundet , connecting Spissøy and Nautøya . It is 998 meters ( 3 @,@ 274 ft ) long and has a main span of 577 meters ( 1 @,@ 893 ft ) . The bridge is 13 meters ( 43 ft ) wide and has a clearance of 36 meters ( 118 ft ) . The higher clearance was built to allow ship traffic which runs through Nyleia between Bømlo and Stord to continue to run . The bridge has two 105 @-@ meter ( 344 ft ) tall pylons , one foundationed on Brunsholmen and one on Spissøy . The bridge has a similar aesthetically design to the Stord Bridge , and also features a steel deck with concrete pylons . It has the fifth @-@ longest span in Norway . Spissøy Bridge is a beam bridge which crosses Gassasundet , connecting Bømlo with Spissøy . It is 283 meters ( 928 ft ) long , consists of five spans and has a clearance of 7 meters ( 23 ft ) . The fixed link project also includes 12 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) of highway . On Stord , E39 received a new two @-@ lane , limited @-@ access road from Meatjørn to the bridge . This included a new grade separated ( two @-@ level ) interchange in the southern part of Leirvik and a culvert — the Digernes Tunnel — immediately before the bridge . In Sveio , the link included 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) of new limited @-@ access road from the tunnel to a grade @-@ separated interchange at Dalshovda . In Bømlo , there was a new road built across the islands of Spissøy and Nautøy — including an intersection on Spissøy . It further consisted of a new section of road from the Bømlo side of Spissøy Bridge at Gassasundet to Røyksund , and from Gassasundet to Grøvle , including a new tunnel through Stokkajuvet . A combined pedestrian and bicycle path runs along the whole section between Stord and Bømlo , with a grass division on the land parts between the road and the path . Underpasses and walls were built with natural stone . The tolls are collected at a toll plaza located on Føyno . The plaza is constructed as a grade @-@ separated intersection , so that any car passes through the plaza once . However , traffic only traveling between Føyno to Bømlo does not have to pay . Cars driving along E39 drive straight ahead through the plaza , while cars to or from Bømlo need to use the interchange . There is also an intersection allowing access to the island . The plaza has six lanes , of which two in each direction have a toll booth and one in each direction has an automatic collection . The toll station uses the Autopass toll collection , which allows passage without stopping , in addition to manual collection . Passengers , pedestrians , bicycles , motorcyclists and mopeds are free . As of 2011 , the fees are NOK 85 for cars and NOK 270 for trucks . Frequent travelers can prepay for at least 40 passings to the toll company , and receive a 40 percent discount . = = History = = = = = Pontoon bridge proposals = = = The first recorded proposal for a connection between Bømlo and Stord was made in the 1960s by sheriff , and later mayor of Fitjar , Finn Havnerås . Christened the Island Road , he proposed a series of eleven bridges and causeways which would run from Kalveid in Fitjar via Brandasund to Rolfsnes in Bømlo . While local politicians were not opposed to the plan , the recent municipal merger between Bømlo , Bremnes and Moster made them prioritize other sectors and the project was abandoned without any official investigations . A new route was launched by Bømlo Mayor Malvin Meling , who proposed a pontoon bridge which would cross Stokksundet . He was inspired by the plans to build what would become the Nordhordland Bridge north of Bergen . In 1973 , the municipal councils of Bømlo , Stord and Fitjar decided to launch a planning process , which concluded that a pontoon bridge between Sørstokken and Foldrøyholmen would be optimal . The report also considered bridges across the Fitjar Archipelago and a crossing via Spissøy and Føyno . There were protests from Wichmann Motorfabrikk who were concerned about their operations if the sound was closed for shipping traffic . Similar protests also came from the shipping industry , who wished to continue using Stokksundet ; the protests were not remedied by the plans including a suspension bridge across Foldrøysundet . To illustrate their point , one shipowner let two of his ships cross in the middle of Foldrøysundet . The shipping industry received support from Norwegian Coastal Administration and the plans were abandoned in 1974 . In the early 1980s , plans for Stord Airport , Sørstokken were launched . The bridge plans across Stokksundet were again brought up in 1982 as the industry on Bømlo wanted to not have use a ferry to reach the airport . A committee with representatives from all three municipalities was established in May 1983 to look into the possibilities for a bridge . Led by Bømlo Mayor Arne M. Haldorsen , it issued Engineer Harald Møyner the task to author a report and recommendation . He made three proposals : a pontoon or suspension bridge between Foldrøyhomen and Litlaneset ; a suspension bridge between Setraneset and Sokkbleikjo , which would terminate just south of the new airport ; and a combined fixed link between Spissøy and Digernes , without passing via the Fitjar Archipelago . The latter was the first time a fixed link to the mainland was proposed . The Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration protested against a possible suspension bridge near the airport , but stated that one closer further away would be fine . Mapping of traffic patterns on Bømlo was undertaken by Hordaland Public Roads Administration in 1984 , and based on this and other feedback , a pontoon bridge between Foldrøyholmen and Sørstokken was recommended . It was estimated to cost NOK 190 million , in addition to auxiliary roads for NOK 40 million . Following the opening of the Vardø Tunnel in 1982 , the first subsea tunnel in Norway , Engineer Finn Nitter d.e. proposed a fixed link which involved a combined bridge , road and tunnels between the islands , including a suspension bridge over Digernessundet , a causeway and low bridge onwards to a 2 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometer ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) subsea tunnel under Spissøysundet and a low bridge over Gassasundet . In addition , a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) long tunnel would have had to be constructed from Føyno to Ulveråker in Sveio . The company Johannes Sørlie launched an all @-@ tunnel proposal in 1985 , which would cost NOK 700 million and give 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) of subsea tunnel connecting Bømlo to Stord and the mainland . The committee was positive to the proposals , while Josef Martinsen , director of Hordaland Public Roads Administration , stated that the project was unrealistic . Sveio Municipality was subsequently invited as a member of the planning committee . On 14 May 1985 , the committee voted to encourage the municipal councils to pass planning which involved a bridge across Sørstokken , and aimed to get the plans into Norwegian Road Plan 1990 – 1993 . The committee continued its work until it dissolved itself in October 1986 and was replaced by the limited company Ytre Sunnhordland Bru- og Tunnelselskap AS ( SBT ) . The company was owned by the municipalities of Bømlo , Stord , Fitjar and Sveio , Hordaland County Municipality and the banks Bergen Bank , Sparebanken Vest , Vestlandsbanken , Haugesund Bank and Christiania Bank . A new master plan for the project was completed by the Public Roads Administration in December 1986 . It proposed four main routes : via the Fitjar Archipelago ; via Foldrøyhamn with a pontoon bridge to Sørstokken ; a suspension bridge from Søtreneset to Stokkbleikjo ; or via Spissøy , Naustøy and Føyno to Digernes . They recommended choosing the pontoon bridge . SBT stated that this was only to be a first stage , and that a second stage should involve a tunnel to the mainland . In a meetingbetween SBT and representatives for the shipping industry at the end of 1986 , it was decided that SBT would start working for a mainland connection that would not hinder sailing . A report published by SBT in 1987 looked at details for a subsea tunnel to the mainland . It was the first official document to use the " Triangle Link " term , although this had previously been used by the press . A delegation traveled to Washington State in the United States and British Columbia in Canada to look at their seven pontoon bridges , while seismic surveys were undertaken in Bømlafjorden . SBT changed its name to Sunnhordland Bru- og Tunnelselskap and a majority of the board shifted towards being in favor of a fixed link . The issue became the subject of major local debate and was supplemented by a demand from residents in southern Bømlo that they did not want to lose their ferry service , which would be faster than driving via the fixed link . = = = Opposition = = = The Coastal Administration stated that they would not allow a pontoon bridge . SBT decided on 26 June 1987 to work towards receiving permission to collect advanced tolls on the ferry services . On 16 September , they unanimously supported the triangular proposal , which was estimated to cost NOK 660 million . This was criticized by Hordaland Public Roads Administration , who stated that it would take longer time to plan — and thus complete — the Triangle Link . A poll from January 1988 showed that 78 @.@ 6 percent of the population of Bømlo wanted the Triangle Link , while 8 @.@ 6 percent wanted the pontoon bridge . On 6 January , SBT started negotiating loans with various banks to receive financial guarantees for the Triangle Link , and by February sufficient funding had been secured . From 1988 , environmentalists started actively opposing the Triangle Link . The most active was the local chapter of the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature , which stated that the road would have serious consequences for the local boat traffic to the recreational islands of Føyno and Nautøy . Instead , they recommended that the municipalities chose a pontoon bridge . An action group was established . Hallgeir Matre stated that Stord had a lack of beaches and that the two islands " were the last low , forested islands in the area after the paradise Eldøyane had been converted to an industrial area for Aker Stord during the 1970s " . He further stated that environmentalists were skeptical to floating bridges , but that in this case it would be the lesser of two evils . The Stord Society for the Conservation of Nature applied for municipal grants to make a critical report , but this was rejected by the majority of the municipal council . By June , a new chapter had been established on Bømlo , and the group stated that it was irresponsible to build a link which would result in a massive increase in car use . Future In Our Hands started a petition which collected 1 @,@ 600 signatures . A poll from 1990 showed that in Stord , 35 percent were in favor of the project , while 36 @.@ 7 percent were opposed , given that the ferry service was improved , among other things with night ferries and increased comfort . Another opponent to the project was the Action Committee Against a Hasty Construction of the Triangle Link , who wanted to delay the decision until after the 1991 municipal elections to ensure that the municipal councils had backing in the public . Gisle Tjong was another opponent , who stated that the risk in the project was large and that it was uncertain how long the tolls would last : they could just as well last 60 as 15 years . Instead , he wanted to use advanced tolls and fuel fees , place the income in the bank and then pay the whole fixed link with the accumulated funds . Most of the opposition against the project was from Stord , while in Bømlo there was overwhelming support . However , in southern Bømlo there were concerns that they would lose their ferry , as they would have a much longer rout to Haugesund via the Triangle Link . Some also stated that it was necessary to keep a ferry for people with fear of tunnels . = = = Political processes = = = Bømlo Municipal Council voted unanimously in favor of the Triangle Link on 22 February 1988 . Two days later , the issue was discussed in Stord Municipal Council . Olav Akselsen at first proposed supporting the pontoon bridge , but after a trial vote he withdrew the proposal and also Stord supported the Triangle Link . The following week , Sveio Municipal Council voted in favor the Triangle Link , without either a debate or dissent in the council . Fitjar Municipal Council voted on 15 March to work with both proposals . Hordaland Public Roads Administration still supported a pontoon bridge , and stated that two and a half years of work on a master plan had been wasted . A new master plan for the Triangle Link was published in early 1989 , estimating the costs at NOK 890 million . It recommended that the Langevåg – Buavåg Ferry remain , but the other four ferry services be terminated . The report concluded that the maintenance costs of the fixed link would be lower than the subsidies of the ferry , that the project would be economical of society and would reduce emissions . During late 1989 , advance tolls on the ferries were approved by the municipal councils and the county council , who recommended that collection start from 1 July 1990 , but this was not immediately supported by the government . On 18 and 19 September 1990 , the Standing Committee on Transport and Communications visited the region and looked at the proposed areas of the Triangle Link , the Hardanger Bridge and the Folgefonna Tunnel . By then it had been established that the Triangle Link would not need state grants , as it could be entirely financed with tolls . Tore Haugen , Conservative parliamentarian from Akershus , proposed that the project be considered independent of the regular national road plans . However , Lars Gunnar Lie , Minister of Transport and Communications from the Christian Democratic Party , stated that he planned a single report to Parliament for all three projects . In 1991 , the master plan was appealed by the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature to the Ministry of Transport and Communications . The appeal was seconded by the Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management . In the 1991 municipal election , the Socialist Left Party was the only party which was opposed to the fixed link , and they received a large increase in votes , increasing for 7 to 21 percent in Stord . The same year , Dag Hareide in the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature started lobbying up towards national politicians in an attempt to stop the issue in Parliament . High @-@ profile people who were opposed to the project included Per Ståle Lønning , Herborg Kråkevik and Kenneth Sivertsen . The issue of advanced tolls was reviewed by the county council on 23 October 1991 , where 64 voted in favor and 19 were opposed , the latter representing the Socialist Left Party , the Red Electoral Alliance and the Progress Party . In June 1992 , the county council was asked to prioritize between the Hardanger Bridge and the Triangle Link , as there would not be sufficient state grants to build both projects . Both would require between NOK 200 and 300 million , and it would not be possible to start both projects in the period from 1994 to 1997 . In the council meeting on 18 June 1992 , a proposal to waiver prioritization was rejected . The council then , with 44 against 30 votes , chose to prioritize the Hardanger Bridge , which received most votes from the Labour and Centre Party . The Conservative Party was the only party for which all the votes were cast in favor of the Triangle Link . The Socialist Left Party 's proposal to build neither received 11 votes . In July , the master plan was passed by the Council of State . On 10 December 1992 , Parliament approved advanced payment of tolls on the ferry , which were made effective from 1 January 1993 . Ticket prices increased with between NOK 10 and 12 . This resulted in protests from the ferry employees who stated that they would have to collect the tolls which would remove their jobs ; Norwegian Seafarers ' Union representatives stated that they considered suing the state . Work on the development plan started in 1992 . It included safety and environmental improvements which increased the project 's cost by NOK 200 million . In May 1994 , it was made subject to consultative statements . Norwegian Road Plan 1994 – 97 was considered by Parliament during 1993 . Minister of Transport and Communications , Kjell Opseth of the Labour Party , stated that he wanted to equally prioritize the Triangle Link and the Hardanger Bridge , but that it would be unrealistic to build both in the same period . At a county council meeting on 21 April 1993 , the council decided with 60 against 20 votes that the county would not prioritize between the two projects . Opseth subsequently stated that in his opinion , the Triangle Link should be prioritized . In 1995 , a report on the Coastal Highway ( E39 ) was presented , which recommended that the Skjersholmane – Valevåg Ferry be removed . Particularly within the Labour Party there was disagreement about whether or not to build the Hardanger Bridge . In addition to crossing the Hardangerfjord , there were concerns that the bridge would increase the traffic through Hardangervidda National Park , and that it subsequently would result in an all @-@ year road being built with subsequent negative impact on nature and wildlife . Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland of the Labour Party stated on 10 October 1995 that the government was in favor of the Triangle Link and opposed to the Hardanger Bridge . When the standing committee visited the two projects in 1996 , they were met by demonstrators in favor of the bridge in Hardanger , and demonstrators in opposition to the fixed link in Sunnhordland . In May , SBT proposed building a culvert on Digernes as a compromise for a proposal from the Labour Party and the Christian Democratic Party to consider other solution , which could have postponed the project several years . Parliament decided on 11 June 1996 , with 144 against 20 votes , to build the Triangle Link . The Folgefonna Tunnel was also passed , while the Hardanger Bridge was put aside . = = = Construction = = = Construction started on 15 February 1997 . Before the first blast could be taken by County Mayor Magnar Lussand , representatives for Vestlandet Natue and Youth , and The People 's Movement Against the Triangle Link had to be moved . The only police officer at the festivities was Sheriff Reidar Færestrand , who was not dressed in his police uniform and had not brought with him his badge . The demonstrators did not move until a police boat had been sent with the necessary documentation and Færestrand could prove his identity as a law enforcer . Elin Lerum Boasson of Nature and Youth stated that it was " a day of sorrow " . Core samples showed that the tunnel would have to be built 30 meters ( 98 ft ) deeper than originally planned to avoid deposits . The tunneling was undertaken by NCC Eeg @-@ Henriksen from the Føyno side and by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration from the Sveio side . Construction from Sveio started on 16 September 1997 and from Føyno on 6 March 1998 . The tunnel was built at an average speed of 55 meters ( 180 ft ) per week , with the record being 96 @.@ 7 meters ( 317 ft ) . The lowest point was reached on 5 May 1999 and the breakthrough took place on 2 September , five months before schedule . Sixty people participated in a course to master fear of tunnels organized by the toll company . When it opened , the tunnel was the longest and second @-@ deepest subsea tunnel in Europe and Norway , after the Hitra Tunnel . The Stord and Bømla Bridges were both constructed using the same method and by the same contractors , Arbeidsfellesskapet Triangle Contractor , a joint venture between NCC Eeg @-@ Henriksen and HBG Steel Structures . Construction started on the Stord Bridge on 20 February 1999 . After the pylons were completed , two catwalks were erected between them , with the constructors choosing a continual catwalk instead of three separate ones . The cables were spun on @-@ site using a reel ; this also allowed for cost savings , as the reels could be used two times . The cables were spun using the air spinning with controlled tension , which allowed spinning with little space use and with a crew with limited experience with spinning . The two bridges were the first time that on @-@ site spinning was used in Norway . The fastening poles were delivered five weeks after schedule ; a new mounting method was developed which allowed them to be installed in a quarter of the time , in part by using a helicopter , and the whole five @-@ week delay was eradicated . This allowed the deck sections to be installed as scheduled . The decks were produced in Schiedam , Netherlands , for the Stord Bridge and in Italy for the Bømlo Bridge . These were sent by barge to Sunnhordland . The section length was different between the two bridges , the Stord Bridge having them in lengths of 36 meters ( 118 ft ) and the Bømla Bridge in sections of 24 meters ( 79 ft ) . This was to accommodate the latter 's smaller vertical curvature . The entire project cost NOK 1 @,@ 814 million . The costs were distributed to NOK 476 million for the Bømlafjord Tunnel , NOK 433 million for the Stord Bridge , NOK 336 million for the Bømla Bridge , NOK 46 million for the Spissøy Bridge , NOK 36 million for the Digernes Tunnel , NOK 325 million for roadways and NOK 172 for administration and common costs . The investment cost was split between state grants and NOK 1 @,@ 036 million in debt taken up by the toll company . When the project was passed by Parliament it had a budget of NOK 1 @,@ 260 million . The Office of the Auditor General of Norway criticized the Western Norway Public Roads Administration in 2001 for a total cost overrun of NOK 900 million in three projects , the Triangle Link , the Lærdal Tunnel and parts of National Road 555 . The majority of the cost overruns were tied to the Triangle Link . As a consequence , Minister of Transport Torild Skogsholm stated that future large road investments would have an external quality assurance before being presented to Parliament . = = = Opening and operation = = = The first part of the link , between Stord and Sveio , including the Stord Bridge and Bømlafjord Tunnel , was taken into use on 27 December 2000 . The official opening and the National Road 542 opening took place on 30 April 2001 . The opening of the first stage allowed two ferry services to be replaced , the Skjersholmane – Valevåg Ferry , which connected Stord to Sveio , and the Skjersholmane – Utbjoa Ferry , which connected Stord to Vindafjord . With the opening of the Bømlo connection , the two remaining ferries could be closed : the Sagvåg – Siggjarvåg Ferry , which connected Stord with Bømlo , and the Mosterhamn – Valevåg Ferry , which connected Bømlo to Sveio . The Langevåg – Buavåg Ferry , which connects the southern part of Bømlo to Sveio , was not closed . In 2000 , the four closed ferry services transported 884 @,@ 216 vehicles and 1 @,@ 935 @,@ 875 people . From the start the toll plaza used Autopass , a standard which allows automatic passage through the toll plaza without stopping . The system was launched by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration in 2001 and the Triangle Link was the first to take the system into use . The tollway was also the first in the country to allow subscriptions to be made via the Internet . The initial charges were NOK 75 for cars up to 3 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 4 long tons ; 3 @.@ 9 short tons ) or 6 @.@ 0 meters ( 19 @.@ 7 ft ) length , NOK 225 for small trucks , between 6 @.@ 0 and 12 @.@ 4 meters ( 19 @.@ 7 and 40 @.@ 7 ft ) , and NOK 450 for longer vehicles . In 2004 the Public Roads Administration published a report documenting high administration costs in the 46 toll companies throughout the country . Along with the company for the Osterøy Bridge , SBT received the harshest criticism in the report . Especially a trip made by Chairman Harry Herstad and his wife to San Francisco to participate at a conference was criticized , as it cost the toll company NOK 118 @,@ 000 . Also annual board member fees of NOK 200 @,@ 000 and excessive trips for the board were commented as wasted money . The internal audit concluded with that there were costs of NOK 300 @,@ 000 in 2002 and 2003 which were not properly documented or were not used in line with regulations . The report was rejected by the board , who claimed that several of the issues were misunderstandings and that the Public Roads Administration was using the report in a campaign to establish a state @-@ run toll collection agency . Øyvind Halleraker withdrew as managing director of SBT and as chairman of the Norwegian Road Financing Companies Association in January 2005 . He was at the time also member of parliament for the Conservative Party . As a consequence of the report , Hordaland County Municipality demanded an extraordinary annual meeting be held in February , in which chairman Harry Herstad was replaced . Pål Kårbø was elected new chairman . At the same time the annual meeting demanded that the company withdraw from its various tasks related to establishing toll projects on Bølmo and Halsnøy as well as administrative work of the Norwegian Road Financing Companies Association . In a 2007 report from the Public Roads Administration , SBT was one of seven toll companies which was criticized for too high administration costs . The toll changed the operator of the toll plaza from Bru- og Tunnelselskapet to Vegamot in 2010 . The same year the toll plaza had 1 @,@ 910 @,@ 280 passing vehicles and a revenue of NOK 142 million . This made it the ninth @-@ largest toll road in Norway by revenue . The toll collection is scheduled to be completed on 30 April 2013 .
= French ironclad Suffren = Suffren was a wooden @-@ hulled , armored frigate of the Océan class , built for the French Navy in the mid to late 1860s as an improvement over the Provence @-@ class ironclad . Although she was laid down in 1866 , the ship was not launched until 1872 and commissioned in 1876 . Suffren was one of the French ships assigned to the international squadron gathered to force the Ottoman Empire to carry out its obligations under the Treaty of Berlin in 1880 . The ship was paid off in 1895 and discarded two years later . = = Design and description = = The Océan @-@ class ironclads were designed by Henri Dupuy de Lôme as an improved version of the Provence @-@ class ironclads . The ships were central battery ironclads , with the armament concentrated amidships . For the first time in a French ironclad three watertight iron bulkheads were fitted in the hull . Like most ironclads of their era , they were equipped with a metal @-@ reinforced ram . The ship measured 87 @.@ 73 meters ( 287 ft 10 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 52 meters ( 57 ft 6 in ) . Suffren had a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 09 meters ( 29 ft 10 in ) and displaced 7 @,@ 800 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 700 long tons ) . Her crew numbered between 750 and 778 officers and men . The metacentric height of the ship was very low , between 1 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 m ) . = = = Propulsion = = = The Océan @-@ class ships had one horizontal return connecting rod compound steam engine driving a single propeller . Their engines were powered by eight oval boilers . On sea trials the engine produced 4 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 100 kW ) and Suffren reached 14 @.@ 3 knots ( 26 @.@ 5 km / h ; 16 @.@ 5 mph ) . She carried 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for approximately 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The Océan @-@ class ships were barque or barquentine @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 2 @,@ 000 square meters ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . = = = Armament = = = These ships had their main armament mounted in four barbettes on the upper deck , one gun at each corner of the battery , with the remaining guns on the battery deck below the barbettes . Suffren 's armament was upgraded , before she commissioned , to four 274 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns in the barbettes , and on the battery deck , four 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns , six 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns and one 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) gun . By 1885 , all of the 138 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by six 120 @-@ millimeter guns . The 18 @-@ caliber 274 @-@ millimeter Modéle 1870 gun fired an armor @-@ piercing , 476 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 216 @.@ 0 kg ) shell while the gun itself weighed 22 @.@ 84 long tons ( 23 @.@ 21 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 424 ft / s ( 434 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 3 inches ( 360 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 19 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millmeter Modele 1870 gun weighed 317 @.@ 5 pounds ( 144 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 15 @.@ 41 long tons ( 15 @.@ 66 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 624 ft / s ( 495 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 4 inches ( 366 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 138 @-@ millimeter gun was 21 calibers long and weighed 2 @.@ 63 long tons ( 2 @.@ 67 t ) . It fired a 61 @.@ 7 @-@ pound ( 28 @.@ 0 kg ) explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 529 ft / s ( 466 m / s ) . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells . At some point the ship received a dozen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute . The hull was not recessed to enable any of the guns on the battery deck to fire forward or aft . However , the guns mounted in the barbettes sponsoned out over the sides of the hull did have some ability to fire fore and aft . Late in the ship 's career , four above @-@ water 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes were added . = = = Armor = = = The Ocean @-@ class ships had a complete 178 – 203 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 0 in ) wrought iron waterline belt . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron . The barbette armor was 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The unarmored portions of their sides were protected by 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) iron plates . Gardiner says that the barbette armor was later removed to improve their stability , but this is not confirmed by any other source . = = Service = = Suffren was laid down at Cherbourg in July 1866 , but was not launched until 26 December 1872 . The ship began her sea trials on 15 January 1873 and was completed on 5 August . She was placed into reserve after her completion and was not commissioned until 1 March 1876 when she became flagship of the Cherbourg Division . Throughout her career Suffren was often used as a flagship because of her spacious admiral 's quarters . On 1 September 1880 the ship was assigned to the division that participated in the international naval demonstration at Ragusa later that month under the command of Vice Admiral Seymour of the Royal Navy in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro . Suffren was reduced to reserve in 1881 and not recommissioned until 23 August 1884 when she was assigned to the Northern Squadron . The ship was transferred to the Mediterranean Squadron about 1888 and remained there until paid off in 1895 and condemned in 1897 .
= Revolt of the Comuneros = The Revolt of the Comuneros ( Spanish : Guerra de las Comunidades de Castilla , " War of the Communities of Castile " ) was an uprising by citizens of Castile against the rule of Charles V and his administration between 1520 and 1521 . At its height , the rebels controlled the heart of Castile , ruling the cities of Valladolid , Tordesillas , and Toledo . The revolt occurred in the wake of political instability in the Crown of Castile after the death of Queen Isabella I in 1504 . Joanna the Mad , Isabella 's daughter , inherited the throne with her Burgundian husband King Philip I. However , Philip died two years into their reign , and their son Charles was only six years old . Due to his youth and Joanna 's mental instability , Castile was ruled by the nobles and her father , King Ferdinand II of Aragon , as a regency . After Ferdinand 's death in 1516 , the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Charles was proclaimed king of both Castile and Aragon . Charles had been raised in the Netherlands with little knowledge of Castilian . He arrived in Spain in October 1517 accompanied by a large retinue of Flemish nobles and clerics . These factors resulted in mistrust between the new king and the Castilian social elites , who could see the threat to their power and status . In 1519 , Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor . He departed for Germany in 1520 , leaving the Dutch cardinal Adrian of Utrecht to rule Castile in his absence . Soon , a series of anti @-@ government riots broke out in the cities , and local city councils ( Comunidades ) took power . The rebels chose Charles ' own mother , Queen Joanna , as an alternative ruler , hoping they could control her madness . The rebel movement took on a radical anti @-@ feudal dimension , supporting peasant rebellions against the landed nobility . On April 23 , 1521 , after nearly a year of rebellion , the reorganized supporters of the emperor struck a crippling blow to the comuneros at the Battle of Villalar . The following day , rebel leaders Juan de Padilla , Juan Bravo , and Francisco Maldonado were beheaded . The army of the comuneros fell apart . Only the city of Toledo kept alive the rebellion , until its surrender in October 1521 . The character of the revolution is a matter of historiographical debate . According to some scholars , the revolt was one of the first modern revolutions , notably because of the anti @-@ noble sentiment against social injustice and its basis on ideals of democracy and freedom . Others consider it a more typical rebellion against high taxes and perceived foreign control . From the 19th century onwards , the revolt has been mythologized by various Spaniards , generally liberals who drew political inspiration from it . Conservative intellectuals have traditionally adopted more pro @-@ Imperial stances toward the revolt , and have been critical of both the motives and the government of the comuneros . With the end of Franco 's dictatorship and the establishment of the autonomous community of Castile and León , positive commemoration of the Comunidades has grown . April 23 is now celebrated as Castile and León Day , and the incident is often referred to in Castilian nationalism . = = Origins = = Discontent had been brewing for years before the Revolt of the Comuneros . The second half of the 15th century saw profound political , economic , and social changes in Spain . Economic growth created new urban industries and offered a route to power and wealth not tied to the aristocracy . Support from these urban elites was critical to Ferdinand and Isabella 's centralization of power , and they acted as a counterweight to the landed aristocracy and the clergy . However , with Queen Isabella I 's death in 1504 , this alliance between the national government and the budding middle class faltered . The Castilian government decayed with each successive administration , becoming rife with corruption . King Philip I ruled for a mere two years ; he was replaced by Archbishop Cisneros as regent for a short time , and then by Isabella 's widower Ferdinand who ruled from Aragon . Ferdinand 's claim to continue ruling Castile as regent was somewhat tenuous after Isabella 's death , but no plausible alternatives existed as the sovereign , their widowed daughter Joanna , was mentally unfit to reign on her own . The landed nobility of Castile took advantage of the weak and corrupt Royal Council to illegally expand their territory and domain with private armies while the government did nothing . In response , the towns signed mutual defense pacts , relying on each other rather than the national government . The budgets of both Castile and Aragon had been in poor condition for some time . The government had expelled the Jews in 1492 and the Muslims of Granada in 1502 , moves that undercut lucrative trades and businesses . Ferdinand and Isabella had been forced to borrow money to pay troops during and after the Reconquista , and Spanish military obligations had only increased since then . A large number of troops were required to maintain stability in recently conquered Granada , threatened by revolt from the maltreated moriscos ( former Muslims who had converted to Christianity ) and frequent naval raids from Muslim nations along the Mediterranean . Additionally , Ferdinand had invaded and occupied the Iberian part of Navarre in 1512 , and forces were required to garrison it against Navarrese revolts and French armies . Very little money was left to pay for the royal army in Castile proper , let alone service foreign debts . The corruption in the government since Isabella 's death only made the budget shortfalls worse . = = = Succession of Charles = = = In 1516 , Ferdinand died . The remaining heir was Ferdinand and Isabella 's grandson Charles , who became King Charles I of both Castile and Aragon in co @-@ regency with his mother Joanna . Charles was brought up in Flanders , the homeland of his father Philip , and barely knew Castilian . The people greeted him with skepticism , but also hoped he would restore stability . With the arrival of the new king in late 1517 , his Flemish court took positions of power in Castile ; young Charles only trusted people he knew from the Netherlands . Among the most scandalous of these was the appointment of the twenty @-@ year @-@ old William de Croÿ as Archbishop of Toledo . The Archbishopric was an important position ; it had been held by Archbishop Cisneros , the former regent of the country . Six months into his rule , discontent openly simmered among rich and poor alike . Even some monks began to agitate , denouncing the opulence of the royal court , the Flemish , and the nobility in their sermons . One of the first public protests involved placards posted in churches , which read : You , land of Castile , very wretched and damned are you to suffer that as noble a kingdom as you are , you will be governed by those who have no love for you . With the unrest growing , Charles ' paternal grandfather Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I died in 1519 . A new election had to be held to choose the next emperor . Charles campaigned aggressively for the post , vying with King Francis I of France to bribe the most prince @-@ electors . Charles I won the election , becoming Emperor Charles V and cementing the power of the House of Habsburg . He prepared to head to Germany to take possession of his new domains in the Holy Roman Empire . = = = New taxes : The Cortes of Santiago and Corunna = = = Charles had already stressed the treasury to its limit with his extravagant Flemish court , and over 1 million gold florins were spent in bribes for the election . Taxes had to be raised to cover the debt , but any new taxes must be approved by the Cortes ( Castile 's own parliamentary body ) . Thus , in late March 1520 , Charles convened the Cortes in Santiago de Compostela . Charles ensured the Cortes would only have limited power , and further attempted to stack the Cortes with pliable representatives he could bribe . Support for the opposition only increased in response , and the representatives demanded that their grievances be heard first before any new tax was granted . A group of clerics soon circulated a statement in protest of the king . It argued three points : any new taxes should be rejected ; Castile should be embraced and the foreign Empire rejected ; and if the king did not take into account his subjects , the Comunidades themselves should defend the interests of the kingdom . It was the first time where the word comunidades ( communities , communes ) was used to signify the independent populace , and the name would stick to the councils later formed . At this point , most of the members of the Cortes in Santiago intended to vote against the king 's requested duties and taxes , even with the Cortes stacked with royalists . In response , Charles decided to suspend the Cortes on April 4 . He convened them again in Corunna on April 22 , this time getting his program passed . On May 20 , he embarked for Germany , and left as regent of his Spanish possessions his former tutor , Adrian of Utrecht ( better known as the future Pope Adrian VI ) . = = Beginnings of the Revolt = = = = = Rebelliousness in Toledo = = = In April 1520 , Toledo was already unstable . The city council had been at the forefront of protests against Charles ' bid to become Holy Roman Emperor . They decried the short @-@ term expenses that would be borne by Castile and questioned the role of Castile in this new political framework , given the possibility that the land would become a mere imperial province . The situation erupted when the royal government summoned the most radical of the city councilors away from the city , intending to send back more easily controllable replacements on a royal salary . The order came on April 15 ; one day later , as the councilors prepared to leave , a large crowd opposed to the departure rioted and drove out the royal administrators instead . A citizen 's committee was elected under the leadership of Juan López de Padilla and Pero Laso de la Vega , naming themselves a Comunidad . On April 21 , the remaining administrators were driven from the fortifications of the Alcázar of Toledo . Following Charles ' departure to Germany , the riots multiplied in the cities of central Castile , especially after the arrival of legislators who had voted " yes " to the taxes Charles had asked for . Segovia had some of the earliest and most violent incidents ; on May 30 , a mob of woolworkers murdered two administrators and the city 's legislator who had voted in favor . Incidents of a similar size occurred in cities such as Burgos and Guadalajara , while others , such as León , Ávila , and Zamora , suffered minor altercations . = = = Proposals to other cities = = = With widespread discontent circulating , on June 8 Toledo 's council suggested to cities with a vote in the Cortes to hold an emergency meeting . They proffered five goals : Cancel the taxes voted in the Cortes of Corunna . A return to the local @-@ controlled encabezamiento system of taxation . Reserve official positions and church benefices for Castilians . Prohibit money from leaving the kingdom to fund foreign affairs . Designate a Castilian to lead the kingdom in the absence of the king . These claims , especially the first two , spread quickly through society . Ideas began to circulate of replacing the king ; Toledo 's leaders floated the possibility of turning the cities of Castile into independent free cities , similar to Genoa and other Italian republics . Competing proposals suggested keeping the monarchy , but dethroning Charles . They proposed that he be replaced by either his mother Queen Joanna or his Castilian @-@ born brother Ferdinand . With these ideas , the revolt shifted from a simple protest against taxes to a broader revolution . Many cities , while not quite in outright revolt , stopped sending taxes to the Royal Council and began to self @-@ govern . = = Expansion of the Revolt = = = = = Blockade of Segovia = = = The situation moved closer to armed conflict on June 10 . Rodrigo Ronquillo had been sent to Segovia by the Royal Council to investigate the recent murder of Segovia 's legislator , but Segovia refused him entry . Unable to besiege a city of 30 @,@ 000 with only a small force , Ronquillo instead set out to blockade foodstuffs and other supplies from entering Segovia . The people of Segovia , led by militia leader and noble Juan Bravo , rallied around the Comunidad . Segovia requested aid against Ronquillo 's army from the Comunidades of Toledo and Madrid . The cities responded by sending their militias , captained by Juan de Padilla and Juan Zapata , who won in the first major confrontation between the forces of the king and the rebels . = = = The Junta of Ávila = = = Other cities now followed the lead of Toledo and Segovia , deposing their governments . A revolutionary Cortes , La Santa Junta de las Comunidades ( " Holy Assembly of the Communities " ) , held its first session in Ávila and declared itself the legitimate government deposing the Royal Council . Padilla was named Captain @-@ General , and troops were assembled . Still , only four cities sent representatives at first : Toledo , Segovia , Salamanca , and Toro . = = = Burning of Medina del Campo = = = Faced with the situation in Segovia , Regent and Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht decided to use the royal artillery , located in nearby Medina del Campo , to take Segovia and defeat Padilla . Adrian ordered his commander Antonio de Fonseca to seize the artillery . Fonseca arrived on August 21 in Medina , but encountered heavy resistance from the townspeople , as the city had strong trade links to Segovia . Fonseca ordered the setting of a fire to distract the resistance , but it grew out of control . Much of the town was destroyed , including a Franciscan monastery and a trade warehouse containing goods valued at more than 400 @,@ 000 ducats . Fonseca had to withdraw his troops , and the event was a public relations disaster for the government . Uprisings throughout Castile occurred , even in cities that previously had been neutral such as Castile 's capital , Valladolid . The establishment of the Comunidad of Valladolid caused the most important core of the Iberian plateau to declare for the rebels , upending the stability of the government . New members now joined the Junta of Ávila and the Royal Council looked discredited ; Adrian had to flee to Medina de Rioseco as Valladolid fell . The royal army , with many of its soldiers unpaid for months , started to disintegrate . = = = The Junta of Tordesillas = = = The comunero army now properly organized itself , integrating the militias of Toledo , Madrid , and Segovia . Once told of Fonseca 's attack , the comunero forces went to Medina del Campo and took possession of the artillery that had just been denied to Fonseca 's troops . On August 29 , the comuneros ' army arrived at Tordesillas with the goal of declaring Queen Joanna the sole sovereign . The Junta moved from Ávila to Tordesillas at the Queen 's request and invited cities that had not yet sent representatives to do so . A total of thirteen cities were represented in the Junta of Tordesillas : Burgos , Soria , Segovia , Ávila , Valladolid , León , Salamanca , Zamora , Toro , Toledo , Cuenca , Guadalajara , and Madrid . The only invited cities that failed to attend were the four Andalusian cities : Seville , Granada , Cordova , and Jaén . Since most of the kingdom was represented at Tordesillas , the Junta renamed itself the Cortes y Junta General del Reino ( " General Assembly of the Kingdom " ) . On September 24 , 1520 , the mad Queen , for the only time , presided over the Cortes . The legislators met with Queen Joanna and explained the purpose of the Cortes : to proclaim her sovereignty and restore lost stability to the kingdom . The next day , September 25 , the Cortes issued a declaration pledging to use arms if necessary and for the whole to aid any one city that was threatened . On September 26 , the Cortes of Tordesillas declared itself the new legitimate government and denounced the Royal Council . Oaths of self @-@ defense were taken by all the cities represented over the week , finishing by September 30 . The revolutionary government now had structure and a free hand to act , with the Royal Council still ineffective and confused . = = = Scope of the rebellion = = = The comuneros were strong in the central plateau of the Iberian Peninsula , as well as scattered other places such as Murcia . The rebels sought to propound their revolutionary ideas to the rest of the kingdom , but without much success . There were few attempts at rebellion elsewhere , such as in Galicia to the northwest or in Andalusia to the south . Comunidades in the south were set up in Jaén , Úbeda , and Baeza , unique in Andalusia , but with time they were drawn back into the royalists . Murcia stayed with the rebel cause , but did not coordinate much with the Junta , and the rebellion there had a character closer to the nearby Revolt of the Brotherhoods in Valencia in Aragon . In Extremadura to the southwest , the city of Plasencia joined the Comunidades , but this was undermined by the close proximity of other royalist cities such as Ciudad Rodrigo and Cáceres . A close correlation can be drawn between poor economic fortunes over the previous twenty years and the rebellion ; central Castile suffered from agricultural failure and other setbacks under the Royal Council , while Andalusia was relatively prosperous with its maritime trade . Andalusia 's leadership also feared that in the instability of a civil war , the Moriscos of Granada would likely revolt . = = Popular and governmental response = = = = = Turning of the nobles = = = The growing success of the comuneros emboldened people to accuse members of the old government of complicity with royal abuses . The protests attacked the landed nobility as well , many of whom had illegally taken property during the reign of the regents and weak kings after Isabella 's death . In Dueñas , the Count of Buendía 's vassals revolted against him on September 1 , 1520 , encouraged by rebel monks . This uprising was followed by others of a similar anti @-@ feudal nature . The leadership of the comuneros was forced to take a stance on these new rebellions ; reluctant to openly endorse them , the Junta initially denounced them but did nothing to oppose them . The dynamics of the uprising thus changed profoundly , as it could now jeopardize the status of the entire manorial system . The nobles had previously been somewhat sympathetic to the cause due to their loss of privileges to the central government . However , these new developments lead to a dramatic drop in support for the comuneros from aristocrats , who were frightened by the more radical elements of the revolution . = = = Response of Charles V = = = At first , Charles seemed not to grasp the magnitude of the revolt . He continued to demand payments from Castile ; with the government of Castile still in arrears , Cardinal Adrian found it impossible to secure any new loans . A letter from Cardinal Adrian on August 25 warned Charles of the severity of the situation : Your Highness is making a great error if you think that you will be able to collect and make use of this tax ; there is no one in the Kingdom , not in Seville or Valladolid or any other city who will ever pay anything of it ; all the grandees and members of the council are amazed that Your Highness has scheduled payments from these funds . Once he realized that a full @-@ fledged revolution was underway , Charles responded vigorously . Through Cardinal Adrian , he undertook new policy initiatives , such as canceling the taxes granted in the Cortes of Corunna . Most important was the appointment of two new Castilian co @-@ regents : the Constable of Castile , Íñigo Fernández , and the Admiral of Castile , Fadrique Enríquez . This negated two of the most salient complaints of the rebels . In addition , Adrian approached the nobles to convince them that their best interests lay with the king . The Royal Council was re @-@ established in the fief of Admiral Enríquez , Medina de Rioseco , which enabled the Council to be nearer to the revolting cities and reassure skeptical supporters . While the royal army was still in tatters , many high nobles maintained their own well @-@ trained mercenary armies — armies that with the revolt 's recent radicalization would now fight for the king . = = Organization , funding , and diplomacy = = The first political defeats of the comuneros came in October 1520 . The comuneros ' attempt to use Queen Joanna for legitimacy did not bear fruit , as she blocked their initiatives and refused to sign any edicts . In turn , dissenting voices inside the comuneros now began to be heard , especially in Burgos . The wavering position of Burgos was soon known to the royalists , and the Constable of Castile negotiated with Burgos 's government . The Royal Council granted a number of significant concessions to Burgos in exchange for them leaving the Junta . Following this incident , the Royal Council hoped that other cities would imitate Burgos and leave the comuneros peacefully . Valladolid , the former seat of royal power , was considered especially likely to turn , but too many supporters of the king had left city politics and lost their influence . It remained rebel @-@ controlled . The Admiral of Castile continued his campaign to try to convince the comuneros to return to the royal government and thereby avoid a violent suppression . This attitude concealed a great shortage of funds on the royal side . During October and November 1520 , both sides accepted that a military conclusion would soon be necessary and actively devoted themselves to fundraising , recruiting soldiers , and training their troops . The comuneros organized their militias in the major cities and levied new taxes on the countryside ; they also took measures aimed at eliminating waste , routinely auditing their treasurers and dismissing those thought to be corrupt . The royal government , which had lost much of its revenue due to the revolt , sought loans from Portugal and from conservative Castilian bankers , who saw reassuring signs in the switch of the allegiance of Burgos . = = Battle of Tordesillas = = = = = Leadership disputes = = = Gradually , both the city of Toledo and its leader Juan de Padilla lost influence within the Junta , though Padilla retained popularity and prestige among the commoners . Two new figures emerged within the Comunidades , Pedro Girón and Antonio Osorio de Acuña . Girón was one of the most powerful nobles who supported the comuneros ; his rebellion is thought to originate from Charles ' refusal to grant Girón the prestigious Duchy of Medina @-@ Sidonia a year prior to the war . Antonio de Acuña was the Bishop of Zamora . Acuña was also the head of the Comunidad in Zamora and the leader of its army , which included more than 300 priests . On the royalist side , the nobles could not agree on what tactics to use . Some preferred to directly challenge the rebels in combat , while others such as the Constable of Castile favored continued waiting and the building of defensive fortifications . The Admiral of Castile preferred negotiations and exhausting all the possible peaceful options first . Patience , however , began to run thin ; armies were expensive to maintain once assembled . In late November 1520 , both armies took positions between Medina de Rioseco and Tordesillas , and a confrontation was inevitable . = = = Royal capture = = = With Pedro Girón in command , the army of the comuneros advanced on Medina de Rioseco , following the orders of the Junta . Girón established his headquarters in Villabrágima , a town merely 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from the royalist army . The royalists occupied nearby villages to cut communication lines back to other comuneros . This situation continued until December 2 , when Girón , apparently thinking the royal army would remain entrenched , moved his forces west to the small town of Villalpando . The town surrendered the next day without resistance , and the troops began looting the estates in the area . However , with this movement , the comuneros left the path to Tordesillas completely unprotected . The royal army took advantage of the blunder , marching by night on December 4 and occupying Tordesillas the next day . The small rebel garrison was overwhelmed . Seizure of Tordesillas marked a serious defeat for the comuneros , who lost Queen Joanna and with her their claim to legitimacy . In addition , thirteen representatives of the Junta were imprisoned , though others fled and escaped . Morale fell among the rebels , and much angry criticism was directed towards Pedro Girón for his maneuvering of the troops out of position and for his failure to attempt to retake Tordesillas or capture Medina de Rioseco . Girón was obliged to resign from his post and withdrew from the war . = = Events of December and January = = = = = Reorganization of the comuneros = = = Following the loss of Tordesillas , the comuneros regrouped in Valladolid . The Junta reconvened on December 15 , but with only eleven cities represented , down from a height of fourteen . Soria and Guadalajara 's representatives did not return , and Burgos had left earlier . Valladolid would be the third capital of the rebels , after Ávila and Tordesillas . The situation was somewhat worse for the army , with a large number of desertions in Valladolid and Villalpando . This forced the rebels to intensify their recruitment drives , especially in Toledo , Salamanca , and Valladolid itself . With these new recruits and the arrival of Juan de Padilla to Valladolid , the rebel military apparatus was rebuilt and morale bolstered . At the beginning of 1521 , the comuneros prepared for an all @-@ out war , despite disagreements within the movement . Some suggested seeking a peaceful resolution , while others favored continuing the war . Those who favored war were divided between two tactics : occupy Simancas and Torrelobatón , a less ambitious proposal defended by Pero Laso de la Vega ; or lay siege to Burgos , a tactic favored by Padilla . = = = Military initiatives in Palencia and Burgos = = = In the far north of Castile , the rebel army began a series of operations conducted by Antonio de Acuña , bishop of Zamora . They received orders from the Junta on December 23 to try and raise a rebellion in Palencia . They were tasked with expelling royalists , collecting taxes on behalf of the Junta , and creating an administration sympathetic to the comuneros cause . Acuña 's army made a series of raids into the area around Dueñas , raising more than 4 @,@ 000 ducats and inspiring the peasantry . He returned to Valladolid in early 1521 , then came back to Dueñas on January 10 to begin a major offensive against the nobles of Tierra de Campos . The nobles ' land and holdings were completely devastated . In mid @-@ January , Pedro de Ayala , Count of Salvatierra , joined the comuneros and organized an army of about two thousand men who set about raiding the north of Castile . Nearby , Burgos awaited the fulfillment of the pledges made by Cardinal Adrian after they had joined the royalist cause two months prior . The slow response led to dissatisfaction and uncertainty in the city . Ayala and Acuña , aware of this situation , decided to besiege Burgos , Ayala from its north and Acuña from its south . They also sought to undermine the defenses by encouraging a revolt of the inhabitants of Burgos . = = = Royalist response = = = Still in Germany , Charles V issued the Edict of Worms on December 17 , 1520 ( not to be confused with the Edict of Worms of May 25 , 1521 , against Martin Luther ) , which condemned 249 prominent Comunidad members . For secular rebels , the punishment was death ; clergy were to receive lighter penalties . Similarly , the edict also declared that those who supported the Comunidades were traitors , disloyal , rebels , and infidels . The Royal Council 's next move was the occupation of Ampudia in Palencia , a town loyal to the Count of Salvatierra . The Junta sent Padilla to meet Acuña ; their combined force besieged the royal army at the castle of Mormojón . The royal army slipped away by nightfall , and Mormojón was forced to pay tribute to avoid being pillaged . Ampudia was recovered by the rebels the next day , January 16 . Meanwhile , the rebellion in Burgos scheduled for January 23 was a failure due to poor coordination with the besieging army ; it started two days early and was easily crushed . The comuneros of Burgos had to surrender , and this was the last rebellion to be seen in Castile . = = Rebel campaigns of early 1521 = = = = = Padilla 's decision on the rebels ' next move = = = After abandoning the siege of Burgos due to the failure of its revolt , Padilla decided to return to Valladolid , while Acuña opted to resume his skirmishing and harassment of noble properties around Tierra de Campos . With this series of actions , Acuña intended to destroy or occupy the homes of the prominent nobles . The rebels now set themselves completely against the manorial system . This would be one of the strongest features of the second phase of the rebellion . After the recent setbacks suffered by the comuneros , Padilla realized that they needed a victory to raise morale . He decided to take Torrelobatón and its castle . Torrelobatón was a stronghold halfway between Tordesillas and Medina de Rioseco , and was very close to Valladolid . Taking it would grant the rebels an excellent fortress for launching military operations and remove a threat on Valladolid . = = = Battle of Torrelobatón = = = On February 21 , 1521 , the siege of Torrelobatón began . Outnumbered , the town nevertheless resisted for four days , thanks to its walls . On February 25 , the comuneros entered the town and subjected it to a massive looting spree as a reward to the troops . Only churches were spared . The castle resisted for another two days . The comuneros then threatened to hang all of the inhabitants , at which point the castle surrendered . The defenders did secure an agreement to spare half of the goods inside the castle , thus avoiding further looting . The victory in Torrelobatón lifted the spirits of the rebel camp while worrying the royalists about the rebel advance , exactly as Padilla hoped . The faith of the nobles in Cardinal Adrian was again shaken , as he was accused of having done nothing to avoid losing Torrelobatón . The Constable of Castile began to send troops to the Tordesillas area to contain the rebels and prevent any further advances . Despite the renewed enthusiasm among the rebels , a decision was made to remain in their positions near Valladolid without pressing their advantage or launching a new attack . This caused many of the soldiers to return to their home communities , tired of waiting for salaries and new orders . This was a problem the comunero forces had throughout the war ; they possessed only a small number of full @-@ time soldiers , and their militias were constantly " dissolving and recruiting . " A serious attempt to negotiate a peaceful end to the war was tried again by the moderates , but was undercut by extremists of both sides . In the north , after the failure of the siege of Burgos in January , the Count of Salvatierra resumed his campaign . He set off to cause an uprising in Merindades , the homeland of the Constable of Castile , and besieged Medina de Pomar and Frías . = = = Acuña 's southern campaign = = = William de Croÿ , the young Flemish Archbishop of Toledo appointed by Charles , died in January 1521 in Worms , Germany . In Valladolid , the Junta proposed to Antonio de Acuña that he submit himself as a candidate for the seat . Acuña departed for Toledo in February with a small force under his command . He traveled south , declaring his impending claim on the archdiocese to every village as he passed . This raised enthusiasm among the commoners , who received him with cheers , but aroused suspicion in the aristocracy . They feared Acuña might attack their holdings as he did in Tierra de Campos . The Marquis of Villena and Duke of Infantado contacted Acuña and persuaded him to sign a pact of mutual neutrality . Acuña soon had to confront Antonio de Zúñiga , who had been appointed commander of the royalist army in the Toledo area . Zúñiga was a prior in the Knights of St. John , who maintained a base in Castile at the time . Acuña received information that Zúñiga was in the area of Corral de Almaguer , and pursued battle with him near Tembleque . Zúñiga drove the rebel forces off , and then launched a counterattack of his own between Lillo and El Romeral , inflicting a crushing defeat on Acuña . Acuña , a relentless self @-@ promoter , tried to minimize the loss and even claimed that he had emerged victorious from the confrontation . Undaunted , Acuña continued into Toledo . He appeared at the Zocodover Plaza in the heart of the city on March 29 , 1521 , Good Friday . The crowd gathered around him and took him directly to the cathedral , claiming the archbishop 's chair for him . The next day he met with María Pacheco , wife of Juan de Padilla and de facto leader of the Toledo Comunidad in her husband 's absence . A brief rivalry emerged between the two , but it was resolved after mutual attempts at reconciliation . Once settled in the archdiocese of Toledo , Acuña began to recruit any men he could find , enlisting soldiers from fifteen to sixty years old . After royalist troops burned the town of Mora on April 12 , Acuña returned to the countryside with roughly 1 @,@ 500 men under his command . He moved into Yepes , and from there conducted raids and operations against royalist @-@ controlled rural areas . He first attacked and pillaged Villaseca de la Sagra , then faced Zúñiga again in an inconclusive battle near the Tagus river in Illescas . Light skirmishing near Toledo would continue until news of Villalar ended the war . = = Battle of Villalar = = In early April 1521 , the royalist side moved to combine their armies and threaten Torrelobatón . The Constable of Castile moved his troops ( including soldiers recently transferred from the defense of Navarre ) southwest from Burgos to meet with the Admiral 's forces near Tordesillas . Meanwhile , the comuneros reinforced their troops at Torrelobatón , which was far less secure than the comuneros preferred . Their forces were suffering from desertions , and the presence of royalist artillery would make Torrelobatón 's castle vulnerable . Juan de Padilla considered withdrawing to Toro to seek reinforcements in early April , but wavered . He delayed his decision until the early hours of April 23 , losing considerable time and allowing the royalists to unite their forces in Peñaflor . The combined royalist army pursued the comuneros . Again , the royalists had a strong advantage in cavalry , with their army consisting of 6 @,@ 000 infantry and 2 @,@ 400 cavalry against Padilla 's 7 @,@ 000 infantry and 400 cavalry . Heavy rain slowed Padilla 's infantry more than the royalist cavalry and rendered the primitive firearms of the rebels ' 1 @,@ 000 arquebusiers nearly useless . Padilla hoped to reach the relative safety of Toro and the heights of Vega de Valdetronco , but his infantry was too slow . He gave battle with the harrying royalist cavalry at the town of Villalar . The cavalry charges scattered the rebel ranks , and the battle became a slaughter . There were an estimated 500 – 1 @,@ 000 rebel casualties and many desertions . The three most important leaders of the rebellion were captured : Juan de Padilla , Juan Bravo , and Francisco Maldonado . They were beheaded the next morning in the Plaza of Villalar , with a large portion of the royalist nobility present . The remains of the rebel army at Villalar fragmented , with some attempting to join Acuña 's army near Toledo and others deserting . The rebellion had been struck a crippling blow . = = End of the war = = After the Battle of Villalar , the towns of northern Castile soon succumbed to the king 's troops , with all its cities returning their allegiance to the king by early May . Only Madrid and Toledo kept their Comunidades alive . = = = Resistance of Toledo = = = The first news of Villalar arrived in Toledo on April 26 , but was largely ignored by the local Comunidad . The magnitude of the defeat became apparent in a few days , after the first survivors began arriving in the city and confirmed the fact that the three rebel leaders had been executed . Toledo was declared in mourning over the death of Juan de Padilla . After the death of Padilla , Bishop Acuña lost popularity in favour of María Pacheco , Padilla 's widow . People began to suggest negotiating with the royalists , seeking to avoid further suffering in the city . The situation looked even worse after the surrender of Madrid on May 11 . The fall of Toledo seemed only to be a matter of time . However , one ray of hope remained for the rebels . Castile had withdrawn some of its troops from occupied Navarre to fight the comuneros , and King Francis I of France used the opportunity to invade with support from the Navarrese . The royalist army was forced to march on Navarre to respond rather than besiege Toledo . Acuña left Toledo to travel to Navarre , but he was recognized and caught . It is disputed whether he was seeking to join the French and continue fighting , or was simply fleeing . María Pacheco took control of the city and the remains of the rebel army , living in the Alcázar , collecting taxes , and strengthening defenses . She requested the intervention of her uncle , the respected Marquis of Villena , to negotiate with the Royal Council , hoping he would be able to obtain better concessions . The Marquis eventually abandoned the negotiations , and María Pacheco took on personal negotiations with Prior Zúñiga , the commander of the besieging forces . Her demands , though somewhat galling to honor , were ultimately minor , such as guaranteeing the property and reputation of her children . Still concerned about the French , the royal government gave in . With the support of all parties , the surrender of Toledo was orchestrated on October 25 , 1521 . Thus , on October 31 the comuneros left the Alcázar of Toledo and new officials were appointed to run the city . The truce guaranteed the freedom and property of all the comuneros . = = = Revolt of February 1522 = = = The new administrator of Toledo restored order and brought the city back under royal control . However , he also provoked former comuneros . María Pacheco continued her presence in the city and refused to hand over all the hidden weapons until Charles V personally signed the agreements reached with the Order of St. John . This unstable situation came to an end on February 3 , 1522 , when the generous terms of the surrender were annulled . Royal soldiers filled the city and the administrator ordered Pacheco 's execution . Riots broke out in protest . The incident was temporarily remedied thanks to the intervention of María de Mendoza , the sister of María Pacheco . Another truce was granted , and while the former comuneros were defeated , the distraction was exploited by María Pacheco to escape to Portugal disguised as a farmer . = = = Pardon of 1522 = = = Charles V returned to Spain on July 16 , 1522 . Acts of repression and retaliation against former comuneros did occur , but only sporadically . Embarrassingly large numbers of important people had supported the comuneros , or at least were suspiciously slow to declare allegiance to the king , and Charles thought it unwise to press the issue too much . Back in Valladolid , Charles declared a general pardon on November 1 . The pardon gave amnesty to everyone involved in the revolt with the exception of 293 comuneros , a small figure given the huge number of rebels . Both Pacheco and Bishop Acuña were among the 293 excluded from the pardon . More pardons were issued later , after pressure from the Cortes ; by 1527 , the repression was completely at end . Of the 293 , 23 were executed , 20 died in prison , 50 purchased amnesty , and 100 were pardoned later . The fates of the rest are unknown . = = Aftermath = = María Pacheco successfully escaped to Portugal , where she lived in exile the remaining ten years of her life . Bishop Acuña , captured in Navarre , was stripped of his ecclesiastical standing and executed after he killed a guard while trying to escape . Pedro Girón received a pardon conditional on him going into exile to Oran in North Africa , where he served as a commander against the Moors . Queen Joanna was locked in Tordesillas by her son . She would remain there for thirty @-@ five years , the rest of her life . Emperor Charles V would go on to rule one of the largest and most sprawling empires in European history . As a consequence , Charles was nearly constantly at war , fighting France , England , the Papal States , the Ottoman Turks , the Aztecs , the Incas , and the Protestant Schmalkaldic League during his reign . Spain would provide the bulk of the Habsburgs ' armies and financial resources over this period . Charles placed Castilians in high governmental positions in both Castile and the Empire at large , and generally left the administration of Castile in Castilian hands . In that sense , the revolt could be considered successful . Some of the reforms of Isabella I which reduced noble power were reversed as a price for luring the nobility to the royalist side . However , Charles understood that noble encroachment of power had helped cause the revolt , and embarked upon a new reform program . Unpopular , corrupt , and ineffective officials were replaced ; judicial functions of the Royal Council were limited ; and local courts were revitalized . Charles also adjusted the membership of the Royal Council ; its hated president was replaced , the aristocracy 's role reduced , and more gentry were added to it . Realizing that the urban elite needed to have a stake in the royal government once more , Charles gave many of them positions , privileges , and government salaries . The Cortes , while not as important as the comuneros had hoped , nevertheless maintained its power ; it was still required to approve new taxes and could advise the king . Charles also discouraged his officials from using overly coercive methods , after seeing his heavy @-@ handed treatment of the Cortes of Corunna backfire . If anything , the co @-@ option of the middle class worked too well ; when Charles ' successor King Phillip II demanded a ruinously large tax increase in the 1580s , the Cortes was too dependent on the Crown for money to effectively resist policies that would wreck the economy . = = Later influence = = The revolt , fresh in the memory of Spain , is referenced in several literary works during Spain 's Golden Age . Don Quixote references the rebellion in a conversation with Sancho , and Francisco de Quevedo uses the word " comunero " as a synonym for " rebel " in his works . In the 18th century , the comuneros were not held in high regard by the Spanish Empire . The government was not amenable to encouraging rebellions , and only used the term to condemn opposition . In the Revolt of the Comuneros in Paraguay , the rebels did not take the name willingly ; it was only meant to disparage them as traitors . Another Revolt of the Comuneros in New Granada ( modern Colombia ) was similarly unrelated to the original except in name . At the beginning of the 19th century , the image of the comuneros began to be rehabilitated by scholars such as Manuel Quintana as precursors of freedom and martyrs against absolutism . The decline of Castilian liberty was linked to the later decline of Spain . The first major commemorative event came in 1821 , the third centenary of the Battle of Villalar . Juan Martín Díez , a nationalistic liberal military leader who had fought in the resistance against Napoleon , led an expedition to find and exhume the remains of the three leaders executed in 1521 . Díez praised the comuneros on behalf of the liberal government in power at the time , likely the first positive governmental recognition for their cause . This view was challenged by conservatives who viewed a centralized state as modern and progressive , especially after the anarchy and fragmentation of the 1868 Revolution in Spain . Manuel Danvila , a conservative government minister , published the six @-@ volume Historia critica y documentada de las Comunidades de Castilla from 1897 – 1900 , one of the most important works of scholarship on the revolt . Drawing on collected original sources , Danvila emphasized the fiscal demands of the comuneros , and cast them as traditionalist , reactionary , medieval , and feudal . Though a liberal , intellectual Gregorio Marañón shared the dim view of the comuneros that again prevailed in Spain ; he cast the conflict as one between a modern , progressive state open to beneficent foreign influence against a conservative , reactionary , and xenophobic Spain hypersensitive to religious and cultural deviance with an insistence on spurious racial purity . General Franco 's government from 1939 – 1975 also encouraged an unfavorable interpretation of the comuneros . According to approved historians such as José María Pemán , the revolt was fundamentally an issue of petty Spanish regionalism , something which Franco did his best to discourage . Additionally , the comuneros did not properly appreciate Spain 's " imperial destiny . " Since the mid @-@ twentieth century , others have sought more materialist reasons for the revolt . Historians such as José Antonio Maravall and Joseph Pérez portray the developing revolt as alliances of different social coalitions around shifting economic interests , with the " industrial bourgeoisie " of artisans and woolworkers combining with the intellectuals and the low nobility against the aristocrats and the merchants . Maravall , who views the revolt as one of the first modern revolutions , especially stresses the ideological conflict and intellectual nature of the revolt , with features such as the first proposed written constitution of Castile . With Spain 's transition to democracy following Franco 's death , celebration of the comuneros started to become permissible again . On April 23 , 1976 , a small ceremony was held clandestinely in Villalar ; only two years later , in 1978 , the event had become a huge demonstration of 200 @,@ 000 in support of Castilian autonomy . The autonomous community of Castile and León was created in response to public demand in 1983 , and it recognized April 23 as an official holiday in 1986 . Similarly , each February 3 since 1988 has been celebrated by the Castilian nationalist party Tierra Comunera in Toledo . The celebration highlights the roles of Juan de Padilla and María Pacheco , and is done in memory of the rebellion in 1522 , the last event of the war .
= Sexual Harassment ( The Office ) = " Sexual Harassment " is the second episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's eighth episode overall . The episode was written by B. J. Novak and directed by Ken Kwapis . The episode first aired in the United States on September 27 , 2005 on NBC . " Sexual Harassment " introduced the character of Todd Packer , played by David Koechner , who would become a recurring character on the series . The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is concerned when he believes Dunder Mifflin is targeting him for sexual harassment training . Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) anxiously awaits the arrival of her mother , and Michael 's obnoxious friend Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) spends the day in the office . Novak was inspired to write the episode after attending an NBC sexual harassment seminar that the cast and crew had to attend before the series began . Many jokes and personal experiences involving sexual harassment were added into the script . This episode aired with a warning that it contained adult content and subject matter , which is rare for a network comedy . Novak explained that he had to fight NBC to get the word " boner " on the air . One station refused to air the episode due to the language . " Sexual Harassment " received moderately positive reviews from television critics . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 13 million viewers . = = Plot = = Michael Scott 's ( Steve Carell ) " best friend forever " Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) offends the staff with crude gossip about an upper management scandal . Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) informs Michael that he will conduct a review of the company 's sexual harassment policies because the CFO resigned after allegations made by his secretary . Michael 's indignation that this will put a damper on his easygoing office environment rises to outrage when he learns that the corporate headquarters is sending down a lawyer to talk to him . Michael and the warehouse staff mock the sexual harassment video , but the crude remarks come to a screeching halt when Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) and the lawyer arrive from Corporate . While Michael angrily announces that he can no longer be friends with his staff and that he will never tell another joke again , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) goads Michael into breaking his vow immediately , to the approval of Packer . Michael 's attitude suddenly changes when he realizes that he is not in trouble , and that the lawyer 's job is to protect him . After Packer tells a crude joke at the expense of Phyllis , Michael defends her , telling the entire office that he finds Phyllis attractive and that the only thing he worries about when he 's near her " is getting a boner " . Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) waits with anticipation for her mother ( Shannon Cochran ) to arrive from out of town . Pam 's mother arrives and asks in whispers ( shushed by an embarrassed Pam ) , " Which one is Jim ? " Michael stops Packer when he tries to share another inappropriate joke and concludes with his misguided thoughts on sexual harassment . = = Production = = " Sexual Harassment " was written by B. J. Novak , who also acts on the show as Ryan Howard . The episode was the third entry of the series directed by Ken Kwapis . Kwapis had previously directed " Pilot " and " Diversity Day " . The inspiration for the episode was the NBC sexual harassment seminar that the cast and crew had to attend before the series began . Having both worked in office environments prior to filming The Office , Jenna Fischer and Angela Kinsey both noted that on the days of sexual harassment seminars , they would be harassed by their co @-@ workers as a joke . This experience was added to the script for the episode . " Sexual Harassment " introduces Michael 's catchphrase " That 's what she said , " which writer B. J. Novak says was something he heard repeated in college . The " What has two thumbs and X ? This guy " joke also comes from Novak 's college days . Jenna Fischer later revealed that a good majority of Dwight 's exchange with Toby about female anatomy was improvised . When it came time to cast Todd Packer , the crew 's first choice was David Koechner , who had starred alongside Carell in the hit 2004 comedy movie Anchorman : The Legend of Ron Burgundy . Production for the episode had to be delayed so that Koechner could be secured for the part . Novak noted that Koechner was one of the few actors who was " talented enough to make Steve Carell break up on set " , a feat that he notes was " worth " the delays . When deciding what car Packer would own , writer B. J. Novak wanted to use a Mustang , but none were available . Producer Kent Zbornak decided to get Packer a red Chevrolet Corvette , which Novak now admits is " even better " . This episode aired with a warning that it contained adult content and subject matter , which is rare for a network comedy . Novak explained that he had to fight NBC to get the word " boner " on the air because the replacement — " schwing " — didn 't have , according to Novak , " the same redemption for Michael at the end . " The disclaimer was a compromise . A station in Kentucky nevertheless refused to air this episode . Pam 's mother was played by Shannon Cochran in this episode of the series , in the first appearance of the character at this point in the show . Cochran was unable to return to play the character for the season six episode " Niagara " , due to scheduling conflicts with a year @-@ long theater contract , and was thus replaced by Linda Purl . = = Cultural references = = Michael forwards Jim a joke chain @-@ email entitled " Fifty Signs Your Priest Might Be Michael Jackson " . Michael later compares the members of the office to the cast of Friends , saying that he is both Chandler Bing and Joey Tribbiani and Pam is Rachel Green . He claims that Dwight is Cosmo Kramer , failing to realize that he is a character in the sitcom Seinfeld and not Friends . Todd Packer 's license plate reads " WLHUNG " , a reference to a large penis , but Ryan interprets it to mean he is a fan of singer William Hung . Darryl asks whether Michael got his pants at " Queers R Us " , a reference to Toys R Us . The episode is the first to feature what would become Michael 's catchphrase : " That 's what she said . " = = Reception = = " Sexual Harassment " originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 13 million viewers . The episode ranked as the sixty @-@ third most @-@ watched episode of television for the week it aired . An encore presentation of the episode , on May 31 , 2006 , received 2 @.@ 2 rating / 6 % share and retained 100 % of its lead @-@ in viewership from My Name is Earl among 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds . The encore presentation was viewed by over 4 @.@ 5 million viewers . " Sexual Harassment " received moderately positive reviews from critics . Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad wrote that the episode " was OK , nothing great . " Sciannamea went on to explain that the " subject was funny , but I thought the writers were trying too hard to push the envelope " , making the episode " uneven " . " Miss Alli " of Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B + " grade . Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " and called it " a slightly above average episode " , but that its greatest success was its ability to reach " some of its greatest heights on a moment @-@ by @-@ moment basis " , similar in style to vignettes . Adams was slightly critical of the main plot , noting that the show had " difficulty maintaining the comedic momentum " , but he reasoned that this was probably largely due to " Michael @-@ on @-@ defense " being a " difficult character to write " , because " there aren ’ t many good ways of displaying his humanity while he ’ s also fighting for the right to be an asshole . " TV Fanatic reviewed several quotes from " Sexual Harassment " , and rated several of Todd Packer 's lewd jokes , as well as Michael 's " You wouldn 't arrest a guy who was just passing drugs from one guy to another " monologue 5 out of 5 . Entertainment Weekly named Michael Scott 's line , " Toby is in HR , which technically means he works for corporate . So he 's really not a part of our family . Also , he 's divorced , so he 's really not a part of his family , " one of " TV 's funniest lines " for the week ending October 3 , 2005 . Dan Phillips from IGN named " Michael 's Boner " the tenth most awkward moment of the show , noting that , " The camera holds the others ' reactions just long enough to drive home the awkwardness of the scene , making you want to crawl inside of a hole along with the rest of the cast . "
= Summerteeth = Summerteeth is the third studio album by the Chicago alternative rock band Wilco . Released through Reprise Records on March 9 , 1999 , the album was heavily influenced lyrically by twentieth century literature , as well as singer Jeff Tweedy 's marital problems . Unlike previous albums , Summerteeth was heavily overdubbed in the studio with Pro Tools . Tweedy and Jay Bennett wrote most of the album in the studio , a contrast to the band 's previous albums , which were often recorded live by the entire band with minimal overdubs . The album was met with critical acclaim from numerous outlets , including AllMusic , Chicago Tribune and The Village Voice . Summerteeth sold approximately 200 @,@ 000 copies — a modest number compared to the sales of their 1996 album Being There . Wilco agreed to remix " Can 't Stand It " with David Kahne to cater to radio markets , but the single failed to attract substantial airplay . = = Production = = Wilco released Being There in 1996 to a higher level of commercial success than its first album , A.M. , selling 300 @,@ 000 copies ( nearly double the number of its first record ) . After the promotional tour to support Being There , Wilco began to record tracks for a third album . The initial Summerteeth recording sessions were in November 1997 at Willie Nelson 's music studio in Spicewood , Texas . Lead singer Jeff Tweedy was particularly emotional during the sessions because he was upset that he was unable to spend time with his wife and son because of the constant touring schedule . As a result , the songs recorded then reflected an introspective view that was also influenced by literature that Tweedy was reading at the time . While touring , Tweedy would read books by Henry Miller , William H. Gass and John Fante . According to Tweedy : I definitely wanted to get better at writing , and those things happened simultaneously with trying to read better . I would write tons of stuff in my head , and forget . Some songs on Being There , I don 't think I ever wrote any lyrics down ... To fight that , I started writing words on paper and making up melodies to go with them . By writing things down , and putting more words into my head , it put more words in my mouth when I turned on the tape recorder to sing . The sessions produced a number of songs , including " I 'm Always in Love " , " She 's a Jar " and the Henry Miller @-@ inspired murder ballad " Via Chicago " . Tweedy 's relationship with his wife Sue Miller became the inspiration for several of the songs , although she was portrayed mostly in a negative sense . Miller was reluctantly willing to give Tweedy the creative license to write songs , but was concerned about lyrics such as " she begs me not to hit her " from " She 's a Jar " . Before the album was completed , Wilco decided to collaborate with Billy Bragg on the album that became Mermaid Avenue . Once the Mermaid Avenue sessions were completed , Wilco entered Chicago 's Kingsize Soundlabs with engineers Dave Trumfio and Mike Hagler to finish Summerteeth . Tweedy and Bennett wanted to start the recording sessions again by experimenting with a new approach to mixing the songs . Unlike previous material , which was performed live in the studio , the pair heavily overdubbed many of the songs with Pro Tools . As a result , the contributions of other members were diminished . To complement the " bold , but depressing " lyrics , Tweedy relied more heavily on the production skills of the multi @-@ instrumentalist Jay Bennett , who played a variety of instruments besides his usual lead guitar and keyboard work , including Mellotron , tambourine and synthesizers . Bennett even played the bass guitar and drums when the bass guitarist John Stirratt and drummer Ken Coomer were not in the studio . Coomer was not pleased about a reduced role in the band : After a series of personnel changes , Reprise Records sought to release a hit single from the album to increase album sales . Wilco agreed to do this " once and once only " on the basis that they wanted to cooperate with the label that allowed them such freedom . The band and Reprise executives agreed to re @-@ mix " Can 't Stand It " to make it more radio @-@ friendly . Within one day , the song was remixed into the version that appeared on Summerteeth , cutting out portions of the bridge and adding bells . " Can 't Stand It " failed to cross over from adult album alternative to modern rock radio stations . = = Reception = = Upon release , Summerteeth peaked at number 78 on the Billboard 200 . It was their first album to chart in the top 40 in the United Kingdom . By 2003 , it had sold over 200 @,@ 000 copies . The album was placed eighth on the Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 1999 , and Pitchfork gave it position 31 in its list of the best albums of the 1990s . Jason Ankeny of AllMusic gave the album five stars , lauding its " lush string arrangements and gorgeous harmonies " . Ankeny also compared the music on the album to The Band in their prime . Pitchfork Media writer Neil Lieberman praised how Wilco " craft [ ed ] an album as wonderfully ambiguous and beautifully uncertain as life itself " and how Bennett " paint [ ed ] the album in Technicolor " . Robert Christgau gave the album a two @-@ star honorable mention , calling it " old @-@ fashioned tunecraft lacking not pedal steel , who cares , but the concreteness modern popcraft eschews " . The Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot championed the album in his review and ranked it the year 's best album , calling it " pop so gorgeous it belies the intricate studio experimentation that brought it to life " . = = Track listing = = " Can 't Stand It " ( Tweedy , Bennett ) – 3 : 46 " She 's a Jar " ( Tweedy , Bennett ) – 4 : 43 " A Shot in the Arm " ( Tweedy , Bennett , Stirratt ) – 4 : 19 " We 're Just Friends " ( Tweedy , Bennett , Stirratt ) – 2 : 44 " I 'm Always in Love " ( Tweedy , Bennett ) – 3 : 41 " Nothing 'severgonnastandinmyway ( again ) " ( Tweedy , Bennett , Stirratt ) – 3 : 20 " Pieholden Suite " ( Tweedy , Bennett ) – 3 : 26 " How to Fight Loneliness " ( Tweedy , Bennett ) – 3 : 53 " Via Chicago " ( Tweedy ) – 5 : 33 " ELT " ( Tweedy , Bennett ) – 3 : 46 " My Darling " ( Tweedy , Bennett ) – 3 : 38 " When You Wake Up Feeling Old " ( Tweedy ) – 3 : 56 " Summer Teeth " ( Tweedy , Bennett ) – 3 : 21 " In a Future Age " ( Tweedy , Bennett ) – 2 : 57 Hidden tracks 23 seconds of silence ( silence , hidden track ) – 0 : 23 " Candyfloss " ( hidden track ) ( Tweedy , Bennett ) – 2 : 57 " A Shot in the Arm " ( alternate version , hidden track ) ( Tweedy , Bennett , Stirratt ) – 3 : 54 Bonus disc And Sum Aren 't " I Must Be High " " Pick Up the Change " " Passenger Side " " Monday ( Demo Version ) " " I Got You ( At the End of the Century ) " " Hotel Arizona " " Outtasite ( Outta Mind ) " ( Live ) " Someone Else 's Song " " Red Eyed and Blue " ( Live ) " Box Full of Letters " ( Live ) " Why Would You Wanna " ( Live ) " Forget The Flowers " ( Live ) " The Lonely 1 " " Sunken Treasure " ( Live ) " At My Window Sad and Lonely " " Blasting Fonda " = = Personnel = = Jeff Tweedy – vocals ( 1 @-@ 14 ) , electric guitar ( 1 , 9 ) , backing vocals ( 1 , 2 , 10 , 11 ) , acoustic guitar ( 2 , 3 , 6 @-@ 9 , 11 @-@ 14 ) , harmonica ( 2 ) , 12 @-@ string guitar ( 3 ) , synthesizers ( 3 , 9 ) , baritone guitar ( 5 ) , claps ( 6 ) , bass guitar ( 7 ) , tambourine ( 7 ) , toy harp ( 12 ) , bowed and tremolo guitars ( 14 ) Jay Bennett – piano ( 1 , 3 @-@ 9 , 11 , 13 , 14 ) , keyboards ( 1 @-@ 3 , 5 @-@ 8 , 10 @-@ 13 ) , bells ( 1 , 13 ) , percussion ( 1 ) , backing vocals ( 1 , 2 , 4 @-@ 8 , 10 @-@ 14 ) , electric guitar ( 2 , 10 , 11 , 13 ) , tambourine ( 2 , 6 , 7 , 9 @-@ 11 ) , lap steel ( 3 , 13 ) , synthesizers ( 3 , 7 , 10 ) , drums ( 3 , 5 ) , Farfisa ( 4 ) , bass drum ( 4 ) , bass guitar ( 5 ) , baritone guitar ( 6 , 11 ) , e @-@ bow guitar ( 6 , 11 ) , claps ( 6 , 11 ) , banjo ( 7 , 9 ) , organ ( 9 , 14 ) , Moog ( 9 ) , slide bass ( 11 ) , tiple ( 12 ) John Stirratt – bass guitar ( 1 @-@ 3 , 6 @-@ 14 ) , backing vocals ( 4 @-@ 8 , 11 @-@ 13 ) , piano ( 5 ) Ken Coomer – drums ( 1 , 2 , 5 @-@ 14 ) , timpani ( 3 ) Leroy Bach – piano ( 12 ) Dave Crawford – trumpet ( 7 ) Mark Greenberg – vibraphone ( 11 ) David Campbell — String arrangements ( 1 ) Mitch Easter , Chris Grainger , Larry Greenhill , Mike Hagler , Russ Long , David Trumfio – engineers David Kahne , Jim Scott – mixing Mike Scotella – mixing assistant Steve Chadie – assistant engineer Lawrence Azerrad – artwork , graphic design = = Appearance in media = = " How to Fight Loneliness " can be heard at the end of " Something Old " episode of How I Met Your Mother and was included in the soundtrack of the movie Girl , Interrupted ( 1999 ) , and at the end of You Must Remember This episode of House ( TV Series ) ( Season 7 episode 12 ) . " My Darling " was included in season 1 , episode 4 " The Deer Hunters " of " Gilmore Girls " ( 2000 ) . " Summerteeth " is mentioned as a minor plot @-@ element in Jo Nesbø 's novel Phantom ( 2012 )
= Halton Castle = Not to be confused with Alton Castle . Halton Castle is in the former village of Halton which is now part of the town of Runcorn , Cheshire , England . The castle is situated on the top of Halton Hill , a sandstone prominence overlooking the village . It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building , and a scheduled ancient monument . It was the seat of the Barons of Halton from the 11th century until the 14th century and it then passed to the Duchy of Lancaster . It was besieged twice in the Civil War after which its structure deteriorated . In the 18th century a new courthouse was built on the site of the previous gatehouse . The castle lies in ruins apart from the courthouse which has been converted into a public house . = = History = = = = = Building and administration = = = Although there is no surviving evidence , it is likely that Halton Hill was a settlement in prehistoric times . Following the Norman conquest , the Barony of Halton was established by Hugh Lupus , Earl of Chester . The first baron to be appointed was Nigel of Cotentin and it is almost certain that he would have built a motte and bailey castle on the site , constructing it from wood , although the excavations in 1986 – 87 showed no evidence of a motte and bailey structure or of a timber tower or palisade . It is most probable that during the 12th century the wooden structure was replaced by a castle built from the local sandstone although no documentary evidence of this remains . Details of the building works are obscure but it has been suggested that John of Gaunt , the 14th baron , made alterations to the castle but this again has not been confirmed by documentary evidence . When the 15th baron , Henry Bolingbroke , ascended the throne as King Henry IV , the castle became the property of the Duchy of Lancaster . The earliest documentary evidence of building work at Halton Castle shows that during the 15th century and into the 16th century it was regularly maintained . Between 1450 and 1457 a new gate tower was built . There is no evidence that the castle featured in the Wars of the Roses ; this would have been unlikely because of its relatively obscure position . However a survey of the Royal Palaces in 1609 suggests that by then the castle had fallen into disrepair . During the Tudor period it was used less as a fortress and more as a prison , an administrative centre , and a court of law . In 1580 – 81 the castle was designated as a prison for Catholic recusants , but there is no evidence that it was ever used for that purpose . = = = Royal visits = = = There is little evidence of any visits by eminent people to the castle , although there is a belief that in 1207 King John visited and donated £ 5 towards the upkeep of its chapel . Edward II certainly visited the castle and was there for three days in November 1323 , during which time he also visited Norton Priory . = = = Civil War = = = At the outbreak of the Civil War the castle was garrisoned by the Royalists under the command of Captain Walter Primrose who had been appointed by Earl Rivers . It was besieged by Parliamentary forces under Sir William Brereton in 1643 , and the Royalists eventually surrendered after several weeks . On hearing of the approach of superior Royalist forces led by Prince Rupert , the Parliamentarians abandoned the castle and it was held again for the Royalists under Colonel Fenwick . There was a second siege in 1644 but , as the fortunes of the Royalists declined elsewhere , they withdrew from Halton and the Parliamentarians under Sir William Brereton re @-@ occupied the castle . In 1646 a " Council of War " was held in Warrington where it was decided that the defences of the castles at Halton and Beeston were to be dismantled . In time this was achieved and Halton castle was to have no further military function . By 1650 the castle was said to be " very ruinous " . = = = More recent history = = = The condition of the building continued to deteriorate although the gatehouse remained in use as a court . In 1728 George Cholmondeley , 2nd Earl of Cholmondeley leased the site from the Crown . In 1737 a courthouse was built on the site of the medieval gatehouse . Henry Sephton , a Liverpool architect and builder and John Orme , a joiner from Prescot , were appointed to carry out the work . The first floor was the courtroom and prisoners were held in the basement . By 1792 the courthouse had fallen into disrepair and money was found to repair it , although the source of that money is unclear . The court continued to function there until 1908 . Around 1800 three folly walls had been added to the existing ruined walls on the east side of the castle to make it look more impressive from Norton Priory , the home of Sir Richard Brooke . One of these walls was demolished around 1906 . During the Victorian era a sunken garden and two bowling greens were constructed within the castle enclosure . In 1977 the castle was leased to Halton Borough Council . In 1986 – 87 the site of the castle was excavated . = = Present state = = The castle continues to be owned by the Duchy of Lancaster and the site is managed by the Norton Priory Museum Trust . The interior of the castle is occasionally opened to the public and there are plans to make it more accessible in the future . The castle is a Grade I listed building . Its walls are in a ruinous state but the circumference is intact and it is possible to walk completely around the exterior . From its prominent position there are extensive views in all directions , including Lancashire , Cheshire , the Pennines , the hills of the Peak District and the mountains of North Wales . The courthouse is now a public house , the Castle Hotel . Its first floor is used as a function room and the basement contains the cellars of the public house . It is designated as a Grade II * listed building .
= Hindu – German Conspiracy = The Hindu – German Conspiracy ( Note on the name ) was a series of plans between 1914 and 1917 by Indian nationalist groups to attempt Pan @-@ Indian rebellion against the British Raj during World War I , formulated between the Indian revolutionary underground and exiled or self @-@ exiled nationalists who formed , in the United States , the Ghadar Party , and in Germany , the Indian independence committee , in the decade preceding the Great War . The conspiracy was drawn up at the beginning of the war , with extensive support from the German Foreign Office , the German consulate in San Francisco , as well as some support from Ottoman Turkey and the Irish republican movement . The most prominent plan attempted to foment unrest and trigger a Pan @-@ Indian mutiny in the British Indian Army from Punjab to Singapore . This plot was planned to be executed in February 1915 with the aim of overthrowing British rule over the Indian subcontinent . The February mutiny was ultimately thwarted when British intelligence infiltrated the Ghadarite movement and arrested key figures . Mutinies in smaller units and garrisons within India were also crushed . Other related events include the 1915 Singapore Mutiny , the Annie Larsen arms plot , the Jugantar – German plot , the German mission to Kabul , the mutiny of the Connaught Rangers in India , as well as , by some accounts , the Black Tom explosion in 1916 . Parts of the conspiracy included efforts to subvert the British Indian Army in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The Indo @-@ German alliance and the conspiracy were the target of a worldwide British intelligence effort , which was successful in preventing further attempts . American intelligence agencies arrested key figures in the aftermath of the Annie Larsen affair in 1917 . The conspiracy resulted in the Lahore conspiracy case trials in India as well as the Hindu – German Conspiracy Trial — at the time the longest and most expensive trial ever held in the United States . This series of events was consequential to the Indian independence movement . Though largely subdued by the end of World War I , it came to be a major factor in reforming the Raj 's Indian policy . Similar efforts were made during World War II in Germany and in Japanese @-@ controlled Southeast Asia , where Subhas Chandra Bose formed the Indische Legion and the Indian National Army respectively , and in Italy where Mohammad Iqbal Shedai formed the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan . = = Background = = Nationalism had become more and more prominent in India throughout the last decades of the 19th century as a result of the social , economic and political changes instituted in the country through the greater part of the century . The Indian National Congress , founded in 1885 , developed as a major platform for loyalists ' demands for political liberalisation and for increased autonomy . The nationalist movement grew with the founding of underground groups in the 1890s . It became particularly strong , radical and violent in Bengal and in Punjab , along with smaller but nonetheless notable movements in Maharashtra , Madras and other places of South India . In Bengal the revolutionaries more often than not recruited the educated youth of the urban middle @-@ class Bhadralok community that epitomised the " classic " Indian revolutionary , while in Punjab the rural and military society sustained organised violence . = = = Indian revolutionary underground = = = The controversial 1905 partition of Bengal had a widespread political impact . Acting as a stimulus for radical nationalist opinion in India and abroad , it became a focal issue for Indian revolutionaries . Revolutionary organisations like Jugantar and Anushilan Samiti had emerged in the 20th century . Several significant events took place . These included assassinations and attempted assassinations of civil servants , prominent public figures and Indian informants , including one in 1907 aiming to kill the Bengal Lieutenant @-@ Governor Sir Andrew Fraser . Matters came to a head when the 1912 Delhi – Lahore Conspiracy , led by erstwhile Jugantar member Rash Behari Bose , attempted to assassinate the then Viceroy of India , Charles Hardinge . In the aftermath of this event , the British Indian police made concentrated police and intelligence efforts to destroy the Bengali and Punjabi revolutionary underground . Though the movement came under intense pressure for some time , Rash Behari successfully evaded capture for nearly three years . By the time World War I had begun in Europe in 1914 , the revolutionary movement had revived in Punjab and Bengal . In Bengal the movement , with a safe haven in the French base of Chandernagore , had sufficient strength to all but paralyse the state administration . The earliest mention of a conspiracy for armed revolution in India appears in Nixon 's Report on Revolutionary Organisation , which reported that Jatin Mukherjee ( Bagha Jatin ) and Naren Bhattacharya had met the Crown Prince of Germany during the latter 's visit to Calcutta in 1912 , and obtained an assurance that they would receive supplies of arms and ammunition . At the same time an increasingly strong pan @-@ Islamic movement started developing , mainly in the north and north @-@ west regions of India . With the onset of the war in 1914 , the members of this movement formed an important component of the conspiracy . At the time of the partition of Bengal , Shyamji Krishna Varma founded India House in London and received extensive support from notable expatriate Indians including Madam Bhikaji Cama , Lala Lajpat Rai , S. R. Rana , and Dadabhai Naoroji . The organisation – ostensibly a residence for Indian students – in reality sought to promote nationalist opinion and pro @-@ independence work . India House drew young radical activists of the likes of M. L. Dhingra , V. D. Savarkar , V. N. Chatterjee , M. P. T. Acharya and Lala Har Dayal . It developed links with the revolutionary movement in India and nurtured it with arms , funds and propaganda . The authorities in India banned Indian Sociologist and other literature published by the House as " seditious " . Under V. D. Savarkar 's leadership , the House rapidly developed as a centre for intellectual and political activism and as a meeting- ground for radical revolutionaries among Indian students in Britain , earning the moniker " The most dangerous organisation outside India " from Valentine Chirol . In 1909 in London M. L. Dhingra fatally shot Sir W. H. Curzon Wyllie , political aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Secretary of State for India . In the aftermath of the assassination , the Metropolitan Police and the Home Office rapidly suppressed India House . Its leadership fled to Europe and to the United States of America . Some ( like Chatterjee ) moved to Germany ; Har Dayal and many others moved to Paris . Organisations founded in the United States and in Japan emulated the example of London 's India House . Krishna Varma nurtured close interactions with Turkish and Egyptian nationalists and with Clan na Gael in the United States . The joint efforts of Mohammed Barkatullah , S. L. Joshi and George Freeman founded the Pan @-@ Aryan Association — modelled after Krishna Varma 's Indian Home Rule Society — in New York in 1906 . Barkatullah himself had become closely associated with Krishna Varma during a previous stay in London , and his subsequent career in Japan put him at the heart of Indian political activities there . Myron Phelp , an acquaintance of Krishna Varma and an admirer of Swami Vivekananda , founded an " India House " in Manhattan in New York in January 1908 . Amidst a growing Indian student population , erstwhile members of the India House in London succeeded in extending the nationalist work across the Atlantic . The Gaelic American reprinted articles from the Indian Sociologist , while liberal press @-@ laws allowed free circulation of the Indian Sociologist . Supporters could ship such nationalist literature and pamphlets freely across the world . New York increasingly became an important centre for the Indian movement , such that Free Hindustan — a political revolutionary journal closely mirroring the Indian Sociologist and the Gaelic American published by Taraknath Das — moved in 1908 from Vancouver and Seattle to New York . Das established extensive collaboration with the Gaelic American with help from George Freeman before it was proscribed in 1910 under British diplomatic pressure . This Irish collaboration with Indian revolutionaries resulted in some of the early but failed efforts to smuggle arms into India , including a 1908 attempt on board a ship called the SS Moraitis which sailed from New York for the Persian Gulf before it was searched at Smyrna . The Irish community later provided valuable intelligence , logistics , communication , media , and legal support to the German , Indian , and Irish conspirators . Those involved in this liaison , and later involved in the plot , included major Irish republicans and Irish @-@ American nationalists like John Devoy , Joseph McGarrity , Roger Casement , Éamon de Valera , Father Peter Yorke and Larry de Lacey . These pre @-@ war contacts effectively set up a network which the German foreign office tapped into as war began in Europe . = = = Ghadar Party = = = Large @-@ scale Indian immigration to the Pacific coast of North America took place in the 20th century , especially from Punjab , which faced an economic depression . The Canadian government met this influx with legislation aimed at limiting the entry of South Asians into Canada and at restricting the political rights of those already in the country . The Punjabi community had hitherto been an important loyal force for the British Empire and the Commonwealth . The community had expected that its commitment would be honoured with the same welcome and rights which the British and colonial governments extended to British and white immigrants . The restrictive legislation fed growing discontent , protests and anti @-@ colonial sentiments within the community . Faced with increasingly difficult situations , the community began organising itself into political groups . Many Punjabis also moved to the United States , but they encountered similar political and social problems . Meanwhile , India House and nationalist activism of Indian students had begun declining on the east coast of North America towards 1910 , but activity gradually shifted west to San Francisco . The arrival at this time of Har Dayal from Europe bridged the gap between the intellectual agitators in New York and the predominantly Punjabi labour workers and migrants in the west coast , and laid the foundations of the Ghadar movement . The Ghadar Party , initially the ' Pacific Coast Hindustan Association ' , was formed in 1913 in the United States under the leadership of Har Dayal , with Sohan Singh Bhakna as its president . It drew members from Indian immigrants , largely from Punjab . Many of its members were also from the University of California at Berkeley including Dayal , Tarak Nath Das , Kartar Singh Sarabha and V.G. Pingle . The party quickly gained support from Indian expatriates , especially in the United States , Canada and Asia . Ghadar meetings were held in Los Angeles , Oxford , Vienna , Washington , D.C. , and Shanghai . Ghadar 's ultimate goal was to overthrow British colonial authority in India by means of an armed revolution . It viewed the Congress @-@ led mainstream movement for dominion status modest and the latter 's constitutional methods as soft . Ghadar 's foremost strategy was to entice Indian soldiers to revolt . To that end , in November 1913 Ghadar established the Yugantar Ashram press in San Francisco . The press produced the Hindustan Ghadar newspaper and other nationalist literature . Towards the end of 1913 , the party established contact with prominent revolutionaries in India , including Rash Behari Bose . An Indian edition of the Hindustan Ghadar essentially espoused the philosophies of anarchism and revolutionary terrorism against British interests in India . Political discontent and violence mounted in Punjab , and Ghadarite publications that reached Bombay from California were deemed seditious and banned by the Raj . These events , compounded by evidence of prior Ghadarite incitement in the Delhi @-@ Lahore Conspiracy of 1912 , led the British government to pressure the American State Department to suppress Indian revolutionary activities and Ghadarite literature , which emanated mostly from San Francisco . = = = Germany and the Berlin Committee = = = With the onset of World War I , an Indian revolutionary group called the Berlin Committee ( later called the Indian Independence Committee ) was formed in Germany . Its chief architects were C. R. Pillai and V. N. Chatterjee . The committee drew members from Indian students and erstwhile members of the India House including Abhinash Bhattacharya , Dr. Abdul Hafiz , Padmanabhan Pillai , A. R. Pillai , M. P. T. Acharya and Gopal Paranjape . Germany had earlier opened the Intelligence Bureau for the East headed by archaeologist and historian Max von Oppenheim . Oppenheim and Arthur Zimmermann , the State Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the German Empire , actively supported the Berlin committee , which had links with Jatin Mukherjee — a Jugantar Party member and at the time one of the leading revolutionary figures in Bengal . The office of the t25 @-@ member committee at No.38 Wielandstrasse was accorded full embassy status . The German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann @-@ Hollweg authorised German activity against British India as World War I broke out in September 1914 . Germany decided to actively support the Ghadarite plans . Using the links established between Indian and Irish residents in Germany ( including Irish nationalist and poet Roger Casement ) and the German Foreign Office , Oppenheim tapped into the Indo @-@ Irish network in the United States . Har Dayal had helped organise the Ghadar party before his arrest in the United States in 1914 . He however jumped bail and made his way to Switzerland , leaving the party and publications in the charge of Ram Chandra Bharadwaj , who became the Ghadar president in 1914 . The German consulate in San Francisco was tasked to make contact with Ghadar leaders in California . A naval lieutenant by the name of Wilhelm von Brincken with the help of the Indian nationalist journalist Tarak Nath Das and an intermediary by the name of Charles Lattendorf established links with Bharadwaj . Meanwhile , in Switzerland the Berlin committee was able to convince Har Dayal that organising a revolution in India was feasible . = = Conspiracy = = In May 1914 , the Canadian government refused to allow the 400 Indian passengers of the ship Komagata Maru to disembark at Vancouver . The voyage had been planned as an attempt to circumvent Canadian exclusion laws that effectively prevented Indian immigration . Before the ship reached Vancouver , German radio announced its approach , and British Columbian authorities prepared to prevent the passengers from entering Canada . The incident became a focal point for the Indian community in Canada which rallied in support of the passengers and against the government 's policies . After a two @-@ month legal battle , 24 of them were allowed to immigrate . The ship was escorted out of Vancouver by the Protected cruiser HMCS Rainbow and returned to India . On reaching Calcutta , the passengers were detained under the Defence of India Act at Budge Budge by the British Indian government , which made efforts to forcibly transport them to Punjab . This caused rioting at Budge Budge and resulted in fatalities on both sides . Ghadar leaders like Barkatullah and Taraknath Das used the inflammatory passions surrounding the Komagata Maru event as a rallying point and successfully brought many disaffected Indians in North America into the party 's fold . The British Indian Army , meanwhile , was contributing significantly to the Allied war effort in World War I. Consequently , a reduced force , estimated to have been 15 @,@ 000 troops in late 1914 , was stationed in India . It was in this scenario that concrete plans for organising uprisings in India were made . In September 1913 a Ghadarite named Mathra Singh visited Shanghai to promote the nationalist cause amongst Indians there , followed by a visit to India in January 1914 when Singh circulated Ghadar literature amongst Indian soldiers through clandestine sources before leaving for Hong Kong . Singh reported that the situation in India as favourable for revolution . By October 1914 , many Ghadarites had returned to India and were assigned tasks like contacting Indian revolutionaries and organisations , spreading propaganda and literature , and arranging to get arms into the country . The first group of 60 Ghadarites led by Jawala Singh , left San Francisco for Canton aboard the steamship Korea on 29 August . They were to sail on to India , where they would be provided with arms to organise a revolt . At Canton , more Indians joined , and the group , now numbering about 150 , sailed for Calcutta on a Japanese vessel . They were to be joined by more Ghadarites arriving in smaller groups . During September and October , about 300 Indians left for India in various ships like SS Siberia , Chinyo Maru , China , Manchuria , SS Tenyo Maru , SS Mongolia and SS Shinyo Maru . Although the Korea 's party itself was uncovered and arrested on arrival at Calcutta , a successful underground network was established between the United States and India , through Shanghai , Swatow , and Siam . Tehl Singh , the Ghadar operative in Shanghai , is believed to have spent $ 30 @,@ 000 for helping the revolutionaries to get into India . The Ghadarites in India were able to establish contact with sympathisers within the British Indian Army as well as build networks with underground revolutionary groups . = = = East Asia = = = Efforts had begun as early as 1911 to procure arms and smuggle them into India . When a clear idea of the conspiracy emerged , more earnest and elaborate plans were made to obtain arms and to enlist international support . Herambalal Gupta , who had arrived in the United States in 1914 at the Berlin Committee 's directives , took over the leadership of American wing of the conspiracy after the failure of the SS Korea mission . Gupta immediately began efforts to obtain men and arms . While men were in plentiful supply with more and more Indians coming forward to join the Ghadarite cause , obtaining arms for the uprising proved to be more difficult . The revolutionaries started negotiations with the Chinese government through James Dietrich , who held Sun Yat @-@ sen 's power of attorney , to buy a million rifles . However , the deal fell through when it was realised that the weapons offered were obsolete flintlocks and muzzle loaders . From China , Gupta went to Japan to try to procure arms and to enlist Japanese support for the Indian independence movement . However , he was forced into hiding within 48 hours when he came to know that the Japanese authorities planned to hand him over to the British . Later reports indicated he was protected at this time by Toyama Mitsuru right @-@ wing political leader and founder of the Genyosha nationalist secret society . The Indian Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore , a strong supporter of Pan @-@ Asianism , met Japanese premier Count Terauchi and Count Okuma , a former premier , in an attempt to enlist support for the Ghadarite movement . Tarak Nath Das urged Japan to align with Germany , on the grounds that American war preparation could actually be directed against Japan . Later in 1915 , Abani Mukherji — a Jugantar activist and associate of Rash Behari Bose — is also known to have tried unsuccessfully to arrange for arms from Japan . The ascendancy of Li Yuanhong to Chinese Presidency in 1916 , led to the negotiations reopening through his former private secretary who resided in the United States at the time . In exchange for allowing arms shipments to India via China 's borders , China was offered German military assistance and the rights to 10 % of any material shipped to India via China . The negotiations were ultimately unsuccessful due to Sun Yat Sen 's opposition to an alliance with Germany . = = = Europe and United States = = = The Indian nationalists then in Paris had , with Egyptian revolutionaries , made plans to assassinate Lord Kitchener as early as 1911 . These plans were however not implemented . After the war began , this plan was revived , and Har Dayal 's close associate Gobind Behari Lal visited Liverpool in March 1915 from New York to put this plan in action . He may also have intended at this time to bomb the docks in Liverpool . However , these plans ultimately failed . Chattopadhyaya also attempted at this time to revive links with the remnants of India House that survived in London , and through Swiss , German and English sympathisers then resident in Britain . Among them were Meta Brunner ( a Swiss woman ) , Vishna Dube ( an Indian man ) and his common law German wife Anna Brandt , and Hilda Howsin ( an English woman in Yorkshire ) . Chattopadhyaya 's correspondences were however traced by censor , leading to the arrest of the cell . Among other plans that were considered at the time were large scale conspiracies in June 1915 to assassinate the Foreign Secretary Lord Grey and War minister Lord Kitchener . In addition , they also intended to target the French President Raymond Poincaré and Prime Minister René Viviani , King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and his Prime Minister Antonio Salandra . These plans were coordinated with the Italian anarchists , with explosives manufactured in Italy . Barkatullah , by now in Europe and working with the Berlin Committee , arranged for these explosives to be sent to the German consulate in Zurich , from where it was expected to be taken charge of by an Italian anarchist named Bertoni . However , British intelligence was able to infiltrate this plot , and successfully pressed Swiss police to expel Abdul Hafiz . In the United States , an elaborate plan and arrangement was made to ship arms from the country and from the Far East through Shanghai , Batavia , Bangkok and Burma . Even while Herambalal Gupta was on his mission in China and Japan , other plans were explored to ship arms from the United States and East Asia . The German high command decided early on that assistance to the Indian groups would be pointless unless given on a substantial scale . In October 1914 , German Vice Consul E.H von Schack in San Francisco approved the arrangements for funds and armaments . $ 200 @,@ 000 worth of small arms and ammunition were acquired by the German military attaché Captain Franz von Papen through Krupp agents , and arranged for its shipment to India through San Diego , Java , and Burma . The arsenal included 8 @,@ 080 Springfield rifles of Spanish – American War vintage , 2 @,@ 400 Springfield carbines , 410 Hotchkiss repeating rifles , 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cartridges , 500 Colt revolvers with 100 @,@ 000 cartridges , and 250 Mauser pistols along with ammunition . The schooner Annie Larsen and the sailing ship SS Henry S were hired to ship the arms out of the United States and transfer it to the SS Maverick . The ownership of ships were hidden under a massive smokescreen involving fake companies and oil business in south @-@ east Asia . For the arms shipment itself , a successful cover was set up to lead British agents to believe that the arms were for the warring factions of the Mexican Civil War . This ruse was successful enough that the rival Villa faction offered $ 15 @,@ 000 to divert the shipment to a Villa @-@ controlled port . Although the shipment was meant to supply the mutiny planned for February 1915 , it was not dispatched until June of that year , by which time the conspiracy had been uncovered in India and major leaders had been arrested or gone into hiding . The plot for the shipment itself failed when disastrous co @-@ ordination prevented a successful rendezvous off Socorro Island with the Maverick . The plot had already been infiltrated by British intelligence through Indian and Irish agents linked closely with the conspiracy . Upon returning to Hoquiam , Washington after several failed attempts , the Annie Larsen 's cargo was promptly seized by US customs . The cargo was sold at an auction despite the German Ambassador Count Johann von Bernstoff 's attempts to take possession , insisting they were meant for German East Africa . The Hindu – German Conspiracy Trial opened in 1917 in the United States on charges of gun running and at the time was one of the lengthiest and most expensive trials in American legal history . Franz von Papen attempted to sabotage rail lines in Canada and destroy the Welland Canal . He also attempted to supply rifles and dynamite to Sikhs in British Columbia to blast railway bridges . These plots in Canada did not materialise . Among other events in the United States that have been linked to the conspiracy is the Black Tom explosion when , on the night of 30 July 1916 , saboteurs blew up nearly 2 million tons of arms and ammunition at the Black Tom terminal at New York harbour awaiting shipment in support of the British war effort . Although blamed solely on German agents at the time , later investigations by the Directorate of Naval Intelligence in the aftermath of the Annie Larsen incident unearthed links between the Black Tom explosion and Franz von Papen , the Irish movement , the Indian movement as well as Communist elements active in the United States . = = = Pan @-@ Indian mutiny = = = By the start of 1915 , many Ghadarites ( nearly 8 @,@ 000 in the Punjab province alone by some estimates ) had returned to India . However , they were not assigned a central leadership and begun their work on an ad hoc basis . Although some were rounded up by the police on suspicion , many remained at large and began establishing contacts with garrisons in major cities like Lahore , Ferozepur and Rawalpindi . Various plans had been made to attack the military arsenal at Mian Meer , near Lahore and initiate a general uprising on 15 November 1914 . In another plan , a group of Sikh soldiers , the manjha jatha , planned to start a mutiny in the 23rd Cavalry at the Lahore cantonment on 26 November . A further plan called for a mutiny to start on 30 November from Ferozepur under Nidham Singh . In Bengal , the Jugantar , through Jatin Mukherjee , established contacts with the garrison at Fort William in Calcutta . In August 1914 , Mukherjee 's group had seized a large consignment of guns and ammunition from the Rodda company , a major gun manufacturing firm in India . In December 1914 , several politically motivated armed robberies to obtain funds were carried out in Calcutta . Mukherjee kept in touch with Rash Behari Bose through Kartar Singh and V.G. Pingle . These rebellious acts , which were until then organised separately by different groups , were brought into a common umbrella under the leadership of Rash Behari Bose in North India , V. G. Pingle in Maharashtra , and Sachindranath Sanyal in Benares . A plan was made for a unified general uprising , with the date set for 21 February 1915 . = = = February 1915 = = = In India , unaware of the delayed shipment and confident of being able to rally the Indian sepoy , the plot for the mutiny took its final shape . Under the plans , the 23rd Cavalry in Punjab was to seize weapons and kill their officers while on roll call on 21 February . This was to be followed by mutiny in the 26th Punjab , which was to be the signal for the uprising to begin , resulting in an advance on Delhi and Lahore . The Bengal cell was to look for the Punjab Mail entering the Howrah Station the next day ( which would have been cancelled if Punjab was seized ) and was to strike immediately . However , Punjab CID successfully infiltrated the conspiracy at the last moment through a sepoy named Kirpal Singh . Sensing that their plans had been compromised , D @-@ Day was brought forward to 19 February , but even these plans found their way to the intelligence . Plans for revolt by the 130th Baluchi Regiment at Rangoon on 21 January were thwarted . Attempted revolts in the 26th Punjab , 7th Rajput , 130th Baluch , 24th Jat Artillery and other regiments were suppressed . Mutinies in Firozpur , Lahore , and Agra were also suppressed and many key leaders of the conspiracy were arrested , although some managed to escape or evade arrest . A last @-@ ditch attempt was made by Kartar Singh and V. G. Pingle to trigger a mutiny in the 12th Cavalry regiment at Meerut . Kartar Singh escaped from Lahore , but was arrested in Varanasi , and V. G. Pingle was apprehended in Meerut . Mass arrests followed as the Ghadarites were rounded up in Punjab and the Central Provinces . Rash Behari Bose escaped from Lahore and in May 1915 fled to Japan . Other leaders , including Giani Pritam Singh , Swami Satyananda Puri and others fled to Thailand . On 15 February , the 5th Light Infantry stationed at Singapore was among the few units to mutiny successfully . Nearly eight hundred and fifty of its troops mutinied on the afternoon of the 15th , along with nearly a hundred men of the Malay States Guides . This mutiny lasted almost seven days , and resulted in the deaths of 47 British soldiers and local civilians . The mutineers also released the interned crew of the SMS Emden , who were asked by the mutineers to join them but refused and actually took up arms and defended the barracks after the mutineers had left ( sheltering some British refuges as well ) until the prison camp was relieved . The mutiny was suppressed only after French , Russian and Japanese ships arrived with reinforcements . Of 200 people tried at Singapore , 47 mutineers were shot in public executions , the rest were transported for life to East Africa . Most of the rest were deported for life or given jail terms ranging between seven and twenty years . In all 800 mutineers were either shot imprisoned or exiled Some historians , including Hew Strachan , argue that although Ghadar agents operated within the Singapore unit , the mutiny was isolated and not linked to the conspiracy . Others deem this as instigated by the Silk Letter Movement which became intricately related to the Ghadarite conspiracy . = = = Christmas Day Plot = = = In April 1915 , unaware of the failure of the Annie Larsen plan , Papen arranged , through Krupp 's American representative Hans Tauscher , a second shipment of arms , consisting of 7 @,@ 300 Springfield rifles , 1 @,@ 930 pistols , 10 Gatling guns and nearly 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cartridges . The arms were to be shipped in mid June to Surabaya in the East Indies on the Holland American steamship SS Djember . However , the intelligence network operated by Courtenay Bennett , the Consul General to New York , was able to trace the cargo to Tauscher in New York and passed the information on to the company , thwarting these plans as well . In the meantime , even after the February plot had been scuttled , the plans for an uprising continued in Bengal through the Jugantar cohort under Jatin Mukherjee ( Bagha Jatin ) . German agents in Thailand and Burma , most prominently Emil and Theodor Helferrich — brothers of the German Finance minister Karl Helfferich — established links with Jugantar through Jitendranath Lahiri in March that year . In April , Jatin 's chief lieutenant Narendranath Bhattacharya met with the Helfferichs and was informed of the expected arrival of the Maverick with arms . Although these were originally intended for Ghadar use , the Berlin Committee modified the plans , to have arms shipped into India to the eastern coast of India , through Hatia on the Chittagong coast , Raimangal in the Sundarbans and Balasore in Orissa , instead of Karachi as originally decided . From the coast of the Bay of Bengal , these would be collected by Jatin 's group . The date of insurrection was fixed for Christmas Day 1915 , earning the name " The Christmas Day Plot " . Jatin estimated that he would be able to win over the 14th Rajput Regiment in Calcutta and cut the line to Madras at Balasore and thus take control of Bengal . Jugantar also received funds ( estimated to be Rs 33 @,@ 000 between June and August 1915 ) from the Helfferich brothers through a fictitious firm in Calcutta . However , it was at this time that the details of the Maverick and Jugantar plans were leaked to Beckett , the British Consul at Batavia , by a defecting Baltic @-@ German agent under the alias " Oren " . The Maverick was seized , while in India , police destroyed the underground movement in Calcutta as an unaware Jatin proceeded according to plan to the Bay of Bengal coast in Balasore . He was followed there by Indian police and on 9 September 1915 , he and a group of five revolutionaries armed with Mauser pistols made a last stand on the banks of the river Burha Balang . Seriously wounded in a gun battle that lasted seventy five minutes , Jatin died the next day in the town of Balasore . To provide the Bengal group enough time to capture Calcutta and to prevent reinforcements from being rushed in , a mutiny coinciding with Jugantar 's Christmas Day insurrection was planned for Burma with arms smuggled in from neutral Thailand . Thailand ( Siam ) was a strong base for the Ghadarites , and plans for rebellion in Burma ( which was a part of British India at the time ) had been proposed by the Ghadar party as early as October 1914 , which called for Burma to be used as a base for subsequent advance into India . This Siam @-@ Burma plan was finally concluded in January 1915 . Ghadarites from branches in China and United States , including Atma Ram , Thakar Singh , and Banta Singh from Shanghai and Santokh Singh and Bhagwan Singh from San Francisco , attempted to infiltrate Burma Military Police in Thailand , which was composed mostly of Sikhs and Punjabi Muslims . Early in 1915 , Atma Ram had also visited Calcutta and Punjab and linked up with the revolutionary underground there , including Jugantar . Herambalal Gupta and the German consul at Chicago arranged to have German operatives George Paul Boehm , Henry Schult , and Albert Wehde sent to Siam through Manila with the purpose of training the Indians . Santokh Singh returned to Shanghai tasked to send two expeditions , one to reach the Indian border via Yunnan and the other to penetrate upper Burma and join with revolutionary elements there . The Germans , while in Manila , also attempted to transfer the arms cargo of two German ships , the Sachsen and the Suevia , to Siam in a schooner seeking refuge at Manila harbour . However , US customs stopped these attempts . In the meantime , with the help of the German Consul to Thailand Remy , the Ghadarite established a training headquarters in the jungles near the Thai @-@ Burma border for Ghadarites arriving from China and Canada . German Consul General at Shanghai , Knipping , sent three officers of the Peking Embassy Guard for training and in addition arranged for a Norwegian agent in Swatow to smuggle arms through . However , the Thai Police high command , which was largely British , discovered these plans and Indian police infiltrated the plot through an Indian secret agent who was revealed the details by the Austrian chargé d 'affaires . Thailand , although officially neutral , was allied closely with Britain and British India . On 21 July , the newly arrived British Minister Herbert Dering presented Foreign Minister Prince Devawongse with the request for arrest and extradition of Ghadarites identified by the Indian agent , ultimately resulting in the arrest of leading Ghadarites in August . Only a single raid into Burma was launched by six Ghadarites , who were captured and later hanged . Also to coincide with the proposed Jugantar insurrection in Calcutta was a planned raid on the penal colony in the Andaman Islands with a German volunteer force raised from East Indies . The raid would release the political prisoners , helping to raise an expeditionary Indian force that would threaten the Indian coast . The plan was proposed by Vincent Kraft , a German planter in Batavia who had been wounded fighting in France . It was approved by the foreign office on 14 May 1915 , after consultation with the Indian committee , and the raid was planned for Christmas Day 1915 by a force of nearly one hundred Germans . Knipping made plans for shipping arms to the Andaman islands . However , Vincent Kraft was a double agent , and leaked details of Knipping 's plans to British intelligence . His own bogus plans for the raid were in the meantime revealed to Beckett by " Oren " , but given the successive failures of the Indo @-@ German plans , the plans for the operations were abandoned on the recommendations of both the Berlin Committee and Knipping . = = = Afghanistan and the Middle East = = = Another arm of the conspiracy was directed at the Indian troops who were serving in Middle East , while efforts were directed at drawing Afghanistan into the war on the side of the Central Powers , which it was hoped would incite a nationalist or pan @-@ Islamic uprising in India and destabilise the British recruiting grounds in Punjab and across India . After Russia 's defeat in the 1905 Russo @-@ Japanese war , her influence had declined , and it was Afghanistan that was at the time seen by Britain as the only power in the sub @-@ continent capable of directly threatening India . In the spring of 1915 , an Indo @-@ German expedition was sent to Afghanistan via the overland route through Persia . Led by the exiled Indian prince Raja Mahendra Pratap , this mission sought to invite the Afghan Emir Habibullah Khan to break with Britain , declare his independence , join the war on the Central side , and invade British India . It managed to evade the considerable Anglo @-@ Russian efforts that were directed at intercepting it in Mesopotamia and in the Persian deserts before it reached Afghanistan in August 1915 . In Afghanistan , it was joined in Kabul by members of the pan @-@ Islamic group Darul Uloom Deoband led by Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi . This group had left India for Kabul at the beginning of the war while another group under Mahmud al @-@ Hasan made its way to Hijaz , where they hoped to seek support from the Afghan Emir , the Ottoman Empire and Imperial Germany for a pan @-@ Islamic insurrection beginning in the tribal belt of north @-@ west India . The Indo @-@ German mission pressed Emir Habibullah to break from his neutral stance and open diplomatic relations with Germany , eventually hoping to rally the Emir to the German war effort . Habibullah Khan vacillated on the mission 's proposals through much of the winter of 1915 , hoping to maintain his neutral stance till the course of the war offered a concrete picture . However , the mission opened at this time secret negotiations with the pro @-@ German elements in the Emir 's court and advisory council , including his brother Nasrullah Khan and son Amanullah Khan . It found support among Afghan intellectuals , religious leaders and the Afghan press which rallied with increasingly anti @-@ British and pro @-@ Central articles . By 1916 the Raj was forced to intercept copies of the Afghan newspaper Siraj al Akhbar sent to India . It raised to the Emir a threat of a coup d 'état in his country and unrest among his tribesmen , who were beginning to see him as subservient to British authority even as Turkey called for a pan @-@ Islamic Jihad . In December 1915 , the Indian members founded the Provisional Government of India , which it was hoped would weigh on Habibullah 's advisory council to aid India and force the Emir 's hands . In January 1916 , the Emir approved a draft treaty with Germany to buy time . However , the Central campaign in the Middle East faltered at around this time , ending hopes that an overland route through Persia could be secured for aid and assistance to Afghanistan . The German members of the mission left Afghanistan in June 1916 , ending the German intrigues in the country . Nonetheless , Mahendra Pratap and his Provisional Government stayed behind , attempting to establish links with Japan , Republican China and Tsarist Russia . After the Russian revolution , Pratap opened negotiations with the Soviet Union , visiting Trotsky in Red Petrograd in 1918 , and Lenin in Moscow in 1919 and he visited the Kaiser in Berlin in 1918 . He pressed for a joint Soviet @-@ German offensive through Afghanistan into India . This was considered by the Soviets for some time after the 1919 coup in Afghanistan in which Amanullah Khan was instated as the Emir and the third Anglo @-@ Afghan war began . Pratap may also have influenced the " Kalmyk Project " , a Soviet plan to invade India through Tibet and the Himalayan buffer states . In the Middle Eastern theatre , members of the Berlin Committee , including Har Dayal and M. P. T. Acharya , were sent on missions to Baghdad and Syria in the summer of 1915 , tasked to infiltrate the Indian Expeditionary Force in southern Mesopotamia and Egypt and to attempt to assassinate British officers . The Indian effort was divided into two groups , one consisting of a Bengali revolutionary P.N. Dutt ( alias Dawood Ali Khan ) and Pandurang Khankoje . This group arrived at Bushire , where they worked with Wilhelm Wassmuss and distributed nationalist and revolutionary literature among Indian troops in Mesopotamia and Persia . The other group , working with Egyptian nationalists , attempted to block the Suez Canal . These groups carried out successful clandestine work in spreading nationalist literature and propaganda amongst the Indian troops in Mesopotamia , and on one occasion even bombed an officer 's mess . Nationalist work also extended at this time to recruiting Indian prisoners of war in Constantinople , Bushire , Kut @-@ al @-@ Amara . M. P. T. Acharya 's own works were directed at forming the Indian National Volunteer Corps with the help of Indian civilians in Turkey , and to recruiting Indian prisoners of war . He is further known to have worked along with Wilhelm Wassmuss in Bushire amongst Indian troops . The efforts were , however , ultimately hampered by differences between the Berlin committee members who were predominantly Hindus , and Indian revolutionaries already in Turkey who were largely Muslims . Further , the Egyptian nationalists distrusted the Berlin Committee , which was seen by the former as a German instrument . Nonetheless , in culmination of these efforts , Indian prisoners of war from France , Turkey , Germany , and Mesopotamia — especially Basra , Bushehr , and from Kut al Amara — were recruited , raising the Indian Volunteer Corps that fought with Turkish forces on many fronts . The Deobandis , led by Amba Prasad Sufi , attempted to organise incursions to the western border of India from Persia , through Balochistan , to Punjab . Amba Prasad was joined during the war by Kedar Nath Sondhi , Rishikesh Letha and Amin Chaudhry . These Indian troops were involved in the capture of the frontier city of Karman and the detention of the British consul there , and also successfully harassed Percy Sykes ' Persian campaign against the Baluchi and Persian tribal chiefs who were aided by the Germans . The Aga Khan 's brother was killed while fighting the rebels . The rebels also successfully harassed British forces in Sistan in Afghanistan , confining them to Karamshir in Balochistan , and later moving towards Karachi . Some reports indicate they took control of the coastal towns of Gawador and Dawar . The Baluchi chief of Bampur , having declared his independence from British rule , also joined the Ghadarites . But the war in Europe turned for the worse for Turkey and Baghdad was captured by the British forces . The Ghadarite forces , their supply lines starved , were finally dislodged . They retreated to regroup at Shiraz , where they were finally defeated after a bitter fight during the siege of Shiraz . Amba Prasad Sufi was killed in this battle , but the Ghadarites carried on guerrilla warfare along with Iranian partisans until 1919 . By the end of 1917 , divisions had begun appearing between the Ghadar Party in America on the one hand , and the Berlin Committee and the German high command on the other . Reports from German agents working with Ghadarites in Southeast Asia and the United States clearly indicated to the European wing a significant element of disorganisation , as well as unrealism in gauging public mood and support within the Ghadarite organisation . The failure of the February plot , the lack of bases in Southeast Asia following China 's participation in the war in 1917 , and the problems of supporting a Southeast Asian operation through the sea stemmed the plans significantly . Infiltration by British agents , change in American attitude and stance , and the changing fortunes of the war meant the massive conspiracy for revolution within India never succeeded . = = Counter intelligence = = British intelligence began to note and track outlines and nascent ideas of the conspiracy by as early as 1911 . Incidents like the Delhi @-@ Lahore Conspiracy and the Komagata Maru incident had already alerted the Criminal Investigation Department ( CID ) of the existence of a large @-@ scale network and plans for pan @-@ Indian militant unrest . Measures were taken which focussed on Bengal — the seat of the most intense revolutionary terrorism at the time — and on Punjab , which was uncovered as a strong and militant base in the wake of Komagata Maru . Har Dayal 's extant group was found to have strong links with Rash Behari Bose , and were " cleaned up " in the wake of the Delhi bomb case . = = = In Asia = = = At the outbreak of the war , Punjab CID sent teams to Hong Kong to intercept and infiltrate the returning Ghadarites , who often made little effort to hide their plans and objectives . These teams were successful in uncovering details of the full scale of the conspiracy , and in discovering Har Dayal 's whereabouts . Immigrants returning to India were double checked against a list of revolutionaries . In Punjab , the CID , although aware of possible plans for unrest , was not successful in infiltrating the conspiracy for the mutiny until February 1915 . A dedicated force was formed , headed by the Chief of Punjab CID , and including amongst its members Liaqat Hayat Khan ( later head of Punjab CID himself ) . In February that year , the CID was successful in recruiting the services of Kirpal Singh to infiltrate the plan . Singh , who had a Ghadarite cousin serving in the 23rd Cavalry , was able to infiltrate the leadership , being assigned to work in his cousin 's regiment . Singh was soon under suspicion of being a spy , but was able to pass on the information regarding the date and scale of the uprising to British Indian intelligence . As the date for the mutiny approached , a desperate Rash Behari Bose brought forward the mutiny day to the evening of 19 February , which was discovered by Kirpal Singh on the very day . No attempts were made by the Ghadarites to restrain him , and he rushed to inform Liaqat Hayat Khan of the change of plans . Ordered back to his station to signal when the revolutionaries had assembled , Singh was detained by the would @-@ be mutineers , but managed to escape under the cover of answering the call of nature . The role of German or Baltic @-@ German double @-@ agents , especially the agent named " Oren " , was also important in infiltrating and preempting the plans for autumn rebellions in Bengal in 1915 and in as scuttling Bagha Jatin 's plans in winter that year . Another source was the German double agent Vincent Kraft , a planter from Batavia , who passed information about arms shipments from Shanghai to British agents after being captured . Maps of the Bengal coast were found on Kraft when he was initially arrested and he volunteered the information that these were the intended landing sites for German arms . Kraft later fled through Mexico to Japan where he was last known to be at the end of the war . Later efforts by Mahendra Pratap 's Provisional Government in Kabul were also compromised by Herambalal Gupta after he defected in 1918 and passed on information to Indian intelligence . = = = In Europe and the Middle East = = = By the time the war broke out , the Indian Political Intelligence Office , headed by John Wallinger , had expanded into Europe . In scale this office was larger than those operated by the British War Office , approaching the European intelligence network of the Secret Service Bureau . This network already had agents in Switzerland against possible German intrigues . After the outbreak of the war Wallinger , under the cover of an officer of the British General Headquarters , proceeded to France where he operated from Paris , working with the French political police , the Sûreté . Among Wallinger 's recruits in the network was Somerset Maugham , who was recruited in 1915 and used his cover as author to visit Geneva while avoiding Swiss interference . Among other enterprises , the European intelligence network attempted to eliminate some of the Indian leaders in Europe . A British agent named Donald Gullick was dispatched to assassinate Virendranath Chattopadhyaya while the latter was on his way to Geneva to meet Mahendra Pratap to offer Kaiser Wilhelm II 's invitation . It is said that Somerset Maugham based several of his stories on his first @-@ hand experiences , modelling the character of John Ashenden after himself and Chandra Lal after Virendranath . The short story " Giulia Lazzari " is a blend of Gullick 's attempts to assassinate Virendranath and Mata Hari 's story . Winston Churchill reportedly advised Maugham to burn 14 other stories . The Czech revolutionary network in Europe also had a role in the uncovering of Bagha Jatin 's plans . The network was in touch with the members in the United States , and may have also been aware of and involved in the uncovering of the earlier plots . The American network , headed by E. V. Voska , was a counter @-@ espionage network of nearly 80 members who , as Habsburg subjects , were presumed to be German supporters but were involved in spying on German and Austrian diplomats . Voska had begun working with Guy Gaunt , who headed Courtenay Bennett 's intelligence network , at the outbreak of the war and on learning of the plot from the Czech European network , passed on the information to Gaunt and to Tomáš Masaryk who further passed on the information the American authorities . In the Middle East , British counter @-@ intelligence was directed at preserving the loyalty of the Indian sepoy in the face of Turkish propaganda and the concept of The Caliph 's Jihad , while a particularly significant effort was directed at intercepting the Kabul Mission . The East Persian Cordon was established in July 1915 in the Sistan province of Persia to prevent the Germans from crossing into Afghanistan , and to protect British supply caravans in Sarhad from the Damani , Reki and Kurdish Baluchi tribal raiders who may have been tempted by German gold . Among the commanders of the Sistan force was Reginald Dyer who led it between March and October 1916 . = = = In the United States = = = In the United States , the conspiracy was successfully infiltrated by British intelligence through Irish and Indian channels . The activities of Ghadar on the Pacific coast were noted by W. C. Hopkinson , who was born and raised in India and spoke fluent Hindi . Initially Hopkinson had been despatched from Calcutta to keep the Indian Police informed about the doings of Taraknath Das . The Home department of the British Indian government had begun the task of actively tracking Indian seditionists on the East Coast as early as 1910 . Francis Cunliffe Owen , the officer heading the Home Office agency in New York , had become thoroughly acquainted with George Freeman alias Fitzgerald and Myron Phelps , the famous New York advocate , as members of the Clan @-@ na @-@ Gael . Owens ' efforts were successful in thwarting the SS Moraitis plan . The Ghadar Party was incidentally established after Irish Republicans , sensing infiltration , encouraged formation of an exclusively Indian society . Following this , several approaches were adopted , including infiltration through an Indian national named Bela Singh who successfully set up a network of agents passing on information to Hopkinson , and through the use of the famous American Pinkerton 's detective agency . Bela Singh was later murdered in India in the 1930s . Hopkinson was assassinated in a Vancouver courthouse by a Ghadarite named Mewa Singh , in October , 1914 . Charles Lamb , an Irish double agent , is said to have passed on the majority of the information that compromised the Annie Larsen and ultimately helped the construction of the prosecution . An Indian operative , codenamed " C " and described most likely to have been the adventurous Chandra Kanta Chakravarty ( later the chief prosecution witness in the trial ) , also passed on the details of the conspiracy to British and American intelligence . = = Trials = = The conspiracy led to several trials in India , most famous among them being the Lahore Conspiracy trial , which opened in Lahore in April 1915 in the aftermath of the failed February mutiny . Other trials included the Benares , Simla , Delhi , and Ferozepur conspiracy cases , and the trials of those arrested at Budge Budge . At Lahore , a special tribunal was constituted under the Defence of India Act 1915 and a total of 291 conspirators were put on trial . Of these 42 were awarded the death sentence , 114 transported for life , and 93 awarded varying terms of imprisonment . Several of these were sent to the Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands . Forty two defendants in the trial were acquitted . The Lahore trial directly linked the plans made in United States and the February mutiny plot . Following the conclusion of the trial , diplomatic effort to destroy the Indian revolutionary movement in the United States and to bring its members to trial increased considerably . In the United States , the Hindu – German Conspiracy Trial commenced in the District Court in San Francisco on 12 November 1917 following the uncovering of the Annie Larsen affair . One hundred and five people participated , including members of the Ghadar Party , the former German Consul @-@ General and Vice @-@ Consul , and other members of staff of the German consulate in San Francisco . The trial itself lasted from 20 November 1917 to 24 April 1918 . The last day of the trial was notable for the sensational assassination of the chief accused , Ram Chandra , by a fellow defendant , Ram Singh , in a packed courtroom . Singh himself was immediately shot dead by a US Marshal . In May 1917 , eight Indian nationalists of the Ghadar Party were indicted by a federal grand jury on a charge of conspiracy to form a military enterprise against Britain . In later years the proceedings were criticised as being a largely show trial designed to preempt any suggestions that the United States was joining an imperialist war . The jury during the trial was carefully selected to exclude any Irish person with republican views or associations . Strong public support in favour of the Indians , especially the revived Anglophobic sentiments following the colonial provisions of the Treaty of Versailles , allowed the Ghadarite movement to be revived despite British concerns . = = Impact = = The conspiracy had a significant impact on Britain 's policies , both within the empire and in international relations . The outlines and plans for the nascent ideas of the conspiracy were noted and tracked by British intelligence as early as 1911 . Alarmed at the agile organisation , which repeatedly reformed in different parts of the country despite being subdued in others , the chief of Indian Intelligence Sir Charles Cleveland was forced to warn that the idea and attempts at pan @-@ Indian revolutions were spreading through India " like some hidden fire " . A massive , concerted , and coordinated effort was required to subdue the movement . Attempts were made in 1914 to prevent the naturalisation of Tarak Nath Das as an American citizen , while successful pressure was applied to have Har Dayal interned . = = = Political impact = = = The conspiracy , judged by the British Indian Government 's own evaluation at the time , and those of several contemporary and modern historians , was an important event in the Indian independence movement and was one of the significant threats faced by the Raj in the second decade of the 20th century . In the scenario of the British war effort and the threat from the militant movement in India , it was a major factor for the passage of the Defence of India Act 1915 . Among the strongest proponents of the act was Michael O 'Dwyer , then the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab , and this was largely due to the Ghadarite movement . It was also a factor that guided British political concessions and Whitehall 's India Policy during and after World War I , including the passage of Montagu – Chelmsford Reforms which initiated the first round of political reform in the Indian subcontinent in 1917 . The events of the conspiracy during World War I , the presence of Pratap 's Kabul mission in Afghanistan and its possible links to the Soviet Union , and a still @-@ active revolutionary movement especially in Punjab and Bengal ( as well as worsening civil unrest throughout India ) led to the appointment of a Sedition committee in 1918 chaired by Sidney Rowlatt , an English judge . It was tasked to evaluate German and Bolshevik links to the militant movement in India , especially in Punjab and Bengal . On the recommendations of the committee , the Rowlatt Act , an extension of the Defence of India Act 1915 , was enforced in India . The events that followed the passage of the Rowlatt Act in 1919 were also influenced by the conspiracy . At the time , British Indian Army troops were returning from the battlefields of Europe and Mesopotamia to an economic depression in India . The attempts of mutiny in 1915 and the Lahore conspiracy trials were still in public attention . News of young Mohajirs who fought on behalf of the Turkish Caliphate and later fought in the ranks of the Red Army during the Russian Civil War was also beginning to reach India . The Russian Revolution had also cast its long shadow into India . It was at this time that Mahatma Gandhi , until then relatively unknown in the Indian political scene , began emerging as a mass leader . Ominously , in 1919 , the Third Anglo @-@ Afghan War began in the wake of Amir Habibullah 's assassination and institution of Amanullah in a system blatantly influenced by the Kabul mission . In addition , in India , Gandhi 's call for protest against the Rowlatt Act achieved an unprecedented response of furious unrest and protests . The situation especially in Punjab was deteriorating rapidly , with disruptions of rail , telegraph and communication systems . The movement was at its peak before the end of the first week of April , with some recording that " practically the whole of Lahore was on the streets , the immense crowd that passed through Anarkali was estimated to be around 20 @,@ 000 . " In Amritsar , over 5 @,@ 000 people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh . This situation deteriorated perceptibly over the next few days . Michael O 'Dwyer is said to have been of the firm belief that these were the early and ill @-@ concealed signs of a conspiracy for a coordinated uprising around May , on the lines of the 1857 revolt , at a time when British troops would have withdrawn to the hills for the summer . The Amritsar massacre , as well as responses preceding and succeeding it , contrary to being an isolated incident , was the end result of a concerted plan of response from the Punjab administration to suppress such a conspiracy . James Houssemayne Du Boulay is said to have ascribed a direct relationship between the fear of a Ghadarite uprising in the midst of an increasingly tensed situation in Punjab , and the British response that ended in the massacre . Lastly , British efforts to downplay and disguise the nature and impact of the revolutionary movement at this time also resulted in a policy designed to strengthen the moderate movement in India , which ultimately saw Gandhi 's rise in the Indian movement . = = = International relations = = = The conspiracy influenced several aspects of Great Britain 's international relations , most of all Anglo @-@ American relations during the war , as well as , to some extent , Anglo @-@ Chinese relations . After the war , it was one of the issues that influenced Anglo @-@ Japanese relations . At the start of the war , the American government 's refusal to check the Indian seditionist movement was a major concern for the British government . By 1916 , a majority of the resources of the American department of the British Foreign Office were related to the Indian seditionist movement . Before the outbreak of the war , the political commitments of the Wilson Government , ( especially of Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan who had eight years previously had authored " British Rule in India " , a highly critical pamphlet , that was classified as seditionist by the Indian and Imperial governments ) , and the political fallouts of the perception of persecution of oppressed people by Britain prevented the then ambassador Cecil Spring Rice from pressing the issue diplomatically . After Robert Lansing replaced Bryan as Secretary of State in 1916 , Secretary of State for India Marquess of Crewe and Foreign Secretary Edward Grey forced Spring Rice to raise the issue and the evidences obtained in Lahore Conspiracy trial were presented to the American government in February . The first investigations were opened in America at this time with the raid of the Wall Street office of Wolf von Igel , resulting in seizures of papers that were later presented as evidence in the Hindu – German Conspiracy Trial . However , a perceptibly slow and reluctant American investigation triggered an intense neutrality dispute through 1916 , aggravated by belligerent preventive measures of the British Far @-@ Eastern fleet on the high seas that threatened the sovereignty of American vessels . German and Turkish passengers were seized from the American vessel China by HMS Laurentic at the mouth of the Yangtze River . Several incidents followed , including the SS Henry S , which were defended by the British government on grounds that the seized ship planned to foment an armed uprising in India . These drew strong responses from the US government , prompting the US Atlantic Fleet to dispatch destroyers to the Pacific to protect the sovereignty of American vessels . Authorities in the Philippines were more cooperative , which assured Britain of knowledge of any plans against Hong Kong . The strained relations were relaxed in May 1916 when the Britain released the China prisoners and relaxed its aggressive policy seeking co @-@ operation with the United States . However , diplomatic exchanges and relations did not improve before November that year . The conspiracy issue was ultimately addressed by William G. E. Wiseman , head of British intelligence in the United States , when he passed details of a bomb plot directly to the New York Police bypassing diplomatic channels . This led to the arrest of Chandra Kanta Chuckrevarty . As the links between Chuckervarty 's papers and the Igel papers became apparent , investigations by federal authorities expanded to cover the entire conspiracy . Ultimately , the United States agreed to forward evidence so long as Britain did not seek admission of liability for breaches of neutrality . At a time that diplomatic relations with Germany were deteriorating , the British Foreign Office directed its embassy to co @-@ operate with the investigations resolving the Anglo @-@ American diplomatic disputes just as the United States entered the war . Through 1915 – 16 , China and Indonesia were the major bases for the conspirators , and significant efforts were made by the British government to coax China into the war to attempt to control the German and Ghadar intrigues . This would also allow free purchase of arms from China for the Entente powers . However , Yuan 's proposals for bringing China into the war were against Japanese interests and gains from the war . This along with Japanese support for Sun Yat Sen and rebels in southern China laid the foundations for deterioration of Anglo @-@ Japanese relations as early as 1916 . After the end of the Great War , Japan increasingly became a haven for radical Indian nationalists in exile , who were protected by patriotic Japanese societies . Notable among these were Rash Behari Bose , Tarak Nath Das , and A. M. Sahay . The protections offered to these nationalists , most notably by Toyama Mitsuru 's Black Dragon Society , effectively prevented British efforts to repatriate them and became a major policy concern . = = = Ghadar Party and IIC = = = The IIC was formally disbanded in November 1918 . Most of its members became closely associated with communism and the Soviet Union . Bhupendranath Dutta and Virendranath Chattopadhyay alias Chatto arrived in Moscow in 1920 . Narendranath Bhattacharya , under a new identity of M. N. Roy , was among the first Indian communists and made a memorable speech in the second congress of the Communist International that rejected Leninist views and foreshadowed Maoist peasant movements . Chatto himself was in Berlin until 1932 as the general secretary of the League Against Imperialism and was able to convince Jawaharlal Nehru to affiliate the Indian National Congress with the league in 1927 . He later fled Nazi Germany for the Soviet Union but disappeared in 1937 under Joseph Stalin 's Great Purge . The Ghadar Party , suppressed during the war , revived itself in 1920 and openly declared its communist beliefs . Although sidelined in California , it remained relatively stronger in East Asia , where it allied itself with the Chinese Communist Party . = = = World War II = = = Although the conspiracy failed during World War I , the movement being suppressed at the time and several of its key leaders hanged or incarcerated , several prominent Ghadarites also managed to flee India to Japan and Thailand . The concept of a revolutionary movement for independence also found a revival amongst later generation Indian leaders , most notably Subhas Chandra Bose who , towards the mid @-@ 1930s , began calling for a more radical approach towards colonial domination . During World War II , several of these leaders were instrumental in seeking Axis support to revive such a concept . Bose himself , from the very beginning of World War II , actively evaluated the concept of revolutionary movement against the Raj , interacting with Japan and subsequently escaping to Germany to raise an Indian armed force , the Indische Legion , to fight in India against Britain . He later returned to Southeast Asia to take charge of the Indian National Army which was formed following the labour of exiled nationalists , efforts from within Japan to revive a similar concept , and the direction and leadership of people like Mohan Singh , Giani Pritam Singh , and Rash Behari Bose . The most famous of these saw the formation of the Indian Independence League , the Indian National Army and ultimately the Arzi Hukumat @-@ e @-@ Azad Hind in Southeast Asia . = = Commemoration = = The Ghadar Memorial Hall in San Francisco honours members of the party who were hanged following the Lahore conspiracy trial , and the Ghadar Party Memorial Hall in Jalandhar , Punjab commemorates the Ghadarites who were involved in the conspiracy . Several of those executed during the conspiracy are today honoured in India . Kartar Singh is honoured with a memorial at his birthplace of the Village of Sarabha . The Ayurvedic Medicine College in Ludhiana is also named in his honour . The Indian government has produced stamps honouring several of those involved in the conspiracy , including Har Dayal , Bhai Paramanand , and Rash Behari Bose . Several other revolutionaries are also honoured through India and the Indian American population . A memorial plaque commemorating the Komagata Maru was unveiled by Jawaharlal Nehru at Budge Budge in Calcutta in 1954 , while a second plaque was unveiled in 1984 at Gateway Pacific , Vancouver by the Canadian government . A heritage foundation to commemorate the passengers from the Komagata Maru excluded from Canada was established in 2005 . In Singapore , two memorial tablets at the entrance of the Victoria Memorial Hall and four plaques in St Andrew 's Cathedral commemorate the British soldiers and civilians killed during the Singapore Mutiny . In Ireland , a memorial at the Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin commemorates the dead from the Jalandhar mutiny of the Connaught Rangers . The Southern Asian Institute of Columbia University today runs the Taraknath Das foundation to support work relating to India . Famous awardees include R. K. Narayan , Robert Goheen , Philip Talbot , Anita Desai and SAKHI and Joseph Elder . = = Note on the name = = The conspiracy is known under several different names , including the ' Hindu Conspiracy ' , the ' Indo @-@ German Conspiracy ' , the ' Ghadar conspiracy ' ( or ' Ghadr conspiracy ' ) , or the ' German plot ' . The term Hindu – German Conspiracy is closely associated with the uncovering of the Annie Larsen plot in the United States , and the ensuing trial of Indian nationalists and the staff of the German Consulate of San Francisco for violating American neutrality . The trial itself was called the Hindu – German Conspiracy Trial , and the conspiracy was reported in the media ( and later studied by several historians ) as Hindu – German Conspiracy . However , the conspiracy involved not only Hindus and Germans , but also substantial numbers of Muslims and Punjabi Sikhs , and strong Irish support that pre @-@ dated German and Turkish involvement . The term Hindu was used commonly in opprobrium in America to identify Indians regardless of religion . Likewise , conspiracy was also a term with negative connotations . The term Hindu Conspiracy was used by the government to actively discredit the Indian revolutionaries at a time the United States was about to join the war against Germany . The term ' Ghadar Conspiracy ' may refer more specifically to the mutiny planned for February 1915 in India , while the term ' German plot ' or ' Christmas Day Plot ' may refer more specifically to the plans for shipping arms to Jatin Mukherjee in Autumn 1915 . The term Indo @-@ German conspiracy is also commonly used to refer to later plans in Southeast Asia and to the mission to Kabul which remained the remnant of the conspiracy at the end of the war . All of these were parts of the larger conspiracy . Most scholars reviewing the American aspect use the name Hindu – German Conspiracy , the Hindu @-@ Conspiracy or the Ghadar Conspiracy , while most reviewing the conspiracy over its entire span from Southeast Asia through Europe to the United States more often use the term Indo @-@ German conspiracy .
= German submarine U @-@ 105 ( 1940 ) = German submarine U @-@ 105 was a Type IXB U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine . She was ordered in May 1938 as part of Germany 's naval rearmament program . Her keel was laid down in Bremen in November 1938 . After roughly seven months of construction , she was launched in June 1940 and formally commissioned into the Kriegsmarine in September 1940 . During her three @-@ year career , U @-@ 105 sank 23 vessels for a total loss of 125 @,@ 470 gross register tons ( GRT ) before being sunk by the Free French Forces off the coast of Dakar ( Senegal ) in June 1943 . = = Construction and design = = = = = Construction = = = U @-@ 105 was ordered by Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine on 24 May 1938 ; her keel was laid down on 16 November 1938 by DeSchiMAG AG Weser in Bremen as yard number 968 . She was launched on 15 June 1940 and commissioned on 10 September under the command of Kapitänleutnant Georg Schewe . = = = Design = = = German Type IXB submarines were slightly larger than the original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA . U @-@ 105 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 051 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 034 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 178 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 159 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 76 m ( 22 ft 2 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 60 m ( 31 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) . The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 3 knots ( 13 @.@ 5 km / h ; 8 @.@ 4 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 64 nautical miles ( 119 km ; 74 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 105 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight . = = Service history = = Under the command of Kapitänleutnant Georg Schewe , U @-@ 105 left Kiel on 24 December 1940 . She spent 39 days in the North Sea . During this patrol , she sank the British ship Bassano on 9 January 1941 , and Lurigethan , part of Convoy SL @-@ 61 , on 26 January 1941 , totalling 8 @,@ 407 GRT . Five days later , on 31 January , U @-@ 105 arrived at the German @-@ occupied port of Lorient , France , which would remain her home port for the rest of her career . = = = 1941 = = = U @-@ 105 left Lorient on her second patrol on 22 February 1941 and underwent a 112 @-@ day voyage in the Atlantic Ocean . Along with U @-@ 124 , she was directed by the Oberkommando der Marine ( Supreme naval headquarters ) , to attack Convoy SL @-@ 67 . During this attack , U @-@ 105 sank the merchant ship Harmodius , on 8 March . Collectively , the two U @-@ boats sank a total of 28 @,@ 148 tons . U105 then stalked Convoy SL @-@ 68 , sinking Medjerda on 18 March , Mandalika on 19 March and Clan Ogilvy , Benwyvis and Jhelum , all on the 21st . U @-@ 105 went on to score Nazi Germany 's first kill off the coast of South America when she sank Ena de Larrinaga on 5 April 1941 . Later during the patrol she sank Oakdene , part of Convoy OG @-@ 59 . On 6 May , Benvrackie , part of Convoy OB @-@ 312 ; on the 13th , Benvenue part of Convoy OB @-@ 314 and on the 15th , Rodney Star on 16 May and Scottish Monarch on 1 June as part of Convoy OB @-@ 319 . This was the second most successful U @-@ boat patrol of the entire Second World War , with 12 ships sunk for a total of 71 @,@ 450 GRT . On 5 May 1941 , the 105mm deck gun exploded , wounding six crew members . U @-@ 105 returned to Lorient on 13 June , and remained there until 3 August , when she departed on her third war patrol . On 5 August she was assigned to wolfpack ' Hammer ' and remained with it until it was disbanded on 12 August , when she was reassigned to wolfpack ' Grönland ' , with which she remained until its disbanding on 27 August . She was then assigned to wolfpack ' Margrave ' , and sank the Panamanian merchant ship Montana , part of Convoy SC @-@ 42 , on 11 September . She returned to Lorient nine days later . U @-@ 105 left Lorient on her fourth patrol on 8 November 1941 and spent 36 days in the North Atlantic . On 14 November she was assigned to wolfpack ' Steuben ' and remained with it until 2 December . Having sunk no ships during the patrol , she returned to Lorient on 13 December 1941 . Georg Schewe left the boat shortly after this patrol , and was replaced as commander by Heinrich Schuch . = = = 1942 = = = On 25 January 1942 U @-@ 105 left Lorient on her fifth patrol . On 31 January she sank the British warship HMS Culver , part of Convoy SL @-@ 98 , south @-@ west of Ireland , and , on 5 February 1942 , she rescued seven men from a crashed German Dornier Do 24 350 miles off the coast of France . U @-@ 105 returned to Lorient on 8 February . Seventeen days later , on 25 February , U @-@ 105 left Lorient . Between 25 and 27 March , she sank the British merchant ship Narragansett and the Norwegian merchant ship Svenør off the east coast of the United States . U @-@ 105 returned to Lorient on 15 April after spending 50 days in the North Atlantic , and left on another patrol on 7 June . While crossing the Bay of Biscay , she was attacked by an Australian Short Sunderland aircraft from No. 10 Squadron RAAF . U @-@ 105 sought shelter in Ferrol , Spain and did not leave until 28 June , when she departed for Lorient , which she reached on the 30th . The attack apparently caused serious damage , as she did not sail again until 23 November . During this period , Oberleutnant zur See Hans @-@ Adolf Schweichel was put in command of the boat , but did not undertake any patrols and was replaced by Oberleutnant zur See Jürgen Nissen , under whose command U @-@ 105 left Lorient . While patrolling the North Atlantic she succeeded in sinking three British merchant ships ; Orfor on 14 December 1942 , C.S. Flight on 12 January 1943 , and British Vigilance , part of Convoy TM @-@ 1 , on 24 January , as well as the American freighter Cape Decision on the 27th . U @-@ 105 returned to Lorient on 14 February , and remained there until 16 March . During this patrol , ( on 1 April ) , the boat 's commander , Jürgen Nissen , was promoted to Kapitänleutnant . On 15 May 1943 U @-@ 105 sank the Greek merchant ship Maroussio Logothetis 250 miles southwest of Freetown . On 2 June 1943 , while passing close to Dakar , U @-@ 105 was attacked and sunk by a Potez @-@ CAMS 141 flying boat " Antarés " from Free French Squadron 141 . All 53 crew members were killed . = = Summary of raiding history = = * Sailing vessel
= Maddy Young = Madeleine " Maddy " Young is a fictional character in the BBC medical drama Holby City , portrayed by actress Nadine Lewington . The character first appeared on @-@ screen on 16 January 2007 , in episode " Face Value " - series 9 , episode 15 of the programme . Her final appearance in the show was in the Series 11 episode " Just A Perfect Day " when her character was fatally stabbed . Her role in the show is that of a Senior House Officer undergoing her general surgical rotation in Holby 's acute admissions unit . Described by the BBC as " enthusiastic [ ... ] fun " and " dedicated to her job " , Maddy was created alongside fellow new character General Surgical Consultant Dan Clifford . Her major storylines have centered on their friendship and relationship , as well as her troubled family background and her continual rule @-@ breaking . The character has proven popular with viewers , seeing Lewington long @-@ listed for the ' Most Popular Newcomer ' award at the 2007 National Television Awards for her portrayal of the character , and Maddy voted by Holby City fans ' Favourite Newcomer ' of series 9 . However , in October 2007 , the character also came under heavy criticism from drinks industry body the Portman Group , resulting from an incident of on @-@ screen binge drinking broadcast without showing any negative effects , which the group lambasted as " highly irresponsible . " In May 2009 , Maddy died after being stabbed by disturbed patient Chantelle Tanner . After the attack , a full episode misled viewers by showing what would have happened if Maddy had been saved , before revealing at the end that Maddy had actually died . = = Creation = = Maddy was created by Holby City 's executive producer Tony McHale as an SHO level doctor who would work on the hospital 's Acute Assessment Unit . The character was conceived alongside fellow series 9 newcomer Dan Clifford ( Peter Wingfield ) , who arrived as the new General Surgical Consultant of the hospital 's Keller Ward , in episode " It 's Been a Long Day " - eight weeks before the introduction of Maddy . BBC Publicity explained at the time : " Maddy is good friends with Clifford ( Peter Wingfield ) and has saved him from trouble on a few occasions " . In the closing credits of the character 's first two appearances - episodes " Face Value " and " Feast or Famine " - her name was given as " Maddie Young " . In every subsequent episode , the character has been credited by the altered spelling of " Maddy Young " . On 4 October 2006 , it was announced that actress Nadine Lewington had been cast in the role of Maddy . Lewington had made a previous appearance in series 20 , episode 22 of Holby City 's sister show Casualty . Lewington recalls of her role : " I was a young married mum of one with another on the way . I loved my little bump . My reckless hubbie had had a motorbike accident , in which a baby was injured , after promising to give the bikes up . I threatened to leave him , Charlie Fairhead gave him what for and told him how lucky he was to have me and he promised to be model father after all . Happily ever after . It was a really sweet little story actually . Very touching " . On joining the cast of Holby City , Lewington commented : " I 've been on cloud nine since receiving that all @-@ important phone call . My parents are surprised to suddenly have a doctor in the family but are thrilled nonetheless ! I 'm just really looking forward to being part of an incredible cast in such a successful show – I can 't wait ! " A spokesperson for BBC Publicity added : " We are delighted to have Nadine on board to play the part of Maddy , she 's a great addition to the show and her character will be involved in some dramatic storylines . " Discussing her casting a year into her time on the show , Lewington assessed : " I enjoy it more as I wade through the years . As with any ensemble work , the more time spent as a team , working together and discovering each others rhythms , dynamics and struggles , the better . And because of that , more fun . I certainly feel more settled and confident . Part of something . It was all a bit daunting for a while . " = = Development = = Upon announcing the character 's creation , BBC Publicity initially stated of her personality : " Maddy 's enthusiasm and ability speaks for itself . She 's a young SHO who loves her job and is fun to be around . " Expanding , it was added that : " Maddy 's young , fun and up for a laugh while , at the same time , dedicated to her job . She 's definitely not going to be single for very long , but there 's a family secret she 's harbouring which could just get in the way ... " The BBC Holby City homepage describes Maddy as : " enthusiastic and eager to learn . Being with her is fun . She doesn 't moan , she loves her job and gets on with it . She just wants to be happy " . Comparing the character 's personality to her own , Lewington commented : " My good pal , Sir Robert Powell ( Mark Williams ) has said that a character is often only yourself turned 3 degrees . I think this to be true of Maddy and I. There are similarities . Although she 's smarter than me , she does the daftest things ! She 's says things I wouldn 't . But when she cries , I cry and when she smiles , I smile " . Throughout the show 's ninth series , Maddy maintained a close relationship with General Surgical Consultant Dan Clifford . It was revealed in her first episode that she had previously worked alongside him in Middlesex . It later came to light that she once covered for him when he attempted an operation drunk - going so far as to date the lesbian anesthetist present during the surgery in order to buy her silence . Shortly before his departure from Holby City , Dan and Maddy briefly became romantically involved . However , Dan was also in love with his sister @-@ in @-@ law Louise and ultimately departed for a new job in France , leaving Maddy behind . Peter Wingfield ( Dan ) has said of the relationship : " There was a line in one of the last episodes , " one of them seems perfect for you " and I always thought that summed it up . Dan and Maddy have always been incredibly close without becoming lovers , but it is obvious that they are great together , so when it happens it is effortless and joyous and has wonderful potential . But Dan 's private demons prevent it from being allowed to live and grow . I always thought it might be great for him , if only he could have let it be . " Lewington 's own assessment of the relationship is that : " Maddy doesn 't have anyone in her life that she can count on . Dan was her family and that 's what hurt so bad . I guess to have Dan as a lover would mean that he would never go away . She wouldn 't have to share him . Dan loved Maddy sincerely which is why he didn 't want to risk hurting her anymore than he already had . He was too messed up to be good for anyone and he knew it . " The character also had a brief sexual relationship with hospital Lothario Sam Strachan . She and Sam had a one night stand in episode " The Borders of Sleep " , and went on to become close friends , with Maddy assisting Sam in caring for a teenage prostitute he felt responsible for . She also supported him through his Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma diagnosis , and enlisting his support in illegally proving a patient 's death through negligence . In the show 's tenth series , Maddy also formed a fast respect for the new head of the hospital 's Acute Assessment Unit , Linden Cullen ( Duncan Pow ) . Pow ruled out a romance between the two characters , however , stating : " They 're protective of each other , but they 're more like brother and sister than anything else . I don 't think he 's ready for the relationship merry @-@ go @-@ round at Holby just yet " . He added that : " Any man would be a fool to turn down Maddy , but Linden wants his wife back " . Similarly , Lewington has assessed that neither Sam nor Linden are Maddy 's ideal man , and instead she is " waiting for a new hunk ! " = = Storylines = = Maddy arrives at Holby City Hospital in episode " Face Value " . It is revealed that she has a history with General Surgical Consultant Dan Clifford , and that the pair are good friends . The pre @-@ existing relationship between Maddy and Dan initially makes some staff wary of her , especially on the hospital 's Acute Assessment Unit , where she is assigned . However , she quickly strikes up a friendship with PRHOs Matt Parker and Dean West , and Senior Staff Nurse Donna Jackson . Maddy engages in a one night stand with Cardiothoracic Surgical Registrar Sam Strachan in episode " The Borders of Sleep " , and later bends the rules to help him take care of underage prostitute patient Jade MacGuire . In episode " What Lies Beneath " , Maddy 's father arrives in Holby having escaped from prison . She treats him for an injury he sustained prior to escaping , and , aided by Dan , helps him avoid the police when they arrive searching for him . Her father reveals to Dan that Maddy once stole pharmacy drugs and planted them on the abusive boyfriend of her twin sister , Hannah . She discusses her past with Dan , mentioning the fact she once covered for him when he operated drunk . Maddy gets into further trouble when she poses as Cardiothoracic Consultant Elliot Hope , attending a racial awareness course under the guise of " Ellie " , only to be caught out by the hospital 's Chief Executive Officer Jayne Grayson . Maddy 's sister Hannah arrives at Holby with an abscess in episode " Guilt by Association " . Maddy convinces her to have an operation by illegally stopping her pain medication , in order to emphasize how badly she needs surgery . In the following episode , Hannah seeks out Maddy 's help when she accidentally gives her daughter , Sunny , a methadone overdose . Although Maddy again breaks the rules and the law to help them , Sunny dies while being treated from an exacerbated pre @-@ existing cardiac problem . The police are suspicious of Sunny 's death , but Dan blackmails fellow Consultant Ric Griffin into covering up for Maddy . Dan and Maddy go on to share a short @-@ lived romantic relationship before his departure in October 2007 . She is hurt by Dan 's love for his sister @-@ in @-@ law Louise , and left heartbroken when Dan departs Holby for a prestigious job in France . In episode " Love Will Tear Us Apart " , Maddy makes an error in the middle of an operation after Dan calls her out of the blue to arrange a meeting . She is devastated when he later stands her up . Following Dan 's departure , Maddy goes on to support Sam through his battle with Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma , and form a professional relationship with the new head of the AAU , Linden Cullen . When Linden is suspended following the death of a patient , Maddy breaks the law by stealing samples from the hospital 's morgue to prove his innocence . She is severely reprimanded by Jayne Grayson , although Linden is eventually cleared . When Linden becomes involved with a case of conjoined twins , Maddy is temporarily placed in charge of the AAU in his absence . Maddy had recently been transferred to Keller on surgical rotation . She continuely tried to impress Ric . But Ric kept taking his frustrations out on her because she was friends with Tom O ' Dowd . But Ric was impressed in the end and offered her a promotion and told she could be a great surgeon one day . In " Mirror , Mirror " Maddy 's sister Hannah , having been released from prison , arrives at Holby with her cellmate Chantelle , who has been stabbed , in her car . Because Chantelle refuses treatment in the hospital , believing they will send her back to jail for being in a fight , Maddy agrees to treat Chantelle in secret . Linden finds out and tries to help and they operate on her but Ric finds out and tells her to report it to the police . She refuses as doing so would cause Chantelle to run away , leaving her with a potentially fatal stab wound . As a consequence Ric withdraws her from the promotion interview . In " Seeing Other People " Chantelle stabs Maddy in the back , whilst she was on her way to Ric Griffin to talk about the promotion . In " Just a Perfect Day " Maria finds Maddy stabbed and bleeding out on the floor in the Keller ward toilets . She immediately starts trying to resuscitate her . Linden rushes in to help . Three weeks have passed since Maddy was stabbed . She is in Holby Care and we hear her thinking about a letter she has written to her sister Hannah . She seems to be fully recovered and is desperately trying to get back to work and be interviewed for the ST3 job . Ric held the interviews open until Maddy was well enough , and today she 's going to make sure she gets the job . Maddy 's going to show them that they can throw anything at her and she 'll cope ... even after being stabbed . Linden wants Maddy to be careful and take things easy , as she nearly died , but Maddy wants to get back to work . Meanwhile Maddy receives a visit from Dan Clifford , who she has not seen for over 18 months since he took his job abroad . After hearing about Maddy 's attack he has arrived to see how she is doing and to offer her a research position with him at his new hospital . Maddy decides to try for the position at Holby before making any decisions . Back on the ward , a father and his two daughters have been brought in , one with a stab wound and one badly burnt . The father only has minor injuries but the police seem to believe he had something to do with the incident . Maddy tries to find out what is happening from the father , who is not talking to the police . She seems to have some connection with him but can 't seem to put her finger on what it is . Ric is having second thoughts about allowing Maddy to be interviewed . He explains to Michael that he doesn 't think that she is ready for the position . Maria overhears the pair 's conversation and chips in saying that she feels that Maddy is perfect . Michael knows Maria is right but Ric thinks he might have made a mistake and he explains to Maddy that he is withdrawing her interview offer . Maddy is devastated . Clifford comforts Maddy and explains that the board have now asked him to move back to Holby and there is a position waiting for him . After advice from Linden Maddy decides to stay at Holby . Her aim is to show Ric what she is capable of achieving . Determined to show Ric her skill she takes a leading role in the procedure on the stab victim . Ric is impressed but explains that he would like to see more before she gets an interview . Her plan has failed . Maddy overhears Ric and Clifford talking about her . Clifford explains that Ric might be hit with a lawsuit if he denies Maddy an interview and suggests that he interviews her without giving her the job . The stab victim dies and Maddy blames herself , even though there was nothing she could have done . But Ric tells Maddy he has reconsidered and she can have an interview . Although she 's happy to have this opportunity she knows that Ric is only doing it to avoid a court case . She heads into the interview , bold and honest about her work . She impresses the board and they give her the position . She can 't believe it . She heads out to tell Dan Clifford the news , who then tells her that the board have offered that he can move his entire work to Holby and he tell her that the reason he wants to stay is that he loves her . Maddy is overjoyed and they kiss passionately against the bonnet of his car . She heads back to the ward to find the father of the stab victim missing . She finds him in the basement , confused and he speaks to Maddy as if she is his dead daughter . Maddy tries to help but he keeps referring to Maddy as his daughter . At the end of the episode , it is revealed that everything that happened since Maddy was stabbed was actually a dream and that Maddy actually died in Chantelle 's attack . This whole episode was Maddy living out her perfect day in her head . On October 21 , 2009 , Chantelle was admitted to AAU , pregnant after her boyfriend kicked her in the stomach . Despite telling Maria she didn 't kill Maddy , she actually confessed to the murder after Mark told her of the consequences about her lying about her boyfriend abusing her and killing Maddy . = = Reception = = Within six months of arriving at Holby City , Lewington was long @-@ listed for the ' Most Popular Newcomer ' award at the 2007 National Television Awards , for her portrayal of the character . In the 2007 official fan awards , Maddy was voted fans ' ' Favourite Newcomer of series 9 ' , as well as third ' Favourite Female of series 9 ' , fourth ' Favourite All @-@ Time Female ' and fifth ' Favourite series 9 Storyline ' , for the plot strand with her twin sister . Informed of Maddy 's strong fan base , Lewington commented : " How lovely ! I think it 's because she 's identifiable . People understand her motives and see that she has no hidden agenda . She 's emotional but strong , cheeky but kind . I rather like her so I 'm glad others do to ! " In October 2007 , drinks ' industry body the Portman Group made an official complaint to communications regulator Ofcom about a scene in Holby City episode " Trial and Retribution " , which depicted the characters Maddy and Sam Strachan each taking five shots of tequila following a stressful day at work . The body 's chief executive David Poley claimed that in failing to show the negative consequences of this action , the series was presenting a " highly irresponsible portrayal of excessive and rapid drinking " . The Daily Telegraph noted that the complaint came shortly after Home Secretary Jacqui Smith expressed concern about televisual glorification of drunkenness , having told the Labour Party conference such a thing would be branded unacceptable as part of a " zero @-@ tolerance " approach to anti @-@ social behaviour . In response to the Portman Group 's accusation that " We would expect the BBC to take greater care with the portrayal of alcohol in programmes " , the BBC released a statement explaining that : " Holby City takes the issue of the negative effects of alcohol abuse very seriously . On occasions when our continuing drama series deal with alcohol within a storyline we always seek to handle the issue sensitively " . The series 10 episode " Love Will Tear Us Apart " , which saw Maddy stood up by Dan on a return visit from France , was selected as a televisual pick of the day by The Guardian , the Daily Mirror , and the Birmingham Mail . The Guardian critic Gareth McLean was critical of the episode , writing : " Now here 's an idea for another Holby spin @-@ off - one set in the hospital 's STD clinic . Of course , given the ceaseless intra @-@ departmental shagging that goes on in that hospital , there might be too much crossover with existing shows , with not a look @-@ in for characters who aren 't actually on staff . Here , sexist surgeon Clifford returns to complicate Maddy 's life , though since she 's been sleeping with Sam , who 's slept with Connie , Chrissie and Faye , she appears to need no help in that area.She 's going to die . " The Sun journalist Anita Baig has also commented critically on the character , noting that when it comes to medicine , Maddy " always seems to be having difficulties . " Daily Mirror critic Jim Shelley has discussed the outlandish nature of the character 's storylines , dubbing the line " I don 't know why people complain about the NHS " from a 2007 episode his ' Naive statement of the week ' , explaining : " Hmmmm let 's see . Abra covering up that he was operating on his arms @-@ dealer father . Maddy hiding the fact she killed her junkie sister 's daughter . And secret cokehead Jesus Of Nazareth ( Robert Powell ) keeping quiet about counselling Elliot 's son for heroin addiction . Oh yeah , and in Casualty , in Holby 's A & E department , nurse Ruth Winters secretly fixed her dad 's breathalyser test . Anyone detect a theme emerging ? " Shelley has , however , also deemed Maddy to be one of Holby City 's " few really good , realistic , characters " . = = In popular culture = = The 17 November 2006 Children in Need charity telethon included a segment featuring the Holby City cast performing a version of Hung Up by Madonna . Although the character had not yet made her on @-@ screen debut in the programme , Lewington as Maddy appeared in the sketch - as did fellow newcomers Peter Wingfield ( Dan Clifford ) and Phoebe Thomas ( Maria Kendall ) who also had yet to arrive in the show itself . The 16 November 2007 Children in Need appeal again contained a musical performance from Holby City cast members . Lewington , alongside Rakie Ayola ( Kyla Tyson ) and Phoebe Thomas ( Maria Kendall ) provided backing vocals for Sharon D Clarke ( Lola Griffin ) , who performed a soul version of Aretha Franklin 's signature song , Respect . Lewington said of these appearances : " I had the time of my life ... Woo hoo ! Loved every second . Although I was a gibbering wreck before the live performance of ' Respect ' . Sharon D Clarke was amazing , not a whisper of fear . I however was convinced that I was going to forget everything and stare blankly into the eyes of 14 million viewers or however many squillions there were watching . All went well though and I 've got a little bit of history in my dvd collection ready for the grand kiddies ! " Lewington has also appeared in a Holby City vs. Casualty special episode of BBC Two quiz show The Weakest Link , alongside co @-@ stars Phoebe Thomas , Tom Chambers ( Sam Strachan ) , Duncan Pow ( Linden Cullen ) and Robert Powell ( Mark Williams ) .
= Adam Mitchell ( Doctor Who ) = Adam Mitchell is a fictional character in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , played by Bruno Langley . Adam is introduced in the first series of the programme 's revival as the second television companion of the Ninth Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) . However unlike the Ninth Doctor 's primary companion , Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) , who provided an effective human contrast to the Doctor 's centuries @-@ old alien , Adam was created to provide an example of an inept time traveller . The character is introduced as a boy genius from the year 2012 who attracts the attention of the Doctor 's traveling companion Rose after she and the Doctor meet him in his place of work . Despite Rose 's willingness to accept Adam as a fellow traveller , the Doctor is skeptical . After Adam attempts to use information from the future for his own gain he throws Adam out of his time machine , the TARDIS . This was the first example of the Doctor forcing a companion to leave because of negative behaviour . Adam was created during executive producer Russell T Davies original pitch to the BBC as part of his plans to revive Doctor Who for the channel . Though established early in the series ' planning , Adam was always intended to be a short @-@ term character . Though reviewers generally reacted negatively to the character , Adam 's role as a foil to the stock companion figure has been praised alongside the moral lessons of his departure . = = Appearances = = Adam first appears in the first series episode " Dalek " as a young researcher under the employ of Henry van Statten ( Corey Johnson ) , who is the owner of a museum of extraterrestrial artefacts in an underground bunker in Utah . Adam mentions that he is a genius , having successfully hacked into the United States Department of Defense computers when he was eight years old . He quickly forms a mutual attraction with the Doctor 's companion Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) and informs her of his desire to see the stars . When a live Dalek manages to break free and slaughter its way through the base , Adam finds himself fleeing along with Rose . At the end of the episode , when van Statten 's museum is closed down , Rose asks the Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) to take Adam along with them in the TARDIS . The Doctor is reluctant , but Rose convinces him to let Adam follow them into the TARDIS . In the next episode , " The Long Game " , the Doctor , Rose , and Adam arrive on a space station in the year 200 @,@ 000 , and Adam is overwhelmed by culture shock . Tempted by the wealth of information and technology available to him , he has an advanced computer interface port , activated by a click of the fingers , installed in his head that allows him to access the future 's computer system . He attempts to transmit information back to 21st century Earth using Rose 's modified mobile phone , but this backfires when the villains running the station attempt to extract information on the Doctor directly from Adam 's brain . As punishment of Adam 's breach of trust , the Doctor returns him home , despite his pleading , and destroys his answering machine . When Adam 's mother ( Judy Holt ) returns home , she reacts with shock and horror after inadvertently activating the implant installed in his forehead . In the comic book series Prisoners of Time , released to celebrate the 50th anniversary , Adam is the main antagonist . After his mother dies he acquires a Vortex Manipulator and plans to kidnap the Doctor 's companions for revenge due to the Doctor preventing him from acquiring technology that could have saved her , tracking down all eleven Doctors and abducting their companions at various points in their lives . At the end of the story , Adam is revealed to have allied himself with a past version of the Master as the two confront the Eleventh Doctor , Adam offering to spare one companion of the Doctor 's choice while killing the others . However , the Doctor turns the tables on Adam by summoning his past selves to aid him , as well as arranging for Frobisher to be captured while posing as Peri , allowing him to escape captivity and sabotage Adam 's equipment . When the Master reveals his true goal of channeling chronal energy through the TARDIS to destroy the universe , Adam is given a unique chance at redemption as he sacrifices himself to destroy the Master 's equipment . In his last moments , he is reconciled with the Ninth , Tenth and Eleventh Doctors and fellow companion Rose Tyler and acknowledged as a " true companion " on his gravestone , receiving posthumous validation by the eleven Doctors and his fellow companions . = = Conceptual history = = The character of Adam Mitchell was first conceived , along with Henry van Statten , during Russell T Davies ' 2003 pitch to the BBC , in a story heavily based on Robert Shearman 's audio play Jubilee , which would later form the base for the episode " Dalek " . It was always the intention of the production team for Adam to join the TARDIS after Rose developed a liking for him . To play this role Langley was chosen , mostly because of his role on Coronation Street as Todd Grimshaw . He had auditioned for the role on the same day as doing publicity for his leaving storyline in Coronation Street . Reacting to his casting Langley , remarked that " I couldn 't have asked for a better next role because Doctor Who is another great institution . " Langley describes Adam as " a bit nerdy " and states of his character 's attraction to Rose that " she 's a very pretty girl and Adam hasn 't seen any girls for a long time . " Since 1963 , the perennial companion figure in Doctor Who generally serves to remind the Doctor of his " moral duty " . However , Adam was never meant to be a long @-@ term companion . In the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes book Doctor Who : The Inside Story Davies explains that he " always wanted to do a show with someone who was a rubbish companion " and dubs Adam " the companion that couldn 't " . In an episode of Doctor Who Confidential he characterised Adam as " a little bit ambitious and " a little bit too clever for his own good . " Langley added that the character ends up " on the wrong side of the tracks " because he likes " meddling with things " and that " him thinking he 's a genius gets him into bother " . Explaining Adam 's downfall , Davies states that he " doesn 't realize he 's out for his own good until he 's put in a situation of temptation , where knowledge , information and power are put in front of him . " Davies felt that Adam 's story provided " a chance to see someone starting on that path " before the Doctor cuts his ambitions short . Originally , there were several aspects of the character that were cut before appearing on screen : in early drafts , he was the son of Henry van Statten . In the DVD commentary for " The Long Game " director Brian Grant and actor Bruno Langley discuss Adam 's scripted motive of bringing future medical knowledge back home to cure his father , who was suffering from ill health , though this motive did not remain in the final episode . To promote the character during the week " The Long Game " was first broadcast , the in @-@ universe tie @-@ in website " Who is Doctor Who ? " announced that " 14 year @-@ old Adam Mitchell from Nottingham " had won a competition arranged by van Statten the previous week . Adam 's winning essay on " Why I Want To Meet An Alien " mentions a desire to acquire advanced knowledge from them with the explanation " I don 't think it 's cheating , really . It 's just a shortcut " . = = Reception = = Dek Hogan of Digital Spy reacted negatively to Adam 's introduction in " Dalek " stating he " didn ’ t really see the point of Todd Grimshaw out of Corrie popping up . " He suggested it would have been more entertaining had the episode featured Langley 's screen mother from Coronation Street instead . Ian Hyland of the Sunday Mirror also disliked Adam 's introduction , describing " the introduction of a puppy @-@ love sequence between Rose and a cute English boy " as " very , very irritating " . SFX Magazine commented on the similarity between Adam 's introduction to the future and that of Rose in " The End of the World " stating " it was clearly a deliberate parallel on Russell 's part , as part of his scheme to contrast and compare the reactions of Rose and Adam " . Their website reviewer observed that Adam 's " comedy faint " marked him out as an unsuitable traveller . Marc Edward DiPaulo of the University of Oklahoma notes that Adam 's role in " The Long Game " is to provide satire on the media and to function as " a condemnation of those who cannot stop immersing themselves in television , the Internet , iPods , and other nonstop broadcasters of what the Doctor calls " useless information . " " Fraser McAlpine , reviewing Adam 's appearances as companion for BBC America 's Anglophenia blog describes him as a " craven meddler " and a " social climber " . By virtue of his failures , Adam becomes " the companion that proves the worth of all of the other companions " . In their book Who is the Doctor , Graeme Burk and Robert Smith described Adam in " Dalek " as " somewhat annoying " . Burk referred to him in " The Long Game " as " arrogant and narcissistic " , which made Rose appear shallow for insisting he travel with them , but felt that Langley did " a superb job " conveying the character 's flaws . He stated that it was " a shame " that the backstory of Adam 's motivations were cut from the script , as it would have made his character more believable . The two found a logical flaw in the Doctor 's decision to drop Adam off , as it was a possibility that someone could get their hands on the future technology . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern gave a positive overview of Adam , describing the character as " bumptious yet likeable " and his departure as " literary precision " . He commented that Adam " adds an interesting dynamic , subtly different " from Mickey Smith and Captain Jack Harkness , who also worked with Rose and the Ninth Doctor . Instead of threatening the Doctor and Rose 's relationship , Adam " serves to strengthen it " . In 2010 Mark Harrison of Den of Geek listed the character 's exit from the TARDIS as the tenth greatest companion farewell scene stating that it was " great to get a glimpse of the Doctor outright booting someone out . " He felt that the character " struck out in spectacular fashion " by attempting to steal future technology and that his eventual fate was an example of poetic justice . Charlie Jane Anders also praised the concept of Adam 's story arc positioning his departure as the seventh most depressing exit from a companion in Doctor Who 's history . She felt that to have " a companion who flunks out " was one of Davies ' " cleverest ideas " as executive producer of the series and that Adam 's human flaws made him relatable . In 2010 readers of the Radio Times voted Adam the 45th most popular companion , out of forty @-@ eight viable options .
= Armageddon ( 2008 ) = Armageddon ( 2008 ) was a professional @-@ wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) promotion and presented by Ubisoft 's Prince of Persia . It took place on December 14 , 2008 , at the HSBC Arena in Buffalo , New York . It featured professional wrestlers and other talent from all WWE 's three brands : Raw , SmackDown and ECW . The ninth and final event within the Armageddon chronology , it featured on its card seven professional wrestling matches . During the SmackDown main event , Jeff Hardy defeated Triple H and WWE Champion Edge in a Triple Threat match to win the championship . The Raw main event featured the World Heavyweight Championship contested in a standard wrestling match , in which John Cena defeated Chris Jericho to retain the title . The undercard featured several matches , including CM Punk against Rey Mysterio in the finals of a tournament to determine the number @-@ one contender to the WWE Intercontinental Championship , and Randy Orton versus Batista in a standard wrestling match . Armageddon helped WWE earn US $ 15 @.@ 9 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events , thanks to an attendance of approximately 12 @,@ 500 and 193 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . When the 2008 event was released on DVD it reached a peak position of second on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart . The professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer website rated the entire event a perfect 10 out of 10 . = = Background = = Armageddon featured seven professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines that had played out on Raw , SmackDown , and ECW on Sci Fi — WWE 's television programs . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or heroes in the scripted events that built tension and culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches and competed either under their real names or stage names . The event featured wrestlers from WWE 's Raw , SmackDown , and ECW brands — a storyline division in which WWE employees are assigned to the television program of the same name . The main rivalry heading into Armageddon on the SmackDown brand was a match involving three competitors , known as a Triple Threat match in WWE , for the WWE Championship between Edge , Triple H , and Jeff Hardy . At Survivor Series , Jeff Hardy was out of action after being found unconscious in the stairwell of his Boston hotel earlier in the morning . This resulted to Hardy being removed from the WWE title match , leaving Triple H and Vladimir Kozlov battling each other one @-@ on @-@ one . Just when it looked like Triple H had Kozlov beat after nailing him with a hard @-@ hitting Pedigree , SmackDown 's primary authority figure Vickie Guerrero interrupted the match to announce that it would indeed be Triple Threat match – with Edge as the last minute third competitor . Edge made his way to the ring and nailed Triple H with a vicious Spear . Next , Hardy surprisingly ran into the ring and attacked Edge . Hardy then grabbed a steel chair , returned to the ring and knocked both Triple H and Kozlov with each chair shot to the head . As Hardy was about to nail Edge with the chair , Edge countered by spearing Hardy then capitalized , by covering Triple H for the win and won his 6th World Championship . SmackDown general manager , Vickie Guerrero announced on the November 28 , 2008 episode of SmackDown that Triple H , Hardy , and Vladimir Kozlov would compete in a " Beat the Clock " challenge to gain the opportunity to face Edge at Armageddon for the title . In a Beat the Clock challenge , wrestlers compete in separate individual matches and whoever wins their match in the fastest time wins the competition . The first contest saw Hardy defeat The Brian Kendrick in 12 : 13 . Kozlov fought in the second encounter against Matt Hardy , but failed to defeat him in under 12 : 13 , thus being eliminated from the challenge . The last match @-@ up pitted Triple H against Shelton Benjamin , which ended with Triple H gaining the fall at exactly 12 : 13 . As a result of the tie , neither man was announced as the contender for the championship . One week later on the December 5 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , it was announced that the WWE board of directors had decided Edge would have to defend the title against both Triple H and Hardy at Armageddon . John Cena and Chris Jericho were involved in the main rivalry on the Raw brand over the World Heavyweight Championship . At WWE 's November Survivor Series , Cena returned to the WWE after a legitimate neck injury ( that he sustained at SummerSlam ) and defeated Jericho to win the championship . On the November 24 episode of Raw , Jericho defeated Randy Orton and Batista in a Triple Threat match to earn a title match against Cena at Armageddon . Later that night , Chris Jericho attempted to steal Cena 's thunder , claiming that he plans on winning back the title at Armageddon . When World Champion , John Cena could even make his much anticipated return to Raw , he then gave Jericho an opportunity to confront him face @-@ to @-@ face , Cena explained the difference between himself and Jericho , stating that he actually cares about the many members of the WWE Universe . After Jericho once again stated his intention to beat Cena at Armageddon and continued to belittle the WWE Universe , Cena snapped . He proceeded to brutalize Jericho , throwing him against the announce table , bludgeoning him with the steel stairs and locking him into an STFU . On the following week 's episode of Raw , Jericho made his presence known in much the same way as Cena did the week before , addressing the audience as he made his way through the crowd down to the ring . The difference however , was that while Cena welcomed his fans , Jericho made pains to ignore them . He then went on to explain his resentment toward Cena , stating that while away from the WWE since August 2005 , Jericho 's son grew to be a fan , not of his father , but of John Cena . Now , Jericho hopes to show his son and all of the WWE what a real hero is , by beating Cena for the World Heavyweight Title at Armageddon . Later that night , Cena fought Kane in Raw 's main event . Though Jericho attempted to become involved , Cena managed to fight off and then go on to defeat Kane . After the match , Cena chased Jericho , who was attempting to escape . The tables turned , however , when Randy Orton , Cody Rhodes and Manu emerged to attack Cena , allowing Jericho to lock Cena in the Walls of Jericho . On the November 24 episode of Raw , Raw 's primary authority figure Stephanie McMahon announced an eight @-@ man single @-@ elimination tournament to determine the number @-@ one contender to the WWE Intercontinental Championship , which William Regal held . The first round saw four standard matches , in which Kofi Kingston , CM Punk , John Morrison , and Rey Mysterio were the victors . In the second round , Punk defeated Morrison and Mysterio defeated Kingston , resulting in Mysterio and Punk both qualifying for the finals at Armageddon . = = Event = = = = = Pre @-@ show = = = Before Armageddon began , a non @-@ televised match took place between the team of John Morrison and The Miz and the team of Jesse and Festus , which Morrison and The Miz won . The DVD release omitted this match . = = = Preliminary matches = = = The first match of the event was between ECW Champion Matt Hardy and Vladimir Kozlov . The match lasted for a few minutes before Kozlov delivered a chokeslam to gain the pinfall victory . The second match was the finals of the Intercontinental Championship contender tournament between Rey Mysterio and CM Punk . Near the end of the match , Mysterio tried to perform his signature 619 maneuver , however , Punk countered by performing a Go To Sleep . Punk then pinned Mysterio to gain the victory and a match against William Regal for the Intercontinental Championship . Finlay was pitted against Mark Henry , who was accompanied by Tony Atlas , in a match with no disqualifications billed as a Belfast Brawl . In the final moments of the match , Finlay left the ring and grabbed the steel steps at one of the four corners . He then re @-@ entered the ring to only have Henry kick him in the face and grab the makeshift weapon . Finlay followed by retrieving a shillelagh he had brought with him to the ring and used it to bash Henry over the head before Henry could use the steel steps . Finlay then pinned Henry to become the winner . Batista versus Randy Orton was next , with Orton being accompanied to the ring by Cody Rhodes and Manu . The match started with Orton taking control and knocking Batista to the outside . The end came when Batista executed the Batista Bomb . Batista then pinned Orton to win the encounter . The fifth match was an Eight Woman Santa 's Little Helper Tag Team match where all eight competitors were dressed in Christmas outfits . It pitted two teams of four against each other : Michelle McCool , Maria , Kelly Kelly , and Mickie James versus Maryse , Jillian Hall , Victoria , and Natayla . The match ended quickly with McCool getting a pinfall victory over Hall after the Faithbreaker . = = = Main event matches = = = John Cena defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Chris Jericho in the next encounter . The match started off with Cena trying to lift Jericho on his shoulders in an early attempt to execute his finishing maneuver called the FU , only to have Jericho escape and perform his maneuver a double knee to the face and chest area called the Codebreaker . Cena became the victor in the encounter after making Jericho submit to his STFU submission hold by trapping Jericho 's leg underneath with his , wrapping his arms around Jericho 's neck , and pulling back . The main event contest saw Jeff Hardy and Triple H challenging Edge for the WWE Championship in a Triple Threat match . Hardy won the contest after Triple H performed a Pedigree on Edge , followed by Hardy executing a Swanton Bomb onto Edge . Hardy followed by quickly pinning Edge and winning the match and his first World Championship . This marked Hardy 's first WWE Championship . = = Aftermath = = After Armageddon on the January 2 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Vickie Guerrero announced that Jeff Hardy would defend the WWE Championship against Edge at the WWE 's Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view . At the Royal Rumble , Edge defeated Hardy to regain the WWE Championship with the unexpected help from Matt Hardy . The rivalry between Batista and Orton continued until the December 15 , 2008 , episode of Raw , when Orton punted Batista in the head , giving him a storyline concussion , causing him to take time off indefinitely . WWE.com later reported that Batista elected to undergo surgery to repair a legitimate hamstring tear ( that he suffered during his match with John Cena at SummerSlam ) . CM Punk received his match for the Intercontinental title on the January 5 , 2009 episode of Raw against William Regal , but failed to win due to Regal getting himself disqualified . Two weeks later , Punk and Regal had another match this time under no disqualifications rules , which Punk won to claim the title . The rivalry between Michelle McCool and Maryse continued on the following edition of SmackDown when Maryse defeated Maria to earn another shot at Michelle 's Divas Championship . On the December 26 edition of SmackDown , Maryse defeated Michelle to win the Divas Championship in a match that Maria officiated . After the match ended , Michelle turned into a villainess and attacked Maria ; blaming her for the loss . = = = Reception = = = The HSBC Arena has a maximum capacity of 19 @,@ 200 , however Armageddon only had an attendance of 12 @,@ 500 . It received 193 @,@ 000 buys , which was less than the 237 @,@ 000 buys the previous year 's event received . Armageddon helped World Wrestling Entertainment earn $ 15 @.@ 9 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events , but this was less than the $ 19 @.@ 9 million earned the previous year ; Linda McMahon , the CEO of WWE , confirmed this statement on February 24 , 2009 in a quarterly financial report . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the event a perfect ten out of ten . Wade Keller of the PWTorch rated the main event match for the WWE Championship 4 and a quarter stars out of 5 . He went on to state that the match was a " really satisfying main event and it 's the finish WWE dared not do for a long time . " He rated the match for the World Heavyweight Championship 3 and a quarter stars out of 5 and proclaimed he thought it was a " good match " . Sony Music Entertainment released the event on DVD on January 13 , 2009 , and it reached second place on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreation . = = Results = = Number one contender for the Intercontinental Championship Tournament
= M @-@ 33 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 33 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs from Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) at Alger in Arenac County north to M @-@ 27 near Cheboygan . In between , the trunkline runs through rural sections of the northeastern Lower Peninsula including state and national forest areas . M @-@ 33 connects to a handful of parks and crosses several of the rivers in that section of the state . It runs concurrently with three other state highways , sharing pavement to connect through several small communities of Northern Michigan . M @-@ 33 was designated by 1919 along a section of the current highway between Mio and Atlanta . The highway also included roadway segments south of Mio that are now parts of other trunklines . The portion south of Mio was rerouted in the mid @-@ 1920s , transferring sections to M @-@ 72 in the process . The state started extending M @-@ 33 in both directions in 1930s . The current highway segment between Onaway and Cheboygan was the former route of US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) until 1940 when the latter highway was realigned onto an alignment that runs along Lake Huron . Several minor changes have been made to M @-@ 33 's routing since the 1950s to straighten out curves or finish paving the highway . = = Route description = = M @-@ 33 starts at exit 202 on I @-@ 75 near Alger . From there it crosses a branch of the Lake State Railway and Old 76 Road before turning north . The highway runs north parallel to the Rifle River across the Arenac – Ogemaw County line . It meets the eastern terminus of F @-@ 18 and continues through woodland to an intersection with M @-@ 55 east of West Branch . North of the junction , the environment transitions to farm land that borders the edge of the Au Sable State Forest to the Rose City area . North of Rose City , M @-@ 33 crosses into the Huron National Forest as the highway continues due north into Oscoda County , passing Mack Lake campground . M @-@ 33 follows Morenci Avenue into the center of Mio where the highway joins M @-@ 72 south of Mio Pond , and they run concurrently together across the Mio Pond section of the Au Sable River out of town . On the north side of the river , F @-@ 32 merges in from the east and the three roadway designations run concurrently north . The highway continues to a sweeping 90 ° turn east near Smith Lake . F @-@ 32 separates to turn west and M @-@ 33 / M @-@ 72 turns eastward . The trunkline continues to Fairview where M @-@ 33 turns north , leaving the M @-@ 72 concurrency to continue northward . M @-@ 33 crosses into the Mackinaw State Forest and passes through Comins . North of that unincorporated community , the highway curves northeast , east and back north to cross into Montmorency County . Before reaching M @-@ 32 , M @-@ 33 crosses the Thunder Bay River . After the river , M @-@ 33 turns westward along M @-@ 32 to the community of Atlanta . The highway passes near the Atlanta Municipal Airport as it enters the community . In the middle of town , M @-@ 33 turns back north . The highway provides access to the Clear Lake State Park in northern Montmorency County before crossing into Presque Isle County . M @-@ 33 parallels the Cheboygan – Presque Isle county line as it runs northward along the Black River to Onaway . Once in town , M @-@ 33 turns west with M @-@ 68 toward Cheboygan County . The highway passes through Tower , and a junction with F @-@ 05 , before it continues west to the Afton area . There M @-@ 33 turns north one last time , running along the east shore of Mullett Lake past Aloha and M @-@ 212 ; M @-@ 212 is the shortest highway in Michigan that provides access to Aloha State Park . North of Aloha , M @-@ 33 crosses the Cheboygan River and meets M @-@ 27 , the location of its northern terminus south of Cheboygan . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 33 like all other state trunkline highways in the state . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks traffic volumes using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This figure is a calculation of the traffic along a roadway segment for any average day of the year . In MDOT 's surveys in 2009 , they found that the peak AADT along M @-@ 33 was the 6 @,@ 928 vehicles a day along a section of the M @-@ 72 concurrency . The lowest traffic counts were measured immediately south of the Onaway city limits at 956 vehicles daily . The only section of M @-@ 33 that has been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) is the segment concurrent with M @-@ 32 in Montmorency County . The NHS is a network of roads important to the country 's defense , economy and mobility . = = History = = M @-@ 33 was first designated by July 1 , 1919 . It ran along the current routing from Mio north to M @-@ 32 east of Atlanta . The highway also ran south of Mio to M @-@ 76 east of Roscommon using segments of what are now M @-@ 72 and M @-@ 144 . By 1927 , the southern section from Fairview to Roscommon was redesignated as a part of M @-@ 72 . M @-@ 33 was shifted to run south of Mio to Rose City instead , creating the M @-@ 33 / M @-@ 72 concurrency in the process . An extension was added by the end of the decade southward to M @-@ 55 at Campbell , a former community east of Selkirk in Ogemaw County . An earthen highway extension of M @-@ 33 north of Atlanta to US 23 at Onaway was opened in 1934 . A few years later in 1938 , M @-@ 55 was realigned to follow a more direct path east of West Branch . At the same time , M @-@ 33 was extended south by a few miles to the new roadway south of Campbell and Selkirk . A lengthy northern extension was added to M @-@ 33 in 1940 when US 23 was moved to a route along the Lake Huron shoreline between Rogers City and Cheboygan . The former route of US 23 between the Afton area and Rogers City was redesignated as a discontinuous section of M @-@ 68 , and M @-@ 33 was extended westward from Onaway along that highway to Afton and north to US 27 ( now M @-@ 27 ) near Cheboygan , creating the M @-@ 33 / M @-@ 68 concurrency in southern Cheboygan and Presque Isle counties . By 1945 , M @-@ 33 was extended southward again , this time to terminate at M @-@ 76 in Alger . The Michigan State Highway Department rerouted M @-@ 33 / M @-@ 72 near Fairview in late 1951 or early 1952 , turning the former route back to local control . The last section of M @-@ 33 was paved in southern Cheboygan County in the late 1950s . The southern end was extended slightly to end at the M @-@ 76 freeway that opened between Alger and Standish ; that freeway was redesignated as part of I @-@ 75 in 1974 . A minor realignment of M @-@ 32 / M @-@ 33 east of Atlanta smoothed out some curves in the road in 1996 . = = Major intersections = =
= Congregation Beth Elohim = Congregation Beth Elohim ( Hebrew : בֵּית אֱלֹהִים ) , also known as the Garfield Temple and the Eighth Avenue Temple , is a Reform Jewish congregation located at 274 Garfield Place and Eighth Avenue , in the Park Slope neighborhood of Brooklyn , New York City , United States . Founded in 1861 as a more liberal breakaway from Congregation Baith Israel , for the first 65 years it attempted four mergers with other congregations , including three with Baith Israel , all of which failed . The congregation completed its current Classical Revival synagogue building in 1910 and its " Jewish Deco " ( Romanesque Revival and Art Deco ) Temple House in 1929 . These two buildings were contributing properties to the Park Slope historic district , listed as a New York City Landmark district and listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The congregation went through difficult times during the Great Depression , and the bank almost foreclosed on its buildings in 1946 . Membership dropped significantly in the 1930s because of the Depression , grew after World War II , and dropped again in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of demographic shifts . Programs for young children helped draw Jewish families back into the neighborhood and revitalize the membership . By 2006 , Beth Elohim had over 1 @,@ 000 members , and , as of 2009 , it was the largest and most active Reform congregation in Brooklyn , the " oldest Brooklyn congregation that continues to function under its corporate name " , and its pulpit was the oldest in continuous use in any Brooklyn synagogue . In 2009 , it was listed by Newsweek as one of America 's 25 " Most Vibrant " Jewish congregations . = = Early years : Pearl Street = = Congregation Beth Elohim was founded on September 29 , 1861 by 41 German Jews at Granada Hall on Myrtle Avenue , members of Congregation Baith Israel who had become disaffected after they attempted and failed to reform practice there . The synagogue name was chosen by a vote of the membership , and the services were led by George Brandenstein , who served as cantor , and was paid $ 150 ( today $ 4 @,@ 000 ) a year . Brandenstein was hired as cantor , not rabbi , because " the congregation believed having a cantor was more important " , though in practice he filled both roles . A shamash ( the equivalent of a sexton or beadle ) was also hired for $ 75 a year . While searching for a permanent location , the congregation continued to meet and hold services at Granada Hall . Men and women sat together , unlike the traditional separate seating , and services were conducted in German and Hebrew . Within a few months , the former Calvary Protestant Episcopal church on Pearl Street , between Nasau and Concord , was purchased for $ 5 @,@ 100 ( today $ 121 @,@ 000 ) and renovated for another $ 2 @,@ 000 ( today $ 47 @,@ 000 ) . The new building was dedicated on March 30 , 1862 , and the congregation became known as " the Pearl street synagogue " . By 1868 , membership had increased to 103 , and by 1869 , almost 100 students attended the Sunday school . Beth Elohim had originally conducted its services in the traditional manner , but on February 19 , 1870 " inaugurated the moderate reform services " instead . In an attempt to stem defections and make the synagogue more attractive to existing and potential members , that same month the congregation purchased , for $ 55 @,@ 000 ( today $ 1 @,@ 030 @,@ 000 ) , the building of the Central Presbyterian Church on Schermerhorn Street near Nevins Street . Sufficient numbers of new members did not , however , materialize , and the congregation was forced to give up its new building , forfeit its $ 4 @,@ 000 ( today $ 75 @,@ 000 ) deposit , and return to the Pearl Street building . Instead , the Pearl street building was renovated , and an organ and choir added . Beth Elohim voted to retire Brandenstein in 1882 , an action which created some controversy both within the congregation , and among other Brooklyn synagogues . Younger members of the congregation found no specific fault with Brandenstein , but wanted " a change " , and succeeded in dismissing him and electing an entirely new board of officers . The final vote was 29 in favor , 21 against , out of a total membership of 53 or 54 ( only the male heads of households were counted as members during this era ) . Solomon Mosche was hired to replace Brandenstein . In April 1883 , Baith Israel , Beth Elohim , and Temple Israel , Brooklyn 's three leading synagogues , attempted an amalgamation . This was the third such attempt ; the previous two had failed when the members could not agree on synagogue ritual . The combined congregation , which would purchase new premises , would have 150 members ; members would be refunded half the purchase price of the pews in their existing buildings . Mosche and the rabbi of Temple Israel were to split the offices of rabbi and cantor : Baith Israel , at the time , had no rabbi . Though this attempt also failed , in the following year the three congregations carried out combined activities , including a picnic and a celebration of the 100th birthday of Moses Montefiore . Membership at that time still hovered around 50 . Mosche fell ill in 1884 , and after being unable to serve for six months , was replaced by 26 @-@ year @-@ old William Sparger . Despite his illness , Mosche lived until age 75 , dying on November 3 , 1911 . Sparger was Hungarian by birth , a graduate of the Prince Rudolph University of Vienna , and , according to a contemporary New York Times article , " belong [ ed ] to the extreme liberal school of Hebrew theology " . He introduced changes to the services , including improving the choir , bringing in a new prayer book , adding Friday night services , and the " radical reform " of making the sermon the most important part of the service . He appealed to younger congregants , and , under his direction , the synagogue experienced a large increase in attendance . = = State Street = = Though more seats had been added to the synagogue by narrowing the aisles , as a result of Sparger 's innovations Beth Elohim outgrew its Pearl Street building , and a new one was sought . After a three @-@ year search , in 1885 Beth Elohim purchased the building of the Congregational Church at 305 State Street ( near Hoyt ) for $ 28 @,@ 000 ( today $ 740 @,@ 000 ) , and moved in that year . In 1891 , Temple Emanu @-@ El in Manhattan offered Sparger a salary larger than Beth Elohim could match , and he moved there . Beth Elohim subsequently split the offices of cantor and rabbi , hiring G. Taubenhaus as rabbi and the Mauritz Weisskopf as cantor . Born in Warsaw , Taubenhaus could read the Pentateuch fluently in Hebrew at age four , and began studying the Talmud at age six . He attended the " Berlin theological seminary " ( likely the Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums ) for six years . Upon emigrating to the United States , he served at Kehillah Kodesh Bene Yeshurum in Paducah , Kentucky , Temple Israel in Dayton , Ohio , and Congregation B 'nai Israel in Sacramento , California , before becoming the rabbi of the Shaari Zedek ( " Gates of Hope " ) synagogue in New York . Differences with the latter congregation led to his resignation there shortly before being hired by Beth Elohim . Taubenhaus 's brother Joseph would be appointed rabbi at Baith Israel , Beth Elohim 's parent congregation , in 1893 , and another brother , Jacob / Jean Taubenhaus , was a famous French chess master . By the time of Taubenhaus 's hiring , Beth Elohim was , according to the Brooklyn Eagle , " recognized as the leading Hebrew synagogue of Brooklyn " . The views of the congregation regarding kashrut ( the Jewish dietary laws ) were by then quite liberal ; in 1892 , when Hyman Rosenberg was expelled as rabbi of Brooklyn 's Beth Jacob synagogue for eating ham , Taubenhaus stated that he did not believe his congregation would expel him for doing the same . In 1895 , Samuel Radnitz succeeded Weisskopf as cantor , a role he filled until his death in 1944 . By the turn of the twentieth century English had replaced German in the services and official minutes , and the second days of holidays eliminated . The synagogue had 106 members and annual revenues of around $ 8 @,@ 000 ( today $ 230 @,@ 000 ) , and its Sunday School had approximately 300 pupils . Taubenhaus left the congregation in 1901 , and the following year Alexander Lyons was hired as the congregation 's first American @-@ born rabbi . Lyons went on to serve the congregation for 37 years , until his death in 1939 at the age of 71 . In 1907 , the women 's auxiliary was founded ; until then , though seating was mixed , women had little say in the running of the synagogue . That year the congregation had 110 member families and annual revenues of $ 9 @,@ 259 @.@ 55 ( today $ 240 @,@ 000 ) . The congregational school , which held classes one day a week , had 15 teachers and 200 students . = = Garfield Place and Eighth Avenue = = = = = 1908 – 1929 : New buildings = = = In 1908 , the congregation purchased a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) by 112 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) lot on the northeast corner of Garfield Place and Eighth Avenue . Plans were made to erect a new synagogue building there with a sanctuary seating 1 @,@ 500 people , at an anticipated cost of $ 100 @,@ 000 ( today $ 2 @.@ 6 million ) . The structure was designed and built by the Manhattan architectural firm of Simon Eisendrath and B. Horowitz ( or Horwitz ) . Construction began in 1909 and completed in 1910 . Designed in the Classical Revival style , this " monumental example " of " austere neo @-@ Classical grandeur " had five sides , representing the five books of Moses , a sanctuary that ultimately sat 1 @,@ 200 , and was capped by a saucer dome . The entrance faced the corner of Garfield and Eighth , and carved in stone over it was the Biblical verse fragment " MINE HOUSE SHALL BE AN HOUSE OF PRAYER FOR ALL PEOPLE " ( Isaiah 56 : 7 ) . The basement held classrooms , an auditorium , and administrative offices , and behind the Torah ark was a combination Rabbi 's study / Board meeting room . The State Street building was sold to Congregation Mount Sinai . 1909 was also the year Judah Leon Magnes proposed and founded his Kehilla , a " comprehensive communal organization for the Jews of New York " , which operated until 1922 . Lyons opposed its creation , arguing that Jews in New York were too diverse to co @-@ exist in one organization with a single set of standards , that Jews should not organize as Jews for anything except purely religious purposes , and that in any event Reform Judaism was the future and Orthodox Judaism would not survive . As Lyons put it , To me Reform Judaism is an irresistible conviction . I believe it to be the religion of the Jewish future , while I regard orthodoxy as a survival that may have a galvanized life now and then , but on the whole is doomed . By 1919 , Beth Elohim had 133 member families . The congregational school , which held classes once a week , had 305 students and 16 teachers . Negotiations to merge with Union Temple ( the successor to Temple Israel ) were started in 1925 . A confirmation vote eventually passed , and the impending merger was announced in the Brooklyn Eagle . However , younger congregants feared a loss of identity , and forced a withdrawal . Instead , the congregation raised funds for a second building , and in 1928 – 1929 built the six @-@ story Temple House ( used for all congregational activities ) on the corner opposite the main sanctuary . Designed by Mortimer Freehof and David Levy , the cast stone building 's architectural style was " Jewish Deco " , a mix of Romanesque Revival and Art Deco decorative forms that was common in Jewish buildings of the period . Romanesque features included the fenestrations , while a prominent Art Deco feature was " the figure of Moses and the Tablets of Law , emphasizing the corner of the roof parapet . " The doorway and balcony at the east end of the building had " a distinctly Moorish flavor , featuring symbolic ornament : the Star of David , the Menorah , and the Lion of Judah . " The names of major figures from the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible ) were inscribed on the Garfield Place facade , and the Biblical verses " SHOW ME THY WAYS O LORD TEACH ME THY PATHS GUIDE ME " ( Psalms 25 : 4 – 5 ) on the Eighth Avenue facade . The building was also decorated with bas @-@ reliefs of Jonah being swallowed by a great fish and Babylonian charioteers . It housed a 125 @-@ seat chapel , a large ballroom , social halls , class rooms for the religious school , meeting rooms , administrative offices , a library , handball courts , a gymnasium , and a swimming pool . Lyons took on a number of causes in the 1910s and 1920s . He worked with Bishop David Greer and Rabbi Stephen Wise to expose conditions in New York 's tenements , dissociated himself from Tammany Hall candidates , tried to secure a re @-@ trial for Leo Frank , and opposed some of the views of Samuel Gompers . In 1912 , Lyons was a founding member of the Eastern Council of Reform Rabbis , an organization of Reform rabbis from the Eastern United States that was created despite opposition from the Central Conference of Reform Rabbis . In 1919 he withdrew from the Brooklyn Victory Celebration Committee ( celebrating the Allied victory in World War I ) and asked that his contributed funds be donated instead to the Red Cross ; many committee members eventually resigned in protest over the overt politicization of the event , and its control by William Randolph Hearst . = = = 1930s : Landman joins , Great Depression , Lyons dies = = = Isaac Landman , a graduate of Hebrew Union College , joined Lyons as rabbi of Beth Elohim in 1931 . Born in Russia in 1880 , Landman had come to the United States in 1890 . In 1911 , with the assistance of Jacob Schiff , Julius Rosenwald , and Simon Bamberger , he founded a Jewish farm colony in Utah , and during World War I he was " said to be the first Jewish chaplain in the United States Army to serve on foreign soil " . A leader in Jewish – Christian ecumenism , he was editor of American Hebrew Magazine from 1918 , served as the delegate of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations ( now Union for Reform Judaism ) to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference , and in the late 1930s and early 1940s was editor of the new ten volume Universal Jewish Encyclopedia . Landman had also been a prominent opponent of Zionism : when , in 1922 , the United States Congress was considering the Lodge – Fish resolution in support of the Balfour Declaration , Landman and Rabbi David Philipson had presented the Reform movement 's ( then ) anti @-@ Zionist position to the House Committee on Foreign Affairs . Landman also printed many opinions against the resolution and Zionism in his American Hebrew Magazine . The bill was eventually unanimously supported by both houses of Congress , and approved by President Harding . During the Great Depression synagogue membership decreased significantly ; experiencing financial difficulties , the congregation stopped paying its mortgage . Nevertheless , Beth Elohim was not completely moribund ; in 1931 it opened its Academy of Adult Jewish Education , which " offered courses in Bible , religion and contemporary Jewish life " , and operated throughout the Depression . By 1937 the congregation had elected Lyons " rabbi for life " . In 1938 Lyons made common cause with Thomas Harten , the black pastor of Holy Trinity Baptist Church . Speaking to a mixed black – Jewish audience at the church , Lyons informed the listeners that he was planning to attend the second Joe Louis versus Max Schmeling boxing match in order to protest Adolf Hitler 's " view that a bout between a German and a Negro was improper " . Lyons denounced the Nazi racial ideas , which he noted discriminated against blacks as well as Jews , and encouraged the audience to boycott all German @-@ made goods until " Hitler comes to his senses " . Lyons died the following year , and Landman served as sole rabbi . After his death , the Central Conference of American Rabbis described Lyons as the " dean of the Brooklyn rabbinate from the point of view of service " . = = = World War II and aftermath : Sack joins , Landman dies = = = The synagogue 's fortunes improved in the 1940s , but in 1946 , its bank threatened to foreclose on its buildings , in anticipation of their sale to the local Catholic diocese , as the congregation had not paid the mortgage in many years . The congregation succeeded in convincing the bank to re @-@ negotiate its mortgage , and reduce the outstanding loan , and Max Koeppel led a drive to pay it off completely . Eugene Sack , the father of Second Circuit Court of Appeals judge Robert D. Sack , joined Landman as rabbi in 1946 . While serving as assistant rabbi of Congregation Rodeph Shalom of Philadelphia , Sack had been instrumental in the founding of the Reform movement 's National Federation of Temple Youth in 1939 , and had presented a paper at its first biennial convention . Starting in 1943 he spent 18 months in the Pacific Theater of Operations of World War II as an army chaplain ; at one point he had to substitute peach juice for Passover wine . Sack had also previously been involved in anti @-@ Zionist efforts amongst the Reform rabbinate . In 1942 the Central Conference of American Rabbis had abandoned its former anti @-@ Zionist stance , and adopted a resolution favoring the creation of a Jewish army in Palestine , to fight alongside other Allied armies , and under Allied command . Sack and other prominent Reform rabbis opposed this ; meeting on March 18 , 1942 , they agreed " there was a need to revitalize Reform Judaism , to oppose Jewish nationalism , and to publicize their point of view " . They planned " for a meeting of non @-@ Zionist Reform Rabbis to discuss the problems that confront Judaism and Jews in the world emergency " , to be held in Atlantic City . 36 rabbis eventually attended the two @-@ day conference on June 1 , 1942 , including Beth Israel 's Landman . The conference led to the formation of the anti @-@ Zionist American Council for Judaism , " the only American Jewish organization ever formed for the specific purpose of fighting Zionism and opposing the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine . " Landman died suddenly in 1946 , leaving Sack to head Beth Elohim alone ; Sack would eventually serve as rabbi for 35 years . Richard Harvey also joined as cantor in the 1940s ; he would serve until his death in the 1970s . After the war , Beth Elohim allowed women to become full members , granting them full voting privileges and allowing them to hold office . The congregation subsequently elected Jeanette Marks as a trustee . At this time the origins of the membership began to change , as Jews of Eastern European descent started joining the congregation . In the late 1940s the central vault ceiling of the main sanctuary cracked , and had to be repaired . At that time the pulpit was also rebuilt , so that the rabbi and cantor had separate pulpits . Underneath the sanctuary ran an underground stream which would regularly overflow , leading to flooding problems . The flooding was fixed in the 1950s with the installation of check valves , and a concrete slab floor was installed . Though the intent was to provide usable space in the basement , it was rarely used . By 1953 , Beth Elohim had grown to over 700 families , and the religious school had over 550 students . In the 1960s , however , membership began to decline , as young families moved to the suburbs . = = = 1970s – 2000s : Decline , Weider joins , re @-@ birth = = = In 1970 , the congregation again encountered difficulties , " faced with dwindling membership and bleak prospects " . The members , however , created one of the earliest nursery schools in the neighborhood , which , along with the Brownstone Revival movement in Park Slope , helped draw Jewish families back into the temple and revitalize the membership . One of those young families was that of Gerald I. Weider , a young rabbi who joined the synagogue 's staff in 1978 . A native of the Bronx , Weider graduated from Rutgers University , and was ordained at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati in 1973 ( he would be granted a Doctor of Divinity degree by Hebrew Union College in 1998 ) . Before joining Beth Elohim , he served as Assistant Rabbi of Temple Ohabei Shalom of Brookline , Massachusetts , and as the Associate Rabbi of Washington Hebrew Congregation in Washington , D.C. At Beth Elohim , he focused on programming and services for urban Jewish families . Under his leadership , Beth Elohim opened after – school and early childhood centers in 1978 , and a day camp the following year , all housed in the Temple House . The 1970s also saw a return to more traditional practices in the service , under Weider 's guidance . Some members began wearing head coverings in the sanctuary , some Hebrew prayers were added to the Sabbath service , and the Reform movement 's new High Holy Days prayer book The Gates of Repentance was adopted . The synagogue building and Temple House were contributing properties to the Park Slope historic district , which was listed as a New York City Landmark district in 1973 , and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 . In 1985 , Weider and Beth Elohim , in cooperation with the rabbis of the Park Slope Jewish Center and Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes , proposed opening a liberal Jewish day school in Brooklyn . Though housed at Beth Elohim , it would not be affiliated with any specific Jewish movement , and was intended for children from all branches of Judaism . Planning began in earnest in 1994 ; the school was modeled on New York 's Abraham Joshua Heschel School , as an outgrowth of Beth Elohim 's preschool program . The intent was to start with only first grade in 1995 , but extend to eighth grade by 2000 . At the time Beth Elohim had approximately 500 member families and 141 children in the preschool . The school opened in 1995 , and continued for three years , growing to 38 students , before moving to new premises and becoming independent under the name " Hannah Senesh Community Day School " . In the 1980s and 1990s Beth Elohim 's buildings were repaired and refurbished a number of times . The sanctuary ceiling cracked in the early 1980s , and services were held in Temple House for a time . The congregation mounted a " Save our Sanctuary " campaign in 1982 , and repaired the ceiling . In the 1980s Beth Elohim also refurbished the Moses stained glass window , and painted the main sanctuary . The congregation restored and renovated its buildings in 1990 , and in 1992 did emergency restoration work to the facade of Temple House and restored the pews . In 1997 the synagogue began its " Kadimah Capital Campaign " , which was intended to raise funds to repair and renovate the buildings . By 1999 , the congregation had restored Temple House 's facade , rebuilt the collapsed Garfield St. entrance , made entry into the synagogue handicapped accessible , added a multipurpose space and classrooms in the basement of the sanctuary , and planned to add a fifth floor for more classrooms . That year Sack ( by then Rabbi Emeritus ) died ; the year before his death his son , Robert , at his induction as a Second Circuit judge , had described his father as " the most open minded man he had ever known " . Janet Leuchter joined as cantor in 2001 . A native of Vineland , New Jersey , and 1999 graduate of Hebrew Union College , she had previously served as cantor of Temple Avodah in Oceanside , New York . = = = Weider retires , events since 2006 = = = Weider retired as senior rabbi in 2006 , after 28 years of service . He was succeeded by Andy Bachman . At that time , Beth Elohim had over 1 @,@ 000 members . In 2007 , the synagogue was a winner of the Union for Reform Judaism 's Congregation of Learners award for medium size synagogues , for " those synagogues that provide an exceptional environment of varied and comprehensive learning opportunities and have imbued their synagogue communities with a culture of learning " . In 2009 , Beth Elohim was described as the largest and most active Reform congregation in Brooklyn . Prominent members included U.S. Senator Chuck Schumer . In April of that year , Beth Elohim was listed by Newsweek as one of America 's 25 " Most Vibrant " Jewish congregations . In September , just four days before Yom Kippur , a part of the sanctuary ceiling collapsed . No @-@ one was hurt , but the sanctuary had to be closed . The nearby Old First Reformed Church — with which Beth Elohim had had close ties since the 1930s — offered its premises for the holiday ( Sunday night and Monday ) , and accommodated over 1000 worshipers . The day before the holiday , the synagogue was picketed by members of the Westboro Baptist Church , who shouted antisemitic and anti @-@ gay slogans . As of 2012 , Beth Elohim was the " oldest Brooklyn congregation that continues to function under its corporate name " , and its pulpit was the oldest in continuous use in any Brooklyn synagogue . Its rabbis were Andy Bachman , Shira Koch Epstein , and Marc Katz , the rabbi emeritus was Gerald Weider , and the cantor was Joshua Breitzer . Bachman , a graduate of University of Wisconsin – Madison with a 1996 rabbinic ordination from Hebrew Union College , became Beth Elohim 's first new senior rabbi in 25 years on October 25 , 2006 . Before becoming senior rabbi he had previously been an educator there from 1993 to 1998 . An advocate of more traditionalism in the Reform movement , in 2002 he started a small , more traditional , Hebrew @-@ focused spinoff prayer group at Beth Elohim , and has spoken in favor of a more traditional liturgy . Bachman and his wife , Rachel Altstein , have been instrumental in bringing 20- and 30 @-@ year @-@ olds into the synagogue , and in December 2007 , Bachman was named one of The Forward 's " Forward 50 " . In 2008 he was a regular contributor to the Washingtonpost.Newsweek Interactive website . Epstein , born in the Bronx and raised in New Milford , Connecticut , attended Wesleyan University and Hebrew Union College , and served as the coordinator of the Institute for Reform Zionism . In 2008 she was a member of " Rabbis for Obama " , a cross @-@ denominational group of more than 300 American rabbis supporting Barack Obama 's 2008 presidential campaign . Barrington Rhode Island native Marc Katz graduated from Tufts University and studied at Hebrew Union College in Jerusalem before becoming Beth Elohim 's rabbinic intern in 2009 . On September 22 , 2013 , Beth Elohim celebrated its 150th anniversary and dedicated a new Sefer Torah . Members of Beth Elohim stated it was " the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman " . = = = Bachman departs , Timoner joins , Events since 2015 = = = In June 2015 , Andy Bachman departed to join the 92nd Street Y as the Director of Jewish Content and Community Ritual . In July 2015 , Rachel Timoner became the Senior Rabbi .
= 2011 Heritage Classic = The 2011 Heritage Classic was a regular season outdoor National Hockey League ( NHL ) game between the Montreal Canadiens and the Calgary Flames . The game was played at McMahon Stadium in Calgary , Alberta , Canada , on February 20 , 2011 . The Flames defeated the Canadiens by a score of 4 – 0 before a crowd of 41 @,@ 022 spectators . It was just the second time in six NHL outdoor games that the home team won . It was the second Heritage Classic game , held seven seasons after the original . It was also the first time the NHL held two outdoor games in one season , as it followed the 2011 NHL Winter Classic in Pittsburgh . In spite of criticism that playing two such games in a season would lessen the spectacle , the Heritage Classic eclipsed all previous NHL outdoor games in sponsorship . The game 's title sponsor was Tim Hortons . Calgary goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff was named the game 's first star after making 39 saves to record the first shutout in an NHL outdoor game . His teammates Rene Bourque and Alex Tanguay were the second and third stars respectively . Weather conditions were a major story during the game , as the wind chill made the temperature feel like − 25 ° C ( − 13 ° F ) on the ice , and forced the arena staff to manually flood the ice between periods to avoid damaging the ice surface . The weekend featured numerous other games , which the Flames branded as the " Faceoff in the Foothills . " It began on Friday , February 18 with an American Hockey League ( AHL ) matchup that saw Calgary 's top minor league affiliate , the Abbotsford Heat , lose to the Oklahoma City Barons 3 – 1 at the Scotiabank Saddledome . An alumni game was held on the Saturday between a team composed mostly of players on Calgary 's 1989 Stanley Cup @-@ winning team against alumni of the Canadiens . It ended on Family Day Monday when the Regina Pats defeated the Calgary Hitmen in a Western Hockey League ( WHL ) game at McMahon that set a junior world attendance record of 20 @,@ 888 . = = Second outdoor game = = The Heritage Classic was played two months after the 2011 Winter Classic . NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman stated the Winter Classic is designed for American television and to promote the game in the United States , but that the league sought to hold another game for its Canadian partners . He said the league delayed on hosting a second outdoor game until it felt it was capable of holding three significant events in a two @-@ month span , including the All @-@ Star Game . Corporate support for the Heritage Classic exceeded expectations ; Chief Operating Officer John Collins announced that the league had gained more sponsorship revenue for Calgary 's game than it had the Winter Classic . While the league would not commit to holding a third Heritage Classic , Collins admitted that nearly every team had expressed interest in holding their own game and that title sponsor Tim Hortons had signed a multi @-@ year deal with the league . The league 's decision to play two outdoor games in one season was met with criticism from Scott Burnside of ESPN , who argued the NHL risks diluting the unique nature of the outdoor events . He also argued that the Heritage Classic was the league 's attempt to appease Canadian fans and media who were upset that all previous Winter Classics featured only American teams . Commissioner Gary Bettman dismissed both arguments as " absurd , " but agreed that the two games are intended for different markets . = = Teams and venue = = The Flames lobbied the NHL for the opportunity to host an outdoor game for some time . Team president Ken King said the fans consistently asked for such a game in Calgary , and the team quietly pressed the NHL for several years . They unsuccessfully sought to host a second outdoor game as part of a January 1 doubleheader with the 2010 NHL Winter Classic in Boston . When the league finally approved Calgary for 2011 , the team considered where to host the game . They thought about building temporary stadiums west of the city limits or in Lake Louise and hosting the game at the foot of the Canadian Rockies . The team dismissed the latter idea as impractical , and settled on McMahon Stadium . The usual home of the Calgary Stampeders and the University of Calgary Dinos football teams , McMahon has a standard capacity of 35 @,@ 650 but additional seating added in the north end zone pushed the capacity for this game over 41 @,@ 000 . It was the first outdoor game for the Flames in their franchise history but marked the second time the Canadiens participated in a NHL outdoor game . Montreal defeated the Edmonton Oilers in the original Heritage Classic , held in Edmonton in 2003 . The Flames were inundated with complaints from season ticket holders upset by their seat assignments and the cost of tickets . King responded to the concerns by noting that the league had purchased the game from the Flames , and the team was given a limited allotment of seats for its ticket holders . He also noted that it was possible that the event would lose money , even at ticket prices ranging between $ 49 and $ 249 , but that the team brought the Heritage Classic to Calgary because the fans wanted the game to return to Canada . The Pittsburgh Penguins and Buffalo Sabres encountered similar issues allocating tickets for the Winter Classic . = = Uniforms = = As with other outdoor games , special jerseys were worn for the event . The Flames ' uniform was maroon with burnt yellow stripes and tan pants that were inspired by the uniforms worn by the Calgary Tigers of the 1920s . The Flames wore the uniform to pay homage to the first professional hockey team in the city 's history . As members of the Western Canada Hockey League of the 1920s , the Tigers won the league championship in 1924 before losing that year 's Stanley Cup Final to the Canadiens . Montreal wore a classic version of their usual road sweater , the difference was the blue block numbering with the red outline , what the team wore prior to 1997 . The Flames uniform received mixed reviews . Detractors compared the uniform to the outfit Ronald McDonald wears . They proved popular with fans , however ; the league revealed a few days before the game that 16 @,@ 000 Flames jerseys had been sold , compared to about 6 @,@ 000 Montreal jerseys . Cheaper , unlicensed copies were widely available online and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police worked to stem the sale of counterfeit merchandise that was misrepresented as being authentic . = = Broadcasters = = The Heritage Classic was telecast throughout North America . The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) aired the game in English on Hockey Night in Canada , while Reseau des sports ( RDS ) carried the French @-@ language broadcast in Canada . Versus aired the game in the United States . The game was offered on 3D television in both countries : by CBC in Canada as its second 3D game of the season , and on Xfinity 3D in the U.S. The game was the first event broadcast by Comcast 's new 3D channel . Though the game involved two Canadian teams , the NHL hoped that the event would prove a successful draw in the U.S. To that end , the league scheduled the Heritage Classic as the only game in prime time , while NBC debuted its Hockey Day in America with a pair of regional doubleheaders that led into the telecast ; throughout NBC 's telecast , commercials advised viewers to change to Versus for the Heritage Classic once the American games finished . University of Alberta sports economist Brad Humphreys questioned the league 's ambitions , arguing that a game without an American team would not appeal . He stated that the game was being held to placate the Canadian audience , but noted that it was important for the NHL to keep the league 's Canadian audience happy . Nonetheless , the game drew strong ratings on both sides of the border . In Canada , the CBC averaged 2 @.@ 1 million viewers with a peak of 2 @.@ 9 million while RDS peaked at 1 @.@ 6 million . In the United States , Versus averaged 608 @,@ 000 viewers , and peaked above 700 @,@ 000 . For Versus , it represented the fourth @-@ most watched regular season game in the network 's history , and was the highest rated all @-@ Canadian NHL game on an American cable channel since Nielsen began tracking such ratings . = = Entertainment = = In spite of the wind chill , fans arrived at McMahon several hours before the game to experience an 88 @,@ 000 square feet ( 8 @,@ 200 m2 ) fan zone , and stood in line ups 100 people deep to buy Heritage Classic merchandise . The crowd maintained a party atmosphere throughout the game , with many fans describing the Classic as a " once in a lifetime show " . A cover band provided entertainment out front of McMahon while fans played air hockey , enjoyed free coffee from title sponsor Tim Hortons and tried their hockey skills in interactive booths . Several musical acts performed throughout the game . Five for Fighting performed his song " Chances " during the opening ceremonies . Canadian indie rock acts Tokyo Police Club and Metric performed during the first and second intermissions , respectively.Country duo Thompson Square and Calgary native Paul Brandt performed the American and Canadian national anthems , respectively . The Montreal Canadiens organization was unhappy with Brandt 's rendition , filing a complaint with the NHL over the fact that he sang the English version of " O Canada " rather than the bilingual version . The league acknowledged the complaint , but took no action . = = Game play = = The cold weather and ice conditions reduced the game to a slower speed than usual , with little physical play . Both teams struggled to deal with bouncing pucks , while arena staff were called out to fix patches of the ice on numerous occasions . Flames ' defenceman Steve Staios stated that Calgary 's strategy revolved around " keeping it simple and trying to play the game in straight lines " . Montreal 's James Wisniewski admitted after the game that the Canadiens struggled to adapt to the conditions . The Flames dominated the first period of play , outshooting Montreal 19 – 8 . Canadiens ' goaltender Carey Price made several difficult saves early in the game , stopping a Rene Bourque one @-@ timer from the top of the crease followed immediately by a save on Alex Tanguay , who tried to stuff the rebound into the net . Calgary was given an early two @-@ man advantage after P. K. Subban and Hal Gill both took tripping penalties in the seventh minute of play . The Flames capitalized on the power play , as Tanguay slid a pass in front of the Montreal net that was deflected in by Bourque to give Calgary a 1 – 0 advantage . The score remained unchanged until the second period . Montreal held the advantage in play for much of the frame , taking 21 shots on Miikka Kiprusoff . They earned their only power play opportunity of the game midway through the frame when Jay Bouwmeester was penalized for interference . The Flames had the better chances despite being shorthanded ; Curtis Glencross was unable to deflect a pass into the net while rushing towards the Montreal goal , but fought to retrieve the puck and sent it back out front of the net , where Anton Babchuk snapped it behind Price to extend Calgary 's lead to 2 – 0 . Bourque made the score 3 – 0 with five minutes left in the period when he cut in front of Price from the left side of the ice and put the puck in before being sent airborne over the fallen goaltender 's pads . The goal was the 100th of Bourque 's career . The third period was relatively even . Montreal outshot Calgary 10 – 7 for the period , and 39 – 37 for the game . Roman Hamrlik sent the Flames to their fourth power play at 8 : 58 of the period , and the Flames capitalized a minute later when Jarome Iginla sent a pass over a sprawling Montreal defender to Tanguay , who was standing on top of the crease and tapped the puck into the net . Kiprusoff held Montreal off the scoreboard for the remainder of the game to record his fourth shutout of the season , and the first in the NHL 's outdoor history . With the win , the Flames became only the second home team to win an NHL outdoor game , following the Boston Bruins , who won the 2010 Winter Classic at Fenway Park . = = = Weather = = = Calgary 's unpredictable weather patterns impacted the game , as long term forecasts that called for relatively warm temperatures failed to materialize . An arctic front descended over the city in the week leading up to the game resulting in overnight temperatures as low as − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) , however the forecast called for daytime highs of − 6 ° C ( 21 ° F ) in time for the game 's playing . The actual temperature was slightly colder , sitting at − 8 @.@ 6 ° C ( 16 @.@ 5 ° F ) at the game 's start , but as the sun set and temperatures dropped , it felt as cold as − 21 ° C ( − 6 ° F ) with wind chill factored in . The temperature during the game was only slightly colder than Calgary 's averages of 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) and − 11 ° C ( 12 ° F ) for the highs and lows . The changing temperatures forced the ice crews to abandon the use of ice resurfacers for fear of damaging the playing surface . Instead , they manually flooded the ice between periods using a high @-@ pressure hose and shovels . The players admitted that they were challenged by the condition of the ice , but praised the efforts of Dan Craig and his ice crew at quickly fixing areas of the surface that required patching . Flames defenceman Cory Sarich noted that while he had difficulty handling the puck , he was not concerned about the safety of the ice surface . = = Game summary = = Number in parenthesis represents the player 's total in goals or assists to that point of the season = = Team rosters = = Several players on both teams had previously appeared in an outdoor game . For Calgary 's David Moss , it was his third appearance outdoors . He previously played in the 2001 Cold War game as a member of the University of Michigan Wolverines , and again at the opening game of the 2010 IIHF World Championship , in which he played for Team USA . Teammate Steve Staios was a member of the Oilers at the first Heritage Classic , when the defenceman led both teams with three points ( one goal , two assists ) . For the Canadiens , Michael Cammalleri was a teammate of Moss at the Cold war game , while defenceman James Wisniewski was a member of the Chicago Blackhawks when they hosted the 2009 NHL Winter Classic at Wrigley Field . Scratches – Did not play Montreal Canadiens : Alexandre Picard , Tom Pyatt Calgary Flames : Brendan Mikkelson Officials Referees — Brad Meier , Mike Leggo Linesmen — Mike Cvik , Mark Wheler = = " Face @-@ off in the Foothills " = = As part of the weekend festivities , the Flames organized several games during the Family Day long weekend that celebrated both the past and future of the Flames organization and of the city 's hockey history . The team branded the events as the " Face @-@ off in the Foothills " . = = = Abbotsford Heat vs. Oklahoma City Barons = = = The weekend began on Friday , February 18 , with an American Hockey League ( AHL ) game between the Flames ' affiliate , the Abbotsford Heat , and the affiliate of the Edmonton Oilers , the Oklahoma City Barons , at the Scotiabank Saddledome . The game , featuring the top prospects for both NHL organizations , drew 8 @,@ 407 fans to what ended in a 3 – 1 Barons victory . The game marked the first return to the Saddledome for Oklahoma City forward Brad Moran . An original member of the Calgary Hitmen in 1995 , Moran remains the junior team 's all @-@ time leader in numerous categories , including goals , assists and points , and is the only player in Hitmen history to have his jersey retired . = = = Alumni game = = = Led by Jim Peplinski , an alumni game was organized for Saturday , February 19 , at McMahon . The game featured 14 members of the Flames ' 1989 Stanley Cup championship team , including Lanny McDonald , Al MacInnis , Joel Otto , Theoren Fleury and Joe Nieuwendyk . For Nieuwendyk , at the time the General Manager of the Dallas Stars , the chance to participate in the game was important enough that he chose to overlook the chronic pain in his back when he is on skates . Immensely popular forward Craig Conroy , who retired only a few weeks before the game , also took part for Calgary . Among the players representing the Canadiens were Mike Keane , Brian Skrudland , Russ Courtnall and Martin Gelinas . The game was played with only two continuous time periods , and was won by the Canadiens , 5 – 3 . Over 10 @,@ 000 fans turned out for the game on what ended up as the coldest night of the weekend . = = = Calgary Hitmen vs. Regina Pats = = = The weekend ended with a Western Hockey League ( WHL ) game on February 21 outdoors at McMahon Stadium . The game featured the defending champion Hitmen against the Regina Pats , Canada 's oldest major @-@ junior hockey team . The WHL game offered a parallel to the NHL match @-@ up , as the Hitmen are owned by the Flames while the Pats were once an affiliate of the Canadiens . As with the NHL game , the WHL teams wore retro inspired jerseys . The Hitmen wore uniforms similar to those of the city 's only Memorial Cup champion , the 1924 Calgary Canadians , while the Pats donned jerseys similar to those they wore in the 1950s . The game was announced as the first outdoor game in WHL history , but the Spokane Chiefs subsequently revealed they would host the Kootenay Ice outdoors on January 15 , 2011 . The game was played in much warmer conditions than the Flames @-@ Canadiens game the night previous , as the temperature hovered around the freezing mark . It was a considerably more physical game than the NHL contest , and was won by the Pats , 3 – 2 , on a last @-@ minute goal by Chandler Stephenson . Played before 20 @,@ 888 fans , the game set new Western and Canadian Hockey League attendance records and set the world record for highest attended junior game .
= Chrysippus = Chrysippus of Soli ( Greek : Χρύσιππος ὁ Σολεύς , Chrysippos ho Soleus ; c . 279 – c . 206 BC ) was a Greek Stoic philosopher . He was a native of Soli , Cilicia , but moved to Athens as a young man , where he became a pupil of Cleanthes in the Stoic school . When Cleanthes died , around 230 BC , Chrysippus became the third head of the school . A prolific writer , Chrysippus expanded the fundamental doctrines of Zeno of Citium , the founder of the school , which earned him the title of Second Founder of Stoicism . Chrysippus excelled in logic , the theory of knowledge , ethics and physics . He created an original system of propositional logic in order to better understand the workings of the universe and role of humanity within it . He adhered to a deterministic view of fate , but nevertheless sought a role for personal freedom in thought and action . Ethics , he taught , depended on understanding the nature of the universe , and he taught a therapy of extirpating the unruly passions which depress and crush the soul . He initiated the success of Stoicism as one of the most influential philosophical movements for centuries in the Greek and Roman world . = = Life = = Chrysippus , the son of Apollonius of Tarsus , was born at Soli , Cilicia . He was slight in stature , and is reputed to have trained as a long @-@ distance runner . While still young , he lost his substantial inherited property when it was confiscated to the king 's treasury . Chrysippus moved to Athens , where he became the disciple of Cleanthes , who was then the head ( scholarch ) of the Stoic school . He is believed to have attended the courses of Arcesilaus and his successor Lacydes , in the Platonic Academy . Chrysippus threw himself eagerly into the study of the Stoic system . His reputation for learning among his contemporaries was considerable . He was noted for intellectual audacity and self @-@ confidence and his reliance on his own ability was shown , among other things , in the request he is supposed to have made to Cleanthes : " Give me the principles , and I will find the proofs myself . " He succeeded Cleanthes as head of the Stoic school when Cleanthes died , in around 230 BC . Chrysippus was a prolific writer . He is said to rarely have gone without writing 500 lines a day and he composed more than 705 works . His desire to be comprehensive meant that he would take both sides of an argument and his opponents accused him of filling his books with the quotations of others . He was considered diffuse and obscure in his utterances and careless in his style , but his abilities were highly regarded , and he came to be seen as a preeminent authority for the school . He died during the 143rd Olympiad ( 208 – 204 BC ) at the age of 73 . Diogenes Laërtius gives two different accounts of his death . In the first account , Chrysippus was seized with dizziness having drunk undiluted wine at a feast , and died soon after . In the second account , he was watching a donkey eat some figs and cried out : " Now give the donkey a drink of pure wine to wash down the figs " , whereupon he died in a fit of laughter . His nephew Aristocreon erected a statue in his honour in the Kerameikos . Chrysippus was succeeded as head of the Stoic school by his pupil Zeno of Tarsus . Of his written works , none have survived except as fragments quoted in the works of later authors like Cicero , Seneca , Galen , Plutarch , and others . Recently , segments from Logical Questions and On Providence were discovered among the Herculaneum papyri . A third work by Chrysippus may also be among them . = = Philosophy = = Chrysippus had a long and successful career of resisting the attacks of the Academy and hoped not simply to defend Stoicism against the assaults of the past , but also against all possible attack in the future . He took the doctrines of Zeno and Cleanthes and crystallized them into what became the definitive system of Stoicism . He elaborated the physical doctrines of the Stoics and their theory of knowledge and he created much of their formal logic . In short , Chrysippus made the Stoic system what it was . It was said that " without Chrysippus , there would have been no Stoa " . = = Logic = = Chrysippus wrote much on the subject of logic and created a system of propositional logic . Aristotle 's term logic had been concerned with the interrelations of terms such as " Socrates " or " man " ( " all men are mortal , Socrates is a man , so Socrates is mortal " ) . Stoic logic , on the other hand , was concerned with the interrelations of propositions such as " it is day " ( " if it is day , it is light : but it is day : so it is light " ) . Though the earlier Megarian dialecticians – Diodorus Cronus and Philo – had worked in this field and the pupils of Aristotle – Theophrastus and Eudemus – had investigated hypothetical syllogisms , it was Chrysippus who developed these principles into a coherent system of propositional logic . = = = Propositions = = = Chrysippus defined a proposition as " that which is capable of being denied or affirmed as it is in itself " and gave examples of propositions such as " it is day " and " Dion is walking . " He distinguished between simple and non @-@ simple propositions , which in modern terminology are known as atomic and molecular propositions . A simple proposition is an elementary statement such as " it is day . " Simple propositions are linked together to form non @-@ simple propositions by the use of logical connectives . Chrysippus enumerated five kinds of molecular propositions according to the connective used : Thus several types of molecular propositions , familiar to modern logic , were listed by Chrysippus , including the conjunction , the disjunction , and the conditional , and Chrysippus studied their criteria of truth closely . = = = Conditional propositions = = = The first logicians to debate conditional statements were Diodorus Cronus and his pupil Philo . Writing five @-@ hundred years later , Sextus Empiricus refers to a debate between Diodorus and Philo . Philo regarded all conditionals as true except those which with a correct antecedent had an incorrect consequent , and this meant a proposition such as " if it is day , then I am talking , " is true unless it is day and I fall silent . But Diodorus argued that a true conditional is one in which the antecedent clause could never lead to an untrue conclusion – thus , because the proposition " if it is day , then I am talking " can be false , it is invalid . However , paradoxical propositions were still possible such as " if atomic elements of things do not exist , atomic elements exists . " Chrysippus adopted a much stricter view regarding conditional propositions , which made such paradoxes impossible : to him , a conditional is true if denial of the consequent is logically incompatible with the antecedent . This corresponds to the modern @-@ day strict conditional . = = = Syllogistic = = = Chrysippus developed a syllogistic or system of deduction in which he made use of five types of basic arguments or argument forms called indemonstrable syllogisms , which played the role of axioms , and four inference rules , called themata by means of which complex syllogisms could be reduced to these axioms . The forms of the five indemonstrables were : Of the four inference rules , only two survived . One , the so @-@ called first thema , was a rule of antilogism . The other , the third thema , was a cut rule by which chain syllogisms could be reduced to simple syllogisms . The purpose of Stoic syllogistic was not merely to create a formal system . It was also understood as the study of the operations of reason , the divine reason ( logos ) which governs the universe , of which human beings are a part . The goal was to find valid rules of inference and forms of proof to help people find their way in life . = = = Other logical work = = = Chrysippus analyzed speech and the handling of names and terms . He also devoted much effort in refuting fallacies and paradoxes . According to Diogenes Laërtius , Chrysippus wrote twelve works in 23 books on the Liar paradox ; seven works in 17 books on amphiboly ; and another nine works in 26 books on other conundrums . In all , 28 works or 66 books were given over to puzzles or paradoxes . Chrysippus is the first Stoic for whom the third of the four Stoic categories , i.e. the category somehow disposed is attested . In the surviving evidence , Chrysippus frequently makes use of the categories of substance and quality , but makes little use of the other two Stoic categories ( somehow disposed and somehow disposed in relation to something ) . It is not clear whether the categories had any special significance for Chrysippus , and a clear doctrine of categories may be the work of later Stoics . = = = Later reception = = = Chrysippus came to be renowned as one of the foremost logicians of ancient Greece . When Clement of Alexandria wanted to mention one who was master among logicians , as Homer was master among poets , it was Chrysippus , not Aristotle , he chose . Diogenes Laërtius wrote : " If the gods use dialectic , they would use none other than that of Chrysippus . " The logical work by Chrysippus came to be neglected and forgotten . Aristotle 's logic prevailed , partly because it was seen as more practical , and partly because it was taken up by the Neoplatonists . As recently as the 19th century , Stoic logic was treated with contempt , a barren formulaic system , which was merely clothing the logic of Aristotle with new terminology . It was not until the 20th century , with the advances in logic , and the modern propositional calculus , that it became clear that Stoic logic constituted a significant achievement . = = Epistemology = = For the Stoics , truth is distinguished from error by the sage who possesses right reason . Chrysippus 's theory of knowledge was empirical . The senses transmit messages from the external world , and their reports are controlled not by referring them to innate ideas , but by comparing them to previous reports stored in the mind . Zeno had defined impressions of sense as " an impression in the soul " and this was interpreted literally by Cleanthes , who compared the impression on the soul to the impression made by a seal on wax . Chrysippus preferred to regard it as an alteration or change in the soul ; that is , the soul receives a modification from every external object that acts upon it , just as the air receives countless strokes when many people are speaking at once . In the receipt of an impression , the soul is purely passive and the impression reveals not only its own existence , but that also of its cause — just as light displays itself and the elements that are in it . The power to name the object resides in the understanding . First must come the impression , and the understanding — having the power of utterance — expresses in speech the affection it receives from the object . True presentations are distinguished from those that are false by the use of memory , classification and comparison . If the sense organ and the mind are healthy — and provided that an external object can be really seen or heard — the presentation , due to its clearness and distinctness , has the power to extort the assent that always lies in our power , to give or to withhold . In a context in which people are understood to be rational beings , reason is developed out of these notions . = = Physics = = Chrysippus insisted on the organic unity of the universe , as well as the correlation and mutual interdependence of all of its parts . He said , " the universe is its own soul and its own controlling mind . " Following Zeno , Chrysippus determined fiery breath or aether to be the primitive substance of the universe . Objects are made up of inert formless matter and an informing soul , " pneuma " , provides form to the undifferentiated matter . The pneuma pervades all of substance and maintains the unity of the universe and constitutes the soul — the incorporeal and , in many conceptions , immortal essence of a person or living thing — of the human being . The classical elements change into one another by a process of condensation and rarefaction . Fire first becomes solidified into air ; then air into water ; and lastly , water into earth . The process of dissolution takes place in the reverse order : earth being rarefied into water , water into air and air into fire . The human soul was divided by Chrysippus into eight faculties : the five senses , the power of reproduction , the power of speech , and the " ruling part " that is located in the chest rather than the head . Individual souls are perishable ; but , according to the view originated by Chrysippus , the souls of wise people survive longer after their death . No individual soul can , however , survive beyond the periodic conflagration , when the universe is renewed . = = = Fate = = = For Chrysippus , all things happen according to fate : what seems to be accidental has always some hidden cause . The unity of the world consists in the chain @-@ like dependence of cause upon cause . Nothing can take place without a sufficient cause . According to Chrysippus , every proposition is either true or false , and this must apply to future events as well : If any motion exists without a cause , then not every proposition will be either true or false . For that which has not efficient causes is neither true nor false . But every proposition is either true or false . Therefore , there is no motion without a cause . And if this is so , then all effects owe their existence to prior causes . And if this is so , all things happen by fate . It follows therefore that whatever happens , happens by fate . The Stoic view of fate is entirely based on a view of the universe as a whole . Individual things and persons only come into consideration as dependent parts of this whole . Everything is , in every respect , determined by this relation , and is consequently subject to the general order of the world . If his opponents objected that , if everything is determined by destiny , there is no individual responsibility , since what has been once foreordained must happen , come what may , Chrysippus replied that there is a distinction to be made between simple and complex predestination . Becoming ill may be fated whatever happens but , if a person 's recovery is linked to consulting a doctor , then consulting the doctor is fated to occur together with that person 's recovery , and this becomes a complex fact . All human actions – in fact , our destiny – are decided by our relation to things , or as Chrysippus put it , events are " co @-@ fated " to occur : The non @-@ destruction of one 's coat , he says , is not fated simply , but co @-@ fated with its being taken care of , and someone 's being saved from his enemies is co @-@ fated with his fleeing those enemies ; and having children is co @-@ fated with being willing to lie with a woman . ... For many things cannot occur without our being willing and indeed contributing a most strenuous eagerness and zeal for these things , since , he says , it was fated for these things to occur in conjunction with this personal effort . ... But it will be in our power , he says , with what is in our power being included in fate . Thus our actions are predetermined , and are causally related to the overarching network of fate , but nevertheless the moral responsibility of how we respond to impressions remains our own . The one all @-@ determining power is active everywhere , working in each particular being according to its nature , whether in rational or irrational creatures or in inorganic objects . Every action is brought about by the co @-@ operation of causes depending on the nature of things and the character of the agent . Our actions would only be involuntary if they were produced by external causes alone , without any co @-@ operation , on the part of our wills , with external causes . Virtue and vice are set down as things in our power , for which , consequently , we are responsible . Moral responsibility depends only on freedom of the will , and what emanates from our will is our own , no matter whether it is possible for us to act differently or not . This rather subtle position which attempts to reconcile determinism with human responsibility is known as soft @-@ determinism , or compatibilism . = = = Divination = = = Chrysippus also argued for the existence of fate based on divination , which he thought there was good evidence for . It would not be possible for diviners to predict the future if the future itself was accidental . Omens and portents , he believed , are the natural symptoms of certain occurrences . There must be countless indications of the course of providence , for the most part unobserved , the meaning of only a few having become known to humanity . To those who argued that divination was superfluous as all events are foreordained , he replied that both divination and our behaviour under the warnings which it affords are included in the chain of causation . = = = God = = = The Stoics believed that the universe is God , and Chrysippus affirmed that " the universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul . " It is the guiding principle of the universe , " operating in mind and reason , together with the common nature of things and the totality which embraces all existence . " Based on these beliefs , physicist and philosopher Max Bernhard Weinstein identified Chrysippus as a Pandeist . Chrysippus sought to prove the existence of God , making use of a teleological argument : If there is anything that humanity cannot produce , the being who produces it is better than humanity . But humanity cannot produce the things that are in the universe – the heavenly bodies , etc . The being , therefore , who produces them is superior to humanity . But who is there that is superior to humanity , except God ? Therefore , God exists . Chrysippus spoke of God and gods interchangeably . He interpreted the gods of traditional Greek religion by viewing them as different aspects of the one reality . Cicero tells us that " he further maintained that aether is that which people call Zeus , and that the air which permeates the seas is Poseidon , and that the earth is what is known by the name of Demeter , and he treated in similar style the names of the other gods . " In addition , the universe exists for the benefit of the universal god : We should infer in the case of a beautiful dwelling @-@ place that it was built for its owners and not for mice ; we ought , therefore , in the same way to regard the universe as the dwelling @-@ place of the gods . = = = Theodicy = = = In response to the question of how evil could exist in a good universe , Chrysippus replied " evil cannot be removed , nor is it well that it should be removed . " Firstly , he argued , following Plato , that it was impossible for good to exist without evil , for justice could not be known without injustice , courage without cowardice , temperance without intemperance or wisdom without foolishness . Secondly , apparent evils exist as a consequent of nature 's goodness , thus it was necessary for the human skull to be made from small and thin bones for reasons of utility , but this superior utility meant that the skull is vulnerable to blows . Thirdly , evils are distributed according to the rational will of Zeus , either to punish the wicked or because they are important to the world @-@ order as a whole . Thus evil is good under disguise , and is ultimately conducive to the best . Chrysippus compared evil to the coarse jest in the comedy ; for , just as the jest , though offensive in itself , improves the piece as a whole , " so too you may criticize evil regarded by itself , yet allow that , taken with all else , it has its use . " = = Mathematics = = Chrysippus regarded bodies , surfaces , lines , places , the void and time as all being infinitely divisible . He determined one of the principal features of the infinite set : since a man and a finger have an infinite number of parts as do the universe and a man , it cannot be said that a man has more parts than his finger , nor that the universe has more parts than a man . Chrysippus also responded to a problem first posed by Democritus . If a cone is divided by a plane parallel to its base , are the surfaces of the segments equal or unequal ? If they are equal , then the cone becomes a cylinder ; if they are unequal , then the surface of the cone must be stepped . The reply of Chrysippus was that the surfaces are both equal and unequal . Chrysippus was , in effect , negating the law of excluded middle with respect to the equal and unequal , and thus he may have anticipated an important principle of modern infinitesimal calculus , namely , the limit and the process of convergence towards a limit . Chrysippus was notable for claiming that " one " is a number . One was not always considered a number by the ancient Greeks since they viewed one as that by which things are measured . Aristotle in his Metaphysics wrote , " ... a measure is not the things measured , but the measure or the One is the beginning of number . " Chrysippus asserted that one had " magnitude one " ( Greek : πλῆθος ἕν ) , although this was not generally accepted by the Greeks , and Iamblichus wrote that " magnitude one " was a contradiction in terms . = = Ethics = = Chrysippus taught that ethics depended on physics . In his Physical Theses , he stated : " for there is no other or more appropriate way of approaching the subject of good and evil on the virtues or happiness than from the nature of all things and the administration of the universe . " The goal of life , said Chrysippus , is to live in accordance with one 's experience of the actual course of nature . A person 's individual nature is part of the nature of the whole universe , and thus life should be lived in accordance with one 's own human nature as well as that of the universe . Human nature is ethical , and humanity is akin to the Divine , emanating from the primal fire or aether , which , though material , is the embodiment of reason ; and people should conduct themselves accordingly . People have freedom , and this freedom consists in emancipation from irrational desires ( lust , riches , position in life , domination , etc . ) and in subjecting the will to reason . Chrysippus laid the greatest stress on the worth and dignity of the individual , and on the power of will . The Stoics admitted between the good and the bad a third class of things – the indifferent ( adiaphora ) . Of things morally indifferent , the best includes health , and riches , and honour , and the worst includes sickness and poverty . Chrysippus accepted that it was normal in ordinary usage to refer to the preferred indifferent things as " good " , but the wise person , said Chrysippus , uses such things without requiring them . Practice and habit are necessary to render virtue perfect in the individual – in other words , there is such a thing as moral progress , and character has to be built up . The Stoics sought to be free of the unruly emotions , which they regarded as being contrary to nature . The passions or emotions ( pathe ) are the disturbing element in right judgment . Chrysippus wrote a whole book concerning the therapy of the emotions . The passions are like diseases which depress and crush the soul , thus he sought to eradicate them ( apatheia ) . Wrong judgements turn into passions when they gather an impetus of their own , just as , when one has started running , it is difficult to stop . One cannot hope to eradicate the emotions when one is in the heat of love or anger : this can only be done when one is calm . Therefore , one should prepare in advance , and deal with the emotions in the mind as if they were present . By applying reason to emotions such as greed , pride , or lust , one can understand the harm which they cause .
= Red Hot Kinda Love = " Red Hot Kinda Love " is a song by American recording artist Christina Aguilera from her seventh studio album , Lotus ( 2012 ) . The song was written by Aguilera , Lucas Secon and Olivia Waithe , with production done by Secon . It is a multi @-@ genre song , combining dance , disco , hip hop , Latin and pop . The track makes use of two samples : " The Whole Wide World Ain 't Nothin ' But a Party " performed by Mark Radice and " 54 @-@ 46 That 's My Number " performed by Toots & the Maytals . Lyrically , the song talks about Aguilera 's attempts to impress the man she is flirting with and she will not go home without him . Its structure received comparisons to songs performed by Britney Spears and Kylie Minogue . The track was received positively by critics , the majority of whom praised the fun and playful production . Upon the release of Lotus , the song debuted at number five on the South Korean international singles chart , selling 20 @,@ 433 copies , and remained on the chart for a further four weeks . = = Background and recording = = After her sixth studio album Bionic ( 2010 ) was met with low sales figures , Aguilera divorced from husband Jordan Bratman , starred in her first feature film entitled Burlesque and recorded its accompanying soundtrack , became a coach on NBC 's The Voice and featured on Maroon 5 's song " Moves Like Jagger " ( 2011 ) , which spent four weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 and sold 4 @.@ 9 million copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Following these events , she announced plans to record a new album , declaring that quality was more important than quantity and that she wanted to find " personal " songs to record . Aguilera stated that the album would be a " culmination of everything I 've experienced up until this point ... I 've been through a lot since the release of my last album , being on ( ' The Voice ' ) , having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me . " She continued to say that " I 'm embracing many different things , but it 's all feel @-@ good , super @-@ expressive [ and ] super @-@ vulnerable . " Concluding her statement , Aguilera said that the album would be about " self @-@ expression and freedom " because of the challenges she has faced over the past couple of years and wanting to go back to her roots . Speaking about her new material on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012 , Aguilera revealed that the album was taking a while to record because " I don 't like to just get songs from producers . I like them to come from a personal place ... I 'm very excited . It 's fun , exciting , introspective , it 's going to be great " . " Red Hot Kinda Love " was written by Aguilera , Lucas Secon and Olivia Waithe ; Secon served as the producer . In addition to his role as producer , Secon served as the programmer and arranger . He also recorded the track with Pete Hofmann . Aguilera 's vocals were recorded by Oscar Ramirez , and edited by Hofmann . Aguilera and Waithe , credited with her professional name Livvi Franc , provided background vocals for " Red Hot Kinda Love " . The track contains two samples : " The Whole Wide World Ain 't Nothin ' But a Party " performed by Mark Radice and " 54 @-@ 46 That 's My Number " performed by Toots & the Maytals . = = Composition = = " Red Hot Kinda Love " was written by Aguilera , Lucas Secon and Olivia Waithe , with production done by Secon . An up @-@ tempo song , it combines a variety of genres , including dance and disco , " subtle " tones of Latin , hip hop , and pop . It also features elements of dancehall . The track , which lasts for a duration of 3 : 06 , is a " smoky , sultry " song . It features an " old @-@ school hip @-@ hop loop " and vocal samples , as well as " dirty bass " which creates an " underground " feel . On " Red Hot Kinda Love " , Aguilera keeps her use of melisma to a minimum which allows for a " relaxed and playful " vocal performance . Lyrically , the song talks about Aguilera 's attempts to impress the man she is flirting with . She has " fallen hook , line and sinker for him " and will not take no for an answer . Chris Younie for 4Music wrote that his favorite lyric in the song is " Baby I 'm burning up , you got that red hot kinda love " , which the song 's hook is built around . According to Sal Cinquemani for Slant Magazine , it features " a catchy pre @-@ chorus , and an even catchier chorus . " Andrew Hampp for Billboard compared the song 's structure to those performed by Britney Spears and Kylie Minogue which they have " specialized in for years . " = = Critical reception = = " Red Hot Kinda Love " garnered very positive reviews from most music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine for Allmusic was complimentary of the pop song , writing that it is " giddy " and " delirious " . Chris Younie for 4Music wrote that Aguilera is " ramping up the romance and sexual energy " on " Red Hot Kinda Love " , which will make the listener need to take a cold shower . He also wrote that the listener should expect to hear " lots of ' oooh ' , ' aah ' , and ' la la la ' in her usual Mariah Carey @-@ shrilling manner . " Sam Hine for Popjustice described the song as " a welcome blast of upbeat pop following the rather serious start to the album . There are lots of good " oooh " " lalala " hooky bits that all fit together and make a for an enjoyable listen . " Andrew Hampp for Billboard described it as the " standout song on Lotus " which sees her " at her most relaxed and playful . " He also noted that Secon 's production takes " precedence " on the song . Annie Zaleski for The A.V. Club called it a " dancehall @-@ tinged , vibrant party jam , " while Sarah Rodman for The Boston Globe named it a " kooky horn @-@ and @-@ yodel fest " . Robert Copsey for Digital Spy described the song as " care @-@ free " and " a bit cheeky . " Sarah Godfrey for The Washington Post praised Aguilera for sounding more like herself on the " frenzied " track . Jim Farber for Daily News wrote that " Red Hot Kinda Love " contains " a can 't @-@ miss gimmick of a chorus " . He also wrote that Aguilera " hits the clubs in horny revenge . " Caomhan Keane for Entertainment.ie described " Red Hot Kinda Love " as Lotus ' " highlight , " writing that the song revisits the bouncy melodies of " I Hate Boys " and " My Girls " from Bionic . Glenn Gamboa for Newsday simply wrote that the song is " fun " , while Melinda Newman for HitFix described " Red Hot Kinda Love " as having an " exuberant " and " playful " vibe , which she likened to Deee @-@ Lite 's song " Groove Is in the Heart " . Mike Wass for Idolator praised Aguilera for having fun on the song and not letting her " I 'm back , bitches ! agenda " take over . Wass continued to write that " Red Hot Kinda Love " is Lotus ' answer to her Back to Basics ( 2006 ) album track , " Ain 't No Other Man " . However , Mesfin Fekadu for The Huffington Post criticized " Red Hot Kinda Love " , along with " Around the World " and " Make the World Move " , as she felt that Aguilera failed to capture the " fun " which they are supposed to embody . The song was placed at number 73 on PopCrush 's " Top 100 Songs of 2012 " , who described it as a " perfectly effervescent morsel of cotton @-@ candy pop . " = = Credits and personnel = = Recording Recorded at Mux Music Studios , London . Vocals recorded at The Red Lips Room , Beverly Hills , CA . Sample Contains samples of " The Whole Wide World Ain 't Nothin ' But a Party " performed by Mark Radice , courtesy of Capitol Records . Contains samples of " 54 @-@ 46 That 's My Number " performed by Toots & the Maytals , courtesy of Universal Music Enterprises . Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lotus , RCA Records . = = Charts = = Upon the release of Lotus , " Red Hot Kinda Love " debuted on the South Korean international singles chart at number five during the week of November 11 – 17 , 2012 , due to digital download sales of 20 @,@ 433 . The following week it fell to number nine , with sales of 15 @,@ 525 . In its third week , the song sold 10 @,@ 467 copies , charting at number 21 , and sold 6 @,@ 062 copies in its fourth , falling twenty places to number 41 . " Red Hot Kinda Love " sold 3 @,@ 436 copies in its fifth week , falling to number 93 .
= The Boat Race 1892 = The 49th Boat Race took place on 9 April 1892 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford went into the event as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race . In total , twelve of the competitors had previous Boat Race experience . In a race umpired by former rower Frank Willan , Oxford won by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 19 minutes 10 seconds . It was their third consecutive victory and the fastest time in the history of the event . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the boat clubs of University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; as of 2014 it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by half a length in the previous year 's race , and held the overall lead , with 25 victories to Cambridge 's 22 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Oxford 's coaches were F. P. Bully , R. C. Lehmann ( former president of the Cambridge Union Society and captain of the 1st Trinity Boat Club ; although he had rowed in the trial eights for Cambridge , he was never selected for the Blue boat ) Douglas McLean ( who rowed five times for Oxford between 1883 and 1887 ) , and Guy Nickalls ( five @-@ time Blue between 1887 and 1891 ) . Lehmann had briefly coached Cambridge in the " early stages " of their preparation . The umpire for the race for the fourth year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races . = = Crews = = The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 3 lb ( 77 @.@ 4 kg ) , 5 @.@ 125 pounds ( 2 @.@ 3 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge 's crew contained two rowers with no experience in the event , Robert Grieve Neill rowing at number two and Graham Campbell Kerr at number six . Four of their crew attended Trinity Hall . Oxford saw four rowers and the cox return from the previous year 's race , and included Guy Nickalls rowing in his fourth consecutive event . Six of the Dark Blues had been pupils at Eton College , and four were studying at Magdalen College . One rower was registered as non @-@ British : Edward Wason Lord for Cambridge hailed from Australia , having attending Brisbane Grammar School . = = Race = = Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge , the pre @-@ race favourites ( although former rower and author George Drinkwater states this was as a result of a practice row after which Oxford 's time was inaccurately reported in the press ) . Conditions for the race were described by Drinkwater as " perfect " with a light breeze from the east and a good tide . Oxford led from the start and were half a length ahead by Craven Steps ( approximately 1 @,@ 080 yards ( 990 m ) along the course ) , extending to almost a length at Harrods Furniture Depository . A spurt from Cambridge 's stroke Gerard Elin reduced the deficit and by Hammersmith Bridge they were half a length down . A malfunctioning slide rendered Elin 's contributions to the Light Blues ' efforts negligible and Oxford accelerated away , being two lengths up by Chiswick and four lengths ahead as they passed under Barnes Bridge . They passed the finishing post two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths ahead in a time of 19 minutes and 10 seconds . It was Oxford 's third consecutive victory , and was the fastest winning time in the history of the race ( when held on the Championship Course ) , beating the 1873 race winning time by 25 seconds .
= 2005 United States Grand Prix = The 2005 United States Grand Prix was one of the most controversial Formula One motor races in modern history . It was held on June 19 , 2005 at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and was the ninth race of the 2005 Formula One season . Out of the 20 cars that entered for the race , only the six cars from the teams using Bridgestone tyres ( Ferrari , Jordan and Minardi ) competed . The remaining fourteen entrants , all using Michelin tyres , completed the parade lap ( thus having technically taken part in the race , avoiding punishment ) , but retired to the pits before the race started . Following several tyre failures before the race , most spectacularly on Ralf Schumacher 's Toyota during Friday practice , Michelin advised its seven customer teams that without a reduction in speed in Turn 13 , the tyres provided for the race would only be safe for 10 laps . Michelin had been providing working tyres for the race since 2001 . The situation was worsened by the 2005 Formula One rules , which forbade tyre changes during the race . The Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , the sport 's governing body , refused a compromise proposal from Michelin to allow a chicane to be installed , maintaining that such rule changes would be grossly unfair to the Bridgestone @-@ shod teams , who had come prepared with properly working tyres , and that a last @-@ minute change to the track layout would be dangerous in case of crashes . The Michelin teams , unable to come to a compromise with the FIA , decided not to participate . It was later revealed that the Michelin @-@ shod teams could have potentially exposed themselves to criminal liability under Indiana state law had they competed . Of the six competitors , Ferrari 's Michael Schumacher was the eventual winner , with his teammate Rubens Barrichello finishing second . The result significantly boosted Schumacher 's championship standing , placing him third overall — no driver above him in driver championship points took part in the race . This race also marked the Toyota team 's first Formula One pole position , which did not lead to a win due to the team 's withdrawal from the race start . The final race result was the lowest number of finishing entries ever seen in a major open @-@ wheel motorsports event at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway since the institution of the 500 @-@ Mile Race ( surpassing the previous record low of seven finishers in 1966 , a race marred by a major first lap accident that eliminated a full third of the starting field ) , and the lowest number of finishing entries for an international Grand Prix since the 1914 American Grand Prize , which saw only five finishers . The situation created enormous negative publicity for the sport of Formula One , especially in the United States , a market in which Formula One had struggled to establish itself over the preceding twenty years ; some even called the race " Indygate " . = = Qualifying = = The qualifying session for the United States Grand Prix was held on June 18 . Jarno Trulli gained the pole position by posting the fastest lap time , 1 : 10 @.@ 625 . Trulli , driving for Toyota , was the team 's first driver to win the pole position for a Formula One race . The second @-@ place qualifier was Kimi Räikkönen , who ran a lap of 1 : 10 @.@ 694 . Jenson Button , Giancarlo Fisichella , and Michael Schumacher were the next three fastest qualifiers . Fernando Alonso , who led the season point standings , qualified in sixth . The rest of the top 10 consisted of Rubens Barrichello , Takuma Sato , Mark Webber , and Felipe Massa . = = Pre @-@ race controversy = = = = = Michelin tyre failures = = = During the afternoon 's practice session on Friday , June 17 , 2005 , Ralf Schumacher , driving for Toyota , crashed badly in Turn 13 of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway road course , apparently as a result of a left @-@ rear tyre failure . He was unable to continue racing , and was replaced by the team 's test driver , Ricardo Zonta , for the rest of the weekend . Ralf Schumacher had crashed at high speed at Turn 13 as a result of a tyre failure the previous year , while driving for the Williams team . Turn 13 on the Indianapolis Motor Speedway road course is a high speed banked turn , unique in Formula One racing , which causes a greater than usual tyre loading . On June 18 , Michelin reported that it did not understand why the tyres it had provided for its seven customer teams – BAR , McLaren , Red Bull , Renault , Toyota , Sauber , and Williams – had failed in this turn , and announced its intention to fly in tyres of a different specification from its Clermont @-@ Ferrand headquarters . Unfortunately , the replacement tyres flown in , which were of the type used in the Spanish Grand Prix earlier that year , turned out to have the same problem when tested . = = = Correspondence between Michelin and the FIA = = = In a letter to FIA Race Director Charlie Whiting dated Saturday , June 18 , Michelin representatives Pierre Dupasquier and Nick Shorrock revealed that they did not know the cause of the Toyota tyre failures , and unless the cars could be slowed down in Turn 13 , they could not guarantee the tyres ' safety for more than 10 laps . Whiting replied on Sunday , June 19 , expressing his surprise that Michelin had not brought suitable tyres , suggesting that the teams should limit their drivers to the maximum safe speed specified by Michelin in Turn 13 . He also addressed several solutions which had been proposed by the teams , insisting that use of the new specification tyres flown in overnight would be " a breach of the rules to be considered by the stewards " , and the placement of a chicane in the turn was " out of the question " – the race would not be sanctioned by the FIA ( making it a non @-@ championship race ) if the track layout was changed . He deemed the Michelin teams ' proposals to be " grossly unfair " to the Bridgestone teams . In a second letter , also dated June 19 , Dupasquier and Shorrock confirmed that they would not permit their teams to race on the Michelin tyres used during qualification without changes to the circuit , and reiterated their request to slow down Turn 13 . Whiting 's brief reply maintained that no such change would be permitted , and gave the teams the choice of limiting speeds through Turn 13 , using tyres of a different specification to those used in qualifying , subject to a penalty , or changing tyres repeatedly , which would have been permitted if a driver 's safety were at issue . = = = Attempts at compromise = = = Paul Stoddart , then owner of Minardi , a team using Bridgestone tyres , published an account on Wednesday , June 22 , of the events leading up to the race . Stoddart recorded a meeting around 10 : 00am on the day of the race , to which Speedway president Tony George , " the two most senior Michelin representatives present at the circuit " , Bernie Ecclestone ( president and CEO of Formula One Management and Formula One Administration ) , the team principals , and the teams ' Michelin technical representatives were summoned . All invited were present except Jean Todt , Team Principal of Scuderia Ferrari . By Stoddart 's account , the meeting proceeded as follows : The Michelin representatives stated their position that the tyres provided to the teams could not safely complete the race distance , and requested that the Bridgestone teams , represented by Stoddart and Jordan 's Colin Kolles , permit the installation of a chicane in Turn 13 . Those present discussed and agreed to reject the FIA 's solution of speed @-@ limiting the Michelin cars in the turn because of the potential for accidents . They likewise dismissed the possibility of making pit stops every ten laps , resolved that a chicane was the best solution , and instructed several technical representatives to prepare plans for its installation . Bernie Ecclestone volunteered to consult Todt , who had not come to the meeting , and the president of the FIA , Max Mosley , who was not present at the race , and reconvene the meeting when he had responses . Ecclestone returned at about 10 : 55 to inform the group that Todt had refused to agree to the chicane , maintaining that it was an FIA and a Michelin problem and not his . By the time Stoddart 's account of the meeting was published , Todt had already denied that he had ever been consulted , but stated that , if asked , he would not have agreed to the chicane . Furthermore , Ecclestone reported that " Mr Mosley had stated that if any attempts were made to alter the circuit , he would cancel the Grand Prix forthwith " . = = = Team principals ' plan = = = The group , according to Stoddart , continued to propose alternative solutions , including " a non @-@ championship race , or a race in which the Michelin teams could not score points , and even a race whereby only the Michelin teams used the new chicane " , but eventually agreed that the best option was to install the chicane and run a non @-@ championship race , without Ferrari if necessary . To ignore the FIA 's instructions and carry on the race would have resulted in the FIA 's withdrawing its staff , so the group appointed delegates to fill the various offices , including a race director to replace Charlie Whiting and a safety car driver to replace Bernd Mayländer . The team principals were instructed to convey to their teams and drivers that , in the absence of FIA scrutineers and equipment , the technical rules could not be enforced , and that they were to conduct themselves honourably and in the interest of an entertaining race . They proceeded to summon the twenty drivers and present their plan . Of the drivers ' opinions , Stoddart writes : " While I cannot testify that each and every driver agreed with what we were proposing , what I can say with certainty is that no driver disagreed . " The Ferrari drivers expressed no opinion in the matter , leaving the decision to Todt , who was not present . The nine present team principals thereupon resolved that , unless they and the FIA could come to a decision in the interest of the sport , they would not participate in the race . After a short break , the group gathered again in Ecclestone 's office to find Renault team principal Flavio Briatore on the phone with Max Mosley . Mosley had apparently rejected all of their proposals , and indeed " it was stated that Mosley had informed Mr Martin , the FIA 's most senior representative in the USA , that if any kind of non @-@ championship race was run , or any alteration made to the circuit , the US Grand Prix , and indeed , all FIA @-@ regulated motorsport in the US , would be under threat " . On the same day that Stoddart 's version of events was published , the FIA issued a statement denying that Mosley had made the reported threat , or that any such conversation had taken place . Having exhausted their options , the Michelin team principals , Stoddart , and Bernie Ecclestone – but not Jordan 's Colin Kolles – discussed whether their cars should proceed to the grid , and decided that they should participate in the formation lap but that they could not race . Stoddart asked Kolles if he would be entering his cars and was informed that Jordan would indeed be racing , despite having previously agreed not to . Stoddart was then approached by a Bridgestone representative and told that Bridgestone wanted him to race ; he has also stated that given his " current relationship with Mr Mosley , [ he ] felt certain heavy sanctions would follow if [ he ] did not [ race ] . " Stoddart too decided to enter his drivers , but reported that he would retire them if the Jordans did not finish the race . = = Race report = = At the start of the race , all the cars lined up on the grid per FIA race procedure . As Charlie Whiting signalled the green light to start the formation lap , a full field of twenty cars set off as normal for a single lap before forming the starting grid . At the banked Turn 13 , the entrance to the pit lane ( and the turn that was the centre of the controversy ) , all teams that ran Michelin tyres returned to their pits , leaving just six cars from the three Bridgestone teams ( Ferrari , Jordan , and Minardi ) to start the race . The move by the teams , to come to the grid and then pull out after the formation lap into the pits , infuriated the fans , who did not know about the plan . Boos were heard during the race , and some upset fans threw beer cans and water bottles on the track . BBC Radio broadcaster Maurice Hamilton said of the event , " Without question , it was the strangest race I commentated on in F1 . " Because of the retirement of the drivers who qualified ahead of them , Michael Schumacher and his Ferrari teammate , Barrichello , were the foremost starters , though using the grid positions they had qualified in ; the pair were followed by Tiago Monteiro and Narain Karthikeyan , both driving for Jordan . Rounding out the remaining field of six were Christijan Albers and Patrick Friesacher of Minardi . Schumacher retained the lead when the race started , and the only changes in positioning came when Albers and Karthikeyan exchanged places . The two Ferrari drivers quickly built a significant lead over their rivals , and Schumacher ended up with the victory , ahead of Barrichello . Monteiro and Karthikeyan finished in a distant third and fourth , and Albers and Friesacher brought up the rear . The race was a story of pit strategy , as the only passing on the circuit was of lapped traffic . Albers was the only car to run a three pit stop race , as all other drivers chose to stop only twice . The only lead changes came on lap 26 , as Schumacher 's 32 @-@ second stop gave Barrichello the lead , and on lap 51 , as Schumacher turned in the quickest pit stop at 23 @.@ 615 seconds , giving him enough time to exit pit lane at the same time as Barrichello , with the result of forcing Barrichello into the grass of Turn One . After this incident , which was not investigated by race officials , both Ferrari drivers were reminded over their radios not to crash out of the race , and they both settled into a slower pace , comfortably ahead of the rest of the field . All four of the drivers for Jordan and Minardi scored their first points in Formula One at this race . Karthikeyan 's points were the first for an Indian driver in Formula One . This was also the final race at which the Minardi team tallied points . At the podium ceremony , at which none of the scheduled dignitaries were present , all Ferrari team members quietly accepted their awards , and quickly exited . However , Monteiro stayed behind to celebrate his first podium finish , and the first for a Portuguese driver . = = Aftermath = = The win , Schumacher 's only victory of 2005 , moved him from fifth to third in the drivers championship . Alonso and Räikkönen remained first and second in the championship standings , on 59 and 37 points respectively , while Schumacher moved up to 34 points . With his second @-@ place finish , Barrichello went into fourth in the drivers championship , on 29 points , and Trulli dropped to fifth with 27 points . The Ferrari team moved into joint second in the Constructors ' Championship , matching McLaren with 63 points ; both teams trailed Renault , which retained the lead on 76 points . Both Jordan and Minardi scored points , moving out of a tie with BAR @-@ Honda at the bottom of the constructor standings . However , the results of the United States Grand Prix were overshadowed by the withdrawal of the Michelin @-@ shod teams , and by the inability to find a solution which would have allowed them to race . Bernie Ecclestone , in answer to a question by ITV 's Martin Brundle in an interview just before the start of the race , described the future of Formula One in the United States and the future of Michelin in the sport as " not good " . He also said that the " incident 's not the fault of the teams , to be honest with you . " The race was labelled a farce , and David Coulthard said , " It throws into doubt the future of the race in US " . Associated Press writer Stephen Wade pointed to the boycott as an extension of previous disagreements between the teams and Max Mosley , which had led to the threatened creation of a rival series as an alternative to Formula One . The Guardian 's Richard Williams considered the prior disputes a factor in the failure to reach a compromise and felt that the events at this race had increased the risk of a complete rupture . Minardi boss Paul Stoddart said immediately after the race that nine teams – all but Ferrari – agreed not to race , and had Jordan not reversed its decision at the last minute , Minardi would also have boycotted the race . In his later , lengthier , statement , he indicated that although it had been Michelin 's failure to provide a reliable tyre which had initiated the events , he laid the full blame for the failure to reach some accommodation ( which would have allowed a race to happen , for the benefit of the many fans who had paid considerable money for travel and tickets ) at the feet of Max Mosley and the FIA , with a small share of the blame going to what he characterized as the obstructionist Ferrari team leader , Jean Todt . He furthermore called for Mosley 's resignation . = = = FIA 's reaction = = = The following day , the FIA published a justification of its refusal to permit a change in tyres or the installation of a chicane . The FIA also summoned the seven Michelin @-@ shod teams before the World Motorsport Council at their headquarters in France , for a hearing on June 29 , to explain their failure to participate , by which they had presumably violated the terms of the Concorde Agreement . It later published copies of the letters sent to each team " in the interests of transparency " . They were charged with violating article 151c of the International Sporting Code , which refers to acts prejudicial to the interests of competition or motorsport generally . Specifically , it was charged that they had : Failed to ensure availability of suitable tyres for the race . Wrongfully refused to allow cars to start the race Wrongfully refused to allow cars to race subject to speed restrictions at one corner , which was safe for such tyres available . Combined with other teams to make a demonstration damaging to the image of Formula 1 by pulling into the pits immediately before the start of the race . Failed to notify the stewards of intention not to race . On June 22 the FIA produced a press release from Max Mosley , in the form of a question @-@ and @-@ answer session , in an effort to clarify the FIA 's stand on the controversy . In it Mosley drew an analogy to a hypothetical situation where the engines from one manufacturer had oil starvation problems due to high lateral loading in one corner , and pointed out that those cars would simply have been forced to run slower as a result . He reiterated that the reason for not installing the chicane was purely that it had never been tested and was thereby deemed unsafe . He pointed out that the alternatives that the FIA suggested were feasible , and wondered why the teams did not use the pitlane as an alternative , especially when , with only six Bridgestone cars , the Michelin teams could still compete for the points scoring seventh and eighth places . On June 29 the FIA World Motorsport Council found the teams guilty on the first two counts , that is , of not being in possession of suitable tyres for the event , but with strong mitigating circumstances , and that of wrongfully refusing to allow their cars to start the race . The teams were found not guilty of the other three counts . The punishment , however , was not decided , and was not to have been announced until September 14 . On July 22 , the FIA World Motorsport Council voted to overturn its previous decision , and exonerated the Michelin teams of all charges . The decision was due to " evidence previously submitted to the FIA Senate " , rumoured to be that the Michelin teams could have faced criminal charges under Indiana state law for knowingly putting others at risk if they had raced ( even if no accident actually occurred ) . = = = Compensation = = = On June 28 , Michelin announced that it would offer compensation to all race fans who had purchased tickets for the Grand Prix . The company planned to issue refund cheques through the Speedway ticket office for the price of all tickets for the race by the end of September . Additionally , Michelin purchased 20 @,@ 000 tickets for the 2006 United States Grand Prix to be distributed to spectators who attended the 2005 race . In addition to the refunded tickets , there was some discussion about holding a second , non @-@ championship race at Indianapolis . On July 2 , at the 2005 French Grand Prix , McLaren team principal Ron Dennis suggested that an additional race could be held at the American circuit after the last official race of the season , in Shanghai . The teams had , apparently , already discussed the idea with Bernie Ecclestone . But the next day Tony George dismissed the possibility : " There will be no race at Indianapolis Motor Speedway this fall . " At the 2005 Champ Car World Series Grand Prix of Cleveland , held one week after the US Grand Prix , free admission was granted to all bearers of ticket stubs of the US Grand Prix . = = Friday drivers = = Teams that were not in the top four of the 2004 Constructors ' Championship standings were entitled to run a third car in free practice on Friday . These drivers drove on Friday but did not compete in qualifying or the race , with the exception of Ricardo Zonta , who replaced Ralf Schumacher after his practice accident . = = Classification = = = = = Qualifying = = = = = = Race = = = = = Championship standings after the race = = Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Hellbound ( The X @-@ Files ) = " Hellbound " is the eighth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It originally aired on the Fox network on January 27 , 2002 . It was written by David Amann and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology , or the overarching fictional history . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 1 and was viewed by 7 @.@ 8 million viewers in its initial broadcast . It received positive reviews from television critics . The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Reyes takes the lead while investigating an X @-@ File case surrounding a man found skinned alive . When she discovers that he had visions of a similar thing , she calls on Scully ’ s expertise to help with the investigation . " Hellbound " was written to take Gish 's character into a darker area . The episode 's plot is similar to mythology surrounding the Aztec agriculture god Xipe Totec . To create the skinned human bodies , the makeup team sprayed a mannequin with layers of latex . The layers were then peeled off and positioned onto other mannequins that had been designed to resemble the actors . The faux skin was created to look " moist " and was composed of over 200 prostethic pieces . = = Plot = = In Novi , Virginia , a group of ex @-@ convicts , led by Dr. Lisa Holland ( Katy Boyer ) , meet ; the members discuss atoning for their sins . Terry Pruit ( Don Swayze ) tells the others that , since he has discovered the group , he has made amends for his past . However , another member , Ed ( Cyril O 'Reilly ) , tells him that humans are unable to change and that they are both destined for hell . Ed 's friend , Victor Potts ( David Figlioli ) , tells Holland that he 's been having nightmares involving people being skinned alive . That night , he has a vision of Ed skinned . Several hours later , Victor is murdered . Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) asks John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) to examine Potts ' body . Reyes explains that , because Potts had a premonition of his death , the case is an X @-@ File . Meanwhile , at a butchery , Terry and Ed get into an argument . Terry later has a vision — similar to Victor 's — in which Ed is skinned alive . That night , he is attacked and brutally flayed . Reyes and Doggett arrive in Novi and talk to Detective Van Allen ( James McDonnell ) , who seems apathetic about the case . At the same time , Scully contacts Dr. Bertram Mueller ( George D. Wallace ) , a former medical examiner who autopsied several bodies in the 1960s that were skinned in a manner similar to Potts . Mueller tells Scully that the sheriff at the time did not pay much attention to the cases , emphasizing that there was more than one victim , and that he later killed himself . Reyes and Doggett receive news of Terry 's attack and arrive at the local butchery to find him strung up among the pigs . While looking around the crime scene , Doggett discovers that Terry is still alive ; Terry weakly says Ed 's name . Doggett and the local police arrest Ed , who claims that he is innocent . Reyes believes him and admits that she too is having similar visions . Ed is freed , but not before having a vision in which Dr. Holland is skinned . In the meantime , Scully discovers that Potts and Terry were both born on the same day that two of the 1960s murder victims died . Doggett , acting on Reyes ' insistence that Ed is in danger , stakes out his house . Ed , however , is skinned regardless of Doggett 's attempts to protect him . Reyes admits to Doggett that she is having flashes of the same premonitions that the victims are experiencing . She tells Doggett that Ed 's body was gagged with a rag coated in coal dust from a mine , even though she has never seen his body . Reyes and Doggett head to the mine from which they believe the dust originated . Doggett finds the skeleton of a sheriff who killed himself in 1909 . Reyes finds newspaper clippings explaining the story : In 1868 , a group of four miners murdered a man . The murderers ' souls have been reincarnated several times since , only to be brutally skinned by the soul of the victim . In each case , the avenger is a prominent figure of the law . Reyes soon stumbles onto the collected skin of the victims , but is attacked by Van Allen . Doggett eventually finds her unharmed . Reyes explains to Doggett that Van Allen is avenging his own murder and that all the murders that are linked to the case have been in groups of four . Reyes believes Van Allen takes his own life each time in order to restart the series of murders . Reyes frantically calls Holland , informing her that she is the fourth victim . Van Allen arrives at the church , but is stopped by Reyes . Later , Reyes muses to Scully that in the past , she had always failed to stop Van Allen 's spirit . In this life , however , she managed to succeed . The shot changes to Van Allen dying , only to be reincarnated into a newborn baby . = = Production = = " Hellbound " was written by supervising producer David Amann and directed by Kim Manners . The entry was Amann 's fourth episode written for the series , after season seven 's " Rush " and " Chimera " and season eight 's " Invocation " . Executive producer John Shiban later explained that , since Doggett and Reyes were in control of the X @-@ Files , the producers needed to give one of them a drive . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz was interested in taking Annabeth Gish 's character into a darker area . According to Mat Hurwitz and Chris Knowles in their book The Complete X @-@ Files , the episode deals with themes of " reincarnation and the idea of karmic justice . " Shiban noted that the conceit of the episode was whether Reyes was " a good person or a bad person ? Did she fight evil , or did she let evil happen . " It has been noted that the episode 's plot is similar to mythology surrounding the Aztec agriculture god Xipe Totec . In mythology , Xipe Totec is often represented wearing a flayed human skin , usually with the flayed skin of the hands falling loose from the wrists . The production crew was tasked with building a refrigerated building the size of a warehouse for the slaughterhouse scenes . In order to achieve the shots , an old dairy was converted for filming . 300 slaughter pigs were brought in for the sequences , as well as 200 rubber pigs . The skinned human bodies in the episode were created by spraying a mannequin with a layer of latex . The layer was then peeled off . Makeup technicians then took the " peeled skin " and positioned it onto other mannequins that had been designed to resemble the actors . According to Hurwitz and Knowles , the effects were " a level of detail and sophistication never before seen on series television . " The makeup staff worked quickly ; according to Robert Patrick , the team " literally did a 36 @-@ hour day to pull off some of " the effects . The faux skin was created to look " moist " and was composed of over 200 prostethic pieces . Fake veins were then overlaid on top of the skin . Makeup department head Cheri Montesanto @-@ Medcalf later claimed that " seven makeup artists work [ ed ] seven hours on each person [ for ] ten days . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Hellbound " originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on January 27 , 2002 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on January 5 , 2003 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 5 @.@ 4 million households , and 7 @.@ 7 million viewers , making it the seventy @-@ first most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending January 27 . " Hellbound " earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 1 , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 1 % of the nation 's estimated households . = = = Reviews = = = " Hellbound " received generally positive reviews from critics . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity awarded the episode a " B " . John Keegan , writing for Critical Myth , gave the episode a positive review and complimented its exploration of Reyes ' character . He rated it an 8 out of 10 and wrote that " overall , a wonderful unexpected look into the underlying motivations of a character that , until now , has been only vaguely drawn for the audience . Thankfully it is completely consistent with what we have seen before " . Keegan added that the " greatest drawback may be that we are unlikely to see this theme explored much further , since this is now officially the final season . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two wrote positively of the entry 's plot — comparing it to the first season episode " Squeeze " and the fourth season episode " The Field Where I Died " — calling the writing " delightfully subtle " . They praised Amann 's misdirection , noting that the episode contains several red herrings . Shearman and Pearson also praised the episode 's effects , calling the skinless bodies " the high point of the series ' trading in gore " . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , called the episode " unexpectedly entertaining " and praised the script 's attempts to shed more light on Reyes ' character .
= Of Vice and Men = " Of Vice and Men " is the seventh episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ first episode overall . Written by Phil Klemmer and directed by Harry Winer , the episode premiered on The CW on November 14 , 2006 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica helps a student , Meryl ( Amanda Walsh ) locate her missing boyfriend . Meanwhile , with Mercer ( Ryan Devlin ) imprisoned for the campus rapes , Veronica tries to find the truth . This investigation leads to an instance in which Veronica is drugged and a part of her hair is removed by a mysterious figure . In addition , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) questions the morality of his relationship with Harmony ( Laura San Giacomo ) , leading to their breakup . " Of Vice and Men " was one of Rob Thomas 's favorite episodes from the season . It features the final appearance of San Giacomo and the reappearance of Ken Marino 's character , rival detective Vinnie Van Lowe . The episode received 2 @.@ 69 million viewers in its original broadcast and was given mixed reviews from television critics , with critics being divided on Veronica 's increasing sarcastic behavior and the final scene involving a drugged Veronica . Eric Goldman of IGN wrote that there were some " very strong scenes in the second half " , while Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club called the final scene " slightly manipulative . " = = Plot synopsis = = Veronica and Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) have a minor fight over Keith ’ s relationship with Harmony . Veronica is staying in Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) and Piz ’ s ( Chris Lowell ) dorm room . Piz comes in unexpectedly , and the two end up hanging out . However , a girl shows up and tells them that her boyfriend , Sully , has gone missing . They look in Sully ’ s room , but the girlfriend is hesitant to help . In criminology class , Mr. Landry ( Patrick Fabian ) tells Veronica that he ’ s applied her for an internship at the FBI . Veronica talks to Logan ( Jason Dohring ) about Mercer , but he still refuses to give her an alibi . Veronica and the girlfriend , Meryl , find that Sully has contacted another girl , Scarlett , but Scarlett knows that Sully has a girlfriend . Veronica visits Mercer in prison , and he tells her that there are many people who would want to frame him . Sully ’ s roommate comes back to their room , and Veronica uncovers that Meryl and Sully had a fight the previous weekend . Harmony ( Laura San Giacomo ) succeeds in convincing Keith that their relationship is not immoral . Vinnie Van Lowe ( Ken Marino ) enters Mars Investigations and tells Keith that he needs to know the whereabouts of Kendall Casablancas . Afterwards , he blackmails Keith by showing him pictures of him and Harmony , saying that Keith must pay $ 4 @,@ 000 to prevent the information from being shown to Harmony ’ s husband . Veronica gets exasperated with Meryl when she feels that Meryl refuses to see the truth about Sully cheating on her . Veronica talks to the professor about his affair with Mindy O ’ Dell , but he says that he ’ ll give her the scholarship no matter what . After seeing Meryl and Scarlett hug , Veronica tries to frame Mercer to no avail . After showing Logan the evidence that Mercer is innocent , he tells Veronica what he was doing : they were in Tijuana , and Mercer set a room on fire . There were girls in Mercer ’ s room , but Logan ran away when the fire spread . Meryl gets a voicemail from Sully , and Veronica agrees to track her . Veronica and Keith have another fight , with Veronica insulting his character for having a relationship with Harmony . Veronica and Meryl track the cell phone in the Fitzpatricks ’ bar . Liam Fitzpatrick drunkenly picks up Veronica and carries her around , but Vinnie supposedly takes a picture of it to get him off her . Veronica and Meryl go to the police station and find that Sully washed up on shore after surfing with a bump on his head and had mild amnesia . While cleared , Mercer is still being held in custody . Keith rejects Harmony , and Logan nervously calls Keith for the whereabouts of Veronica . At the food court , Veronica is listening to voicemails from Logan and Keith when she notices an issue with her food . She returns to the counter with her plate , leaving her drink unattended . She returns to her seat but , after eating and drinking , soon feels disoriented . She recognizes this feelings as identical to her experience after ingesting GHB previously . Veronica attempts to get into her car and collapses just outside of it but she manages to set off the alarm . A mysterious figure appears and stops the alarm . There is a buzzing sound the scene cuts to a nearby Logan hearing the alarm . Logan finds Veronica 's car with her unconscious on the ground next to it . He picks her up to reveal some locks of Veronica 's hair on the ground and a bald spot on the back of her head . = = Production = = " Of Vice and Men " was written by Phil Klemmer and directed by Harry Winer , marking Klemmer 's twelfth writing credit for the series and Winer 's fourth directing credit ( after " Meet John Smith " , " Blast from the Past " , and " Wichita Linebacker " ) . The episode features a reappearance by the character of Vinnie Van Lowe , played by Ken Marino , who did not appear for several episodes previously . Thomas complimented Marino 's performance in the scene in which he hands pictures of Harmony to Keith , saying that near the end of the scene , Marino turns a " cartoonish " character into something " real and menacing . " In addition , he thought that Marino 's performance in the scene effectively blurred the lines of comedy and drama on the show . " Of Vice and Men " was one of the highlights of season three for Thomas . He was especially proud of the scene in which Veronica is drugged , which was created to give the show an interesting visual sequence , an aspect of production which Thomas thought was too often neglected on Veronica Mars . The episode also marks the final appearance in the series by Laura San Giacomo , who appeared on three episodes of Veronica Mars in total . Promos for the episode included much of the final sequence in which Veronica is drugged and approached by the rapist , a choice which several critics considered a major spoiler . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Of Vice and Men " received 2 @.@ 69 million viewers , marking a slight decrease from " Hi , Infidelity " and ranking 97th of 99 in the weekly rankings . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode an 8 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . While calling Veronica " not likable at all " in the episode , he praised the second half of the episode , particularly the final sequence involving a drugged Veronica . He wrote , " Veronica Mars seems to slowly be getting back on track . There are still some problems to be sure , but this week 's episode was a good one , and most notably , built towards some very strong scenes in the second half . " Price Peterson , writing for TV.com , was also positive towards the episode , writing " This was good ! I liked all of the scenes of Piz sleeping on the floor . And as much as it freaks me out to see Veronica in harm 's way ( I shouldn 't be watching TV , apparently ) , I appreciated the forward momentum in this plotline . " Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A " . Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching , was mixed towards " Of Vice and Men " , writing that the episode 's focus on the mystery of the week did not work thematically , as Veronica did not have a stake in its solving . " The better we get to know the supporting characters and the closer each arc gets to its conclusion , the harder it gets to care about stories that don 't have a really personal connection for Veronica . " Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , was very critical of the episode , naming five ways in which he thought Veronica was unlikable in the episode . " Simply put , Veronica spends most of " Of Vice and Men " acting like she 's better and smarter than everyone else . Of course , she is smarter than everyone , so that 's okay . But better ? Sometimes that 's justified , sometimes it 's not , " elaborating that Veronica became increasingly unlikeable in the episode . He was also negative towards the final sequence , writing " it feels slightly manipulative , " commenting that the show was not ready to tackle scenes of attempted rape .
= Augustus E. Willson = Augustus Everett Willson ( October 13 , 1846 – August 24 , 1931 ) was the 36th Governor of Kentucky . Orphaned at the age of twelve , Willson went to live with relatives in New England . This move exposed him to such literary masters as Ralph Waldo Emerson , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , Oliver Wendell Holmes , and James Russell Lowell , who were associates of his older brother , poet Forceythe Willson . He was also afforded the opportunity to attend Harvard University , where he earned an A.B. in 1869 and an A.M. in 1872 . After graduation , he secured a position at the law firm of future Supreme Court justice John Marshall Harlan . Willson and Harlan became lifelong friends , and Willson 's association with Harlan deepened his support of the Republican Party . A Republican in a primarily Democratic state , Willson suffered several defeats for public office , but was elected governor of Kentucky on his second attempt . Due to his handling of the Black Patch Tobacco Wars and his pardoning of several individuals involved in the assassination of Democratic governor William Goebel , Willson drew the ire of the Democrat @-@ controlled General Assembly . As a result , few of his proposed reforms were considered by the legislature . His term ended in 1911 , and in 1914 , he made an unsuccessful bid for a seat in the U.S. Senate . Following this defeat , Willson retired to Louisville , where he died in 1931 . = = Early life = = Augustus Willson was born on October 13 , 1846 in Maysville , Kentucky , the second child of Hiram and Ann Colvin ( née Ennis ) Willson . A year following his birth , his father moved the family to Covington . In 1852 , the family moved again , this time to New Albany , Indiana . In 1856 , Willson 's mother died . Three years later , his father also died , leaving him an orphan at age twelve . He and his younger sister went to live with their grandmother in Allegany County , New York . Willson then moved to Cambridge , Massachusetts to live with his brother Forceythe , a poet of some renown . There , he was exposed to men of letters such as Ralph Waldo Emerson , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , Oliver Wendell Holmes , and James Russell Lowell . Willson took a preparatory course of study at Alfred Academy in New York . Later , he enrolled for one year at a preparatory school in Cambridge before matriculating to Harvard University in 1865 . Forceythe became terminally ill during Augustus ' sophomore year , and Augustus took a brief hiatus from his studies to care for him . Following Forceythe 's death , Augustus resumed his studies , and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1869 . After graduation , Willson studied at Harvard Law School , receiving a Master of Arts degree in 1872 . He also studied in the law firm of Lothrop , Bishop , and Lincoln in Boston . He returned to New Albany in 1870 , where he lived with Indiana congressman Michael C. Kerr and was admitted to the bar . In 1874 , Kerr wrote a letter of introduction for Willson when he applied for a position in the Louisville law firm of John Marshall Harlan . Harlan described Willson as " one of the brightest young fellows I ever met . " The two became lifelong friends , and Willson 's association with Harlan deepened his support of the Republican Party . Willson became a junior partner in Harlan 's firm , continuing there until Harlan 's appointment as a Supreme Court justice in 1877 . = = Political career = = Willson 's political career began when was he appointed chief clerk of the U.S. Treasury Department under Benjamin Bristow . He served in this capacity from December 1875 to August 1876 , resigning to continue his law practice in Louisville . On July 23 , 1877 , Willson married Mary Elizabeth Ekin ; [ a ] their only child died as an infant . A Republican in a predominantly Democratic state , Willson suffered several defeats in his canvasses for public office . His 1879 loss in an election for a seat in the Kentucky Senate marked the first in a string of political defeats . He failed in bids to represent Kentucky 's Fifth District in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1884 , 1886 , 1888 , and 1892 . He was a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1884 , 1888 , 1892 , 1904 , 1908 , and 1916 . In 1897 , he was a member of the executive committee at the national monetary conference in Indianapolis , Indiana , where he advocated a sound money position . In 1903 , Willson sought the Republican gubernatorial nomination . He had the backing of William O. Bradley , who in 1895 had become the first Republican governor in the state 's history . Others at the convention favored Louisville businessman Morris B. Belknap . After a ruling against a contested delegation to the convention , Willson withdrew his candidacy . Bradley , angered that the party had not united behind his candidate , boycotted the convention . Belknap was handily defeated by Democrat J. C. W. Beckham in the general election . = = = Governor of Kentucky = = = In 1907 , Willson was chosen by acclamation as the Republican candidate for governor . Willson 's opponent had been chosen at a nominating convention two years earlier . Governor Beckham had convinced the Democrats to hold their primary early so he could secure the party 's nomination for the 1908 senatorial election while he was still serving as governor . Further , he wanted to influence the selection of his would @-@ be successor . Using his clout as governor , he assured the selection of Samuel Wilbur Hager as the party 's gubernatorial nominee . The primary campaign issue was the ongoing Black Patch Tobacco Wars . Hager carried the stigma of being the hand @-@ picked candidate of Governor Beckham , who had largely ignored the violence during his administration . On the other hand , Willson had twice represented the American Tobacco Company , whose business practices were the reason for farmers ' discontent and violence . Democrats made much of this issue , and Willson did little to counter accusations that he was unsympathetic to the plight of the farmers . Hager tried to appeal to both sides of the conflict , but ultimately lost the support of both . Willson 's position appealed to urban voters who wanted the state 's reputation for violence to end even if it meant siding with the tobacco industry against the state 's farmers . In the general election , Willson garnered 214 @,@ 481 votes to 196 @,@ 428 for Hager . ( Scattered votes were also cast for minor party candidates . ) Strong support from urban areas swung the election for Willson . Half of Willson 's 18 @,@ 000 @-@ vote majority came from the city of Louisville . Republicans also won the mayoral races in Louisville and Paducah . Further , a disagreement between Hager and an associate of Governor Beckham caused Beckham 's support for his candidate to wane . Voters who favored prohibition – strong supporters of Beckham for his pro @-@ temperance stand – also deserted Hager , who vacillated on the issue . Willson was sworn in on December 10 , 1907 . Almost immediately , he drew the ire of the Democratic General Assembly for his handling of the Black Patch Wars . In contrast to Beckham 's inaction , Willson immediately deployed the state militia and declared martial law in twenty western ( and predominantly Democratic ) counties . While the troops were helpful , there were never more than three hundred deployed , and they were not a major factor in ending the violence . Hostile Democrats in the General Assembly formed an investigative committee that found Willson guilty of violating the state 's constitution by calling out the militia without a formal request by civil authorities . Willson also sent spies to infiltrate the " Night Riders " – an organization of vigilantes who perpetrated much of the violence – and determine which local officials supported them . He publicly announced he would pardon anyone who killed a Night Rider . This decision was hailed by some newspapers as an effective deterrent , while others criticized it as encouraging more lawlessness . Willson 's interventions ultimately had little to do with the end of the violence . In 1908 , the courts began handing down convictions against the Night Riders , though many of their leaders escaped the convictions . A 1909 measure sponsored by Kentucky representative Augustus O. Stanley removed a national tax on tobacco , and in 1911 , the Supreme Court of the United States found the American Tobacco Company to be in violation of antitrust laws . Each of these events helped raise tobacco prices , pacifying the violent farmers . Willson further alienated the legislature by issuing pardons for several individuals convicted of complicity in the assassination of Governor William Goebel ( 1900 ) . These included former Republican governor William S. Taylor ( 1899 – 1900 ) and Taylor 's Secretary of State , Caleb Powers . Henry Youtsey , who was convicted for complicity in the assassination but turned state 's evidence , was not pardoned , leading Democrats to portray the pardons of Taylor and Powers as partisan . Goebel 's likeness was also removed from state checks and documents and was replaced by likenesses of either Abraham Lincoln , Henry Clay , or John C. Breckinridge . The 1908 session of the General Assembly was dubbed the " Education Legislature " . Its most significant accomplishment was passing legislation establishing high schools in every county of the state . It further increased funding for the newly renamed State University ( later the University of Kentucky ) and strengthened school attendance requirements . Other progressive reforms were also passed , including a stronger child labor law and a law establishing a juvenile court system . Off @-@ track betting was made illegal , and abortion was defined as a crime . In his biennial message to the legislature in 1910 , Willson called for a uniform system of accounting based on legislation recently passed in the neighboring state of Indiana . He also advocated a measure requiring full disclosure of campaign expenditures . Due to its hostility toward Willson , the Assembly scarcely considered the governor 's agenda or other needed legislation such as tax reform and redistricting . The reforms Willson advocated would later pass under a Democratic administration . The few accomplishments of this legislature included making electrocution the legal form of capital punishment and establishing of an eight @-@ hour work day for public workers . Outside the state , Willson enjoyed somewhat higher esteem . In 1908 , Harvard University presented him with an honorary Doctor of Laws degree . Also in 1908 , President Theodore Roosevelt called a meeting of state governors in Washington , D.C. to discuss conservation of natural resources . Willson was elected to chair this meeting , which became known as the National Governors ' Conference . The meeting sparked interest in an annual gubernatorial meeting , and in 1910 , Willson organized a second conference and was again elected chair . Although some had advocated for a House of Governors that would propose uniform state laws , Willson 's opening remarks made it clear that this was not the intent of the National Governors ' Conference . " This meeting has no legal authority whatever , " Willson stated . " It is not a house of Governors . It is simply a conference of Governors . " = = Later life = = In the gubernatorial election of 1911 , Republicans were divided as to whether they should celebrate Willson 's administration or downplay it . His actions to quell the violence in the Black Patch Wars and his pardons to Taylor and Powers were both unpopular with many voters . The eventual candidate , Edward C. O 'Rear , was lukewarm at best to Willson 's administration . Willson was upset by this hesitancy and lent O 'Rear only modest support on the campaign trail . Former governor Bradley also disagreed with O 'Rear 's selection and engaged in minimal campaigning . The failure of the party to unite behind their candidate gave Democrat James B. McCreary an easy victory . Following his term as governor , Willson returned to his legal practice in Louisville . From 1910 to 1919 , he served on the Harvard University Board of Overseers . In 1914 , he was a candidate for the Senate seat of Johnson Camden . It was the state 's first senatorial election since passage of the Seventeenth Amendment , meaning the seat would be filled by popular vote rather than by a vote of the legislature . The seat had originally belonged to former governor Bradley , who had died in office . Governor McCreary appointed Camden to fill the unexpired term , but Camden had agreed not to seek re @-@ election so that J. C. W. Beckham could run for the seat . In the Republican primary , Willson defeated Richard P. Ernst . In the general election , the unpopularity of Willson 's gubernatorial administration combined with the overwhelming popularity of Democratic President Woodrow Wilson , ensured that Beckham won the seat by more than 32 @,@ 000 votes . This campaign was Willson 's last . He died on August 24 , 1931 , and is buried in the Cave Hill Cemetery in Louisville .
= Snyder , New York = Snyder ( originally Snyderville ) is a hamlet within the town of Amherst in Erie County , New York , United States that is part of the Buffalo – Niagara Falls metropolitan area . The hamlet was established in 1837 . It was named for Michael Snyder , its first postmaster , who also operated a store at the corner of Harlem Road , which is also known as New York State Route 240 , and Main Street , which is also known as New York State Route 5 . The hamlet blossomed due to retail activity demand created along the Main Street transportation route between Buffalo and points to the east in the 19th and early 20th century . As of 2009 , the hamlet has several commercial districts , including a modest business district along Main Street that includes the original town focal point at Main Street and Harlem Road , and several educational institutions . The educational institutions are both public and private and range from kindergarten through college . The Snyder community has above average affluence and education compared to the Buffalo region . The hamlet also hosts two structures listed on the National Register of Historic Places that serve as architectural artifacts of the early residential developments in the hamlet . The traditional definition of the hamlet is the " Snyder " postal service area , now merged into the 14226 zip code . However , using United States Census Bureau @-@ based data , which does not necessarily align exactly with the old postal boundaries , the modern definition includes parts of the neighboring Eggertsville hamlet . = = History = = In 1804 , Timothy Hopkins was the first settler in the area that would later become Snyderville and subsequently Snyder . Hopkins married Nancy Kerr in Williamsville in the first marriage on record in Erie County . As newlyweds , they moved to a log cabin on a farm on the 4301 Main Street location of Amherst Central High School . The Schenck family moved to Amherst at the corner of Main Street and Harlem Road in 1821 . Abraham Snyder arrived from Pennsylvania in 1823 and moved to a spacious frame house in the late 1830s . His son Michael rose to prominence . John Schenck , Michael Snyder 's cousin , built the hamlet 's first house and later built the first store in 1837 , which was the year the hamlet was first established . In 1830 , a stagecoach was established . It was the first regularly scheduled public means of transportation between Buffalo and Batavia , and sometimes Albany , and operated along Buffalo Road , which was later renamed Main Street . By the 1850s , the Amherst economy thrived on agriculture . Snyder also had a pottery and brick factory . Throughout the 19th Century Snyder evolved as a small scale business community catering to surrounding farmers and the stagecoach line along Main Street . In 1879 , the hamlets of Amherst began receiving newspaper service from the Amherst Bee , which continues to exist as of the beginning of the 21st century as a weekly newspaper . L. F. Crout opened a hotel in 1883 . In 1892 , an electric trolley , which ran from Main Street and Bailey Avenue , also known as U.S. Route 62 , into Williamsville , connected Amherst with the city of Buffalo 's streetcar system . This made Amherst 's various hamlets more accessible and desirable to the wealthier city residents who were interested in expanding their estates into the " country " . This caused growth and development of the Main and Harlem area which served as the center of town for the new suburbs . In 1905 , the Snyderville Fire burned 12 buildings in the Main Street / Harlem Road area , including blacksmith shops , barns , and other businesses critical to the Snyder economy as well as livestock and stores of grain . In the 1920s , the town of Amherst began to develop by converting farmland into subdivisions . Snyder residents began to live closer to each other in new subdivisions . = = Geography = = Snyder is located in the southern part of Amherst , which is located in Erie County , New York , United States . As a hamlet it has no formal boundaries , but was originally defined by the area served by its post office . The traditional boundaries of the hamlet are Getzville and Brantwood Road on the west , Sheridan Drive , also known as New York State Route 324 , on the north , I @-@ 290 , known as the Youngmann Expressway / I @-@ 90 , known as New York State Thruway on the east , and the Cheektowaga town line along Wehrle Drive east of Harlem Road and then Winspear Avenue on the south . When defining the Snyder community market area using census data , the western boundary extends a little further to include parts of the hamlet of Eggertsville , which was built around the Main Street and Eggert Road intersection , with a western boundary from north to south of Millersport Highway , also known as New York State Route 263 , Longmeadow Road , Westfield Road , Main Street , LeBrun Road , and Eggert Road . When defined this way , Snyder includes ( using a Main Street and Harlem Road origin , starting with the northwest quadrant , and moving clockwise ) census block groups 1 – 3 from census tract 94 @.@ 01 ; census block groups 3 & 4 from census tract 94 @.@ 02 ; census block groups 3 – 5 from census tract 95 @.@ 02 ; and census block groups 1 , 3 – 5 from census tract 95 @.@ 01 . The center of town at Main Street and Harlem is at an elevation of 673 feet ( 205 m ) . The business district is located between Burroughs Drive to the east and Campus Drive to the west on Main Street . In this region , the Snyder Fire Department , the Eggertsville @-@ Snyder Branch of the Buffalo & Erie County Public Library ( 4622 Main Street ) , the Amherst YMCA ( 4433 Main Street ) , and the Main Harlem Plaza as well as the former location of the United States Postal Service office for the 14226 zip code that includes Snyder and the neighboring hamlet of Eggertsville are located . The post office for the zip code was formerly located at Main Street and Chateau Terrace with a 25 Chateau Terrace address until May 1 , 1990 . Harlem road crosses through the business district and connects three of the hamlet 's four commercial districts . Sheridan Harlem Plaza and adjacent commercial property are located at the north end of Harlem . Both Kensington Avenue and Wehrle Drive intersect the southern part of the Snyder portion of Harlem in a commercial region that extends into Cheektowaga . The Harlem – Kensington commercial district is historic . The fourth commercial district is located in the eastern edge of the hamlet at the intersection of Main Street and Kensington Avenue near the entrance to the Youngmann Expressway . The extended Snyder community has additional commercial areas along the highly commercial Sheridan Drive and on Millersport Highway . = = Transportation = = Snyder is bounded by I @-@ 290 , and has two interchanges on the eastern edge of the hamlet with this interstate highway that are both less than a 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the Main and Harlem center of town . This provides direct access to the I @-@ 90 ( The New York State Thruway ) and continuing south on Harlem to the New York State Route 33 a little more than a mile from Snyder through Cheektowaga also provides access to the I @-@ 90 . The community is also serviced by the Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority ( NFTA ) , which provides three different bus routes ( 30 , 48 , and 49 ) connecting directly to the light rail Buffalo Metro Rail along Main Street to the west . All three of these routes connect to various parts of Williamsville to the east and provide connections to Erie Community College ( north campus ) , the Buffalo Niagara International Airport and Transit Road ( New York State Route 78 ) . The hamlet is also serviced by NFTA route 65 from downtown Buffalo along Kensington Avenue to Main Street and the service continues to northeast Erie County destinations . Historically , transportation through town has been active on Main Street . In 1836 , the street became a Macadam toll road . On April 5 , 1893 , the trolley line opened for business between Main Street and Bailey Avenue and the east end of Williamsville 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) to the east . It was later extended another 3 miles to Transit road . = = Landmarks = = The hamlet has two National Register of Historic Places listings : Entranceways at Main Street at Lamarck Drive and Smallwood Drive and Entranceway at Main Street at Roycroft Boulevard . The former were built in 1926 and the latter in 1918 . Both were added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 7 , 2005 . These stone wall entrances to residential developments are common throughout Eggertsville and Snyder along Main Street and serve to give residential developments the appearance of having entrances similar to the former grand estates that were previously common along Main Street in the area . Willard Genrich built the Lord Amherst Motor Hotel on Main Street near the I @-@ 290 interchange on Main Street to harmonize with the colonial architectural motif used by the local Main Street businesses . = = Economy = = Snyder is an affluent and well @-@ educated community in Metropolitan Buffalo . The residential population consists mostly of large single family homes on individual lots . The 2000 United States Census average household income of $ 87 @,@ 700 ( $ 120 @,@ 509 today ) far exceeds the Buffalo regional average of $ 57 @,@ 400 ( $ 78 @,@ 874 ) . The Snyder population declined from 14 @,@ 294 to 13 @,@ 875 while the number of households increased from 5 @,@ 469 to 5 @,@ 574 between the 1990 United States Census and the 2000 United States Census . During the decade the number of children age 5 – 17 and adults age 35 – 54 grew significantly while the young adults age 18 – 34 and adults over the age of 55 declined sharply . The number of housing units grew from 5 @,@ 662 to 5 @,@ 739 . 1990 housing was 82 @.@ 5 % single @-@ family housing . The busiest ATM in the entire Buffalo region is in Snyder . The traditionally defined Snyder portion of Main Street had 180 businesses as of January 2002 . The town has two theatres : Musical Fare Theater is a not for profit corporation on the Daemen College campus and Fisher @-@ Towne Theater . Starting in the 1950s zoning laws required that all new buildings be set back from the street and have private on @-@ site parking . The 21st Century zoning laws date back to 1976 . = = Government = = There is no formal Snyder government . The hamlet , like the rest of the town of Amherst , is served by the Town of Amherst Government and receives municipal services from the town . It is serviced by entities such as the Amherst Police Department , Snyder fire department and the Town of Amherst Highway Department , although Main Street and Harlem Road are serviced by the New York State Department of Transportation . Residents of Amherst , including those in Snyder , pay taxes both to the Town of Amherst and the County of Erie . However , the town tax is solely a school tax and the county collects the remaining town taxes for municipal services . = = Education = = Amherst Central High School , the town 's public high school , is located at 4301 Main Street , just west of the business district . The school started when the new Amherst school district was created in the late 1920s . Previously students from Eggertsville and Snyder either attended Bennett High School at 2885 Main Street in Buffalo or what is now called Williamsville South High School at 5950 Main Street in Williamsville and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Williamsville Junior and Senior High School . Daemen College is located across from the high school at 4380 Main Street . Amherst Middle School ( formerly Amherst Junior High School ) , the town 's public middle school , is located two blocks south of the High School at 55 Kings Highway . Additionally , the Stenograhic Institute @-@ Western New York at 4525 Main Street , which offers undergraduate degrees , is found in the business district . Other schools located in the district include Smallwood Drive Elementary School ( K @-@ 5 ) , Park School of Buffalo ( Pre @-@ K @-@ 12 ) , and Christ The King School ( Pre @-@ K @-@ 8 ) . Park has been located in Snyder since 1922 . Smallwood is public ; Park is private and Christ The King is a Roman Catholic school .
= Platt @-@ LePage XR @-@ 1 = The Platt @-@ LePage XR @-@ 1 , also known by the company designation PL @-@ 3 , was an early American twin @-@ rotor helicopter , built by the Platt @-@ LePage Aircraft Company of Eddystone , Pennsylvania . The winner of a United States Army Air Corps design competition held in early 1940 , the XR @-@ 1 was the first helicopter tested by the USAAF , flying in 1941 . The flight testing of the XR @-@ 1 proved troublesome , and although continued testing showed that the design had promise , other , improved helicopters were becoming available before the XR @-@ 1 was ready for service . As a result , the development of the aircraft was terminated in 1945 . = = Design and development = = Developed during 1939 from an earlier , unsuccessful design , the PL @-@ 1 , the Platt @-@ LePage Model PL @-@ 3 was the winner of a 1940 design competition , held under the terms of the Dorsey @-@ Logan Act , for the supply of a helicopter design to the United States Army Air Corps . Platt @-@ LePage 's submission was judged by the Army to be superior to its competitors , which included a helicopter submitted by Vought @-@ Sikorsky , and autogyros developed by Kellett and Pitcairn . Following the selection of the Platt @-@ LePage design in May 1940 , a contract for the construction of a prototype and a static test airframe was issued in July of that year . The contract specified delivery of the flying prototype in January 1941 , however the aircraft was not completed until three months later than the contract schedule , a delay that led to Sikorsky receiving Dorsey @-@ Logan Act funding for development of its design , which became the XR @-@ 4 . In its design , the XR @-@ 1 bore a strong resemblance to the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 61 , a helicopter developed by Henrich Focke in Germany that , flown by Hanna Reitsch , had impressed Platt @-@ LePage co @-@ founder Wynn LePage during a tour of Europe . The XR @-@ 1 was powered by a Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 985 radial engine , mounted in a buried installation within the fuselage . The aircraft had two , three @-@ bladed rotors , mounted in a side @-@ by @-@ side arrangement on wing @-@ like pylons . The pylons were aerodynamically designed to produce some lift when in forwards flight , slightly unloading the rotors . The construction of the XR @-@ 1 was conventional by the standards of the time , with the aircraft 's frame consisting of a steel @-@ tube framework , which was covered with fabric . The XR @-@ 1 had tail surfaces similar to those of a conventional aircraft , and was equipped with a fixed , taildragger landing gear . The aircraft 's wheels freely castered for easier maneuvering on the ground . The cockpit of the XR @-@ 1 seated the aircraft 's two crew members in a tandem arrangement , the pilot located ahead of the observer , and was extensively glazed to provide good visibility in the aircraft 's intended observation and army co @-@ operation role . During the development of the aircraft , Major General Robert M. Danford proposed to the War Department that the XR @-@ 1 be evaluated against the Stinson YO @-@ 54 and the Kellett YG @-@ 1B autogyro . = = Operational history = = Following several months of ground testing , the XR @-@ 1 conducted its maiden flight on May 12 , 1941 , although the aircraft was restrained by a tether for its early flights . On June 23 the aircraft conducted its first free flight , albeit remaining within a few feet of the ground . As flight testing continued and the aircraft 's performance envelope was expanded , the XR @-@ 1 's quickly proved troublesome , the testing showing a variety of troubles with the design . These included issues with the aircraft 's controls , insufficient control authority being present , and in addition there were resonance issues with the airframe that made the XR @-@ 1 prone to pilot @-@ induced oscillations . The aircraft was modified in an attempt to resolve these issues , and the Army modified Platt @-@ LePage 's contract to provide additional funding for improvements to the design , but despite this the XR @-@ 1 's problems continued . In addition , the company 's test pilot , Lou Leavitt , lacked confidence in the design , refusing to fly the aircraft to its full potential . The situation was only resolved when Colonel H. Franklin Gregory , director of rotor @-@ wing projects for the Army Air Forces , flew the aircraft himself , reaching 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) on his first flight in the aircraft . With the worst of the aircraft 's problems believed to have been resolved , the XR @-@ 1 was submitted for service testing by the Army Air Forces in 1943 . During the course of the Army 's evaluations , the XR @-@ 1 's empennage failed during structural testing , the surfaces being strengthened as a result and testing , following the repairs , resuming in 1944 . Despite the modifications to the design , however , the XR @-@ 1 still proved to be deficient in control authority . In July 1943 , the XR @-@ 1 program suffered a setback when the aircraft crashed , seriously injuring test pilot Jim Ray , who had replaced Leavitt following the latter 's dismissal from the company . The crash was caused by an inspector 's error in leaving a suspect part on the aircraft , the rotor hub failing in flight as a result of the decision . The aircraft was repairable , but it would be a year before the XR @-@ 1 was ready to fly again . Testing was , however , able to continue in the meantime , as Platt @-@ LePage had re @-@ negotiated the XR @-@ 1 contract to cover a second flight @-@ test aircraft . Built to a revised and improved version of the XR @-@ 1 's design and designated XR @-@ 1A , the second aircraft had flown for the first time in May 1943 . The XR @-@ 1A featured a revised cockpit covering compared to that of the XR @-@ 1 , with the area of glazing being increased for improved visibility , and the pilot and observer 's positions being reversed , the pilot now seated in the rear cockpit . During flight testing the XR @-@ 1A was found superior in flight performance to the XR @-@ 1 ; however , the controls were still proving troublesome , although the worst of the bugs did seem to have been worked out . Following a cross @-@ country flight to Wright Field in Ohio from Platt @-@ LePage 's Pennsylvania plant , testing of the XR @-@ 1A continued until a mechanical failure in the rotor hub led to a crash landing on 26 October 1944 , the company deciding to sell the wreckage for scrap . The XR @-@ 1 , having been repaired in the meantime , was once again flying , and a contract had been awarded to Platt @-@ Lepage for the construction of seven pre @-@ production aircraft , to be built to an improved version of the XR @-@ 1A design , and designated YR @-@ 1A . Motivated by Congressional concerns about potential favouritism towards Sikorsky Aircraft , which had in the meantime been given a contract for development of an improved version of their VS @-@ 300 experimental helicopter , the contract called for delivery of the first YR @-@ 1A to the Army in January 1945 . However , due to continued financial and flight @-@ testing problems , Platt @-@ Lepage proved incapable of meeting this schedule . Although the XR @-@ 1 's problems seemed to be approaching resolution by late 1944 , the protracted development of the aircraft meant that alternative , improved helicopters , such as Sikorsky 's XR @-@ 4 , less expensive and more maneuverable than Platt @-@ LePage 's aircraft , were becoming available . In addition , even the XR @-@ 1A 's improvements had failed to cure the aircraft of all of its control and vibration problems , and the AAF 's Air Material Command considered the company " inept " in its work , applying a " hit @-@ or @-@ miss method " to research and development . As a result of this assessment , the Army 's contracts with the company were universally cancelled in early April 1945 . Following the cancellation of the Army 's contract , the XR @-@ 1 was returned to the company , Platt @-@ LePage believing that the design had potential as a civilian aircraft . The planned civilian version , the PL @-@ 9 , would have been an enlarged , twin @-@ engined aircraft ; however Platt @-@ LePage was by now in serious financial difficulty following the cancellation of its Army contract , and in mid 1946 the XR @-@ 1 's flight test program was concluded , the aircraft being retired to the Smithsonian Institution . In the meantime , the company 's former test pilot , Lou Leavitt , had purchased the wreckage of the XR @-@ 1A at a price of 4 cents per pound . Leavitt had formed a new company , Helicopter Air Transport , intending to provide helicopter flight training in anticipation of a postwar aviation boom , and he returned the XR @-@ 1A to flying condition . The projected boom failed to materialise , however , and HAT quickly entered bankruptcy , Leavitt selling the XR @-@ 1A to Frank Piasecki , another former Platt @-@ LePage employee who had now started his own helicopter company . Piasecki soon grounded the aircraft due to airworthiness concerns , and used the airframe in the development of the PA @-@ 2B , a planned tiltrotor which failed to proceed beyond the mock @-@ up stage . = = Survivors = = Following the conclusion of flight testing , the XR @-@ 1 was returned to the Army Air Forces , who placed the aircraft in storage before donating it to the Smithsonian Institution 's National Air and Space Museum . The unrestored aircraft is stored at the Paul Garber Restoration and Storage Facility in " remarkable condition " . = = Variants = = XR @-@ 1 First prototype ; one built . XR @-@ 1A Second prototype with increased cockpit glazing and improved engine ; one built . YR @-@ 1A Seven pre @-@ production aircraft ordered ; contract cancelled before any completed . PL @-@ 4 Proposed armed variant of the XR @-@ 1 , fitted with four machine guns in a reprofiled nose . PL @-@ 11 Proposed Utility / Mail single seat helicopter . PL @-@ 12 Proposed five place civil helicopter , partially built in May of 1945 Piasecki PA @-@ 2B Proposed tiltrotor based on XR @-@ 1 airframe ; not built . = = Operators = = United States United States Army Air Forces = = Specifications ( XR @-@ 1A ) = = Data from Connor and Lee 2000 ; Lambermont 1958 General characteristics Crew : Two ( Pilot and observer ) Length : 29 ft 4 in ( 8 @.@ 94 m ) Wingspan : 65 ft 0 in ( 19 @.@ 81 m ) Height : 9 ft 0 in ( 2 @.@ 74 m ) Gross weight : 4 @,@ 730 lb ( 2 @,@ 145 kg ) Powerplant : 1 × Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 985 @-@ AN @-@ 1 radial piston engine , 450 hp ( 340 kW ) Main rotor diameter : 2 × 31 ft 6 in ( 9 @.@ 60 m ) Performance Maximum speed : 110 mph ; 96 kn ( 177 km / h ) Disk loading : 4 @.@ 1 lb / sq ft ( 19 @.@ 9 kg / m2 ) Power / mass : 10 @.@ 8 lb ( 4.9kg ) / hp
= John Gregorson Campbell = John Gregorson Campbell ( 1836 – 22 November 1891 ) was a Scottish folklorist and Free Church Minister at the Tiree and Coll parishes in Argyll , Scotland . An avid collector of traditional stories , in 1831 he became Secretary to the Ossianic Society of Glasgow University . Ill health had prevented him taking up employment as a Minister when he was initially approved to preach by the Presbytery of Glasgow in 1858 and later after he was appointed to Tiree by the Duke of Argyll in 1861 , parishioners objected to his manner of preaching . Several of the anecdotes he amassed were published in magazines and , just before his death , work began on collating the first of four compendiums of the tales ; three were published a few years after his death . He was fluent in several languages , including Scottish Gaelic , and transcribed the legends precisely as dictated by the narrators . = = Early life and education = = John Gregorson Campbell was born near Loch Linnhe at Kingairloch , Argyll in 1836 , the fourth child and second son of Helen MacGregor and Captain Campbell , an officer for the ship Cygnet . A short memoir , published in 1895 and based on information from Gregorson Campbell 's sister , states a Bean Shìth , or fairy washerwoman as Gregorson Campbell defined it , had cast a spell on his father 's ancestors proclaiming " they shall grow like the rush and wither like the fern " . The family moved to Appin in about 1839 , where the local parochial school provided Gregorson Campbell 's education until he was ten years old . He then attended a higher school in Glasgow before moving on to the University of Glasgow . = = Career = = Law was the subject Gregorson Campbell chose to study after completing his education but his primary interest was folklore , a topic that fascinated him from his college days . In 1831 he was appointed Secretary to the Glasgow University Ossianic Society . He secured a licence to preach from the Presbytery of Glasgow in 1858 but was unable to commence work as a clergyman at that time owing to ill health . His recuperation was spent beginning his collection of folklore stories . When appointed as clergyman at the Free Church united parishes of Tiree and Coll by the Duke of Argyll in early 1861 , objections were initially raised by some members of the Tiree congregation who found Gregorson Campbell 's sermons boring , uninspiring and " devoid of fervour " . The Presbytery upheld two of the three main complaints , but an appeal was made to the Synod . Concerns had also been expressed that his health was insufficiently robust to serve the needs and challenges of the Tiree parish . The appeal was heard by the General Assembly on 31 May 1861 with Gregorson Campbell 's defence arguing that the main thrust of the complaints was actually founded on the congregation 's desire to have their own preferred minister appointed . The motion was not upheld and Gregorson Campbell became the minister of both parishes , a position he held for thirty years . = = Folklore collections = = Interest in mythology and folklore gained momentum in the last quarter of the 19th century , probably fuelled by the contentious debates surrounding the authenticity of the Ossian poems published by James Macpherson during the 1760s . Gregorson Campbell continued to build on the collection he started during his period of recuperation around 1858 , preserving the traditional tales as quoted at the time . The folklorist John Francis Campbell ( 1822 – 85 ) , also known as Campbell of Islay , had his first mythology books published in 1860 and he corresponded with Gregorson Campbell . Both men were fluent in several languages , including Scottish Gaelic , and their letters discuss the variations in the folk tales , with Campbell of Islay stating : " I have about 16 versions of one story in Gaelic , and no two have the same name . " Gregorson Campbell had his own style of collating legends , meticulously transcribing the stories as dictated by the individual storytellers , and only rarely interspersing tales with his own comments . Christian ministers in Scotland differed in their attitudes towards the traditional beliefs and myths perpetuated by their parishioners , and were often dismissive of what they considered to be superstition and paganism , but Gregorson Campbell persisted in enthusiastically adding to his collection throughout the late 1800s . He was concerned that the intolerance shown by some of his fellow collectors towards the illiterate Gaelic @-@ speaking storytellers and those who believed in the myths would result in the loss of a valuable resource , as he regarded the narrators as having " powers of mind of a highest order " . = = = Published work = = = Traditional tales collected by Gregorson Campbell were first published in the inaugural edition of the quarterly periodical the Scottish Celtic Review in March 1881 . Reproduced in Gaelic and translated on the following pages in English , it was entitled " How the great Tuairisgeul was put to death " and told how the son of the King of Ireland went to a hunting hill and sought the answer to the death of the Great Tuairisgeul . Further legends from his collection were included in the next three volumes of the review . The Gaelic Society of Inverness published some of the tales , also given in Gaelic with an English translation , from 1888 until 1892 . The first of these in 1888 , " Sir Olave O 'Corn " , also involved a King of Ireland and included some explanatory notes from Gregorson Campbell . Celtic Magazine and Highland Monthly were two other journals that published some of his folklore . Some of these were reprinted in the first compendium of Gregorson Campbell 's collection , The Fians , a set of traditional tales and verses about combat printed as part of the Argyllshire series of books in 1891 . = = Death and legacy = = Gregorson Campbell 's health deteriorated in the last years of his life , especially after the death of his mother Helen at the Tiree manse in 1890 ; he died on 22 November 1891 before seeing the final printed edition of The Fians . Alfred Nutt , fellow folklorist and publisher , chronicled details of Gregorson Campbell 's life as an introduction to the second compilation of Gregorson Campbell 's collection of myths , Clan Traditions and Popular Tales of the Western Highlands and Islands , published in 1895 . Two other books were published posthumously : Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland in 1900 , and Witchcraft and Second Sight in the West Highlands the following year . Richard Dorson , American author and director of the Folklore Institute at Indiana University , describes Gregorson Campbell as worthy of a " front rank among Celtic folklorists " and Sophia Kingshill , author and folklorist , felt his writing was " vivid and engaging " . Contemporary praise was not entirely universal ; an anonymous review of Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland included in The Scottish Antiquary , Or , Northern Notes & Queries ( now The Scottish Historical Review ) in 1901 described the work as " a book of considerable pretension " and stated it was in need of proofreading , citing several printing errors .
= Leo Burke = Leonce Cormier ( born June 29 , 1948 ) is a retired Canadian professional wrestler . He was born in Dorchester , New Brunswick . He competed across Canada , in several American promotions , and wrestled internationally for both Puerto Rico 's World Wrestling Council ( WWC ) and the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) in New Zealand . In Canada , where he spent the majority of his career , Cormier used the ring name Leo Burke . In the United States , however , he competed as Tommy Martin . Over the course of his career , Cormier held 46 wrestling championships . Several of his title victories came as part of a tag team with his brothers , three of whom were also professional wrestlers . He had long @-@ term storyline feuds with such wrestlers as Cuban Assassin and Bret Hart , both of whom he later reconciled with and joined forces with to hold tag team championships . Since his retirement in 1992 , he has also trained many wrestlers for both World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) . Cormier also competes in occasional wrestling matches and has been honored by both the Cauliflower Alley Club , a fraternal organization of professional wrestlers , and Stampede Wrestling , who inducted him into their hall of fame . = = Career = = Growing up in a wrestling family , Leonce Burke decided at age six that he wanted to become a professional wrestler . He followed in the footsteps of his older brothers Yvon and Jean @-@ Louis , who trained him to compete . = = = 1960s = = = Cormier made his professional debut in 1966 . Competing in Central States Wrestling , an affiliate of the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) , he used the ring name Tommy Martin . He won his first championship belt on October 11 , 1968 by defeating Bob Brown for the NWA Central States Heavyweight Championship . Later that month , he gained another title when he formed a tag team with his brother Romeo ( who was competing under the ring name Terry Martin ) to win the Central States version of the NWA North American Tag Team Championship from Brown and Bob Geigel . The reign as tag team champions lasted for seven days before the Martins dropped the belts in a match against The Texas Outlaws ( Dick Murdoch and Dusty Rhodes ) . The following month , Martin also lost the heavyweight championship to Rhodes . = = = 1970s = = = Cormier spent much of the early 1970s competing in the Maritimes for his brother Jean @-@ Louis ' Eastern Sports Association ( ESA ) ( which owned International Wrestling , or IW ) as both a singles and tag team wrestler . He did not want to use their name recognition to further his own career , so he took the last name of his friend , boxer Jackie Burke . The four Cormier brothers all competed in the territory and often joined forces in feuds with the promotion 's top heel ( villain ) wrestlers . Burke won the IW North American Heavyweight Championship on June 22 , 1971 by defeating Eric Pomeroy . The title reign lasted for three months ; Gino Brito won the title from Burke during a match in Halifax , Nova Scotia , but Burke regained the championship five days later . On August 8 , 1972 . Burke teamed with his brother Romeo again ( who was now wrestling as Bobby Kay ) to win the ESA International Tag Team Championship . They held the title until the following June , when they dropped it to Fred Sweetan and Kurt Von Steiger . In August 1973 , Burke became the first ESA Taped Fist Championship when the promotion awarded him the title . Burke next competed in the NWA 's Amarillo , Texas territory . He teamed with another brother , Yvon , who competed under the ring name The Beast . In January 1974 , they defeated Don Fargo and Hank James to win the NWA Western States Tag Team Championship , which they held for two months until a loss to Ricky Romero and Dory Funk , Jr .. Returning to the ESA , Burke had a short reign as IW North American Heavyweight Champion in May 1974 , which he followed in July with another reign with the ESA International Tag Team Championship . Holding the title with his brother The Beast , Burke held the championship for less than one month before dropping it to Geto Mongol and Great Kuma . That month , he also dropped the Taped Fist Championship to Mongol but regained it in a rematch within days . The following year , he held the North American Heavyweight Championship twice more , defeating Bolo Mongol and Bob Brown . For the second victory , Burke substituted for Killer Karl Krupp , who was unable to compete . Although Burke won the match , the title was later returned to Brown after Brown appealed the decision , claiming that a substitute wrestler should not be eligible to win a championship . Burke also had one final reign with the Taped Fist Championship before vacating the title . Burke continued to compete for Central States Wrestling , and he teamed with The Beast in a tournament for the vacant NWA Western States Tag Team Championship . The brothers defeated Silver Streak and Ricky Romero in the finals on February 20 , 1976 to win the belts but lost them in a rematch one week later . Returning from Texas to Nova Scotia , Burke became the only person ever to hold the ESA Maritimes Heavyweight Championship . He defeated The Brute to win the title ; when the ESA closed in 1977 , the title became part of Romeo Cormier ( Bobby Kay ) ' s Trans @-@ Canada Wrestling ( TCW ) . TCW closed later the same year , and Burke 's Maritimes Heavyweight Championship was retired . In 1976 , Burke also defeated The Brute to begin another reign as IW North American Heavyweight Champion . He later dropped it to Michel Dubois but regained it by defeating Frenchy Martin on July 14 , 1977 . The title was also retired when TCW closed that month . Prior to the promotion closing , Burke also had a short reign with Hubert Gallant with the ESA Maritimes Tag Team Championship . While competing in Nova Scotia , Burke also challenged Terry Funk for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Burke controlled the majority of the encounter , but Funk intentionally got himself disqualified 55 minutes into the match . Because the title cannot change hands on a disqualification , Funk retained the belt . In 1977 , Burke moved to Calgary , Alberta to compete for Stu Hart 's Stampede Wrestling . He teamed with Hart 's son Keith to win the Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Championship in early 1977 by defeating The Cuban Assassins . Although they dropped the belts to The Royal Kangaroos , Burke was able to regain the title in September 1977 while teaming with his brother Romeo ( who was then competing as Bobby Burke ) . On December 10 , however , they lost the belts to Michel Martel and Mr. Hito . In the new year , Leo Burke focused on competing as a singles wrestler and won the Stampede North American Heavyweight Championship on several occasions . He defeated Don Gagne ( formerly known as Frenchy Martin ) for the first title and Michel Martel for the second . He won it once more , by defeating Larry Lane , before leaving the area to compete briefly in New Zealand . Competing for the NWA territory there , he won the New Zealand version of the NWA British Commonwealth Heavyweight Championship . He soon vacated the title , however , and returned to Stampede Wrestling . = = = 1980s = = = Upon his return to Calgary in 1980 , Burke teamed with Keith Hart once again to win the promotion 's International Tag Team Championship . He also began feuding with Keith 's brother Bret Hart around that time . Burke defeated Mr. Sekigawa to win the North American Heavyweight Championship but lost it to Bret Hart later that year . He regained it in a rematch but dropped it to Hart once again . Burke returned to Canada 's Atlantic Coast briefly to compete for Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling ( AGPW ) and won the promotion 's North American Tag Team Championship with Hubert Gallant . They lost the belts to Cuban Assassin and Bobby Bass that summer , but Burke was able to regain the championship by teaming with Stephen Petitpas . AGPW only promoted shows in the summer , and Burke then returned to Calgary during AGPW 's off @-@ season ; while there , he teamed with his brother Bobby Burke again to regain the International Tag Team Championship in December 1980 . Two months later , he had another reign as North American Heavyweight Champion after defeating " Dr. D " David Schults ( who later regained the title in a rematch ) . Another reign as NWA Central States Heavyweight Champion followed in November 1981 , in which Cormier returned to his Tommy Martin ring name . Returning to Stampede Wrestling once again , Burke entered and won a tournament for the vacant North American Heavyweight Championship , defeating Duke Myers in the final match on March 21 , 1982 to win the title . He dropped it back to Bret Hart three months later , however . He followed this with a brief return in August 1982 to AGPW , where he defeated Rick Valentine to win the AGPW United States Heavyweight Championship . On November 19 , 1982 , Burke teamed with his longtime rival Bret Hart to win the Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Championship . After losing the title the following month , the feud resumed , and Burke defeated Hart for the North American Heavyweight Championship on January 14 , 1983 ; the men continued to face each other , and Hart regained the championship that May . Around that time , Burke spent more of his time competing in Central and Eastern Canada . He wrestled for Maple Leaf Wrestling in Toronto , Ontario , where he feuded with Johnny Weaver . In the summer of 1983 , he held both the AGPW United States Heavyweight Championship and the AGPW International Heavyweight Championship . He was also credited with an additional reign as United States Heavyweight Champion because he regained the title in a rematch after it was vacated due to a controversial match against The Spoiler . In February 1986 , Burke had one final title reign in Stampede Wrestling , holding the International Tag Team Championship with Ron Ritchie . Back in AGPW , Burke continued to win championships . He held the International Heavyweight Championship three more times from 1986 to 1989 , and held the North American Tag Team Championship three times as well during that period . He won the tag team titles by reuniting with former partners Hubert Gallant and Stephen Petitpas ; the third reign came with Cuban Assassin , a former enemy of the entire Cormier wrestling family . A turning point came in Burke 's wrestling career in the late 1980s when he decided to compete in Puerto Rico 's World Wrestling Council . He quickly won the promotion 's top title , the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship , by defeating Caribbean wrestling veteran Carlos Colón on December 17 , 1989 . = = = 1990s = = = Burke held the WWC title until February 1990 , when he dropped it to TNT . This was followed by a return to AGPW , where he held the tag team championship with his brother Bobby Kay . Back in Puerto Rico , Burke defeated Colón again on March 24 , 1990 , this time to win the WWC Television Championship . Four days later , he also won the WWC Caribbean Tag Team Championship while teaming with Chicky Starr . They won the title from Invader # 1 and Invader # 4 but dropped it back to them in May . Shortly after dropping the tag team title , Burke defeated Invader # 1 in a singles match to win the WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship . Burke 's final title victory came in the summer of 1990 , when he defeated Ron Starr to win the AGPW International Heavyweight Championship for a fifth time . = = Retirement = = After retiring from full @-@ time wrestling , he went to Calgary in the early 1992 . His old rival and real @-@ life friend Bret Hart arranged a position for Cormier as a trainer for the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , now World Wrestling Entertainment ) . Cormier helped train Ken Shamrock , Mark Henry , Adam Copeland ( known as Edge in WWE ) , Jason Reso ( known as Christian in WWE ) , and Andrew Martin ( known as Test in WWE ) . He also trained two former Canadian Football League players for their careers in professional wrestling : former Edmonton Eskimo Jeff Thomas , who later opened his own wrestling training school , and former Ottawa Rough Rider Glenn Kulka , who went on to compete for the WWF . When Cormier 's contract expired , he began training wrestlers for WWF rival World Championship Wrestling . In January 2002 , he was hospitalized with septicemia and was put on life support before recovering . In November 2005 , he underwent surgery to replace his right knee ; this was followed by a left knee replacement in February 2006 . He has had eight operations on his knees altogether . After his last surgery , WWE invited him back to resume training wrestlers , but Cormier declined . Since his retirement , he has worked in the now @-@ closed bar at Calgary 's Cecil Hotel and has also operated a mobile coffee and sandwich shop . Although Cormier considers himself retired from professional wrestling , he continues to compete from time to time . He was featured in a news video by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation during a return to the Maritimes for a match in 1998 . In June 2009 , it was announced that he was participating in an Ultimate Championship Wrestling Legends Tribute Tour in Atlantic Canada alongside his former rival Cuban Assassin . In 2010 , Burke refereed a match at the final wrestling card ever promoted at the Berwick Arena in Nova Scotia . Cormier has been inducted into the Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame . In 2009 , the Cormier wrestling family was honored by the Cauliflower Alley Club in recognition of their contributions to the sport . Bret Hart has described Burke as " one of the greatest Canadian wrestlers ever " . Les Thatcher , who competed against Cormier , said that he , " technically , is probably one of the most sound performers that ever stepped foot in a ring " . Michel Martel , who wrestled against Cormier for several championships , called him " a great worker " and " a professional in the ring and outside the ring " . In 2013 Cormier appeared in the Victoria Pavilion , in Calgary , Alberta for the Hart Legacy Wrestling promotion . = = In wrestling = = Finishing moves Sleeper hold = = Championships and accomplishments = = Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling AGPW North American Tag Team Championship ( 6 times ) - with Cuban Assassin ( 2 ) , Hubert Gallant ( 1 ) , Bobby Kay ( 1 ) , and Stephen Petitpas ( 2 ) AGPW United States Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times ) Central States Wrestling NWA Central States Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times ) NWA North American Tag Team Championship ( Central States version ) ( 1 time ) - with Terry Martin Eastern Sports Association ESA International Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) - with Bobby Kay ( 1 ) and The Beast ( 1 ) ESA Maritimes Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) ESA Maritimes Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Hubert Gallant ESA Taped Fist Championship ( 3 times ) IW North American Heavyweight Championship ( 6 times ) NWA New Zealand NWA British Commonwealth Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) NWA Western States Sports NWA Western States Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) - with The Beast Stampede Wrestling Stampede North American Heavyweight Championship ( 8 times ) Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Championship ( 6 times ) - with Keith Hart ( 2 ) , Bobby Burke ( 2 ) , Bret Hart ( 1 ) and Ron Ritchie ( 1 ) Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame World Wrestling Council WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) WWC Caribbean Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Chicky Starr WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) WWC Television Championship ( 1 time )
= Juan Martín del Potro = Juan Martín del Potro ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈxwan maɾˈtin del ˈpotɾo ] , born 23 September 1988 ) , often nicknamed Delpo , is an Argentine professional tennis player . His biggest achievement was winning the 2009 US Open , defeating Rafael Nadal in the semifinal and Roger Federer in the final . He was the first to defeat both Federer and Nadal during a major and was the only man outside the Big Four to win a major between the 2005 French Open and the 2013 US Open , a span of 35 tournaments . He is also the second Argentine and the fifth @-@ youngest man to win the US Open in the Open Era . His other career highlight was winning the bronze medal in men 's singles at the London Olympics in 2012 . Del Potro achieved a top @-@ 10 ranking by the Association of Tennis Professionals ( ATP ) for the first time on 6 October 2008 . In January 2010 , he reached a career @-@ high ranking of World No. 4 , after which del Potro had to withdraw from most of the tournaments in 2010 due to a wrist injury . He returned to the ATP World Tour on 15 February 2016 , at Delray Beach , after a long injury @-@ induced absence . Having started playing tennis at the age of seven , del Potro won his first senior match in 2004 at the age of 15 . In 2008 , he became the first player in ATP history to win his first four career titles in as many tournaments . He also completed the second @-@ longest winning streak in 2008 , and the second longest by a teenager in the Open Era , behind Nadal — with his winning sequence spanning 23 matches over five tournaments . = = Early life = = Juan Martín del Potro was born in Tandil , Argentina . He is of Italian and Spanish descent . His father , Daniel del Potro , played semi @-@ professional rugby union in Argentina and is a veterinarian . His mother , Patricia , is a teacher and he has a younger sister named Julieta . He also had an elder sister who died when she was 8 @-@ years @-@ old in a car accident . Del Potro speaks Spanish , English and some Italian . Aside from tennis , he enjoys playing association football and supports the Boca Juniors team in Argentina and Juventus in Italy . He would often dedicate time to both sports during his childhood , and Argentine @-@ Italian international footballer Mauro Camoranesi remains a close friend of del Potro . Del Potro began playing tennis at the age of seven with coach Marcelo Gómez ( who also coached Tandil @-@ born players Juan Mónaco , Mariano Zabaleta and Máximo González ) . Del Potro 's talent was discovered by Italian ex @-@ tennis professional Ugo Colombini , who accompanied him through the initial phases of his young career , and is still today his agent and close friend . When questioned about his ambitions in tennis he replied , " I dream of winning a Grand Slam and the Davis Cup . " However , he has refused to participate in the Davis Cup several times . He is a Roman Catholic . = = Tennis career = = = = = 2002 – 2005 = = = As a junior in 2002 , del Potro won the Orange Bowl 14s title , beating Marin Čilić en route to a victory over Pavel Tchekov in the final . In 2003 , at the age of 14 , del Potro received wild cards to three ITF Circuit events in Argentina , where he lost in straight sets in the first round of each . As a junior , Del Potro reached as high as No. 3 in the combined junior world rankings in January 2005 . In May 2004 , del Potro won his first senior match , at the age of 15 , at the ITF Circuit event in Buenos Aires by defeating Matias Niemiz . He then went on to lose in three sets to Sebastián Decoud in the second round . His next victory came over five months later against the Chilean Álvaro Loyola in a tournament in Antofagasta . Later that year , del Potro reached the quarterfinals of the ITF Circuit event in Campinas , Brazil ; recording victories over Henrique Mello and Alessandro Camarco . Del Potro won two more matches before the end of the year and saw his world ranking rise from no . 1441 in August to no . 1077 in November . He also reached the finals in the Argentina Cup and Campionati Internazionali D 'Italia Junior tournaments . Del Potro reached his first final of the ITF Junior Circuit on 11 January 2005 , the Copa del Cafe ( Coffee Bowl ) - Junior ITF Tournament in Costa Rica , which he lost to Robin Haase in three sets . He was involved in a dispute with the umpire during this match , who decided to stop play because of rain , which del Potro believed favoured Haase . Because of the rain delays , the final set had to be played indoors ; this was the first time the indoor courts had been used in the 44 @-@ year history of the youth tournament . At the age of 16 , del Potro reached his first senior singles final at the Futures tournament in Berimbau Naucalpan , Mexico , where he lost to Darko Madjarovski . He then went on to win consecutive titles at two Future ITF Circuit events in Santiago , Chile , including the 26th International Junior tournament . In the first tournament , he beat Jorge Aguilar , and in the second , he did not drop a set in the whole tournament and defeated Thiago Alves in the final , a player ranked more than 400 places higher at the time . He won his third title in his home country by defeating Damian Patriarca , who forfeited the match , at the ITF Circuit event in Buenos Aires . Del Potro turned professional after the Italy F17 event in Bassano , and in his first professional tournament , the Lines Trophy in Reggio Emilia , he reached the semifinals , where he lost to countryman Martín Vassallo Argüello in three sets . Two tournaments later , he reached the final of the Credicard Citi MasterCard Tennis Cup in Campos do Jordão , Brazil , where he lost to André Sá in straight sets . After turning 17 , he won the Montevideo Challenger by defeating Boris Pašanski in the final in three sets . That same year , he failed in his first attempt to qualify for his first Grand Slam , at the US Open , losing in the first round to Paraguayan Ramón Delgado . Throughout 2005 , del Potro jumped over 900 positions to finish with a world ranking of no . 158 , largely due to winning three Futures tournaments . He was the youngest player to finish in the year @-@ end top 200 . = = = 2006 = = = In February , del Potro played his first ATP tour event in Viña del Mar , where he defeated Albert Portas , before losing to Fernando González in the second round . Later , seeded seventh , he won the Copa Club Campestre de Aguascalientes by defeating the likes of Dick Norman and Thiago Alves , before beating Sergio Roitman in the final . Del Potro qualified for the main draw of his first Grand Slam in the 2006 French Open at the age of 17 . He lost in the opening round to former French Open champion and 24th seed Juan Carlos Ferrero . Having received a wild card , he reached the quarterfinals of the ATP event in Umag , Croatia , where he lost in three sets to the eventual champion , Stanislas Wawrinka . In Spain , he participated in the Open Castilla y León Challenger tournament held in Segovia , defeating top seed Fernando Verdasco in the quarterfinals and Benjamin Becker in the final . Del Potro qualified for his first US Open in 2006 , after being seeded ninth in the qualifying stages , where he beat Brian Vahaly , Wayne Arthurs , and Daniel Köllerer in straight sets . In the US Open , he lost in the first round to fellow qualifier Alejandro Falla of Colombia in four sets . He went on to qualify for his first ATP Masters Series tournament in Spain , the Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open , where he lost in the first round to Joachim Johansson . After receiving a wild card thanks to Roger Federer , he reached the quarterfinals of the 2006 Davidoff Swiss Indoors in Basel , Switzerland ; defeating lucky loser Tobias Clemens in the first round and George Bastl in the second round , before losing to the eventual runner @-@ up Fernando González in three sets . Del Potro finished 2006 as the youngest player in the top 100 at 18 years , 2 months . = = = 2007 = = = Del Potro began the year by reaching his first semifinal in ATP Adelaide , Australia , where he lost to Chris Guccione , having beaten Igor Kunitsyn earlier in the day . He then reached the second round of the Australian Open , where he had to retire because of injury in his match against eventual finalist Fernando González in the fifth set . In February , del Potro played for Argentina in the first round of the Davis Cup against Austria , winning the fourth and deciding match against Jürgen Melzer in five sets , allowing Argentina to qualify for the quarterfinals . Del Potro defeated Feliciano López before losing to eventual semifinalist Mardy Fish in the second round of the indoor Regions Morgan Keegan Championships . In his next ATP Masters event , he reached the second round of the Pacific Life Open , beating Gustavo Kuerten in the first round , but then losing to Richard Gasquet . Del Potro went further in the Sony Ericsson Open , reaching the fourth round , after he defeated three top @-@ 50 players : Jonas Björkman , Marcos Baghdatis , and Mikhail Youzhny , before falling to Rafael Nadal in two sets . In May , he lost in the first round of the French Open to eventual champion Nadal . In his first grass @-@ court event , del Potro beat Thomas Johansson in two sets and reached the second round at the Queen 's Club , where he lost to Nadal . He also reached the quarterfinals in Nottingham the following week ; there he beat British qualifier Jamie Baker and Kunitsyn in the first two rounds , but lost to Ivo Karlović at the quarterfinal stage . At his inaugural Wimbledon Championships , he defeated Davide Sanguinetti in the first round , before losing to eventual champion Roger Federer in the second round , after a rain delay in the third set . Del Potro lost to Frank Dancevic in three sets in the second round of the singles at the ATP event in Indianapolis . At the same event , partnered with Travis Parrott in doubles , he won his first doubles tournament , defeating Teymuraz Gabashvili and Karlović in the final . He regards this as a special victory , " It was fantastic to play doubles with Parrott . I 'm so happy because I 've never won a doubles tournament . For the rest of my life , I will remember this tournament . " Del Potro qualified for the ATP Masters Series event in Cincinnati , where he reached the third round . He defeated countryman Guillermo Cañas in the first round and Philipp Kohlschreiber in the second , before losing to former world no . 1 Carlos Moyá . At that year 's US Open , he defeated Nicolas Mahut and Melzer , before losing to eventual finalist and third seed Novak Djokovic in the third round . He also reached the third round of the Madrid Masters by beating Potito Starace and Tommy Robredo , before losing to eventual champion David Nalbandian in straight sets . In the last tournament of the year , the Paris Masters , he reached the second round , where he lost to Nikolay Davydenko . That year , del Potro was the youngest player to finish in the year @-@ end top 50 at 19 years , 2 months . = = = 2008 : Breakthrough = = = Del Potro 's first half of the season was hampered by injuries and a change of coach , starting with a first @-@ round loss in Adelaide , where he was the seventh seed . He then made it to the second round of the Australian Open in January , only to retire against David Ferrer due to an injury . Del Potro returned to the circuit in March , winning his first match against Jesse Levine at the Sony Ericsson Open , before losing in the second round to López . Struggling with injuries , his ranking fell as low as no . 81 in April . " At the start of the year , I was playing good , but I had many injuries , many problems with my body , with my physique " , said del Potro . " I changed my coach , changed my physical trainer , I changed everything . " In May , del Potro had to retire again , this time in a first @-@ round match against Andy Murray at the Rome Masters . During the second set , the Argentine allegedly made derogatory comments about Murray 's mother which resulted in a complaint to the umpire . Del Potro 's serve was subsequently broken three times in a row , and he suffered a back injury , which caused his retirement . In his second Grand Slam of the year , the French Open , he was eliminated in the second round by Simone Bolelli in four sets . In June , he reached the semifinals of the Ordina Open , losing to eventual winner and top seed David Ferrer in straight sets . For the second year in a row , he was knocked out of Wimbledon in the second round ; he won his first @-@ round clash with Pavel Šnobel in straight sets , but then lost to Stanislas Wawrinka . A successful summer followed for the Argentine . In July , del Potro and his team decided to remain in Europe to test his fitness . " We decided to play on clay courts for my back because if I start to play again on hard courts , maybe I will injure it again " , he recalled . Del Potro won his first career ATP tour title at the Mercedes Cup in Stuttgart , defeating Gasquet in straight sets in the final . A week later , del Potro reached his second career ATP Tour final at the Austrian Open in Kitzbühel , where he beat local hope and sixth seed Melzer in less than an hour , to claim his second title in two weeks . Having competed in just two clay tournaments all of the 2007 season , he never thought he would win his first two titles on clay courts . In August , del Potro won his third consecutive title at the Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles , beating Andy Roddick in straight sets in the final . After the match , Roddick praised his opponent . " [ Del Potro ] hits this way and this way kind of equally and he can hit it from inside out and running to it , which is a good thing for him , bad for the rest of us " . A fourth consecutive title followed a week later in the Legg Mason Tennis Classic in Washington , D.C. , where he recorded a victory over Viktor Troicki , becoming the first player in ATP history to win his first four career titles in as many tournaments . " I don 't really understand what I did . It is difficult to believe that I have won four consecutive titles " , del Potro said , crediting coach Franco Davín for his impressive run . " He changed my game . He changed my mind . He changed everything . When I play and I see him in the stands , it gives me confidence . I can play relaxed . " At the 2008 US Open , del Potro progressed to the third round , where he won his first match to five sets in the circuit against Gilles Simon to reach the round of 16 . He went on to defeat Japanese teenager Kei Nishikori in straight sets . In the quarterfinals , he was stopped by eventual finalist Murray , losing after almost four hours . The defeat came after 23 consecutive victories : the second @-@ longest winning streak in 2008 and the longest winning streak by a player outside the top 10 in the last 20 years . Del Potro was selected to play his first home @-@ based Davis Cup tie , between Argentina and Russia . He won his first singles match against Davydenko in three sets . He also won the fifth and deciding match against Igor Andreev in straight sets , booking Argentina a place in the final . At the AIG Japan Open Tennis Championships , he made the final by defeating 11th seed Jarkko Nieminen , top seed and defending champion Ferrer , and fourth seed Richard Gasquet . He was defeated by Tomáš Berdych in the final . At the Madrid Masters , he lost in the quarterfinals in straight sets to Roger Federer . He reached the semifinals of his next tournament , the Davidoff Swiss Indoors , before losing to countryman Nalbandian . He was beaten by Nalbandian again in his next tournament , this time it was in the second round of the Paris Masters . Del Potro blamed fatigue for his defeat , " It 's difficult to play the last tournament of the year . I was tired , my mind was in Argentina [ the venue for the Davis Cup final ] " . This left del Potro 's qualification for the 2008 Tennis Masters Cup out of his hands ; fortunately for him , Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga beat James Blake in the semifinals , which was enough to ensure his place at the year @-@ end event . Del Potro won one match at the Masters Cup , against Tsonga , but lost his other two matches against the higher @-@ ranked Djokovic and Davydenko , meaning that he exited the tournament in the round @-@ robin stage . This was his last event of the year on the ATP Tour . He went on to lose one match in the Davis Cup final , against López , as his team succumbed to a 3 – 1 loss against Spain . He was forced to withdraw from his second match due to a thigh injury and was replaced by José Acasuso . Nonetheless , del Potro enjoyed a successful season ; winning four titles and finishing 2008 as the youngest player in the top 10 , top @-@ ranked Argentine , and highest @-@ ranked South American . = = = 2009 : Maiden Grand Slam title = = = At the Heineken Open in Auckland , New Zealand , del Potro was the top seed . He defeated American Sam Querrey in the final to win the title , the fifth of his career . Seeded eighth at the Australian Open , he beat Marin Čilić in the fourth round . Del Potro 's tournament ended in his next match , when he lost in straight sets to Federer . At the BNP Paribas Open , the sixth seed del Potro advanced to the quarterfinals , where he was defeated by world no . 1 Nadal . Del Potro avenged that loss the following week at the Sony Ericsson Open , where he came back from a double break down in the third set at 0 – 3 to defeat Nadal in the quarterfinals . This was the first time del Potro had defeated Nadal in five meetings . Despite a loss in the semifinals to Murray , del Potro reached a career @-@ high ranking of world no . 5 . In the clay @-@ court season , del Potro was eliminated in the second round of the Monte Carlo Masters by Ivan Ljubičić . In Rome , del Potro beat Victor Troicki and Wawrinka to advance to the quarterfinals , where he was defeated by defending champion Djokovic in straight sets . This meant del Potro 's head @-@ to @-@ head record with the Serb was now 0 – 3 . Del Potro then played at the 2009 Madrid Masters . After defeating Murray for the first time in the quarterfinals , he lost to Federer in the semifinals . At the French Open , where he was fifth seed , del Potro defeated Michaël Llodra , Troicki , Andreev , and ninth seed Tsonga en route to the quarterfinals . He then defeated three @-@ time former quarterfinalist Tommy Robredo to get to his first semifinal of a Grand Slam . He was defeated in a close semifinal , where he was leading by a set twice , by eventual champion Federer who , after their match , said : " [ Del Potro ] is young and strong , I have a lot of respect for him . " Prior to this encounter , del Potro had never taken a set from Federer in their five previous career meetings . At the 2009 Wimbledon Championships , his poor grass @-@ court form from the past continued , as he went down to unseeded Lleyton Hewitt in the second round . In the Davis Cup quarter @-@ final against the Czech Republic , del Potro won his matches against Ivo Minář and Berdych in straight sets , but Argentina still lost the tie 2 – 3 , eliminating them from the competition . A few weeks later , he defeated Hewitt and Fernando González en route to the Washington final . He successfully defended his title against top @-@ seeded Wimbledon finalist Andy Roddick to win his second tournament of the year and become the first player since Andre Agassi to win back @-@ to @-@ back Washington titles . Del Potro played the following week at the Masters 1000 in Montreal , where he was seeded sixth , defeating world no . 2 Nadal in the quarterfinals , his second win in a row over Nadal . He then defeated Roddick in the semifinals , saving a match point , to advance to his first Masters 1000 final , and to improve his head @-@ to @-@ head record against Roddick to 3 – 0 . In the final , he lost against Murray in three sets . He later withdrew from the next Masters 1000 event in Cincinnati due to fatigue . Seeded sixth at the 2009 US Open , del Potro began by defeating Juan Mónaco and Jürgen Melzer in straight sets , before dropping a set but defeating Köllerer to reach the fourth round . He defeated a resurgent Juan Carlos Ferrero to advance to the quarterfinals for the second consecutive year . Del Potro then advanced to the semifinals by defeating Marin Čilić . Del Potro was down a set and a break , before winning 17 of the final 20 games to win the match . His advance to the semifinals ensured his return to the top 5 in the rankings . He then easily defeated and crushed world No. 3 and reigning Australian Open champion Rafael Nadal in the semifinals to reach his first Grand Slam final . This was his third consecutive victory over Nadal and made him the first Argentine to reach a Grand Slam singles final since Mariano Puerta at the 2005 French Open . In the finals , del Potro rallied from a set and a break down to defeat world no . 1 and five @-@ time defending champion Roger Federer in five sets ; his first victory over Federer after six previous defeats , and Federer 's first loss in the US Open since 2003 . Del Potro stated , " Since [ I was ] young , I dream with this and take trophy with me " , said del Potro , who became the first Argentine male to win the title since Guillermo Vilas in 1977 . " I did my dream , and it 's unbelievable moment . It 's amazing match , amazing people . Everything is perfect . " After the match , Federer praised del Potro ; " I thought he hung in there and gave himself chances and , in the end , was the better man . " He is the first player since countryman David Nalbandian to defeat Federer at the US Open , and at 198 cm ( 6 ft 6 in ) , he is the tallest ever Grand Slam champion , a record he now shares with Marin Čilić , the 2014 US Open winner . Besides Nadal and Djokovic , del Potro is the only player to defeat Federer in a Grand Slam final , and the first player to defeat both Nadal and Federer in the same Grand Slam tournament . Dick Enberg hosted the post @-@ match ceremony during which a victorious Del Potro requested to address his fans in Spanish . Enberg declined the request saying that he was running out of time , but went on to list the corporate sponsored prizes Del Potro won . A couple of minutes later , Del Potro made the same request again , and only then did Enberg relent saying , " Very quickly , in Spanish , he wants to say hello to his friends here and in Argentina " . An emotional del Potro finally spoke a few sentences in Spanish to a cheering crowd . Many viewers expressed disappointment with Enberg and broadcaster CBS over the interview . A CBS executive later defended Enberg , noting that the contract with the United States Tennis Association required that certain sponsors receive time during the ceremony . In his first match since the US Open , Del Potro was upset by world no . 189 Édouard Roger @-@ Vasselin in straight sets at the Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships in Tokyo . He then lost his second straight match to Melzer in the second round at the Masters 1000 event in Shanghai , retiring while trailing in the second set . This retirement caused concerns over the length of the tennis season . He had to retire again in the Paris Masters quarterfinals when down 0 – 4 to Radek Štěpánek due to an abdominal injury . In November , del Potro competed in the ATP World Tour Finals , where he lost his first round @-@ robin match against Andy Murray , but he managed to defeat Fernando Verdasco in his second match to keep his hopes alive . After defeating Roger Federer in the following match , he qualified for the semifinals , ousting Murray by the slimmest possible margin of one game . He defeated Robin Söderling in the semifinals , before losing to Nikolay Davydenko in the final . Del Potro finished 2009 as the youngest player in the top 10 , top @-@ ranked Argentine , and highest @-@ ranked South American for the second consecutive year . = = = 2010 : Best Ranking and wrist injury = = = Del Potro started his 2010 season at the AAMI Kooyong Classic in Melbourne , Australia with a win over Croatian world no . 24 Ivan Ljubičić . On 11 January , he moved up to a career high world no . 4 . He was scheduled to face Frenchman Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga on day 2 of the Kooyong Classic exhibition tournament , but withdrew due to a wrist injury . He came into the 2010 Australian Open with the injury not healed , and was forced to take a month off after the event . In the fourth round , he fell to eventual semifinalist Marin Čilić . Following the Australian Open loss , del Potro missed several tournaments , including the Masters tournaments at Indian Wells and Miami , which were touted as potential return dates , due to the persistent wrist injury . Even though he withdrew from the Monte @-@ Carlo Rolex Masters , he regained the world no . 4 ranking , due to Murray 's early exit in the second round . He then withdrew from Barcelona and the Rome Masters . On 4 May , del Potro took the option of having an operation to fix the injury . On 19 May , del Potro said he would not defend his US Open title , but if all went well , he would appear after the event , targeting the Paris Masters as a possible comeback . However , on 22 July , the USTA stated that del Potro was expected to defend his US Open crown . The player himself confirmed that his comeback to the tour would be the Thailand Open and said nothing about the New York event . On 2 August , del Potro returned to the practice courts . A week before the start of the US Open , after practicing for two weeks , del Potro withdrew from the event , as he felt he was not ready to compete at the highest level . After the nine @-@ month break , del Potro confirmed that he would make his return at the 2010 PTT Thailand Open . In his return match , he lost in the first round to Olivier Rochus . He then also played at the 2010 Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships , but again lost in the opening round , this time to Feliciano López . = = = 2011 : Return to tour = = = Del Potro began his 2011 season at the Medibank International as a wildcard entry . In the second round , Del Potro was defeated by Florian Mayer of Germany in straight sets , despite winning against sixth seed Feliciano López in three sets . His next tournament would be the first Grand Slam of the year at the 2011 Australian Open , where Del Potro was defeated by 21st seed Marcos Baghdatis in the second round . As a result , Del Potro slipped further down the rankings to no . 485 . After the Australian Open , he participated in the 2011 SAP Open in San Jose , where he was accepted into the main draw via protected ranking ( PR ) . He reached the semifinals without dropping a set , however he lost to top seed Fernando Verdasco in straight sets . Del Potro 's next scheduled tournament was the 2011 Regions Morgan Keegan Championships and the Cellular South Cup , where he was accepted into the main draw via wildcard . Here , he made his second consecutive ATP semifinal , where he lost to top seed , world no . 8 , and eventual champion Andy Roddick . To continue preparing for his first ATP Masters event since 2009 , Del Potro entered the 2011 Delray Beach International Tennis Championships . He defeated Ričardas Berankis , Teymuraz Gabashvili , Kevin Anderson and second seed Mardy Fish , to advance to an ATP @-@ level final stage of a tournament since 2009 at the Barclays World Tour Finals in London . In the final , he defeated an erratic Janko Tipsarević in two sets to get back in the winners circle . Del Potro 's next tournament was the ATP Masters at the 2011 BNP Paribas Open . He reached the semifinals , where he lost to top seeded Rafael Nadal in straight sets . Del Potro then flew to Key Biscayne , Miami to participate in the second ATP Masters of the year at the 2011 Sony Ericsson Open . Del Potro made it to the fourth round , in the third round he defeated World no.4 Robin Söderling in straight sets , however in the next round he lost to eventual semifinalist Mardy Fish in straight sets . He then played in 2011 Estoril Open , which was del Potro 's first tournament on clay since he lost the 2009 Roland Garros semifinal to the eventual champion Roger Federer . In Estoril , he defeated Fernando Verdasco in the final . On the way to the final , del Potro defeated top seeded Robin Söderling ( Who was two time @-@ finalist in the French Open ) and dropped just one set in his five matches . After suffering an 8 @-@ millimeter tear in his left rectus , del Potro withdrew from 2011 Mutua Madrid Open and did not participate in the 2011 Internazionali BNL d 'Italia , but confirmed that he would play the French Open . Del Potro lost to Novak Djokovic in the third round . Del Potro reached the round of 16 at Wimbledon for the first time by defeating Flavio Cipolla , Olivier Rochus , and Gilles Simon . He then lost to world no . 1 Rafael Nadal , in four sets , in the fourth round . Del Potro returned to the top 20 at world no . 19 for the first time in nearly a year . His next tournament was the Farmers Classic in Los Angeles , where he received a first @-@ round bye as the second seed . He defeated James Blake but was defeated by Ernests Gulbis in the quarterfinals . At the 2011 Rogers Cup , seeded 16th , del Potro defeated Jarkko Nieminen before losing to Marin Čilić in the second round . At the Western & Southern Masters tournament , del Potro lost to Roger Federer , snapping the two @-@ match winning streak he had against his rival . Del Potro entered the 2011 US Open seeded 18th . He beat Filippo Volandri and Diego Junqueira before losing to Gilles Simon in the third round , thus ending his US Open campaign . After the US Open , del Potro played in the Davis Cup semifinal against Serbia , winning both of his rubbers against Janko Tipsarević and world no . 1 Novak Djokovic . This helped Argentina to a 3 – 2 victory over Serbia in the semifinals , booking their place in the final . He then played in the Stockholm Open , losing in the second round to James Blake . He then reached the final in Vienna , losing for the first time to Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . Despite having won the first set , he eventually lost the final . Del Potro then reached the semifinals of the Valencia Open 500 , losing to eventual champion Marcel Granollers . He then withdrew from the Paris Masters due to a shoulder injury , wiping out his chances of qualifying for the Year @-@ End Championships . Del Potro played in the Davis Cup Final , with the title on the line and looking to fulfill his childhood dream . He lost in the second rubber to David Ferrer , despite being two sets to one up , eventually losing in a pulsating five @-@ set contest in a match lasting over five hours . With his country down 2 – 1 , del Potro needed to beat Rafael Nadal in the reverse singles to keep the tie going . Del Potro dominated the first set , but could not keep his level up and lost in four sets . For the third time in six years , Argentina lost in the finals of the Davis Cup World Group , this time 3 – 1 . Del Potro finished the year ranked world no . 11 , despite being ranked no . 485 at one stage . He was named 2011 ATP Comeback Player of the Year . = = = 2012 : Return to the Top 10 and Olympic Medal = = = Del Potro 's first tournament of the year was the 2012 Apia International Sydney , where he was the top seed . He made it to the quarterfinals after receiving a bye into the second round . He defeated Łukasz Kubot in the second round . In the quarterfinals , he was beaten by Marcos Baghdatis . In the first round of the 2012 Australian Open , Del Potro defeated Adrian Mannarino in four sets . He reached the quarterfinals of the Grand Slam for the second time , losing to Roger Federer in the quarterfinals . He went on to play in Rotterdam at the 2012 ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament in Rotterdam , where he was third seed . Here he defeated Tomáš Berdych in order to make it to his first final of an ATP 500 level tournament or higher after returning from his wrist injury in 2010 . He lost to Federer in straight sets in the final . At the Open 13 in Marseille , del Potro defeated Davydenko , Gasquet , Tsonga , and Michaël Llodra in the final to get his tenth ATP championship . Del Potro then had a good run in Dubai , reaching the semifinals , then losing to Roger Federer again in straight sets . Del Potro lost in the quarterfinals of the BNP Paribas Open to Federer for the fourth time that year . He made it to the fourth round of the Sony Ericsson Open , but lost to David Ferrer in two sets . Del Potro started his clay @-@ court campaign of 2012 in the Davis Cup Quarterfinals against Croatia . He won his first rubber against Ivo Karlović and then demolished Marin Čilić in the reverse singles . He continued his clay @-@ court season at the Estoril Open , where he was the defending champion and the top seed . He did not drop a set en route to the finals , where he beat Frenchman Richard Gasquet in straight sets in the final to collect his 11th ATP World Tour title . He next competed in the Madrid Masters as the twelfth seed and defeated Florian Mayer , Mikhail Youzhny , Marin Čilić , Alexandr Dolgopolov , but lost to Tomáš Berdych in the semifinals . Del Potro played at the second Grand Slam of the year , the French Open , where he was seeded ninth . Del Potro defeated Albert Montañés , Édouard Roger @-@ Vasselin and Marin Čilić . He defeated seventh seed Tomáš Berdych before losing to Roger Federer in the quarterfinals in five sets , after being up two sets to love . At Wimbledon , del Potro beat Robin Haase , Go Soeda , and Kei Nishikori , before losing to David Ferrer in the fourth round . At the Olympic Games , del Potro faced Roger Federer in the semifinals , which resulted in the longest " best of three sets " tennis match by duration in history , lasting four hours and 26 minutes , half an hour longer than the previous record holder , a Milos Raonic – Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga match that took place three days earlier ; the final set took two hours and 43 minutes . Del Potro lost the encounter , 6 – 3 , 6 – 7 , 17 – 19 . Less than two hours after this marathon , del Potro took to the tennis court again with Gisela Dulko for their quarterfinal mixed doubles match against Lisa Raymond and Mike Bryan , which they lost . Two days later , del Potro defeated Novak Djokovic in the bronze @-@ medal match . It was Del Potro 's first victory over Djokovic , excluding a win that occurred in the Davis Cup where Djokovic retired after dropping the first set . Del Potro returned to hard courts to play at the Rogers Cup , where he was upset by 33 @-@ year @-@ old world no . 40 Radek Štěpánek . Del Potro lost in the quarterfinals of the US Open against Djokovic . In October , del Potro beat qualifier Grega Žemlja to win the Erste Bank Open in Vienna . He then beat Roger Federer to win the Swiss Indoors title , in Basel . The following week , he suffered a third @-@ round loss to Michaël Llodra at the BNP Paribas Masters . During the round @-@ robin stage of the ATP World Tour Finals , he won two of his three matches and qualified for the semifinals , where he was defeated by Djokovic in three sets , after leading by a set and a break . He ended the year ranked world no . 7 , with a 65 – 17 win @-@ loss record and four titles captured throughout the season . = = = 2013 : Continued successes and back to the top 5 = = = Del Potro began his season at the Australian Open , where he was upset in the third round by Jérémy Chardy in five sets . The next month , he won the Rotterdam Open , beating Gaël Monfils , Ernest Gulbis , Jarkko Nieminen , Grigor Dimitrov in the semifinals , and Julien Benneteau in the final . At Dubai , Juan Martín beat Marcos Baghdatis , saving three match points , Somdev Devvarman , and Daniel Brands , but lost in the semifinals to eventual winner Novak Djokovic . At Indian Wells , del Potro defeated Nikolay Davydenko , Björn Phau , and Tommy Haas . In the quarterfinals , he beat Andy Murray for the second time in six matches . In the semifinals , he upset top seed Novak Djokovic , to end the Serb 's streak of 22 victories . He then lost in the final to Rafael Nadal . Del Potro withdrew from the clay court season and from the French Open due to a viral infection . On grass , del Potro began at the 2013 Aegon Championships , where he won his first comeback match in three sets against Xavier Malisse , who had achieved his biggest win at the Queens Club against Novak Djokovic in 2010 . Del Potro came back from behind in the third set to take the match . He defeated Daniel Evans , only to be upset on the quarterfinals by Lleyton Hewitt At Wimbledon , Del Potro won against Albert Ramos , Jesse Levine , and Grega Žemlja before advancing past the fourth round for the first time in his career , thanks to a win over Andreas Seppi . He then played David Ferrer and , despite slipping badly during the fifth point of the match and aggravating a pre @-@ existing leg injury , requiring over five minutes of treatment and by his own admission being close to forfeiting the match , he recovered to defeat Ferrer in straight sets to advance to his first Grand Slam semifinal since the 2009 US Open without dropping a set . On 5 July , Djokovic defeated him in five sets in 4 hours and 43 minutes , making it the longest semifinal in the history of Wimbledon men 's singles . Starting the US Series , del Potro won the 2013 Citi Open in Washington DC , where he got a first @-@ round bye , and then defeated Ryan Harrison , Bernard Tomic , and Kevin Anderson on his way to the quarterfinals , Tommy Haas in the semifinals , and won the final against John Isner in three sets . Before the final he didn 't drop a set . This was his third title at the event and his second of the year . Del Potro reached the semifinals of Western & Southern Open where he won against Nikolay Davydenko , Feliciano López , in the quarterfinals Dmitry Tursunov , and faced Isner again , this time in the semifinals . He lost the match in three sets . Del Potro got to the second round of the US Open , after a four @-@ set victory against Guillermo García @-@ López , only to be upset by Lleyton Hewitt in five sets . At the 2013 Japan Open , Del Potro beat Marcos Baghdatis , Carlos Berlocq , Alexandr Dolgopolov , and Nicolas Almagro before beating third seed Milos Raonic to win his third title of the year . In October , Del Potro reached the final of the 2013 Shanghai Rolex Masters , defeating Philipp Kohlschreiber , Tommy Haas , Nicolás Almagro , and Rafael Nadal ( for the first time since the semifinals of the 2009 US Open ) en route , but eventually losing to defending champion Novak Djokovic in a third @-@ set tiebreak . Later , he beat Roger Federer at the 2013 Swiss Indoors in the final , his fourth title of the year . However , lost to Federer at the 2013 BNP Paribas Masters and in a winner @-@ take @-@ all , round @-@ robin clash in the 2013 ATP World Tour Finals . He finished the year with a 51 – 16 record , winning four titles overall and $ 4 @,@ 294 @,@ 039 . Del Potro was named Argentina ’ s Sportsman of the Year . = = = 2014 – 2016 : Second wrist injury = = = Juan Martin del Potro began his 2014 ATP World Tour season at the Apia International Sydney as the top seed , winning the final of the tournament against defending champion Bernard Tomic in only 53 minutes . It was his fifth title as top seed . When asked to play for Argentina in the Davis Cup , del Potro declined , arguing problems with the press and the team , and his decision to prioritize his personal career . At the Australian Open , he won his opening match against Rhyne Williams , but lost to Roberto Bautista @-@ Agut in the second round , having led two sets to one . Despite his second @-@ round loss , del Potro returned to being world no . 4 because David Ferrer made it only to the quarterfinals and thus lost 360 points , whereas del Potro lost only 45 points . After the Australian Open , del Potro required treatment for his left wrist , which has been giving him trouble since 2012 . In February , at the 2014 Rotterdam Open , he eased past Gaël Monfils and Paul @-@ Henri Mathieu in straight sets , but fell to Latvian Ernests Gulbis in the quarterfinals . In the 2014 Dubai Tennis Championships , he retired against Somdev Devvarman after losing the first set due to his wrist injury . The same injury led to his subsequent withdrawal from Masters 1000 series events in Indian Wells and Miami , meaning that del Potro dropped to world no . 8 . Del Potro underwent surgery to repair the problem in his left wrist , missing the rest of the 2014 season . Del Potro began his 2015 season with wrist pain and was not sure whether he would play Sydney and the Australian Open . However , at the last minute he decided to play both tournaments . He had not played a tournament since February 2014 , but he started the 2015 Apia International Sydney with a straight @-@ sets win against Sergiy Stakhovsky . In the second round , his opponent was world no . 19 and top seed Fabio Fognini . It was a tough test for del Potro , but he proved to be stronger than the Italian . Del Potro was through to the quarterfinals , but lost to Mikhail Kukushkin in two tiebreakers . After his Sydney campaign , he was drawn to play Jerzy Janowicz in the first round of the 2015 Australian Open , Del Potro withdrew due to his wrist injury . Del Potro played in Miami and was not seen for nearly a year , under going surgery again in June 2015 . He played his first tournament since undergoing wrist surgery in the 2016 Delray Beach Open . In his first competitive match in almost a year , Del Potro defeated Denis Kudla in two sets . He followed this up with a straight sets win over Australian John @-@ Patrick Smith . He defeated Jérémy Chardy in two sets in the quarterfinal , reaching his first semifinal since 2014 ; which he lost to eventual champion Sam Querrey . He returned to Indian Wells , competing in the first round , winning against Tim Smyczek in two sets . He lost in the next round to Tomas Berdych in straight sets . His next tournament was the Miami Open . He won his first match against countryman Guido Pella in two sets . He was set to play Roger Federer for the first time in more than two years but just hours before the match Federer withdrew due to a stomach virus . He then played lucky loser and countryman Horacio Ceballos and lost in straight sets . He then competed in his first clay court tournament since 2013 in the BMW Open . He won his first clay court match in three years against Dustin Brown , beating him in two sets . In his second match of the tournament he beat Jan @-@ Lennard Struff in his first three set match of the year . He then lost to Philipp Kohlschreiber in the quarterfinals in straight sets . The next tournament he entered was the 2016 Mutua Madrid Open . He had his best victory after coming back on the tour defeating 14th seed Dominic Thiem in straight sets . He lost his next match to Jack Sock in two sets . He then competed at the 2016 MercedesCup . His first grass tournament since 2013 Wimbledon Championships . He started off against Grigor Dimitrov , winning in straight sets . He then saw off John Millman in two sets . He faced 4th seed Gilles Simon in the quarterfinal , emerging victorious in three sets . He then played 7th seed Philipp Kohlschreiber , who had defeated him earlier this year at the 2016 BMW Open , losing in straight sets . After missing the French Open in May to focus on the grass season , he entered Wimbledon and was drawn against Frenchman Stephane Robert . He defeated Robert 6 @-@ 1 7 @-@ 5 6 @-@ 0 to set up a second @-@ round match with the 4th seed Stanislas Wawrinka , whom he defeated 3 @-@ 6 6 @-@ 3 7 @-@ 6 6 @-@ 3 . Del Potro would then lose in 4 sets against the 32nd seed Lucas Pouille in the 3rd round . = = Playing style = = Del Potro is an offensive baseliner with a very powerful serve and deep , flat , topspin groundstrokes . His forehand is one of his main strengths and possibly the most powerful in the game , capable of frequently generating speeds of 100 mph , and he also possesses a very consistent and powerful double @-@ handed backhand . Del Potro is also known to have a very low unforced error rate , making him a very good defender too . He 's also comfortable going to the one @-@ handed slice backhand , and also has considerable touch for a bigger player . Del Potro 's height allows him to get a powerful first serve , often clocked in the mid @-@ 130s , and maxing out at 147 mph ( M1000 Madrid , vs Murray ) , and makes it easier for him to return high topspin balls . = = Equipment and apparel = = Del Potro used the Wilson Hyper ProStaff 6 @.@ 1 Midplus Stretch early on in his career , and has continued to use this racquet under new paint jobs years later . Del Potro is very superstitious , and after suffering a wrist injury shortly after switching to the Wilson BLX Pro Tour paint job in 2010 , he returned to playing with the then outdated Wilson K @-@ Factor 6 @.@ 1 95 paint job . He particularly favored the exact racquets he had used to win his only Grand Slam title at the 2009 US Open . He again refused to update his racquet to the Wilson BLX Juice Pro in 2012 , and as of 2014 , has only a few K @-@ Factor racquets left . For strings , he uses Luxilon ALU Power strung at 58 lbs . His clothing sponsor is Nike . He used to wear sleeveless shirts , but more recently has worn crew shirts , and often also sports double @-@ wide wristbands and a bandana . For shoes , he wears Nike Air Max Cages . = = Rivalries = = = = = Big Four = = = Del Potro has a 14 – 39 ( 26 @.@ 42 % ) record against all members of the Big Four . = = = = Roger Federer = = = = Del Potro has a 5 – 15 ( 25 % ) record against Roger Federer . Despite Roger Federer winning the most matches , Del Potro won their biggest match at the 2009 US Open final , but Federer won their long 2012 Olympic semifinal 19 – 17 in the final set . Del Potro also captured both 2012 and 2013 Swiss Indoors finals against the seven @-@ time titlist of the tournament . = = = = Novak Djokovic = = = = Del Potro has a 3 – 11 ( 21 @.@ 43 % ) record against Novak Djokovic . In 2012 , Del Potro won the Bronze medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics in straight sets . However , in 2013 , Djokovic got the upper hand on the rivalry again and won an epic five @-@ setter at the 2013 Wimbledon Championships and a thrilling three @-@ setter final at the 2013 Shanghai Masters . Del Potro defeated Djokovic en route to his second Masters 1000 final , at the 2013 Indian Wells Masters , where Del Potro lost to Nadal . = = = = Rafael Nadal = = = = Del Potro has a 4 – 8 ( 33 @.@ 33 % ) record against Rafael Nadal . The pair played three semifinals and two finals ( One Davis Cup rubber ) . Del Potro bested Nadal in the semifinals for the first time after a 0 – 4 ( 0 % ) record en route to his 2009 US Open title which was the only other time ( other than Novak Djokovic ) where a player managed to beat both Roger Federer and Nadal in the same Grand Slam tournament . However the Spaniard managed to win both times in the Indian Wells Masters encounters , in the 2011 semifinal and the 2013 final . Nadal also won the fourth and last rubber of the 2011 Davis Cup final against the Argentine . Del Potro gained the upper hand at the 2013 Shanghai Masters , defeating Nadal to reach the final where he lost to Djokovic . = = = = Andy Murray = = = = Del Potro has a 2 – 5 ( 28 @.@ 57 % ) record against Andy Murray . In their seven matches , only one was played in this decade . They only played one final , in the 2009 Rogers Cup , which was won by Murray . However , when Del Potro beat Murray in the quarterfinals of the 2013 BNP Paribas Open , Del Potro won against all members of the big four in 2013 . = = Career statistics = = = = = Grand Slam tournament performance timeline = = = Finals : 1 ( 1 title ) = = = Year @-@ End Championship performance timeline = = = Finals : 1 ( 1 runner @-@ up )
= The Office ( U.S. season 8 ) = The eighth season of the American television comedy The Office commenced airing on NBC in the United States on September 22 , 2011 , and concluded on May 10 , 2012 , consisting of 24 episodes . The series is an American adaptation of the British comedy series of the same name , and is presented in a mockumentary format , portraying the daily lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictitious Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . The eighth season of The Office aired on Thursdays at 9 : 00 p.m. ( Eastern ) in the United States as part of the " Comedy Night Done Right " television block . This was the first season without Steve Carell as Michael Scott in the lead role and the only one to not feature the character in any capacity . The eighth season largely centers on Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) ascension to regional manager , as well as the antics of Robert California ( James Spader ) , the new CEO of Sabre , a fictional printer company that owns Dunder Mifflin . Halfway through the season , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) — along with Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) , Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) , and Cathy Simms ( Lindsey Broad ) — travel to Florida to help set up a Sabre Store , where Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) is introduced . Eventually , former CFO of Dunder Mifflin David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) buys back the company , firing California . Despite debuting with moderate viewing figures , the departure of Carell affected the show 's ratings , which fell as the season progressed . The season ranked as the eighty @-@ seventh most watched television series during the 2011 – 12 television year and saw a dramatic decrease in ratings from the previous season . Critical reception was mixed ; many critics had previously said the series should have ended after the departure of Carell and thus criticized the recycled storylines . Other critics were more positive , commenting on various actors and their characters . It marked the first time since season one that the show did not receive any Emmy nominations . = = Production = = The eighth season of the show was produced by Reveille Productions and Deedle @-@ Dee Productions , both in association with NBC Universal Television Studios . The show is based on the British comedy series of the same name , which was created by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant for the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) . In addition , the two are executive producers on the show . This season of The Office was produced by Greg Daniels and Paul Lieberstein , the latter of whom serves as the showrunner . Returning writers from the previous season included Lieberstein , Charlie Grandy , Justin Spitzer , Carrie Kemper , Daniel Chun , Robert Padnick , Aaron Shure , Steve Hely , Amelie Gillette , Mindy Kaling , and B. J. Novak ; the latter two were both also credited as executive producers . It was previously unknown whether Kaling would write for the series any longer . Kaling herself confirmed via her Twitter page that she would write the Christmas @-@ themed episode , " Christmas Wishes " . Three new writers joined the staff beginning in season eight : Owen Ellickson , Allison Silverman and Dan Greaney . The season also saw the directorial debuts of cast members Ed Helms and Brian Baumgartner ; Helms directed the episode " Christmas Wishes " , and Baumgartner directed " After Hours " . The series was renewed for an eighth season on March 17 , 2011 , began filming on July 25 , 2011 , and the season concluded filming on March 9 , 2012 . Jenna Fischer 's pregnancy was written into the show , and Pam was again pregnant at the start of the season with a boy as she was in real life . Unlike the sixth season , there was no episode focusing on the baby 's birth ; it was instead announced on a blog . In an interview , executive producer Lieberstein stated that , with the departure of Michael Scott , the writers would explore further into the other characters on the show , such as centering on a specific character for an episode . On January 25 , 2012 , news broke that NBC was planning a spin @-@ off series starring Rainn Wilson as Dwight Schrute , that would be set at Schrute Farms , Dwight 's bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast and beet farm . The spin @-@ off would be created by Wilson and executive producer Paul Lieberstein , but Office developer Greg Daniels would not be involved . Due to his initial involvement in the spin @-@ off , Lieberstein stepped down as showrunner of The Office . On October 29 , 2012 , it was revealed that NBC was not going forward with the proposed spin @-@ off , although the original backdoor pilot , " The Farm " aired later in the ninth season . = = Cast = = The Office employs an ensemble cast . Most of the main characters , and some minor ones , are based on characters from the British version of The Office . While these characters normally have the same attitudes and perceptions as their British counterparts , the roles have been redesigned to better fit the American show . The show is known for its large cast size , many of whom are known particularly for their improvisational work . Rainn Wilson portrays Dwight Schrute , who , based upon Gareth Keenan , is the Assistant to the Regional Manager , although the character frequently fails to include " to the " in his title . John Krasinski portrays Jim Halpert , a sales representative and prankster , who is based upon Tim Canterbury , and is married to Pam Halpert , the office administrator . Pam ( Fischer ) , who is based on Dawn Tinsley , is shy , but is often a cohort with Jim in his pranks on Dwight . B. J. Novak portrays Ryan Howard , who is a temporary worker . Helms plays Andy Bernard , the preppy manager — who was previously a salesman — and boastful Cornell alumnus whose love for a cappella music and awkward social skills generates mixed feelings from his employees . Andy is an original character , meaning he has no English equivalent from Gervais 's series . Reprising his guest @-@ starring role of Robert California , James Spader joined the regular cast to replace Kathy Bates 's character as the CEO of Sabre ; it was announced that Spader would appear in at least fifteen episodes . Cody Horn , who guest starred in the seventh season as Jordan Garfield , with a possibility of returning as a series regular , did not return . The eighth season also featured new characters , originally expected to include Stanley Hudson 's other daughter and a new male addition to the accounting department , however , these characters never appeared . Stephen Collins , Dee Wallace and Josh Groban were cast as Andy 's father , mother and brother , respectively , and appeared in the episode " Garden Party " . From the episodes " Pam 's Replacement " to " Last Day in Florida " , Lindsey Broad had a recurring guest star spot as Cathy Simms , Pam 's temporary replacement while she was on maternity leave , and who remained employed at the company for a while after . Maura Tierney appeared in " Mrs. California " , playing California 's wife . Catherine Tate returned to reprise her role as Nellie Bertram , in a major arc starting in the episode " Tallahassee " . Despite reports that she would also get romantically involved with Robert , this never occurred . Two writers for the animated comedy series The Simpsons , Matt Selman and Matt Warburton , appeared in the Kaling @-@ scripted episode " Test the Store " , and Simpsons star Dan Castellaneta appeared in the episode " Turf War " . At the time , this season marked the final year that some cast members — notably Helms , Fischer , Novak , and Krasinski — were signed on for the show , as their contracts expired at the end of the season ; this caused speculation that several members of the main cast would leave the series following this season . The eighth season was Novak 's last as a series regular , although he made a few recurring appearances in the ninth season . It was also Kaling 's final full season , due to her pilot , The Mindy Project , being picked up by Fox ; Kaling portrayed customer service representative Kelly Kapoor . On February 28 , 2012 , it was announced that Spader would not return for a ninth season of the show . There was initial speculation that following the eighth season , Daniels was considering rebooting the series due to the possible departures of main cast members . However , a new deal was negotiated with NBC , and all the main cast members , sans Spader , Novak , and Kaling , would return for the ninth season , although several new characters would be brought on board for a " mini reboot " . NBC also announced that Catherine Tate would become a series regular . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = The series aired on Thursdays at 9 : 00 p.m. as part of " Comedy Night Done Right " television block . The season premiere , " The List " received a 3 @.@ 9 / 10 percent share in the Nielsen ratings among viewers aged 18 to 49 , meaning that 3 @.@ 9 percent of viewers aged 18 to 49 watched the episode , and 10 percent of viewers watching television at the time watched the episode . " The List " was the highest rated episode of the season . Despite this , it became the lowest season premiere of the series since the series premiere . The rest of the season was unable to receive more than seven million viewers . The twenty @-@ second episode , " Fundraiser " received only 4 @.@ 17 million viewers , making it , at the time , the lowest @-@ rated episode of The Office to ever air , although it was later beaten by several ninth season episodes the following year . The season finale , " Free Family Portrait Studio " , was viewed by 4 @.@ 49 million viewers , making it the lowest finale for The Office to air , beating the first season finale " Hot Girl " , which was viewed by 4 @.@ 8 million viewers . The drop in ratings led to a lower ad @-@ price for the series , with an average cost of $ 178 @,@ 840 per @-@ 30 second commercial . Despite this , the show was still one of NBC 's highest rated shows and ranked as the most expensive ad @-@ cost for any NBC scripted series during the year it aired . Despite the lower live ratings , Nielsen Soundscan announced that The Office added up to 44 percent to its next @-@ day " live plus same day " 18 – 49 rating when additional time @-@ shifted viewing was added , such as DVRing . The season ranked as the eighty @-@ seventh most @-@ watched television series during the 2011 – 12 season , with an average of 6 @.@ 506 million viewers . The season also ranked as the thirty @-@ second most @-@ watched television series in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . In this category , the show was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 376 million viewers per episode and received a 3 @.@ 42 rating / 9 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that , on average , the season was viewed by 3 @.@ 42 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . = = = Critical response = = = The eighth season of The Office received mixed reviews . While some critics felt that the show was still humorous in its eighth year , many others argued that the program should have ended after the departure of Steve Carell . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt criticized California 's role , noting that he was someone whom " the narrative reacts to as opposed to something actually involved in the narrative " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix criticized Ed Helms ' comedic performance as manager calling him " a softer version of Michael Scott " . He has also criticized the toning down of Spader 's character , California , from his appearance in the show 's seventh season 's finale , " Search Committee " , as well as expressing disappointment over seeing many supporting characters transform into caricatures of their earlier season 's selves . He stopped reviewing a majority of the Season 8 episodes since " Pam 's Replacement " , due to his distaste for the series . Time writer James Poniewozik agreed with Sepinwall and said that Jim should have been named manager so the series could be more ensemble oriented . New York Magazine named Andy Bernard one of the most annoying TV characters of 2011 . Matt Zoller Seitz from New York wrote , " Fact is , the show 's first post – Steve Carell year has been a mess , at times bordering on a disaster " , although he did write , " Nevertheless , I still adore these characters , even when the writing doesn 't do them justice . " McNutt gave the season a C grade overall , writing that the season finale , " Free Family Portrait Studio " was " a disheartening conclusion to the show 's worst season , offering little optimism to sustain our already dwindling enthusiasm over the summer months . " Bret Fetzer of Amazon.com wrote that " it 's best to approach this season as if it were a completely new series " . He felt that it is unfair to compare the quality of the season to past seasons because " the series ' previous heights were so very high " . Ultimately , he called the year " uneven " , because episodes would range from putting " Andy into Michael Scott @-@ ish situations " to " seek [ ing ] out new angles on the well @-@ established web of interpersonal conflicts " , with the result that the episodes " sometimes " work . Matt Zoller Seitz of Salon considered the post @-@ Michael Scott era of The Office " warmer and more reflective " . He also praised the decision of Andy as a manager , specifically Ed Helms and Craig Robinson 's performance in " Lotto " calling it the " subtlest , deepest acting to date [ for The Office ] " . He called " Lotto " the best episode of the season . Hank Stuever of The Washington Post named the series the tenth best series of 2011 specifically praising the actors ' performances in " Mrs. California " for their ability to deliver cringe humor without Carell . TV Guide named it an honorable mention on their list of the best TV shows of 2011 . Price Peterson from TV.com called the series " still one of the best shows on TV " and argued that , while " Season 8 definitely wasn 't the show 's best " , the season " sneaked in some genuinely great jokes , new characters , and affecting plotlines . " Despite the lackluster reviews many of the episodes received , many critics praised Ellie Kemper 's performance as Erin Hannon . McNutt noted that " regardless of how down I was on this or any other episode , Ellie Kemper really has been tremendous all season . " In addition , Kemper 's performance in the episodes " Spooked , " " Christmas Wishes , " " Pool Party , " and " Special Project , " in particular , were praised by critics . Many members of the cast and crew felt that the season was not the show 's best . Rainn Wilson said that the season possessed some mistakes " creatively " , such as the chemistry between Spader and Helms , which he called " a bit dark " . He argued that the show should have gone for a " brighter and more energized " relationship . Brian Baumgartner felt that the show " stayed status quo [ with the previous year ] , but without a key piece " and " didn 't make a firm decision " on the direction the show was headed . Ben Silverman , one of the show 's producers , said that " it didn 't have the sense of purpose and focus " that the next season would have . = = Episodes = = In the following table , " U.S. viewers ( million ) " refers to the number of Americans who viewed the episode on the night of broadcast . Episodes are listed by the order in which they aired , and may not necessarily correspond to their production codes . = = Home media release = =
= Bloodline ( Fringe ) = " Bloodline " is the eighteenth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 61st episode overall . The storyline follows the pregnant Olivia Dunham of the parallel universe ( " Fauxlivia " ) as she experiences a kidnapping and acceleration of her pregnancy ; meanwhile , her fellow Fringe agents Lincoln Lee and Charlie Francis attempt to locate her . The episode 's script was written by co @-@ executive producers Alison Schapker and Monica Owusu @-@ Breen , while Dennis Smith directed . " Bloodline " featured the return of guest actors Seth Gabel , Kirk Acevedo , Ryan McDonald , Andre Royo , and Amy Madigan . The Fox network released a " movie @-@ style trailer " in the days leading up to the episode 's broadcast as a special promotion . It first aired in the United States on March 25 , 2011 to an estimated 3 @.@ 9 million viewers . Broadcasting in the wake of a fourth season renewal , the episode 's 1 @.@ 5 / 5 ratings share was a fifteen percent increase from the previous week . " Bloodline " received mixed to positive reviews from critics , with several commentators characterizing the kidnapping mystery as predictable while also praising the depth of the parallel universe and its characters . Lead actress Anna Torv submitted the episode for consideration at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , but failed to receive a nomination . = = Plot = = In the parallel universe , Fauxlivia ( Anna Torv ) is returned home by her mother Marilyn ( Amy Madigan ) after undergoing a pre @-@ natal test to see if she has viral propagated eclampsia , a virus that killed her sister and sister 's baby during childbirth . She believes she is being followed , and contacts Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) at the Fringe division , who sends over a security detail . By the time they arrive , Fauxlivia has been kidnapped ; though they try to follow a secret tracker each agent carries , her abductors have extracted it to throw Fringe off their tracks . Walternate ( John Noble ) and Lincoln believe the abduction to be an inside job due to this . Astrid Farnsworth ( Jasika Nicole ) identifies a vehicle that has passed by Fauxlivia 's home at a high frequency , that being the taxi that belongs to Henry ( Andre Royo ) . Lincoln and Charlie ( Kirk Acevedo ) track down Henry , who explains he has been keeping an eye on Fauxlivia , surprised to have seen her return and seeming like a different person than his previous encounters with her ; Henry is unaware that he had actually helped the prime universe 's Olivia to escape ( " Olivia " and " The Abducted " ) . Lincoln , suspicious of these events , forces Walternate to admit that Fauxlivia was switched with Olivia , and that the child Fauxlivia carries is his grandchild . Meanwhile , Marilyn learns that Fauxlivia 's test for the virus is positive and warns Charlie that Fauxlivia will die if she has the child . During the Fringe team 's search , Fauxlivia finds herself being put under a treatment to accelerate her pregnancy , bringing her child near term . She is able to escape from her captors and contact Fringe division to identify her location , but struggles from labor pains as the child is about to be born . Henry drives Lincoln to her location , and they are able to help Fauxlivia to deliver her child , a son , before medical help arrives . Fauxlivia and her child recover under tight security ordered by Walternate , fearing for their safety . The doctors determine the accelerated pregnancy outpaced the virus , thus allowing both Fauxlivia and her child to survive . In the epilogue , as September ( Michael Cerveris ) the Observer , watches , a blood sample from the child is drawn discreetly by one of Fauxlivia 's captors posing as an orderly , who transfers it to Brandon ( Ryan McDonald ) , who is revealed to have developed the accelerated pregnancy procedure under Walternate 's orders . Meanwhile , Lincoln and Charlie become somewhat distrustful of Walternate after learning what he hid from them . They consider that Colonel Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) disappeared around the same time that Fauxlivia returned , and wonder what else Walternate is hiding from them . = = Production = = " Bloodline " was co @-@ written by co @-@ executive producers Monica Owusu @-@ Breen and Alison Schapker , while The Practice veteran , Dennis Smith , directed the installment . Editor Timothy A. Good has called " Bloodline " the second of two parts – the first half was the season 's third episode " The Plateau " , which Owusu @-@ Breen and Schapker also co @-@ wrote . Executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman had planned Fauxlivia 's pregnancy since they conceived her character , but noted that " this isn ’ t going to be a normal pregnancy that you see , either . And the pregnancy is [ going to evolve ] in a Fringe way that you don ’ t comprehend yet . It 's not going to be your traditional love triangle , ' I 'm pregnant and having a baby ' story . It ’ s going to be Fringe @-@ ified . " In late January 2011 , TVline 's Michael Ausiello reported actor Andre Royo was returning for one episode later in the third season . Royo made his third guest appearance of the season in " Bloodline " , as cab driver Henry Higgins from the parallel universe . It is his final credit on the series to date . Amy Madigan , who plays Olivia 's mother Marilyn , also returned in a guest appearance . Previous guest stars Seth Gabel , Kirk Acevedo , Ryan McDonald , and Michael Cerveris returned as Lincoln Lee , Charlie Francis , Brandon Fayette , and September the Observer , respectively . The episode also featured one @-@ time guest actors Kendall Cross as Nurse Joyce and Françoise Yip as Dr. Rosa Oporto . Leading up to the episode 's broadcast , Fox released a " movie @-@ style trailer " as a promotion , something they had previously done with " Entrada " and " Marionette " , two episodes from earlier in the season . The video recapped the Peter / Olivia / Fauxlivia love triangle from Fauxlivia 's perspective and then previewed scenes in " Bloodline " . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Bloodline " , with the intention of having " students learn about gestation and how it is different from species to species . " = = Cultural references = = Accelerated growth of yet @-@ unborn children was a major plot element of " The Same Old Story " , the second episode of the first season . While eclampsia is a real medical condition that can interfere with childbirth , the " viral @-@ propagated eclampsia " presented in this episode is fictional . When Henry is located by the Fringe division , he is seen reading an " Opus the Peahen " comic , the parallel universe 's counterpart to the " Opus " comic strip drawn by Berkeley Breathed . Also within the parallel universe , the movie Taxi Driver is shown to have been directed by Francis Ford Coppola rather than Martin Scorsese ( though Robert De Niro was still able to improvise the " You talkin ' to me ? " scene ) , while the television series , The West Wing , is shown to be entering its twelfth season . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Bloodline " aired the day after Fringe 's fourth season renewal was announced by Fox Entertainment , which came in the wake of various actors communicating directly with fans to watch the series . Actor Lance Reddick noted of the renewal , " I know so often fans think that they need us ... but I would be digging ditches or something else if it wasn 't for you . So — thank you . Really . " SFScope columnist Sarah Stegall was surprised but delighted by the network 's decision , stating " That any network , let alone Fox , had the patience and the faith to renew this show is , for me , little short of a miracle . It was a week , it seems , for wonders . " " Bloodline " first aired in the United States on March 25 , 2011 . It was watched by an estimated 3 @.@ 9 million viewers , earning a 1 @.@ 5 / 5 ratings share among the 18 – 49 demographic , up from the previous episode 's 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 rating . This was a 15 percent increase . Fringe helped Fox place in second for the night among adult viewers behind NBC , but the network fell into third place among total viewers behind NBC and ABC . = = = Reviews = = = " Bloodline " has received generally mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Sarah Stegall enjoyed it , commenting that " This was one of the more quietly brilliant episodes of Fringe to date . Reaching all the way back to the first season for its genesis , it was still firmly rooted in the most up @-@ to @-@ date events , tied together several characters in a cabal of resistance , paved the way for major drama down the way , and gave us some emotional highlights we cannot expect to see from Our Side characters . " Entertainment Weekly staff writer Ken Tucker called the episode " a beautifully modulated hour , written by Alison Schapker and Monica Owusu @-@ Breen , that took care to establish the anxiety felt by Altivia and her mother , Marilyn ( Amy Madigan ) about the pregnancy . " On a slightly less positive note , Noel Murray of The A.V. Club graded the episode with a B + . He remarked that it " starts out intense and crazy " but " becomes fairly predictable in its second half , " as he correctly predicted Walternate 's involvement in the abduction . Murray concluded , " Ultimately , ' Bloodline ' is more of a plot @-@ mover than most episodes of Fringe . There ’ s no additional case to solve , and no profound theme to explore . If anything , it ’ s like the writers decided to inject a serum into the belly of show and accelerate the story , to get Fauxlivia ’ s baby out and to get on to the next phase . " IGN 's Ramsey Isler also didn 't find the birth storyline all that shocking " since the number of people that had the power and knowledge to do this kind of thing was low . " Rating the episode 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , Isler added that " the story could have used a bit more misdirection and a red herring or two to really keep us guessing , but that 's a minor critique . Overall , Walternate 's Machiavellian role in this story works , and the most important takeaway from this story is that it moved the overarching plot forward in one huge leap . Instead of waiting nine ' story ' months for Fauxlivia 's baby to pop out , we 've already got the kid ready to fit into whatever plot twist the show runners have planned . " Some television critics have praised the parallel universe 's characterization , with one noting that the " writers have made us care about the other side of this war , forced us to see the opposite numbers of our heroes as real and human and sympathetic ; it 's a brilliant move . " The alternate performances of the actors in particular have been highlighted , especially those of Torv and Noble , but also those of Gabel , Acevedo , and Nicole . = = = Awards and nominations = = = Anna Torv submitted " Bloodline " , along with the season three episodes " Olivia " , " Entrada " , Marionette " , and " The Day We Died " , for consideration in the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . She failed to receive a nomination .
= Gospić massacre = The Gospić massacre was the killing of 100 – 120 civilians in Gospić , Croatia during the last two weeks of October 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence . The majority of the victims were ethnic Serbs , arrested in Gospić and the nearby coastal town of Karlobag . Most of them were arrested on 16 – 17 October . Some of the detainees were taken to the Perušić barracks and executed in Lipova Glavica near the town , while others were shot in the Pazarište area of Gospić . The killings were ordered by the Secretary of Lika Crisis Headquarters , Tihomir Orešković , and the commander of the 118th Infantry Brigade of the Croatian National Guard , Lieutenant Colonel Mirko Norac . The killings were publicised in 1997 , when a wartime member of Autumn Rains paramilitary spoke about the unit 's involvement in killings of civilians in Gospić in an interview to the Feral Tribune . No formal investigation was launched until 2000 , after three former Croatian intelligence and military police officers informed the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia about the killings . Five , including Orešković and Norac , were arrested in 2001 and tried . Orešković , Norac and Stjepan Grandić were found guilty of the crime and sentenced to 14 , 12 and 10 years in prison respectively in 2004 . = = Background = = In August 1990 , an insurrection took place in Croatia centred in predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas , including parts of Lika , near the city of Gospić , which also had a significant ethnic Serb population . The areas were subsequently named SAO Krajina and , after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia , the Government of Croatia declared it to be a rebellion . By March 1991 , the conflict escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . In June 1991 , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated . A three @-@ month moratorium followed , after which the decision came into effect on 8 October . As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) increasingly supported SAO Krajina and the Croatian Police was unable to cope with the situation , the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) was formed in May 1991 . The development of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September , while the military conflict in Croatia continued to escalate — the Battle of Vukovar started on 26 August . By the end of August the fighting intensified in Lika as well , including in Gospic where fighting to control the city continued through much of September . Although Gospić was controlled by Croat forces , it remained under Serbian artillery bombardment after the battle . The fighting resulted in heavy damage to the town and the flight of the bulk of its population after which only about 3 @,@ 000 residents remainined . Before the war , Gospić had a population of 8 @,@ 000 , including 3 @,@ 000 Serbs . Many Serbs previously living in the town fled but Croatian authorities urged them to return through television and radio broadcasts . As the civilian population started to return in late September , Gospić chief of police Ivan Dasović proposed that a list of the returning Serbs should be drawn up , ostensibly for security purposes . According to Ante Karić , President of the Lika Crisis Headquarters ( krizni stožer ) , Dasović feared that the returning Serbs might harbour a fifth column , undermining defence of the town . Karić reportedly opposed the move , but the list was compiled on 10 October . A similar list of Serbs returning to nearby Karlobag was prepared on 16 October . Gospić police were subordinated to control by the Lika Crisis Headquarters by dint of an order issued by the then Minister of the Interior Ivan Vekić as were the 118th Infantry Brigade of the ZNG and the military police based in Gospić . In addition , a paramilitary volunteer group , nicknamed " Autumn Rains " , controlled by Tomislav Merčep , was deployed to Gospić in September ; this unit was formally subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior . = = Killings = = The Secretary of the Lika Crisis Headquarters , Tihomir Orešković , and the commanding officer of the 118th Infantry Brigade Lieutenant Colonel Mirko Norac , called a meeting of their subordinates and ordered the arrest of Serb civilians , their subsequent detention in the Perušić barracks , and killings . Sources disagree on the exact date of the meeting . According to Dasović , the meeting took place on 15 October , at approximately 9 : 00 p.m. , which he attended along with several other officials . Other sources , including the subsequent criminal inquiry and trial witnesses , indicated the meeting was held on 16 or 17 October . The courts processing the case , including the Supreme Court of Croatia , determined that the meeting took place on 17 October and that Orešković and Norac ordered those in attendance to execute civilians that had been arrested based on the prepared lists . The killing of civilians in Široka Kula by Serbian paramilitaries , which took place on 13 October , was used as a pretext for the executions . Most of the arrests occurred on 16 – 17 October , both in Gospić and Karlobag . The civilians , especially Serbs , were led away at gunpoint from bomb shelters starting on 16 October . Two days later , residents of Gospić witnessed civilians being loaded aboard eleven military lorries at the town 's cattle market , never to be seen again . At least ten civilians were killed at Žitnik in the Gospić area known as Pazarište on 17 October . The killings continued at Lipova Glavica near Perušić on 18 October , where 39 or 40 people were executed by firing squad after being held in the Perušić barracks , where a battalion of the 118th Infantry Brigade was based at the time . Three additional Serb civilians were arrested in Gospić and Karlobag on 25 October . They were also shot and their bodies retrieved in the Ravni Dabar area on 3 December . = = Aftermath = = The massacre in Gospić was the most significant such atrocity committed by Croats during the war . Sources disagree on the total number of fatalities in the Gospić massacre , with estimates ranging from nearly 100 to 120 killed . The official figures indicate that a total of 123 persons went missing in the area of Gospić between 1991 – 95 . Ten victims were dumped in a septic tank and covered with layers of clay and stone rubble in Gospić , later discovered by International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) investigators in May 2000 , arousing complaints from the mayor of Gospić and street protests by Croatian veterans . Twenty @-@ four additional corpses had been burnt and disposed of near Duge Njive , a village east of Perušić , but retrieved by the 6th Brigade of the JNA on 25 December 1991 , examined and reburied in Debelo Brdo , 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 miles ) away from Udbina . Eighteen were buried in a mass grave while six others were buried individually , but these were disinterred and reburied elsewhere by relatives . The mass grave was excavated in December 2000 as a part of a criminal investigation . The victims ' homes were looted in the immediate aftermath by the Autumn Rains unit . In 1992 , several members of the unit were briefly imprisoned by Croatian authorities , but released without charge . In September 1997 , the now defunct Croatian newspaper Feral Tribune published a detailed eyewitness account by Miroslav Bajramović , one of the Autumn Rains troops , who claimed to have been involved in carrying out the massacre . In his interview , Bajramović stated that the unit was ordered to ethnically cleanse Gospić . He also claimed they were occasionally ordered by Tomislav Merčep , who had been an ally of Croatian President Franjo Tuđman , to " terminate " prisoners , and that Vekić was fully aware of their task . Bajramović and three other members of the unit identified in the interview were arrested , while Vekić denied Bajramović 's claims and Croatian government officials denied any responsibility in the matter . In turn , the ICTY requested information on the four . By 1998 , two Croatian intelligence officers and a military police officer , Milan Levar , Zdenko Bando and Zdenko Ropac , approached the ICTY offering information concerning the events . Levar , who was later murdered , was particularly valuable as a witness as he claimed to have witnessed the deaths of about 50 people in the Gospić area . Ranko Marijan , the Justice Minister in a new government , criticised his predecessors and the police for their failure to pursue the case , but the authorities failed to protect Levar , who was murdered by car bomb on 30 August 2000 . The investigation of the killings in Gospić was a contributing factor in the criticism of the government 's efforts by seven active duty and five retired Croatian generals who issued the Twelve Generals ' Letter making their grievance public . That led to sacking of the seven active duty officers , including by President Stjepan Mesić . The group included Norac , who had held the rank of major general since September 1995 . = = = Trial of Orešković et al . = = = A formal inquest of the killings in Gospić was launched in late 2000 and warrants for the arrest of Orešković , Norac , Stjepan Grandić , Ivica Rožić and Milan Čanić were issued in February 2001 . Norac evaded arrest for two weeks , convinced that the authorities intended to extradite him to the ICTY . Relatives of Grandić , Rožić and Čanić , aided by residents of Gospić , attempted to prevent the police from arresting the three by surrounding the police vans sent to transport the defendants to custody . The opposition to the prosecution culminated in a 150 @,@ 000 @-@ strong street protest in Split on 11 February . The protests were repeated in Zagreb , where 13 @,@ 000 protesters appeared . Norac surrendered on 21 February after he received assurances that he would be tried in Croatia rather than by the ICTY . A formal indictment was brought forward on 5 March , charging the five with the killing of 50 civilians in Gospić and Karlobag . The case was tried in Rijeka County Court , and included the testimony of 120 witnesses in the Rijeka court , 18 survivors of the 1991 attacks in Gospić who testified in Belgrade , and two Croatian nationals who fled to Germany fearing for their own safety . One of these two , surnamed Ropac , refused to testify because he distrusted government assurances regarding his safety . In March 2003 , the Court found the defendants guilty ; Orešković was sentenced to 15 years in prison , while Norac received a sentence of 12 years in prison . Grandić was imprisoned for a term of 10 years . Rožić and Čanić were acquitted due to lack of evidence against them . The case was ultimately appealed all the way to the Supreme Court of Croatia in 2004 , which upheld the first @-@ instance convictions of Orešković , Norac and Grandić , as well as the acquittals of Rožić and Čanić . A BBC News analysis claimed the trials indicated a willingness on the part of the Croatian government to deal with war crimes committed by its nationals , following a long period of inactivity described by Rijeka County Court judge Ika Šarić as a " conspiracy of silence " . Bajramović and four other members of his unit were convicted in an unrelated case of killing and abuse of Serb and Croat civilians committed in Poljana near Pakrac in 1991 . They received prison sentences ranging from three to twelve years . As of 2013 , Merčep is on trial charged with command responsibility in war crimes committed in Poljana .
= Some Thoughts Concerning Education = Some Thoughts Concerning Education is a 1693 treatise on the education of gentlemen written by the English philosopher John Locke . For over a century , it was the most important philosophical work on education in England . It was translated into almost all of the major written European languages during the eighteenth century , and nearly every European writer on education after Locke , including Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , acknowledged its influence . In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding ( 1690 ) , Locke outlined a new theory of mind , contending that the gentleman 's mind was a tabula rasa or " blank slate " ; that is , it did not contain any innate ideas . Some Thoughts Concerning Education explains how to educate that mind using three distinct methods : the development of a healthy body ; the formation of a virtuous character ; and the choice of an appropriate academic curriculum . Locke wrote the letters that would eventually become Some Thoughts for an aristocratic friend , but his advice had a broader appeal since his educational principles allowed commoners to think they could acquire the same kind of character as the aristocrats for whom Locke originally intended the work . = = Historical context = = Rather than writing a wholly original philosophy of education , Locke , it seems , deliberately attempted to popularise several strands of seventeenth @-@ century educational reform at the same time as introducing his own ideas . English writers such as John Evelyn , John Aubrey , John Eachard , and John Milton had previously advocated " similar reforms in curriculum and teaching methods , " but they had not succeeded in reaching a wide audience . Curiously , though , Locke proclaims throughout his text that his is a revolutionary work ; as Nathan Tarcov , who has written an entire volume on Some Thoughts , has pointed out , " Locke frequently explicitly opposes his recommendations to the ' usual , ' ' common , ' ' ordinary , ' or ' general ' education . " As England became increasingly mercantilist and secularist , the humanist educational values of the Renaissance , which had enshrined scholasticism , came to be regarded by many as irrelevant . Following in the intellectual tradition of Francis Bacon , who had challenged the cultural authority of the classics , reformers such as Locke , and later Philip Doddridge , argued against Cambridge and Oxford 's decree that " all Bachelaur and Undergraduats in their Disputations should lay aside their various Authors , such that caused many dissensions and strifes in the Schools , and only follow Aristotle and those that defend him , and take their Questions from him , and that they exclude from the Schools all steril and inane Questions , disagreeing from the antient and true Philosophy [ sic ] . " Instead of demanding that their sons spend all of their time studying Greek and Latin texts , an increasing number of families began to demand a practical education for their sons ; by exposing them to the emerging sciences , mathematics , and the modern languages , these parents hoped to prepare their sons for the changing economy and , indeed , for the new world they saw forming around them . = = Text = = In 1684 Edward Clarke asked his friend , John Locke , for advice on raising his son and heir , Edward , Jr . ; Locke responded with a series of letters that eventually served as the basis of Some Thoughts Concerning Education . But it was not until 1693 , encouraged by the Clarkes and another friend , William Molyneux , that Locke actually published the treatise ; Locke , " timid " when it came to public exposure , decided to publish the text anonymously . Although Locke revised and expanded the text five times before he died , he never substantially altered the " familiar and friendly style of the work . " The " Preface " alerted the reader to its humble origins as a series of letters and , according to Nathan Tarcov , who has written an entire volume on Some Thoughts , advice that otherwise might have appeared " meddlesome " became welcome . Tarcov claims Locke treated his readers as his friends and they responded in kind . = = Pedagogical theory = = Of Locke 's major claims in the Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Some Thoughts Concerning Education , two played a defining role in eighteenth @-@ century educational theory . The first is that education makes the man ; as Locke writes at the opening of his treatise , " I think I may say that of all the men we meet with , nine parts of ten are what they are , good or evil , useful or not , by their education . " In making this claim , Locke was arguing against both the Augustinian view of man , which grounds its conception of humanity in original sin , and the Cartesian position , which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions . In his Essay Locke posits an " empty " mind — a tabula rasa — that is " filled " by experience . In describing the mind in these terms , Locke was drawing on Plato 's Theatetus , which suggests that the mind is like a " wax tablet " . Although Locke argued strenuously for the tabula rasa theory of mind , he nevertheless did believe in innate talents and interests . For example , he advises parents to watch their children carefully to discover their " aptitudes , " and to nurture their children 's own interests rather than force them to participate in activities which they dislike — " he , therefore , that is about children should well study their natures and aptitudes and see , by often trials , what turn they easily take and what becomes them , observe what their native stock is , how it may be improved , and what it is fit for . " Locke also discusses a theory of the self . He writes : " the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences . " That is , the " associations of ideas " made when young are more significant than those made when mature because they are the foundation of the self — they mark the tabula rasa . In the Essay , in which he first introduces the theory of the association of ideas , Locke warns against letting " a foolish maid " convince a child that " goblins and sprites " are associated with the darkness , for " darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas , and they shall be so joined , that he can no more bear the one than the other . " Locke 's emphasis on the role of experience in the formation of the mind and his concern with false associations of ideas has led many to characterise his theory of mind as passive rather than active , but as Nicholas Jolley , in his introduction to Locke 's philosophical theory , points out , this is " one of the most curious misconceptions about Locke . " As both he and Tarcov highlight , Locke 's writings are full of directives to actively seek out knowledge and reflect on received opinion ; in fact , this was the essence of Locke 's challenge to innatism . = = = Body and mind = = = Locke advises parents to carefully nurture their children 's physical " habits " before pursuing their academic education . As many scholars have remarked , it is unsurprising that a trained physician , as Locke was , would begin Some Thoughts with a discussion of children 's physical needs , yet this seemingly simple generic innovation has proven to be one of Locke 's most enduring legacies — Western child @-@ rearing manuals are still dominated by the topics of food and sleep . To convince parents that they must attend to the health of their children above all , Locke quotes from Juvenal 's Satires — " a sound mind in a sound body . " Locke firmly believed that children should be exposed to harsh conditions while young to inure them to , for example , cold temperatures when they were older : " Children [ should ] be not too warmly clad or covered , winter or summer " ( Locke 's emphasis ) , he argues , because " bodies will endure anything that from the beginning they are accustomed to . " Furthermore , to prevent a child from catching chills and colds , Locke suggests that " his feet to be washed every day in cold water , and to have his shoes so thin that they might leak and let in water whenever he comes near it " ( Locke 's emphasis ) . Locke posited that if children were accustomed to having sodden feet , a sudden shower that wet their feet would not cause them to catch a cold . Such advice ( whether followed or not ) was quite popular ; it appears throughout John Newbery 's children 's books in the middle of the eighteenth century , for example , the first best @-@ selling children 's books in England . Locke also offers specific advice on topics ranging from bed linens to diet to sleeping regimens . = = = Virtue and reason = = = Locke dedicates the bulk of Some Thoughts Concerning Education to explaining how to instill virtue in children . He defines virtue as a combination of self @-@ denial and rationality : " that a man is able to deny himself his own desires , cross his own inclinations , and purely follow what reason directs as best , though the appetite lean the other way " ( Locke 's emphasis ) . Future virtuous adults must be able not only to practice self @-@ denial but also to see the rational path . Locke was convinced that children could reason early in life and that parents should address them as reasoning beings . Moreover , he argues that parents should , above all , attempt to create a " habit " of thinking rationally in their children . Locke continually emphasises habit over rule — children should internalise the habit of reasoning rather than memorise a complex set of prohibitions . This focus on rationality and habit corresponds to two of Locke 's concerns in the Essay Concerning Human Understanding . Throughout the Essay , Locke bemoans the irrationality of the majority and their inability , because of the authority of custom , to change or forfeit long @-@ held beliefs . His attempt to solve this problem is not only to treat children as rational beings but also to create a disciplinary system founded on esteem and disgrace rather than on rewards and punishments . For Locke , rewards such as sweets and punishments such as beatings turn children into sensualists rather than rationalists ; such sensations arouse passions rather than reason . He argues that " such a sort of slavish discipline makes a slavish temper " ( Locke 's emphasis ) . What is important to understand is what exactly Locke means when he advises parents to treat their children as reasoning beings . Locke first highlights that children " love to be treated as Rational Creatures , " thus parents should treat them as such . Tarcov argues that this suggests children can be considered rational only in that they respond to the desire to be treated as reasoning creatures and that they are " motivated only [ by ] rewards and punishments " to achieve that goal . Ultimately , Locke wants children to become adults as quickly as possible . As he argues in Some Thoughts , " the only fence against the world is a thorough knowledge of it , into which a young gentleman should be entered by degrees as he can bear it , and the earlier the better . " In the Second Treatise on Government ( 1689 ) , he contends that it is the parents ' duty to educate their children and to act for them because children , though they have the ability to reason when young , do not do so consistently and are therefore usually irrational ; it is the parents ' obligation to teach their children to become rational adults so that they will not always be fettered by parental ties . = = = Academic curriculum = = = Locke does not dedicate much space in Some Thoughts Concerning Education to outlining a specific curriculum ; he is more concerned with convincing his readers that education is about instilling virtue and what Western educators would now call critical @-@ thinking skills . Locke maintains that parents or teachers must first teach children how to learn and to enjoy learning . As he writes , the instructor " should remember that his business is not so much to teach [ the child ] all that is knowable , as to raise in him a love and esteem of knowledge ; and to put him in the right way of knowing and improving himself . " But Locke does offer a few hints as to what he thinks a valuable curriculum might be . He deplores the long hours wasted on learning Latin and argues that children should first be taught to speak and write well in their native language , particularly recommending Aesop 's Fables . Most of Locke 's recommendations are based on a similar principle of utility . So , for example , he claims that children should be taught to draw because it would be useful to them on their foreign travels ( for recording the sites they visit ) , but poetry and music , he says , are a waste of time . Locke was also at the forefront of the scientific revolution and advocated the teaching of geography , astronomy , and anatomy . Locke 's curricular recommendations reflect the break from scholastic humanism and the emergence of a new kind of education — one emphasising not only science but also practical professional training . Locke also recommended , for example , that every ( male ) child learn a trade . Locke 's pedagogical suggestions marked the beginning of a new bourgeois ethos that would come to define Britain in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries . = = Class = = When Locke began writing the letters that would eventually become Some Thoughts on Education , he was addressing an aristocrat , but the final text appeals to a much wider audience . For example , Locke writes : " I place Vertue [ sic ] as the first and most necessary of those Endowments , that belong to a Man or a Gentleman . " James Axtell , who edited the most comprehensive edition of Locke 's educational writings , has explained that although " he was writing for this small class , this does not preclude the possibility that many of the things he said about education , especially its main principles , were equally applicable to all children " ( Axtell 's emphasis ) . This was a contemporary view as well ; Pierre Coste , in his introduction in the first French edition in 1695 , wrote , " it is certain that this Work was particularly designed for the education of Gentlemen : but this does not prevent its serving also for the education of all sorts of Children , of whatever class they are . " While it is possible to apply Locke 's general principles of education to all children , and contemporaries such as Coste certainly did so , Locke himself , despite statements that may imply the contrary , believed that Some Thoughts applied only to the wealthy and the middle @-@ class ( or as they would have been referred to at the time , the " middling sorts " ) . One of Locke 's conclusions in Some Thoughts Concerning Education is that he " think [ s ] a Prince , a Nobleman , and an ordinary Gentleman 's Son , should have different Ways of Breeding . " As Peter Gay writes , " [ i ] t never occurred to him that every child should be educated or that all those to be educated should be educated alike . Locke believed that until the school system was reformed , a gentleman ought to have his son trained at home by a tutor . As for the poor , they do not appear in Locke 's little book at all . " In his " Essay on the Poor Law , " Locke turns to the education of the poor ; he laments that " the children of labouring people are an ordinary burden to the parish , and are usually maintained in idleness , so that their labour also is generally lost to the public till they are 12 or 14 years old . " He suggests , therefore , that " working schools " be set up in each parish in England for poor children so that they will be " from infancy [ three years old ] inured to work . " He goes on to outline the economics of these schools , arguing not only that they will be profitable for the parish , but also that they will instill a good work ethic in the children . = = Gender = = Locke wrote Some Thoughts Concerning Education in response to his friend Samuel Clarke 's query on how to educate his son , so the text 's " principal aim " , as Locke states at the beginning , " is how a young gentleman should be brought up from his infancy . " This education " will not so perfectly suit the education of daughters ; though where the difference of sex requires different treatment , it will be no hard matter to distinguish " ( Locke 's emphasis ) . This passage suggests that , for Locke , education was fundamentally the same for men and women — there were only small , obvious differences for women . This interpretation is supported by a letter he wrote to Mrs. Clarke in 1685 stating that " since therefore I acknowledge no difference of sex in your mind relating ... to truth , virtue and obedience , I think well to have no thing altered in it from what is [ writ for the son ] . " Martin Simons states that Locke " suggested , both by implication and explicitly , that a boy 's education should be along the lines already followed by some girls of the intelligent genteel classes . " Rather than sending boys to schools which would ignore their individual needs and teach them little of value , Locke argues that they should be taught at home as girls already were and " should learn useful and necessary crafts of the house and estate . " Like his contemporary Mary Astell , Locke believed that women could and should be taught to be rational and virtuous . But Locke does recommend several minor " restrictions " relating to the treatment of the female body . The most significant is his reining in of female physical activity for the sake of physical appearance : " But since in your girls care is to be taken too of their beauty as much as health will permit , this in them must have some restriction ... ' tis fit their tender skins should be fenced against the busy sunbeams , especially when they are very hot and piercing . " Although Locke 's statement indicates that he places a greater value on female than male beauty , the fact that these opinions were never published allowed contemporary readers to draw their own conclusions regarding the " different treatments " required for girls and boys , if any . Moreover , compared to other pedagogical theories , such as those in the best @-@ selling conduct book The Whole Duty of a Woman ( 1696 ) , the female companion to The Whole Duty of Man ( 1657 ) , and Rousseau 's Emile ( 1762 ) , which both proposed entirely separate educational programs for women , Locke 's Some Thoughts appears far more egalitarian . = = Reception and legacy = = Along with Rousseau 's Emile ( 1762 ) , Locke 's Some Thoughts Concerning Education was one of the foundational eighteenth @-@ century texts on educational theory . In Britain , it was considered the standard treatment of the topic for over a century . For this reason , some critics have maintained that Some Thoughts Concerning Education vies with the Essay Concerning Human Understanding for the title of Locke 's most influential work . Some of Locke 's contemporaries , such as seventeenth @-@ century German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz , believed this as well ; Leibniz argued that Some Thoughts superseded even the Essay in its impact on European society . Locke 's Some Thoughts Concerning Education was a runaway best @-@ seller . During the eighteenth century alone , Some Thoughts was published in at least 53 editions : 25 English , 16 French , six Italian , three German , two Dutch , and one Swedish . It was also excerpted in novels such as Samuel Richardson 's Pamela ( 1740 – 1 ) , and it formed the theoretical basis of much children 's literature , particularly that of the first successful children 's publisher , John Newbery . According to James Secord , an eighteenth @-@ century scholar , Newbery included Locke 's educational advice to legitimise the new genre of children 's literature . Locke 's imprimatur would ensure the genre 's success . By the end of the eighteenth century , Locke 's influence on educational thought was widely acknowledged . In 1772 James Whitchurch wrote in his Essay Upon Education that Locke was " an Author , to whom the Learned must ever acknowledge themselves highly indebted , and whose Name can never be mentioned without a secret Veneration , and Respect ; his Assertions being the result of intense Thought , strict Enquiry , a clear and penetrating Judgment . " Writers as politically dissimilar as Sarah Trimmer , in her periodical The Guardian of Education ( 1802 – 06 ) , and Maria Edgeworth , in the educational treatise she penned with her father , Practical Education ( 1798 ) , invoked Locke 's ideas . Even Rousseau , while disputing Locke 's central claim that parents should treat their children as rational beings , acknowledged his debt to Locke . John Cleverley and D. C. Phillips place Locke 's Some Thoughts Concerning Education at the beginning of a tradition of educational theory which they label " environmentalism " . In the years following the publication of Locke 's work , Etienne Bonnot de Condillac and Claude Adrien Helvétius eagerly adopted the idea that people 's minds were shaped through their experiences and thus through their education . Systems of teaching children through their senses proliferated throughout Europe . In Switzerland , Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi , relying on Locke 's theories , developed the concept of the " object lesson . " These lessons focused pupils ' attention on a particular thing and encouraged them to use all of their senses to explore it and urged them to use precise words to describe it . Used throughout Europe and America during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , these object lessons , according to one of their practitioners " if well @-@ managed , cultivate Sense @-@ Perception , or Observation , accustom children to express their thoughts in words , increase their available stock of words and of ideas , and by thus storing material for thinking , also prepare the way for more difficult and advanced study . " Such techniques were also integral to Maria Montessori 's methods in the twentieth century . According to Cleverley and Phillips , the television show Sesame Street is also " based on Lockean assumptions — its aim has been to give underprivileged children , especially in the inner cities , the simple ideas and basic experiences that their environment normally does not provide . " In many ways , despite Locke 's continuing influence , as these authors point out , the twentieth century has been dominated by the " nature vs. nurture " debate in a way that Locke 's century was not . Locke 's optimistic " environmentalism , " though qualified in his text , is now no longer just a moral issue – it is also a scientific issue .
= The Boat Race 1885 = The 42nd Boat Race took place on 28 March 1885 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by former Cambridge rower Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd , the lead changed hands several times . Oxford won by a margin of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 36 seconds . The victory took the overall record to 23 – 18 in favour of Oxford . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Oxford held the overall lead , with 22 victories to Cambridge 's 18 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Oxford 's coach was G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1882 and 1883 races . There is no record of who coached Cambridge , who were seriously disrupted in the build @-@ up to the race , with Edric Wolseley Haig contracting mumps , J. C. Brown breaking a floating rib and William King Hardacre being introduced to the crew days prior to replace him . The umpire for the race was Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd ( who had rowed for Cambridge four times between 1856 and 1859 ) . = = Crews = = The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 6 @.@ 75 lb ( 79 @.@ 1 kg ) , 7 @.@ 75 pounds ( 3 @.@ 5 kg ) more than their opponents . It was the heaviest crew to have ever featured in the Boat Race . Cambridge 's crew contained four rowers who had Boat Race experience , including Fraser Elmslie Churchill and Sidney Swann , both of whom were participating in their third race . Similarly , Oxford saw four former Blues return , with Douglas McLean making his third appearance and rowing with his brother Hector for the first time . The race featured one registered non @-@ British participant in Oxford 's number two , J. S. Clemons , who originated from Tasmania . = = Race = = Cambridge were pre @-@ race favourites . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . The race started at 12 : 26 p.m. in fine weather on a moderate tide . Although Oxford made the better start , Cambridge held a half @-@ of @-@ a @-@ length lead by the time the crews passed the Craven Steps . With the advantage of the bend in the river , the Oxford stroke H. Girdlestone , without increasing the stroke rate , took his crew level , and ahead at the Mile Post . Although the Cambridge stroke Frederick Pitman tried to restore parity by encouraging a spurt , Oxford held the Light Blues off and by Hammersmith Bridge held a length 's lead . Despite appearing " as if the crew going to pieces " after some difficult conditions , Oxford extended their lead to two lengths by The Doves pub . Approaching Barnes Bridge , the Dark Blues had to avoid a skiff , allowing Cambridge to come back at them , before pushing on once again on to win by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 36 seconds . After the race it was noted that the Oxford number three , P. W. Taylor , had dislocated his shoulder but had continued despite his injury .
= James Reimer ( ice hockey ) = James Reimer / ˈraɪmər / ( born March 15 , 1988 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender for the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Reimer has also played for the Toronto Maple Leafs and San Jose Sharks . He was selected by the Maple Leafs in the fourth round ( 99th overall ) of the 2006 NHL Entry Draft . He started playing minor hockey in his hometown when he was 12 . He played junior hockey with the Red Deer Rebels of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , after being selected in the fifth round of the 2003 WHL Bantam Draft . After turning professional , Reimer played with the South Carolina Stingrays and Reading Royals of the ECHL , as well as the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League . Reimer was named the most valuable player of the ECHL playoffs , as the Stingrays won the Kelly Cup in 2009 . Reimer made his NHL debut with the Maple Leafs during the 2010 – 11 season and went on to replace Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère as the Maple Leafs ' starting goaltender . He plays for Canada internationally , and first represented his country at the 2011 World Championship . As of 2013 , he had the best save percentage in Toronto Maple Leafs history with a then .918 . = = Playing career = = = = = Minor = = = Reimer started playing goalie when his older brother , Mark , needed practice shooting but had no goalie . A local minor hockey manager heard about his prowess in goal , and recruited him . His parents were unsure if minor hockey was the right fit for their son , so he did not play organized hockey until he was 12 . He was first noticed by agent Ray Petkau when he was 13 , after playing with a church team at a tournament in Steinbach , Manitoba . As of November 2011 , Petkau was still his representative . Reimer played his last seasons of minor hockey for the Interlake Lightning of the Manitoba " AAA " Midget league . He was the team 's rookie of the year and top scholastic player after the 2002 – 03 season , and the most valuable player after the 2004 – 05 season . = = = Junior = = = Reimer was selected by the Red Deer Rebels in the fifth round of the 2003 Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Bantam Draft , with a pick that originally belonged to the Spokane Chiefs . The team drafted Reimer largely on the word of a single scout , Carter Sears . After Reimer performed poorly during his first training camp with the club , Rebels head coach Brent Sutter wanted to release him , but Sears was persistent in his support for Reimer . Reimer made the club in his third attempt after having been cut the previous two seasons . His first season in the WHL was a poor one for the Rebels . Reimer played 34 games , recording only 7 wins . Reimer broke his hand late in the season , an injury which cost him a chance to play for Team Canada at the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships . Reimer was selected by the Toronto Maple Leafs in the fourth round ( 99th overall ) of the 2006 National Hockey League ( NHL ) Entry Draft . John Ferguson , Jr . , the Maple Leafs general manager at the time , remembers Reimer as an unfinished product needing time to develop , being " somewhat raw " . At the time of the draft , Reimer was preparing for his high school graduation , and did not attend the event in Vancouver , British Columbia . He said , " I made a decision not to pay a lot of attention because I was reluctant to get my hopes too high . " His agent , Ray Petkau , called with the news about being drafted and later brought him his Maple Leafs jersey and hat that draftees receive . Prior to the draft , Reimer had mentioned that he would like to be drafted by the Los Angeles Kings , saying " I 'd love to play hockey in all that sunshine . " Reimer attended training camp with the Maple Leafs in 2006 and 2007 , but was returned to the Rebels both times . During the 2006 – 07 WHL season , Reimer played in 60 games with the Rebels , and recording 26 wins , 23 losses and 7 ties . This was the only season in his WHL career that Reimer finished with a winning record . The 2007 – 08 WHL season was Reimer 's final season in the WHL . He suffered a torn ligament in his ankle , and only appeared in 30 games . In March 2008 , the Maple Leafs signed Reimer to a three @-@ year contract worth an annual base salary of $ 555 @,@ 000 . The deal included a $ 180 @,@ 000 signing bonus and playing incentives that could increase the total value of the contract to $ 1 @.@ 8 million . His base salary was $ 555 @,@ 000 — the minimum salary for an NHL player . = = = Professional = = = = = = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = = = After attending the Maple Leafs training camp in September 2008 , he was assigned to the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . After starting the season with the Marlies , Reimer was assigned to the Reading Royals of the ECHL . He was recalled by the Marlies and recorded his first AHL win by a score of 3 – 2 in a shootout on December 27 , 2008 against the Manitoba Moose . In two stints with the Marlies , Reimer had a record of one win and two losses , with a goals against average ( GAA ) of 3 @.@ 28 and a .882 save percentage . With the Royals , Reimer had a record of ten wins , seven losses and three ties . At the ECHL trade deadline , Reimer was moved to the South Carolina Stingrays , a team that had gone through eight goaltenders during the season . The deal was facilitated to expose Reimer to post @-@ season experience , as the Royals were out of playoff contention . While with the Stingrays , Reimer helped them win the 2009 Kelly Cup championship . Recording four wins and one shutout over eight games in the post @-@ season , he was named the ECHL Playoffs Most Valuable Player . After attending the Maple Leafs training camp ahead of the 2009 – 10 National Hockey League ( NHL ) season , Reimer was again sent down to the AHL . As part of the Marlies ' pre @-@ season , Reimer competed in the Gardiner Cup , held as part of Scotland 's 2009 Homecoming celebrations . He stopped 33 shots in the final as the Marlies lost 3 – 1 to the Hamilton Bulldogs . Back in the AHL , he spent the majority of the 2009 – 10 season with the Marlies , playing in 26 games and recording 14 wins . He had a GAA of 2 @.@ 25 and a save percentage of .925 . Reimer was called up by the Leafs on an emergency basis on October 13 , 2009 , when starting goaltender Vesa Toskala was injured . Serving as Joey MacDonald 's backup , he did not receive any playing time in his first NHL call @-@ up ; he was sent back down to the Marlies on October 25 , 2009 . Reimer missed significant time with an ankle injury during the 2009 – 10 season . It was not the same ankle he injured during his final season with the Red Deer Rebels . At the outset of the 2010 – 11 NHL season , Reimer again was assigned to the AHL 's Marlies . Reimer was not expected to contribute to the Maple Leafs at the NHL level during the 2010 – 11 season . Expectations for the young netminder were low heading into the season , with head coach Ron Wilson saying " We wanted him to play in the minors and continue to get better , develop and try to stay healthy . " He was recalled by the Maple Leafs several months into the season , making his NHL debut on December 20 , 2010 in relief of Jonas Gustavsson against the Atlanta Thrashers . He played 14 minutes in the third period , stopping all four shots he faced . Reimer made his first NHL start against the Ottawa Senators on January 1 , 2011 . The Maple Leafs won the game 5 – 1 , with Reimer recording 32 saves while picking up his first career NHL win . On February 3 , 2011 , Reimer recorded 27 saves and picked up his first career NHL shutout against the Carolina Hurricanes . A combination of injuries and poor play by Gustavsson and Jean @-@ Sebastien Giguere provided an opportunity for Reimer at the NHL level . His strong play caused the Leafs to carry three goalies on their NHL roster , a fact which did not surprise Giguere , who said " The way he played the last time he was up , you knew he was going to get another chance . " Leafs head coach Ron Wilson acknowledged Reimer as the team 's starting goalie as they set out on a late @-@ season run for a playoff spot , saying " It ’ s going to be his ball the rest of the way . As long as we stay in the race . And I think he ’ s up to it . " Reimer became a quick fan favourite during his rookie NHL season , earning the nicknames " Optimus Reim " and " The Statue " . The former is a reference to the Transformers protagonist Optimus Prime , while the latter resulted from head coach Wilson 's attempts to suppress the hype around the rookie goalie only a short time into his NHL career , saying " There 's all this [ attention ] around here , a guy wins a game and we 're ready to build a statue for him . " Reimer 's strong performance was recognized by the league when he was named the NHL 's Rookie of the Month for March 2011 . Reimer would have become a restricted free agent on July 1 , 2011 , but he signed a three @-@ year contract worth $ 5 @.@ 4 million ( $ 1 @.@ 8 million salary cap hit ) on June 9 , 2011 . Reimer began the 2011 – 12 season as the starter going 4 – 0 – 1 . He suffered an injury on October 22 in a game against the Montreal Canadiens . During the game Reimer was run into by Brian Gionta , he finished the first period , but did not return after the intermission . The team called the injury whiplash despite rumors that he was suffering from a concussion . Reimer missed 19 games with the injury , and struggled upon his return , yielding some starts to Gustavsson . After recording two back @-@ to @-@ back shutouts on February 1 and February 4 , Reimer seemed to have solidified the starting position once again . Near the end of March 2012 , Reimer was starting to play to an acceptable standard again , but an upper @-@ body injury ( later revealed to be a neck injury ) sidelined him for the remainder of the season from March 29 . On April 9 , he told the media that he would be available by training camp in September 2012 . Due to the NHL lockout , Reimer was afforded more time to heal and attended training camp in January 2013 . Reimer held off an early challenge from rookie backup Ben Scrivens to remain Toronto 's starting goaltender . On February 11 , Reimer suffered a MCL strain , which kept him out of action for a little over two weeks , he won all three of his next starts after returning . Upon returning Reimer backstopped the Maple Leafs to their first playoff berth since 2004 and finishing the regular season with a career best 2 @.@ 46 GAA and .924 SV % in 34 games . Prior to the 2013 – 14 season , the club acquired Jonathan Bernier from the Los Angeles Kings . At the beginning of the season , Reimer and Bernier were splitting time in the Toronto goal , but as the season progressed , Bernier cemented his status as the Leafs ' starting goaltender . Following the 2013 @-@ 2014 season , Reimer became a restricted free agent . Dissatisfied with his role as the Leafs ' backup , he requested a trade from the Leafs . On July 25 , 2014 , the Leafs and Reimer avoided a salary arbitration hearing scheduled for the next week by agreeing to terms on a two year contract with an average annual value of $ 2 @.@ 3 million . Reimer began the 2015 @-@ 16 season as Bernier 's backup , a role he had held since the team acquired the latter . However , Bernier was injured early in the season , and Reimer was given starting duties . He took off with the job , going 3 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 with a 1 @.@ 62 goals @-@ against average and .952 save percentage to be named the 3rd star for the week of November 9 – 15 , 2015 . Reimer would hold the position as Maple Leafs ' starting goaltender for the rest of his tenure , earning praise for his play on a Toronto team that struggled throughout the year . = = = = San Jose Sharks = = = = As the February 29 trade deadline approached , Reimer 's future with the rebuilding Maple Leafs became uncertain . On February 27 , 2016 , two days before the deadline , Reimer was traded to the San Jose Sharks , alongside Jeremy Morin , in exchange for Alex Stalock , Ben Smith and a conditional fourth round pick in the 2018 draft . Reimer had the best 5 on 5 save percentage and the best Fenwick save percentage in the NHL for the 2015 / 16 season ( 1200 minutes minimum TOI ) at .9404 and .9573 respectively . = = = = Florida Panthers = = = = On July 1 , 2016 , as a free agent for the first time in his career , Reimer was signed to a 5 @-@ year contract with the Florida Panthers . = = International play = = Reimer 's first brush with international hockey came near the end of the 2005 – 06 season . He was selected to play for Team Canada at the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships , but was unable to compete due to a broken hand he suffered while playing for Red Deer . After his strong rookie season in the NHL , Reimer received another invitation from Hockey Canada , this time to compete at the 2011 IIHF World Championship . Reimer got his first win in the tournament beating Belarus 4 – 1 . = = Playing style = = Reimer plays in the butterfly style of goaltending . Observers have attributed Reimer 's success during the 2010 – 11 season to his ability to maintain his focus and confidence . Reimer tries to focus on the basics of playing goal , feeling that the fundamentals of goaltending are the key to success , saying " It ’ s not about making the great save , or making a diving save or playing outside yourself . It ’ s all about pushing , stopping , and being square and just relying on that . Most of the time if you let out a rebound the defenceman is there so it ’ s more about being solid fundamentally . " = = Personal = = Reimer was born in Arborg , Manitoba , to parents Harold and Marlene Reimer . His father owns a business moving homes . He graduated from Morweena Christian High School in his hometown . His favorite hockey team growing up was the Toronto Maple Leafs , and his favourite player was Ed Belfour . Reimer met his wife , April , at a junior hockey game in Moose Jaw , Saskatchewan . = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = = = = International = = =
= Barret Wallace = Barret Wallace ( バレット・ウォーレス , Baretto Wōresu ) is a player character in Square Enix 's role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII . Created by character designer Tetsuya Nomura , he has since appeared in the CGI film sequel , Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children as well as other games and media in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII series . As of Advent Children , Barret is voiced by Masahiro Kobayashi in Japanese and Beau Billingslea in English localizations . Barret is first introduced in Final Fantasy VII as an eco @-@ terrorist , leading the group AVALANCHE to bomb Mako reactors in the fictional city of Midgar , so as to avenge the losses dealt him by the megacorporation Shinra , the Planet 's de facto world government , who operate under the pretense of saving the Planet . As the story progresses , Barret re @-@ examines his efforts and focuses on pursuing the villain Sephiroth in an effort to protect the Planet and the future of his adopted daughter , Marlene . Elements of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII would later expand upon his character , detailing the character 's history before and after the events of the original game . The first dark @-@ skinned playable character in the Final Fantasy series , Barret 's appearance and sometimes profane speech has been heavily compared to that of actor Mr. T , earning much praise , but also criticism and accusations of racism by some . = = Conception and design = = Designed by Tetsuya Nomura , Barret was present in Final Fantasy VII from its early development . Initially , the game was to have only three playable characters , with Barret one of those three , along with the protagonist Cloud Strife and the heroine Aerith Gainsborough . During a phone call to project director Yoshinori Kitase , it was suggested that at some point in the game , one of the main characters should die , and after much discussion as to whether it should be Barret or Aerith , the producers chose Aerith , as they felt Barret 's death would be " too obvious . " Barret 's name is based on the Japanese transliteration of the English word " bullet " , and he was developed with the " Gunner " character class in mind . Standing 6 feet 5 inches ( 197 cm ) tall , he is the first black playable character in the series , and has a high and tight haircut and full beard , and an earring in his left ear . His attire consists of a jacket with torn sleeves , dark green pants , boots , a fingerless glove on his left hand , and metal bands surrounding his abdomen and left wrist . His left upper arm is covered by a bowgun ; this was later changed by replacing his right hand with a prosthetic Gatling gun ( called a " Gimmick Arm " ) which he refers to as his " partner " in @-@ game . He was originally planned to have a medallion around his neck , described as a gift from his deceased wife , but this was later changed to a set of dog tags . When developing Advent Children , Nomura stated that because of the comparisons between Barret 's original design and Mr. T , they decided to take it in a different direction for the film , implementing co @-@ director Takeshi Nozue 's suggestion to give him cornrows for his hair , while Nomura designed his face . Artist Yusuke Naora influenced the design as well , developing his attire , which originally consisted of white overalls , before instead having him wear him a down vest . Barret 's arm tattoo was changed as well , although it retained the " skull and fire " motif of the original . Other aspects of his design included the loss of the metal bands around his body , a white sleeve extending from the middle of his right forearm to his elbow fastened by straps , a black band on his left forearm surrounded by a pink string and bow , and a fishnet shirt that ends in torn fibers below his waist . The dog tags were altered to a bullet and medallion supported by a chain around his neck , and three rings covered his left hand . His Gimmick Arm was modified into a robotic prosthetic hand , developed by Nomura , with the only guideline being " a huge , over @-@ the @-@ top gun that transforms in a huge , over @-@ the @-@ top way . " Nozue stated that these specifics made it difficult to work with , and decided to conceal the hand 's transformation sequence into the gun as much as possible . His Advent Children design was also planned to be used for the Final Fantasy VII remake . However , the staff later decided to give every character in the party a new look . When choosing a voice actor for the film , Nomura was initially unsure of whether to have Masahiro Kobayashi do the role of Barret or another character , Loz . Kobayashi described his performance as treating Barret as " unrefined [ ... ] but also dependable and unique , " trying to keep his " upbeat character and good outlook in mind . " He tried to give him a booming , confident sounding voice , though at times was instructed to " take it up a notch . " = = Appearances = = = = = Final Fantasy VII = = = First seen in Final Fantasy VII in 1997 , Barret is introduced as the leader of the eco @-@ terrorist organization AVALANCHE . Situated in city of Midgar , his group opposes the ruling company , Shinra , and their use of " Mako " energy as a power source , believing it to be killing the Planet . To this end , AVALANCHE bombs their Mako reactors , with the specific goal of saving the Planet . When the game begins , they have just hired the mercenary Cloud Strife at the behest of his childhood friend and AVALANCHE member Tifa Lockhart , nicknaming him " Spiky " in reference to his hairstyle . After the deaths of several members of AVALANCHE , Barret follows Cloud out of Midgar in pursuit of the game 's villain , Sephiroth . Along the way he encounters a former friend of his , Dyne , armed in a manner similar to him , who forces Barret to fight him . Upon Barret defeating Dyne , Dyne kills himself . Through flashbacks it is revealed that Shinra had wanted to build a Mako reactor in his home town of Corel , an idea Barret advocated . However , due to an accident at the plant , Shinra razed the town , killing Barret 's wife in the process , and causing Barret and Dyne to flee with Dyne 's daughter , Marlene . Cornered , Dyne slipped off a cliff and Barret grabbed his hand , but Shinra soldier 's opened fire , and destroyed Barret 's and Dyne 's right and left hands respectively , causing the latter to fall to his presumed death . Barret adopted Marlene as his own daughter , had an " adapter " graft to his arm to interface with prosthetic weapons to aid in his combat against Shinra , and founded AVALANCHE . Dyne 's death causes him to admit his grudge with Shinra is solely for revenge , with his earlier claims of " saving the world " meant only to convince himself he was fighting for the greater good . Barret eventually shifts his goal to actually wanting to save the Planet , doing so for Marlene 's sake , and he helps Cloud and his allies defeat Sephiroth to prevent the Planet 's destruction . Early drafts of Barret 's background featured subtle differences , such as Marlene intended as Barret 's biological daughter , and his wife executed in front of him by a then @-@ undecided Shinra executive . The attack on Corel was initially written to be due to the discovery of Mako energy and Shinra 's desire to keep its existence a secret . His reunion with Dyne was also different , written to culminate in a duel between the two in Corel 's ruins , while Cloud and the others fought investigating Shinra soldiers . = = = Compilation of Final Fantasy VII = = = Barret appears in Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , a 2005 mobile phone @-@ based prequel to the events of Final Fantasy VII , which shows the events prior to Corel 's destruction . He helps the game 's protagonists , the Turks , defend the Mako reactor , believing it to be the town 's future . It is revealed that the reactor is under attack by the original AVALANCHE group , who are the cause of Shinra 's attack upon the town . Unaware of their involvement , Barret uses their ideals to form his own branch of the group . In 2005 , Barret appeared in the CGI film Advent Children , which details the events two years after Sephiroth 's defeat . Barret places Marlene in Tifa 's care , travelling the world to rebuild the planet 's infrastructure and find alternate power sources to replace Mako . He returns later to assist in combating the film 's villains , the Remnants and fight the summon creature Bahamut SIN . He later appears in a small role in the 2006 video game Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , set one year after Advent Children , where he helps the protagonist Vincent Valentine prevent Omega WEAPON from destroying the planet . A novella entitled " Case of Barret " was released in 2007 exclusively for the " Limited Edition Collector 's Set " DVD edition of Advent Children . Written by Kazushige Nojima as part of the On the Way to a Smile series , it details the events between Final Fantasy VII and Advent Children , examining Barret 's reaction to his weapon and his belief that it made him a monster . At the conclusion of the story , Barret visits the creator of the adapter on his wrist and receives the prosthetic hand / gun combination seen in the film , reasoning that although he needs a hand , he also still needs a weapon to prevent others from having to fight . He then decides to return to Marlene . = = Critical reception = = Barret 's comparisons to Mr. T in the media has resulted in both praise and criticism , with most of the criticism accusing the character of serving as a negative racial stereotype of African Americans . IGN argued in favor of this point , citing his use of " stilted slang , " and stating that the character stands out amongst the cast because " his dialog is written as if it was run through a broken ebonic translator , " further noting a trend in Japanese games to apply such dialogue to characters based on their skin color . Journalist Jeremy Parish agreed that the character was racist , although he argued that cultural gaps between Japan and the United States , plus the lack of American translators for Final Fantasy VII may have been contributing factors , arguing that the likeness between Barret and Mr. T was possibly an attempt to make a character that appealed to Americans , as the actor did . In contrast , on 1UP.com , Parish argued in favor of Barret , noting that while on the surface he appeared to be the " worst kind of stereotype , " he was a great character with complexity , having made " difficult decisions in his life , and agonized over his losses . " Parish went further to describe Barret as the " first true father figure the [ Final Fantasy ] series had ever seen , " noting his relationship with his adopted daughter . RPGamer 's content manager Shawn Bruckner took the discussion further , arguing that claims of Barret 's presentation being racist was oversimplification of the character 's portrayal , and stated that while he was in some aspects a stereotype , in others , such as his compassion towards his daughter or guilt regarding his past actions , he was not . He added that Barret " shows us that a black man speaking in ' ebonics ' is not something to fear , " and that his portrayal was not racist , but instead the opposite . Despite their criticism , IGN ranked Barret fourth on their 2006 list of best sidekick characters in video games , stating that he " took the videogame world by storm " when introduced and noting that his portrayal was also appealing , adding that his past made him a visibly loyal character . Joystiq named him one of twenty characters from the Final Fantasy franchise they wished to see in Square Enix ' crossover fighting game Dissidia Final Fantasy , noting a preference for his use of profanity and citing his combat abilities as easily suitable for the game . Edge praised Barret 's introduction as something " new " in the series , citing both his use of a gun and his " distinctively black " character , and further describing him as a " pseudo @-@ nod " to similarly armed characters , such as Mega Man or Samus Aran , who in contrast were either robots or encased in armor .
= Church of the SubGenius = The Church of the SubGenius is a parody religion that satirizes better known belief systems . It teaches a complex philosophy that focuses on J. R. " Bob " Dobbs , purportedly a salesman from the 1950s , who is revered as a prophet by the Church . SubGenius leaders have developed detailed narratives about Dobbs and his relationship to various gods and conspiracies . Their central deity , Jehovah 1 , is accompanied by other gods drawn from ancient mythology and popular fiction . SubGenius literature describes a grand conspiracy that seeks to brainwash the world and oppress Dobbs ' followers . In its narratives , the Church presents a blend of cultural references in an elaborate remix of the sources . Ivan Stang , who co @-@ founded the Church of the SubGenius in the 1970s , serves as its leader and publicist . He has imitated actions of other religious leaders , using the tactic of culture jamming in an attempt to undermine better @-@ known faiths . Church leaders instruct their followers to avoid mainstream commercialism and the belief in absolute truths . The group holds that the quality of " Slack " is of utmost importance — it is never clearly defined . The number of followers is unknown , although the Church 's message has been welcomed by college students and artists in the United States . The group is often compared to Discordianism . Journalists often consider the Church to be an elaborate joke , but a few academics have defended it as an honest system of deeply held beliefs . = = Origins = = The Church of the SubGenius was founded by Ivan Stang ( born Douglas St Clair Smith ) and Philo Drummond ( born Steve Wilcox ) as the SubGenius Foundation . Dr. X ( born Monte Dhooge ) was also present at the group 's inception . The organization 's first recorded activity was the publication of a photocopied document , known as the Sub Genius Pamphlet # 1 , disseminated in Dallas , Texas in 1979 . The document announced the impending end of the world and the possible deaths of its readers . It criticized Christian conceptions of God and New Age perceptions of spirituality . Church leaders maintain that a man named J. R. " Bob " Dobbs founded the group in 1953 . SubGenius members constructed an elaborate account of the life of Dobbs , which is described by commentators as fictional . They assert that he telepathically contacted Drummond in 1972 , before meeting him in person the next year , and that Drummond persuaded Ivan Stang to join shortly afterwards . Stang describes himself as the " sacred scribe " of Dobbs and a " professional maven of weirdness " . = = Beliefs = = = = = Deities = = = The Church of the SubGenius ' ostensible beliefs defy categorization or a simple narrative , often striking outside observers as bizarre and convoluted . The group has developed an intricate mythology involving gods , aliens , and mutants , which is usually considered by observers to satirize other religions . Their primary deity , generally known as Jehovah 1 , is cast as an extraterrestrial , who contacted Dobbs in the 1940s . Various accounts state that the encounter occurred while Dobbs was building a television or watching late @-@ night television . Jehovah 1 gave him supernatural knowledge of the past and future , in addition to incredible power . Dobbs then posed deep questions to the alien , receiving mysterious answers . Some of their discussion centered on a powerful conspiracy , to which the Church attributes command of the world . Jehovah 1 and his spouse Eris , regarded by the Church as " relatively evil " , are classified as " rebel gods " . SubGenius leaders note that Jehovah 1 is wrathful , a quality expressed by his " stark fist of removal " . The Church teaches that they are part of the Elder Gods , who are committed to human pain , but that Jehovah 1 is " relatively good " in comparison . Yog @-@ Sothoth , a character from H. P. Lovecraft 's Cthulhu Mythos , is the leader of the Elder Gods . In her 2010 study of the Church of the SubGenius , religious scholar Carole Cusack of the University of Sydney states that Lovecraft 's work is a " model for the Church of the SubGenius ' approach to scripture " , in that aspects of his fiction were treated as real by some within paganism , just as the Church appropriates aspects of popular culture in its spirituality . = = = J. R. " Bob " Dobbs = = = SubGenius leaders teach that Dobbs ' nature is ineffable and consequently stylize his name with quotation marks . They cast him as a " World Avatar " and hold that he has died and been reborn many times . The Church 's primary symbol is an icon of his face in which he smokes a pipe . Stang states that the image was taken from Yellow Pages clip art , and it has been likened to Ward Cleaver , Mark Trail , or a 1950s @-@ era salesman . The Church 's canon contains references to aspects of the culture of the United States in that decade ; religious scholar Danielle Kirby of RMIT University argues that this type of reference " simultaneously critiques and subverts " the concept of the American dream . In the Church 's mythology , Jehovah 1 had intended for Dobbs to lead a powerful conspiracy and brainwash individuals to make them work for a living . Dobbs refused to support the group ; instead , he infiltrated it and organized a counter @-@ movement . Church leaders teach that he was a very intelligent child and , as he grew older , studied several religious traditions , including Sufism , Rosicrucianism , and the Fourth Way . Another key event in his life occurred when he traveled to Tibet ; there he learned vital truths about topics including Yetis . The Church teaches that Yetis exist , and that SubGenius members have descended from them . The only relative of Dobbs that the Church identifies is his mother , Jane McBride Dobbs — Church leaders cite his lack of resemblance to his mother 's husband as the reason for not revealing his father . Dobbs is married to a woman named Connie ; SubGenius leaders identify the couple as archetypes of the genders in a belief that resembles Hindu doctrines about Shiva and Parvati . Church literature has variously described Dobbs ' occupation as " drilling equipment " or fluoride sales , and accounts of his life generally emphasize his good fortune rather than intelligence . SubGenius leaders believe that he is capable of time travel , and that this ability results in occasional changes to doctrine , deemed the " Sacred Doctrine of Erasability " by the Church . Consequently , members attempt to follow Dobbs by eschewing unchangeable plans . = = = Conspiracy and " Slack " = = = The Church of the SubGenius ' literature incorporates many aspects of conspiracy theories , teaching that there is a grand conspiracy at the root of all lesser ones . It records that there are many UFOs , most of which are used by the conspiracy leaders to monitor humans , although a few contain extraterrestrials . In the Church 's view , this conspiracy uses a facade of empowering messages but manipulates people so that they become indoctrinated into its service . The Church refers to these individuals as " pinks " and states that they are blissfully unaware of the organization 's power and control . SubGenius leaders teach that most cultural and religious mores are the conspiracy 's propaganda . They maintain that their followers , but not the pinks , are capable of developing an imagination ; the Church teaches that Dobbs has empowered its members to see through these illusions . Owing to their descent from Yetis , the Church 's followers have a capacity for deep understanding that the pinks lack . Cultural studies scholar Solomon Davidoff states that the Church develops a " satiric commentary " on religion , morality , and conspiracies . SubGenius members believe that those in the service of the conspiracy seek to bar them from " Slack " , a quality promoted by the Church . Its teachings center on " Slack " ( always capitalized ) , which is never concisely defined , except in the claim that Dobbs embodies the quality . Church members seek to acquire " Slack " and believe that it will allow them the free , comfortable life ( without hard work or responsibility ) which they claim as an entitlement . Sex and the avoidance of work are taught as two key ways to gain " Slack " . Davidoff believes that " Slack " is " the ability to effortlessly achieve your goals " . Cusack states that the Church 's description of " Slack " as ineffable recalls the way that Tao is described , and Kirby casts " Slack " as a " unique magical system " . The Slackware Linux distribution is so named after the tenet of Slack . = = Members = = The Church of the SubGenius ' founders were based in Dallas when they distributed their first document . The SubGenius Foundation moved to Cleveland , Ohio , in 1999 . In 2009 , Stang claimed that the Church had 40 @,@ 000 members , but the actual number may have been much lower . As of 2012 , becoming a minister in the Church consists of paying a $ 35 fee ; Stang has estimated that there are 10 @,@ 000 ministers and that the Church 's annual income has reached $ 100 @,@ 000 . Most SubGenius members are male , and , according to Stang , many of them are social outcasts . He maintains that those who do not fit into society will ultimately triumph over those who do . The Church has experienced success " converting " college students , particularly at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . It has also gained popularity in several American cities , including San Francisco , Little Rock , and Cleveland . A few Church members have voiced concerns and / or amusement about new members who took the Church too seriously , fearing that they acted like serious cult @-@ followers , the very concept that the SubGenius parodies . Stang has expressed concern that the Church 's doctrines could exacerbate pre @-@ existing psychoses of mentally ill devotees , although he believes that the Church genuinely helps many adherents . Notable associates of the Church include Mark Mothersbaugh , Mojo Nixon , Paul Mavrides , Paul Reubens , members of Negativland , David Byrne , and R. Crumb . Crumb , a cartoonist , provided early publicity for the church by reprinting Sub Genius Pamphlet # 1 in his comics anthology Weirdo . References to the Church are present in several works of art , including the Internet @-@ based collaborative fiction Ong 's Hat , the comic book The Middleman , the band Sublime 's album 40oz. to Freedom , and the television program Pee @-@ wee 's Playhouse . = = = Instructions = = = Church leaders have issued specific instructions to their followers ; Robert Latham of the University of California , Riverside , casts their ideology as " anarcholibertarian " . Five specific commands particularly embody the group 's values . The first command is to shun regular employment and stop working . This encapsulates the Church 's view that to repent is to " SLACK OFF " ( sic ) , in opposition to the idea of working for a living . SubGenius leaders state that it is permissible for members to collect public assistance in lieu of maintaining employment . The second command is to purchase products that are sold by the Church , which its leaders teach was founded by Dobbs to gain wealth . Unlike most religious groups , the Church proudly admits it is for @-@ profit ( presumably mocking some religious groups that seem to have ulterior financial motives ) . Cusack sees the instruction to buy as an ironic parody of the " greed is good " mentality of the 1980s , and Kirby notes that although the group emphasizes " the consumption of popular cultural artefacts " , this consumption is " simultaneously de @-@ emphasized by the processes of remix " . The third command is to rebel against " law and order " : specifically , the Church condemns security cameras and encourages computer hacking . Cusack notes that this instruction recalls Robert Anton Wilson 's critique of law and order . The fourth command is to rid the world of everyone who did not descend from Yetis . SubGenius leaders teach that Dobbs hopes to rid the Earth of 90 percent of humanity , making the Earth " clear " . The group praises drug abuse and abortion as effective methods of culling unneeded individuals . The fifth command is to exploit fear , specifically that of individuals who are part of the conspiracy . Church leaders teach that members of the conspiracy fear SubGenius devotees . = = Events = = = = = Devivals = = = Local groups of members of the Church of the SubGenius are known as " clenches " . They host periodic events known as " devivals " , which include sermons , music , and other art forms . Their leaders take comical names and give angry rants , and many devivals occur in bars or similar venues . Cusack compares the style of the services to Pentecostal revivalism ; David Giffels of the Akron Beacon Journal casts them as " campy preaching sessions " . Cusack posits that these events are examples of Peter Lamborn Wilson 's concept of Temporary Autonomous Zones , spaces in which the ordinary constraints of social control are suspended . On one occasion , the presence of the wife of a Church leader at a SubGenius meeting that included public nudity and a goat costume contributed to her losing custody of her children in a court case . However , the publicity surrounding the event was ultimately a boon to the Church 's recruitment efforts . The Church also celebrates several holidays in honor of characters drawn from fiction and popular culture , such as Monty Python , Dracula , and Klaatu . The Association for Consciousness Exploration and pagan groups have occasionally assisted the Church in its events . Some SubGenius members put little emphasis on meetings , citing the Church 's focus on individualism , although the Book of the SubGenius discusses community . The Church of the Subgenius has held Devivals in multiple states within the continental United States , as well as different countries , including China , the Netherlands , and Germany . The Church has also held Devivals at non @-@ SubGenius events , such as Burning Man and the Starwood Festival . The Church of the SubGenius has a relationship with the Association for Consciousness Exploration , which hosts the Starwood Festival in Pomeroy , Ohio . Subgenius members have access to discounted tickets for the ACE ’ s annual festival . = = = X @-@ Day = = = In early SubGenius literature , July 5 , 1998 , was introduced as a significant date , later becoming known as " X @-@ Day " . The Church held that Dobbs identified the date 's significance in the 1950s , claiming that the world was to experience a massive change on that date when Xists , beings from Planet X , would arrive on Earth . SubGenius leaders declared that their paying members were to be transported onto spaceships for union with goddesses as the world was destroyed , although a few posited that they would be sent to a joyful hell . In anticipation of the event , X @-@ Day " drills " were held in 1996 and 1997 . In July 1998 , the Church held a large devival at a " clothing @-@ optional " campground in Sherman , New York , attended by about 400 members . The event was ostensibly intended to celebrate the coming of aliens . When their appearance was not detected using the technology available at that time , Stang speculated that they might arrive in 8661 , an inversion of 1998 ; this has been interpreted as a satire of the way that religious groups have revised prophecies after their failures . Some critics have dismissed the event as a prank or form of " performance art " . Steve Bevilacqua , the Church 's business manager , admitted that his group made strange predictions about aliens , but contended that their statements were as believable as the account of Jesus ' walk on water . Another theory is that The Conspiracy has lied about what year the present year actually is ( just as they have lied about everything else ) , so that the liberation date would seem to pass without fulfillment and cause followers to lose faith . As a precaution , SubGenius members continue to gather for X @-@ Day every July 5 after 1998 . At these events , the non @-@ appearance of the aliens is celebrated . Cusack casts the productions as carnivalesque or an echo of ancient Greek satyr plays . = = Publishing = = = = = Online = = = The Church of the SubGenius established a website in May 1993 , and its members were very active on Usenet in the 1990s . = = = Print = = = Although it has gained a significant online presence , it was successful before the advent of Internet communities . The Church was a pioneer in the religious use of zines ; Cusack notes that its use of the medium can be seen as a rejection of the alienation of labor practices . The SubGenius Foundation has published several official teachings , as well as non @-@ doctrinal works by Stang . The Book of the SubGenius , which discusses " Slack " at length , was published by Simon & Schuster and sold 30 @,@ 000 copies in its first five years in print . Kirby casts the book as a " call to arms for the forces of absurdity " . The juxtaposition , visual style , and content of the book mirror the group as a whole . It draws themes from fiction , as well as established and new religions , parodying a number of topics , including the Church of the SubGenius itself . A number of SubGenius writers have authored stories to build their mythology , which have been compiled and published . Their core texts are disordered , presented in the style of a collage . Kirby notes that the group 's texts are a bricolage of cultural artifacts , which is then remixed into a new creation . In this process , Kirby argues , they interweave and juxtapose a variety of concepts , which she describes as a " web of references " . = = = Video = = = The group has also been promoted by a video Stang produced in 1992 . = = = Radio = = = The Church of the SubGenius hosts several radio shows throughout the world , including broadcasters in Atlanta , Ohio , Maryland , and California . The Hour of Slack , the Church ’ s most popular audio production , is broadcast by several radio stations in the United States and two in Canada . = = Analysis and commentary = = = = = Comparative religion = = = The Church 's teachings are often perceived as satirizing Christianity and Scientology , earning them a reputation as a parody religion . Church leaders have stated that Dobbs met L. Ron Hubbard , and SubGenius narratives echo extraterrestrial themes found in Scientology . Cusack notes that descriptions of Jehovah 1 bear noticeable similarities to Xenu , a powerful alien found in some Scientologist writings . The Church 's rhetoric has also been seen as a satirical imitation of the televangelism of the 1980s . Cusack sees the Church 's faux commercialism as culture jamming targeting prosperity theology ; she describes this as " a strikingly original innovation in contemporary religion " . Religious scholar Thomas Alberts of the University of London views the Church as attempting to " subvert the idea of authenticity in religion " by mirroring other religions to create both a sense of similarity and alterity . Cusack compares the Church of the SubGenius to the Ranters , a radical 17th @-@ century pantheist movement in England . She notes that they made statements that shocked many hearers , attacking traditional notions of religious orthodoxy and political authority . In her view , this demonstrates that the Church of the SubGenius has " legitimate pedigree in the history of Western religion " . The American journalist Michael Muhammad Knight likens the Church to the Moorish Orthodox Church of America , a 20th @-@ century American syncretic religious movement , citing their shared emphasis on freedom . There are a number of similarities between the Church of the SubGenius and Discordianism . Eris , the goddess of chaos who is worshiped by adherents of the latter , is believed by members of the Church of the SubGenius to be the wife of Jehovah 1 and an ally to humans . Like Discordianism , the Church of the SubGenius rejects absolute truth and embraces contradictions and paradoxes . Religious scholar David Chidester of the University of Cape Town views the Church as a " Discordian offshoot " , and Kirby sees them as " a child of the Discordians " . Both groups were heavily influenced by the writings of Robert Anton Wilson , who is referred to by SubGenius members as " Pope Bob " . Kirby states that the two groups have elements of bricolage and absurdity in common , but the Church of the SubGenius more explicitly remixes pop culture . = = = Categorization = = = Scholars often have difficulty defining the Church . Most commentators have placed the Church in the category of " joke religions " , which is usually seen as a pejorative description . Kirby sees this categorization as partially accurate because irony is an essential aspect of their faith . Other terms used to describe the Church include " faux cult " , " [ post @-@ modern ] cult " , " satirical pseudoreligion " , " sophisticated joke religion " , " anti @-@ religion religion " , and " high parody of cultdom " . Members of the Church , however , have consistently maintained that they practice a religion . Stang has described the group as both " satire and a real stupid religion " , and he contends that it is more honest about its nature than are other religions . Cusack states that the Church " must be accorded the status of a functional equivalent of religion , at the very least , if not ' authentic ' religion " . She sees it as " arguably a legitimate path to liberation " , citing its culture jamming and activism against commercialism . Kirby posits that the Church is a religion masquerading as a joke , rather than the reverse : in her view , it is a spiritual manifestation of a cultural shift toward irony . Alberts believes that there is broad agreement that the Church is fundamentally a different type of group than religions that date to antiquity ; he prefers to use the term " fake religion " to describe the group . He sees it , along with Discordianism , as part of a group of " popular movements that look and feel like religion , but whose apparent excess , irreverence and arbitrariness seem to mock religion " . Knight characterizes the Church as " at once a postmodern spoof of religion and a viable system in its own right " . = = = Appraisal = = = Kirby argues that the Church forms a counterpart to Jean Baudrillard 's concept of hyperreality , arguing " they create , rather than consume , popular culture in the practice of their spirituality " . She describes their remixing of popular culture sources as an " explicitly creative process " , maintaining that it prompts the reader to adopt some of the group 's views by forcing " the individual to reconsider normative methods of approaching the content " . She states that the group attempts to " strip references of their original meaning without necessarily losing their status as icons " . In addition , Kirby sees the Church 's goal as deconstructing " normative modes of thought and behavior " in American culture ; she believes that it attempts to fight culturally ingrained thought patterns by shocking people . She argues that traditional approaches to religion cast seriousness as a measure of devotion , an approach which she believes has failed in contemporary society . She feels that irony is a common value that has been ignored by most religions . By embracing the quality , she maintains , the Church of the SubGenius offers a more accessible worldview than many groups . Literature scholar Paul Mann of Pomona College is critical of the Church of the SubGenius . He notes that the Church purports to present the truth through absurdity and faults it for insufficiently examining the concept of truth itself . In addition , he believes that the group undermines its attempts to take a radical perspective by their " hysterical , literal , fantastic embrace " of criticism . Anarchist writer Bob Black , a former member , has criticized the Church , alleging that the group has come to be characterized by conformism and submission to authority . He believes that although it initially served to satirize cults , it later took on some of their aspects . In 1992 , allegations of cult @-@ like behavior also appeared in the newspaper Bedfordshire on Sunday after a spate of SubGenius @-@ themed vandalism struck the English town of Bedford . = = Publications = = Books SubGenius Foundation ( 1987 ) . Book of the SubGenius . Simon and Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 63810 @-@ 8 . Ivan Stang ( 1988 ) . High Weirdness by Mail . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 64260 @-@ 0 . Ivan Stang ( 1990 ) . Three @-@ fisted tales of " Bob " : Short Stories in the SubGenius Mythos . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 67190 @-@ 7 . Ivan Stang ; SubGenius Foundation ( 1994 ) . Revelation X : the " Bob " Apocryphon : Appointed to be Read in Churches . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 77006 @-@ 8 . Ivan Stang ( 2006 ) . The SubGenius Psychlopaedia of Slack : The Bobliographon . Running Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56025 @-@ 939 @-@ 8 . Videos Stang , Ivan ; Holland , Cordt ; Robins , Hal ( 2006 ) [ 1991 ] . Arise ! : the SubGenius Video ( DVD @-@ R ) . SubGenius Moving Pictures . OCLC 388112825 .
= Epaminondas = Epaminondas ( / ɪˌpæməˈnɒndəs / ; Greek : Ἐπαμεινώνδας , Epameinondas ; d . 362 BC ) , was a Theban general and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek city @-@ state of Thebes , leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a preeminent position in Greek politics . In the process he broke Spartan military power with his victory at Leuctra and liberated the Messenian helots , a group of Peloponnesian Greeks who had been enslaved under Spartan rule for some 230 years , having been defeated in the Messenian War ending in 600 BC . Epaminondas reshaped the political map of Greece , fragmented old alliances , created new ones , and supervised the construction of entire cities . He was militarily influential as well , inventing and implementing several major battlefield tactics . The Roman orator Cicero called him " the first man of Greece " , and Montaigne judged him one of the three " worthiest and most excellent men " that had ever lived , but Epaminondas has fallen into relative obscurity in modern times . The changes Epaminondas wrought on the Greek political order did not long outlive him , as the cycle of shifting hegemonies and alliances continued unabated . A mere twenty @-@ seven years after his death , a recalcitrant Thebes was obliterated by Alexander the Great . Thus Epaminondas — who had been praised in his time as an idealist and liberator — is today largely remembered for a decade ( 371 BC to 362 BC ) of campaigning that sapped the strength of the great land powers of Greece and paved the way for the Macedonian conquest . = = Historical sources = = The life of Epaminondas is very poorly attested in the ancient sources , especially compared to some of his near contemporaries ( e.g. Philip II of Macedon , Pelopidas ) . One principal reason for this is the loss of Plutarch 's biography of him . Epaminondas was one of approximately 50 ancient figures given an extensive biography by Plutarch in his Parallel Lives , in which he is paired with the Roman statesman Scipio Africanus ; however , both these " Lives " are now lost . Plutarch was writing over 400 years after Epaminondas 's death and is therefore very much a secondary source , but he often explicitly names his sources , which allows some degree of verification of his statements . Some details of Epaminondas 's life can be found in Plutarch 's " Lives " of Pelopidas and Agesilaus II , who were contemporaries . There is also a surviving ( and possibly abridged ) biography of Epaminondas by the Roman author Cornelius Nepos from the first century BC , in the absence of Plutarch 's , that becomes a major source for Epaminondas 's life . The period of Greek history from 411 – 362 BC is primarily attested by the historian Xenophon , who evidently saw his work as continuation of Thucydides 's History of the Peloponnesian War . Xenophon , who idolized Sparta and its king , Agesilaus , avoids mentioning Epaminondas wherever possible and does not even note his presence at the Battle of Leuctra . Epaminondas 's role in the conflicts of the 4th century is also described by Diodorus Siculus , in his Bibliotheca historica . Diodorus was writing in the 1st century BC , and is also very much a secondary source , though useful for corroborating details found elsewhere . = = Early life = = Epaminondas was born into the Theban aristocracy in the late 5th century BC ; estimates for the year of his birth vary widely . Cornelius Nepos claims that his father , Polymnis , had been left impoverished by his ancestors . He was educated in his childhood by Lysis of Tarentum , one of the last major Pythagorean philosophers . Epaminondas evidently excelled as a student , and was devoted to Lysis . Nepos also tells us that the young Epaminondas worked hard to increase his physical prowess , and specifically his agility , since " he thought that strength suited the purposes of wrestlers , but that agility conduced to excellence in war . " He also trained in running and wrestling , but most of all , he undertook " martial exercises " ( presumably training with weapons ) . Epaminondas evidently began serving as a soldier after adolescence ; Plutarch refers to an incident involving Epaminondas that occurred during a battle at Mantinea . Though not explicitly stated , this was probably the Spartan attack on Mantinea in 385 BC , as described by Xenophon ; Plutarch tells us that Epaminondas was there as part of a Theban force aiding the Spartans , so this battle fits the description . Epaminondas was certainly not old enough to have served at the First Battle of Mantinea which was in 418 BC . It was at this battle , regardless of exactly when and where this occurred , that a defining moment of Epaminondas 's early life would happen . Epaminondas saved the life of his fellow Theban Pelopidas ; Pelopidas , after receiving seven wounds in front , sank down upon a great heap of friends and enemies who lay dead together ; but Epaminondas , although he thought him lifeless , stood forth to defend his body and his arms , and fought desperately , single @-@ handed against many , determined to die rather than leave Pelopidas lying there . And now he too was in a sorry plight , having been wounded in the breast with a spear and in the arm with a sword , when Agesipolis the Spartan king came to his aid from the other wing , and when all hope was lost , saved them both . Plutarch says that this incident firmly cemented their friendship , and Pelopidas would be Epaminondas 's partner in politics for the next twenty years . Epaminondas was considered the greatest warrior @-@ statesmen of ancient Thebes by many , including the Roman historian Diodorus Siculus . Diodorus does not have anything to say about the sexual orientation of Epaminondas or the Sacred Band , nor does he say anything about the following account , again from Plutarch ( Amatorius 17 ) . According to Plutarch 's dramatic dialogue , Epaminondas had two male lovers : Asopichus and Caphisodorus , the latter died with him at Mantineia in battle . They were buried together , something usually reserved for a husband and wife in Greek society . = = Political and military career = = = = = Background = = = Epaminondas lived at a particularly turbulent point in Greek history . Following the end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC , Sparta had embarked upon an aggressively unilateralist policy towards the rest of Greece and quickly alienated many of its former allies . Thebes , meanwhile , had greatly increased its own power during the war and sought to gain control of the other cities of Boeotia ( the region of ancient Greece northwest of Attica ) . This policy , along with other disputes , brought Thebes into conflict with Sparta . By 395 BC , Thebes , alongside Athens , Corinth , and Argos , found itself arrayed against Sparta ( a former ally ) in the Corinthian War . That war , which dragged on inconclusively for eight years , saw several bloody Theban defeats at Spartan hands . By the time of its conclusion , Thebes had been forced to check its expansionist ambitions and return to its old alliance with Sparta . In 382 BC , however , the Spartan commander Phoebidas committed an act that would ultimately turn Thebes against Sparta for good and pave the way for Epaminondas 's rise to power . Passing through Boeotia on campaign , Phoebidas took advantage of civil strife within Thebes to secure entrance to the city for his troops . Once inside , he seized the Cadmeia ( the Theban acropolis ) , and forced the anti @-@ Spartan party to flee the city . Epaminondas , although associated with that faction , was allowed to remain ; since " his philosophy made him to be looked down upon as a recluse , and his poverty as impotent " . The Spartans installed a puppet government in Thebes , and garrisoned the Cadmeia to ensure the behaviour of the Thebans . = = = Early career = = = = = = = 378 BC – Theban coup = = = = In the years following the Spartan takeover , the exiled Thebans regrouped in Athens and , at the instigation of Pelopidas , prepared to liberate their city . Meanwhile , in Thebes , Epaminondas began preparing the young men of the city to fight the Spartans . In the winter of 379 BC , a small group of the exiles , led by Pelopidas , infiltrated the city . They then assassinated the leaders of the pro @-@ Spartan government , and supported by Epaminondas and Gorgidas , who led a group of young men , and a force of Athenian hoplites , they surrounded the Spartans on the Cadmeia . The following day , Epaminondas and Gorgidas brought Pelopidas and his men before the Theban assembly and exhorted the Thebans to fight for their freedom ; the assembly responded by acclaiming Pelopidas and his men as liberators . The Cadmeia was surrounded , and the Spartans attacked ; Pelopidas realised that they must be expelled before an army came from Sparta to relieve them . The Spartan garrison eventually surrendered on the condition that they were allowed to march away unharmed . The narrow margin of the conspirators ' success is demonstrated by the fact that the Spartan garrison met a Spartan force on the way to rescue them as they marched back to Sparta . Plutarch portrays the Theban coup as an immensely significant event : ... the subsequent change in the political situation made this exploit the more glorious . For the war which broke down the pretensions of Sparta and put an end to her supremacy by land and sea , began from that night , in which people , not by surprising any fort or castle or citadel , but by coming into a private house with eleven others , loosed and broke in pieces , if the truth may be expressed in a metaphor , the fetters of the Lacedaemonian supremacy , which were thought indissoluble and not to be broken . = = = = 378 – 371 BC – Aftermath = = = = When news of the uprising at Thebes reached Sparta , an army under Cleombrotus I had been dispatched to subdue the city , but turned back without engaging the Thebans . Another army under Agesilaus II was then dispatched to attack the Thebans . However , the Thebans refused to meet the Spartan army in battle , instead building a trench and stockade outside Thebes , which they occupied , preventing the Spartans advancing on the city . The Spartans ravaged the countryside but eventually departed , leaving Thebes independent . This victory so heartened the Thebans that they undertook operations against other neighboring cities as well . In short order the Thebans were able to reconstitute their old Boeotian confederacy in a new , democratic form . The cities of Boeotia united as a federation with an executive body composed of seven generals , or Boeotarchs , elected from seven districts throughout Boeotia . This political fusion was so successful that henceforth the names Theban and Boeotian were used interchangeably in a nod to the newfound solidarity of the region . Seeking to crush the Thebans , the Spartans would invade Boeotia three times over the next few years ( 378 , 377 , ? possibly Leuctra ) . At first the Thebans feared facing the Spartans head on , but the conflict gave them much practice and training , and they " had their spirits roused and their bodies thoroughly inured to hardships , and gained experience and courage from their constant struggles " . Although Sparta remained the dominant land power in Greece , the Boeotians had demonstrated that they , too , were a martial threat and a politically cohesive power . At the same time , Pelopidas , an advocate of an aggressive policy against Sparta , had established himself as a major political leader in Thebes . Epaminondas 's role in the years to 371 BC is difficult to piece together . Certainly , he served with the Theban armies in the defence of Boeotia in the 370s , and , by 371 BC , he had become a Boeotarch . It seems safe to assume , given their close friendship , and their close collaboration after 371 BC , that Epaminondas and Pelopidas also collaborated closely on Theban policy in the period 378 – 371 BC . = = = = Peace conference of 371 BC = = = = The years following the Theban coup had seen desultory fighting between Sparta and Thebes , with Athens also drawn into the conflict . A feeble attempt at a common peace had been made in 375 BC , but desultory fighting between Athens and Sparta had resumed by 373 BC ( at the latest ) . By 371 BC , Athens and Sparta were again war @-@ weary , and in 371 BC a conference was held at Sparta to discuss another attempt at a common peace . Epaminondas was serving as a Boeotarch for 371 BC , and led the Boeotian delegation to the peace conference . Peace terms were agreed at the outset of the conference , and the Thebans presumably signed the treaty in their own name alone . However , on the following day , Epaminondas caused a drastic break with Sparta when he insisted on signing not for the Thebans alone , but for all the Boeotians . Agesilaus refused to allow the change of the Theban envoys ' signature , insisting that the cities of Boeotia should be independent ; Epaminondas countered that if this were to be the case , the cities of Laconia should be as well . Irate , Agesilaus struck the Thebans from the document . The delegation returned to Thebes , and both sides mobilized for war . = = = = Battle of Leuctra ( 371 BC ) = = = = Immediately following the failure of the peace talks , orders were sent out from Sparta to the Spartan king Cleombrotus , who was at the head of an army in Phocis , commanding him to march directly to Boeotia . Skirting north to avoid mountain passes where the Boeotians were prepared to ambush him , Cleombrotus entered Boeotian territory from an unexpected direction and quickly seized a fort and captured 10 or 12 triremes . Then marching towards Thebes , he camped at Leuctra , in the territory of Thespiae . Here , the Boeotian army came to meet him . The Spartan army contained some 10 @,@ 000 hoplites , 700 of whom were the elite warriors known as Spartiates . The Boeotians opposite them numbered about 6 @,@ 000 , but were bolstered by a cavalry superior to that of the Peloponnesians . Epaminondas was given charge of the Boeotian army , with the other six Boeotarchs in an advisory capacity . Pelopidas , meanwhile , was captain of the Sacred Band , the elite Theban troops . Before the battle , there was evidently much debate amongst the Boeotarchs about whether to fight or not . As a consistent advocate of an aggressive policy , Epaminondas wished to fight , and supported by Pelopidas , he managed to swing the vote in favour of battle . During the course of the battle , Epaminondas was to display a grasp of tactics hitherto unseen in Greek warfare . The phalanx formation used by Greek armies had a distinct tendency to veer to the right during battle , " because fear makes each man do his best to shelter his unarmed side with the shield of the man next him on the right " . Traditionally , a phalanx therefore lined up for battle with the elite troops on the right flank to counter this tendency . Thus , in the Spartan phalanx at Leuctra , Cleombrotus and the elite ' Spartiates ' were on the right , while the less experienced Peloponnesian allies were on the left . However , needing to counter the Spartans ' numerical advantage , Epaminondas implemented two tactical innovations . Firstly , he took the best troops in the army , and arranged them 50 ranks deep ( as opposed to the normal 8 – 12 ranks ) on the left wing , opposite Cleombrotus and the Spartans , with Pelopidas and the Sacred Band on the extreme left flank . Secondly , recognizing , that he could not have matched the width of the Peloponnesian phalanx ( even before the deepening the left flank ) , he abandoned all attempts to do so . Instead , placing the weaker troops on the right flank , he " instructed them to avoid battle and withdraw gradually during the enemy 's attack " . The tactic of the deep phalanx had been anticipated by Pagondas , another Theban general , who used a 25 man deep formation at the Battle of Delium . However , the reversing of the position of the elite troops , and an oblique line of attack were innovations ; it seems that Epaminondas was therefore responsible for the military tactic of refusing one 's flank . The fighting at Leuctra opened with a clash between the cavalry , in which the Thebans were victorious over the inferior Spartan cavalry , driving them back into the ranks of the infantry , and thereby disrupting the phalanx . The battle then became general , with the strengthened Theban left flank marching to attack at double speed , while the right flank retreated . After intense fighting , the Spartan right flank began to give way under the impetus of the mass of Thebans , and Cleombrotus was killed . Although the Spartans held on for long enough to rescue the body of the king , their line was soon broken by the sheer force of the Theban assault . The Peloponnesian allies on the left wing , seeing the Spartans put to flight , also broke and ran , and the entire army retreated in disarray . One thousand Peloponnesians were killed , while the Boeotians lost only 300 men . Most importantly , since it constituted a significant proportion of the entire Spartan manpower , 400 of the 700 Spartiates present were killed , a loss that posed a serious threat to Sparta 's future war @-@ making abilities . When , after the battle , the Spartans asked if they and the Peloponnesians could collect the dead , Epaminondas suspected that the Spartans would try to cover @-@ up the scale of their losses . He therefore allowed the Peloponnesians to remove their dead first , so that those remaining would be shown to be Spartiates , and emphasise the scale of the Theban victory . The victory at Leuctra shook the foundations of the Spartan dominance of Greece to the core . Since the number of Spartiates was always relatively small , Sparta had relied on her allies in order to field substantial armies . However , with the defeat at Leuctra , the Peloponnesian allies were less inclined to bow to Spartan demands . Furthermore , with the loss of men at Leuctra and other battles , the Spartans were not in a strong position to reassert their dominance over their erstwhile allies . = = = Theban hegemony = = = In the immediate aftermath of Leuctra , the Thebans considered following up their victory by taking their vengeance on Sparta ; they also invited Athens to join them in doing so . However , their Thessalian allies under Jason of Pherae dissuaded them from shattering what remained of the Spartan army . Instead , Epaminondas occupied himself with consolidating the Boeotian confederacy , compelling the previously Spartan @-@ aligned polis of Orchomenus to join the league . The following year the Thebans invaded the Peloponnesus , aiming to break Spartan power for good . It is not clear exactly when the Thebans started to think not just of ending the Spartan hegemony , but of replacing it with one of their own , but it is clear that eventually this became their aim . Hans Beck asserts that , unlike Sparta in the Peloponnesian League and Athens in the Delian League , Thebes made no effort either to create an empire or to bind its allies in any sort of permanent and stable organization . Indeed , after Leuctra Thebes devoted its attention to diplomatic efforts in Central Greece rather than schemes of domination further afield . By late 370 Thebes ' network of alliances in central Greece made her secure in the area — as she had not been before Leuctra — and offered scope for further expansion of Theban influence . = = = = First Invasion of the Peloponnese ( 370 BC ) = = = = When , in the immediate aftermath of Leuctra , the Thebans had sent a herald to Athens with news of their victory , the messenger was met with stony silence . The Athenians then decided to take advantage of the Spartan discomfiture , holding a conference in Athens , in which the peace terms proposed earlier in 371 BC were ratified by all cities ( except Elis ) ; and this time , the treaty explicitly made the Peloponnesian cities , formerly under Spartan dominance , independent . Taking advantage of this , the Mantineans decided to unify their settlements into a single city , and to fortify it ; a decision which greatly angered Agesilaus . Furthermore , Tegea , supported by Mantinea , instigated the formation of an Arcadian alliance . This led to the Spartans declaring war on Mantinea , whereupon the majority of Arcadian cities grouped together to oppose the Spartans ( thus forming the confederation that the Spartans were trying to prevent ) , and requested assistance from the Thebans . The Theban force arrived late in 370 BC , and it was led by Epaminondas and Pelopidas , both at this time Boeotarchs . As they journeyed into Arcadia , the Thebans were joined by armed contingents from many of Sparta 's former allies , swelling their forces to some 50 – 70 @,@ 000 men . In Arcadia Epaminondas encouraged the Arcadians to form their proposed league , and to build the new city of Megalopolis ( as a center of power opposed to Sparta ) . Epaminondas , supported by Pelopidas and the Arcadians , then persuaded the other Boeotarchs to invade Laconia itself . Moving south , they crossed the Evrotas River , the frontier of Sparta , which no hostile army had breached in memory . The Spartans , unwilling to engage the massive army in battle , simply defended their city , which the Thebans did not attempt to capture . The Thebans and their allies ravaged Laconia , down to the port of Gythium , freeing some of the Lacedaemonian perioeci from their allegiance to Sparta . Epaminondas briefly returned to Arcadia , before marching south again , this time to Messenia , a region which the Spartans had conquered some 200 years before . Epaminondas freed the helots of Messenia , and rebuilt the ancient city of Messene on Mount Ithome , with fortifications that were among the strongest in Greece . He then issued a call to Messenian exiles all over Greece to return and rebuild their homeland . The loss of Messenia was particularly damaging to the Spartans , since the territory comprised one @-@ third of Sparta 's territory and contained half of their helot population . The helots ' labor allowed the Spartans to become a " full @-@ time " army . Epaminondas ' campaign of 370 / 369 has been described as an example of " the grand strategy of indirect approach " , which was aimed at severing " the economic roots of her [ Sparta 's ] military supremacy . " In mere months , Epaminondas had created two new enemy states that opposed Sparta , shaken the foundations of Sparta 's economy , and all but devastated Sparta 's prestige . This accomplished , he led his army back home , victorious . = = = = Trial = = = = In order to accomplish all that he wished in the Peloponnesus , Epaminondas had persuaded his fellow Boeotarchs to remain in the field for several months after their term of office had expired . Upon his return home , Epaminondas was therefore greeted not with a hero 's welcome but with a trial arranged by his political enemies . According to Cornelius Nepos , in his defense Epaminondas merely requested that , if he be executed , the inscription regarding the verdict read : Epaminondas was punished by the Thebans with death , because he obliged them to overthrow the Lacedaemonians at Leuctra , whom , before he was general , none of the Boeotians durst look upon in the field , and because he not only , by one battle , rescued Thebes from destruction , but also secured liberty for all Greece , and brought the power of both people to such a condition , that the Thebans attacked Sparta , and the Lacedaemonians were content if they could save their lives ; nor did he cease to prosecute the war , till , after settling Messene , he shut up Sparta with a close siege . The jury broke into laughter , the charges were dropped , and Epaminondas was re @-@ elected as Boeotarch for the next year . = = = = Second invasion of the Peloponnesus ( 369 BC ) = = = = In 369 BC the Argives , Eleans and the Arcadians , eager to continue their war against Sparta , recalled the Thebans to their support . Epaminondas , at the height of his prestige , again commanded an allied invasion force . Arriving at the Isthmus of Corinth , the Thebans found it heavily guarded by the Spartans and Athenians ( along with the Corinthians , Megarans and Pellenians ) . Epaminondas decided to attack the weakest spot , guarded by the Lacedaemonians ; in a dawn attack he forced his way through the Spartan position , and joined his Peloponnesian allies . The Thebans thus won an easy victory and crossed the Isthmus . Diodorus stresses that this was " a feat no whit inferior to his former mighty deeds " . However , the rest of the expedition achieved little : Sicyon and Pellene became allied to Thebes , and the countryside of Troezen and Epidaurus was ravaged , but the cities could not be taken . After an abortive attack on Corinth and the arrival of a task force sent by Dionysius of Syracuse to aid Sparta , the Thebans decided to march home . = = = = Thessaly ( 368 BC ) = = = = When Epaminondas returned to Thebes , he continued to be dogged by his political enemies who prosecuted him for the second time . They actually succeeded in excluding him from the office of Boeotarch for the year 368 BC . This was the only time from the Battle of Leuctra until his death that he did not serve as Boeotarch . In 368 , the Theban army marched into Thessaly to rescue Pelopidas and Ismenias , who had been imprisoned by Alexander of Pherae while serving as ambassadors . The Theban force not only failed to overcome Alexander and his allies , but got into serious difficulties , when it tried to withdraw ; Epaminondas , serving as a private soldier , succeeded in extricating it . In early 367 , Epaminondas led a second Theban expedition to free Pelopidas , and Ismenias . He finally outmaneuvered the Thessalians , and secured the release of the two Theban ambassadors without a fight . = = = = Third invasion of the Peloponnesus ( 367 BC ) = = = = In the spring of 367 BC , Epaminondas again invaded the Peloponnesus . This time an Argive army captured part of the Isthmus on Epaminondas 's request , allowing the Theban army to enter the Peloponnesus unhindered . On this occasion , Epaminondas marched to Achaea , seeking to secure their allegiance to Thebes . No army dared to challenge him in the field , and the Achaean oligarchies therefore acquiesced to the request that they be allied to Thebes . Epaminondas ' acceptance of the Achaean oligarchies roused protests by both the Arcadians and his political rivals , and his settlement was thus shortly reversed : democracies were set up , and the oligarchs exiled . These democratic governments were short @-@ lived , since the pro @-@ Spartan aristocrats from all the cities banded together and attacked each city in turn , re @-@ establishing the oligarchies . According to G.L. Cawkwell , " the sequel perhaps showed the good sense of Epaminondas . When these exiles recovered the cities , they ' no longer took a middle course ' . " In the light of their treatment by Thebes , they abandoned their previously neutral stance , and thereafter " fought zealously in support of the Lacedaemonians " . = = = = Resistance to Thebes = = = = In 366 / 365 BC an attempt was made to make a common peace , with the Persian King Artaxerxes II as arbiter and guarantor . Thebes organized a conference to have the terms of the peace accepted , but their diplomatic initiative failed : the negotiations could not resolve the hostility between Thebes and other states that resented its influence ( such as the Arcadian leader Lycomedes who challenged the right of the Thebans to hold the congress in Thebes ) ; the peace was never fully accepted , and fighting soon resumed . Throughout the decade after the Battle of Leuctra , numerous former allies of Thebes defected to the Spartan alliance or even to alliances with other hostile states . By the middle of the next decade , even some Arcadians ( whose league Epaminondas had helped establish in 369 BC ) had turned against them . At the same time , however , Epaminondas managed through a series of diplomatic efforts to dismantle the Peloponnesian league : the remaining members of the league finally abandoned Sparta ( in 365 Corinth , Epidaurus , and Phlius made peace with Thebes and Argos ) , and Messenia remained independent and firmly loyal to Thebes . Boeotian armies campaigned across Greece as opponents rose up on all sides ; Epaminondas even led his state in a challenge to Athens at sea . The Theban demos voted him a fleet of a hundred triremes to win over the Rhodes , Chios , and Byzantium . The fleet finally sailed in 364 , but modern scholars believe that Epaminondas achieved no lasting gains for Thebes on this voyage . In that same year , Pelopidas was killed while campaigning against Alexander of Pherae in Thessaly . His loss deprived Epaminondas of his greatest Theban political ally . = = = = Fourth invasion of the Peloponnesus ( 362 BC ) = = = = In the face of this increasing opposition to Theban dominance , Epaminondas launched his final expedition into the Peloponnese in 362 BC . The immediate goal of the expedition was to subdue Mantinea , which had been opposing Theban influence in the region . Epaminondas brought an army drawn from Boeotia , Thessaly and Euboea . He was joined by Tegea , which was the center of local opposition to Mantinea , Argos , Messenia , and some of the Arcadians . Mantinea , on the other hand , had requested assistance from Sparta , Athens , Achaea and the rest of Arcadia , so that almost all of Greece was represented on one side or the other . This time the mere presence of the Theban army was not enough to cow the opposition . Since time was passing and the Mantinean alliance showed no signs of capsizing , Epaminondas decided that he would have to break the stalemate . Hearing that a large Lacedaemonian force was marching to Mantinea , and that Sparta was practically undefended , he planned an audacious night @-@ time march on Sparta itself . However , the Spartan king Archidamus was alerted to this move by an informant , probably a Cretan runner , and Epaminondas arrived to find the city well @-@ defended . Although he did attack the city , he seems to have drawn off relatively quickly on discovering that he had not , after all , surprised the Spartans . Furthermore , the Lacedaemonian and Mantinean troops which had been stationed at Mantinea had marched to Sparta during the course of the day , and dissuaded Epaminondas from attacking again . Now hoping that his adversaries had left Mantinea defenseless in their haste to protect Sparta , Epaminondas counter marched his troops back to his base at Tegea , and then dispatched his cavalry to Mantinea . However , a clash outside the walls of Mantinea with Athenian cavalry foiled this strategy as well . Realising that the time allotted for the campaign was drawing to a close , and reasoning that if he departed without defeating the enemies of Tegea , Theban influence in the Peloponnesus would be destroyed , he decided to stake everything on a pitched battle . What followed on the plain in front of Mantinea was the largest hoplite battle in Greek history . Epaminondas had the larger army , 30 @,@ 000 strong infantry and 3 @,@ 000 cavalry , whilst his opponents numbered 20 @,@ 000 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry . Xenophon says that , having decided to fight , Epaminondas arranged the army into battle order , and then marched it in a column parallel to the Mantinean lines , so that it appeared that the army was marching elsewhere , and would not fight that day . Having reached a certain point in the march , he then had the army down arms , so it appeared they getting ready to camp . Xenophon suggests that " by so doing he caused among most of the enemy a relaxation of their mental readiness for fighting , and likewise a relaxation of their readiness as regards their array for battle " . The whole column , which had been marching right @-@ to @-@ left past the front of the Mantinean army then ' right @-@ faced ' , so that they were now in a battle line , facing the Mantineans . Epaminondas , who had been at the head of the column ( now the left wing ) , brought some companies of infantry from the extreme right wing , behind the battle line , to reinforce the left wing . By this , he recreated the strengthened left @-@ wing that the Thebes had fielded at Leuctra ( this time probably made up by all the Boeotians , and not just the Thebans as at Leuctra ) . On the wings he placed strong forces of cavalry strengthened by light @-@ infantry . Epaminondas then gave the order to advance , catching the enemy off guard , and causing a furious scramble in the Mantinean camp to prepare for battle . The battle unfolded as Epaminondas had planned . The cavalry forces on the wings drove back the Athenian and Mantinean cavalry opposite them . Diodorus says that the Athenian cavalry on the Mantinean right wing , although not inferior in quality , could not withstand the missiles from the light @-@ troops that Epaminondas had placed among the Theban cavalry . Meanwhile , the Theban infantry advanced . Xenophon evocatively describes Epaminondas 's thinking : " [ he ] led forward his army prow on , like a trireme , believing that if he could strike and cut through anywhere , he would destroy the entire army of his adversaries . " As at Leuctra , the weakened right wing was ordered to hold back and avoid fighting . In the clash of infantry , the issue briefly hung in the balance , but then the Theban left @-@ wing broke through the Spartan line , and the entire enemy phalanx was put to flight . However , at the height of the battle , Epaminondas was mortally wounded by a Spartan , and died shortly thereafter . Following his death , the Thebes and allies made no effort to pursue the fleeing enemy ; a testament to Epaminondas 's centrality to the war effort . Xenophon , who ends his history with the battle of Mantinea , says of the battle 's results : When these things had taken place , the opposite of what all men believed would happen was brought to pass . For since well @-@ nigh all the people of Greece had come together and formed themselves in opposing lines , there was no one who did not suppose that if a battle were fought , those who proved victorious would be the rulers and those who were defeated would be their subjects ; but the deity so ordered it that both parties set up a trophy as though victorious and neither tried to hinder those who set them up , that both gave back the dead under a truce as though victorious , and both received back their dead under a truce as though defeated , and that while each party claimed to be victorious , neither was found to be any better off , as regards either additional territory , or city , or sway , than before the battle took place ; but there was even more confusion and disorder in Greece after the battle than before . = = Death = = While pressing forward with the troops at Mantinea , Epaminondas was hit in the chest by a spear ( or , in some accounts , a sword or large knife ) . Cornelius Nepos suggests the Spartans were deliberately aiming at Epaminondas in the hope of killing him , and thereby demoralizing the Thebans . The enemy who struck the killing blow was variously identified as Anticrates , Machaerion , or Gryllus , son of Xenophon . The spear broke , leaving the iron point in his body , and Epaminondas collapsed . The Thebans around him fought desperately to stop the Spartans taking possession of his body . When he was carried back to camp still living , he asked which side was victorious . When he was told that the Boeotians had won , he said " It is time to die . " Diodorus suggests that one of his friends exclaimed " You die childless , Epaminondas " and then burst into tears . To this Epaminondas is supposed to have replied " No , by Zeus , on the contrary I leave behind two daughters , Leuctra and Mantinea , my victories . " Cornelius Nepos , whose story is otherwise similar has the last words of Epaminondas as " I have lived long enough ; for I die unconquered . " When the spear point was withdrawn , Epaminondas quickly expired . In accordance with Greek custom , he was buried on the battlefield . = = Assessments = = = = = Character = = = In matters of character , Epaminondas was above reproach in the eyes of the ancient historians who recorded his deeds . Contemporaries praised him for disdaining material wealth , sharing what he had with his friends , and refusing bribes . One of the last heirs of the Pythagorean tradition , he appears to have lived a simple and ascetic lifestyle even when his leadership had raised him to a position at the head of all Greece . Cornelius Nepos notes his incorruptibility , describing his rejection of a Persian ambassador who came to him with a bribe . These aspects of his character contributed greatly to his renown after his death . Epaminondas never married and as such was subject to criticism from countrymen who believed he was duty @-@ bound to provide the country with the benefit of sons as great as himself . In response , Epaminondas said that his victory at Leuctra was a daughter destined to live forever . He is known , however , to have had several young male lovers , a standard pedagogic practice in ancient Greece , and one that Thebes in particular was famous for ; Plutarch records that the Theban lawgivers instituted the practice " to temper the manners and characters of the youth . " An anecdote told by Cornelius Nepos indicates that Epaminondas was intimate with a young man by the name of Micythus . Plutarch also mentions two of his beloveds ( eromenoi ) : Asopichus , who fought together with him at the battle of Leuctra , where he greatly distinguished himself ; and Caphisodorus , who fell with Epaminondas at Mantineia and was buried by his side . = = = Military record = = = Extant biographies of Epaminondas universally describe him as one of the most talented generals ever produced by the Greek city @-@ states . Even Xenophon , who fails to note his presence at Leuctra , says of his Mantinean campaign : " Now I for my part could not say that his campaign proved fortunate ; yet of all possible deeds of forethought and daring the man seems to me to have left not one undone . " Diodorus is effusive in his praise for Epaminondas 's military record : " For it seems to me that he surpassed his contemporaries ... in skill and experience in the art of war . For among the generation of Epaminondas were famous men : Pelopidas the Theban , Timotheus and Conon , also Chabrias and Iphicrates ... Agesilaus the Spartan , who belonged to a slightly older generation . Still earlier than these , in the times of the Medes and Persians , there were Solon , Themistocles , Miltiades , and Cimon , Myronides , and Pericles and certain others in Athens , and in Sicily Gelon , son of Deinomenes , and still others . All the same , if you should compare the qualities of these with the generalship and reputation of Epaminondas , you would find the qualities possessed by Epaminondas far superior " . As a tactician , Epaminondas stands above every other general in Greek history ( unless the Macedonian kings Philip II and Alexander the Great are included ) , although modern historians have questioned his larger strategic vision . According to Richard A. Gabriel , his tactics " marked the beginning of the end of traditional Greek methods of war " . His innovative strategy at Leuctra allowed him to defeat the vaunted Spartan phalanx with a smaller force , and his decision to refuse his right flank was the first recorded instance of such a tactic . Many of the tactical innovations that Epaminondas implemented would also be used by Philip of Macedon , who in his youth spent time as a hostage in Thebes and may have learned directly from Epaminondas himself . = = = Legacy = = = In some ways Epaminondas dramatically altered the face of Greece during the 10 years in which he was the central figure of Greek politics . By the time of his death , Sparta had been humbled , Messenia freed , and the Peloponnese completely reorganized . In another respect , however , he left behind a Greece no different than that which he had found ; the bitter divides and animosities that had poisoned international relations in Greece for over a century remained as deep as or deeper than they had been before Leuctra . The brutal internecine warfare that had characterized the years from 432 BC onwards continued unabated until all the states involved were subjugated by Macedon . At Mantinea , Thebes had faced down the combined forces of the greatest states of Greece , but the victory brought it no spoils . With Epaminondas removed from the scene , the Thebans returned to their more traditional defensive policy , and within a few years , Athens had replaced them at the pinnacle of the Greek political system . No Greek state ever again reduced Boeotia to the subjection it had known during the Spartan hegemony , but Theban influence faded quickly in the rest of Greece . Finally , at Chaeronea in 338 BC , the combined forces of Thebes and Athens , driven into each other 's arms for a desperate last stand against Philip of Macedon , were crushingly defeated , and Theban independence was put to an end . Three years later , heartened by a false rumor that Alexander the Great had been assassinated , the Thebans revolted ; Alexander squashed the revolt , then destroyed the city , slaughtering or enslaving all its citizens . A mere 27 years after the death of the man who had made it preeminent throughout Greece , Thebes was wiped from the face of the Earth , its 1 @,@ 000 @-@ year history ended in the space of a few days . Epaminondas , therefore , is remembered both as a liberator and a destroyer . He was celebrated throughout the ancient Greek and Roman worlds as one of the greatest men of history . Cicero eulogized him as " the first man , in my judgement , of Greece , " and Pausanias records an honorary poem from his tomb : By my counsels was Sparta shorn of her glory , And holy Messene received at last her children . By the arms of Thebes was Megalopolis encircled with walls , And all Greece won independence and freedom . Epaminondas 's actions were certainly welcomed by the Messenians and others whom he assisted in his campaigns against the Spartans . Those same Spartans , however , had been at the center of resistance to the Persian invasions of the 5th century BC , and their absence was sorely felt at Chaeronea ; the endless warfare in which Epaminondas played a central role weakened the cities of Greece until they could no longer hold their own against their neighbors to the north . As Epaminondas campaigned to secure freedom for the Boeotians and others throughout Greece , he brought closer the day when all of Greece would be subjugated by an invader . Victor Davis Hanson has suggested that Epaminondas may have planned for a united Greece composed of regional democratic federations , but even if this assertion is correct , no such plan was ever implemented . Simon Hornblower asserts that Thebes ' great legacy to fourth century and Hellenistic Greece was federalism , " a kind of alternative to imperialism , a way of achieving unity without force " , which " embodies a representative principle " . For all his noble qualities , Epaminondas was unable to transcend the Greek city @-@ state system , with its endemic rivalry and warfare , and thus left Greece more war @-@ ravaged but no less divided than he found it . Hornblower asserts that " it is a sign of Epaminondas ' political failure , even before the battle of Mantinea , that his Peloponnesian allies fought to reject Sparta rather than because of the positive attractions of Thebes " . On the other hand , Cawkwell concludes that " Epaminondas must be judged not in relation to these inevitable limitations of Boeotian power . To have established the power of Boeotia and ended the Spartan domination of the Peloponnese was the most and the best that a Boeotian could have done . " = = = Ancient sources = = = = = = Modern sources = = =
= José Juan Barea = José Juan " J.J. " Barea Mora ( born June 26 , 1984 ) is a Puerto Rican professional basketball player for the Dallas Mavericks of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He played college basketball for Northeastern University before joining the Mavericks in 2006 and becoming just the seventh Puerto Rican to play in the NBA . He went on to win an NBA championship with the Mavericks in 2011 before signing with the Minnesota Timberwolves where he played for the next three seasons . He has also played in the NBA Development League and the Baloncesto Superior Nacional . Barea was a member of the Puerto Rican national team that won the gold medal in the 2006 and 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games . He was the starting point guard for Puerto Rico when they won the gold medal in the 2011 Pan American Games and the silver medal in the 2007 Pan American Games . = = Early life = = Barea was born in the Puerto Rican municipality of Mayagüez in 1984 to parents Marta ( née Mora ) and Jaime Barea . Growing up in Mayagüez , Barea was a member of Boy Scouts of America Troop 790 for seven years . In 2001 , Barea starting playing basketball for Indios de Mayagüez of the Baloncesto Superior Nacional ( BSN ) . Later that year , he moved to the United States to attend high school at Miami Christian School in Miami , Florida . As a senior in 2001 – 02 , he averaged 20 points , 6 rebounds , 8 assists and 3 steals in helping his team to the state title and a 38 – 2 record . He made a name for himself nationally at the City of Palms event in December 2001 when he was the team 's leading scorer at the event and showcased an accurate shot from three @-@ point range . In April 2002 , he enrolled at Northeastern University . After enrolling at Northeastern , Barea returned to Puerto Rico where he again joined Indios de Mayagüez for the 2002 BSN season where in 14 games , he averaged 2 @.@ 8 points per game . = = College career = = As a freshman at Northeastern in 2002 – 03 , Barea earned third @-@ team All @-@ AEC and AEC All @-@ Rookie team honors after averaging 17 @.@ 0 points , 3 @.@ 0 rebounds , 3 @.@ 9 assists and 1 @.@ 9 steals in 28 games . His 17 @.@ 0 ppg led the America East Conference in scoring and subsequently became the first Husky freshman to record 400 points and 100 assists in a season , and led NU with a team @-@ high 25 double @-@ figure scoring games . As a sophomore in 2003 – 04 , Barea earned first @-@ team All @-@ AEC honors after he finished second in the conference in scoring ( 20 @.@ 7 ppg ) and assists ( 5 @.@ 8 apg ) , becoming the first Husky since Reggie Lewis in 1986 – 87 to average at least 20 points per game . As a junior in 2004 – 05 , Barea ranked second in the America East and eighth in the country in scoring ( 22 @.@ 2 ppg ) . He also led the conference and was fifth in the nation in assists ( 7 @.@ 3 apg ) . He subsequently earned first @-@ team All @-@ AEC honors for the second straight year . In addition , he placed third in assists ( 218 ) , fourth in three @-@ pointers ( 68 ) and sixth in points ( 665 ) on Northeastern 's single @-@ season charts , and tied the school record with a career @-@ high 41 points against Stony Brook . He was also named a finalist for the Bob Cousy Award . As a senior in 2005 – 06 , Barea was named Honorable Mention All @-@ America by The Associated Press , Player of the Year in the CAA , first @-@ team All @-@ CAA , first @-@ team NABC All @-@ District 1 , and Mid @-@ Major Player of the Year by CollegeInsider.com. He finished third in the country in assists ( 8 @.@ 4 apg ) and led Northeastern and finished 19th in the nation in scoring ( 21 @.@ 0 ppg ) . He was again named a finalist for the Bob Cousy Award . He finished his career as the school 's second all @-@ time leading scorer with 2 @,@ 209 points behind Reggie Lewis . He also leaves Northeastern as its second all @-@ time leader in assists with 721 and leader in three @-@ point field goals made ( 255 ) . = = = College statistics = = = = = = Post @-@ college = = = In April 2006 , Barea had a productive participation at the Portsmouth Invitational Tournament in Virginia , finishing with averages of 14 @.@ 0 points , 13 @.@ 7 assists and 5 @.@ 7 rebounds per game in three contests . Barea broke the single @-@ game and single @-@ tournament assist records , dishing out 18 assists for Beach Barton Ford in a 118 – 100 victory over Norfolk Sports Club , giving him 41 assists in three games . For his efforts , Barea received the tournament 's first Allen Iverson A.I. award , given to the player deemed most important to his team . Following the Portsmouth Invitational Tournament , Barea returned to Puerto Rico and joined Cangrejeros de Santurce for the 2006 BSN season where in 9 games , he averaged 10 @.@ 4 points , 2 @.@ 7 assists and 2 @.@ 8 rebounds per game . = = Professional career = = = = = Dallas Mavericks ( 2006 – 2011 ) = = = = = = = 2006 – 07 season = = = = After going undrafted in the 2006 NBA draft , Barea joined the Golden State Warriors for the 2006 Las Vegas Summer League where in five games , he averaged 6 @.@ 8 points , 1 @.@ 8 rebounds , 2 @.@ 8 assists and 2 @.@ 0 steals in 21 @.@ 4 minutes per game . He then joined the Dallas Mavericks for the Rocky Mountain Revue where in three games , he averaged 12 @.@ 0 points , 1 @.@ 7 rebounds and 6 @.@ 7 assists in 25 @.@ 0 minutes per game . On August 17 , 2006 , Barea signed a multi @-@ year deal with the Dallas Mavericks . On November 4 , 2006 , he made his regular season debut for the Mavericks , recording two points in two and a half minutes of action in a 76 – 107 loss to the Houston Rockets . On January 17 , 2007 , Barea was assigned to the Fort Worth Flyers of the NBA Development League . On January 29 , he was named the D @-@ League Performer of the Week after he topped 40 points in two different games while leading the Flyers to a 3 @-@ 1 record . On February 1 , 2007 , he was recalled by the Mavericks after he averaged 27 @.@ 3 points , 5 @.@ 0 rebounds , 7 @.@ 8 assists and 1 @.@ 3 steals in eight D @-@ League games . On April 13 , 2007 , Barea recorded a season @-@ high 16 points in an 89 – 104 loss to the Utah Jazz . Four days later , he started his first career game for the Mavericks as he record 13 points , 10 rebounds and 3 assists in an 82 – 111 loss to the Golden State Warriors . He finished his rookie season with averages of 2 @.@ 4 points , 0 @.@ 5 rebounds , 0 @.@ 8 assists and 0 @.@ 7 steals in 33 regular season games . He also played two playoff games for the Mavericks , scoring 0 points in three and a half total minutes . = = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = = In July 2007 , Barea re @-@ joined the Dallas Mavericks for the 2007 Las Vegas Summer League where in five games , he averaged 16 @.@ 0 points , 2 @.@ 5 rebounds and 7 @.@ 0 assists in 27 @.@ 6 minutes per game . On November 3 , 2007 , he recorded a then career @-@ high 25 points in a 123 – 102 win over the Sacramento Kings . He went on to appear in 44 regular season games ( 9 starts ) for the Mavericks in 2007 – 08 while averaging 4 @.@ 3 points , 1 @.@ 1 rebounds and 1 @.@ 3 assists in 10 @.@ 5 minutes per game . He also managed one playoff game where he scored eight points against the New Orleans Hornets . = = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = = On July 9 , 2008 , Barea re @-@ signed with the Dallas Mavericks to a three @-@ year deal . In 2008 – 09 , Barea 's role on the team increased dramatically . Injuries to Jerry Stackhouse , Josh Howard and Jason Terry saw Barea 's minutes per game double as coach Rick Carlisle began regularly using a three @-@ guard lineup which included Jason Kidd , Jason Terry and Barea to spark an offensive streak in games . On February 20 , 2009 , Barea scored a then career high 26 points in an 86 – 93 loss to the Houston Rockets . In the 2009 playoffs , Barea became a starter during the first round , replacing Antoine Wright in an effort to contain Tony Parker of the San Antonio Spurs . He scored 13 points and 7 assists in his first playoff start . = = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = = In 2009 – 10 , Barea again played an important role off the bench for the Mavericks . In 78 games ( 18 starts ) , he averaged 7 @.@ 6 points , 1 @.@ 9 rebounds and 3 @.@ 3 assists in 19 @.@ 8 minutes per game . He scored a season @-@ high 23 points two times during the season , and played in all six of the Mavericks ' playoff games where they once again lost to the San Antonio Spurs in the first round . In June 2010 , the Mavericks exercised their $ 1 @.@ 8 million 2010 – 11 team option on Barea 's contract . = = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = = In 2010 – 11 , Barea played a career @-@ high 81 regular season games as he averaged 9 @.@ 5 points , 2 @.@ 0 rebounds and 3 @.@ 9 assists in 20 @.@ 6 minutes per game . On January 1 , 2011 , he scored a then career high 29 points in an 87 – 99 loss to the Milwaukee Bucks . In the 2011 playoffs , the Mavericks faced the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers in the second round . In the second game of the series , Barea scored 12 points from the bench to lead a fourth @-@ quarter rally which resulted in a 93 – 81 win for Dallas . With the game already decided and 24 seconds remaining , Barea was clotheslined by Lakers ' forward Ron Artest ; Artest was later suspended . After the game , the Lakers praised Barea 's game with Phil Jackson even comparing him to Chris Paul while Kobe Bryant said that " Barea kicked our asses " . In the last game of the series , the Mavericks defeated the Lakers , eliminating them . Barea was the second @-@ leading scorer for his team with 22 points and 8 assists . During the fourth quarter , Lakers ' center Andrew Bynum threw an elbow at Barea as he was driving for a layup . Barea fell down hard while Bynum was immediately ejected . Although Barea recovered and finished the game , he called the foul " dangerous " . Initially Bynum was unapologetic about the incident saying , " We were getting embarrassed . They were breaking us down . So I just fouled somebody . " He later issued a formal apology to the league and Barea . The NBA suspended Bynum for the first five games in the next season , but later shortened the suspension to four games due to the lockout @-@ shortened season . The Mavericks went on to advance to the NBA Finals where the faced the Miami Heat . In what took six games , the Mavericks defeated the Heat 4 games to 2 , claiming their first NBA championship in the franchise 's history . Barea also became just the second Puerto Rican player to win an NBA championship , following Butch Lee in 1980 . Barea played all 21 playoff games for the Mavericks which included three starts . He averaged 8 @.@ 9 points , 1 @.@ 9 rebounds and 3 @.@ 4 assists in 18 @.@ 6 minutes per game . = = = Minnesota Timberwolves ( 2011 – 2014 ) = = = = = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = = Following failed negotiations with the Dallas Mavericks to re @-@ sign with the franchise , Barea started looking elsewhere , but because of the NBA lockout , he was unable to sign anywhere . On December 14 , 2011 , following the conclusion of the lockout , Barea signed a four @-@ year , $ 19 million contract with the Minnesota Timberwolves . On December 26 , 2011 , Barea made his debut for the Timberwolves , recording 14 points , 2 assists and 2 rebounds in a 100 – 104 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder . However , Barea 's season was hampered with ankle and thigh injuries as he managed just 41 of 66 games for the Timberwolves in 2011 – 12 . Despite this , on March 23 , 2012 , Barea scored his first career triple @-@ double , recording 25 points , 10 rebounds and 14 assists in a 149 – 140 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder . During the last weeks of the season , and with injuries to starters Ricky Rubio , Kevin Love and Luke Ridnour , Barea became the starting point guard , averaging 15 @.@ 8 points and 9 @.@ 4 assists during the last 9 games . During that period , Barea recorded a season @-@ high 28 points and a career @-@ high 15 assists . = = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = = Barea began the season with 21 points and 5 assists against the Sacramento Kings on November 2 , 2012 . However , in his fourth game , he sprained his left foot , which caused him to miss the next five games . During December , Barea averaged more than 25 minutes and 12 @.@ 7 points per game coming off the bench . He had his best game of the season on April 12 , when he scored 23 points against the Utah Jazz and finished the season with averages of 11 @.@ 3 points , 4 @.@ 0 assists and 2 @.@ 8 rebounds in 23 @.@ 1 minutes per game . = = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = = In 2013 – 14 , Barea served as the Timberwolves back @-@ up point guard behind Ricky Rubio . He had his best offensive game in November 15 , against the Denver Nuggets , scoring 21 points with 4 assists . In January , Timberwolves star Kevin Love indirectly criticized teammates Barea and Dante Cunningham for their behavior during game timeouts . Barea finished the season averaging 8 @.@ 4 points and 3 @.@ 8 assists per game . On October 27 , 2014 , Barea was waived by the Timberwolves in the hope of returning to the Dallas Mavericks . = = = Return to Dallas ( 2014 – present ) = = = On October 29 , 2014 , Barea signed with the Dallas Mavericks , returning to the franchise for a second stint . In his first game back for Dallas the following day , Barea received a standing ovation from the American Airlines Center crowd upon entering the game off the bench during the first quarter . He went on to record 4 points , 4 rebounds and 3 assists in the 120 – 102 win over the Utah Jazz . On February 11 , 2015 , Barea scored a season @-@ high 22 points on 8 @-@ of @-@ 15 shooting in the 87 @-@ 82 win over the Utah Jazz . On July 16 , 2015 , Barea re @-@ signed with the Mavericks to a four @-@ year , $ 16 million contract . On December 23 , 2015 , Barea scored a career @-@ high 32 points on 13 @-@ of @-@ 20 shooting in a 119 – 118 overtime win over the Brooklyn Nets . Three days later , he made a career @-@ high seven three @-@ pointers and finished with 26 points in a 118 – 111 win over the Chicago Bulls . On March 30 , 2016 , he scored 26 points and made the go @-@ ahead layup with 49 @.@ 9 seconds left as the Mavericks rallied in the fourth quarter to beat the New York Knicks 91 – 89 . On April 6 , he helped the Mavericks win their fifth straight game , recording game highs of 27 points and 8 assists in an 88 – 86 victory over the Houston Rockets . Having become the Mavericks ' sparkplug late in the season with Deron Williams sidelined , Barea suffered his own injury on April 8 , a right groin strain which forced him to leave the game against the Memphis Grizzlies after just eight minutes . The groin injury continued to bother him for the rest of the regular season and into the Mavericks ' first round playoff series with the Oklahoma City Thunder . = = International career = = Barea began his international career with Puerto Rico 's Under @-@ 19 team , participating in the Under @-@ 19 World Championship where he finished tied for third place of the tournament 's Most Valuable Player poll . His next international representation came at Caguas , Puerto Rico in the Under @-@ 21 Centrobasket tournament where Puerto Rico won the gold medal . Barea was awarded the competition 's Most Valuable Player recognition after leading the tournament in scoring , assists and steals . His last participation at the Under @-@ 21 level occurred at the World Championships where he finished fourth in scoring , with an average of 17 @.@ 6 points per game and led the competition in assists with 7 @.@ 3 per game , as Puerto Rico finished seventh . In July 2006 , Barea made his debut for the senior national team in the 2006 Central American and Caribbean Games where Puerto Rico won the gold medal . Here he scored a decisive three point basket with fourteen seconds left in the championship game against Panama , giving Puerto Rico a final advantage . In this tournament Puerto Rico finished undefeated with six straight victories . He was selected as the tournament 's Most Valuable Player . Barea was the primary point guard for the Puerto Rican team that participated in the 2007 Pan American Games , where the team won the silver medal . Later that year , he had limited participation in the 2007 FIBA Americas tournament , where Puerto Rico won the bronze medal . In 2008 , Barea participated in a series of preparatory tournaments , before attending an Olympic qualificatory event . In these exhibition games , he performed in the team 's starting position . The Olympic Qualifying Tournament began on July 14 , 2008 , with Barea returning to the back @-@ up position behind Carlos Arroyo . Puerto Rico advanced to the finals , but didn 't qualify to the Olympic games . In this tournament Barea had averages of 12 @.@ 4 points , 2 @.@ 2 assists and 3 @.@ 2 rebounds per game . Barea continued playing in the backup position at the 2008 CentroBasket tournament . He entered the final round leading the event in points , after scoring 31 and 30 points against Panama and the Dominican Republic . In the last two games , Barea was placed in the team 's starting lineup . Puerto Rico won the tournament 's gold medal by defeating the United States Virgin Islands . Following this game , Barea received the event 's Most Valuable Player award . In 2009 , the Mavericks didn 't give Barea permission to play in the FIBA Americas Championship . This decision was based on the fact that the player had undergone surgery on his left shoulder during the post @-@ season . Barea returned to international play at the 2010 CentroBasket , serving as the national team 's starting point guard , Arroyo was in turn reassigned to the regular shooting guard position . Puerto Rico won its group , defeating Panama in semifinals and the Dominican Republic in the final to win the gold medal . Barea had averages of 13 @.@ 8 points per game and led CentroBasket in assists per game with 7 @.@ 0 , earning him inclusion in the tournament 's All @-@ Star Team . Barea was one of the members of the Puerto Rico men 's national basketball team that participated in the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup . Although Puerto Rico was eliminated after the Preliminary Round , Barea ended up as the leading scorer of the Cup during that first round . Barea accumulated 110 points in 5 games , for an average of 22 @.@ 0 points per game . Barea 's scoring statistics were above players like Luis Scola , Andray Blatche , Pau Gasol , and Francisco García . = = = International Tournaments statistics = = = = = NBA career statistics = = = = = Regular season = = = = = = Playoffs = = = = = Personal life = = While listed as 6 ' 0 " by the NBA , Barea 's mother believes his actual height is around 5 ' 10 " . In March 2011 , Barea confirmed he was in a relationship with Miss Universe 2006 Zuleyka Rivera . In July 2011 , they confirmed that they were expecting their first child . Rivera gave birth to Sebastián José Barea Rivera in February 2012 . Barea was present during the birth . The couple later split in April 2013 . In the summer of 2013 , Barea started dating actress and Miss Universe Puerto Rico 2011 Viviana Ortiz . In February 2016 , they confirmed that they were expecting their first child . Paulina Barea Ortiz was born in March 31 , 2016 .
= Moments ( One Direction song ) = " Moments " is a song by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction from their debut studio album , Up All Night ( 2011 ) . It was written by Ed Sheeran , and Si Hulbert , the song 's producer . In 2011 , as One Direction member Harry Styles told Sheeran that the boy band did not have enough songs for their album , Sheeran offered " Moments " , a track that Sheeran " was never going to use " . The song is a mid @-@ tempo pop ballad about a love lost to distance or , as fans have speculated , death . Instrumentation includes a lightly strummed guitar and intermediate piano lines . The ballad received generally positive reviews from music critics , who noted the song 's memorability and complimented its composition . Upon the release of Up All Night , " Moments " charted in lower regions on the singles charts of Australia , Canada , and the United Kingdom due to strong digital download sales . One Direction performed the song on all three of their major concert tours : Up All Night Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) , Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) and Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) . = = Background = = After being formed and finishing third in the seventh series of The X Factor in 2010 , One Direction were signed to Syco Music . Recording for their debut studio album , Up All Night , began in January 2011 . In February 2011 , the boy band and other contestants from the series participated in the X Factor Live Tour . After the tour concluded in April 2011 , the group continued working on their debut album . " Moments " was written by Ed Sheeran and Si Hulbert , and produced by Hulbert . In an April 2012 interview with news.com.au , Sheeran said that he wrote the track " years ago . " In 2011 , Sheeran met One Direction 's Harry Styles at his " guitarist 's friend 's house " . The group were putting their debut studio album together at the time . Sheeran had a CD with him of 40 songs that he was going to give to publishers . As the boy band did not have enough songs for their album , Sheeran told Styles , " Here 's a CD . If you want one of these songs , have it . " The song ended up on the deluxe edition of the album . Sheeran acknowledged that he was happy with the outcome , " It was a song I was never going to use . To have it on a multi @-@ platinum selling album is quite nice . " During the album 's UK launch in late 2011 , member Louis Tomlinson referred to the song as his favourite track on the album . Niall Horan also commented , " getting to write and record with Sheeran on our album was an honour . " = = Composition and lyrics = = " Moments " is a mid @-@ tempo pop ballad . Written in the key of D major , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 150 beats per minute . One Direction 's vocal range in the song span from the note of D4 to A5 . " Moments " utilises a gently strummed guitar and intermediate piano lines . Inspired by the breakdown of a relationship between Sheeran and an unnamed woman , the song 's lyrics revolve around an unrequited love . The chorus of the song is essentially built on the hook , " You know I 'll be your life , your voice , your reason to be / My love , my heart is breathing for this moment in time / I 'll find the words to say / Before you leave me today . " = = Critical reception = = " Moments " received generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praised its musical arrangement and memorability . Alex Hughes from The Huffington Post characterised the song as " heartbreaking " . Hollywood Life and AllMusic both rated " Moments " as one of the best songs on Up All Night . Herald Sun writer Cameron Adams referred to the track as a " classic boy band ballad " . Entertainment Weekly 's Adam Markovitz cited the lyrics " be your life , your voice , your reason to be " , writing that " Lyrics like that won 't help the group earn much respect in music circles . But if a tween @-@ pop empire is what these boys are after , they 're definitely headed in the right direction " . Erica Futterman for Rolling Stone opined that the track 's lyricism is " quintessentially swoonworthy " toward an audience aged approximately 8 to 12 and female . = = Chart performance = = Upon the release of Up All Night , " Moments " debuted on multiple world charts due to strong digital download sales . The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 118 on the chart issue of 3 December 2011 . " Moments " was One Direction 's sixth best @-@ selling song in the UK by August 2012 . It bowed on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 87 on the chart issue of 21 March 2012 . It also entered the Australian Singles Chart at number 60 on the chart issue date of 8 April 2012 . = = Live performances = = One Direction performed the song on three of their major concert tours : Up All Night Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) , Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) & Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) . Idolator editor Mike Wass felt the vocal ensemble performed a " rousing rendition " of the song at Sydney 's Hordern Pavilion and noted , " Louis [ Tomlinson ] described it as his favourite song on Up All Night and he 's not alone in that opinion if the swooning girls in the audience are any indication " . Herald Sun writer Cameron Adams opined that the performance of " Moments " at Melbourne 's Hisense Arena showcased the group 's " strong pop voices " . Erica Futterman for Rolling Stone assessed that the performance of the track at New York City 's Beacon Theatre was the most tender moment of the show . Jane Stevenson of Canoe.ca listed the performance of the number at Toronto 's Molson Canadian Amphitheatre among the show 's highlights . The song was later included on the DVD release , Up All Night : The Live Tour . = = Charts = =
= Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire = Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire is the fourth novel in the Harry Potter series , written by British author J. K. Rowling . It follows Harry Potter , a wizard in his fourth year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry and the mystery surrounding the entry of Harry 's name into the Triwizard Tournament , in which he is forced to compete . The book was published in the United Kingdom by Bloomsbury and in the United States by Scholastic , in both countries the release date was 8 July 2000 , the first time a book in the series was published in both countries at the same time . The novel won a Hugo Award , the only Harry Potter novel to do so , in 2001 . The book was made into a film , which was released worldwide on 18 November 2005 , and a video game by Electronic Arts . = = Synopsis = = = = = Plot introduction = = = Throughout the three previous novels in the Harry Potter series , the main character , Harry Potter , has struggled with the difficulties of growing up , and the added challenge of being a famed wizard : when Harry was a baby , Lord Voldemort , the most powerful Dark wizard in history , killed Harry 's parents but mysteriously vanished after unsuccessfully trying to kill Harry , which left a lightning @-@ shaped scar on Harry 's forehead . This results in Harry 's immediate fame and his being placed in the care of his muggle , or non @-@ magical aunt and uncle , Aunt Petunia Dursley and Uncle Vernon Dursley , who have a son named Dudley Dursley . Harry learns that he is a wizard when he is 11 years old , just before he enrolls in Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . He befriends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger , and is confronted by Lord Voldemort who is trying to regain power . In Harry 's first year he has to protect the Philosopher 's Stone from Voldemort and one of his faithful followers at Hogwarts . After returning to the school after summer break , students at Hogwarts are attacked by the legendary monster of the " Chamber of Secrets " after the chamber is opened . Harry ends the attacks by killing a Basilisk and defeating another attempt by Lord Voldemort to return to full strength . The following year , Harry hears that he has been targeted by escaped mass murderer Sirius Black . Despite stringent security measures at Hogwarts , Harry is confronted by Black at the end of his third year of schooling , and Harry learns that Black was framed and is actually Harry 's godfather . He also learned that it was his father 's old school friend Peter Pettigrew who actually betrayed his parents . = = = Plot summary = = = The book opens with Harry seeing Frank Bryce being killed by Lord Voldemort in a vision , and is awoken by his scar hurting . The Weasleys then take Harry and Hermione Granger to the Quidditch World Cup , using a Portkey , to watch Ireland versus Bulgaria , with Ireland emerging victorious . There , Harry meets Cedric Diggory , who is attending the match with his father . After the match , Voldemort 's followers attack the site , destroying spectators ' tents and wreaking havoc . The Dark Mark gets fired into the sky , which leads to a panic since it is the first time the sign has been seen in 13 years . Winky , Barty Crouch Senior 's house elf , is blamed for casting the Mark after she is found holding Harry 's wand , which is revealed to have been used to cast the Mark , as Harry had lost it during the chaos of the Death Eaters ' attack . At Hogwarts , Professor Dumbledore announces that Alastor " Mad @-@ Eye " Moody will be the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher for the year , and also that Hogwarts will host the Triwizard Tournament , with a prize of one thousand gold Galleons . However , only those over 17 — the age of majority in the wizarding world — will be allowed to enter . It is the first time in 202 years that the Triwizard Tournament will be held . Students from Beauxbatons Academy and the Durmstrang Institute , other wizarding academies , will travel to Hogwarts , where they will stay for the year , in hopes of competing . At Halloween , the Goblet of Fire picks Fleur Delacour from Beauxbatons Academy ; Viktor Krum ( who is also the Seeker on Bulgaria 's Quidditch team ) from Durmstrang Institute ; and Cedric Diggory from Hogwarts to compete in the tournament . However , it additionally gives a fourth name — Harry Potter — leading to suspicion and indignation from everyone and magically binding Harry to compete . Ron is jealous that Harry is once again in the limelight and refuses to speak to Harry . Hagrid reveals to Harry that the first task involves dragons , and since Fleur and Krum 's headmasters are also aware of this , and will surely tell them in advance , Harry informs Cedric as well . At the task , Harry has to pass a Hungarian Horntail to retrieve a golden egg that contains a hint to the next task , which he does by summoning his Firebolt broomstick with the Accio spell , and finishes the task tied for first with Krum . Ron and Harry subsequently reconcile , Ron now understanding the full danger of the tournament . When Harry opens the egg , though , it merely shrieks loudly . Meanwhile , gossipy reporter Rita Skeeter is writing scandalous articles of half @-@ truths and outright fabrications in The Daily Prophet about those at Hogwarts , including Hermione , Harry , Hagrid , and Madame Maxime of Beauxbatons . With the Yule Ball approaching , Harry must find a partner , but when he finally approaches his crush Cho Chang , Cedric has beaten him to her , so Harry and Ron ask Parvati and Padma Patil . Ron is shocked and jealous to see that Hermione is attending with Krum . Cedric gives Harry a tip on the egg , telling him to take it to the prefects ' bathroom , but Harry refuses to listen , jealous over Cho . Finally acting on the tip , Harry takes the egg to the prefects ' bathroom , where Moaning Myrtle tells him to listen to the egg underwater ; there the words become understandable . Harry learns that the task is to recover something he will " sorely miss " , and starts looking for spells to help him breathe where the objects will be taken : The Black Lake . By the morning of the task , Harry still hasn 't found a solution , but Dobby gives him some Gillyweed to give Harry gills . Harry completes the task by rescuing Ron from under the lake . Harry then takes a risk by also rescuing Fleur 's younger sister , Gabrielle , after Fleur was unable to . After the judges confer , he earns enough points to tie him with Cedric for the lead . One month before the final task , Harry and Krum are talking when they encounter Crouch , who appears to have gone insane , but manages to tell Harry to get Dumbledore . Leaving Krum with Crouch , Harry fetches Dumbledore but returns to find Krum stunned and Crouch gone . Harry returns to preparing for the final task , a hedge maze . Inside the maze , Harry is forced to incapacitate Krum , who has been bewitched , to save Cedric . Working together , the two reach the cup . They agree to touch it at the same time , and doing so , discover that it is a Portkey that transports them to a graveyard . There , Peter Pettigrew kills Cedric and uses Harry 's blood ( along with his own hand and Tom Riddle Sr. ' s bone ) to resurrect Lord Voldemort . Voldemort summons his Death Eaters , berating them for thinking he was dead , before he reveals that he has a single " faithful servant " concealed at Hogwarts , who has been working to ensure that Harry would make it to the graveyard , and then challenges Harry to a duel . However , when he and Harry fire curses at each other , their wands connect due to their identical cores . Voldemort 's wand releases the most recent spells it performed , resulting in imprints of his last victims appearing in the graveyard , including Harry 's parents , who provide a distraction so that Harry can escape back to Hogwarts using the Portkey , taking Cedric 's body with him . When he returns , Moody takes him to his office , and reveals himself to be Voldemort 's ' faithful servant ' ; he was the one who put Harry 's name into the Goblet of Fire , and has been guiding him through the tournament from behind the scenes to ensure that he would grab the Portkey first . Before Moody can kill Harry , Dumbledore , McGonagall and Snape intervene . They learn that Moody is in fact Barty Crouch Jr . , Mr. Crouch 's son , disguised by Polyjuice Potion . Crouch had sentenced Crouch Jr. to life imprisonment in Azkaban over alleged ties to the Death Eaters but smuggled him out as a last favour to his dying wife . Crouch Jr. was the one who set off the Dark Mark at the Quidditch World Cup , doing it to scare the Death Eaters he felt had abandoned Voldemort . Eventually , Voldemort had gotten in contact with Crouch Jr. and had him impersonate Moody as part of his plan . Crouch Jr. also admits to killing Crouch Sr. , to prevent him telling Dumbledore about Voldemort . The real Moody is found inside Crouch Jr . ' s enchanted trunk and rescued . Harry is then declared the winner of the Triwizard Tournament and given his winnings . Many people , including Fudge , do not believe Harry and Dumbledore about Voldemort 's return , and as Fudge has the Dementor 's Kiss performed , Crouch Jr. is unable to give testimony . Hermione discovers Rita Skeeter is an unregistered Animagus , who can take the form of a beetle , and blackmails her to force her to stop writing her libellous stories . Not wanting his tournament winnings , Harry gives them to Fred and George to start their joke shop and returns home with the Dursleys . = = Development = = Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire is the fourth book in the Harry Potter series . The first , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , was published by Bloomsbury on 26 June 1997 ; the second , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , was published on 2 July 1998 ; and the third , Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban , followed on 8 July 1999 . Goblet of Fire is considerably longer than the first three ; almost twice the size ( the paperback edition was 636 pages ) . Rowling stated that she " knew from the beginning it would be the biggest of the first four " . She said there needed to be a " proper run @-@ up " for the conclusion and rushing the " complex plot " could confuse readers . She also stated that " everything is on a bigger scale " which was symbolic , as Harry 's horizons widened both literally and metaphorically as he grew up . She also wanted to explore more of the magical world . Until the official title 's announcement on 27 June 2000 , the book was called by its working title , ' Harry Potter IV . ' Previously , in April , the publisher had listed it as Harry Potter and the Doomspell Tournament . However , J. K. Rowling expressed her indecision about the title in an Entertainment Weekly interview . " I changed my mind twice on what [ the title ] was . The working title had got out — Harry Potter and the Doomspell Tournament . Then I changed Doomspell to Triwizard Tournament . Then I was teetering between Goblet of Fire and Triwizard Tournament . In the end , I preferred Goblet of Fire because it 's got that kind of cup of destiny feel about it , which is the theme of the book . " Rowling mentioned that she originally had a Weasley relative named Malfalda , who , according to Rowling , " was the daughter of the ' second cousin who 's a stockbroker ' mentioned in Philosopher 's Stone . This stockbroker had been very rude to Mr. and Mrs. Weasley in the past , but now he and his ( Muggle ) wife had inconveniently produced a witch , they came back to the Weasleys asking for their help in introducing her to wizarding society before she starts at Hogwarts " . Malfalda was supposed to be a Slytherin and who was to fill in the Rita Skeeter subplot , but eventually was removed as " there were obvious limitations to what an eleven year old closeted at school could discover " . Rowling considered Rita Skeeter to be " much more flexible " . Rowling also admitted that the fourth book was the most difficult to write at the time , because she noticed a giant plot hole halfway through writing . In particular , Rowling had trouble with the ninth chapter , " The Dark Mark " , which she rewrote 13 times . = = Themes = = Jeff Jensen , who interviewed Rowling for Entertainment Weekly in 2000 , pointed out that bigotry is a big theme in the Harry Potter novels and Goblet of Fire in particular . He mentioned how Voldemort and his followers are prejudiced against Muggles and how in Goblet of Fire Hermione forms a group to liberate Hogwarts ' house @-@ elves who have " been indentured servants so long they lack desire for anything else " . When asked why she explored this theme , Rowling replied , Because bigotry is probably the thing I detest most . All forms of intolerance , the whole idea of that which is different from me is necessarily evil . I really like to explore the idea that difference is equal and good . But there 's another idea that I like to explore , too . Oppressed groups are not , generally speaking , people who stand firmly together – no , sadly , they kind of subdivide among themselves and fight like hell . That 's human nature , so that 's what you see here . This world of wizards and witches , they 're already ostracized , and then within themselves , they 've formed a loathsome pecking order . She also commented that she did not feel this was too " heavy " for children , as it was one of those things that " huge number of children at that age start to think about " . = = Publication and reception = = = = = UK / US release = = = Goblet of Fire was the first book in the Harry Potter series to be released in the United States on the same date as the United Kingdom , on 8 July 2000 , strategically on a Saturday so children did not have to worry about school conflicting with buying the book . It had a combined first @-@ printing of over five million copies . It was given a record @-@ breaking print run of 3 @.@ 9 million . Three million copies of the book were sold over the first weekend in the US alone . FedEx dispatched more than 9 @,@ 000 trucks and 100 planes to fulfill book deliveries . The pressure in editing caused a mistake which shows Harry 's father emerging first from Voldemort 's wand ; however , as confirmed in Prisoner of Azkaban , James died first , so then Harry 's mother ought to have come out first . This was corrected in later editions . = = = = Launch publicity = = = = To publicise the book , a special train named Hogwarts Express was organised by Bloomsbury , and run from King 's Cross to Perth , carrying J.K. Rowling , a consignment of books for her to sign and sell , also representatives of Bloomsbury and the press . The book was launched on 8 July 2000 , on platform 1 at King 's Cross – which had been given " Platform 9 3 ⁄ 4 " signs for the occasion – following which the train departed . En route it called at Didcot Railway Centre , Kidderminster , the Severn Valley Railway , Crewe ( overnight stop ) , Manchester , Bradford , York , the National Railway Museum ( overnight stop ) , Newcastle , Edinburgh , arriving at Perth on 11 July . The locomotive was West Country class steam locomotive no . 34027 Taw Valley , which was specially repainted red for the tour ; it later returned to its normal green livery ( the repaints were requested and paid for by Bloomsbury ) . The coaches of the train included a sleeping car . A Diesel locomotive was coupled at the other end , for use when reversals were necessary , such as the first stage of the journey as far as Ferme Park , just south of Hornsey . The tour generated considerably more press interest than the launch of the film Thomas and the Magic Railroad which was premièred in London the same weekend . = = = Critical reception = = = Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire has received mostly positive reviews . In The New York Times Book Review , author Stephen King stated the Goblet of Fire was " every bit as good as Potters 1 through 3 " and praised the humour and subplots , although he commented that " there 's also a moderately tiresome amount of adolescent squabbling ... it 's a teenage thing " . Kirkus Reviews called it " another grand tale of magic and mystery ... and clicking along so smoothly that it seems shorter than it is " . However , they commented that it did tend to lag , especially at the end where two " bad guys " stopped the action to give extended explanations , and that the issues to be resolved in sequels would leave " many readers , particularly American ones , uncomfortable " . For The Horn Book Magazine , Martha V. Parravano gave a mixed review , saying " some will find [ it ] wide @-@ ranging , compellingly written , and absorbing ; others , long , rambling , and tortuously fraught with adverbs " . A Publishers Weekly review praised the book 's " red herrings , the artful clues and tricky surprises that disarm the most attentive audience " and saying it " might be her most thrilling yet . " Writing for The New Yorker , Joan Acocella noted that " where the prior volumes moved like lightning , here the pace is slower , the energy more dispersed . At the same time , the tone becomes more grim . " Kristin Lemmerman of CNN said that it is not great literature : ' Her prose has more in common with your typical beach @-@ blanket fare and the beginning contained too much recap to introduce characters to new readers , although Rowling quickly gets back on track , introducing readers to a host of well @-@ drawn new characters . ' Writing for Salon.com , Charles Taylor was generally positive about the change of mood and development of characters . Entertainment Weekly 's reviewer Kristen Baldwin gave Goblet of Fire the grade of A- , praising the development of the characters as well as the many themes presented . However , she did worry that a shocking climax may be a nightmare factory for young readers . = = = Awards and honours = = = Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire won several awards , including the 2001 Hugo Award for Best Novel . It won the 2002 Indian Paintbrush Book Award , the third after Philosopher 's Stone and Prisoner of Azkaban . The novel also won an Oppenheim Toy Portfolio Platinum Award for one of the best books , who claimed it was " more intense than the first three books " . In addition , Entertainment Weekly listed Goblet of Fire in second place on their list of The New Classics : Books – The 100 best reads from 1983 to 2008 . = = Adaptations = = = = = Film = = = Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was adapted into a film , released worldwide on 18 November 2005 , which was directed by Mike Newell and written by Steve Kloves . The film grossed $ 102 @.@ 7 million for the opening weekend , and eventually grossed $ 896 million worldwide . The film was also nominated for Best Art Direction at the 78th Academy Awards . = = = Video game = = = It was also made into a video game for PC , PlayStation 2 , Nintendo DS , Nintendo GameCube , Xbox , Game Boy Advance , and PlayStation Portable by Electronic Arts . It was released just before the film .
= History of York City F.C. ( 1908 – 80 ) = York City Football Club is a professional association football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . The history of York City F.C. from 1908 to 1980 covers the period from the club 's original foundation , through their reformation and progress in the Football League , to the end of the 1979 – 80 season . Originally founded in 1908 , York City played several seasons in the Northern League and Midland League before going into liquidation during the First World War . The club was reformed in 1922 and was elected to play in the Midland League for 1922 – 23 . After seven seasons in the Midland League , they were elected to play in the Football League for 1929 – 30 , and were placed in the Third Division North . During the Second World War , York played in regional competitions , before the Football League restored its usual competitions in 1946 – 47 . After fourteen seasons in the Football League , the club was required to apply for re @-@ election for the first time because they finished 1949 – 50 at the bottom of the Third Division North . York had their best FA Cup season in 1954 – 55 , when they reached the semi @-@ final ; they were defeated by First Division club Newcastle United in a replay . York played in the Third Division North until 1958 – 59 , when a league reorganisation placed them in the Fourth Division . The same season , they finished third and won their first @-@ ever promotion , but were relegated after one season . York won another promotion in 1964 – 65 , but were again relegated after one season . The club won a third promotion to the now @-@ unified Third Division in 1970 – 71 , remaining there for the next two seasons on goal average . They were promoted into the Second Division for the first and only time in 1973 – 74 . By mid @-@ October 1974 , York were in fifth place — their highest league placing — before finishing 1974 – 75 in fifteenth place . They faced two successive relegations in 1976 and 1977 , and a twenty @-@ second place finish in the 1977 – 78 Fourth Division forced the club to apply for re @-@ election . = = 1908 – 17 : Foundation and liquidation of original club = = With the expansion of the York & District League ( formed 1897 ) at a time when association football was gaining national popularity , demand for a club representative of the city of York arose . York City Football Club was founded as an amateur club , joining the Northern League for the 1908 – 09 season and acquiring a ground in Holgate Road at the end of Lindley Street and Murray Street . York won their first match 2 – 1 at home to South Bank , but finished the season eleventh out of twelve teams in the Northern League . During this season the club entered the FA Amateur Cup ; after beating Withernsea and St Paul 's the team were knocked out by Scarborough in a replay . York finished in last place in 1909 – 10 , before joining the Yorkshire Combination to reduce travelling . York competed in this division for two seasons ; after finishing eighth in a ten @-@ team league in 1910 – 11 they ranked in the same position in an expanded league of fourteen teams the following season . J. E. Wright took over as secretary in 1911 , and advocated the formation of a limited company to run a professional club , believing amateur football would not succeed in a rugby league stronghold . The club turned professional in 1912 , and acquired a rough plot of land known as Field View . York were admitted into the Midland League in June 1912 , and the new ground was opened with a 2 – 1 win over Rotherham Town , which was played before 5 @,@ 000 spectators . They played in the Midland League for three seasons , achieving a highest finish of tenth of twenty teams in 1912 – 13 before ranking twelfth in an eighteen @-@ team league the following season . York were invited to a meeting to discuss the formation of a Third Division of the Football League , but with the outbreak of the First World War the meeting did not take place . Because of hostilities the Midland League was suspended after 1914 – 15 , in which York ranked sixteenth of twenty teams . The club went into liquidation through the bankruptcy court in August 1917 after a creditor pressed for payment for the ground 's stand . York 's ground was taken over by the York Corporation , who leased it to allotment @-@ holders . = = 1922 – 39 : Refoundation and establishment in Football League = = As local football continued to expand after the war , and with the success of the newly formed Yorkshire League , demand for another senior team in York arose . At a meeting held at the Co @-@ operative Hall in York on 6 May 1922 , the decision was made to form the York City Association Football and Athletic Club Limited , with W. H. Shaw as chairman . Despite having neither a ground nor players , an application was made for election into the Football League ; this was unsuccessful but the club was admitted into the Midland League on 10 June 1922 . York 's first match was away to Notts County reserves on 6 September 1922 , and despite a good performance the team lost 4 – 2 . York had to play their first two home matches at Mille Crux , the ground of Messrs Rowntree & Company Limited , because their Fulfordgate ground was not ready . Their first match at Fulfordgate came on 20 September 1922 , with a 4 – 1 victory against Mansfield Town . York finished 1922 – 23 in nineteenth place ; they had been placed mid @-@ table in early @-@ March 1923 but failed to win any of their remaining fourteen fixtures . In the same year York reached the final of the North Riding Senior Cup but lost 4 – 2 to Middlesbrough reserves at Ayresome Park on 10 March 1923 . The club 's first season proved disappointing financially , with a loss of £ 718 reported , and as a consequence Shaw relinquished the chairmanship to Arthur Brown . York entered the FA Cup for the first time in 1923 – 24 and reached the first qualifying round , losing 3 – 1 to Mexborough Town in a second replay . They again ranked nineteenth in the table with an almost identical record to the previous season 's . For 1924 – 25 the Midland League was reorganised because eight Football League clubs withdrew their reserve teams from the competition . York finished sixth in the Principal Competition that concluded in February 1925 and were runners @-@ up to Denaby United in the North Subsidiary Competition . The club struggled financially in this period , and was only kept going by the enthusiasm and generosity of the directors . John Fisher , one of these benefactors , was elected chairman in 1925 . The Midland League was restored to its previous size for 1925 – 26 and York finished in sixteenth place after a poor start to the season , from which they never recovered . York enjoyed their most successful Midland League season in 1926 – 27 , when they finished in sixth place and scored ninety @-@ six goals in thirty @-@ eight league matches . They surpassed the FA Cup 's qualifying rounds for the first time this season , being beaten 2 – 1 by Second Division side Grimsby Town at Blundell Park in the second round . In 1927 the club made its first serious attempt for election into the Football League , but Barrow and Accrington Stanley were re @-@ elected instead . Fisher resigned as chairman in August 1927 and Brown took the position for the second time . After ranking seventh in the Midland League in 1927 – 28 , York appointed their first official manager in July 1928 , with Jock Collier named as player @-@ manager . York finished ninth in 1928 – 29 , and Jimmy Cowie was the divisional top scorer with forty @-@ nine goals . This was York 's last season in the Midland League as the club won election into the Football League on 3 June 1929 , taking the place of Ashington in the Third Division North . York 's first match in the Football League was against Wigan Borough at Springfield Park on 31 August 1929 and finished with a 2 – 0 victory for the visitors . Reg Stockill , the scorer of the first goal , became the youngest player to represent the club in a competitive match at the age of 15 years and 281 days . The 1929 – 30 season brought two meetings with First Division club Newcastle United in the FA Cup third round , and a sixth place finish in York 's debut Football League season . Collier resigned as manager in May 1930 and George Sherrington took over for the following three years , combining this with his role as club secretary . Sherrington 's first season in charge saw York rank twelfth in the league , and they again faced First Division opposition in the FA Cup third round , taking Sheffield United to a replay . Despite an improved league position of ninth in 1931 – 32 , York were eliminated from the FA Cup in the first round . This , combined with disappointing average home crowds , resulted in a deficit of £ 1 @,@ 539 over the season . In August 1932 , York moved to a new ground at Bootham Crescent , which was closer than Fulfordgate to the club 's centre of support and the railway station . The ground was officially opened for a match with Stockport County on 31 August 1932 ; it ended a 2 – 2 draw , and the first goalscorer at the ground was Tom Mitchell . York 's worst performance in the Football League to date came in 1932 – 33 , finishing in twentieth place . The club only avoided having to seek re @-@ election after winning the last match of the season . Collier was re @-@ appointed manager in May 1933 , and York enjoyed a better season in 1933 – 34 , finishing twelfth in the Third Division North . The club finished in fifteenth place in 1934 – 35 , and Bootham Crescent staged its first match against First Division opposition when Derby County defeated York 1 – 0 in the FA Cup third round . In 1935 – 36 York ranked in sixteenth place , and by the end of the season the club 's debt was £ 7 @,@ 048 . The annual report stated that " increased support must be forthcoming if the club was to retain its Football League status " . The team reached the FA Cup fourth round for the first time in 1936 – 37 , being eliminated by Second Division club Swansea Town in a replay . Collier retired from football in March 1937 to go into business with his brother , and was replaced by Tom Mitchell . The team finished an inconsistent season in twelfth place . The 1937 – 38 season saw York placed " firmly on the football map " , as the team eliminated First Division West Bromwich Albion and Middlesbrough from the FA Cup , before meeting Huddersfield Town in the sixth round . This match saw York draw 0 – 0 at home before a crowd of 28 @,@ 123 , the club 's record highest attendance . York lost the replay 2 – 1 at Leeds Road , a match that attracted 58 @,@ 066 spectators . By the end of that season 's FA Cup run York were on the fringe of the promotion race but faltered in the closing weeks and finished in eleventh place . The club avoided having to apply for re @-@ election with a win in the penultimate match of 1938 – 39 , ranking twentieth in the table . W. H. Sessions was appointed chairman to succeed Brown in 1939 . = = 1939 – 59 : Wartime football , FA Cup run and first promotion = = At the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 the Football League was suspended indefinitely , leaving the club with no revenue . The Football League organised regional competitions after the government gave the Football Association permission for football to proceed on a wartime footing . York decided to carry on playing and were placed in the North East League , where they ranked eighth in their section of eleven clubs . In the final weeks of 1939 – 40 , York competed in the Football League War Cup . The club was placed in the Football League North for 1940 – 41 , and finished thirty @-@ second in the thirty @-@ six @-@ club league . They beat Sheffield Wednesday 7 – 0 in the War Cup , before being eliminated by Newcastle United in the second round . After completing eighteen fixtures in the 1941 – 42 Football League North , York competed in the league @-@ organised qualifying stage of the War Cup . They were eliminated after ranking thirty @-@ third of fifty @-@ four clubs , failing to qualify for the knock @-@ out stages by one place . York played in the Combined Counties Cup in the season 's closing weeks , and beat Halifax Town 5 – 4 over two legs in the final . After ranking seventeenth of forty @-@ eight clubs in the Football League North in 1942 – 43 , York progressed through the War Cup qualifying stages , reaching the semi @-@ final of a major cup competition for the first time . They were beaten 4 – 1 over two legs by Sheffield Wednesday . In the 1943 – 44 Football League North the team finished thirty @-@ first of fifty clubs , and after qualifying for the War Cup knock @-@ out stages were eliminated 7 – 2 over two legs by Bradford Park Avenue in the second round . York experienced selection problems in 1944 – 45 with many players leaving for war service ; after ranking forty @-@ second of fifty @-@ four clubs in the Football League North , they then failed to qualify for the War Cup knock @-@ out stages . They extended their programme by competing in the Tyne , Wear and Tees Cup . Although hostilities had finished by the start of 1945 – 46 , there was insufficient time for the Football League to restore its usual competitions . York finished mid @-@ table in the Third Division North ( East ) in the first half of the season , before reaching the second round of the Third Division North ( East ) Cup after qualifying through the group stages . The FA Cup resumed this season , and for the first and only time ties were played on a two @-@ legged basis . York reached the fourth round , at which point they were beaten 11 – 1 on aggregate by Sheffield Wednesday . York made a profit in five of the seven seasons played during the war . Peacetime football resumed in 1946 – 47 , with the same fixture list as the abandoned 1939 – 40 season . York endured a mid @-@ season run of ten defeats from eleven matches , before their form improved , and five wins from the last eight matches saw them finish in fifteenth place in the Third Division North . They were top of the table by mid @-@ September 1947 , before a run of two wins from thirteen matches saw them drop to eighteenth place . York finished 1947 – 48 in thirteenth place , and the club recorded a net profit of £ 4 @,@ 914 ; a balance surplus of £ 1 @,@ 843 was carried forward . In September 1948 York purchased their Bootham Crescent ground , which had been leased since 1932 , for £ 4 @,@ 075 . They achieved their record average league attendance of 10 @,@ 412 during 1948 – 49 at the peak of the post @-@ war attendance boom . The team enjoyed a run of eight successive league wins at home spanning September 1948 to January 1949 , but failed to win any of their last seven fixtures to finish 1948 – 49 in fourteenth place . Mitchell resigned as manager in February 1950 and was replaced in April with Dick Duckworth , a former York player . York were forced to apply for re @-@ election to retain their place in the Football League for the first time , after finishing bottom of the Third Division North in 1949 – 50 . They did not have to enter the ballot because the Football League was to be extended to ninety @-@ two clubs for 1950 – 51 . Despite York 's senior team 's troubles , the reserve team scored over one hundred goals to finish sixth in the Midland League , and won the North Riding Senior Cup for the first time after beating Middlesbrough 3 – 0 at Ayresome Park in the final . York 's fortunes improved in 1950 – 51 ; they ranked seventeenth in the league and reached the FA Cup third round for the first time since 1946 , when they were beaten 2 – 0 by First Division Bolton Wanderers at Burnden Park . York 's best post @-@ war season to date came in 1951 – 52 , as they finished in tenth place and set a home record of sixteen wins , four draws and three defeats . York chased promotion in 1952 – 53 , and by late @-@ January 1953 they were third in the table . They finished in fourth place with fifty @-@ three points ; both new club records in the Football League . During this season Duckworth was reluctantly released from his contract to take charge at Stockport County in October 1952 . His successor , the former Grimsby Town manager Charlie Spencer , died in February 1953 . Sheffield United 's assistant manager Jimmy McCormick was appointed in June 1953 , and by late @-@ December York were bottom of the table . A win in the last match of 1953 – 54 meant they finished in twenty @-@ second place , and avoided having to apply for re @-@ election . Sessions resigned as chairman in November 1953 and was succeeded by Hugh Kitchin . After a dispute with the directors over team selection , McCormick resigned in September 1954 , after which team affairs were handled by trainer Tom Lockie and secretary George Sherrington . With an emphasis on close @-@ passing attacking football , the team embarked on a ten @-@ match unbeaten sequence . In the 1954 – 55 FA Cup , York became the first third @-@ tier club to participate in an FA Cup semi @-@ final replay . York beat Scarborough , Dorchester Town , Blackpool ( winners of the competition eighteen months earlier ) , Bishop Auckland , Tottenham Hotspur and Notts County in the previous rounds before playing Newcastle United in the semi @-@ final . After drawing 1 – 1 at Hillsborough , York were defeated 2 – 0 in the replay at Roker Park , which ended an FA Cup campaign in which Arthur Bottom scored eight goals . The team were billed " The Happy Wanderers " after a popular song ; Henry Rose of the Daily Express said , " There are no weak spots in this First Division side masquerading in Third Division shirts " . By the end of the cup run , York were on the fringes of the Third Division North promotion race , but injuries and a congested fixture list led to them finishing fourth in 1954 – 55 . Bottom was the divisional top scorer that season , with thirty @-@ one goals . York were optimistic for 1955 – 56 , and they were top of the table after ten matches . A run of nine consecutive matches without a win saw York drop out of promotion contention , and they finished eleventh . That season 's FA Cup run included a 2 – 1 win over a Swansea Town side featuring eight Wales internationals at Vetch Field in the third round . They then played First Division Sunderland , billed as the " Bank of England club " because of their high expenditure on transfers , York were beaten 2 – 1 at Roker Park in a replay . During this season York filled the managerial position that had been vacant for the last eighteen months ; Arsenal player Don Roper rejected the job before Sam Bartram was appointed in March 1956 . Bartram , a former Charlton Athletic player , was a popular choice , having been a favourite with the fans while playing for the club during the war . York invested heavily in transfers for 1956 – 57 , spending £ 12 @,@ 000 on fees — a sizeable amount at that time . The aim was promotion into the Second Division , but the team failed to make the intended impact and finished in seventh place . The 1957 – 58 season was the last of regionalised football ; the top twelve clubs in the North and South sections would form the new Third Division , and the bottom clubs would become founder members of the Fourth Division . York went into the Easter period third from bottom , but after seven wins and three draws in their last ten matches they missed out on a top @-@ twelve position on goal average . York led the Fourth Division until early @-@ November 1958 , and despite faltering mid @-@ term continued strongly to finish third in 1958 – 59 and gain promotion for the first time . They only missed out on the runner @-@ up spot to Coventry City on goal average . = = 1959 – 80 : Promotions , relegations and spell in Second Division = = By late @-@ February 1960 , York were placed twelfth in the Third Division . After one season , in which the team won only two of their last fourteen matches , they were relegated from the Third Division in twenty @-@ first place . Bartram was released from his contact in July 1960 and was replaced by Lockie . His team started 1960 – 61 well , and were fourth by mid @-@ November 1960 . York endured five successive defeats before a winning run in the New Year revived their promotion hopes . They finished the season in fifth place , having won only one of their last seven matches . Throughout 1961 – 62 York were in or around the top four places , but missed out on promotion after losing 1 – 0 to Aldershot in the last match , finishing in sixth place . That season , York enjoyed their best run in the newly instituted League Cup . In this competition they beat First Division club Leicester City , but were eliminated after a 2 – 1 defeat to divisional rivals Rochdale at Spotland Stadium in the fifth round . York made a poor start to 1962 – 63 and were second from bottom by late @-@ December 1962 , but their form improved from March 1963 and they finished the season fourteenth . Club historian David Batters described the 1963 – 64 season as " one of the worst in the club 's history " . York spent most of the season in the bottom four before finishing twenty @-@ second , having to apply for re @-@ election for the second time . This application was successful , as the club polled the maximum forty @-@ eight votes . During this season a football betting scandal exposed by the newspaper Sunday People accused York player Jack Fountain of fixing match results . His contract was terminated and he was found guilty of fixing two matches York lost . York produced some of their best football in a decade in 1964 – 65 , winning twenty league matches at home — a club record — and ending the season in third place to gain promotion , one point behind champions Brighton & Hove Albion . The following season they were in the bottom four by late @-@ December 1965 . They finished the season in bottom place and were relegated back into the Fourth Division , having conceded a club @-@ record 106 goals . After the season ended York released Norman Wilkinson , who had scored a record 143 goals for the club . York struggled throughout 1966 – 67 and finished twenty @-@ second after a club @-@ record eight successive defeats . The club was forced into its third re @-@ election bid , which was successful with forty @-@ five votes . Kitchin resigned the chairmanship in June 1967 and was succeeded by Derrick Blundy , who held the position for sixteen months , after which Eric Magson took over . York started 1967 – 68 winning none of their first thirteen matches . Their first win came in late @-@ October 1967 , by which time Lockie had become the first manager to be sacked by the club . Former Sheffield United player Joe Shaw took charge in November 1967 , and York rose from bottom place to fourteenth by late @-@ March 1968 . However , they won none of their last eight matches and finished twenty @-@ first . Another application for re @-@ election was made , which was successful with forty @-@ six votes . Shaw resigned for personal reasons a week into 1968 – 69 , and former Huddersfield Town manager Tom Johnston succeeded him in October 1968 . Poor away form led to York finishing twenty @-@ first , and the club 's application for re @-@ election was successful with forty @-@ five votes . The team reached the FA Cup third round , and were beaten 2 – 0 at home by First Division Stoke City . York were fourth in the table twelve matches into 1969 – 70 . Their promotion challenge faded and they finished the season thirteenth . York reached the fourth round of the FA Cup for the first time since 1958 , and played two Second Division teams ; after beating Cardiff City 3 – 1 at St Andrew 's in a second replay , they lost 4 – 1 to Middlesbrough at Ayresome Park . Barry Jackson , who made a club @-@ record 539 appearances for York , was released at the end of the season . York started 1970 – 71 strongly , and after faltering mid @-@ season they went unbeaten in sixteen consecutive matches to enter the top four . Despite losing three of their last four fixtures , York remained in fourth place to earn a third promotion . They also reached the FA Cup fourth round for the second successive season ; after drawing 3 – 3 at home to First Division Southampton they were beaten 3 – 2 in the replay at the Dell . York started 1971 – 72 with three wins from eight matches , but after failing to win in eleven consecutive matches they dropped into the bottom four . They finished nineteenth on goal average and avoided relegation . In the third round of the League Cup York played First Division club Sheffield United , losing 3 – 1 at Bramall Lane . York failed to win any of their first eleven matches in 1972 – 73 , but results improved and they were tenth in the table by early @-@ March 1973 . Another downturn in form followed before York beat Rotherham United in the last match of the season to finish eighteenth , avoiding relegation from the Third Division on goal average for the second successive year . From mid @-@ November 1973 York remained within the top three in 1973 – 74 and won promotion into the Second Division for the first time , in the season " three up , three down " was introduced in the top three divisions . Promotion was secured after a 1 – 1 home draw against Oldham Athletic on 27 April 1974 . This season , York held First Division Manchester City to a 0 – 0 home draw in the League Cup fourth round , before being beaten 4 – 1 in the replay at Maine Road . In January 1974 Bob Strachan became chairman and served on the FA Council , the first York official to do so . The team drew 1 – 1 at home with Aston Villa in their opening Second Division match on 17 August 1974 , with Barry Lyons the York goalscorer . After starting 1974 – 75 well , York were fifth in the table by mid @-@ October 1974 — the club 's highest @-@ ever placing in the Football League . York finished in fifteenth place , and the season 's highlights included doubles over Norwich City — who won promotion — and Fulham — who were FA Cup finalists that season . York were exempt from the FA Cup until the third round , where they drew 1 – 1 with First Division team Arsenal at Highbury ; in the replay , Arsenal won 3 – 1 after extra time at York . Johnston left to take over at Huddersfield Town in January 1975 , and was succeeded in February by former Manchester United manager Wilf McGuinness . York started 1975 – 76 with two wins from eight fixtures , but a run of ten defeats from eleven matches saw them drop into the bottom two . Seven successive defeats in the New Year saw York drop to bottom place , although results improved in the season 's closing weeks . They were relegated into the Third Division in twenty @-@ first place , after a 2 – 2 home draw with Chelsea on 24 April 1976 . They lost their League Cup second round match 1 – 0 at home to First Division Liverpool . York started 1976 – 77 poorly , and they were in the bottom two of the Third Division for most of the first half of the season . The mid @-@ season signings Chris Galvin and Gordon Staniforth marked an improvement in results , but after winning only one of their last fifteen matches they finished in bottom place and were relegated for the second successive season . The 1977 – 78 season also started poorly ; York lost seven of their opening twelve matches , leaving them seventeenth in the table . McGuinness was sacked in October 1977 and was succeeded the following month by Charlie Wright , a former Charlton Athletic player . York remained in the lower reaches of the table and finished the season in twenty @-@ second place , forcing the club to apply for re @-@ election for the sixth time . This was successful , as the club polled the maximum number of votes . This season , attendances fell to an all @-@ time low , and amid growing financial trouble , Michael Sinclair took over as chairman in a boardroom shuffle in April 1978 . Results improved in 1978 – 79 ; York finished tenth in the Fourth Division and reached the FA Cup fourth round . They played reigning First Division champions and European Cup winners @-@ elect Nottingham Forest , and were beaten 3 – 1 at the City Ground . In 1979 – 80 York were consistently in the lower reaches of the table , before finishing seventeenth . With the club eighteenth in the table by mid @-@ March 1980 Wright was sacked . Youth coach Barry Lyons succeeded him , initially as caretaker manager , before being appointed permanently in May 1980 .
= Partick Thistle F.C. = Partick Thistle Football Club ( nicknamed the Jags ) are a professional football club from Glasgow , Scotland . Despite their name , the club are based at Firhill Stadium in the Maryhill area of the city , and have not played in Partick since 1908 . The club have been members of the Scottish Professional Football League ( SPFL ) since its formation in 2013 and compete in the Scottish Premiership , the highest tier of the SPFL structure , following promotion from the 2012 – 13 Scottish First Division . They are one of three Glasgow @-@ based teams competing in the Premiership , the others being Celtic and Rangers , with Queen 's Park playing in the Scottish League Two . Since 1936 , Thistle have played in their distinctive red @-@ and @-@ yellow jerseys of varying designs , with hoops , stripes and predominantly yellow tops with red trims having been used , although in 2009 a centenary kit was launched in the original navy @-@ blue style to commemorate 100 years at Firhill . Since 1908 the club have won the Scottish Second Division once and the Scottish First Division ( second tier , now the Scottish Championship ) six times , most recently in 2013 . Thistle have won the Scottish Cup and the Scottish League Cup in 1921 and 1971 respectively . The club are managed by former defender Alan Archibald , who took over the role on 30 January 2013 , following the departure of Jackie McNamara to Dundee United . Under Archibald 's management , the club achieved promotion to the newly formed Scottish Premiership in 2013 , and have remained there for three consecutive seasons . = = History = = = = = Formation and early years = = = Partick Thistle Football Club was formed in 1876 in the burgh of Partick , which was at that time administratively independent of Glasgow ( Partick was not subsumed into Glasgow until 1912 ) . The club 's first recorded match ( and victory ) took place in February against a local junior team , named Valencia . The location of this match , and thereby Thistle 's first home ground , was recorded as ' Overnewton Park ' , which is thought to have been located next to Overnewton Road , just south of Kelvingrove Park . In 1891 , Partick Thistle joined the Scottish Football Alliance , one of several competitions set up immediately after the formation of the Scottish Football League in 1890 . The club won the Second Division championship in 1897 and were elected to the First Division . The following season they were re @-@ elected after finishing in eighth place . In 1900 they were elected back to the top level , having finished as Second Division champions again , but were relegated the following season and then promoted in second place in 1902 . This would be the last time Thistle changed their division for almost 70 years . Since joining the Scottish professional leagues in 1893 , Thistle had been an unpredictable side , spending four years in the First Division and five in the Second , winning promotion three times . It was during the 1902 – 03 Scottish Division One season in which Thistle set their highest finish in the Scottish league structure , finishing 8th in the table with 19 points . In the following 33 years , they moved from home to home , using parks at Kelvingrove , Jordanvale , Muirpark , Inchview among others . In 1891 they moved to Meadowside , where they played until 1908 . After being homeless for over a season , they moved to their present home , Firhill Stadium , in the Maryhill district of Glasgow . They played their first home match at Firhill , on 18 September 1909 , in a 3 – 1 victory against Dumbarton Harp . = = = Cup success and league progress = = = In 1921 Thistle won the Scottish Cup , beating Rangers 1 – 0 in the final . Johnny Blair scored the only goal of the game , which was held at Celtic Park . The Jags reached the final again nine years later , facing the same opposition , but Rangers won 2 – 1 in a replay following a 0 – 0 draw in the first match . In 1935 the Jags won both the Glasgow Cup and the Charity Cup , competitions that were taken seriously at the time . Although it was over 30 years before Thistle achieved further cup success they not only maintained their top tier status during this period but finished third in the league in 1947 – 48 , 1953 – 54 and 1962 – 63 . On 23 October 1971 Davie McParland 's team secured the club 's most famous result against Jock Stein 's Celtic in the League Cup final at Hampden Park , Glasgow . 62 @,@ 470 fans watched Thistle take a dramatic 4 – 0 lead at half time with goals from Alex Rae , Bobby Lawrie and Jimmy Bone amongst the many emerging talents in the Thistle squad including Alan Rough , Alex Forsyth and Denis McQuade . Kenny Dalglish pulled a goal back for Celtic , however the final result was never in doubt as Thistle eased to a 4 – 1 victory . Ironically before the match , former BBC sport broadcaster Sam Leitch stated that " In Scotland , it 's League Cup final day at Hampden Park , where Celtic meet Partick Thistle , who have no chance . " = = = Decline and " Save the Jags " campaign = = = Thistle 's fortunes on the pitch declined during the 1980s . Although the club had experienced difficult times before , having dropped into the second tier of Scottish football twice in the 1970s , they had bounced straight back up on both occasions . The relegation of 1982 led to the Club 's first sustained period outside the top tier since the late 19th century . Although this period of exile ended with promotion in 1992 , mounting financial problems , including a debt of over £ 1 @.@ 5 million , threatened to put the club out of existence . In 1998 in particular the club was close to going bankrupt and was only kept afloat by the fan @-@ organised " Save the Jags " campaign . Despite avoiding financial oblivion Thistle were relegated to the third tier of Scottish Football in 1997 – 98 and only narrowly avoided a further relegation the following season , finishing in eighth place . = = = Revival under John Lambie = = = In 1999 John Lambie commenced his third period as manager of the club and under his stewardship Thistle enjoyed a brief revival , winning back @-@ to @-@ back promotions in 2000 – 01 and 2001 – 02 , the second of which earned the club a place in the Scottish Premier League . SPL guidelines at the time stipulated that clubs would only be eligible for promotion to the league if their stadium had a minimum 10 @,@ 000 seated capacity . To comply with these guidelines the terraced section at the north end of Firhill was replaced with a 2000 @-@ seat stand . Speaking in 2004 Thistle chairman Tom Hughes argued the club did not at the time require a stadium with such a large capacity and building the new stand ' seriously affected [ their ] competitiveness ' . Thistle maintained their place in the SPL under Lambie by finishing 10th in 2002 – 03 , despite being favourites for relegation . = = = Successive relegations and play @-@ off promotion = = = Following Lambie 's retirement at the end of the 2002 – 03 season , Thistle struggled . Gerry Collins ( Lambie 's previous assistant ) was sacked mid @-@ season and replaced with joint player @-@ managers Derek Whyte and Gerry Britton . This change was not enough to revive the team , and Thistle were relegated at the end of the 2003 – 04 season after Inverness , having won the First Division title , were permitted to groundshare with Aberdeen . In season 2004 – 05 the team continued to struggle and Whyte and Britton were dismissed mid @-@ season . Dick Campbell , their successor , was unable to avoid relegation to the Second Division . He did return the club to the First Division the following season , through the newly introduced play @-@ off system , having finished 4th in the league . This brought to a close the club 's most unpredictable decade , in footballing terms at least : between 1996 and 2006 Thistle had been promoted three times and relegated four times . They were the first team in Scottish football to be relegated from the top flight through successive subsequent relegations ( excluding those caused by league reconstruction ) . = = = Ian McCall 's tenure , 2007 – 2011 = = = Despite starting well upon returning to the First Division , Dick Campbell was sacked on 27 March 2007 , following a succession of poor results . A caretaker management team of Jimmy Bone and Terry Butcher saw out the season before Ian McCall , a former player , was unveiled as manager . McCall 's first season saw Thistle finish 6th in the First Division and embark on a successful Scottish Cup campaign , reaching the quarter @-@ finals before being defeated by eventual winners Rangers after a 1 – 1 draw at Ibrox , Thistle lost the replay 2 – 0 at Firhill . League form further improved in season 2008 – 09 with Thistle exceeding expectations to finish 2nd in the First Division , behind St Johnstone . This season saw midfielder Gary Harkins win the Irn Bru Phenomenal Player of the Year and Jonathan Tuffey become the club 's first full international for several years . McCall quit his post as manager in April 2011 , citing personal reasons . Jackie McNamara was initially appointed as caretaker manager before being made full @-@ time manager of the club at the end of the 2010 – 11 season . = = = Jackie McNamara 2011 – 2013 = = = McNamara and assistant Simon Donnelly guided Thistle to a sixth @-@ place finish in 2011 – 12 season . The following season Thistle started well and emerged as promotion candidates , competing with Dunfermline and Greenock Morton for a place in the following season 's top flight . On 29 January 2013 the club gave permission to Dundee United to speak to McNamara about becoming their new manager . The following day McNamara and his assistant Simon Donnelly resigned , to become the new management team at United . Along with Donnelly , McNamara brought goalkeeper Craig Hinchcliffe , Paul Paton and Chris Erskine to Tannadice . Thistle were second in the league at the time and , because McNamara was under contract , compensation was owed to the club . = = = Alan Archibald = = = On 30 January 2013 , Alan Archibald was appointed as the club 's interim manager , with former Thistle player Scott Paterson as his assistant . On 22 March , the duo were given the job on a permanent basis signing a one @-@ year rolling contract . The following month on 20 April 2013 , the club clinched promotion to the Scottish Premiership having sealed the First Division championship with a 2 – 0 victory away to Falkirk . The title win meant Thistle returned to the top flight of Scottish football for the first time in nine years . Thistle 's initial return to the Premiership had mixed success . The team managed to maintain a relatively positive away record , however it was months before Thistle finally secured a home win , with them beating Aberdeen 3 – 1 at Firhill in February 2014 . Thistle managed to avoid the relegation and play @-@ off spots , eventually finishing third @-@ bottom , following a 4 – 2 win away to Hearts at Tynecastle . The 2015 – 16 Scottish Premiership season saw Thistle secure long @-@ term contracts for many of their key players , including Kris Doolan , Callum Booth , Tomáš Černý and Mustapha Dumbuya . On 7 May 2016 , Thistle secured their Premiership status with a 2 @-@ 0 away victory to Kilmarnock , with goals coming from Steven Lawless and Kris Doolan . This result meant that Archibald overtook former manager Johnny Davidson as the record holder of top @-@ flight victories . = = Club crest and colours = = The first crest to appear on a Partick Thistle kit was a thistle design , and every logo since has featured a thistle . The thistle appeared first in 1902 , then again in 1909 . It remained until 1978 , when a new logo with the thistle housed inside a roundel was used . A modernist logo with the thistle on a rectangle was introduced in 1990 , and the current crest was introduced in 2008 . The Jags flirted with a number of colour schemes in their early years . From their inception until 1900 the kits were predominantly blue with red and white trimmings . There was then a brief period in which the players wore an orange and black striped top with white shorts and black socks . This was replaced in 1905 by a colour scheme close to that used by Aston Villa , before the club reverted to the predominantly blue kits in 1909 . In season 1936 – 37 they changed to , and settled upon , the red @-@ yellow @-@ and @-@ black attire for which they are best known , this change having been triggered initially by the club borrowing kits from the local rugby union team , West of Scotland Football Club . In 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 , Thistle became the first football club in Scotland to use pink as the primary colour in their away kit . In 2008 – 09 this took the form of silver- and pink @-@ hooped tops . Since the 2013 – 14 season , Partick Thistle 's kits have been manufactured by Joma Sports . During the 2014 – 15 season , Partick Thistle supported the Breast Cancer Care Charity by wearing a black and pink away shirt , with the charity ribbon on the shirt . The partnership saw a portion of kit sale revenue being donated to Breast Cancer Care . Partick Thistle 's current home kit features a yellow and red hooped shirt , with a slight gradient pattern between each hoop . The kit features red shorts and socks , with a yellow trim . The away kit is sky blue , with thin white hoops on the jersey . Goalkeepers wear a generic kit design from Joma , and are either pink or grey . = = Stadium = = Before moving to the Maryhill area in 1909 , Partick Thistle hosted their home games over numerous sites in and around Glasgow including Kelvingrove Park , Jordanvale Park and Muir Park . In 1891 , the club moved to Meadowside , near the River Clyde . However , in 1908 Thistle were forced to vacate the area to make way for a new shipyard . After playing at numerous other grounds in Glasgow , Greenock , Port Glasgow , Kilmarnock , Edinburgh and even Aberdeen for over a season , Partick Thistle moved to their present home , Firhill Stadium , in 1909 , when they purchased some spare Caledonian Railway land in Maryhill for £ 5 @,@ 500 . The stadium consists of three stands : the Main Stand , where the away support is housed , which was built in 1927 and can seat around 2 @,@ 900 supporters ; the Jackie Husband Stand , which was built in 1994 and has a capacity of approximately 6 @,@ 500 ; and the North Stand , which can house around 2 @,@ 000 supporters . On the south side of the stadium there is a grass embankment , known to home fans as " The Bing " , which had been open terracing until this was demolished in 2006 due to the stand failing to meet the criteria of Scottish Football Association safety regulations . There have been various plans to redevelop the south end of the stadium but thus far none have come to fruition . Firhill has been used by other football teams and for rugby over the years . Between 1986 and 1991 Clyde ground shared with Thistle , following their eviction from Shawfield . Hamilton Academical also ground shared for two spells over seven years , following them being forced out of Douglas Park in 1994 . In December 2005 , Firhill also became the home of Glasgow 's professional rugby union team , Glasgow Warriors , when they moved from their previous base at Hughenden Stadium . After returning to Hughenden in 2006 , the Warriors took up a two @-@ year residency at Firhill from the start of the 2007 – 08 Celtic League season . This was extended in April 2009 for a further five years . Glasgow Warriors left Firhill after the 2011 – 12 season and moved to Scotstoun Stadium . During the 2012 – 13 season the ground was also used by Celtic 's under @-@ 20 squad as their home ground , but following Partick 's promotion this stopped for the 2013 – 14 season . During the 2013 / 14 season , the Main Stand was re @-@ opened to seat the high number of away supporters . In one instance , the North Stand was used for Celtic supporters as fears grew over fire dangers . During early June 2016 the North Stand was renamed The Colin Weir Stand in honour of Colin Weir who was made the first ever patron of Partick Thistle after making numerous donations to the club 's youth team The Thistle Weir Academy . Maryhill railway station , which is served by trains from Glasgow Queen Street , is the closest railway station to Firhill . The walk between the two sites takes between 20 and 25 minutes . On the Glasgow Subway network , Kelvinbridge and St George 's Cross are within 15 minutes walk of the stadium . The A81 road ( Maryhill Road ) , leading to Firhill Road , runs from the M8 motorway . The club train at the Garscube Sports Complex in Bearsden , East Dunbartonshire . = = Notable former players = = All former players or managers listed have been inducted into either the Scottish Football Hall of Fame or Partick Thistle 's own Hall of Fame . These include players who participated in both the 1921 Scottish Cup Final and the 1971 Scottish League Cup Final . = = = Scottish Hall of Fame = = = Mo Johnston Alan Rough Alan Hansen = = = Club Hall of Fame = = = = = Support = = Thistle fans sing songs during matches , some of which are relatively generic but others which are unique . Choruses of " Rellow Army " , " Mary fae Maryhill " , " Over Land and Sea " , " Forever and Ever " , " We 've Followed the Thistle for Many a Day " , " Oh Maryhill is wonderful " , " Do Do Do Conrad Balatoni " and " Gerry Britton is the King of Spain " are commonly heard in the singing section of the home support , in the North Stand or " New Shed " . During their previous foray into the top flight of Scottish football in season 2002 – 03 attendances exceeded 6 @,@ 000 , whereas in the lower divisions they have tended to range between 2 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 000 . On the day of their return to the top flight against Dundee United on 2 August 2013 , the attendance at Firhill was 7 @,@ 822 . Average home attendances for Thistle 's maiden season back in the Scottish Premiership was around 5 @,@ 000 , however the 2014 – 15 season saw a 25 % drop with an average home crowd of only 3 @,@ 500 . = = = Notable supporters = = = Mhairi Black , MP for Paisley & Renfrewshire South . Maryhill born actor Robert Carlyle is also a famous supporter , stating he would rather watch the Jags than watch Arsenal or Manchester United . Craig Ferguson , former host of the popular American chat show The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson . The historian Niall Ferguson was a supporter while growing up in Glasgow , stating that " they were the atheists ' team . You couldn 't believe in God and support Partick Thistle . " Hollyoaks actor Chris Fountain American actor David Hasselhoff , best known for Knight Rider and Baywatch , has stated his support for the club during his pantomime run in Glasgow , and mentioned they are his " favourite underdogs " . Artist David Shrigley , who designed the club 's mascot Kingsley . Juventus and French international footballer Paul Pogba , according to older brother Mathias ( who plays for Thistle ) , keeps track of Thistle 's results from Italy and is a fan of the club . = = Sponsors = = The club 's main sponsor is Kingsford Capital Management , which was confirmed at the start of the 2015 – 16 season , taking over from beverage company MacB . The new sponsorship deal is thought to be worth around £ 200 @,@ 000 for two years , which includes shirt , mascot and stadium sponsor . Initially , MacB went into administration half way through the season , and was replaced by legal company Just Employment Law for the remainder of the 2011 – 12 season . MacB resumed sponsorship of Partick Thistle in the summer of 2012 , and subsequently signed a two @-@ year extension , keeping them as main sponsors until the end of the 2014 – 15 season . Scottish security system company Alarmfast also started sponsoring Thistle for the 2014 – 15 season . Thistle 's mascot is a large yellow sun @-@ like character called Kingsley , who replaced MacB 's Jaggy MacBee at the start of Kingsford Capital 's tenure . Thistle 's kit maker is Spanish manufacturers Joma , having replaced Puma Sports at the start of the 2013 – 14 season . = = Mascot = = Partick Thistle 's current mascot is named Kingsley , and was designed by the Turner Prize nominated artist David Shrigley . Kingsley was unveiled on 22 June 2015 to coincide with Thistle 's new sponsorship with California based investment firm Kingsford Capital Management . The mascot gained widespread notoriety online , having trended worldwide on Twitter , as well as being publicised by major networks such as CNN and The Washington Post . Partick Thistle 's general manager Ian Maxwell hailed the success of Kingsley in drawing attention to the club , stating that the worldwide interest and TV coverage amounted to the " biggest amount of publicity from a sponsorship launch in Scottish football history " . The Kingsley mascot has become a major source of merchandising potential for the club , with demand outstripping supply . Between 2011 – 2015 , Thistle 's mascot had been Jaggy MacBee , a large bumble bee that had been introduced as part of the clubs sponsorship with MacB Water . Before that , Thistle had used a brightly coloured toucan called Pee Tee as its official mascot . = = Community trust = = = = = Partick Thistle Ladies = = = Following a successful set @-@ up of women 's football in Glasgow , with teams such as Celtic L.F.C. and Glasgow City , Partick Thistle entered a women 's team into the 2013 Scottish Women 's Football League Second Division season . The team train at the Firhill Complex in Maryhill . = = = Thistle Weir Youth Academy = = = In October 2013 , millionaires and long time Thistle fans Chris and Colin Weir donated £ 750 @,@ 000 to Partick Thistle to set up a new advanced youth academy . The academy was named the Thistle Weir Youth Academy and is run by former striker Gerry Britton . = = Current squad = = = = = First team squad = = = As of 11 July 2016 Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality . For recent transfers , see List of Scottish football transfers summer 2015 = = Club staff = = = = Individual achievements = = = = Full internationalists = = The following players have participated in full internationals for their respective countries whilst playing for Thistle . Statistics include all caps gained in their international career , including those before or after their Thistle careers . = = Honours = = = = = Major = = = Scottish Cup : Winners ( 1 ) : 1920 – 21 Runners up ( 1 ) : 1929 – 30 Scottish League Cup : Winners ( 1 ) : 1971 – 72 Runners up ( 3 ) : 1953 – 54 , 1956 – 57 , 1958 – 59 = = = Minor = = = Scottish Football League First Division , second tier : Winners ( 6 ) : 1896 – 97 , 1899 – 1900 , 1970 – 71 , 1975 – 76 , 2001 – 02 , 2012 – 13 Runners up ( 3 ) : 1901 – 02 , 1991 – 92 , 2008 – 09 Scottish Football League Second Division , third tier : Winners ( 1 ) : 2000 – 01 Play @-@ off Winners ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06 Scottish Challenge Cup : Runners up ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13 Glasgow Cup : Winners ( 7 ) : 1934 – 35 , 1950 – 51 , 1952 – 53 , 1954 – 55 , 1960 – 61 , 1980 – 81 , 1988 – 89 Runners up ( 11 ) 1888 – 89 , 1900 – 01 , 1911 – 12 , 1914 – 15 , 1917 – 18 , 1919 – 20 , 1932 – 33 , 1936 – 37 , 1959 – 60 , 1966 – 67 , 1968 – 69 British Cup : Winners ( 1 ) : 1921 Glasgow Merchants ' Charity Cup : Winners ( 3 ) : 1926 – 27 , 1934 – 35 , 1948 – 49 Summer Cup : Winners ( 1 ) : 1945 West of Scotland FA Cup : Winners ( 1 ) : 1879 Glasgow Dental Cup : Winners ( 1 ) : 1929 Greenock Charity Cup : Winners ( 1 ) : 1893 Paisley Charity Cup : Winners ( 1 ) : 1936 Yoker Cup : Winners ( 3 ) : 1881 , 1882 , 1883 Arr Craib Trophy : Winners ( 1 ) : 2012 Tennents ' Sixes : Winners ( 1 ) : 1993 ( final winners ) = = Club records = = Highest record home attendance : 49 @,@ 838 vs Rangers , Scottish First Division , 18 February 1922 Most league appearances : Alan Rough , 410 Most league goals in a season : Alec Hair , 41 , 1926 – 27 Record defeat : 0 – 10 v Queen 's Park , Scottish Cup , 3 December 1881 Record victory : 16 – 0 v Royal Albert , Scottish Cup 1st round , 17 January 1931 Record points total : 78 , Scottish First Division , 2012 – 13 Record transfer fee paid : £ 85 @,@ 000 to Celtic for Andy Murdoch , February 1991 Record transfer fee received : £ 200 @,@ 000 from Watford for Mo Johnston 1982 = = European record = = Thistle have participated in European competition on three different occasions . On the first occasion , they qualified having finished third in the First Division . They progressed to the second round of the Fairs Cup before being eliminated by Spartak Brno . They qualified for the UEFA Cup in 1972 – 73 after winning the League Cup the previous season ; Hungarian side Honvéd eliminated them in the first round . Their most recent European campaign was the 1995 UEFA Intertoto Cup , when they finished 4th with four points in Group 6 .
= Georges @-@ Antoine Belcourt = Georges @-@ Antoine Belcourt ( April 22 , 1803 – May 31 , 1874 ) , also George Antoine Bellecourt , was a Canadian Jesuit missionary and priest . Born in Baie @-@ du @-@ Febvre , Quebec , Belcourt was ordained in 1827 . He established missions in areas of Quebec and Manitoba . On the frontier , he became involved in a political dispute between the local First Nations population and the Hudson 's Bay Company , the monopoly fur trading company . At the urging of the Company 's Governor , Belcourt was recalled to Montreal . He was next assigned to Pembina , North Dakota . He established two missions in the 1840s to convert the local Ojibwe ( also called Chippewa ) and Métis to Catholicism . In 1859 , Belcourt left Pembina for Quebec , but was quickly redeployed to North Rustico , Prince Edward Island . He established the Farmers ' Bank of Rustico ( the first community @-@ based bank in Canada ) . Belcourt retired from his post in 1869 to live out his life in New Brunswick , but was recalled in 1871 , this time to the Magdalen Islands . In May 1874 , Belcourt was forced to retire due to ill health . He died in Shediac , New Brunswick on May 31 , 1874 . He was designated a National Historic Person by the Government of Canada in 1959 . = = Early life = = Georges @-@ Antoine Belcourt was born on April 22 , 1803 at Baie @-@ du @-@ Febvre , Quebec to Antoine Belcourt and Josephte Lemire , who had married on February 23 , 1802 . His parents , devout Roman Catholics , brought their son up in the same faith , and the young Belcourt received his first Holy Communion in 1814 . At age 13 , Belcourt enrolled in Le Petit Séminaire de Québec to undertake a philosophical course of study , which he completed in 1823 . Belcourt studied to become a priest , and on March 10 , 1827 , Bernard @-@ Claude Panet , the Archbishop of Quebec , performed Belcourt 's ordination in the chapel at the Seminary . Belcourt was appointed as an assistant at several parishes in the area , before becoming pastor of a parish at Sainte @-@ Martine , Quebec in 1830 . As he was bilingual and spoke English as well as French , he was able to minister to his parish of mostly Irish Catholic Canadians . = = Early missionary work = = During his time at Sainte @-@ Martine , the young priest aspired to do missionary work in the west of British North America and applied for it . In 1830 , Archbishop Panet requested that the young priest accompany him on a journey to Manitoba . Following an interview in February 1831 , Belcourt was enlisted to go on the trip . After spending two months learning the Algonquian language , Belcourt departed from his home town on April 27 of that year in a canoe of the Hudson 's Bay Company . On June 17 , the priest 's party arrived at Saint Boniface , Manitoba , and Belcourt was assigned as one of three priests there . He was to assist the Bishop at the town 's cathedral , and study the Anishinaabe language . He was to work with the Ojibwe people to convert them to Christianity . Although the language was not yet documented in written form , Belcourt made rapid progress . Within a year , he had learned enough to be considered ready to work directly with those whom he termed the " savages , " as was customary at the time . In 1832 , Belcourt established the first native @-@ only mission west of Saint Boniface , but Gros Ventre raids forced its closure the following year . In 1834 , he established a mission at Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul on the Assiniboine River , where he instructed the local Aboriginal population in European @-@ style agriculture . The priest had a log chapel built , with smaller log cabins on the surrounding land to house the natives . The local bishop opposed his missionary work , as he believed the Aboriginal Canadians would not settle in one spot for long . Belcourt overcame this opposition , and in 1834 built a school at his mission , enlisting the assistance of a Chippewa @-@ speaking woman to serve as a teacher . In 1836 , the missionary admitted five natives to Holy Communion . He was discouraged by the Ojibwe readiness to return to their former spiritual practices after baptism . In 1838 , Belcourt travelled to Rainy Lake to examine sites for a mission . He abandoned the plan after discovering that the First Nations people were unwilling to give up their Hudson 's Bay Company @-@ supplied liquor , as he required for conversion to Christianity . In August 1838 , the priest arranged to have a dictionary published in the Chippewa language , and returned to his mission at Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul . In the winter of 1839 , Belcourt carved 280 oak balusters and candlesticks for his log chapel . In 1840 , the missionary established a mission among the Wabaseemoong Independent Nations , where he repeated his Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul design : a log chapel at the centre surrounded by small cabins for the local population , with outlying farms . The mission closed ten years later ; Belcourt blamed this on mismanagement by oblates he had entrusted with its management . In 1845 , Belcourt served as the chaplain to some buffalo hunters , but returned to his first mission at Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul to teach the Chippewa language to a group of oblates . In 1846 , a dysentery epidemic swept communities along the Assiniboine River in Manitoba . On June 22 of that year , Belcourt left his mission at Baie @-@ Saint @-@ Paul to join a group of hunters on their journey south for the summer . The hunters carried the disease , infecting others , and 25 people died of dysentery by July 5 . On the worst days , eight people had to be buried . Belcourt and six of the hunters travelled south to the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation in search of medicine , as the priest 's supply had quickly run out . With his medicine supplies replenished , the missionary headed back to the encampment of hunters before returning to his mission . = = Arrival in North Dakota = = In 1847 , in response to perceived discrimination against First Nations people by the Hudson 's Bay Company in the fur trade , Belcourt prepared a petition to Queen Victoria to seek redress . The petition was signed by 977 First Nations people , but the Colonial Secretary , Earl Grey , consulted with advisors who had little sympathy for the natives and took no action in the case . The Company criticised Belcourt for what it saw as his inciting discontent among the local First Nations . The Company administrators decided that the priest should not be allowed to remain in British North America . The missionary was arrested , but was released after the charges against him were discovered to be unfounded . At the urging of the Company 's Governor , the Archbishop of Quebec asked Belcourt to return to Montreal . Belcourt asked the Governor of the Company to retract the charges for which he was arrested . The Governor apologised for what he described as a mistake on the part of the Company 's chief Factors . The Church assigned Belcourt to Pembina , North Dakota as a missionary to the Chippewa and Métis of the Pembina River basin , a tributary to the Red River of the North . Upon arrival at Pembina , Belcourt constructed a small log cabin of 20 feet long by 30 feet wide , which was not large enough for all of his congregation . On August 14 , 1848 , the missionary baptised his first person in Pembina , and held a Holy Communion class consisting of 92 Native Americans . Needing more resources , Belcourt wrote to the Archbishop of Quebec for money for food and building supplies . He also asked for another Canadian priest well @-@ versed in both French and the Chippewa language , as he noted there were more Métis than Chippewa in the Pembina area . Belcourt described the original territory of the Chippewa in the Pembina district as several hundred miles north to south , and east to west - much larger than the small reservation to which they were later assigned . In November 1849 , the young and recently ordained priest Albert Lacombe arrived in Pembina and immediately started to learn the Chippewa language . Despite claiming to have to resort to manual labour to pay for his food , Belcourt supported a household that included a school teacher , a housekeeper , a Chippewa cook and several servants . Thirty miles to the west , he established a mission at Turtle Mountain to serve as a base for expansion toward the Canadian Rockies . In 1853 , Belcourt moved to what is now Walhalla , North Dakota , and established a school and a church there . The priest envisioned a large metropolis for the area . He began to lay out a city planned in the European @-@ style of a grid , with wide streets and several open squares . Despite his having planned for ample water , and the natural advantages of fertile soil and resources in the area , major development went elsewhere . Since the early twentieth century , agriculture has declined as a mainstay of family economies in the area . The town has 885 residents . A strong advocate of prohibition of alcohol , especially among Native Americans and First Nations peoples , Belcourt petitioned the US Congress to prevent the illicit trafficking of liquor from Canada into the United States . In March 1859 , Belcourt left North Dakota to return to Canada . = = Return to Canada = = Belcourt returned to Quebec , but was quickly sent out to serve at a parish at Rustico , Prince Edward Island . Arriving there in November 1859 , the priest performed his first baptism among the local people the following month . Belcourt built a parish hall out of stone ( which was used into the 1950s ) and established the Farmers ' Bank of Rustico . He founded a high school , where he taught until recruiting a teacher from Montreal to the island . The priest created a study group , the members of which had to agree to be teetotalers . He established a parish library , built with the assistance of 1 @,@ 000 French francs a year from Emperor Napoleon III , nephew of Napoleon I. In October 1865 , Belcourt resigned from his position at the parish at Rustico , and returned to Quebec for some weeks . He asked for reassignment to Rustico and returned to the island in November . In 1866 , Belcourt built and demonstrated a steam @-@ powered vehicle , considered the first automobile to be driven in Canada . Belcourt remained pastor of his parish at Rustico until 1869 , when he retired . The priest intended to live on a farm at Shediac , New Brunswick , but was called back to the church in August 1871 . He was asked to pastor a parish on the Magdalen Islands . Ill health forced his retirement from there in May 1874 , and he returned to Shediac before dying on May 31 , 1874 . = = Legacy and honors = = The town of Belcourt , North Dakota was named after the late priest in honour of his efforts in the region . In 1959 , Belcourt was designated a National Historic Person by the Government of Canada .
= Jack Fingleton = John " Jack " Henry Webb Fingleton OBE ( 28 April 1908 – 22 November 1981 ) was an Australian cricketer who was trained as a journalist and became a political and cricket commentator after the end of his playing career . A stubborn opening batsman known for his dour defensive approach , he scored five Test centuries , representing Australia in 18 Tests between 1932 and 1938 . He was also known for his involvement in several cricket diplomacy incidents in his career , accused of leaking the infamous verbal exchange between Australian captain Bill Woodfull and English manager Plum Warner during the acrimonious Bodyline series , and later of causing sectarian tension within the team by leading a group of players of Irish Catholic descent in undermining the leadership of the Protestant Don Bradman . In retirement , Fingleton became a prominent political commentator in Canberra , with links to Australian prime ministers . The author of many cricket books , he is regarded as one of Australia 's finest cricket writers , with a perceptive and occasionally sardonic style , marked by persistent criticisms of Bradman . Fingleton had a difficult childhood , forced to leave formal education at the age of 12 to support his family after the death of his father . He worked in a series of odd jobs before joining the media at the age of 15 . He gradually progressed in his newspaper and cricket career . After making his first @-@ grade debut in Sydney district cricket at the age of 16 , he made his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales at the age of 20 in 1928 – 29 . However , Fingleton struggled to establish himself at interstate level , and was unable to maintain a regular position in the team , playing in only seven matches in his first three seasons . In 1931 – 32 , Fingleton capitalised on illnesses to teammates to gain a regular position for New South Wales and then make his debut for Australia . He secured a position in the state team after Archie Jackson developed terminal tuberculosis and made 93 and 117 in his first two innings for the season , his highest scores to that point . He was then called into the Test squad and made his debut in the Fifth and final Test of the season against South Africa after Bill Ponsford fell ill . On a pitch rendered hostile by rain , Fingleton made 40 in an innings victory , surpassing the entire aggregate scored by the South Africans in their first innings . The following season , Fingleton enhanced his reputation for defiance in difficult conditions by scoring an unbeaten century against the Bodyline attack in a tour match despite suffering multiple bruises , and compiling 83 in the low @-@ scoring Second Test , Australian 's only Test win of the series . However , he made a pair in the next Test and the controversy over England 's bowling peaked with the leaking of Woodfull 's admonishment of Warner over England 's tactics . At the time , Fingleton was widely believed to be responsible for the leak , although he always denied it and blamed Bradman . Over time , Fingleton 's view has become more widely accepted . Fingleton was dropped after this Test , and was controversially overlooked for the 1934 tour of England despite strong performances for New South Wales . His omission was thought to be influenced by the belief that he was responsible for leaking Woodfull 's comments as well as Bradman 's criticism of his performance . Other factors speculated to have contributed to his omission included a dispute that Fingleton had with Woodfull during a Sheffield Shield match , and interstate rivalries between New South Wales and Victoria causing Fingleton 's omission at the expense of an additional Victorian . After the 1934 tour , Woodfull and Ponsford — Australia 's first @-@ choice opening pair — retired , leaving vacancies in the Test team . Fingleton scored four centuries and was the leading run @-@ scorer during the 1934 – 35 domestic season to earn a recall to the Australian team for the 1935 – 36 tour of South Africa . From that point onwards until the outbreak of World War II , he opened the batting with his New South Wales partner Bill Brown . With Bradman absent due to illness , it was the happiest time of Fingleton 's career , and he scored centuries in three consecutive innings as Australia won each of the last three Tests by an innings . In the Fourth Test , he and Brown put on the first double century opening partnership for Australia in a Test . In 1936 – 37 , with Bradman back in the team as captain , Fingleton made a century in the First Test to become the first player to score consecutive centuries in four Test innings . He then made 136 in the Third Test , featuring in a partnership of 346 with Bradman after Australia had lost the first two Tests ; their stand set up victory and Australia came back to win the series 3 – 2 . Fingleton made his only tour of England in 1938 , and he was not successful , averaging only 20 @.@ 50 in the Tests . Upon returning to Australia he played sporadically for his state before retiring in 1939 – 40 . Fingleton enlisted in the military during World War II and was eventually sent to work on media matters for Prime Minister John Curtin and one of his predecessors , Billy Hughes . After the war , Fingleton worked as a political correspondent in Canberra and commentated on cricket during the summer months in Australia and England . He was a prolific author , regarded as one of the finest and most stylish cricket writers of his time , producing many books . Fingleton was known for his forthright opinions and willingness to criticise , and his cricket reports were published by newspapers in several countries . He was known for his ongoing feud with Bradman — the pair repeatedly spoke out against one another 's judgement and play on the field long after they retired . = = Style = = A right @-@ hand opening batsman , Fingleton was noted primarily for his obdurate defense rather than for his strokeplay . Like most successful opening batsmen , he had a small back @-@ lift and was rarely surprised by the quicker half @-@ volley or yorker . Fingleton was often described as " courageous " , in particular for his defiant batting against Bodyline . Fingleton often made self @-@ deprecating comments about his batting , telling English cricket writer Alan Gibson that he " missed nothing " by not seeing him bat . He was also an athletic and gifted fieldsman , who built his reputation in the covers . Later he became noted along with Vic Richardson and Bill Brown in South Africa in 1935 – 36 as part of Bill O 'Reilly 's leg @-@ trap . Neville Cardus , once described the Fingleton @-@ Brown combination as " crouching low and acquisitively , each with as many arms as an Indian God " . His partnership with Brown was regarded as one of the great opening pairings in the history of Australian Test cricket . In ten Tests together as an opening partnership , the pair averaged 63 @.@ 75 for the first wicket , higher than any other Australian pair with more than 1 @,@ 000 runs . = = Early years = = Born at Waverley in the inner eastern suburbs of Sydney , Fingleton was the third of six children . His parents were James , a tram driver and union organiser who became a member of the New South Wales Parliament , and Belinda May Webb . The family was Irish Catholic — Fingleton 's paternal grandfather had immigrated to Australia in the 1870s . In 1913 , at the age of five , Fingleton 's father was elected into state parliament as a representative of the centre left , labour @-@ union oriented Australian Labor Party , and the family moved into a larger house . It was here that Fingleton learned to play street cricket . Fingleton was educated at the Roman Catholic St Francis 's School , in the inner city suburb of Paddington before moving to Waverley College . There he began a lifelong association with prose . In 1917 , the family fell upon hard times when the elder Fingleton lost his seat and resumed his job as a tram driver , but in 1918 contracted tuberculosis . The father succumbed in 1920 when Jack was twelve , and the funeral director was Australian Test wicket @-@ keeper Sammy Carter . Without their breadwinner , the Fingleton family were in further trouble and Belinda opened a seafood shop and withdrew her eldest son Les to support her . However , the business failed and the family home was at risk , so Jack was forced to quit school at the age of 12 . He did a variety of jobs such as selling food at cinemas , washing bottles and sweeping floors . At the age of fifteen , Fingleton took the first steps in his journalism career , when his cousin helped him to become a copy boy with the now defunct Sydney Daily Guardian . Encouraged by his former headmaster , who had prompted his interest in writing , Fingleton quickly eased into his new career . Fingleton started as a sports reporter , and had a narrow escape when he was sacked by Robert Clyde Packer for breaking a pot , but then reinstated . Fingleton then risked being fired by removing cricket articles written by the famed Neville Cardus from the newspaper 's archive against policy for his personal use . Fingleton was unable to distinguish himself on the field while at school , but after joining Waverley , he made quick progress . Fingleton trained early in the morning , before heading to the office and working in the afternoon so that the articles would be printed in the evening . He was unable to afford the club membership so a patron sponsored him . At the age of 16 , he broke into the First XI of a grade team which included Test players Alan Kippax , Hanson Carter and Arthur Mailey . Australian Test captain Herbie Collins missed a match due to his work as a bookmaker , and Fingleton stood in at late notice . Under the leadership of Carter , Fingleton batted last and made 11 not out . Forced to follow on , he made 52 not out and cemented his position for the remainder of the season . Within a year , Fingleton 's grade performances were being reported in Sydney newspapers . Playing on a Waverley pitch notorious for uneven bounce , Fingleton developed a style of playe centred around solid defence . In the same year , his journalistic mentor Pedlar Palmer moved to The Sydney Morning Herald and Fingleton became disenchanted . He was coaxed by cricketer @-@ journalist to move his publication , the Telegraph Pictorial where he worked for several years before the outbreak of the Second World War . However , Fingleton 's initiation into his new workplace was difficult as the Telegraph Pictorial had just merged with the Daily Telegraph and around half the workforce were to be made redundant . Fingleton was demoted from the main staff to a freelance correspondent covering events in the inner @-@ city suburbs of Redfern and Newtown . In such crime @-@ ridden and turbulent working @-@ class area , Fingleton was productive in break stories and was soon restored to the regular staff . = = First @-@ class debut = = Having scored a century for Waverley against Petersham the week before , Fingleton made his first @-@ class debut in 1928 – 29 , playing in two matches and having two innings . On debut against Victoria , Fingleton was allowed to bat no higher than No. 8 by captain Tommy Andrews , despite being a specialist batsman . More than 600 runs had been scored by the time the sixth wicket had fallen , bringing him to the wicket to join Don Bradman , who had already brought up his double century . The pair put on an unbroken stand of 111 before Andrews declared at 7 / 613 , of which Fingleton made 25 not out . During the partnership , Bradman farmed most of the strike , much to Fingleton 's chagrin . The pair 's first meeting had been prickly and Bradman glared angrily at Fingleton after a mix @-@ up almost ended in a run out . The match was drawn , and Fingleton then made a duck against Tasmania in an innings victory . The following summer , with no Test matches , New South Wales ' international representatives were available for the entire season , and Fingleton missed selection for every match . In 1930 – 31 , aged 22 , Fingleton regained his position at the start of the Sheffield Shield season for New South Wales , and first came to prominence when he withstood a ferocious opening spell against the express pace of Eddie Gilbert in Brisbane against Queensland . On one occasion , a particularly fast Gilbert delivery supposedly evaded both the batsman and wicket @-@ keeper , travelled more than 60 metres and crashed through a fence before hitting and killing a dog on the other side . Fingleton scored 56 as a full strength team with Test players fell for 143 . The visitors were set 392 for victory and played for a draw , with Fingleton adding 71 to prevent a collapse as the match was saved . He failed to pass single figures in his next four innings , and was dropped twice , before adding 32 not out and 26 as New South Wales lost to the touring West Indies . Fingleton did not play a full season and ended with 210 runs at 35 @.@ 00 in five matches , including the two half @-@ centuries . = = Test debut = = In the opening match of the 1931 – 32 season , which was against Queensland , New South Wales were in trouble . Gilbert famously knocked the bat out of Donald Bradman 's hand , before removing him for a duck . Gilbert cut down the New South Wales top order with a spell of 3 / 12 and forced Alan Kippax to retire hurt after hitting him in the upper body . Fingleton was going to be twelfth man before Archie Jackson — who was to die of tuberculosis just over a year later — collapsed just before the start of the match . Undeterred , Stan McCabe came in and counterattacked ; Fingleton assisted him with a stubborn 93 and featured in a 195 @-@ run fourth wicket partnership . New South Wales reached 432 and won by an innings . Fingleton then scored his maiden first @-@ class century of 117 in less than four hours in the following match , against the touring South Africa , helping his team to 3 / 430 in their runchase . The hosts were 18 runs short of victory when time ran out . Although Fingleton made only five in New South Wales ' second match against the South Africans , Fingleton was selected for the Test series against the same team . This came after only ten matches for his state . Starting with the Second Test , he was twelfth man for three consecutive Tests , and as a result , did not play any cricket for six weeks before he added a pair of 40s in a win over arch @-@ rivals Victoria . Fingleton made his debut in the Fifth and final Test in similar circumstances to his break at the start of the season ; Bill Ponsford fell ill and Bradman twisted an ankle . As Bradman later took a hard @-@ running catch as a substitute fielder on the same day , some suspected that he had feigned injury to avoid playing on a rain @-@ affected wicket hostile to batting — he had appeared uncomfortable against aggressive bowling in the previous Test . In a low @-@ scoring match , Fingleton 's first action on the field was to let a ball go between his legs as South Africa batted first . Opening with captain Bill Woodfull in the absence of Ponsford , Fingleton saw his skipper removed from the first ball of the innings . He was allowed to ease into his first innings when the first ball he faced , from Neville Quinn , was a deliberate full toss to give him an opportunity to score his initial runs easily . The pair became friends from this point onwards . Fingleton was second top @-@ scorer with 40 as Australia made 153 recorded an innings victory . The match lasted less than one day 's playing time as the hosts fell for only 36 and 45 . The cricketer @-@ journalist Richard Whitington later wrote that " for courage and skill ... [ Fingleton 's 51 ] was worth quadruple that number " . The Sydney Mail predicted that Fingleton 's display on the rain @-@ affected wicket , the likes of which were common , proved that he would " someday be a great success " there . Fingleton ended the season with 386 runs at 42 @.@ 88 with one century and a fifty in six matches . = = Bodyline turmoil = = In the following summer came the Bodyline series , when England toured under Douglas Jardine and targeted the upper bodies of the Australian batsmen with short @-@ pitched bowling , using a close leg side cordon to catch balls fended away from the body . In one of the tour matches before the Tests , Fingleton scored a defiant 119 * , carrying his bat for New South Wales against the bumper barrage of Harold Larwood and Gubby Allen , ensuring his selection for the First Test . Despite his unbending resistance , his state fell to an innings defeat . In a warm @-@ up for the Tests , he scored 29 and 53 not out for an Australian XI against the tourists , while most of his teammates struggled . His earlier experience held him in good stead as he scored 26 and 40 as Australia were crushed by ten wickets in the First Test in Sydney . Fingleton stood his ground and was hit several times . He then made a defiant four @-@ hour innings to top @-@ score with 83 in the first innings of Australia 's only win of the series in the Second Test in Melbourne , although he did run out his batting partner Leo O 'Brien in the process . This helped the Australians to reach 228 and they took a 59 @-@ run first innings lead before winning the match despite Fingleton making only one in the second innings . He appeared as well equipped as any Australian to combat England 's strategy . = = = Adelaide leak = = = However , the Third Test at the Adelaide Oval was disastrous for Fingleton , who scored a pair as Australia were hammered by 338 runs . He was blamed for leaking the details of the dressing room exchange between captain Bill Woodfull and English manager Plum Warner , which almost caused the abandonment of the Test series . Warner had visited Woodfull to express sympathies after the Australian captain was struck in the heart by Larwood 's short pitched bowling , to which Woodfull retorted " I do not want to see you Mr. Warner . There are two sides out there . One is playing cricket and the other is not . " The leak caused a sensastion , as Woodfull had publicly remained composed in the face of the body barrage , neither complaining nor retaliating . Fingleton was dropped for the remaining two Tests of the series . New South Wales played England after the Third Test and Fingleton had a chance to show his credentials against Bodyline but made only 19 and 7 in a four @-@ wicket defeat , and was unable to force his way back into the Test team . Fingleton always denied responsibility for the leak , blaming Bradman . This incident was the first in a string of open disagreements between Fingleton and Bradman . The Bodyline season also marked the beginning of Fingleton 's opening combination with Bill Brown , who made his New South Wales debut in the same season . Fingleton scored four half @-@ centuries for the remainder of the first @-@ class season and ended with 648 runs at 38 @.@ 11 as New South Wales won the Sheffield Shield . Fingleton had a prolific 1933 – 34 Australian season in which he scored 655 runs at 59 @.@ 54 with two centuries and four fifties . He scored 105 in the Test trial for Richardson 's XI and then struck 145 against arch @-@ rivals Victoria in the last match of the season ; New South Wales were unable to force a victory and thus ceded the Sheffield Shield to their southern neighbours . He had scored 76 in the return match earlier in the season and added 33 and 78 against the Rest of Australia . Despite this , Fingleton was an overlooked for the Australian side selected to tour England in 1934 . With captain Woodfull and Bill Ponsford the established openers , there was only one place for a spare opener , and Brown won the position over his partner , who had performed to a similar standard during the season . The selectors asked Don Bradman , Australia 's leading batsman and state team @-@ mate to Brown and Fingleton , for advice . Bradman nominated Brown , believing that his style was better suited to English pitches . On the day that the team was selected , Bradman wrote in his newspaper column , criticising Fingleton 's running between the wickets . When the pair next met , Fingleton 's only words were to blame Bradman for his omission ; Bradman claimed that as a result of the selection controversy , Fingleton relentless pursued a vendetta against him from there on . Fingleton also suspected that Woodfull wanted him out of the team because he held the journalist responsible for the leaked exchange with Warner . Some incidents in Fingleton 's century in the last match of the season were also believed to have reflected badly at the selection table . Having retired hurt on 78 , he returned the next day and was then dropped on 86 in the slips . Fingleton had moved out of his crease to pat out the pitch before the ball had gone dead and Victorian wicket @-@ keeper Ben Barnett broke the stumps . A displeased Fingleton was given out by umpire George Borwick and walked off the ground , only to be called back by captain Woodfull . Fingleton refused Woodfull 's offer and did not return until Woodfull successfully asked Borwick to reverse his decision . The media reported that Fingleton had quarrelled with Woodfull and several teammates told him that his apparent rebuff of the national captain would prejudice his chances of selection , and the NSWCA made an inquiry into the matter ; Fingleton failed to respond . During the same innings , Bradman also wrote in his newspaper report that Fingleton had been responsible for the run out of teammate Ray Rowe , which angered Fingleton for an extended period . A disappointed Fingleton wrote to Woodfull , saying " You have chosen chaps who do not like fast bowling " . He also questioned what he perceived to be Woodfull 's coldness towards him since the Bodyline series and decried unnamed " fellow pressmen , naturally jealous " . Wisden speculated that Fingleton 's omission may have been due to cricket diplomacy reasons following the incident in Adelaide , while others thought that regionalism was to blame ; this view posited that Ernest Bromley was selected so that seven Victorians and New South Welshmen would be on the tour . Bromley scored only 312 runs in 20 innings in England . Fingleton was selected for a second string Australian team to tour New Zealand for two months at the end of the season while the Test team departred for England . However , captain Victor Richardson and his deputy Keith Rigg withdrew , dissatisfied with the pay , leaving Fingleton as the most senior member of the team . The tour was then cancelled by New Zealand , who feared that the large number of absentees would result in a large financial loss . = = Test recall = = With retirements of both Woodfull and Ponsford following the 1934 tour to England , positions at the top of the Australia 's batting order became available . Fingleton also found state cricket more attractive now that Bradman had decided to move to South Australia to take up stockbroking . Fingleton responded to his omission from the Ashes tour by leading the run @-@ scoring aggregates in the 1934 – 35 season . He scored 880 runs at 58 @.@ 66 with four centuries and four fifties , almost 200 runs more than the second most prolific batsman , Brown . After Fingleton started the summer with a fifty in Woodfull 's testimonial match , the pair started the Shield campaign with a 249 @-@ run stand in New South Wales ' first match of the season against South Australia , both scoring centuries in an innings victory . Fingleton made 134 in just over three hours . Fingleton reached 49 at least once in the remaining five matches , including a 108 against Queensland . Despite the form of the openers , New South Wales failed to win the Sheffield Shield after losing both of their matches against Victoria . Fingleton ended the season with consecutive centuries , 124 and 100 , against Western Australia , and took the first of two first @-@ class wickets in his career in the first of the two matches . As a result of his performances , Fingleton was recalled to the Test team for the tour of South Africa in 1935 – 36 , where he partnered Brown at the top of the innings . Under normal circumstances , the Australians would have been captained by Fingleton 's rival Bradman , who had been vice @-@ captain to Woodfull . However , Bradman was unable to tour for medical reasons and Vic Richardson led the team instead . With Bradman out of the way , the tour was to be the most prolific and peaceful phase of Fingleton 's international career and included several large opening stands with Brown . During the tour , Fingleton played with an attacking flair that contrasted with his established reputation for doggedness . For Fingleton , it was the happiest tour he had been on , in large part due to Bradman 's absence . Fingleton nearly failed to make the trip . His newspaper editor Eric Baume ordered to write a column attacking the Australian Board of Control for vetoing players from going on a private tour of India , threatening to sack him if he refused — criticism of the board typically resulted in exclusion from selection . Fingleton was reluctant to comply , and was reprieved when the editor @-@ in @-@ chief overruled Baume . Fingleton scored 66 for the Australians in an innings victory over Western Australia before sailing for South Africa . It was to be the start of a very productive campaign . In the three matches leading up to the Tests , against Natal , Western Province and Transvaal respectively , Fingleton scored 121 , 53 , 99 and seven not out . Australia won the latter match by ten wickets and the others by an innings . In the match by Natal , Fingleton and Brown both made centuries and combined in a double century stand . After almost three years in the wilderness , Fingleton returned to the Test arena in the First Test at Durban . After making two in the first innings , he was unbeaten on 36 when Australia reached their second innings target with nine wickets in hand . During the first innings , a 140 km / h gale hit the ground , uprooting trees and forcing balls that were heading into the wind to do U @-@ turns . He followed this with 62 — the innings top @-@ score — and 40 in the Second Test at Johannesburg . After taking a 93 @-@ run first innings lead , Australia needed a Test record of 399 in the second innings to win on a turning wicket , and after the early demise of Brown , Fingleton joined McCabe in a 177 @-@ run partnership that pushed the score to 1 / 194 . Such was the dominance of McCabe that he scored more than 80 % of the runs during this partnership . Australia needed only 125 with half the day remaining and eight wickets in hand when poor visibility ended play . McCabe had flayed the attack and reached 189 not out when the South Africans had the match called off , claiming that the fieldsmen were endangered by the batsman 's vigorous hitting . Fingleton finished the series with centuries in each of the last three Tests , all in consecutive innings ; 112 at Cape Town , 108 at Johannesburg and 118 in Durban . In the Third Test , Fingleton and Brown set a new Australian Test record opening stand of 233 , which laid the foundation for a total of 8 / 362 declared and an innings victory . It was Australia 's first double @-@ century opening stand in Test cricket , and remains a national record for the first wicket against South Africa . On a rain @-@ affected wicket , Fingleton reached his maiden Test century in only 180 minutes before wickets began falling steadily . Before the Fourth Test , Fingleton added 52 against Border and 110 in an innings win over Transvaal . His 108 in the Fourth Test was more than South Africa 's entire second innings of 98 , and scored at almost a run a minute . In the Fifth Test , the pair combined for another century stand . Each of the three matches resulted in an innings victory for Australia as the series was taken 4 – 0 . Fingleton ended the Test series with 478 runs at 79 @.@ 66 . Against Natal at Durban , he made his highest first class score of 167 , his second century against the provincial side for the season . He ended the tour with a total of 1192 runs at 74 @.@ 50 , including six centuries . Despite his rapid scoring in South Africa , Fingleton 's achievements went largely unheralded at home ; at the time , England and Australia were by far the strongest Test teams and media coverage of the tour was scant . There was little detail in the reports apart from the scores and Fingleton was still described as a slow scorer , something that angered him . = = Under the captaincy of Bradman = = The following 1936 – 37 season in Australia , saw more success for Fingleton , although with the return of Bradman as captain , team harmony became strained . Gubby Allen 's Englishmen toured Australia , and after failing to pass 10 in his first three innings for the season , Fingleton scored 39 , 42 and 56 in matches for New South Wales and an Australian XI against the tourists . Fingleton became the first player to score centuries in four consecutive Test innings when he scored 100 in the first innings of the First Test at Brisbane , reaching the mileston on 7 December . He top @-@ scored as Australia replied to England 's 358 with 234 . Fingleton 's feats was later equalled by Alan Melville , ( whose four centuries were scored on either side of World War II ) and surpassed by the West Indian , Everton Weekes in 1948 – 49 . Fingleton 's run ended in the second innings , falling for a golden duck as Australia were skittled for 58 on a sticky wicket and crushed by 322 runs . After scoring 12 in a total of 80 as Australia were caught on a sticky wicket , Fingleton then made 73 in the second innings of the Second Test in Sydney , one of few Australians to resist as the home side fell to an innings defeat after being forced to follow on . Australia were facing a dilemma in the Third Test in Melbourne . The home team scored 200 , Fingleton contributing 38 , before rain caused a sticky wicket and England declared at 9 / 76 . However , Australia still had to bat on the treacherous surface , captain Bradman reshuffled the batting lineup , putting the bowlers in first and Fingleton and himself in at Nos. 6 and 7 to save them for more favourable batting conditions . The bowlers managed to survive to the end of the day 's play and the wicket improved overnight . The pair came together with the score at 5 / 97 and made a Test record sixth @-@ wicket partnership of 346 , with Fingleton making 136 . It turned the Test and saw Australia ended at 564 . The hosts bowled England out for 323 to win the match by 365 runs and prevent England from taking an unassailable 3 – 0 lead . Fingleton did not pass 20 in his last three innings of the series , as Australia won the remaining two matches to win the series . Fingleton ended with 398 runs at 44 @.@ 22 in the Tests , and 631 runs at 33 @.@ 21 overall . Fingleton followed up with 862 runs at 50 @.@ 70 in the 1937 – 38 domestic season , with two centuries and six fifties . This effort placed him third in the run @-@ scoring aggregates for the season . He saved his best for arch @-@ rivals Victoria , scoring 59 and 160 to salvage a draw after New South Wales had conceded a first innings lead of 231 . New south Wales went on to win the title . Fingleton finished his season with 66 , 1 , 47 and 109 in two warm @-@ up matches for the Australian team against Western Australia before they headed to England for the 1938 Ashes series . In 1938 , Fingleton made what turned out to be his international farewell as Australia toured England , a series in which he found runs difficult to come by . He later attributed this to his inability to play the pull shot . However , Fingleton started the tour well . He passed 30 in each of his first seven innings on English soil , and converted three of these starts into centuries , scoring 124 against Oxford University , 111 against Cambridge University and 123 not out against Hampshire in the first month of cricket . Fingleton 's form tapered just at the wrong time , falling three times for single figures in the last two matches before the Tests . He carried this into the First Test at Trent Bridge , where he made only 9 and 40 in a high @-@ scoring draw in which every innings passed 400 . An infamous incident occurred in Australia 's second innings . As Australia were 247 runs behind on the first innings and forced to follow on , they played for a draw and Brown and Fingleton batted slowly in the second innings . Sections of the crowd heckled his slow batting by using a slow hand clap . Bradman then sent Mervyn Waite out to deliver orders to the openers that they should back away from their positions and hold up proceedings until the barracking stopped . Fingleton said that he was not perturbed by the crowd but obeyed ; umpire Frank Chester and England captain Wally Hammond had no issues with this . At one point , Fingleton theatrically decided to take off his gloves , put down his bat and sit down on the pitch and refusing to resume before the gallery quietened , but this only caused a huge uproar . Wisden later criticised him , saying that he lost " all true sense of the situation ... an extraordinary action on the part of a cricket in a Test match . " They regarded the gesture as disrespectful as a majority of the spectators had not heckled him . Fingleton rediscovered his form between the Tests , scoring 121 against the Gentlemen of England and 96 against Lancashire . Again however , Fingleton was unable to maintain the momentum in the Tests , making 31 and 4 against England in the Second Test at Lord 's , which ended in another draw . Fingleton then aggregated only 36 in four innings in next three county fixtures , and after the Third Test at Old Trafford never started due to persistent rain , he was concussed in the match against Warwickshire at Edgbaston . A long hop from Waite was pulled into his head at point @-@ blank range , and Fingleton managed to duck enough that it glanced his forehead and went into the air , to the cries of " catch it " from Bradman . The ball did not go to hand and Fingleton was hospitalised . Fingleton made 30 and 9 in a low @-@ scoring Fourth Test at Headingley , which Australia won by five wickets to retain the Ashes . He remained unproductive in the lead @-@ up to the final Test , scoring 51 in three first @-@ class innings . His Test career ended disappointingly at The Oval in " Hutton 's Match " . In the course of England 's marathon innings of 7 / 903 he sustained a leg injury , which prevented him from batting in either Australian innings . With Bradman also unable to bat , Australia collapsed to the heaviest defeat in Test history , by an innings and 579 runs . It capped off a tour that ended poorly after a promising start . Fingleton made 123 runs in six innings at an average of 20 @.@ 50 . With the outbreak of World War II , Australia was not to play another Test until the 1945 – 46 season , ending Fingleton 's international career . Fingleton returned to Australia and played in only three matches in the 1938 – 39 domestic season , scoring 81 runs at 16 @.@ 20 , before being sidelined at the end of December . His top @-@ score for the season was 45 as New South Wales lost by four wickets to Victoria . In 1939 – 40 , Fingleton had another quiet season with only 39 runs at 6 @.@ 50 in three matches . He passed single figures only once in six innings and ended with a duck and three as New South Wales lost to arch @-@ rivals Victoria by 82 runs . Fingleton retired at the end of the season . = = World War II = = After the start of World War II , he enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force in November 1941 in the artillery . He was sent to Warwick Farm , then on the western outskirts of Sydney , for training . A non @-@ conformist known for being forthright , Fingleton did not enjoy military discipline . In May 1942 , he went AWOL from his post at Double Bay on the shores of Sydney Harbour to visit his wife . As a result , he was missing when a Japanese midget submarine launched an attack in the harbour . Soon after , he was deployed to Townsville in northern Queensland in anticipation of a Japanese land invasion , which never materialised . He was then transferred to the Press Relations unit . There he did work in intelligence analysis and censorship . The military then made him the press secretary for former Prime Minister of Australia Billy Hughes . From his appointment onwards , he lived and worked in Canberra . Hughes had changed political parties several times and was infamous for his erratic style and the government wanted Fingleton to moderate him . The leader of the United Australia Party , Hughes had particularly worried Prime Minister John Curtin by frequently and publicly excoriating US General Douglas Macarthur , who was commanding the Allied forces in the Pacific . Curtin needed someone to quieten Hughes , as Macarthur had threatened to leave if the denouncements continued . Fingleton spent three months working for the temperamental Hughes and was not successful in curbing his aggressive oratory . He then worked in censorship , deciding which portions of Curtin 's press briefings were reportable ; Fingleton tried to take a liberal line on press freedom . Fingleton also worked for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation 's Radio Australia while serving in the censorship department . = = Post @-@ war writing and journalism career = = After the end of the war , Fingleton divided his time between Canberra , where until his retirement in 1978 he was political correspondent for Radio Australia , and cricket journalism . He forged close relationships with several Prime Ministers . In particular , Sir Robert Menzies , Australia 's longest serving Prime Minister , provided him with a laudatory foreword in his book , Masters of Cricket . Fingleton 's Test coverage resulted in a number of books that placed him at the forefront of Australian cricket writers . The books included Cricket Crisis ( mainly an account of the 1932 – 33 Bodyline series ) , Brightly Fades the Don ( the 1948 Invincibles tour ) , Brown & Company : The Tour in Australia ( the English tour of Australia in 1950 – 51 ) , The Ashes Crown the Year ( the Australian tour of England in 1953 ) , Masters of Cricket , Four Chukkas to Australia ( the English tour of Australia in 1958 – 59 ) , The Greatest Test of All ( the Tied Test of 1960 ) , Fingleton on Cricket and The Immortal Victor Trumper . His final book , the autobiographical Batting From Memory , was to have its Australian launch during the week in which he died of a heart attack . His cricket writing , regarded as one of the most stylish by an Australian , often left a sour taste with observers because of the persistent anti @-@ Bradman jibes . During his war years , Fingleton decided to take up book writing , in addition to newspaper journalism , and began compiling a book about the Bodyline series during his spare time in the army , a topic that was still deep in the Australian consciousness , using his inside knowledge as a participant in that Ashes campaign . As Fingleton had worked for the government 's censors , he was one of only a few who knew of the effect of the Bodyline controversy in politics , as he had been aware of the cables that had been sent by government officials . Fingleton received advice and encouragement from the eminent British cricket writer Neville Cardus , and suffered a setback when , after finishing half the book , he sent his manuscript to be reviewed . It was lost in the post , and he had forgotten to make a copy . Fingleton finished his book Cricket Crisis in 1946 but it was rejected by the publishers Collins , who had already published a book by Ray Robinson named Between Wickets on the same topic . They were also concerned about the marketability of a book that criticised Bradman — still the dominant player of the time and an idolised figure — strongly . Fingleton then published with Cassell , and the book was widely acclaimed and is still regarded as the best first @-@ hand account of the Bodyline controversy and of the classic cricket books at large . It was well known for its stylish writing and analytical value . Fingleton expressed his views forthrightly and interspersed the account with analyses and profiles of those involved in the Bodyline series , including Bradman , Jardine , Larwood , Warner and McCabe . He criticised Bradman 's unorthodox approach in backing away from the bowling and questioned his aloof attitude towards his teammates . This angered Bradman , who wrote in his 1949 book Farewell to Cricket in reply to Fingleton , claiming that as Fingleton was an inferior batsman , his record gave him " scarcely ... any authority to criticise my methods . " The debate continued on , with replies in subsequent publications citing statistics . As parliament is usually in recess during the summer months , Fingleton 's political journalism did not often interfere with his cricket radio commentary for the ABC or his cricket writing , except during tours of England in the Australian winter . Fingleton mainly freelanced for overseas newspapers as he regarded Australian editors as being difficult to work with , and because the pay was lower . In 1946 – 47 , England toured Australia for the first full Test series since the war . Fingleton criticised Bradman for not walking after hitting a disputed catch to Jack Ikin . Fingleton and most in the press box thought that the catch was clean but the umpire ruled in favour of Bradman . At the time Bradman had been making a comeback from ill health and had been struggling , and it was thought that he would retire if he could not discover his old form . After the dispute catch however , Bradman began timing the ball and went on to score 187 . Fingleton openly criticised the decision to give Bradman not out in his writing . Later in the series , he decried Bradman 's tactics of having his pacemen bowl frequent bouncers at the English batsmen , pointing out that it was hypocritical for the Australian captain to vociferously condemn Jardine 's tactics years earlier . As Fingleton was one of the few who were forthright enough to question the actions of national hero Bradman , many sources within the Australian cricket community chose to confide in him , most notably all @-@ rounder Keith Miller , whose cavalier attitude brought him into conflict with Bradman 's ruthless approach to victory . The following season , during the Indian team 's tour of Australia , Fingleton began his association with The Hindu . After his death , a disused historic scoreboard from the MCG , dated to 1901 , was taken out of storage and transported to Canberra , where it was installed on the top of hill at Manuka Oval , and renamed the Jack Fingleton Scoreboard . At the dedication ceremony , Governor @-@ General of Australia Sir Ninian Stephen said that Fingleton not merely a Test cricketer who became a parliamentary journalist in the national capital , but " an institution " in Canberra . In addition to his writing , Fingleton was a witty , perceptive and occasionally sardonic commentator for the BBC and at various times a contributor to The Times , The Sunday Times , The Observer , and various newspapers in Australia , South Africa and elsewhere . In 1976 , he was awarded an OBE for services " to journalism and to cricket " . He was the subject of three appearances in 1979 and 1980 on Parkinson 's TV interview show . Fingleton 's judgements were characterised by careful first @-@ hand evidence and was known for sensing the emergence of a possible story . E W Swanton stated that " Fingleton remains surely , as cricket writer and broadcaster , the best his country has " . = = Family = = Fingleton met his wife Philippa " Pip " Street in 1938 during the sea voyage from Australia to England for the Test series . Philippa was the daughter of Kenneth and Jessie Street . Her father later became the Chief Justice of New South Wales , while her mother was a prominent left @-@ wing women 's rights activist and the Streets were a wealthy family of the Protestant establishment . Jessie had taken her daughter with her to a meeting of the League of Nations and then for a long tour of Europe . At the time , Philippa was only 18 , and Fingleton 30 , and Jessie was concerned when the pair fell in love , anticipating that problems would arise over religion . She hoped that the young couple would drift apart , but Fingleton gave the family tickets to the Fifth Test in London , only to injure himself during the match and not be able to bat . Upon returning to Australia , the couple wanted to marry , but the Streets forbade their daughter from marrying until 21 . Fingleton wanted Philippa to adopt Catholicism , something that concerned her mother , as she had clashed with Catholic leaders in her advocacy of birth control . The wedding went ahead in January 1942 after Philippa agreed to convert and Fingleton fitted in easily with his in @-@ laws ' left @-@ wing orientation . = = Conflict with Bradman = = Throughout his career as player and journalist , Fingleton persistently came into personal conflict with Don Bradman , one of the captains under whom Fingleton played , damaging the reputations of both . Bradman characteristically held his silence during Fingleton 's lifetime . Bradman was known for his reserved personality , did not drink and often eschewed social activities with teammates , preferring to privately listen to music or read . Combined with his success , he gained a reputation for cockiness . In the 1930s , Australia had been divided along sectarian lines , with those of Irish descent such as Fingleton being Catholic and Anglo @-@ Australians such as Bradman being predominantly Protestant , leading to speculation that the tension was fuelled by religion . During the 1936 – 37 Ashes series in Australia , four Catholics , leading bowler Bill O 'Reilly , leading batsman and vice @-@ captain Stan McCabe along with Leo O 'Brien and Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith were summoned by the Board of Control to respond to allegations that they were undermining Bradman . Fingleton was not invited , speculated to be due to his journalistic background , but Bradman later alleged that he was the ringleader . After that , Bradman 's relationship with O 'Reilly and Fingleton never recovered . When Bradman was dismissed in his final Test innings in 1948 for a duck , Fingleton and O 'Reilly were reported to be laughing hysterically in the pressbox . E W Swanton said that " I thought they were going to have stroke " . Bradman later wrote after both had died : " With these fellows out of the way , the loyalty of my 1948 side was a big joy and made a big contribution to the outstanding success of that tour " . = = Test statistics = =
= King Kong ( 2005 film ) = King Kong is a 2005 epic adventure monster film co @-@ written , produced , and directed by Peter Jackson . A remake of the 1933 film of the same name , the film stars Naomi Watts , Jack Black , Adrien Brody , and , through motion capture , Andy Serkis as the title character . Set in 1933 , King Kong tells the story of an overly ambitious filmmaker who coerces his cast and hired ship crew to travel to the mysterious Skull Island . There they encounter Kong , a legendary giant gorilla , whom they capture and display in New York City , with tragic results . The film 's budget climbed from an initial US $ 150 million to a then @-@ record @-@ breaking $ 207 million . It was released on December 14 , 2005 in Germany and on December 16 in the United States , and made an opening of $ 50 @.@ 1 million . While it performed lower than expected , King Kong made domestic and worldwide grosses that eventually added up to $ 550 million , becoming the fourth @-@ highest grossing film in Universal Pictures history . It also generated $ 100 million in DVD sales upon its home video release . The film garnered positive reviews from critics and appeared on several " top ten " lists for 2005 , who tended to praise it for its special effects , performances , sense of spectacle and comparison to the 1933 original , though some reviewers criticized it for its three @-@ hour running time . It won three Academy Awards for Best Sound Editing , Best Sound Mixing , and Best Visual Effects . = = Plot = = In 1933 , at the height of the Great Depression , New York City vaudeville actress Ann Darrow has lost her job and is hired by financially troubled filmmaker Carl Denham to star in his new film . Ann signs on when she learns her favorite playwright , Jack Driscoll , is the screenwriter . As their tramp steamer , the SS Venture , makes the lengthy journey to the remote and mysterious Skull Island , Ann and Jack fall in love . Captain Englehorn begins having second thoughts about the voyage , prompted by crew speculation of trouble ahead . Deep in the southern waters , the Venture receives a radio message informing Englehorn that there is a warrant out for Carl 's arrest due to his defiance of the studio 's orders to cease production . The message instructs Englehorn to divert to Rangoon , but despite his attempt to comply , the ship becomes lost in fog and runs aground on the rocky shore of Skull Island . Carl and his crew explore the island to film and are attacked by vicious natives . Mike , the sound technician and one of the sailors are killed . Ann screams as she is captured , and a loud roar is heard beyond the wall . The matriarch of the tribe vows to sacrifice her to " Kong " , a 25 ft ( 8 m ) tall gorilla . Englehorn kills one of the natives and his crew break up the attack and return to the ship . They lighten their load to float off the rocks and carry out repairs , but Jack discovers Ann has been kidnapped by natives . On the island , Ann is offered as a sacrifice to Kong by the natives . The crew returns armed , but is too late as Kong takes Ann and flees into the jungle . Ann gradually wins Kong over with juggling and dancing , and eventually begins to grasp Kong 's intelligence and capacity for emotion . Englehorn organizes a rescue party led by First Mate Hayes and includes Jack Driscoll , Carl Denham , Jimmy , Bruce Baxter , Preston , Lumpy , Herb , Choy , and several sailors . The party barely gets outside of the walls before they run into a Ferructus that Hayes kills with his machine gun . The rescue party is then caught in the middle of a pack of Venatosaurus saevidicus hunting a herd of Brontosaurus baxteri , and Herb is killed along with four sailors . The rest of the rescue party come across a swamp where actor Bruce Baxter and two others leave the group . The rescue party makes their way across a giant fallen log , when Kong attacks the rescue party . Hayes , Choy and several other crewmen are killed after being thrown off the log by Kong to the bottom of the cliff , and the rest of the crew is shaken off the log into a ravine ; Carl 's camera is destroyed as well . Kong returns to Ann and rescues her from three Vastatosaurus rex , killing them . Kong then takes her to his lair in the mountains . The remaining crew wakes up to find themselves in a pit full of giant insects where Lumpy and two others are killed . Englehorn , Baxter and the rest of the crew returns , and save the last four members of the rescue party ( Jack , Carl , Jimmy , and Preston ) from the pit . As Jack continues to search for Ann , Carl decides to capture Kong . Jack goes to Kong 's lair , inadvertently waking him . As Kong fights a swarm of flying Terapusmordax , bat @-@ like rodents , Ann and Jack escape . They arrive at the wall with the angry Kong following them , and Ann becomes distraught by what Carl plans to do . Kong bursts through the gate and attempts to get her back , killing several sailors in the process , but is subdued when Carl knocks him out with chloroform . Back in New York City , Carl presents " Kong , the Eighth Wonder of the World " on Broadway , starring Baxter and an imprisoned Kong . Ann is played by an anonymous chorus girl , and Kong becomes enraged after realizing that the girl on stage is not Ann . After breaking free from his chrome @-@ steel chains , he wrecks the theater . Kong wreaks havoc around the city and chases Jack in a taxi across town . He knocks him out by stopping his taxi and flipping it , then encounters Ann again . Kong and Ann share a moment on a frozen pond in Central Park until the army attacks . Kong climbs with Ann onto the top of the Empire State Building , where he fights off six F8C @-@ 5 Helldiver Navy planes , downing three . At the end of the confrontation , Kong is mortally wounded by the gunfire and gazes at Ann for the last time before falling from the building to his death . As Ann is reunited with Jack , civilians , photographers , police and soldiers gather around Kong 's corpse . Carl takes one last glimpse at him and says , " It wasn 't the airplanes . It was Beauty killed the Beast . " . = = Cast = = In addition , director Jackson with makeup artist Rick Baker ( who played Kong in the 1976 version ) as the pilot and gunner on the airplane that kills the title character , his children appear as New York children , The Lord of the Rings co @-@ producer Rick Porras appears as a gunner in an airplane , and Bob Burns and his wife appear as New York bystanders . Frequent Jackson collaborator Howard Shore makes a cameo appearance as the conductor of the New York theater from where Kong escapes . Watts , Black , and Brody were the first choices for their respective roles with no other actors considered . In preparation for her role , Watts met with the original Ann Darrow , Fay Wray . Jackson wanted Wray to make a cameo appearance and say the final line of dialogue , but she died during pre @-@ production at 96 years old . Black was cast as Carl Denham based on his performance in the 2000 film High Fidelity , which had impressed Jackson . For inspiration , Black studied P. T. Barnum and Orson Welles . " I didn 't study [ Welles ] move for move . It was just to capture the spirit . Very reckless guy . I had tapes of him drunk off his ass . " The native extras on Skull Island were portrayed by a mix of Asian , African , Maori and Polynesian actors sprayed with dark makeup to achieve a consistent pigmentation . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Peter Jackson was nine years old when he first saw the 1933 film , and was in tears in front of the TV when Kong slipped off the Empire State Building . At age 12 , he attempted to recreate the film using his parents ' Super 8 mm film camera and a model of Kong made of wire and rubber with his mother 's fur coat for the hair , but eventually gave up on the project . King Kong eventually became his favorite film and was the primary inspiration for his decision to become a filmmaker as a teenager . He read books about the making of King Kong and collected memorabilia , as well as articles from Famous Monsters of Filmland . Jackson paid tribute to the 1933 film by including Skull Island as the origin of the zombie plague in his 1992 film Braindead . During the filming of Jackson 's 1996 film The Frighteners , Universal Pictures was impressed with Jackson 's dailies and early visual effects footage . The studio was adamant to work with Jackson on his next project and , in late 1995 , offered him the chance to direct a remake of the 1954 film Creature from the Black Lagoon . He turned down the offer , but Universal became aware of Jackson 's obsession with King Kong and subsequently offered him the opportunity to direct that remake . The studio did not have to worry of lawsuits concerning the film rights from RKO Pictures ( the studio behind the 1933 film ) because the King Kong character is held in the public domain . Jackson initially turned down the King Kong offer , but he " quickly became disturbed by the fact that someone else would take it over , " Jackson continued , " and make it into a terrible film ; that haunted me and I eventually said yes to Universal . " At the same time , Jackson was working with Harvey Weinstein and Miramax Films to purchase the film rights of the The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings , while 20th Century Fox was trying to hire him for the 2001 remake of Planet of the Apes . Jackson turned down Planet of the Apes and because Weinstein was taking longer than expected to buy The Lord of the Rings rights , Jackson decided to move forward on King Kong . Weinstein was furious , and , as a result , Jackson proposed a deal between Universal and Miramax that the two studios would equally finance King Kong with Jackson 's production company Wingnut Films . Universal would receive distribution rights in the United States , while Miramax would cover foreign territories . Jackson was also warranted the right of final cut privilege , a percentage of the gross profits , as well as artistic control ; Universal allowed all filming and visual effects to be handled entirely in New Zealand . The deal was settled in April 1996 , and Jackson , along with wife Fran Walsh , began working on the King Kong script . In the original draft , Ann was the daughter of famed English archaeologist Lord Linwood Darrow exploring ancient ruins in Sumatra . They would come into conflict with Denham during his filming , and they would uncover a hidden Kong statue and the map of Skull Island . This would indicate that the island natives were the last remnants of a cult religion that had once thrived on Asia 's mainland . Instead of a playwright , Jack was the first mate and an ex @-@ World War I fighter pilot still struggling with the loss of his best friend , who had been killed in battle during a World War I prologue . The camera @-@ man Herb is the only supporting character in the original draft who made it to the final version . The fight between Kong and the three T. rex also changed from the original draft . In the draft , Ann is actually caught in the T. rex 's jaws , where she becomes wedged , and slashed by the teeth ; after the fight , Kong gets her out but she is suffering from a fever , from which she then recovers . Universal approved of the script with Robert Zemeckis as executive producer , and pre @-@ production for King Kong started . The plan was to begin filming sometime in 1997 for a summer 1998 release date . Weta Digital and Weta Workshop , under the supervision of Richard Taylor and Christian Rivers , began work on early visual effects tests , specifically the complex task of building a CGI version of New York City circa 1933 . Jackson and Walsh progressed with a second draft script , sets were being designed and location scouting commenced in Sumatra and New Zealand . In late 1996 , Jackson flew to production of the 1997 film Titanic in Mexico to discuss the part of Ann Darrow with Kate Winslet , with whom he previously worked with on his 1994 film Heavenly Creatures . Minnie Driver was also being reportedly considered . Jackson 's choices for Jack Driscoll and Carl Denham included George Clooney and Robert De Niro . However , development for King Kong was stalled in January 1997 when Universal became concerned over the upcoming release of the 1998 film Godzilla , as well as other ape @-@ related remakes with the 1998 film Mighty Joe Young and the 2001 film Planet of the Apes . Universal abandoned King Kong in February 1997 after Weta Workshop and Weta Digital had already designed six months worth pre @-@ production . Jackson then decided to start work on The Lord of the Rings film series . With the financial and critical success of the 2001 film The Fellowship of the Ring and the 2002 film The Two Towers , Universal approached Jackson in early 2003 , during the post @-@ production of The Return of the King , concerning his interest in restarting development on King Kong . In March 2003 , Universal set a target December 2005 release date and Jackson and Walsh brought The Lord of the Rings co @-@ writer Philippa Boyens on to help rewrite their 1996 script . Jackson offered New Line Cinema the opportunity to co @-@ finance with Universal , but they declined . Universal and Jackson originally projected a $ 150 million budget , which eventually rose to $ 175 million . Jackson made a deal with Universal whereby he would be paid a $ 20 million salary against 20 % of the box office gross for directing , producing and co @-@ writing . He shared that fee with co @-@ writers Walsh ( which also covered her producing credit ) and Boyens . However , if King Kong were to go over its $ 175 million budget , the penalties would be covered by Jackson . Immediately after the completion of The Return of the King , Weta Workshop and Weta Digital , supervised by Richard Taylor , Christian Rivers and Joe Lettieri , started pre @-@ production on King Kong . Jackson brought back most of the crew he had on The Lord of the Rings series , including cinematographer Andrew Lesnie , production designer Grant Major , art directors Simon Bright and Dan Hennah , conceptual designer Alan Lee , and editor Jamie Selkirk . Jackson , Walsh and Boyens began to write a new script in late October 2003 . Jackson acknowledged that he was highly unsatisfied with the original 1996 script . " That was actually just Fran and Peter very hurriedly getting something down on paper " , Boyens explained . " It was more one of many possible ways the story could go . " The writers were adamant to base the new script on the 1933 film , rather than the 1996 script . They also included scenes that were either uncompleted or entirely omitted from James Ashmore Creelman 's original script in the cutting room floor . In the scene where Kong shakes the surviving sailors pursuing Ann and himself from a log into the ravine , it was originally the intention of directors Merian Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack to feature giant spiders emerging from the rock to devour their bodies . This was cut from the original release print , and remains known to Kong fans only via a rare still that appeared in Famous Monsters of Filmland . Jackson included this scene and elaborated upon it . Jackson , Walsh and Boyens also cited Delos W. Lovelace 's 1932 novelization of King Kong as inspiration , which included the character Lumpy ( Andy Serkis ) . To make the relationship between Ann Darrow and Kong plausible , the writers studied hours of gorilla footage . Jackson also optioned Early Havoc , a memoir written by vaudeville performer June Havoc to help Walsh and Boyens flesh out Ann Darrow 's characterization . Carl Denham was intentionally modeled after and inspired by Orson Welles . Their new draft was finished in February 2004 . = = = Filming = = = Principal photography started on September 6 , 2004 at Camperdown Studios in Miramar , New Zealand . Camperdown housed the native village , and the Great Wall , while the streets of New York City were constructed on its backlot . The majority of the SS Venture scenes were shot aboard a full @-@ scale deck constructed in the parking lot at Camperdown Studio and then were backed with a green screen , with the ocean digitally added in post . Scenes set in the Broadway theater from which King Kong makes his escape were filmed in Wellington 's Opera House and at the Auckland Civic Theatre . Filming also took place at Stone Street Studios , where a new sound stage was constructed to accommodate one of the sets . Over the course of filming the budget went from $ 175 million to $ 207 million over additional visual effects work needed , and Jackson extending the film 's running time by thirty minutes . Jackson covered the $ 32 million surplus himself and finished filming in March 2005 . The film 's budget climbed from an initial US $ 150 million to a then @-@ record @-@ breaking $ 207 million , making it at one point the most expensive film yet made . Universal only agreed to such an outlay after seeing a screening of the unfinished film , to which executives responded enthusiastically . Marketing and promotion costs were an estimated $ 60 million . The film 's length also grew ; originally set to be 135 minutes , it soon grew to 200 , prompting Universal executives to fly to New Zealand to view a rough cut , but they liked it so their concerns were addressed . Other difficulties included Peter Jackson 's decision to change composers from Howard Shore to James Newton Howard seven weeks before the film opened . = = = Visual effects = = = Jackson saw King Kong as opportunity for technical innovations in motion capture , commissioning Christian Rivers of Weta Digital to supervise all aspects of Kong 's performance . Jackson decided early on that he did not want Kong to behave like a human , and so he and his team studied hours of gorilla footage . Serkis was cast in the title role in April 2003 and prepared himself by working with gorillas at the London Zoo . He then traveled to Rwanda , observing the actions and behaviors of gorillas in the wild . Rivers explained that the detailed facial performance capture with Serkis was accomplished because of the similarities between human and gorilla faces . " Gorillas have such a similar looking set of eyes and brows , you can look at those expressions and transpose your own interpretation onto them . " Photos of silverback gorillas were also superimposed on Kong 's image in the early stages of animation . Serkis had to go through two hours of motion capture makeup every day , having 135 small markers attached to different spots on his face . Following principal photography , Serkis had to spend an additional two months on a motion capture stage , miming Kong 's movements for the film 's digital animators . Apart from Kong , Skull Island is inhabited by dinosaurs and other large fauna . Inspired by Dougal Dixon 's works , the designers imagined what 65 million years or more of isolated evolution might have done to dinosaurs . = = Release = = The marketing campaign started in full swing on June 27 , 2005 , when the teaser trailer made its debut , first online at the official Volkswagen website at 8 : 45 p.m. EDT , then 8 : 55 p.m. EDT across media outlets owned by NBC Universal ( the parent of Universal Studios ) , including NBC , Bravo ! , CNBC , and MSNBC . That trailer appeared in theatres attached to War of the Worlds , which opened on June 29 . Jackson also regularly published a series of ' Production Diaries ' , which chronicled the film 's production . The diaries started shortly after the DVD release of The Return of the King as a way to give Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings fans a glimpse of his next project . These diaries are edited into broadband @-@ friendly installments of three or four minutes each . They consist of features that would normally be seen in a making @-@ of documentary : a tour of the set , a roving camera introducing key players behind the scene , a peek inside the sound booth during last @-@ minute dubbing , or Andy Serkis doing his ape movements in a motion capture studio . A novelization of the film and a prequel entitled The Island of the Skull was also written . A multi @-@ platform video game , entitled Peter Jackson 's King Kong , was released , which featured an alternate ending . There was a hardback book entitled The World of Kong , featuring artwork from Weta Workshop to describe the film 's fictional bestiary . Jackson has expressed his desire to remaster the film in 3 @-@ D at some point in the future . Jackson was also seen shooting with a 3 @-@ D camera at times during the shoot of King Kong . = = Reception = = In North America , King Kong grossed $ 9 @,@ 755 @,@ 745 during its Wednesday opening and $ 50 @,@ 130 @,@ 145 over its first weekend for a five @-@ day total of $ 66 @.@ 1 million . Some analysts considered these initial numbers disappointing , saying that studio executives had been expecting more . The film went on to gross $ 218 @,@ 080 @,@ 025 in the domestic market and ended up in the top five highest @-@ grossing films of the year there . The film grossed an additional $ 332 @,@ 437 @,@ 332 in the international box office for a worldwide total of $ 550 @,@ 517 @,@ 357 , which not only ranked it in the top five highest @-@ grossing films of 2005 worldwide , but also helped the film bring back more than two and a half times its production budget . During its home video release , King Kong sold over $ 100 million worth of DVDs in the largest six @-@ day performance in Universal Studios history . King Kong sold more than 7 @.@ 6 million DVDs , accumulating nearly $ 194 million worth of sales numbers in the domestic market alone . As of June 25 , 2006 , King Kong has generated almost $ 38 million from DVD rental gross . In February 2006 , TNT / TBS and ABC paid Universal Studios $ 26 @.@ 5 million for the television rights to the film . = = = Critical reception = = = The film received positive reviews from critics . The films holds an 84 % " Certified Fresh " rating on aggregate review site Rotten Tomatoes , with an average score of 7 @.@ 7 / 10 based on 258 reviews . The site 's consensus from the collected reviews was " Featuring state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art special effects , terrific performances , and a majestic sense of spectacle , Peter Jackson 's remake of King Kong is a potent epic that 's faithful to the spirit of the 1933 original . " The film 's most common criticism was its excessive length and lack of pace but was regarded as one of " a few good epics " and was placed on several ' top ten ' critics lists . Roger Ebert gave the film four stars , and listed it as 2005 's eighth best film . The film received four Academy Award nominations for Visual Effects , Sound Mixing ( Christopher Boyes , Michael Semanick , Michael Hedges , Hammond Peek ) , Sound Editing , and Production Design , winning all but the last . Entertainment Weekly called the depiction of Kong the most convincing computer @-@ generated character in film in 2005 . Some criticized the film for retaining racist stereotypes present in the 1933 film , though it was not suggested that Jackson had done this intentionally . King Kong ranks 450th on Empire magazine 's 2008 list of the 500 Greatest Movies of All Time . The Guardian reviewer Peter Bradshaw said that it " certainly equals , and even exceeds , anything Jackson did in Lord of the Rings " . = = Cinematic and literary allusions = = Jack Black and critics have noted Carl Denham 's similarity to Orson Welles . When Driscoll is searching for a place to sleep in the animal storage hold , a box behind him reads Sumatran Rat Monkey — Beware the bite ! – a reference to the creature that causes mayhem in Jackson 's 1992 film Braindead ( in that film , the rat monkey is described as being found only on Skull Island ) . = = Soundtrack = = King Kong : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was composed by James Newton Howard . Originally , Howard Shore , who worked with Peter Jackson on The Lord of the Rings , was to compose the film 's score . Shore completed and recorded several cues before he and Jackson parted ways . Shore 's appearance as the conductor in the New York theatre from which Kong escapes remained in the film . Howard 's score was later nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score . = = Home media = = King Kong was released on DVD on March 28 , 2006 in the United States and Canada . The three versions that came out were a single disc fullscreen , a single disc widescreen , and a two @-@ disc Widescreen Special Edition . A three @-@ disc Deluxe Extended Edition was released on November 14 , 2006 in the U.S. , and on November 3 in Australia . Twelve minutes were reinserted into the film , and a further forty minutes presented alongside the rest of the special features . The film was spread onto the first two discs with commentary by Peter Jackson and Philippa Boyens , and some featurettes on discs one and two , whilst the main Special Features are on disc three . Another set was released , including a WETA figurine of a bullet @-@ ridden Kong scaling the Empire State Building , roaring at the army with Ann in hand . The extended film amounts to 200 total minutes . A special HD DVD version of King Kong was part of a promotional pack for the release of the external HD DVD Drive for the Xbox 360 . The pack contained the HD DVD drive , the Universal Media Remote and King Kong on HD DVD . It was also available separately as a standard HD DVD . The film 's theatrical and extended cuts were released together on Blu @-@ ray Disc on January 20 , 2009 .
= Matt Bevin = Matthew Griswold " Matt " Bevin ( born January 9 , 1967 ) is an American businessman and the 62nd and current Governor of Kentucky . He is the third Republican elected Governor of Kentucky since World War II , after Ernie Fletcher ( 2003 – 2007 ) and Louie B. Nunn ( 1967 – 1971 ) . Born in Denver , Colorado , and raised in Shelburne , New Hampshire , Bevin earned a bachelor 's degree at Washington and Lee University in 1989 , then served four years of active duty in the U.S. Army , attaining the rank of captain . He became wealthy in the investment business and moved to Louisville , Kentucky , in 1999 . In 2011 , he assumed the presidency of Bevin Brothers Manufacturing Company , the last remaining American manufacturer of bells . When Bevin took over , the business , which had been in his family since its founding in 1832 , was struggling and on the verge of closure . Bevin revived the company and restored its profitability . In 2013 , Bevin announced he would challenge Kentucky 's senior U.S. Senator , Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell , in the 2014 Republican primary . Although he gained the support of various groups aligned with the Tea Party Movement , McConnell attacked him repeatedly for inconsistencies in his public statements and policy positions and defeated him by almost 25 percentage points . After announcing he would seek the governorship in 2015 , Bevin emerged from a four @-@ way Republican primary , besting his nearest competitor , Agriculture Commissioner James Comer by 83 votes . On November 3 , 2015 , he defeated the state 's attorney general , Democrat Jack Conway , in the general election . = = Early life and education = = Born January 9 , 1967 , in Denver , Colorado , Matt Bevin was the second of six children born to Avery and Louise Bevin . He grew up in the rural town of Shelburne , New Hampshire , in a small farmhouse heated by wood @-@ fired stoves . His father worked at a wood mill , and his mother worked part @-@ time in a hospital admissions department . The family raised livestock and grew much of their own food . At age 6 , Bevin made money by packaging and selling seeds to his neighbors . He credits his involvement in 4 @-@ H , where he served as president of the local and county chapters and as a member of the state teen council , with developing his public speaking and leadership skills . He was also involved with the county 's Dairy Club . Initially attending a small Christian school , in tenth grade Bevin enrolled as a student at Gould Academy , a private high school across the state line in Bethel , Maine . He paid his tuition through a combination of financial aid and wages from an on @-@ campus dishwashing job and various summer jobs . After graduation , he attended Washington and Lee University in Lexington , Virginia , on a partial ROTC scholarship . During his matriculation , he studied abroad in Japan and became fluent in Japanese . He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in East Asian Studies in 1989 . After taking eight weeks off to complete a 3 @,@ 800 @-@ mile ( 6 @,@ 100 km ) bicycle ride from Oregon to Florida , Bevin enlisted in the United States Army and was commissioned as a second lieutenant . In 1990 , he completed a six @-@ week Junior Officer Maintenance Course at Fort Knox in Kentucky . He later commented that the area reminded him of where he grew up , and that if he had a chance to raise a family there , he would like to do so . He was assigned to the 25th Field Artillery Regiment of the Army 's 5th Mechanized Infantry Division at Fort Polk in Louisiana . During his assignment , he also trained at Fort Sill in Oklahoma , completing 40 credit hours of Central Michigan University coursework offered on base . He rose to the rank of captain – earning the Army Achievement Medal , National Defense Service Medal , Army Service Ribbon , Parachutist Badge , and Army Commendation Medal with one Oak Leaf Cluster – before joining the Army Reserve in 1993 . He left the Individual Ready Reserve in 2003 . = = Marriage and family = = While stationed at Fort Polk , Bevin went on a blind date with his future wife , Glenna . The two married in 1996 and had six children . In 2003 , their oldest child , 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Brittiney , was killed in a car accident near the family 's home . In memory of their daughter , the Bevins created Brittiney 's Wish , a non @-@ profit organization that funds domestic and international mission trips for high school students , and started an endowment that allowed Louisville 's Southern Baptist Theological Seminary to open its Bevin Center for Missions Mobilization in 2012 . In 2011 , Bevin took all of his children out of school for a year for a 26 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 42 @,@ 000 km ) tour of the United States , visiting sites of educational or historical interest , including the Lorraine Motel in Memphis , Tennessee , where Martin Luther King , Jr. was assassinated and the Topeka , Kansas , schoolhouse at the center of the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision . After their application to adopt a daughter from Kentucky 's foster care system was denied because they already had five children , the Bevins adopted four children – between the ages of 2 and 10 – from Ethiopia in June 2012 . By 2015 , Bevin said all of his children were homeschooled . The Bevins attend Southeast Christian Church in Louisville . After his election as governor , he announced he would hold an invitation @-@ only inaugural worship service at Frankfort 's Buck Run Baptist Church , but the service was moved to the Frankfort Convention Center and the invitation requirement was dropped following an " overwhelming response from the public " . = = Business career = = After leaving active duty in 1993 , Bevin worked as a financial consultant for SEI Investments Company in Pennsylvania and Boston , then served as a vice president with Putnam Investments . In 1999 , he was offered a stake in National Asset Management and moved to Kentucky to take the job . After the firm was sold in 2003 , Bevin recruited a group of managers from National City Corp. to found Integrity Asset Management . The company was handling more than $ 1 billion in investments when Bevin sold it to Munder Capital Management in 2011 . In 2008 , Bevin took over management of the struggling Bevin Brothers Manufacturing Company of East Hampton , Connecticut . Founded in 1832 by Bevin 's great @-@ great @-@ great grandfather and remaining in the family continuously since , Bevin Bros. is the last American company that exclusively manufactures bells . By 2011 , the company owed $ 116 @,@ 000 in delinquent taxes and was named the number one delinquent tax firm in East Hampton . Collectively , the Bevins decided that Matt was the only family member with the business acumen and financial wherewithal to keep the company solvent . In 2011 , Bevin became the company 's president . Within a year , he paid the company 's delinquent taxes ; he subsequently made the company profitable and raised his employees ' pay . A lightning strike sparked a fire that destroyed the factory on May 27 , 2012 . Although he carried little more than liability insurance on the business and his losses were compounded by looters who stole 4 @,@ 500 bells , Bevin vowed to rebuild , telling the Hartford Courant , " I 'm a Bevin , and Bevins make bells . " In late June 2012 , Connecticut Governor Dannel Malloy announced that Bevin Brothers would receive $ 100 @,@ 000 in grants from the state 's Small Business Express program to assist in the rebuilding effort . Flanked by Senator Richard Blumenthal , Bevin announced in July 2012 that he would sell souvenirs including T @-@ shirts , and bells and bricks salvaged from the gutted factory , to raise additional funds for rebuilding . Working from a temporary location , the company resumed limited production in September 2012 . Bevin is also a partner at Waycross Partners , an investment management firm in Louisville , Kentucky . = = Political campaigns = = Bevin said that in 2011 , Mitch McConnell recruited him to challenge incumbent Democrat John Yarmuth to represent Kentucky 's 3rd congressional district in 2012 . McConnell 's chief of staff said Bevin requested the meeting and McConnell never asked Bevin to enter the race . Ultimately , Bevin and his advisors decided that legislative redistricting had made Yarmuth 's district unwinnable for a Republican , and Bevin chose not to run . = = = 2014 U.S. Senate campaign = = = On July 24 , 2013 , Bevin announced that he would challenge McConnell , the Senate Minority Leader and a five @-@ term incumbent , in the 2014 Republican primary because he did not believe that McConnell was conservative enough . Despite a Wenzel Strategies poll immediately following Bevin 's announcement that showed him polling only 19 @.@ 9 % to McConnell 's 58 @.@ 9 % , the National Journal listed McConnell number nine on its list of ten lawmakers who could lose a primary election in 2014 . = = = = McConnell 's early attacks = = = = McConnell immediately launched ads accusing Bevin of taking taxpayer bailouts , citing his acceptance of state grants to rebuild Bevin Brothers . Bevin responded with ads accusing McConnell of voting for higher taxes , government bailouts , increases in the debt ceiling , and confirmation of liberal judicial nominees . McConnell 's next ad featured Bevin telling an audience " I have no tax delinquency problem , nor have I ever , " then claimed his businesses had failed to pay taxes eight times and Bevin was late on a tax payment on his $ 1 @.@ 2 million vacation home in Greenwood , Maine , in 2007 . PolitiFact.com rated the ad " Mostly False " , saying that Bevin Brothers incurred the delinquent taxes in 2008 and the second quarter of 2009 , when the extent of Bevin 's involvement with the company was " unclear " . Regarding the vacation home , PolitiFact noted that Bevin 's escrow company changed in 2007 , and the new company failed to pay the property taxes on the home from escrow on time . Town records show that the taxes were paid by February 2009 , and Bevin had paid them on @-@ time every year before and after 2007 . McConnell 's third ad in as many weeks targeted Bevin for falsely claiming on his LinkedIn page that he attended a seminar affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . The three @-@ year program , which Bevin attended from 2006 to 2008 , was actually sponsored by the MIT Enterprise Forum , which is technically unaffiliated with MIT . The discrepancy was first reported by The Hill in March 2013 , and was clarified on his LinkedIn page at that time . By mid @-@ October 2013 , McConnell 's campaign indicated it would look beyond Bevin and focus its advertising against Allison Lundergan Grimes , the frontrunner in the race for the Democratic senatorial nomination , calling her " my real opponent " . In the aftermath of McConnell negotiating a deal to end the 16 @-@ day government shutdown in 2013 , the Senate Conservatives Fund endorsed Bevin . McConnell 's campaign then launched another ad , based on a story published by BuzzFeed , claiming Bevin had failed to disclose a federal tax lien when applying for the state grant to rebuild his family business , which could be a Class A misdemeanor , punishable by up to a year in jail and a $ 2 @,@ 000 fine under Connecticut law . Bevin said that he had been paying the lien in $ 5 @,@ 000 installments prior to the fire that destroyed the business , a condition he said was allowed by the grant application , but after the fire , the Internal Revenue Service suspended the payments . Bevin was never charged . Lexington Herald @-@ Leader columnist Sam Youngman speculated that McConnell 's pivot back to Bevin was a proxy war against Tea Party fundraising groups , hoping that a decisive win over their chosen candidate in the primary would hamper the groups ' fundraising in future elections . = = = = Bevin 's Tea Party support = = = = During the campaign , Bevin criticized the Affordable Care Act and called for repealing it in its entirety . His proposed alternatives included allowing insurance providers to compete across state lines , capping damages awarded for pain and suffering , allowing individuals to purchase health insurance with pre @-@ tax earnings , and providing federal block grants to states to allow them to cover individuals with pre @-@ existing conditions . He opposed tax increases and the allocation of federal earmarks . He called for massive spending cuts in the federal bureaucracy , specifically the Department of Education and the Veterans Administration , and for reforming eligibility requirements for entitlement programs , including raising age requirements , imposing means tests , and ending federal benefits to illegal immigrants . He opposed U.S. intervention in the Syrian Civil War and the disbursement of foreign aid to countries that deny basic freedoms to their citizens or are guilty of human rights violations . He opposed federal agribusiness subsidies and warantless federal surveillance and called for simplifying the child adoption process . Endorsed by Gun Owners of America , he pledged to resist any restrictions on the types of guns or ammunition that citizens could purchase . A supporter of congressional term limits , Bevin signed a pledge authored by the non @-@ profit U.S. Term Limits stating that , if elected , he would co @-@ sponsor and vote for a bill restricting individuals to three terms in the U.S. House of Representatives and two terms in the U.S. Senate . Bevin complained that McConnell refused to speak at any Lincoln Day events around the state if Bevin was also invited to speak at the event . McConnell also steadfastly refused to participate in any formal debates with Bevin , although his campaign manager , Jesse Benton , debated Bevin at a Constitution Day event at the University of Kentucky in September 2013 . In January 2014 , the conservative Madison Project political action committee announced it would open field offices in Louisville , Florence , Owensboro , Glasgow and Bowling Green from which to launch get @-@ out @-@ the @-@ vote efforts on Bevin 's behalf . The group also sponsored billboard advertising criticizing McConnell in the heavily Republican counties of Clay , Laurel , Madison , Pulaski and Whitley . Bevin was endorsed by FreedomWorks and conservative talk radio hosts Mark Levin and Glenn Beck . In February 2014 , Politico reported that in October 2008 , Bevin had signed a report for his investment fund that praised the federal Troubled Asset Relief Program ( TARP ) and the government takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac . During the campaign , Bevin criticized McConnell for voting in favor of those actions as a senator . When Beck asked Bevin about the issue during an interview , Bevin said the content of the report had been written by the fund 's chief investment officer , and that he had only signed it because he was legally required to do so as president of the fund . Later , Bevin added that he had not physically signed the letter , but that his signature was added to the document digitally . Lawyers interviewed by the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader said it would have been legal for Bevin to change the content of the letter , but not the accompanying facts and financial data . The Herald @-@ Leader further noted that Bevin had not signed some previous investor letters . His campaign offered no explanation for the inconsistency . Both Bevin and McConnell were critical of a February 2014 ruling by U.S. District Judge John G. Heyburn II that held that an amendment to the Kentucky Constitution banning same @-@ sex marriage violated the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution . Bevin pointed out that Heyburn once worked for McConnell , who supported his nomination to the bench by President George H. W. Bush . Later in the month , Bevin told The Janet Mefford Show , " If it 's all right to have same @-@ sex marriages , why not define a marriage – because at the end of the day , a lot of this ends up being taxes and who can visit who in the hospital and there 's other repercussions and things that come with it – so a person may want to define themselves as being married to one of their children so that they can then in fact pass on certain things to that child financially and otherwise . " Critics charged that Bevin was suggesting that the legalization of same @-@ sex marriage could lead to the acceptance of incestuous relationships ; a Bevin spokesperson responded , " [ Bevin ] sees no comparison between gay marriage and incest . He was discussing the implications of the legal rights related to this issue such as hospital visitations and benefits . To imply otherwise is ridiculous . " = = = = Cockfighting rally incident = = = = On April 2 , 2014 , the News Journal reported that Bevin spoke at a pro @-@ cockfighting rally in Corbin , Kentucky . Asked about his attendance , Bevin said he understood that the rally was a states ' rights event : " I was the first person to speak and then I left . " Organizers of the event , which was closed to the media , said there was " never any ambiguity " regarding its purpose , and WAVE in Louisville published an undercover video from the event showing that Bevin was the third speaker ; the speaker who immediately preceded Bevin said the rally was held " for the sole purpose of legalizing gamecock fighting at the state level . " Bevin told a WAVE reporter , " I honestly wasn 't even paying attention . I was thinking about what I was going to say . I don 't even remember him saying that . " The WAVE video also showed an attendee asking Bevin if he would support the legalization of cockfighting in Kentucky , to which he replied , " I support the people of Kentucky exercising their right , because it is our right to decide what it is that we want to do , and not the federal government 's . Criminalizing behavior , if it 's part of the heritage of this state , is in my opinion a bad idea . A bad idea . I will not support it . " Bevin was referencing the Agricultural Act of 2014 , commonly called the " farm bill " , which contained a provision that criminalized spectators at cockfighting events . Scott Lasley , a political science professor at Western Kentucky University and chairman of the Warren County Republican Party , criticized Bevin 's appearance at the rally , saying , " Either they were totally unvetted and unprepared for it , which says a lot about the campaign and its ability to compete at this level , or ... they think that message is going to be receptive . Otherwise you don 't go there . " On April 25 , 2014 , Bevin apologized for attending the event , saying " I am genuinely sorry that my attendance at an event which , other than my comments , appears to have primarily involved a discussion of cockfighting , has created concern on the part of many Kentucky voters . I understand that concern . I am not and have never been a supporter of cockfighting or any other forms of animal cruelty . " The Daily Beast said the issue could be the " nail in the coffin " for Bevin 's campaign , while The Washington Post wrote , " On its own , the cockfighting story isn 't enough to sink Bevin 's campaign . But viewed in the context of the string of other distractions he 's had to deal with , it reinforces the reality that his campaign is in serious need of repairs down the stretch . " = = = = Result and aftermath = = = = When Bevin told the media he would have an announcement at his campaign headquarters on April 28 , speculation raged that he would drop out of the race . Instead , Bevin announced that he would release his jobs plan later in the week and chided the local media for focusing on issues other than the economy . On May 1 , Bevin released the promised jobs plan , which called for a gradual reduction of the federal corporate tax rate to 10 % over five years , allowing companies to return overseas profits to the United States with a 10 % tax assessment , and passage of a federal right @-@ to @-@ work law . Saying that burdensome regulations from agencies like the Environmental Protection Agency were harmful to business ' ability to create jobs , he endorsed the REINS Act , which would require congressional approval of any executive regulation with an economic impact of more than $ 100 million . He also proposed a flat income tax and opposed an increase in the federal minimum wage . Concerned about a divide in the party costing the party McConnell 's seat in the general election , the Republican Party of Kentucky asked both candidates to sign a pledge to support the party 's eventual nominee in the general election . McConnell signed the pledge , but Bevin did not . All Republican members of Kentucky 's congressional caucus joined McConnell in signing the pledge except 4th District congressman Thomas Massie , a legislator aligned with the Tea Party . On election day , Bevin garnered 125 @,@ 759 votes – 35 @.@ 4 % of the vote – to McConnell 's 213 @,@ 666 votes ( 60 @.@ 2 % ) ; the remaining votes were scattered among three lower @-@ profile candidates . In his concession speech , Bevin opined " there is zero chance that the solutions for what ails us is going to come from the Democratic Party " , but did not endorse McConnell . He appeared onstage with McConnell on a few occasions during the general election campaign but steadfastly refused to explicitly endorse him . During his remarks at an October 29 Restore America rally , Bevin said " I say with all due respect to a lot of folks who might say otherwise , sometimes we might need to get over it and move on . We have new races to run and new decisions to make . There is too much at stake . " Asked if the comment amounted to an endorsement of McConnell , Bevin told reporters , " You 've got ears . " McConnell defeated Grimes in the general election , and Bevin eventually told reporters that he voted for McConnell . = = = 2015 gubernatorial primary = = = In June 2014 , WKMS reported that Bevin had remained politically active in the aftermath of his defeat by McConnell , and an email to his followers calling on Kentucky Governor Steve Beshear , a Democrat , to denounce new carbon regulations issued by the EPA fueled speculation that Bevin would seek the Republican gubernatorial nomination in 2015 . The station also cited an anonymous source that said Bevin would campaign for Rand Paul 's Senate seat in 2016 if Paul 's expected presidential bid kept him from running for re @-@ election . An August 2014 survey by Public Policy Polling showed that 25 % of Republicans wanted Bevin to be the party 's gubernatorial nominee , ahead of declared candidates James Comer ( 20 % ) and Hal Heiner ( 18 % ) . On January 27 , 2015 , the last day for candidates to file , Bevin announced he would seek the Republican nomination for governor . During his announcement , he introduced his running mate , Jenean Hampton , a Tea Party activist who lost her bid to unseat State Representative Jody Richards the previous year . Bevin joined a field that included Commissioner of Agriculture James Comer , former Louisville Councilman Hal Heiner , and former Kentucky Supreme Court Justice Will T. Scott . The National Journal predicted that Bevin would draw support away from Comer , the early front @-@ runner , who had been appealing to Tea Party groups and already secured Congressman Massie 's endorsement . The crowded primary was also projected to damage the Republican nominee 's chances in the general election , since Attorney General Jack Conway was the only major Democratic candidate , allowing him to conserve resources for the general election . McConnell allies also predicted that Bevin 's refusal to endorse McConnell would hurt him with primary voters . = = = = Platform = = = = Harper Polling conducted the first voter survey after Bevin 's announcement ; it showed Comer leading the field with 25 % support compared to Heiner 's 19 % , Bevin 's 18 % , and Scott 's 9 % . Thirty percent of those surveyed were undecided . Bevin 's platform , " Blueprint for a Better Kentucky " , centered around economic rather than social issues . The seven major themes of the platform included : passage of right @-@ to @-@ work legislation ; reforming the state tax code by eliminating the inheritance tax and reducing personal and corporate tax rates ; ensuring the solvency of the state pension system , including transitioning new and existing employees to 401 ( k ) plans ; reforming state government , including reducing the number of state employees by 20 percent and expanding competitive bidding ; reforming the state 's education system by repealing the Common Core State Standards Initiative and allowing charter schools and school vouchers ; reforming the state healthcare system by ending kynect , the state 's health insurance exchange , transitioning enrollees to the federal health insurance exchange , and reversing the state 's expansion of Medicaid effected by Governor Beshear under the Affordable Care Act ; and combating expanding federal influence . Scott also advocated ending kynect , but Comer advocated maintaining and reforming it and Heiner said he opposed the Affordable Care Act , but remained non @-@ committal on his plans for kynect . Bevin was the first of the four to advocate reversing the Medicaid expansion , telling reporters " No question about it . I would reverse that immediately . The fact that we have one out of four people in this state on Medicaid is unsustainable , it 's unaffordable and we need to create jobs in this state , not more government programs to cover people . " = = = = Campaign advertising = = = = By early April , pro @-@ Heiner ads from Citizens for a Sound Government revived charges of taking bailouts and tax delinquency against Bevin and attacked Comer for accepting thousands of dollars in farm subsidies . Within days , the candidates appeared at a debate where Bevin challenged Heiner to publicly denounce the ads ; Heiner responded with a silent smile . Bevin 's public challenge to the ad prompted a Lexington television station to pull it after two weeks on the air . Bevin made a $ 200 @,@ 000 combined television and radio ad buy to defend himself against the ads and began a telephone survey that touted his conservative credentials while highlighting Heiner 's past positions on issues such as gun control before asking how these statements affect the person 's view of each candidate . Heiner said the survey was a negative push poll , but Bevin insisted it was a legitimate poll . By the end of April , polls showed that Heiner 's lead had evaporated and that the race was essentially a three @-@ way dead heat between him , Bevin , and Comer . = = = = Accusations against Comer = = = = Less than three weeks before the primary , the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader reported allegations by Comer 's former girlfriend that he mentally and physically abused her in 1991 , and that he accompanied her to an abortion clinic . The paper reported that the Lexington @-@ area blogger who had been publishing stories about the woman 's claims for months had been in contact with the husband of Heiner 's running mate , K. C. Crosbie . Heiner apologized for any role members of his campaign may have had in perpetuating the accusations against Comer , but the story touched off a feud between Heiner and Comer that some analysts predicted would benefit Bevin . Bevin declared that Heiner 's alleged connection to the Comer accusations had " disqualified [ Heiner ] from being the GOP nominee for governor " . During a candidate call @-@ in segment on Kentucky Sports Radio , Bevin said , " I don 't know if [ Heiner 's ] behind the Comer story , but I 'm telling you his people have been pushing this for a long time . And Hal himself has personally told me months and months ago before I even got in this race , that he knew things , not had heard things , that he knew things based on conversations that his people had had about Jamie Comer . " Bevin also released an ad depicting Comer and Heiner as children in a food fight , with the narrator promising that Bevin would bring " grown up leadership " to the governor 's race . The first opinion poll conducted after the allegations against Comer showed Bevin leading the race with 27 % support to Heiner 's 26 % , Comer 's 25 % , and Scott 's 8 % , with 14 % still undecided . = = = = Result and aftermath = = = = On election night , May 19 , the Associated Press reported that Bevin received 70 @,@ 479 votes , just 83 more than Comer ; Heiner garnered 57 @,@ 948 and Scott received 15 @,@ 364 . At approximately 10 : 00 pm ( EDT ) that night , Comer told his supporters , " I owe it to our supporters to ask for a canvass to this election . " The recanvass showed that Bevin remained 83 votes ahead , and Comer conceded the nomination to Bevin , foregoing a full recount . Bevin financed his primary campaign with over $ 2 @.@ 5 million of his own money , representing 95 % of the money he spent , and the National Journal opined that attracting donors from supporters of Comer , Heiner , Scott , and McConnell would be critical to his success in the general election . Almost immediately after his primary win , Bevin was asked about his support for McConnell , telling reporters , " I literally know of no other elected official in this state who went to more events between May and November in support of candidates and support of Mitch McConnell and other down ticket races than I did . I knocked on doors , I made phone calls , I wrote checks myself , and I physically attended fundraiser after fundraiser . " Federal Election Commission records showed no evidence of contributions by Bevin to McConnell 's campaign , and a McConnell advisor cited by Bevin to corroborate his support refused to do so when contacted by Insider Louisville . In the election 's aftermath , McConnell issued a one @-@ sentence endorsement of Bevin . Bevin deleted all posts from his Twitter feed prior to February 2015 , including several critical of McConnell . At a statewide Lincoln Day dinner , Bevin showed a humorous montage of him supporting McConnell , including staged scenes of him waking up in a McConnell T @-@ shirt , applying McConnnell bumper stickers to his vehicle , and getting a " Team Mitch " tattoo . McConnell was not in attendance , but a spokesperson read a letter again endorsing Bevin . Paul was in attendance and pledged to do " anything humanly possible " to elect Bevin ; State Senate President Robert Stivers and State House Minority Leader Jeff Hoover , a Comer ally , both endorsed Bevin as well . Comer , Heiner , nor Scott attended the dinner . = = = 2015 gubernatorial general election = = = In the general election , Bevin faced state Attorney General Jack Conway , marking the first gubernatorial race in state history featuring two candidates from Louisville , the state 's largest city . The Kentucky Democratic Party attempted to play up the fractures in the Republican Party over Bevin 's candidacy , launching a web site featuring fellow Republicans ' criticisms of Bevin , drawn mostly from his primary race against McConnell . Bevin responded with a web site tying Conway to President Barack Obama , who was very unpopular in Kentucky , saying that Conway would support environmental regulations that harm the coal industry and support the Affordable Care Act , which was also unpopular in the state , despite its nationally praised insurance exchange . = = = = Fiscal issues = = = = Bevin advocated shifting the state 's tax code away from " productivity " taxes , such as income taxes , to " consumption taxes " such as sales taxes , a move that Conway called " regressive " . He repeated his call to eliminate the inheritance tax and added that the state should " aim for " the elimination of corporate taxes . Bevin also called for the elimination of many of Kentucky 's $ 10 billion in " tax expenditures " , which he called " Frankfort @-@ speak for loopholes " . Asked to specify which expenditures he would eliminate , Bevin said , " I 'm not going to give you specifics at this point in time . There are many of these loopholes that frankly are not conducive to developing the economy . There are some that make sense , and those will continue . ... [ W ] e have already identified what many of them will be . But at this point , we 're going to have to look at them in totality . I 'm not gonna give you specifics at this time . I 'm just not . " During the candidates first public appearance together on June 19 , 2015 , Conway promised to increase funding for early childhood education and expand its availability for those in poverty . He then referenced Bevin 's statements in a May Republican debate citing studies suggesting educational gains effected by the federal Head Start Program are lost by the third grade . Bevin said the state could not afford additional funding for early childhood education ; he advocated outcomes @-@ based education funding , but added , " The comment that I 'm not a proponent of early childhood education is absolutely bunk , it 's baloney . " In a late July debate sponsored by the Kentucky Chamber of Commerce , Bevin continued to insist that the state could not afford the Medicaid expansion authorized by Governor Beshear . He then advocated modifying the state 's Medicaid system to require those insured by Medicaid to contribute small premiums or co @-@ payments , citing a system similar to Indiana 's . The Kentucky General Assembly would have to effect such changes through legislation , but the debate moderator told Bevin he could end the expansion entirely with an executive order . Bevin responded , " And create what degree of chaos ? " Alessi then cited Bevin 's February promise to end the Medicaid expansion " immediately " , to which Bevin replied , " I said I would address it . I didn 't say I would end it immediately . Go back and look at what I said . " In the post @-@ debate press conference , Lexington Herald @-@ Leader columnist Sam Youngman confirmed that Bevin had said he would " end " the Medicaid expansion . Bevin then said , " Yeah , well , here 's the bottom line : We need to address the situation . We need to effectively come up with a program that works for folks . " At a September campaign stop at a local Dairy Queen , Bevin promised only to " tweak " Beshear 's Medicaid expansion . Later in the month , he told a reporter " [ W ] e will not continue to enroll people at 138 percent of the federal poverty level [ as allowed under the Affordable Care Act ] , " adding " The bottom line is this : Even if we don 't continue to enroll people at 138 percent , there will be the 850 @-@ some odd thousand that were on it before the expansion and the other 400 @-@ and some odd thousand that are on it right now . They will continue to be on it until we come up with a solution . But we are not going to re @-@ enroll people at 138 percent . " In an email to reporters , Bevin 's communications director said , " Matt has been consistent on the issue of Medicaid expansion from day one . What he has called for is repeal of Obama 's Medicaid expansion by applying to [ the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services ] for 1115 waivers ( as other states have successfully done ) in order to better customize a solution to address the healthcare needs of the commonwealth . " = = = = Social issues = = = = Bevin said he " strongly disagreed " with the Supreme Court 's decision in Obergefell v. Hodges legalizing same @-@ sex marriage , continuing " When the definition of marriage was put on the ballot 10 years ago , 74 percent of Kentuckians made it clear that they supported traditional marriage . Since that time , however , activist judges have chosen to ignore the will of the people , and to ignore the Constitutional principle of state 's rights . " He then attacked Conway , who refused to appeal the 2014 federal court opinion that Kentucky 's defense of marriage amendment violated the federal constitution : " Jack Conway 's failure to do his job and defend our laws in Kentucky disqualifies him from being elected to the office of Governor . " Conway responded that he " used the discretion given to me by statute to inform Gov. Beshear and the citizens of the Commonwealth that I would not waste the scarce resources of this office pursuing a costly appeal that would not be successful . " Bevin contended that Conway 's decision cost Kentucky taxpayers $ 2 @.@ 3 million , citing the cost of private attorneys that Beshear hired to defend the amendment in Conway 's place . Three Kentucky county clerks refused to issue same @-@ sex marriage licenses in the aftermath of Obergefell , citing religious objections . Bevin criticized Beshear for not calling a special legislative session to seek a means of accommodating the clerks ' objections . " He advocated replacing Kentucky marriage licenses with a " marriage contract template " . " The form would then be presented to those with authority to approve or solemnize a marriage contract . That duly @-@ executed marriage contract could then be filed and recorded at the county clerk 's office just like a mortgage , a lien , a deed , etc . " , Bevin 's public statement said . After Rowan County clerk Kim Davis defied Judge David L. Bunning 's order to issue marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples , Bevin commended her " willingness to stand for her First Amendment rights " . Davis was confined to the Carter County jail for six days on contempt of court charges for refusing to comply with Bunning 's order . On September 8 , 2015 , Bevin met with Davis in the jail and later attended a rally organized by Republican presidential candidate Mike Huckabee celebrating her subsequent release . Following a September debate at Bellarmine University , Bevin said , " My intention has always been to execute this race on financial issues , on economic issues . In the last several weeks , 85 percent of what people talk about are these social issues . ... I think the issue has redefined this race whether any of us candidates want that to be the case or not . " Associated Press reporter Adam Beam wrote that the Davis case " ignited the passions of religious conservatives in an already conservative state " , and University of Kentucky political science professor Stephen Voss opined that a campaign focused on cultural and social issues would be " bad for Conway " . After the Center for Medical Progress released series of videos it said showed Planned Parenthood representatives illegally negotiating the sale of body parts from aborted fetuses , Bevin pledged that , " As governor , I will direct my secretary of the Cabinet for Health and Family Services not to distribute federal taxpayer dollars from that department to Planned Parenthood clinics . Federal taxpayer dollars appropriated to Planned Parenthood flow through the governor 's administration . As governor , I will prevent those dollars from being distributed , and order them returned to the federal government . " In the 2015 @-@ 16 fiscal year , Kentucky 's two Planned Parenthood affiliates , neither of which performs abortions , received $ 331 @,@ 300 in federal funding . = = = = Bevin 's personal finances = = = = Conway continued McConnell 's line of attack on Bevin 's finances , specifically the issue of delinquent taxes . While McConnell 's charges involved delinquent taxes against Bevin Brothers Manufacturing , Theo Keith of Louisville 's WAVE reported in June that Bevin had been late at least 10 times paying property taxes on his vacation homes in Maine and Louisiana between 2002 and 2009 . He further reported in July that Bevin 's company , Integrity Holdings , also had multiple past delinquency issues . In total , Keith estimated that Bevin had paid about $ 1 @,@ 800 in penalties for late tax payments . Bevin became irritated with Keith 's reporting and refused to answer questions from him at subsequent press conferences ; he did not buy ads on WAVE , despite running ads on Louisville 's other three network broadcast stations . The Associated Press ' Adam Beam eventually reported that Bevin had paid his taxes late on 30 different occasions . In an October interview with Beam , Bevin said , " Sometimes you do pay it late and you pay interest on having paid it late . But you pay the taxes . ... You do this all the time in business . " He added that his critics " could have done just as breathless a story of all the times I paid my taxes early and gotten a discount on it . " He also reiterated that , as of the time of the interview , he had paid all of his taxes : " Do I actually owe taxes to anyone , anywhere ? The answer is no . " = = = = Result = = = = On August 10 , Fark.com founder Drew Curtis submitted the requisite number of petition signatures to appear on the gubernatorial ballot as an Independent candidate with his wife , Heather , as his running mate . In early October , the first poll released after Curtis entered the field showed Conway leading with 42 percent support among likely voters , compared to Bevin 's 37 percent and Curtis ' 7 percent . Fifteen percent of those polled were undecided . Conway 's five @-@ percentage @-@ point margin held up a month later ; just a week before the election , a Bluegrass poll showed 45 percent support for Conway , 40 percent for Bevin , and 6 percent for Curtis . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader noted that Bevin had trailed in every publicly released poll , and political analyst Stephen Voss said that , given the consistency of the data , " Bevin needs a sudden shift in voter preferences if he hopes to win this contest , and he may be dragging down some of his Republican ticket mates as well . " The polls were off . On November 3 , Bevin garnered 511 @,@ 771 votes ( 53 % ) to Conway 's 426 @,@ 944 ( 44 % ) and Curtis ' 35 @,@ 629 ( 3 % ) . Bevin was only the third Republican elected governor of Kentucky since World War II , and running mate Jenean Hampton became the first African @-@ American elected to any statewide office in Kentucky . Conway had counted on strong support from the state 's urban areas , but managed smaller @-@ than @-@ expected margins in Jefferson , Fayette , and Franklin counties – home to Louisville , Lexington , and Frankfort , respectively – while turnout on Bevin 's behalf was strong in more traditionally Republican rural areas . Ultimately , Conway carried only 14 of Kentucky 's 120 counties , and observers wrote that the loss likely ended his political career . Republicans also won the races for treasurer , auditor , and agricultural commissioner . Analyst Ronnie Ellis speculated that the Republicans ' victories set the stage for the party to take control of the state House of Representatives in the November 2016 elections . With an eight @-@ seat majority , the Kentucky House was the last legislative body in the South controlled by Democrats . = = Governor of Kentucky = = After a series of terror attacks in Paris – for which the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) claimed responsibility – Bevin announced that , following his inauguration , he would join 25 other U.S. governors in refusing any Syrian refugees seeking to relocate to their respective states " until we can better determine the full extent of any risks to our citizens . " In response , Lexington Herald @-@ Leader political cartoonist Joel Pett published a cartoon depicting Bevin hiding under his desk , his floor strewn with newspapers featuring stories about the Paris attacks , with an aide telling him , " " Sir , they 're not terrorists .... they 're your own adopted kids ! " , a reference to Bevin 's four children adopted from Ethiopia . Bevin responded via Twitter : " The tone of racial intolerance being struck by the @ HeraldLeader has no place in Kentucky and won 't be tolerated by our administration . " Bevin was sworn in as Kentucky Governor on December 8 , 2015 . Observers from both parties praised Bevin 's selection of experienced , relatively moderate individuals for his cabinet , including his former rival , Hal Heiner , as Secretary of the Education and Workforce Cabinet and former University of Kentucky football standout Derrick Ramsey as his Secretary of Labor . The appointments of two Democratic state representatives – John Tilley as Secretary of the Justice and Public Safety Cabinet and Tanya Pullin to a state judgeship – reduced the party 's majority in the House and set up special elections that gave Republicans a chance to win their seats from Democrats . Bevin set the dates of the special elections to fill the seats of Tilley and Pullin , as well as those formerly held by newly elected Auditor Mike Harmon and newly elected Agriculture Commissioner Ryan Quarles , for March 8 , 2016 . Democratic representatives Denver Butler and Jim Gooch also switched their party affiliation to Republican in December , reducing the Democratic majority to 50 – 46 for the beginning of the first General Assembly of Bevin 's governorship , and giving Republicans a chance to evenly split the chamber 's 100 seats by sweeping the special elections . Republicans held only Harmon 's seat , giving Democrats a 53 – 47 advantage in the House for the remainder of the session . Bevin issued the first executive orders of his administration on December 22 , 2015 . Among the issues addressed were removing the names of county clerks from state marriage licenses , and reversing orders by Beshear that restored voting rights for non @-@ violent felons who had completed their sentences and raised the minimum wage for some state workers to $ 10 @.@ 10 per hour . In December , Bevin announced that the state would not renew an advertising contract for kynect . In January 2016 , he notified federal authorities that he plans to dismantle kynect by the end of 2016 and charged Mark Birdwhistell , formerly Secretary of Health under Governor Fletcher , with designing a system to replace kynect . Although the Beshear administration suggested the shutdown would cost the state $ 23 million , Bevin , citing a Deloitte study , promised it would be in the " small single digits [ of millions ] " . As of May 2016 , Bevin had one of the lowest approval ratings among United States governors . = = = 2016 – 18 biennial budget = = = On January 26 , 2016 , Bevin delivered a budget address to the General Assembly detailing his two @-@ year budget proposal . The proposal cut the allocation for most state agencies by 9 percent over the upcoming biennium , with most of the savings being redirected into the state pension system , which was among the worst funded in the nation . Public elementary and secondary education were spared from the cuts , as were social workers , public defenders , corrections officers , and Kentucky State Police employees , all of whom received raises under Bevin 's proposal . Public colleges and universities were not exempt from the cuts , and Bevin called for a gradual move to performance @-@ based funding for higher education , with all higher education funding tied to performance by 2020 . By executive order , Bevin required all state agencies to reduce spending in their current budgets by 4 @.@ 5 percent . House Speaker Greg Stumbo argued that Bevin did not have the authority to order such reductions without legislative approval , but Senate President Robert Stivers defended Bevin 's action , saying it amounted to simply not spending money that was previously allocated . Bevin later compromised with the state 's public college and university presidents to reduce the cuts to 2 percent , but Attorney General Beshear sued to stop the cuts entirely . On May 18 , 2016 , a Franklin Circuit judge ruled Bevin did have the authority to make the cuts . The Kentucky Supreme Court accepted the case on appeal , granting Beshear 's request to bypass the Kentucky Court of Appeals for expediency . The hearing is scheduled for August 18 . On March 7 , 2016 , Bevin released a video on social media claiming that House Democrats were not following through on their obligations to help craft the state budget . Legislators responded with a photo and statements that while Bevin was producing his film designed to chastise them , House leaders were in fact in committee meetings working out details of a budget proposal . House Speaker Greg Stumbo suggested the Governor was either unfamiliar with the legislative process , or intended to deceive people . On March 12 , House Democrats released their own budget , which sustained most of the cuts to executive agencies in Bevin 's budget , but exempted public universities from any cuts . The Republican @-@ controlled Senate countered with a proposal that hewed closely to Bevin 's original budget . The two chambers announced that their negotiations had reached an impasse just days before the constitutionally mandated end of the session on April 15 , but Bevin insisted he would not call a special legislative session for them to continue negotiations . Just before 3 : 00 a.m. on April 14 , negotiators announced they had reached a compromise that would cut public universities ' budgets by 4 @.@ 5 percent over the biennium instead of the 9 percent requested by Bevin and implement a performance @-@ based funding model in 2017 . The money would be reallocated to contribute over $ 1 billion toward the state pension system 's liabilities , which exceeded $ 30 billion . Republicans agreed to fund a Democratic proposal for a scholarship program providing free community college tuition for qualified students , relented on their demands to stop state funding for Planned Parenthood , and spared the state 's prevailing wage guidelines . Bevin signed the budget , but used his line @-@ item veto to strip funding for the scholarship program in the first year of the biennium , saying the guidelines were poorly written and should be revised before implementing the program in 2017 . Because of the constitutional prohibition against the legislative session extending past April 15 , the General Assembly was unable to override the veto . = = = Abortion = = = In January 2016 , Bevin 's administration sent a cease and desist letter to Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky ordering it to stop performing abortions at its clinic in Louisville because it did not have the required license . The clinic claimed it had been given permission to perform the procedures by Beshear 's inspector general just prior to Bevin taking office , but nonetheless halted the procedures on January 28 . Bevin filed suit against Planned Parenthood in February , claiming it had illegally performed 23 abortions without a license ; the suit said Planned Parenthood 's licensure application was deficient because it did not include agreements with a hospital and ambulance service to transport and care for patients in case of complications , as required by state law , and that Beshear 's inspector general was wrong in instructing the organization to begin performing abortions before the license was approved . Planned Parenthood countered that , before the license could be finalized , the abortion facility would have to be subjected to an unannounced inspection , requiring that abortions were already being performed there . In March , the University of Louisville Hospital announced that it had backed out of a transfer agreement with Planned Parenthood , saying it had been pressured to do so and felt that its state funding was in jeopardy by continuing in the agreement . A spokesman for Bevin denied that the pressure had come from anyone in the administration . Two weeks after filing suit against Planned Parenthood , Bevin sued EMW Women 's Clinic in Lexington , claiming that it was an unlicensed abortion facility . The clinic had been operating without a license under an exemption granted to private physician 's offices , but an inspection of the clinic – the first conducted since 2006 – revealed that the facility performed abortions exclusively . Inspectors also reported " several unsafe and unsanitary conditions " including the presence of expired medications . EMW ceased performing abortions March 9 , pending the outcome of the lawsuit . On March 18 , Fayette County Circuit Judge Ernesto Scorsone declined to issue a cease and desist order to EMW , finding that the first trimester abortions performed there " do not require sedation or the services of an anesthesiologist " , suggesting that the clinic was a physician 's office . Scorsone also said the clinic served the public interest by providing abortion services for the eastern half of the state . The administration appealed Scorsone 's decision , and on June 15 , a three @-@ judge panel from the Kentucky Court of Appeals ruled Scorsone 's decision in error and issued a temporary injunction against EMW , prohibiting them from performing abortions until and unless the case was eventually resolved in its favor . = = Electoral history = =
= Worlds End State Park = Worlds End State Park is a 780 @-@ acre ( 316 ha ) Pennsylvania state park in Sullivan County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . The park , nearly surrounded by Loyalsock State Forest , is in the Loyalsock Creek valley on Pennsylvania Route 154 , in Forks and Shrewsbury Townships southeast of the borough of Forksville . The name Worlds End has been used since at least 1872 , but its origins are uncertain . Although it was founded as Worlds End State Forest Park by Governor Gifford Pinchot in 1932 , the park was officially known as Whirls End State Forest Park from 1936 to 1943 . The park 's land was once home to Native Americans , followed by settlers who cleared the forests for subsistence farming and later built sawmills . The second growth forests in and surrounding Worlds End State Park are partially a result of the efforts of the young men of the Civilian Conservation Corps during the Great Depression . They helped overcome the clearcutting of the early 20th century , and built many of the park 's facilities , including the cabins that earned it a place on the National Register of Historic Places . A wide variety of wildlife is found in the park , which is also part of an Important Bird Area . Located in the Endless Mountains region of the dissected Allegheny Plateau , Worlds End has a continental climate and rocks and fossils from the Carboniferous period . It is one of " Twenty Must @-@ See Pennsylvania State Parks " named by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources , which describes it as " [ v ] irtually in a class by itself , this wild , rugged and rustic area seems almost untamed " . The park offers year @-@ round recreational opportunities , including environmental education , hiking , camping in tents and cabins , whitewater rafting , swimming , cross @-@ country skiing , snowmobiling , hunting , and fishing . = = Name = = An 1872 map uses the name Worlds End for the area around the S @-@ shaped serpentine bend in Loyalsock Creek . Worlds End State Forest Park opened in 1932 , and its name has caused some confusion and controversy over the years . William S. Swingler , Assistant District Forester of Wyoming State Forest ( reorganized as Loyalsock State Forest in 2005 ) , penned this note about the story of the name in 1935 : There was even a dispute as to the proper name of the area . Some people called it Worlds End , others Whirl 's Glen , and still others Whirls End . The first name arose from the topography of the place . Seven mountain ranges converge on the point and one does receive the sensation of being at the ultimate ends of the earth . The proponents of the second name base their claim upon the whirlpool in the Loyalsock Creek , and the third name was probably a contraction of the other two . Since the whirlpool had largely disappeared , it was decided that the name Worlds End would be most appropriate . Hence , the name Worlds End State Forest Park . This was not the end of the controversy . A letter campaign led to the name of the park being changed to Whirls End State Forest Park in 1936 ; opponents of the new name launched another letter @-@ writing campaign to revert the name to Worlds End State Forest Park . This matter was brought before the State Geographic Board , which supervised the official naming of places . The board ruled that the name be changed once again to Worlds End State Forest Park in 1943 . The word Forest was dropped on November 11 , 1954 , when the park was officially named Worlds End State Park by the Pennsylvania Geographic Board . This has been the official name ever since , but the names Whirls End and Whirls Glen are still used , and are synonymous with Worlds End . Two other etymologies have been suggested . The first is that an early road along the gorge had a sheer drop to the creek hundreds of feet below , which prompted thoughts of the world 's end in early travelers . The second is that the bend in Loyalsock Creek , and the surrounding area that became the park , was originally known as Huerle 's Bend , but then " years of mispronunciation turned it into World 's End ( State Park ) " . Whatever the source , as of 2012 the name Worlds End State Park is unique in the USGS Geographic Names Information System and on its maps of the United States . The possessive apostrophe is not part of the official name , although it does appear in older records and in informal usage today . = = History = = = = = Native Americans = = = Humans have lived in what is now Pennsylvania since at least 10 @,@ 000 BC . The first settlers were Paleo @-@ Indian nomadic hunters known from their stone tools . The hunter @-@ gatherers of the Archaic period , which lasted locally from 7000 to 1000 BC , used a greater variety of more sophisticated stone artefacts . The Woodland period marked the gradual transition to semi @-@ permanent villages and horticulture , between 1000 BC and 1500 AD . Archeological evidence found in the state from this time includes a range of pottery types and styles , burial mounds , pipes , bows and arrow , and ornaments . Worlds End State Park is in the West Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin , whose earliest recorded inhabitants were the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Susquehannocks . They were a matriarchial society that lived in stockaded villages of large longhouses . Their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , and by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes . After this , the lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois . The Iroquois also lived in longhouses , primarily in what is now New York , and had a strong confederacy which gave them power beyond their numbers . To fill the void left by the demise of the Susquehannocks , the Iroquois encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle in the West Branch watershed , including the Shawnee and Lenape ( or Delaware ) . The French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) led to the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin . On November 5 , 1768 , the Province of Pennsylvania acquired the New Purchase from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix , including what is now Worlds End State Park . After the American Revolutionary War , Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania . The land that became Sullivan County was originally part of Northumberland County , then became part of Lycoming County when it was formed in 1795 . Settlers first arrived in the park 's townships in 1794 . Shrewsbury Township was formed from Muncy Township in 1803 , and Forks Township was formed from Shrewsbury Township in 1833 , both while still part of Lycoming County . Sullivan County was formed from the northeastern part of Lycoming County on March 15 , 1847 . = = = Horse trails and lumber era = = = The earliest settlers in the Worlds End area rode on two horse trails to traverse the rugged mountains between Muncy Creek and the confluence of Little Loyalsock Creek with Loyalsock Creek at Forksville . These rugged and rocky trails were used steadily until 1895 , when Pennsylvania Route 154 was constructed to take their place . Part of these old horse trails are still in use and known as Pioneer Road and Double Run Road , and form part of two of the seven hiking trails in the park . Worlds End trail and Pioneer Road meet at the Worlds End Vista , which is thought to be a possible inspiration for the park 's name . Prior to the arrival of William Penn and his Quaker colonists in 1682 , it has been estimated that up to 90 percent of what is now Pennsylvania was covered with woods : over 31 @,@ 000 square miles ( 80 @,@ 000 km2 ) of white pine , eastern hemlock , and a mix of hardwoods . The forests near the three original counties , Philadelphia , Bucks , and Chester , were the first to be harvested , as the early settlers used the readily available timber to build homes , barns , and ships , and cleared the land for agriculture . The demand for lumber slowly increased and by the time of the American Revolution the lumber industry had reached the interior and mountainous regions of Pennsylvania . Lumber thus became one of the leading industries in Pennsylvania . Trees were used to furnish fuel to heat homes , tannin for the many tanneries that were spread throughout the state , and wood for construction , furniture , and barrel making . Large areas of forest were harvested by colliers to fire iron furnaces . Rifle stocks and shingles were made from Pennsylvania timber , as were a wide variety of household utensils , and the first Conestoga wagons . By the mid @-@ 19th century , the demand for lumber reached the area , where eastern white pine and eastern hemlock covered the surrounding mountainsides . Lumbermen came and harvested the trees and sent them down Loyalsock Creek to the West Branch Susquehanna River and to sawmills there . The old @-@ growth forests of eastern white pine and eastern hemlock were soon clearcut and the hills were stripped bare . Nothing was left except the dried @-@ out tree tops , which became a fire hazard , so much of the land burned and was left barren . In the 1920s a sawmill was built on land now in the park , and two more were located about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south . After it was " thoroughly logged " , the area became a tangle of briars and brush . = = = Civilian Conservation Corps = = = The history of Worlds End State Park goes back to 1929 , when the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters , a precursor to the modern Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources , began purchasing land devastated by logging and wild fire to create a state forest . The land that specifically became the park was purchased from the Central Pennsylvania Lumber Company in 1929 and Mrs. " Doc " Randall in 1931 . Worlds End State Park was established by forest ranger John Annabelle in 1932 , with a budget of $ 50 that purchased four picnic tables . The Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) was a work relief program for young men from unemployed families , established in 1933 . As part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal legislation , it was designed to combat unemployment during the Great Depression . The CCC operated in every U.S. state . The recreational development of the park began in 1933 , when four CCC camps were built in Sullivan County . One of these , CCC Camp S @-@ 95 , built many of the park facilities , such as the dam for the swimming area , the cabins , hiking trails and roads . The CCC workers blasted out bedrock in the creek for the swimming area and built the Canyon Vista road and lookout . CCC Camp S @-@ 95 , which opened on May 29 , 1933 on the site of an old lumber camp , was able to distinguish itself over the years it operated in Sullivan County . Two floods swept through the area in 1933 and 1936 . The August flood of 1933 caused extensive damage and largely destroyed the newly built camp . During the course of the flooding two young men from Camp S @-@ 95 saved the lives of two drowning children at Worlds End State Park . The flood of 1936 covered a large area within the West Branch Susquehanna River Valley . The young men of the CCC camp were among the leaders in the cleaning up after the flood and rebuilding many destroyed bridges and roads . In 1936 the park was officially expanded beyond the original small picnic area . Camp S @-@ 95 closed in 1941 . = = = = Historic district = = = = In 1987 the CCC architecture earned the Worlds End State Park Family Cabin District within the park a listing on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) . The 18 @.@ 4 @-@ acre ( 7 @.@ 4 ha ) historic district includes nineteen cabins and three latrines built by the CCC between 1933 and 1941 . Seven of the cabins have one room , nine have two rooms , and three have three rooms . There are also three modern latrines within the district which are designated as non @-@ contributing structures . The historic structures are examples of CCC work that reflects the standards set forth by the Department of the Interior . The cabins and latrines are constructed with native stones and timber and are placed on the land in a way that minimizes interference with the natural surroundings of the park . = = = Modern era = = = Since the CCC finished their work at the park in 1941 , Worlds End State Park has continued to develop and change . In 1951 the Loyalsock Trail , which passes through the park , was laid out by Explorer Scouts . This trail has been maintained and extended by the Alpine Club of Williamsport since 1953 . While the park was always popular in Pennsylvania , by the 1960s it began to attract attention from outside the state . The park was home to the first annual whitewater slalom race on Loyalsock Creek in 1964 , which attracted over 100 competitors in 1965 . A 1964 The New York Times article featured Worlds End park and its " excellent trout stream " , and one in 1967 mentioned the park 's " peerless wilderness views " , " half @-@ acre swimming pool carved into cool Loyalsock Creek " and " public campsites " . In 1980 , a 900 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 84 m2 ) trailer was added as a temporary park office . The accomplishments of the CCC at Worlds End State Park were recognized in 1987 by the inclusion of the Family Cabin District on the NRHP . In 1997 the park 's Important Bird Area ( IBA ) was one of the first 73 IBAs established in Pennsylvania . On November 12 , 2002 , a new 4 @,@ 300 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 399 m2 ) visitor center and park office was dedicated , which included 1 @,@ 680 square feet ( 156 m2 ) of public space for environmental education and public programs . The building , constructed with an " energy @-@ efficient design and recycled materials " , was part of a $ 1 @.@ 1 million project that included the park 's first flush toilets and sewage treatment plant . In 2003 a $ 2 @.@ 7 million project added flush toilets and running water to all the park 's wash @-@ houses , renovated the cabins , and made major improvements in the day use area . In 2004 , the Loyalsock Creek Watershed Association installed a fence on the creek 's banks near the cabins to limit pedestrian access and erosion . The association planted shrubs and trees in the same area to stabilize the creek 's banks in 2008 , and in September 2010 replaced more than 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) of fence with a less visible version . On January 25 , 2010 flooding caused by heavy rain and melt from 20 inches ( 510 mm ) of snow " washed out a bridge " leading to the cabin area and destroyed 86 feet ( 26 m ) of road there , leaving the park looking like " the set of disaster movie " . The cabin area road needed $ 72 @,@ 120 in repairs , the park was not fully restored until Memorial Day . Two floods hit the park in 2011 , the first from Hurricane Irene on August 29 , and the second from Tropical Storm Lee on September 8 . Lee washed away about 20 to 22 short tons ( 18 to 20 t ) of gravel used to make emergency repairs to roads in the park from Irene damage . Loyalsock Creek reached 20 @.@ 4 feet ( 6 @.@ 2 m ) south of the park , and campers in the park had to be evacuated . Worlds End and Promised Land State Park had " significant damage to roads and bridges " , damage to Loylasock State Forest roads was also heavy , and the DCNR estimated the two storms caused $ 3 to $ 4 million of damage to its forests and parks . Worlds End was closed for two weeks after the Lee flood . As of 2012 , post @-@ war facilities include the park office , five wash @-@ houses and other modern restroom facilities , beach house with concession stand , chapel , amphitheater , and modern camping areas . Worlds End State Park is one of twenty @-@ one chosen by the Pennsylvania Bureau of Parks for its " Twenty Must @-@ See Pennsylvania State Parks " list . The DCNR describes it as " [ v ] irtually in a class by itself , this wild , rugged and rustic area seems almost untamed " . It goes on to praise the opportunities for camping and hiking at the park , and its scenery and vistas . = = Geology , paleontology , and Marcellus shale = = The land on which Worlds End State Park sits has undergone tremendous change over the last 350 million years . It was once part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America . The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded , causing a buildup of sediment made up primarily of clay , sand and gravel . Tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found today in the Loyalsock Creek drainage basin : sandstone , shale , conglomerates , coal , and limestone . Four major rock formations are present in Worlds End State Park , all at least partly from the Carboniferous period . The youngest of these , which forms the highest points in the park , is the early Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation , a gray conglomerate that may contain sandstone , siltstone , and shale , as well as anthracite coal . The Loyalsock gorge rim and the upper part of its walls are the late Mississippian Mauch Chunk Formation , which is formed with grayish @-@ red shale , siltstone , sandstone , and conglomerate . Below this is the Mississippian Burgoon Formation , which comprises buff @-@ colored sandstone and conglomerate . The creek bed and base of the gorge walls are the late Devonian and early Mississippian Huntley Mountain Formation , which is made of relatively soft grayish @-@ red shale and olive @-@ gray sandstone . The park is at an elevation of 1 @,@ 175 feet ( 358 m ) on the Allegheny Plateau , which formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago , when Gondwana ( specifically what became Africa ) and what became North America collided , forming Pangaea . The local region is known as the Endless Mountains , but despite the name these are not true mountains : instead millions of years of erosion have made this a dissected plateau , causing the " mountainous " terrain seen today . The hardest of the ancient rocks are on top of the ridges , while the softer rocks eroded away forming the valleys : the Loyalsock gorge is approximately 800 feet ( 244 m ) deep in the park . Loyalsock Creek and its tributaries have been a primary force in the creation of the valleys , as the creek makes its way across the landscape to its mouth at the West Branch Susquehanna River in Montoursville . Fossils have been found in Worlds End State Park , as the area was once a river delta on an ancient coastline . This coast was home to an ancient ancestor of the lungfish , which would burrow in the mud to survive dry spells . Fossils of these burrows have been discovered in the red siltstone formations in and near the park . The Marcellus Formation , a shale rich in natural gas , lies thousands of feet below Worlds End State Park and much of Pennsylvania . As of June 30 , 2012 , there were 127 active gas wells in Sullivan County , with 14 of those in Forks or Shrewsbury Townships . The state did not purchase the mineral rights to much of the land it owns . Energy company Anadarko has " reportedly purchased 50 percent of the mineral rights under the [ Loyalsock ] state forest " , and plans to drill in it . About 80 percent of the mineral rights to its state parks are not owned by Pennsylvania , and the owner of Worlds End State Park 's mineral rights is unknown . According to William Kocher , Worlds End 's manager , " if the owner decided to drill [ in the park ] ... the state would have no right to say no . " Natural gas pipeline construction upstream of the park spilled a " significant amount " of sediment and mud into Loyalsock Creek in September 2012 . = = = Climate = = = The Allegheny Plateau has a continental climate , with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges of 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) in winter and 26 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in summer . For the region the park is in , the average minimum temperature in January is 10 ° F ( − 12 ° C ) , while the average maximum temperature in July is 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) . The mean annual precipitation for Loyalsock Creek is 42 to 48 inches ( 1067 to 1219 mm ) . Pennsylvania receives the most acid rain of any state in the United States . Because Loyalsock Creek is in a sandstone , shale , conglomerates , coal , and limestone mountain region , it has a relatively low capacity to neutralize added acid . This makes it especially vulnerable to increased acidification from acid rain , which poses a threat to the long @-@ term health of the plants and animals in the creek . The highest recorded temperature at the park was 104 ° F ( 40 ° C ) in 1936 , and the record low was − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) in 1994 . On average , July is the hottest month at Worlds End , January is the coldest , and June the wettest . = = Ecology = = Worlds End State Park is near Forksville on Pennsylvania Route 154 in the narrow , serpentine valley of Loyalsock Creek . It is nearly surrounded by Loyalsock State Forest , which was known here as Wyoming State Forest until July 1 , 2005 . Common trees found in the state park and forest include black cherry , eastern hemlock , red maple , tulip poplar , yellow birch , and white ash . The northern hardwood and hemlock forests are threatened in general by deer overgrazing , while the woolly adelgid , an invasive hemiptera , threatens the hemlock populations . In 2010 Worlds End was part of over 2 @,@ 600 acres ( 1 @,@ 100 ha ) of state forests and parks combating the woolly adelgid with a $ 110 @,@ 000 federal grant to the DCNR 's " Forest Pest Management Division for insecticide treatment of high @-@ value Eastern hemlocks " . Several different interpretive and educational programs on environmental and ecological topics are offered at the park each summer . = = = Wildlife and Important Bird Area = = = Worlds End State Park has an extensive forest cover of hemlock @-@ filled valleys and hardwood tree @-@ covered mountains , which makes it a habitat for " big woods " wildlife . Animals such as white @-@ tailed deer , black bear , wild turkey , red and gray squirrels are seen fairly regularly . Less commonly seen but present in the park are creatures such as bobcats , coyote , fishers , river otters , and timber rattlesnakes . Loyalsock Creek is home to native brook trout and black bass which feed on a variety of insects including mosquitos , dragonflies , and gnats . Bird watchers have observed over 200 species of birds in the park , including the great blue heron , northern harrier , white @-@ throated sparrow and highly sensitive species which are rare as breeding birds in Pennsylvania such as northern goshawk and yellow @-@ bellied flycatcher . The state park and forest are part of the larger Pennsylvania Important Bird Area ( IBA ) # 42 , which encompasses 214 @,@ 839 acres ( 86 @,@ 942 ha ) . The Pennsylvania Audubon Society has designated the IBA as a globally important habitats for the conservation of bird populations . The IBA is home to Swainson 's thrush and ruffed grouse , the state bird of Pennsylvania . Other notable passerine species found in the park and IBA include blue @-@ headed and red @-@ eyed vireos , Acadian and least flycatchers . Breeding warblers in the park include both northern and Louisiana waterthrushes , as well as Blackburnian , black @-@ throated blue , black @-@ throated green , Canada , magnolia , mourning , Nashville , and yellow @-@ rumped . Worlds End State Park is featured in the Audubon Society 's Susquehanna River Birding and Wildlife Trail Guide . Birds of interest in the park include common mergansers along the creek and other riparian species such as belted kingfisher , as well as barred , great horned , and the scarce , elusive northern saw @-@ whet owls . Other avian species seen in the park and believed to nest there include tufted titmouse , brown creeper , red @-@ breasted nuthatch , common raven , scarlet tanager , yellow @-@ bellied sapsucker , and winter wren . These bird populations are typical of " mature northern hardwood @-@ hemlock forests and high elevation swamps and conifer swamps " . = = Recreation = = = = = Trails = = = There are over 20 miles ( 32 km ) of hiking trails at Worlds End State Park . Most of the trails are rocky and steep , so hikers are encouraged to wear proper footgear and to be prepared for icy conditions during the cold winter months . As John Young writes in Hike Pennsylvania , " If you want to do some hiking in the Worlds End region , you should know that hiking here means climbing " . Worlds End State Park is open during the winter months for snow mobiling and cross @-@ country skiing . Most of the trails are too steep or rugged for either activity , but the park roads are open , as are trails on surrounding state forest lands . Loyalsock Trail , often abbreviated LT , is a rugged 59 @.@ 28 @-@ mile ( 95 @.@ 40 km ) hiking trail that stretches from near Loyalsockville , in Lycoming County on Pennsylvania Route 87 to north of Laporte in Sullivan County , just off U.S. Route 220 . This trail follows the ridges and streams of the Loyalsock Creek watershed . The trail is primarily within the boundaries of Loyalsock State Forest and uses some old logging roads and abandoned railroad grades . The Loyalsock Trail was originally blazed in a yellow rectangle with a red stripe , and red can lids with a yellow " LT " . Recently , the trail markers have been changed to a yellow disc with a red " LT " . Link Trail is a moderate 8 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) trail marked with a red X on a yellow circle blaze . The trail starts at the Cabin Bridge in the park and follows Loyalsock Creek before it branches off and follows Double Run . The trail then ascends to Canyon Vista and heads out into Loyalsock State Forest where it links up with the Loyalsock Trail at the 55 @.@ 33 @-@ mile ( 89 @.@ 05 km ) post . The Loyalsock Trail can be followed back for a 17 @.@ 62 miles ( 28 @.@ 36 km ) long loop . Canyon Vista Trail is a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) loop trail with blue blazes that passes through the eastern portion of the park and a stand of ash , sugar maple , and black cherry trees . This trail passes a maze @-@ like jumble of blocky Pottsville Formation rocks known as the Rock Garden , adjacent to Canyon Vista . The vista is at an elevation of 1 @,@ 750 feet ( 530 m ) and " rewards the hiker with a spectacular view of the Loyalsock Creek gorge " . Worlds End Trail is a 3 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 23 km ) trail with yellow blazes that begins at the park office and ascends to an overlook of the swimming area . It then crosses the old Pioneer Road , which was used by some of the first settlers to the area , and enters the Loyalsock State Forest , ending at the 37 @.@ 77 @-@ mile ( 60 @.@ 78 km ) post of the Loyalsock Trail , which can be followed back to the park office to make a loop 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) long . Butternut Trail is a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) trail marked with orange blazes that loops through a hardwood forest and crosses over Butternut Run . Two side trails connect Butternut Trail with the Loyalsock Trail . Double Run Nature Trail is an easy 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) trail , marked with a green stripe on a white rectangle blaze , that loops through woodlands along the west branch of Double Run . Wildflowers like Jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ pulpit , Solomon 's seal and wild ginger can be seen on this trail , which passes by an intermittent waterfall . High Rock Trail is 1 @.@ 0 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) and passes a waterfall on High Rock Run . This steep trail is marked with red blazes and climbs a hollow filled with lichen @-@ covered rocks to a vista . A part of this trail used to pass so close to cliffs that two hikers fell to their deaths ; this part of the trail has been relocated for safety . = = = Fishing , hunting , and whitewater = = = According to John Young , " As soon as you enter Worlds End State Park , you hear it : the never @-@ ending rush of the waters of Loyalsock Creek " . The creek and its tributary Double Run have been designated as approved trout waters within the park by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission . This means the waters will be stocked with trout and may be fished during trout season . Hunting is permitted on about half of the lands of Worlds End State Park . Hunters are expected to follow the rules and regulations of the Pennsylvania Game Commission . The common game species are ruffed grouse , eastern gray squirrels , turkey , white @-@ tailed deer and bears ; however , the hunting of groundhogs is prohibited . Edward Gertler , author of Keystone Canoeing , writes that Loyalsock Creek 's " exciting whitewater , above Forksville , has long been a favorite of paddlers who are quick and tolerant enough to endure its fickle water levels and weather " . This is the stretch of the creek in and near the park , whose " long , steepening , and complex boulder patch and ledgy rapids demand your attention ... A boater 's chute through the middle of the swimming area dam at Worlds End State Park climaxes this run " . The best time for whitewater boating on Loyalsock Creek at Worlds End State Park is from March to May , and the park hosts a slalom race on Loyalsock Creek each spring . The whitewater gradient is 41 for the section of the creek in and near the park , and its rating on the International Scale of River Difficulty is II to III + , with sections reaching IV . The water is too swift for open canoes , so visitors are asked to use kayaks . The swimming area is closed to whitewater boating during the summer months . = = = Cabins , camping , swimming , and picnics = = = When appointed as manager of the park in 2002 , William C. Kocher said " Camping really is king here at Worlds End , and the rustic cabins are especially popular ... We also have plenty of picnics and reunions , many of them drawing generation after generation , year after year " . Worlds End State Park has three options for visitors interested in staying overnight . There are 19 rustic cabins , each with a refrigerator , stove , fireplace , table with chairs , and beds . There is a 70 @-@ site tent and camper campground along Pennsylvania Route 154 . Some of the campsites have an electric hook @-@ up , and there is a central shower facility with water and restrooms located nearby . Three organized group tenting areas , each capable of accommodating 30 people , are also available north of the cabins . They may also be used for one large group of up to 90 campers . Non @-@ denominational Christian worship services , sponsored by the Pennsylvania Council of Churches , are held in a wooded chapel at the park on Sunday mornings during the summer . The picnic and swimming areas are adjacent to each other , with the building housing the bath house and concession stand between them . There are many picnic tables and several pavilions available for day use by visitors to the park . During the Great Depression the Civilian Conservation Corps built a 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) tall dam on Loyalsock Creek , which provides a 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) swimming area at Worlds End State Park . Since 2008 , lifeguards are no longer on duty at the park . = = Nearby state parks = = The following state parks are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of Worlds End State Park : Mount Pisgah State Park ( Bradford County ) Ricketts Glen State Park ( Columbia , Luzerne , and Sullivan Counties ) Susquehanna State Park ( Lycoming County )
= SMS Kaiser Wilhelm II = SMS Kaiser Wilhelm II ( " His Majesty 's Ship Emperor William II " ) was the second ship of the Kaiser Friedrich III class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . She was built at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven and launched on 14 September 1897 . The ship was commissioned into the fleet as its flagship on 13 February 1900 . Kaiser Wilhelm II was armed with a main battery of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 45 in ) guns in two twin turrets . She was powered by triple expansion engines that delivered a top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) . Kaiser Wilhelm II served as the flagship of the Active Battle Fleet until 1906 , participating in numerous fleet training exercises and visits to foreign ports . She was replaced as flagship by the new battleship SMS Deutschland . After the new dreadnought battleships began entering service in 1908 , Kaiser Wilhelm II was decommissioned and put into reserve . She was reactivated in 1910 for training ship duties in the Baltic , but was again taken out of service in 1912 . With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Kaiser Wilhelm II and her sisters were brought back into active duty as coastal defense ships in the V Battle Squadron . Her age , coupled with shortages of ship crews , led to her withdrawal from this role in February 1915 , after which she served as a command ship for the High Seas Fleet , based in Wilhelmshaven . Following the end of the war in November 1918 , Kaiser Wilhelm II was stricken from the navy list and sold for scrap in the early 1920s . Her bow ornament is preserved at the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden . = = Construction = = Kaiser Wilhelm II was 125 @.@ 3 m ( 411 ft 1 @.@ 07 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 4 m ( 66 ft 11 @.@ 15 in ) . Her draft was 7 @.@ 89 m ( 25 ft 10 @.@ 63 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 25 m ( 27 ft 0 @.@ 80 in ) aft . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines that drove three screw propellers . Steam was provided by four marine @-@ type and eight cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers , all of which burned coal . Kaiser Wilhelm II 's powerplant was rated at 12 @,@ 822 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 561 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) . She had a normal crew of 39 officers and 612 enlisted men ; while serving as the fleet flagship , she carried an additional admiral 's staff of 12 officers and 51 – 63 enlisted men . The ship 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 91 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in casemates . She also carried twelve 37mm machine cannon , but these were later removed . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 72 in ) torpedo tubes , one of which was placed in an above @-@ water swivel mount at the stern , with four submerged on the broadside and one submerged in the bow . The ship 's belt armor was 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 81 in ) thick , and the deck was 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 56 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 84 in ) of armor plating , and the secondary casemates received 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) of armor protection . = = Service history = = = = = Construction to 1902 = = = Kaiser Wilhelm II 's keel was laid on 26 October 1896 , at the Kaiserliche Werft in Wilhelmshaven , under construction number 24 . Ordered under the contract name Ersatz Friedrich der Grosse , to replace the elderly armored frigate Friedrich der Grosse , she was launched on 14 September 1897 . During the launching ceremony , Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Prince Heinrich christened the ship for his brother , Kaiser Wilhelm II . She was commissioned on 13 February 1900 , assuming the position of fleet flagship , which she held until 1906 . Kaiser Wilhelm II was the first battleship of the German Navy specifically built to serve as a fleet flagship . After completing her sea trials in June 1900 , she was assigned to the II Division of the I Squadron , where she replaced the old armored corvette Bayern in the division and the battleship Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm as flagship of the Active Battle Fleet . In early July 1900 , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and the other three Brandenburg @-@ class battleships , which were assigned to the I Division of the I Squadron , were ordered to East Asian waters to assist in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion . As a result , Kaiser Wilhelm II and the other ships of the II Division were transferred to the I Division on 8 July , under the command of Konteradmiral Paul Hoffmann . On 15 August the annual autumn maneuvers began ; initially , the fleet practiced tactical maneuvers in the German Bight . A cruise in battle formation through the Kattegat followed , and the maneuvers concluded in the western Baltic on 21 September . During these exercises , Kaiser Wilhelm II served as the umpire ship , and so Hoffmann temporarily transferred his flag to her sister ship Kaiser Friedrich III . He returned to Kaiser Wilhelm II on 29 September after the conclusion of the exercises in Kiel . On 1 November 1900 , Kaiser Friedrich III replaced Kaiser Wilhelm II as the I Squadron flagship ; the latter , as the fleet flagship , remained assigned to the squadron for tactical purposes . From 4 to 15 December , Kaiser Wilhelm II and the I Squadron went on a winter training cruise to Norway ; the ships anchored at Larvik from 10 to 12 December . At 01 : 30 on 2 January 1901 , she was steaming from Danzig to Kiel with Kaiser Friedrich III when the latter struck an underwater obstacle . The shock from the collision damaged the ship 's boilers and started a fire in the coal bunkers . Kaiser Wilhelm II took her sister in tow , although the engines on Kaiser Friedrich III were restarted along the way . The ships eventually reached Kiel , where temporary repairs were conducted . Kaiser Wilhelm II went into drydock in January 1901 for overhaul and some modernization work . This included the reconstruction of a larger bridge and the removal of some of her searchlights . While the ship was laid up , Admiral Hans von Koester replaced Hoffmann as the fleet commander , a position he would hold until the end of 1906 . The annual training routine began at the end of March 1901 with squadron exercises in the Baltic . On the night of 1 – 2 April , Kaiser Friedrich III ran hard aground on the Adlergrund , a shoal to the north of Cape Arkona , and Kaiser Wilhelm II lightly brushed the bottom . After a short inspection , it was determined that Kaiser Wilhelm II was undamaged , and so Prince Heinrich transferred his flag to the ship on 23 April , while Kaiser Friedrich III went into drydock for repairs . In the meantime , on 18 April , Wilhelm II commissioned his son Prince Adalbert aboard Kaiser Wilhelm II . On 27 April , the I Squadron conducted gunnery drills and a landing exercise off Apenrade . By 17 June , Kaiser Wilhelm II 's sister ship Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse had entered service , and so she took over flagship duties for the squadron , while Kaiser Wilhelm II returned to serving as only the fleet flagship . The squadron then went on a cruise to Spain , and while docked in Cádiz , rendezvoused with the Brandenburg @-@ class battleships returning from East Asian waters . The I Squadron was back in Kiel by 11 August , though the late arrival of the Brandenburgs delayed the participation of the I Squadron in the annual autumn fleet training . The maneuvers began with exercises in the German Bight , followed by a mock attack on the fortifications in the lower Elbe . Gunnery drills took place in Kiel Bay before the fleet steamed to Danzig Bay ; there , during the maneuvers , Wilhelm II and Czar Nicholas II of Russia visited the fleet and came aboard Kaiser Wilhelm II . The autumn maneuvers concluded on 15 September . Kaiser Wilhelm II and the rest of I Squadron went on their normal winter cruise to Norway in December , which included a stop at Oslo from 7 to 12 December , when the ship was visited by King Oscar II . In January 1902 , Kaiser Wilhelm II went into dock at Wilhelmshaven for her annual overhaul . In mid @-@ March , Wilhelm II and his wife , Augusta Victoria , came aboard the ship and waited in the mouth of the Elbe for Wilhelm 's brother Prince Heinrich , who was returning from the United States . The I Squadron then went on a short cruise in the western Baltic before embarking on a major cruise around the British Isles , which lasted from 25 April to 28 May . Individual and squadron maneuvers took place from June to August , interrupted only by a cruise to Norway in July . During these maneuvers , three of Kaiser Wilhelm II 's boiler tubes burst , but the damage was repaired by the start of the autumn maneuvers in August . These exercises began in the Baltic and concluded in the North Sea with a fleet review in the Jade . Kaiser Wilhelm II took no active part in the exercises ; she instead served as an observation ship for the commander of the fleet , as well as her namesake , Kaiser Wilhelm II . The regular winter cruise followed during 1 – 12 December . = = = 1903 – 1905 = = = The first quarter of 1903 followed the usual pattern of training exercises . The squadron went on a training cruise in the Baltic , followed by a voyage to Spain that lasted from 7 May to 10 June . After returning to Germany , Kaiser Wilhelm II participated in the Kiel Week sailing regatta . In July , she joined the I Squadron for the annual cruise to Norway . The autumn maneuvers consisted of a blockade exercise in the North Sea , a cruise of the entire fleet first to Norwegian waters and then to Kiel in early September , and finally a mock attack on Kiel . The exercises concluded on 12 September . Kaiser Wilhelm II finished the year 's training schedule with a cruise into the eastern Baltic that started on 23 November and a cruise into the Skagerrak that began on 1 December . During the latter , the ship stopped in the Danish port of Frederikshavn . Kaiser Wilhelm II participated in an exercise in the Skagerrak from 11 to 21 January 1904 , after which she returned to Kiel . She then went to the Norwegian city of Ålesund to assist with the major fire that devastated the largely wooden city on 23 January . Squadron exercises followed from 8 to 17 March . A major fleet exercise took place in the North Sea in May , and Kaiser Wilhelm II was again present at Kiel Week in June , where she was visited by Britain 's King Edward VII , Lord William Palmer , and Prince Louis of Battenberg . In June , Kaiser Wilhelm II won the Kaiser 's Schießpreis ( Shooting Prize ) for excellent gunnery . The following month , the I Squadron and the I Scouting Group visited Britain , including a stop at Plymouth on 10 July . The German fleet departed on 13 July , bound for the Netherlands ; the I Squadron anchored in Vlissingen the following day . There , the ships were visited by Queen Wilhelmina . The I Squadron remained in Vlissingen until 20 July , when they departed for a cruise in the northern North Sea with the rest of the fleet . The squadron stopped in Molde , Norway , on 29 July , while the other units went to other ports . The fleet reassembled on 6 August and steamed back to Kiel , where it conducted a mock attack on the harbor on 12 August . During its cruise in the North Sea , the fleet experimented with wireless telegraphy on a large scale and searchlights at night for communication and recognition signals . Immediately after returning to Kiel , the fleet began preparations for the autumn maneuvers , which began on 29 August in the Baltic . The fleet moved to the North Sea on 3 September , where it took part in a major landing operation , after which the ships took the ground troops from the IX Corps that participated in the exercises to Altona for a parade for Wilhelm II . The ships then conducted their own parade for the Kaiser off the island of Helgoland on 6 September . Three days later , the fleet returned to the Baltic via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal , where it participated in further landing operations with the IX Corps and the Guards Corps . On 15 September , the maneuvers came to an end . The I Squadron went on its winter training cruise , this time to the eastern Baltic , from 22 November to 2 December . Kaiser Wilhelm II took part in a pair of training cruises with the I Squadron during 9 – 19 January and 27 February – 16 March 1905 . Individual and squadron training followed , with an emphasis on gunnery drills . On 12 July , the fleet began a major training exercise in the North Sea . The fleet then cruised through the Kattegat and stopped in Copenhagen , where Kaiser Wilhelm II was visited by the Danish King Christian IX . The fleet then stopped in Stockholm , where Kaiser Wilhelm II , the battleship Brandenburg , and the armored cruiser Friedrich Carl all ran aground , though only Friedrich Carl was seriously damaged . The summer cruise ended on 9 August , though the autumn maneuvers that would normally have begun shortly thereafter were delayed by a visit from the British Channel Fleet that month . The British fleet stopped in Danzig , Swinemünde , and Flensburg , where it was greeted by units of the German Navy ; Kaiser Wilhelm II and the main German fleet was anchored at Swinemünde for the occasion . The visit was strained by the Anglo @-@ German naval arms race . As a result of the British visit , the 1905 autumn maneuvers were shortened considerably , from 6 to 13 September , and consisted only of exercises in the North Sea . The first exercise presumed a naval blockade in the German Bight , and the second envisioned a hostile fleet attempting to force the defenses of the Elbe . During October , Kaiser Wilhelm II conducted individual training and , in November , joined the rest of the I Squadron for a cruise in the Baltic . In early December , the I and II Squadrons went on their regular winter cruise , this time to Danzig , where they arrived on 12 December . While on the return trip to Kiel , the fleet conducted tactical exercises . = = = 1906 – 1914 = = = Kaiser Wilhelm II and the rest of the fleet undertook a heavier training schedule in 1906 than in previous years . The ships were occupied with individual , division and squadron exercises throughout April . Starting on 13 May , major fleet exercises took place in the North Sea and lasted until 8 June with a cruise around the Skagen into the Baltic . The fleet began its usual summer cruise to Norway in mid @-@ July . Kaiser Wilhelm II and the I Squadron anchored in Molde , where they were joined on 21 July by Wilhelm II aboard the steamer SS Hamburg . The fleet was present for the birthday of Norwegian King Haakon VII on 3 August . The German ships departed the following day for Helgoland , to join exercises being conducted there . The fleet was back in Kiel by 15 August , where preparations for the autumn maneuvers began . On 22 – 24 August , the fleet took part in landing exercises in Eckernförde Bay outside Kiel . The maneuvers were paused from 31 August to 3 September when the fleet hosted vessels from Denmark and Sweden , along with a Russian squadron from 3 to 9 September in Kiel . The maneuvers resumed on 8 September and lasted five more days . On 26 September 1906 , now @-@ Großadmiral ( Grand Admiral ) von Koester lowered his flag aboard Kaiser Wilhelm II , ending her tenure as the fleet flagship ; the new battleship Deutschland replaced her in this role . Kaiser Wilhelm II was now assigned to the I Squadron , where she served as the second command flagship , under Konteradmiral Max Rollmann . The ship participated in the uneventful winter cruise into the Kattegat and Skagerrak from 8 to 16 December . The first quarter of 1907 followed the previous pattern and , on 16 February , the Active Battle Fleet was re @-@ designated the High Seas Fleet . From the end of May to early June the fleet went on its summer cruise in the North Sea , returning to the Baltic via the Kattegat . This was followed by the regular cruise to Norway from 12 July to 10 August , during which Kaiser Wilhelm II anchored in Trondheim . During the autumn maneuvers , which lasted from 26 August to 6 September , the fleet conducted landing exercises in northern Schleswig with the IX Corps . The winter training cruise went into the Kattegat from 22 to 30 November . In May 1908 , the fleet went on a major cruise into the Atlantic instead of its normal voyage in the North Sea . Kaiser Wilhelm II stopped in Horta in the Azores . The fleet returned to Kiel on 13 August to prepare for the autumn maneuvers , which lasted from 27 August to 7 September . Division exercises in the Baltic immediately followed from 7 to 13 September . At the conclusion of these maneuvers , Kaiser Wilhelm II was taken out of service . In 1909 – 1910 , she underwent a major reconstruction in Wilhelmshaven . The superstructure amidships was cut down to reduce top @-@ heaviness , new circular funnels were installed , and the conning tower was enlarged . The fighting tops from the masts were removed , and the secondary battery was significantly revised . Four of the 15 cm guns were removed and two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were added ; most of the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were moved from the upper decks into casemates in the main deck . On 14 October 1910 , Kaiser Wilhelm II was recommissioned for service in the Baltic reserve division . She underwent short sea trials from 21 to 23 October before proceeding to Kiel , where she was based with her four sister ships . From 3 to 29 April 1911 , the ship participated in maneuvers off Rügen . Together with the North Sea reserve division , Kaiser Wilhelm II and her sister ships went on a training cruise to Norway , starting on 8 June . During the visit , she stopped in Arendal , Bergen , and Odda . In July , the ship conducted gunnery training near the northern coast of Holstein , followed by training cruises off the coast of Mecklenburg . Kaiser Wilhelm II served as the flagship of the III Squadron , which was organized for the autumn maneuvers in August . The III Squadron was attached to the High Seas Fleet for the maneuvers , which lasted from 28 August to 11 September . The following day , the III Squadron was disbanded and Kaiser Wilhelm II returned to service with the Baltic reserve division . In February 1912 , Kaiser Wilhelm II was sent to the Fehmarn Belt to assist in freeing several freighters that were stuck in ice . She and her sisters were again decommissioned on 9 May , and remained out of service until 1914 . = = = World War I = = = As a result of the outbreak of World War I , Kaiser Wilhelm II and her sisters were brought out of reserve and mobilized as the V Battle Squadron on 5 August 1914 ; Kaiser Wilhelm II served as the flagship of the squadron . The ships were readied for war very slowly , and they were not ready for service in the North Sea until the end of August . They were initially tasked with coastal defense , though they served in this capacity for a very short time . In mid @-@ September , the V Squadron was transferred to the Baltic , under the command of Prince Heinrich . He initially planned to launch a major amphibious assault on Windau , but a shortage of transports forced a revision of the plan . Instead , the V Squadron was to carry the landing force , but this too was cancelled after Heinrich received false reports of British warships having entered the Baltic on 25 September . Kaiser Wilhelm II and her sisters returned to Kiel the following day , disembarked the landing force , and then proceeded to the North Sea , where they resumed guard ship duties . Before the end of the year , the V Squadron was once again transferred to the Baltic . Prince Heinrich ordered a foray toward Gotland . On 26 December 1914 , the battleships rendezvoused with the Baltic cruiser division in the Bay of Pomerania and then departed on the sortie . Two days later , the fleet arrived off Gotland to show the German flag , and was back in Kiel by 30 December . The squadron returned to the North Sea for guard duties , but was withdrawn from front @-@ line service in February 1915 . Shortages of trained crews in the High Seas Fleet , coupled with the risk of operating older ships in wartime , necessitated the deactivation of Kaiser Wilhelm II and her sisters . During this period , her sister Kaiser Karl der Grosse briefly served as the squadron flagship , but Kaiser Wilhelm II resumed the post starting on 24 February . The following month , on 5 March , her crew was reduced and she steamed to Wilhelmshaven , where she was converted into the headquarters ship for the commander of the High Seas Fleet , commencing on 26 April . The ship had its wireless equipment modernized for use by the commander when the fleet was in port . After the end of the war , Kaiser Wilhelm II continued in her role as headquarters ship for the fleet commander and his staff , along with the commander of the minesweeping operation in the North Sea . She was decommissioned for the last time on 10 September 1920 . The naval clauses of the Treaty of Versailles , which ended the war , limited the capital ship strength of the re @-@ formed Reichsmarine to eight pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Deutschland and Braunschweig classes , of which only six could be operational at any given time . As a result , Kaiser Wilhelm II was stricken from the navy list on 17 March 1921 and sold to shipbreakers . By 1922 , Kaiser Wilhelm II and her sisters had been broken up for scrap metal . The ship 's bow ornament is preserved at the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden .
= Stairmageddon = " Stairmageddon " is the nineteenth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office . It originally aired on NBC on April 11 , 2013 . The episode features guest appearances from Roseanne Barr as Andy 's agent Carla Fern and Paul Feig as a man auditioning his act for Carla . The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , the office workers are forced to walk up the stairs while the elevator is being serviced . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) kidnaps Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) to assist in an important sales call . Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) talk with Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) and Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) about marital troubles . Meanwhile , Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) supports her husband during a press conference . " Stairmageddon " received mixed reviews from television critics . The episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 84 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 9 / 5 perfect among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode ranked second in its timselot and The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night . = = Plot = = Everyone in the office grows anxious as the premiere of the PBS TV documentary The Office : An American Workplace draws near . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) combines an unflattering appraisal of himself from an early newspaper of the program and his blunt self @-@ assessment that he 's unlikely to remain employed at Dunder Mifflin for very long after it airs , and decides it 's time to pursue his dreams of stardom . After many fruitless calls to dismissive talent agencies , he finds himself at the dual talent agency / real estate office run by Carla Fern ( Roseanne Barr ) . Carla agrees to represent Andy , who is thrilled that he only has to pay $ 5 @,@ 000 for the privilege . The office workers are forced to use the stairs while the elevator is being serviced , a situation everyone deems " Stairmageddon " . A badly out @-@ of @-@ shape Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) undergoes a painful struggle in climbing the stairs , only to be greeted at the top by Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) ordering him to take part in an important sales call . Unwilling to climb the stairs a second time , Stanley refuses . Since the client is a friend of Stanley , Dwight ( who is operating without concern for niceties now that the documentary has driven home the point that he will never be the branch manager at Dunder Mifflin ) cannot take no for an answer , so he shoots Stanley with bull tranquilizers . With help from Clark , Dwight gets Stanley to the car . The tranquilizers inexplicably make Stanley intoxicated , and his unusually jolly mood helps them close the sale . When Stanley regains full awareness , he is pleased to learn that he made a sale with no effort whatsoever , but still refuses to take the stairs again . He instead knocks himself out with one of Dwight 's darts , leaving Dwight and Clark to figure out how to get him back upstairs . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) talks with Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) about his going to marriage counseling with Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) and Pam does the same with Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) . Toby points out to Jim that it 's not fair to tell Pam that he needs an indeterminate amount of time before Athlead pays off for the family like he says it will , Pam vents to Nellie that Jim is always making unilateral decisions involving her and they each agree they 're not leaving Philly for Scranton or vice versa . The Halperts leave the office looking sad and awkward together . Meanwhile , Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) agrees to be the supportive " good wife " for her state senator husband Robert at a press conference in the aftermath of the documentary 's reveal of his affair with Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) . Angela assumes this means he intends to deny the affair and reassert his devotion to family values . Instead , Robert tells the press that he is gay and further humiliates Angela by insinuating that his relations with her drove him to homosexuality . Oscar is also dumbstruck when Robert , while openly proclaiming his affair with Oscar , says that he is in love with his chief of staff , Wesley Silver . Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) happily gloats to the office staff about his keeping Oscar 's secret to the very end . = = Production = = " Stairmageddon " was written by executive producer Dan Sterling , his second writing credit for the series after the ninth season entry , " The Boat " . It was directed by series cinematographer Matt Sohn , his eighth directorial effort for the series , following the ninth season entry , " Suit Warehouse " . Comedian Roseanne Barr guest stars in this episode . It was announced on January 31 , 2013 that she would be doing a two episode arc and would play a talent agent named Carla Fern . Barr began filming her scenes the week following January 31 . Director Paul Feig also guest stars in the episode , his first time appearing on the series . He previously directed several episodes of the series , with his last entry being " Goodbye , Michael " in season seven . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Stairmageddon " originally aired on April 11 , 2013 on NBC . In its original American broadcast , the episode was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 83 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 5 percent share . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode , " Promos " . The Office ranked second in its timeslot , being beaten by an installment of the Fox series Glee which received a 2 @.@ 4 / 6 rating . = = = Reviews = = = " Stairmageddon " received mixed reviews from television critics , with praise going to the drama in the Jim @-@ Pam storyline , while the zaniness of other storylines received more mixed opinions . The A.V. Club reviewer Erik Adams complimented the drama between Jim and Pam , writing that it 's " been given just the right amount of weight " . He criticized the episode for being " one of the loudest tonal clashes in the history of The Office " , comparing it negatively to the previous episode , " Promos " . He said that the other storylines seemed crammed into the episode , particularly due to the writers ' decision to flesh out the supporting cast . Adams gave the episode a C. M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode a " B " . Roth Cornet of IGN called " Stairmageddon " an " odd one " for feeling like both a standalone episode that utilized the full ensemble , but also " one of the final five episodes of this nine @-@ year series " , due to the Jim @-@ Pam and Dwight @-@ Angela storylines . He praised the Jim @-@ Pam storyline for its realism and depth , but worried that their eventual reconciliation would not feel earned , due to the few episodes left in the series . He praised the Dwight @-@ Clark @-@ Stanley storyline , writing that " the true comedy in the episode came primarily from Dwight " and called it Clark Duke 's " strongest appearance to date " . Cornet gave the episode a 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 , calling it " Good " . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic called the episode " the funniest episode on television this week " , considering it a " gem " from the season . Forcella also praised the Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Dwight dynamic throughout the episode and the humor coming from Andy 's storyline . He awarded the episode 5 stars out of 5 . Roseanne Barr 's performance was later submitted by the producers of The Office for an " Outstanding Guest Actor in Comedy Series " Emmy consideration .
= Roses in Portland , Oregon = The city of Portland , Oregon is ideal for growing roses outdoors due to its location within the marine west coast climate region , its warm , dry summers and rainy but mild winters , and its heavy clay soils . Portland has been known as the City of Roses , or Rose City , since 1888 , after Madame Caroline Testout , a large pink variety of hybrid tea rose bred in France , was introduced to the city . Thousands of rose bushes were planted , eventually lining 20 miles ( 32 km ) of Portland 's streets in preparation for the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in 1905 . The Rose City Park neighborhood in northeast Portland was formed in 1907 , the same year of the first annual Portland Rose Festival . During World War I , nursery owners in Portland began planning a large rose garden to protect European rose species from the war . The garden was established in Washington Park as the International Rose Test Garden in 1917 . Today , the Portland Rose Festival occurs each June with a carnival , parades , and navy ships docked along the Tom McCall Waterfront Park to promote the city . The International Rose Test Garden is currently one of the oldest public rose test gardens in the United States , covering 4 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 8 ha ) with over 8 @,@ 000 rose plants and more than 550 different species . In 2003 , Portland adopted the " City of Roses " as its official nickname . = = History = = In 1888 , Georgiana Burton Pittock , the wife of Oregon newspaper publisher and business tycoon Henry Pittock , invited friends and neighbors to display their roses in a tent set up in her garden in the area now known as Pittock Block . In 1889 , lawyer and civic leader Frederick Van Voorhies Holman helped found the Portland Rose Society . The rose cultivar Mme. Caroline Testout , a hybrid tea rose variety named after a French dressmaker , was introduced by French rosarian Joseph Pernet @-@ Ducher in 1890 . The cultivar gained popularity , and by 1905 , Portland had 20 miles ( 32 km ) of rose @-@ bordered streets , attracting visitors to the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition . About half a million of these rose bushes were planted along Portland 's streets for the Lewis and Clark Exposition . In 1915 , rose hobbyist and Oregon Journal editor Jesse Currey convinced city officials to establish a rose test garden to protect hybrid roses grown in Europe during World War I. Portland 's Park Bureau approved the idea in 1917 , allowing rose enthusiasts in England to send roses to Portland for preservation . City landscape architect Florence Holmes Gerke began designing the International Rose Test Garden and accompanying amphitheatre in 1921 . The garden was dedicated in June 1924 with Currey as the first curator . He served until his death in 1927 . A stone bench in the garden honors Currey 's work as founder . = = City of Roses = = The official and most common nickname for Portland is the " City of Roses " , or " Rose City " . According to Charles Paul Keyser , Portland Parks Superintendent from 1917 to 1950 , the first known reference to Portland as " The City of Roses " was made by visitors at an Episcopal Church convention in 1888 . The city 's first annual rose show was held the following year , and by 1904 , the Portland Rose Society began sponsoring fiestas to accompany the shows . The nickname grew in popularity after the 1905 Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition , where mayor Harry Lane suggested that the city needed a " festival of roses " . The first Portland Rose Festival was held two years later and remains the city 's major annual festival a century later . The Portland Rose Society , which offers educational programs on " rose culture " and advocates the use of roses in the landscape , remains in operation today . In Portland , the nickname is often attributed to Leo Samuel , who founded the Oregon Life Insurance Company in 1906 ( known today as Standard Insurance Company ) . Samuel grew roses outside his home and placed a pair of shears outside his garden , so people could snip a rose from his garden to take for themselves . On June 18 , 2003 , the city council unanimously approved a resolution adopting " the City of Roses " as the city 's official nickname . = = Gardens = = Many rose gardens are found throughout Portland , the most prominent of which is the International Rose Test Garden . Peninsula Park became the city 's first public rose garden in 1909 when it was purchased for $ 60 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 580 @,@ 222 in 2016 ) with funds raised in a 1908 bond measure . Designed by Emanuel L. Mische , the 2 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) garden contains 8 @,@ 900 plantings featuring 65 rose varieties . Mme. Caroline Testout , the official rose of Portland , was grown at Peninsula Park . In 1913 , the park was chosen as the location for an annual rose show , where it remained until Washington Park was selected as the location of the International Rose Test Garden in 1917 . The park remains a popular Portland tourist destination , with more than 9 @,@ 500 rose bushes representing over 600 varieties . The Ladd 's Addition neighborhood contains four diamond @-@ shaped rose gardens originally designed by William Sargent Ladd in the 1890s . Emanuel Mische designed landscaped areas in the park in 1909 . Mische planted roses in the diamond gardens giving it a " stained glass effect " . The park was acquired by Portland Parks & Recreation in 1981 and currently features 3 @,@ 000 roses representing sixty varieties that were popular in the early 20th century . Other rose gardens surrounding the Portland metropolitan area include Esther Short Park in Vancouver , Washington , Avery Park Rose Garden in Corvallis , Owen Rose Garden in Eugene , and Heirloom Roses in St. Paul . = = Events = = The Portland Rose Festival is an annual civic festival held during the month of June . Events , including multiple parades , a carnival , fleet week , and the crowning of a queen , are organized by the volunteer non @-@ profit Portland Rose Festival Association with the purpose of promoting the Portland region . Coinciding with the festival is the Annual Spring Rose Show , considered to be one of the largest and longest @-@ running in the nation . The Portland 's Best Rose event , sponsored by the Portland Rose Society , began in 1996 . The competition includes 100 judges ranking varieties in a blind contest . One day prior to the competition , the public is invited to vote for the People 's Choice award recipient . = = Local namesakes = = Rose City Park is a neighborhood and park in northeast Portland . The neighborhood formed in 1907 , the year of the first Portland Rose Festival . The headquarters of the rose festival are at the Visitors Information Center , also known as the Rose Building . The building was designed by architect John Yeon in 1948 and served as a chamber of commerce office and visitor center , city offices , and a restaurant , as well as the rose festival 's headquarters . Located along Tom McCall Waterfront Park , it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2010 and features a rose garden and neon rose sign . Other namesakes include murals depicting roses painted on sides of buildings in Portland , and the private company Rose City Transit , which provided most mass transit service in Portland from 1956 to 1969 . Roses have long been associated with sports in Portland . The Moda Center , an indoor sports arena , was known as the Rose Garden for many years ; the venues lies within the Rose Quarter , a sports and entertainment center in the Lloyd District neighborhood . The venue remains one of only a handful of National Basketball Association ( NBA ) facilities for which naming rights have not been sold . In addition , three professional sports teams were named the Portland Rosebuds during the first half of the 20th century ; they were two professional men 's ice hockey teams that played home games at the Portland Ice Arena and one Negro league baseball team in the West Coast Baseball Association that was also known as the " Portland Roses " . The first hockey team played in the Pacific Coast Hockey Association from 1914 – 1918 . During the 1915 – 1916 season the Rosebuds became the first American team to participate in the Stanley Cup finals . The second hockey team played in the Western Hockey League 's fifth and final season ( 1925 – 1926 ) . Other teams have incorporated the " Rose City " nickname into their brand . The Rose City Rollers , an all @-@ female roller derby league within the Women 's Flat Track Derby Association , was established in 2004 and supports four local teams and two traveling teams . The Rollers support a junior league known as the Rosebuds . Two women 's professional football teams have been named the Rose City Wildcats , the first formed for the 2001 season of the Women 's American Football League and the second for the 2011 season of the Women 's Spring Football League . A women 's soccer team named Portland Thorns FC was formed in 2012 by the Portland Timbers and have played in the National Women 's Soccer League since 2013 .
= Teresa Lewis = Teresa Wilson Bean Lewis ( April 26 , 1969 – September 23 , 2010 ) was an American murderer who was the only woman on death row in Virginia prior to her execution . She was sentenced to death by lethal injection for the murders of her husband and stepson in October 2002 . Lewis sought to profit from a $ 250 @,@ 000 life insurance policy her stepson had taken out as a U.S. Army reservist in anticipation of his deployment to Iraq . In September 2010 , Lewis became the first female inmate to die by lethal injection in the state of Virginia . The state had last executed a woman in 1912 . The case led to debate over capital punishment due to Lewis 's gender as well as questions regarding her mental capacity . = = Background = = Teresa Wilson grew up in poverty in Danville , Virginia , where her parents both worked in a textile mill . Teresa sang in a church during her youth . At 16 , she dropped out of school and married a man she met at that church . The couple had one daughter , Christie Lynn Bean , but the marriage soon ended in divorce , after which Teresa turned to alcohol and painkillers . Her mother @-@ in @-@ law , Marie Bean , described Teresa as " not right " . After migrating between dozens of low @-@ paying jobs , Teresa Wilson Bean eventually found work in the spring of 2000 at the Dan River textile mill , where her supervisor was Julian Clifton Lewis , Jr . He was a recent widower with three children , Jason , Charles , and Kathy . Teresa moved into Julian 's home in June 2000 and the two married soon after . In December 2001 , Julian 's older son , Jason Clifton Lewis , was killed in a car accident , leaving his father $ 200 @,@ 000 from a life insurance policy . Julian used the money to buy a manufactured home on five acres of land in Pittsylvania County , Virginia . In August 2002 , Julian 's younger son , Charles J. Lewis , obtained a $ 250 @,@ 000 insurance policy in preparation for his impending deployment to Iraq as part of the United States Army Reserve . Charles designated his father as the primary , and Teresa Lewis as the secondary beneficiaries . = = Murders = = In the fall of 2002 , Teresa Lewis met 21 @-@ year @-@ old Matthew Jessee Shallenberger and 19 @-@ year @-@ old Rodney Lamont Fuller at a Wal @-@ Mart in Danville and began a sexual relationship with both of them . In October 2002 , Charles came home on a visit from Army training in Maryland . On October 23 , Shallenberger and Lamont were given $ 1 @,@ 200 by Lewis to purchase firearms and ammunition to kill Julian Lewis and his son Charles for the insurance money . Their first attempt to kill Julian while on the road did not succeed . A week later , on the night of October 30 , Shallenberger and Fuller entered the Lewis ' trailer through a back door that Teresa had left open . While she waited in the kitchen , Shallenberger shot the sleeping Julian several times , while Fuller shot Charles in his bedroom with a shotgun . After discovering Charles was not dead , Fuller shot him twice more . Teresa waited 45 minutes before calling for help , and while waiting for the police to arrive , she removed money from her dying husband 's wallet . She divided $ 300 with Shallenberger and Fuller before they left . However , sheriff 's deputies arrived prior to Julian dying , and heard him say , " My wife knows who done this to me , " while she had claimed the two had been killed by unidentified assailants in a home invasion . Shortly after , Teresa Lewis was caught attempting to withdraw $ 50 @,@ 000 from her dead husband 's account with a forged check . Within a week , she confessed to law enforcement officers that she had offered money to have her husband killed . During the investigation , prosecutors found that Lewis had been trying to gather the assets of her late husband and stepson even before they had been buried . During the murder trial , the judge deemed Lewis the mastermind of the crime and called her " the head of this serpent . " Barbara G. Haskins , a court appointed , board @-@ certified forensic psychiatrist , stated that " Cognitive testing showed a Full Scale IQ of 72 . Verbal IQ was 70 , and Performance IQ was 79 . " Dr. Haskins also stated that Teresa Lewis was and is able to make a plea agreement and enter pleas . Lewis ' lawyer stated that “ She ’ s not mentally retarded , but she is very , very close to it . " = = = Sentencing and appeals = = = Defense attorneys thought the evidence against Lewis was overwhelming and advised her to plead guilty to the capital charges in order to avoid a jury , and hope that the judge would show some leniency since Lewis had been cooperating with investigators . However , she was sentenced to death , since under Virginia law , multiple murders within a three @-@ year period are subject to the death penalty . The two co @-@ conspirators who actually did the shooting , Shallenberger and Fuller , were sentenced to life imprisonment at separate trials . Lewis was granted an automatic review by the Supreme Court of Virginia , which rejected the argument that it was unfair to execute Lewis while the co @-@ conspirators got life sentences , as well as rejecting Lewis ' challenges to the constitutionality of Virginia 's death penalty law . Lewis was placed on death row at the Fluvanna Correctional Center for Women in Troy , Virginia . Lewis ' daughter , Christie Lynn Bean , served five years because she knew about the plan but failed to report it . In November 2004 , a private investigator met Shallenberger at Wallens Ridge State Prison in Big Stone Gap , Virginia on behalf of Lewis . Shallenberger wrote in a partially transcribed affidavit : " Teresa was in love with me . She was very eager to please me . She was also not very smart . " However , Shallenberger tore off and ate the parts of the document that he had signed . Shallenberger said , " What will happen will happen . " Shallenberger committed suicide at the prison in 2006 . Over 7 @,@ 300 appeals for clemency were reportedly sent to Virginia governor Bob McDonnell . Her supporters stated that " Lewis is deeply remorseful and has been a model prisoner , helping fellow female inmates cope with their circumstances . " Her father , Melvin C. Wilson , Sr. , testified how Lewis took care of her invalid mother prior to her death . Lewis herself stated that " I just want the governor to know that I am so sorry , deeply from my heart . And if I could take it back , I would , in a minute ... I just wish I could take it back . And I 'm sorry for all the people that I 've hurt in the process . " On September 17 , 2010 , McDonnell decided not to stop Lewis ' upcoming execution , stating : " Having carefully reviewed the petition for clemency , the judicial opinions in this case , and other relevant materials , I find no compelling reason to set aside the sentence that was imposed by the Circuit Court and affirmed by all reviewing courts . " Her attorneys filed motions for a writ of certiorari with the U.S. Supreme Court to stay the execution , but were denied on September 21 , 2010 . Dissenting Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Sonia Sotomayor indicated that they would have granted a stay . = = Execution = = Lewis ' last meal consisted of two fried chicken breasts , sweet peas with butter , a Dr Pepper and German chocolate cake for dessert . Lewis addressed stepdaughter Kathy Lewis Clifton , who came to witness her execution , to apologize for killing her brother and father . I just want Kathy to know that I love you , and I 'm very sorry . Lewis was executed on September 23 , 2010 , at 9 p.m. by lethal injection , at Greensville Correctional Center in Jarratt . This made her the 12th woman to be executed in the United States since the death penalty was reinstated in 1976 . Lewis was the first woman to be executed in Virginia by lethal injection ; the last woman to be executed in the state was Virginia Christian , who died in the electric chair in 1912 . Lewis was also the first woman to be executed in the U.S. since Frances Newton in 2005 in the state of Texas , and the second woman to be executed since serial killer Aileen Wuornos in 2002 in the state of Florida . = = = Public reaction and aftermath = = = Lewis ' execution started a debate in the U.S. and other parts of the world concerning capital punishment , and more specifically the application of death sentences on women in murder cases . Richard Dieter , executive of the Death Penalty Information Center , argued that " so few women are involved in more heinous murders that , when they are , they cause greater offense than if they had been men . Virginia 's attorney general really pushed the fact that she had committed adultery with a co @-@ defendant and that she was somehow dishonored and should be looked down upon " . Ken Cuccinelli , the Attorney General of Virginia , stated that " the brutal nature of the crimes themselves as well as Lewis ' callous , manipulating , adulterous , greedy , egregious behavior " justified the death sentence . Thousands of supporters argued that her death sentence should have been commuted to life imprisonment . Lewis ' attorney James E. Rocap III said , " A good and decent person is about to lose her life because of a system that is broken ... it is grossly unfair to impose the death sentence on her while Shallenberger and Fuller received life . " Her low IQ also became a matter of discussion , with supporters citing this as a reason she should not have been sentenced to death . Legal novelist John Grisham echoed those sentiments and argued that evidence indicated Shallenberger , who had an IQ of 113 , was the actual mastermind . Grisham quoted from an affidavit by co @-@ conspirator Rodney Lamont Fuller : " As between Mrs. Lewis and Shallenberger , Shallenberger was definitely the one in charge of things , not Mrs. Lewis . " Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad cited the case to denounce Western media coverage of Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani , a woman in Iran who had been sentenced to death by stoning for adultery . He claimed the media 's " heavy propaganda " campaign was perpetrating a double standard by not responding with similar outrage over Lewis ' impending execution . Executive director Larry Cox of Amnesty International , which opposes the death penalty under all circumstances , stated : " Proceeding with this execution would come dangerously close to violating the U.S. Constitution , which prohibits capital punishment for those with ' mental retardation ' — a precedent established thanks to Atkins v. Virginia . "
= Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII = Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII ( ライトニングリターンズファイナルファンタジーXIII , Raitoningu Ritānzu : Fainaru Fantajī Sātīn ) is action role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . It was released on November 2013 in Japan and February 2014 in Europe and North America . A port to Microsoft Windows through Steam was released in December 2015 followed by iOS and Android in Japan on February 17 , 2016 . The game is a direct sequel to Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , concludes the storyline of Final Fantasy XIII , and forms part of the Fabula Nova Crystallis subseries . Lightning Returns employs a highly revamped version of the gameplay system from the previous two games , with an action @-@ oriented battle system , the ability to customize the player character 's outfits , and a time limit the player must extend by completing story missions and side quests . The game 's story takes place five hundred years after the previous game 's ending . Lightning , the main protagonist of the first game and a key character in the second , awakes from a self @-@ imposed hibernation 13 days before the world 's end , and is chosen by the deity Bhunivelze to save the people of the dying world , including former friends and allies who have developed heavy emotional burdens . As she travels , she learns the full truth behind both the world 's fate and Bhunivelze 's true agenda . Development of the game started in May 2012 , shortly after the release of XIII @-@ 2 's final piece of DLC , and was unveiled at a special 25th Anniversary Event for the Final Fantasy series in September that year . Most of the previous games ' key creative minds and developers returned , and it was developed by Square Enix 's First Production Department , with developer tri @-@ Ace helping with the graphics . The development team wanted the game to bring a conclusive end to the story of both Lightning and the XIII universe , and to address criticisms leveled against the last two games . During its first week on sale in Japan , it sold 277 @,@ 000 units , and by the end of 2013 become the 17th best @-@ selling game of the year selling over 400 @,@ 000 copies . It has sold 800 @,@ 000 copies as of May 2014 . The Windows PC version has sold over 150 @,@ 000 copies according to SteamSpy . It has received mixed reviews : while the main praise went to the game 's battle system , opinions were more mixed for the graphics , time limit and other aspects of gameplay , while the story and characters were criticized for being weak or poorly developed . = = Gameplay = = The player directly controls the character Lightning through a third @-@ person perspective to interact with people , objects , and enemies throughout the game . The player can also turn the camera around the character , which allows for a 360 ° view of the surroundings . The world of Lightning Returns , as with Final Fantasy XIII and its sequel XIII @-@ 2 , is rendered to scale with the character , who navigates the world on foot . In one of the areas , the player can use chocobos , a recurring animal in the Final Fantasy series . The player is able to freely navigate the game 's open world layout , explore towns and country areas , and accept quests from various non @-@ playable characters ( NPCs ) . Lightning is also able to sprint for limited periods , climb up ladders and jump freely . The game features three difficulty levels : Easy , Normal and Hard , the latter of which is unlocked after first completing the game . There is also a New Game + option , whereby players can start a new game while carrying over their equipment and stats from a previous playthrough . The in @-@ game clock runs continuously during normal navigation , with one in @-@ game day equating to two to three hours in real time on Easy mode and one hour on Normal and Hard modes . The timer starts out at seven in @-@ game days , but can be extended to a maximum of thirteen days . The timer stops during cutscenes , conversations and battles . Lightning can also pause time using an ability called Chronostasis . Quests are directly linked to Lightning 's growth : as she completes quests , her stats are boosted , with the main story quests yielding the biggest boosts . Many side quests can only be obtained at certain times , since the real @-@ time build of the world means NPCs are in constant movement , and only appear in certain places at a given time . Lightning can also accept quests from the Canvas of Prayers , a post board found in all the main locations . Upon completing NPC quests , Lightning is rewarded with a portion of Eradia , spiritual energy retrieved when a person 's burden is lifted . Every day at 6 AM game @-@ time , Lightning is drawn back into the Ark , a location where the in @-@ game clock does not progress . Once there , Lightning gives her gathered Eradia to a tree called Yggdrasil : if she has gathered enough , the in @-@ game clock is extended by a day . She can also restock on supplies and collect new equipment . Another feature in the game was Outerworld Services , a feature where players could take photos and share them , along with their personal stats and battle scores , on Facebook and Twitter . The Facebook features were disabled in April 2015 . All Outerworld services were terminated in April the following year . = = = Battle system = = = The battle system , called the Style @-@ Change Active Time Battle system , uses elements from the Active Time Battle ( ATB ) -based Paradigm system from the first and second XIII games and bears similarities to the dressphere system featured in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . Lightning has access to several customizable outfits ( garb ) with different power sets ( plural : Schemata ; singular : Schema ) . Each garb has its own separate ATB gauge , and actions for them are mapped onto the controller 's face buttons , meaning that the usual menu @-@ style ATB battle system is no longer needed : this enables Lightning to be moved around the battle field to a limited degree . The majority of the garbs and their accessories are either purchasable in the in @-@ game shops or received upon completing quests . Stronger garbs , items , shields and weapons are unlocked in Hard Mode , along with access to more challenging areas and boss battles . Lightning can equip three Schemata directly , while having additional slots for backup costumes which can be equipped outside battle . She can be equipped a close @-@ combat weapon ( sword , spear , etc . ) , a shield and a cosmetic accessory . The color scheme of each garb can be customized using both pre @-@ set and custom color : there are options to alter both specific portions and all portions of the costume . As with the previous game , enemies appear in the open field and can be avoided or engaged . The number of enemies increases during nighttime , and their strength and ability to deal damage increases the more days pass in @-@ game . By killing all the standard versions of an enemy , a final version appears as a boss . Defeating it will yield a high reward and make the enemy type extinct in an area of the game . When Lightning attacks an enemy , or they attack her , the battle starts . If Lightning strikes a monster , they lose a small portion of health , while if the enemy strikes Lightning first , she will lose health . As Lightning performs attacks , her ATB meter is drained and she must switch to another assigned garb : the depleted garb 's meter recharges while not being used . Lightning utilizes her many swords for short @-@ range melee attacks and magic for long @-@ range attacks . She can block enemy attacks using her shield and has the option to evade an attack , which can be assigned to any garb . Each enemy has a stagger meter , represented by a line behind their health bar . As Lightning lands certain kinds of magical or physical blows on the enemy , their meter oscillates more . Eventually , the enemy is staggered , rendering them vulnerable to damaging attacks . Lightning can also spend Energy Points to perform special moves or activate abilities , such as Overclock ( which slows time for Lightning 's opponents and enables her to land more hits ) ; and Army of One , Lightning 's signature move . By winning battles , Lightning earns gil , the in @-@ game currency , and replenishes a portion of her Energy Point gauge . In Normal and Hard modes , if Lightning flees from or dies in battle , one in @-@ game hour is lost . Unlike the last two games , the player character does not automatically recover HP after battles , instead needing to use remedies bought from merchants and shops , and there is no auto @-@ battle mode , with Lightning needing to be controlled manually at all times . In Easy Mode , Lightning regenerates health if she stands idle . = = Synopsis = = = = = Setting = = = Lightning Returns is set after the stories of Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . In XIII , Lightning is one of six people who are turned by a fal 'Cie — one of a race created by the gods — into l 'Cie , servants of the fal 'Cie gifted with magical powers and a ' Focus ' — an assigned task to be completed within a time limit ; those that succeed in their Focus go into crystal stasis , while those that fail turn into monsters called Cie 'th . The six were intended to cause the large , floating sphere named Cocoon to fall onto the world below , named Gran Pulse , killing all of the humans of Cocoon . At the finale of the game , two of the l 'Cie transformed into a crystal pillar to support Cocoon , preventing the catastrophe . The remaining l 'Cie were made human again by the Goddess Etro , the deity responsible for maintaining the balance between the mortal world and the Unseen Realm . In XIII @-@ 2 , it is revealed that Etro 's interference allowed Chaos , an energy trapped in the Unseen Realm , to escape and distort the timeline as written after the fall of Cocoon . Lightning was drawn to Valhalla , Etro 's citadel , and decided to stay and act as her protector . Three years after Cocoon 's fall , Lightning 's sister Serah sets out to correct the distortions and reunite with Lightning , while the people of Gran Pulse construct a new Cocoon , since the old one is destined to collapse . The protagonists unwittingly end up instigating the death of Etro , which allows Chaos to spill into the mortal world and bring an end to time itself . Serah also dies , causing Lightning to nearly lose hope . Reassured by her sister 's spirit , Lightning chooses to enter crystal stasis to preserve her sister 's memory and keep hope alive . Lightning Returns is set five hundred years after the ending of XIII @-@ 2 , during the final thirteen days of the world 's existence . Because of the unleashing of Chaos , the world of Gran Pulse has been consumed , leaving only a set of islands called Nova Chrysalia . The new Cocoon , called " Bhunivelze " after the key deity of the XIII universe , acts as the world 's moon . The Chaos has halted human aging and no new children are born due to Etro 's death , causing the human population to stagnate and shrink . Over the intervening centuries , two opposing religions have formed and dominate the life of Nova Chrysalia 's people : the Order of Salvation , that worships Bhunivelze , and the Children of Etro , a rebel cult who worship the Goddess . The world itself is divided into four regions , each dominated by a specific mood and environment . The city of Luxerion is a capital of worship whose people are loyal to the Order . The pleasure capital of Yusnaan is a city of revelry where people live in a constant state of celebration . The Dead Dunes is a desert area dominated by ruins . The Wildlands is an untamed area where the human city of Academia used to stand ; it also houses the remains of Valhalla , the capital of Etro . Within the New Cocoon is the Ark , a zone where time is frozen . = = = Characters = = = Lightning , a central character from both XIII and XIII @-@ 2 , is the game 's main protagonist , sole playable character , and narrator . The other main characters from the previous games also make appearances : Hope Estheim aids Lightning using a wireless communicator ; Snow Villiers , devastated by the death of Serah Farron — his fiancée and Lightning 's sister — becomes the leader of Yusnaan and the world 's last l 'Cie ; Oerba Dia Vanille and Oerba Yun Fang , released from crystal stasis , go separate ways , with Fang becoming the leader of Monoculus , a bandit gang in the Dead Dunes , and Vanille gaining the power to hear the voices of the dead , thus being deemed a saint and falling under the constant protection of the Order in Luxerion . Noel Kreiss , feeling guilty over his role in the deaths of Etro and Serah and the world 's current state , becomes a vigilante in Luxerion . Sazh Katzroy and his son Dajh , who fell into a comatose state , reside in the Wildlands . The region also becomes the home of Mog , Noel and Serah 's former moogle companion from XIII @-@ 2 ; Caius Ballad , Lightning 's old adversary and the one responsible for the unleashing of Chaos into the mortal world ; and Paddra Nsu @-@ Yeul , a former seeress and pivotal character in the previous game whose cycle of early death and reincarnation was the motivation behind Caius 's actions . The game also introduces Lumina , a mysterious near @-@ doppelganger of Serah who both aids and taunts Lightning during her quest ; and Bhunivelze , the main deity of the Final Fantasy XIII universe who chooses Lightning as the world 's savior . = = = Plot = = = Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII begins with Lightning being woken from crystal stasis by the god Bhunivelze after 500 years . The world is set to end in 13 days , and to this end Lightning is made the savior , a figure who will free the souls of humanity from the burdens on their hearts and guide them to a new world that Bhunivelze will create once the 13 days are up . Lightning undertakes this task to rescue and ensure the rebirth of Serah 's spirit . Hope acts as her guide from the Ark , which houses the rescued souls of humanity : Bhunivelze chose him and changed his physical form to his 14 @-@ year @-@ old self from XIII . As she journeys and performs her task , she encounters her former allies and adversaries , many of whom now carry heavy emotional burdens . She is also followed about by Lumina , who both gives her advice and taunts her at regular intervals . In Luxerion , Lightning investigates a series of murders where all the victims match the physical description of the savior . During her journey , she is followed by Noel , who has become obsessed with a prophecy that he must kill Lightning to realize a better world and reunite with Yeul . The two briefly ally to rout the Children of Etro , responsible for the murders , then later do battle . Lightning uses Noel 's rage to make him realize and accept his mistakes , lifting his burden . After this , she meets up with Vanille in the Order 's cathedral . Vanille shows Lightning a place within the cathedral where the souls of the dead have gathered . Vanille is being prepared for a ritual to take place on the final day that will apparently purify the souls . She hopes to atone for past actions by doing so . In the Dead Dunes , Lightning encounters Fang and goes with her on a journey through the region 's dungeons in search of a relic called the Holy Clavis . When they find it , Fang reveals that it is key to the ritual in Luxerion as it has the power to draw in the souls of the dead , and that the ritual will kill Vanille . Fang attempts to destroy the relic , but the forces of the Order arrive and take it . On the eleventh day , the souls of the dead speak to Lightning through the visage of Cid Raines , a man Lightning encountered during XIII . He tells her that the Order has deceived Vanille and plans to sacrifice her to destroy the dead , so the living will forget their existence and be ' purified ' for rebirth in the new world . Lightning decides to stop the ritual , though Cid warns her that she will be defying Bhunivelze 's will . In the Wildlands , Lightning saves a white chocobo called the " Angel of Valhalla " from monsters and nurses it back to health . The chocobo is revealed to be Odin , one of the Eidolon race who acted as her ally in XIII . She encounters Sazh , whose son Dajh has fallen into a coma and become unwilling to wake because of his father 's current state . Lightning retrieves the fragments of Dajh 's soul , lifting Sazh 's emotional burden and waking his son . Traveling to the ruins of Valhalla , Lightning encounters Caius and multiple versions of Yeul . After fighting with Caius , Lightning learns that he has become tied to life by the Yeuls and thus cannot be saved . She also learns that it was Yeul 's perpetual rebirth that caused the Chaos to seep into the mortal world and trigger the events of XIII @-@ 2 . Encountering Mog as the leader of a moogle village , she helps him fend off attacking monsters . In Yusnaan , Lightning infiltrates Snow 's palace and finds him preparing to enter a concentration of Chaos contained inside the palace . He plans to absorb the Chaos , transform into a Cie 'th , and have Lightning kill him . Though he performs the act and they fight , Lightning manages to renew his hope of seeing Serah again , reverse his transformation and lift his burden . On Nova Chrysalia 's final day , Hope reveals to Lightning that Bhunivelze used him to watch over Lightning and that the deity will dispose of him now that his task is completed . After Hope disappears , Lightning is transported to Luxerion and enters the cathedral , where Noel , Snow and Fang help her fight the Order to save Vanille . Lightning manages to convince her to free the souls of the dead . This act allows Lightning to find Serah 's soul , kept hidden inside Lumina to keep it safe , but Bhunivelze arrives using Hope as his host and captures everyone but Lightning . Transported to an otherworldly realm , Lightning meets Bhunivelze in person , and learns that he has been conditioning Lightning to replace Etro . After wounding the god in battle , she frees Hope and prepares to become the new goddess and protect the new world by trapping herself and Bhunivelze in the Unseen Realm . An illusion of Serah then confronts Lightning , revealing Lumina as the physical manifestation of Lightning 's suppressed vulnerabilities . Accepting Lumina as a part of herself , Lightning calls for aid . Hope , Snow , Noel , Vanille , Fang and the Eidolons answer her call , and they sever Bhunivelze 's hold on the souls of humanity , including Sazh , Dajh , Mog , and a revived Serah . The souls then unite and defeat Bhunivelze . In the aftermath , Caius and the multiple versions of Yeul choose to remain in the Unseen Realm and protect the balance between worlds in Etro 's stead . The final incarnation of Yeul , who alone wishes for a new life , is allowed to accompany Lightning and her friends . After the Eidolons and Mog depart for the Unseen Realm , Lightning , her allies , and the souls of humanity travel to a new world where they can decide their own fate . In a post @-@ credits scene , Lightning is seen in normal clothes arriving in a rural town , going to reunite with one of her friends . = = Development = = The concept of Lightning Returns originated during development of XIII @-@ 2 , while the development team was brainstorming ideas for possible continuations of the story and universe of the games , though there was no solid decision to make a second sequel to XIII at the time . Development of Lightning Returns started in May 2012 , soon after the release of Requiem of the Goddess , the final story @-@ based DLC episode for XIII @-@ 2 . According to Motomu Toriyama , he had wanted to tell more stories about Lightning , and the DLC had not provided a satisfactory ending for her . The game was designed in a shorter time than the other games in the series ; Yoshinori Kitase explained that this was because the team did not want players to forget the story of the previous games , and the team needed to work especially hard as a result . Another reason was that the team wished to bring the XIII series to a close before the release of the next generation of gaming hardware . The title was also chosen to be the last original Final Fantasy game on seventh generation consoles , and next @-@ gen versions of the game were not considered . Developer tri @-@ Ace , who had previously worked with the team on XIII @-@ 2 , returned to help with the graphics . One of the key story concepts behind the game was the " rebirth " of Lightning as a character : this was cited as the main reason why the game was called Lightning Returns and not XIII @-@ 3 , alongside the team 's desire to attract new players to the series . Lightning was also made into a darker and more vulnerable character , partly because Kitase felt that her previous stoic depictions might have alienated earlier players . The main scenario and script was written by Daisuke Watanabe , the main writer for the previous XIII games . During the concept process , Watanabe , Toriyama and other members of staff brainstormed ideas for important scenes and events leading up to them . The process of writing the script was slow , causing difficulties for the rest of the team . In response to this , Watanabe worked extra hard to create an appropriate finale for the characters and story . He also wrote the script as more hard @-@ edged than those for the previous XIII games . The game was designed as the final entry in the XIII storyline ( generally dubbed the " Lightning Saga " by the production team ) , but was also intended to stand independent of the Final Fantasy series as a whole . One example of the breakaway from series norms is the game 's logo , which was not designed by regular series logo artist Yoshitaka Amano , and which was one of several created during the early stages of development . The concept of the story 's progression was termed as " world @-@ driven " , a concept whereby the world the player interacted with moved independently of their actions : i.e. NPCs would appear in different locations depending on the time of day . That concept partially gave rise to the game 's time limit , which was suggested by the game 's battle designer Yuji Abe after having read of the Doomsday Clock . Another inspiration behind the story pacing and time limit was the 2011 movie In Time . The open world aspect of the game was heavily influenced by The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim , and some of the hard @-@ edged gameplay ideas were borrowed from Dark Souls . The majority of the hardcore @-@ gaming elements were eventually trimmed out in order to make the game accessible to newcomers . In terms of assets , the team reused very little from the previous two games , choosing to build a large proportion of the game from the ground up , especially when it came to the overworld design and NPC behaviors . The Crystal Tools engine , used in the last two XIII games , required a major overhaul as it was not designed for open @-@ world games . In contrast to the previous games , a lot of the game 's cutscenes were created while the game was still in development , meaning many placeholder objects and models had to be used until the final assets could be put in place . The team also had to thoroughly check Lightning 's various outfits and weapons , to ensure that there were no mistakes in cutscenes with the weapons going through the scenery , and that the character 's underwear remained concealed during active battles even for her more revealing outfits . Because the team was mostly using new assets to create the game , the various continents took longer to create than the environments in XIII @-@ 2 , and story scenes sometimes needed to be redone as the game 's overall plot had yet to be finalized when development began . The voice actors , in contrast to the normal procedure doing their performances first and those being used to create the game characters ' facial expressions , recorded their lines for the characters well after the various cutscenes had been created . The concept of Lightning Returns ' battle system originated while ideas were being discussed for the battle system in Final Fantasy XIII , but technical limitations and problems implementing it in a party @-@ based battle system prevented it from being used in that game . It reemerged when some of the development team wanted Lightning to change her appearance during battle , and reducing to one playable character opened up the memory space necessary for such a system to be implemented . In making the system revolve around one character , the developers ended up removing any opportunity for story scenes between party members , which was cited by Abe as its main weakness . The time limit sprang from the story concept of a world with a set time to live . When the feature was first announced , there were some who felt it was too new a thing , as a time limit was seen as a taboo in role @-@ playing video games . The mechanic originally received negative feedback from test players who were unable to complete the game in time . In response to this , the team made adjustments so that players were given a more comfortable amount of time . Along with sharing design elements with the previous two XIII games , the system also bears similarities to the battle system of Final Fantasy XV , although the developers said that they were not directly inspired by it . Lightning 's multiple outfits were designed by Isamu Kamikokuryo , the game 's art director , Toshitaka Matsuda , the lead art designer , and Toshiyuki Itahana , a designer who had worked on Final Fantasy IX and the Crystal Chronicles series . The three drew inspiration from character designs done by Amano and the atmospheres of game locations . Matsuda and Itahana also respectively did the character designs for Bhunivelze and Lumina . Tetsuya Nomura returned to design Lightning and Snow 's new looks . Kamikokuryo used the game 's theme of a dying world to create Nova Chrysalia , as well as incorporating cultural and architectural influences from the Middle East , Asia , and London during the Industrial Revolution . Nova Chrysalia was originally conceived as a single island , but as the game 's development advanced , the world grew into its final , four @-@ island configuration . The world 's open design was inspired by MMORPGs such as Final Fantasy XI , described by Abe as a " tourist guide style " . Each island was designed to have a definite feel and theme , while their construction was handled by separate small teams , with the content for each area held and quality @-@ controlled by each team . The art team used multiple real world locations as inspiration : Luxerion and Yusnaan were inspired by Paris and Las Vegas , while the Dead Dunes and Wildlands were influenced by Cairo and Costa Rica . The scenery for the final FMV was based on southern Europe . = = = Music = = = The music of Lightning Returns was composed by Masashi Hamauzu , who composed the music for XIII , Naoshi Mizuta and Mitsuto Suzuki , who co @-@ composed the music for XIII @-@ 2 with Hamauzu . Others involved in recording the soundtrack were Japanese band Language and the Video Game Orchestra , founded by Shota Nakama . Multiple tracks used " Blinded by Light " , a recurring theme in the XIII games , as a leitmotif . Unlike the previous XIII games , a theme song was not created , with the composers instead creating a purely orchestral piece for the finale . The main soundtrack album , Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack , was released on four compact discs on November 21 , 2013 . A bonus album , Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Soundtrack Plus , featuring unreleased tracks and rearrangements of classic themes used in the game , was released on March 26 , 2014 . A promotional album , Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Pre Soundtrack , was released in July 2013 . The game featured multiple musical Easter eggs , including tunes from previous entries in the franchise . The commercial albums respectively reached # 29 and # 211 on the Oricon charts . = = Marketing = = Rumors about a second sequel 's existence started even before XIII @-@ 2 's release , when a domain name was registered in the name of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 3 , however it turned out that the domain was registered by the company 's western branch without the main company 's knowledge . After XIII @-@ 2 's cliffhanger ending became common knowledge , the game 's creators released a statement saying that the ending was meant to prepare fans for coming DLC packets that would expand upon the game 's story . However , after the release of the last piece of DLC , company officials stated that they would be releasing future content related to XIII . By August 2012 , during the run @-@ up to a special 25th Anniversary commemoration event for the Final Fantasy series , a teaser site titled " A Storm Gathers " was released , promising new developments for the XIII series and its main protagonist . The game itself was finally unveiled at the event , with Toriyama , Kamikokuryo , Abe and Kitase detailing the core concepts of the game . Because character dialogue varied due to the time of day in @-@ game , the western release of the game was delayed by over two months after the local release , as there was far more translation , dubbing work and lip @-@ synching than in previous titles . For the promotion and marketing of the game , the development team rethought their strategy . They worked closely with Yohei Murakami , the publicity and marketing agent for many Square Enix games . Lightning Returns was heavily promoted at gaming events throughout 2013 . As part of the promotion campaign , Lightning and monsters from the XIII series featured in a series of player events in Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn . = = = Downloadable content = = = While the previous game had a large amount of downloadable content in the form of character costumes , extra story episodes and battles in the game 's fighting arena , the reaction to these was mixed . The costumes were liked by fans , despite some complaints of them being purely cosmetic , but the presence of story DLC caused many to criticize the original game as incomplete . In reaction to this , the developers decided to package the game 's entire story with the retail edition . However , they did create pre @-@ order DLC for the game in the form of outfits Lightning could use in battle . One of these featured the clothing , weapon and equipment of Cloud Strife from Final Fantasy VII , available with the game 's limited edition Pre @-@ Order Bonus Pack , while another featured a collection of Samurai @-@ inspired outfits . In addition to this , as part of a cross @-@ game promotional campaign , Square Enix of Japan also made Yuna 's costume from Final Fantasy X a playable garb for those who had purchased the Japanese HD Remaster of the game on either PS3 or Vita . The garb was later made available as a pre @-@ order exclusive from Amazon.com. After the game 's release , an additional set of DLC costumes was released , among them a moogle outfit . In the Western release of the game scheduled on February 11 , 2014 , a free DLC pack was released that enabled players to play the localized version of the game with Japanese voice acting and lip @-@ synching . The DLC was free for the first two weeks , and then became paid DLC . = = = Versions and merchandise = = = Lightning Returns was released on November 21 , 2013 in Japan and on February 11 , 13 and 14 , 2014 in North America , Australia and Europe respectively . Alongside the standard release , a special box set titled " Lightning Ultimate box " was released . It included Final Fantasy XIII , XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns , a figurine of Lightning , selected music from the games , a special stand from the game and a book of artwork . A limited edition of the PlayStation 3 version containing a specially @-@ themed Dualshock 3 controller was also released in Asia . A Collector 's Edition exclusive to North America was released through Square Enix 's online store . It contained a copy of the game , an artwork book , a pocket watch embossed with the game 's logo and codes for costume DLC . The game is also being ported to Microsoft Windows platforms via Steam for release in 2015 . After a long delay , Kitase announced in October 2015 that the game would release in December that year . Its official release date was announced in November 2015 . It features all DLC outfits apart from the Aerith @-@ themed one , and removes the ability to name customized outfits and the Angel of Valhalla chocobo . A release on iOS & Android followed on February 17 , 2016 in Japan and later on the Amazon Appstore . It also available on PlayStation Now . As part of the game 's promotion in Japan , Square Enix teamed up with Japanese confectionery company Ezaki Glico to market a range of Pocky snacks in packaging promoting the game . A Play Arts Kai figurine of Lightning as she appears in the game was also created by Square Enix Merchandise . After the game 's release , an Ultimania guide to the game was also released , containing concept and character artwork , interviews with staff members , and guides to the game 's enemies , continent layouts and times for events . A book set between XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns , Chronicle of Chaotic Era , was originally scheduled to be released alongside the game in Japan , but was eventually cancelled due to the author falling ill . After the game 's release , a three @-@ part novella set after Lightning Returns ' ending was released through Famitsu Weekly magazine , titled Final Fantasy XIII Reminiscence : tracer of memories . Written by Watanabe based on and incorporating the material written for Chronicle of Chaotic Era , the book takes the form of a series of interviews with the main characters of the XIII series . = = Reception = = = = = Sales = = = In Japan , the PS3 version of Lightning Returns reached the top of the Top 20 in software sales in its first week , selling just over 277 @,@ 000 units and beating Nintendo 's Super Mario 3D World . In the same period , the Xbox 360 version sold 4 @,@ 000 units , under half of the initial sales of XIII @-@ 2 for that platform . By the end of 2013 , the PS3 version was 17th among the 100 best @-@ settling titles of the year , selling over 400 @,@ 000 copies . In the United Kingdom , Lightning Returns debuted at third place in the top ten debut video games . The game was 8th in the top ten best @-@ selling video games of February . By May 2014 , the game had sold approximately 800 @,@ 000 copies worldwide . According to Steam Spy , a further 150 @,@ 000 copies of the Windows PC version were sold by March 2016 . = = = Reviews = = = Lightning Returns has received mixed reviews from critics . The game scored 37 / 40 in Famitsu magazine , with the reviewers giving scores of 10 , 10 , 9 and 8 out of 10 for each console version of the game . Famitsu later gave the game an " Excellence " award during the 2013 Famitsu Awards . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the Xbox 360 version 71 @.@ 69 % based on 16 reviews and 69 / 100 based on 21 reviews. and the PlayStation 3 version 66 @.@ 15 % based on 40 reviews and 66 / 100 based on 62 reviews . The battle system gained the highest amount of praise . Matt Elliot of Official PlayStation Magazine said the battle system was fun and " [ felt ] like Final Fantasy : an energetic , modern approximation of combat that was previously turn @-@ based . " IGN 's Marty Sliva greatly enjoyed the battle system , saying that " Lightning Returns did a great job of empowering me to create a [ trio of Schema ] that felt unique and personal . " Joe Juba of Game Informer was also pleased with the system which he considered to be an improvement over the previous two XIII games , noting that the switching of Schema created " a fast @-@ paced , high @-@ tension system that makes fights exciting . " Eurogamer 's Simon Parkin called it " perhaps the best and certainly most flexible version yet " when compared to the other XIII games , while GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd stated that if it were not for a few flaws such as the blocking , " it may have even found a place among Final Fantasy 's better battle systems . " Famitsu generally cited the battle system as " excellent " , noting it as fast @-@ paced and fun , but also noting that some enemies were tricky even on Easy mode . It also praised the level of " uniqueness " available in garb customization . The quest gameplay was less @-@ well received , with Sliva saying it made him " feel like [ he ] was stuck in the opening hours of an MMO " , while Juba called the tasks " dull " . Parkin stated that the quests " can seem trivial under the eye of the apocalyptic clock " . VanOrd commented that while many quests were " absorbing on their own " , he admired their ability to get the player out into the world . Destructoid 's Dale North felt that the time limit made the quests " a waste of the precious time left " . The time limit itself received mixed reviews . Sliva said the time limit gave the game " a sense of urgency ... that I really enjoy . " , while VanOrd said the limit worked against the player and " collides with almost every other aspect of the game . " Juba enjoyed planning out his days , but on the other had felt that the time limit prevented exploration , and that it " severely [ limited ] your ability to fully dive into some of the systems . " Elliot said the limit overly pressured him , and became unpleasant when coupled with the time penalty for fleeing battle . The Famitsu reviewers said that the time limit was not an overly stressful factor . The graphics received mixed reviews . Sliva referred to the locations as " visually interesting and varied " , while VanOrd said the player " can 't help but gawk at the beautiful spectacle before [ them ] . " Juba liked the overall look and design of the main cast and environment , but critiqued the environment textures and NPCs . Elliot praised the CG cutscenes , but said that " the tired , boxy side streets feel unfinished . " However , he further said that the expansive nature of environments balanced this issue out . The environments were praised by Famitsu , which stated that due to the expansive nature of the environments and the lack of hints concerning quests , new players might take a bit of time getting used to it . It also generally called the game " quite nice " . The game 's story was poorly received by most reviewers . Sliva said the narrative was " drenched in uninteresting pathos that failed to give me a reason to care about these characters that I 've spent well over 100 hours with . " Juba called the story " a joke " , saying that there was little development for Lightning as a character , and that the narrative " killed whatever lingering investment [ he ] had in the universe . " VanOrd found the large amount of character dialogue a distracting and jarring feature , while Parkin said that the game 's narrative could not fix the issues present in the previous two XIII games , although the side @-@ quests and dialogue helped lighten Lightning 's character . Elliot spoke of it as one of the reasons to play the game , terming it a " typically bonkers narrative " . = = = Awards = = = The Final Fantasy XIII series won a Sound Division : Award of Excellence at the CEDEC AWARDS 2014 for the sound development team . = = = Official response = = = Both Toriyama and Kitase have responded to the mixed review scores the game received . Speaking to Siliconera about the Japanese reviews , Toriyama said that most of the negativity stemmed from the time limit , and that " opinions on the game become more positive after some time since Lightning Returns ' initial release [ after players get used to the nuances ] . " Speaking with Joystiq , Kitase said that he " wasn 't really shocked . There are negative reviews and positive reviews , it 's a real mixture . When I started making this game I took on very new challenges , so in a way I had anticipated that there would be mixed opinions , so this is more or less what we had anticipated . "
= Down Town = for the Greek magazine see Down Town ( magazine ) " Down Town " was the a 1987 release by The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu ( better known as The KLF ) . The song is gospel music driven by house music rhythms , incorporating a sample of Petula Clark 's 1964 single " Downtown " . = = Origins = = In 1987 , Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty formed The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu ( The JAMs ) , and busily released provocatively sample @-@ heavy electronic music with beatbox rhythms and Drummond 's socially aware raps . Their debut single " All You Need Is Love " and album 1987 ( What the Fuck Is Going On ? ) were both investigated by the Mechanical Copyright Protection Society , who ordered The JAMs to recall and destroy all unsold copies of 1987 . A new single , " Whitney Joins The JAMs " , followed , along with a satirically edited version of the album , 1987 ( The JAMs 45 Edits ) , and the debut release from spinoff project Disco 2000 , " I Gotta CD " . By the time of the release of " Whitney Joins The JAMs " , the duo 's independent record label had been renamed KLF Communications , and in the coming year The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu would mutate into The KLF . In the meantime , " Down Town " was The JAMs ' and KLF Communications ' final release of 1987 , a 7 " and 12 " single release of 30 November . It did not enter the UK Singles Chart , but made inroads into the UK independent chart . In an interview with NME , Drummond and Cauty maintained that the record was originally intended to be sample @-@ free , but , quoting the Book of Proverbs 26 : 11 , Drummond admitted that " as a dog returneth to his vomit so a fool returneth to his folly " . In addition to Petula Clark 's " Downtown " , " Down Town " used elements of the distinctive bassline to Harold Faltermeyer 's 1984 # 1 single " Axel F " . Indeed , the labels of the record claimed that : " All sounds on this recording have been captured by The KLF . In the name of Mu , we hereby liberate these sounds from all copyright restrictions , without prejudice " . Although The JAMs sought permission from Tony Hatch , who wrote Clark 's " Downtown " , Drummond admitted in KLF Communications newsletter : " We were surprised to read in the papers that Pet Clarke [ sic ] had given her permission for us to sample her classic ' Downtown ' on our record of the same name . When we attempted to contact her , at her Swiss home , to do just this thing , we didn 't get further than her refusing to accept our transfer charge . " The inclusion of Petula Clark 's " Downtown " was claimed by Drummond to be a striking coincidence : One day I was in the studio and I just started humming the chorus of ' Downtown ' over the intro . I thought ' That 's funny I wonder what key it 's in ? ' I dug out the record that night and found that it was in the same key . I took it into the studio the next day and found out that it was absolutely the same number of beats per minute ( bpm ) — 118 . Most pop songs are between 80 and 160 bpm so that 's 80 times 12 , so it was a one in 960 chance that it would be the right bpm and the right key , so we couldn 't resist it . " Down Town " was not included on either of The JAMs ' albums , instead featuring on their 1988 compilation and remix album , Shag Times , along with an instrumental remix credited to The KLF . = = Composition = = " Down Town " is , like most of Drummond and Cauty 's work of 1987 , a social critique of Great Britain realised as house music . Its central theme is social exclusion , poverty and homelessness , in which snatches of Clark 's " Downtown " — an awestruck ode to hedonistic city nightlife — are juxtaposed with raps by Drummond , wailing sirens and original choral gospel vocals full of Christmas optimism , provided by the London Community Gospel Choir . These disparate elements are held together by a beatbox rhythm , a bassline borrowed from " Axel F " , and an accompaniment of piano and Hammond organ . During one verse , Drummond raps : " Downtown , down and out , dying in the dead of night , with your Special Brew and your special view of a world that could be right " . Joined by the gospel choir 's refrain of " Glory ! " , Drummond continues " [ Glory ! ] What glory ? [ Glory ! ] In a wine bar world ? [ Glory ! ] in a tenement block ? [ Glory ! ] OK , let 's hear it ! " . In each chorus , the gospel choir sing of Jesus ' birth . This juxtaposition of Christmas with urban homeless alcoholism was revisited by Drummond and Cauty 's later arts project , the K Foundation , whose final act to date involved distributing thousands of cans of strong lager to London 's homeless on Christmas Eve in 1995 . = = Reviews = = " Down Town " was , after " All You Need Is Love " , the second of The JAMs ' three 1987 singles to become NME " single of the week " . The British music paper called it " One massive hell @-@ hating holler of a song " , and concluded : " [ The JAMs ] may not be the hippest , sanest or sweetest band to stalk the Earth this year but they 're certainly the most imaginative ... [ T ] hey 've fired a musical trail so shocking they couldn 't have kept you more on your toes if they 'd stuffed a handgrenade up your ass and sent you out to tap dance in a pair of stilettos " . The following week , NME journalist James Brown interviewed June Montana and Cressida Cauty ( Jimmy Cauty 's wife ) , vocalists for Disco 2000 , a KLF Communications side @-@ project produced by Drummond and Cauty . Brown noted the accomplished dance music production of recent KLF Communications releases : When I broadcasted [ " Down Town " ] throughout the NME offices last week everyone present from punk , to yuppie , to club basher , to Alexander O 'Neal fan gathered round to ask what it was . The same reactions had greeted " Whitney Joins The JAMs " but none of the writers had gone off and ordered a copy immediately . Likewise the accessibility of [ Disco 2000 's ] " I Gotta CD " can 't go ignored . And although [ The JAMs ] only produced it , the surprising dance @-@ awareness .. has come as a surprise to both the KLF and myself . If they were prepared to destroy their abstract political ideas the KLF could quite rapidly become something akin to Kingboy , Rockman , and Waterman . However , Record Mirror did not approve of The JAMs ' comparatively sample @-@ free offering , calling " Down Town " " a creature tamed " and wondering " without outlaw credentials what 's left ? " = = Formats and track listings = = 7 " single ( UK ) " Down Town ( 118 BPM ) " ( edit ) - 4 : 01 " Down Town " ( voxless ) - 5 : 55 12 " single ( UK ) " Down Town ( 118 BPM ) " - 7 : 23 " Down Town " ( voxless ) - 5 : 55 12 " single ( UK ) ( one @-@ sided white label , 500 pressed ) " Down Town " ( voxless ) - 5 : 55
= Ralph Patt = Ralph Oliver Patt ( 5 December 1929 – 6 October 2010 ) was an American jazz @-@ guitarist who introduced major @-@ thirds tuning . Patt 's tuning simplified the learning of the fretboard and chords by beginners and improvisation by advanced guitarists . He invented major @-@ thirds tuning under the inspiration of first the atonal music of Arnold Schoenberg and second the jazz of John Coltrane and Ornette Coleman . He graduated with a degree in geology from the University of Pittsburgh . After his career as a guitarist , he worked as a geologist and as a hydrologist , often consulting on projects related to the U.S. Department of Energy . = = Biography = = Patt was born in Kittanning , Pennsylvania on 5 December 1929 and studied geology at the University of Pittsburgh . = = = Guitar and music theory = = = While in Pittsburgh , Patt studied guitar under Joe Negri . Patt played rhythm guitar in the style of Freddie Green , who played a Stromberg in the Count Basie Orchestra . Having earned his baccalaureate degree , he joined the United States Army and played guitar in an Army band . Following his 1955 discharge from the Army , Patt played with touring bands , for example , Neal Hefti , Frankie Carle , Les Elgart , Benny Goodman , Richard Maltby , and The Glenn Miller Orchestra . After touring for five years , Patt settled in New York City , where he worked as musician both at ABC and on Broadway from 1960 to 1970 ; during this period he regarded Barry Galbraith as his mentor . He studied under George Russell , whose ( 1959 ) Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization Patt edited . Patt also studied with Gunther Schuller , who himself was a student of Arnold Schoenberg and who used Schoenberg 's twelve @-@ tone technique for atonal composition . Patt wanted to be able to play and then to improvise twelve @-@ tone music . = = = = Major @-@ thirds tuning = = = = Patt was inspired by the jazz of Ornette Coleman and John Coltrane and the atonal music of Schoenberg . Seeking a guitar @-@ tuning that would facilitate improvisation , he introduced major @-@ thirds tuning by 1964 , perhaps in 1963 . Patt 's tuning is a regular tuning in the sense that all of the intervals between its successive open strings are major thirds ; in contrast , the standard guitar @-@ tuning has one major @-@ third amid four fourths . Patt used major @-@ thirds tuning during all of his work as a session musician after 1965 in New York . Major @-@ thirds tuning packs the chromatic scale ( the consecutive twelve @-@ notes of the octave ) onto four consecutive frets of three consecutive strings , an arrangement that reduces the extensions of the little and index fingers ( " hand stretching " ) . Major and minor chords are played on two successive frets , and so require only two fingers ; other chords — seconds , fourths , sevenths , and ninths — are played on three successive frets . For each regular tuning , chord patterns may be moved around the fretboard , a property that simplifies beginners ' learning of chords and that simplifies advanced players ' improvisation . In contrast , chords cannot be shifted around the fretboard in the standard tuning E @-@ A @-@ D @-@ G @-@ B @-@ E , which requires four chord @-@ shapes for the major chords ; standard tuning has separate chord @-@ forms for chords having their root note on the third , fourth , fifth , and sixth strings . Having exactly three pitch classes for its open notes ( for example { C , E , G ♯ } ) , each major @-@ thirds tuning repeats every note in a higher octave , because guitars have six strings . Being regular , M3 tunings repeat each note after two strings : this repetition simplifies the learning of chords and improvisation . Chord inversion is especially simple in major @-@ thirds tuning . Chords are inverted simply by raising one or two notes three strings . The raised notes are played with the same finger as the original notes . = = = = = Guitars with seven and eight strings = = = = = Major @-@ thirds tuning has a smaller scope than standard guitar @-@ tuning , and so Patt started using seven @-@ string guitars , which enabled major @-@ thirds tuning to have the E @-@ e ' range of the standard tuning . He first experimented with a wide @-@ neck Mango guitar from the 1920s , which he modified to have seven strings in 1963 . In 1967 he purchased a seven @-@ string by José Rubio . Patt used major @-@ thirds tuning when he performed as a session musician in New York City after 1965 . Later , he purchased six @-@ string archtop hollow @-@ body guitars that were then modified by luthiers to have wider necks , wider pickups , and eight strings . Patt 's Gibson ES @-@ 150 was modified by Vincent " Jimmy " DiSerio , a luthier who worked in the firm of John D 'Angelico , circa 1965 . Luthier Saul Koll modified a sequence of guitars : a 1938 Gibson Cromwell , a Sears Silvertone , a circa 1922 Mango archtop , a 1951 Gibson L @-@ 50 , and a 1932 Epiphone Broadway ; for Koll 's modifications , custom pick @-@ ups accommodated Patt 's wide necks and high G ♯ ( equivalently A ♭ ) ; custom pick @-@ ups were manufactured by Seymour Duncan and by Bill Lawrence . Besides these guitars , Patt regularly played other stringed instruments as a recording musician : classical guitar , 12 @-@ string guitar , 6 @-@ string bass guitar , mandolin , banjo , and oud . Patt stated that " the only guys that didn 't have to double on dates were the Tony Mottolas and the Johnny Smiths " ; Tony Mottola and Johnny Smith were famous jazz @-@ guitarists , and " doubling " refers to a musician 's switching from one instrument to another , particularly within a family of instruments . Patt worked primarily as a studio musician from 1970 to 1975 . = = = = Scholarship = = = = Patt developed a webpage with extensive information about major @-@ thirds tuning . This webpage was part of website with extensive information for jazz guitarists . Patt 's website published his Vanilla book , which contains the chord progressions for four @-@ hundred jazz standards , from " After you 've gone " to " Zing ! went the strings " . Its title refers to " Just play the vanilla changes " , advice to young pianists from Lester Young . It was updated in 2008 . His website followed earlier contributions to guitar scholarship and instruction . In 1962 , Patt wrote his Guitar chord dictionary ( 1962 ) . Living in New York City in the 1960s , he studied with Chuck Wayne , with whom he wrote The guitar appreggio dictionary ( 1965 ) , one of the bestselling titles from the music @-@ publishing firm of Henry Adler . = = = Return to geology = = = As a studio musician in the 1970s , Patt had to play less jazz and more rock and roll , and so he changed careers . He returned to geology while continuing to pursue jazz as an avocation . Around 1975 he began working on his doctoral degree in hydrogeology . Employed by the US Department of Energy , he specialized in ground @-@ water contamination from nuclear waste ; as a research hydrogeologist , he accepted assignments world @-@ wide and had extensive travels in Ukraine and Russia . He was employed by Oregon 's Department of Water Resources , where he served as its expert on the risks to the Columbia River from the Hanford Site . As a hydrological geologist ( hydrologist ) , he was appointed to a panel of outside experts that reviewed and then " slammed " the U.S. Department of Energy 's report on the safety of the underground storage of high @-@ level nuclear waste at Hanford . = = = Death = = = In 2002 and 2010 , Patt 's hometown was listed as Canby , Oregon , near Portland . Having been diagnosed with kidney cancer in 2007 , Ralph Oliver Patt died at the age of 80 on 6 October 2010 in Canby at home . To honor his memory , the Ralph Patt Memorial Scholarship provided full tuition , room , and board for a college student to attend the Mel Brown Jazz Camp in 2011 .
= Red River Trails = The Red River Trails were a network of ox cart routes connecting the Red River Colony ( the " Selkirk Settlement " ) and Fort Garry in British North America with the head of navigation on the Mississippi River in the United States . These trade routes ran from the location of present @-@ day Winnipeg in the Canadian province of Manitoba across the international border and by a variety of routes across what is now the eastern part of North Dakota and western and central Minnesota to Mendota and Saint Paul , Minnesota on the Mississippi . Travellers began to use the trails by the 1820s , with the heaviest use from the 1840s to the early 1870s , when they were superseded by railways . Until then , these cartways provided the most efficient means of transportation between the isolated Red River Colony and the outside world . They gave the Selkirk colonists and their neighbours , the Métis people , an outlet for their furs and a source of supplies other than the Hudson 's Bay Company , which was unable to enforce its monopoly in the face of the competition that used the trails . Free traders , independent of the Hudson 's Bay Company and outside its jurisdiction , developed extensive commerce with the United States , making Saint Paul the principal entrepôt and link to the outside world for the Selkirk Settlement . The trade developed by and along the trails connecting Fort Garry with Saint Paul stimulated commerce , contributed to the settlement of Minnesota and North Dakota in the United States , and accelerated the settlement of Canada to the west of the rugged barrier known as the Canadian Shield . For a time , this cross @-@ border trade even threatened Canada 's control of its western territories . The threat diminished after completion of transcontinental trade routes both north and south of the border , and the transportation corridor through which the trails once ran declined in importance . That corridor has now seen a resurgence of traffic , carried by more modern means of transport than the crude ox carts that once travelled the Red River Trails . = = Origins = = In 1812 , Thomas Douglas , 5th Earl of Selkirk , started a colony of settlers in British North America where the Assiniboine River joins the Red River at the site of modern Winnipeg . Although fur posts were scattered throughout the Canadian northwest , and settlements of Métis fur traders and bison hunters were located in the vicinity of Selkirk ’ s establishment , this colony was the only agricultural settlement between Upper Canada and the Pacific Ocean . Isolated by geology behind the rugged Canadian Shield and many hundreds of miles of wilderness , settlers and their Métis neighbours had access to outside markets and sources of supply only by two laborious water routes . The first , maintained by the Hudson 's Bay Company ( in which Lord Selkirk was a principal investor ) , was a sea route from Great Britain to York Factory on Hudson Bay , then up a chain of rivers and lakes to the colony , 780 miles ( 1250 km ) from salt water to the Assiniboine . The alternative was the historic route of the rival North West Company 's voyageurs from Montreal through Lake Huron to Fort William on Lake Superior . Above Superior , this route followed rivers and lakes to Lac la Croix and west along the international border through Lake of the Woods to Rat Portage , and then down the Winnipeg River to the Red . The distance from the Selkirk settlement to Lake Superior at Fort William was about 500 miles ( 800 km ) , but Lake Superior was only the start of a lengthy journey to Montreal where furs and supplies would be transshipped to and from Europe . Neither of these routes was suitable for heavy freight . Lighter cargoes were carried in York boats to Hudson Bay or in canoes on the border route . Both routes required navigation of large and hazardous lakes , shallow and rapid @-@ strewn rivers , and swampy creeks and bogs , connected by numerous portages where both cargo and watercraft had to be carried on men 's backs . But geology also provided an alternate route , albeit across foreign territory . The valleys of the Red and Minnesota Rivers lay in the beds of Glacial Lake Agassiz and its prehistoric outlet Glacial River Warren ; the lands exposed when these bodies of water receded were flat plains between low uplands covered by prairie grasslands . At the Traverse Gap , only a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of land separated the Bois des Sioux River , a source stream of the Red ( which flowed north to Hudson Bay ) and the Little Minnesota River , a source stream of the Minnesota River ( tributary to the Mississippi , which flowed south to the Gulf of Mexico ) . The valley floors and uplands of the watercourses along this gently graded route provided a natural thoroughfare to the south . The eyes of the colonists therefore turned to the new United States , both as a source of supplies and an ( illegal ) outlet for their furs . = = Development of the routes = = The rich fur areas along the upper Mississippi , Minnesota , Des Moines , and Missouri Rivers , otherwise occupied only by peoples of the First Nations , were exploited by independent fur traders operating from Prairie du Chien , Wisconsin in the late eighteenth century . At the beginning of the nineteenth century , these traders established fur posts in the Minnesota River valley at Lake Traverse , Big Stone Lake , Lac qui Parle , and Traverse des Sioux . The large fur companies also built posts , including the North West Company 's stations at Pembina and St. Joseph in the valley of the Red River . The paths between these posts became parts of the first of the Red River Trails . In 1815 , 1822 , and 1823 , cattle were herded to the Red River Colony from Missouri by a route up the Des Moines River Valley to the Minnesota River then down the Red River to the Selkirk settlement . In 1819 , following a devastating plague of locusts which left the colonists with insufficient seed even to plant a crop , an expedition was sent by snowshoe to purchase seed at Prairie du Chien . It returned by flatboat up the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers and down the Red River , arriving back at the settlement in the summer of 1820 . In 1821 , five dissatisfied settler families left the colony for Fort Snelling , the forerunners of later tides of migration up and down the valley between the two nations . Two years later in 1823 , Major Stephen Harriman Long was the first official U.S. representative to reach Pembina ; his expedition came by way of the Minnesota and Red Rivers . These early expeditions on the watersheds of these two streams were among the earliest known through trips on the route of the first Red River Trail . = = = West Plains Trail = = = The West Plains Trail had originated with Native Americans , and before the ox cart traffic it connected the fur @-@ trading posts of the Columbia Fur Company . In fact , that company introduced the Red River ox cart to haul its furs and goods . It also developed the trails , and by the early 1830s , an expedition from the Selkirk settlement driving a flock of sheep from Kentucky to the Assiniboine found the trail to be well @-@ marked . From the Red River Settlement , the trail went south upstream along the Red River 's west bank to Pembina , just across the international border . Pembina had been a fur @-@ trading post since the last decade of the eighteenth century . From there , some traffic continued south along the river , but most cart trains went west along the Pembina River to St. Joseph near the border and then south , or else cut the corner to the southwest in order to intercept the southbound trail from St. Joseph . This north @-@ south trail paralleled the Red River about thirty miles ( 50 km ) to the west . By staying on the uplands west of the Red River , this route avoided crossing the tributaries of that river near their confluences with the Red , and also kept out of the swampy , flood @-@ prone , and mosquito @-@ ridden bottomlands in the lakebed of Glacial Lake Agassiz which the river drained . In what is now southeastern North Dakota , the trail veered to the south @-@ southeast to close with the Red River at Georgetown , Fort Abercrombie , and Breckenridge , Minnesota , all of which came into existence in consequence of the passing cart traffic . From Breckenridge , the trail continued upstream along the east bank of the Red and Bois des Sioux Rivers to the continental divide at Lake Traverse . Some traffic went along the lakeshore through the Traverse Gap on the continental divide , then down either side of Big Stone Lake , source of the Minnesota River , while other carters took a short cut directly south from the Bois des Sioux across the open prairie through modern Graceville , Minnesota thereby avoiding the wet country in the Traverse Gap . The trail continued on intertwined routes down both sides of the valley of the Minnesota River past fur posts at Lac qui Parle and downstream locations , and the Upper Sioux and Lower Sioux Indian Agencies and Fort Ridgely , all established in the 1850s . From Fort Ridgely , the trail struck across the open prairie to the Minnesota River at Traverse des Sioux near modern @-@ day St. Peter , Minnesota , where the furs and goods were , at first , usually transshipped to flatboats . In later years , most cart trains crossed to the east bank and proceeded northeast along the wooded river bottoms and uplands to Fort Snelling or Mendota , where the Minnesota River joined the Mississippi . From there furs were shipped down the Mississippi River to Saint Louis and other markets . Sporadic at first , trade between Fort Garry and the Mississippi became more regular in 1835 , when a caravan of traders from the Red River came to Mendota . The efforts of the Hudson ’ s Bay Company to enforce its monopoly only induced the fur traders to avoid the company 's jurisdiction by moving across the border to the United States . These included Norman Kittson whose enormous fur @-@ trading and shipping enterprise along the West Plains Trail started with one six @-@ cart train in 1844 . In later years , trains consisting of hundreds of ox carts were sent from Kittson ’ s post at Pembina , just inside U.S. territory and safely outside the reach of the Hudson ’ s Bay Company . While some of this fur traffic was shifted to other routes in 1854 , the forts , missions , Indian agencies , and remaining through traffic to Fort Garry kept the trails busy , and they were improved in the 1850s and supplemented by military roads . = = = Woods Trail = = = The West Plains Trail , although relatively level , went by a lengthy route through the lands of the Dakota people , and the shorter East Plains Trail also skirted Dakota land . The Dakota were the enemy of the Ojibwa , to whom the Métis carters were related by blood and marriage . These tensions led to conflicts . One such bloody confrontation in the summer of 1844 ( caused by an attack by Métis carters on Dakota hunters ) occurred when that year 's expedition of free traders were in Saint Paul . This meant that they could not safely return by the normal route . The traders therefore struck northwest up the Mississippi to Crow Wing at the mouth of the Crow Wing River , west up that river and across the height of land to the fur post at Otter Tail Lake , then northwest across the prairie to a crossing of the Red River near its confluence with the Forest River . The next year , a southbound party followed its tracks , and by the year after ( 1846 ) , the final route had been well @-@ established inland from the Red River bottomlands . This trail was known as the Woods or Crow Wing Trail ; it was also known locally as the Saint Paul Trail and Pembina Trail . As the first of these names indicates , the path was partially wooded , as its southern reaches crossed the transition zone between the western prairies and eastern woodland . From Fort Garry , southbound cart trains followed the east bank of the Red River , crossing the Roseau River and the international border . In Minnesota , the trail was joined by a route coming from Pembina to the northwest , and continued south on a level prairie in the former lakebed of prehistoric Lake Agassiz . It ascended to and followed a firm gravelly ridge which was once among the higher beaches or strandlines of that ancient lake , forded the Red Lake River at the Old Crossing near modern Huot , and angled south by southeast to the fur post at White Earth . At Otter Tail Lake , the route left the plains and turned east into a forest in the Leaf Mountains on the continental divide . Taking a difficult but scenic path east through the woods , the trail crossed the Mississippi River at Old Crow Wing . It then went south down the east bank of that river on a smooth and open glacial outwash sandplain to Sauk Rapids and East Saint Cloud . The final lap of the trail to Saint Paul , which had replaced Mendota as the principal entrepôt for the cart trade , continued along the sandplain on the east bank of the Mississippi . This route ran within a few miles of the river to Saint Anthony Falls and the community of that name which was growing on the east bank of the Mississippi . The trail then left the river and crossed open country to Saint Paul . The carters camped on the uplands west of the steamboat landing during the interval between their arrival with the furs and their return to the north with supplies and trade goods . Inferior in terrain to other routes , the Woods Trail was superior in safety , as it was well within the lands of the Ojibwa . It was less well used during times of relative calm . In the late 1850s , its utility was increased by improvements made by the U.S. Army , which straightened and improved the winding ox path through the woods along the Leaf and Crow Wing Rivers , and also replaced the old trail along the Mississippi River between Fort Ripley ( near Crow Wing ) and Sauk Rapids with a military road . = = = East Plains Trail = = = The Middle or East Plains Trail also came into common use in the 1840s . Shorter than the competing West Plain Trail , it became the route of the large cart trains originating from Pembina when well @-@ known trader Henry Sibley retired from the fur trade in 1854 . His successor and former partner Norman Kittson moved their company 's cart trains from the West Plains Trail in the Minnesota River valley to the East Plains route . The East Plains Trail followed the older routes of the West Plains Trail from Pembina to Breckenridge , Minnesota , then struck east by a variety of routes out of the Red River Valley across the upper valleys of the Pomme de Terre and Chippewa Rivers ( tributaries of the Minnesota River ) , to Saint Cloud and Sauk Rapids on the Upper Mississippi . Soon however , a branch was added to connect the East Plains Trail with the Woods Trail . This link skirted the west slope of the Leaf Mountains and joined the East Plains routes at Elbow Lake or near the Otter Tail River . At times , this eastern connection may have been the better @-@ travelled of the two variants . At Saint Cloud , the furs of some of the cart brigades were transshipped to river craft on the Mississippi , which operated to Saint Anthony Falls at Minneapolis . Other cart trains crossed the Mississippi and travelled on to Saint Paul on a route shared with the Woods Trail . Over most of its route , the East Plains Trail went through a post @-@ glacial landscape of lakes , moraines , and drumlins , with beautiful scenery and difficult swamps . As the area became settled during Minnesota ’ s territorial and early statehood days , the routes were improved , stagecoach service was instituted , towns were established , and permanent settlement began . = = Commerce = = The trails were first used to obtain seed and supplies for the Selkirk colony . They soon became trade routes for local fur traders , and in the 1830s began to be heavily used by American fur traders operating just south of the international border . The Americans acquired furs from Métis fur traders in British North America who were evading the Hudson 's Bay Company monopoly on trade within its chartered domain . The settlement at Fort Garry was isolated and at the end of a 700 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) water and land route from York Factory , which was served by only one or two ships each year . Orders from Britain had to be placed a year in advance . But from Saint Paul , the settlers could obtain staples and other goods in the span of a single summer . In the face of these relative inconveniences and the economy of shipping over the trails , the Hudson ’ s Bay Company was unable to compel all trade to go by way of York Factory on Hudson Bay , and by 1850 the company ’ s monopoly was broken . In fact , the company itself all but abandoned the York Factory route for heavy trade in 1857 , and instead shipped its own traffic in bond through the United States and over the Red River Trails . The principal export from the Red River settlements was fur , but as the colony passed from a subsistence economy to one producing more than could be consumed locally the agricultural surplus was also sent south by ox cart . The imports were more varied ; originally they were seed , spices , and other staples , liquor , tools , implements , and hardware . In midcentury the buffalo herds declined , and traffic in furs began to be replaced by the produce and needs of settlers . As settlement developed the trails became a " common carrier " for all manner of goods that could be carried by ox cart , including lamps and coal oil to burn in them , fine cloth , books , general merchandise , champagne , sheet @-@ metal stoves , disassembled farm machinery and at least one piano , and a printing press and other accoutrements for the first newspaper in the Fort Garry region . = = Life on the trail = = The typical carter was a Métis descended from French voyageurs of the fur trade and their Ojibway spouses . His conveyance was the Red River ox cart , a simple vehicle derived either from the two @-@ wheeled charrettes used in French Canada , or from Scottish carts . From 1801 on , this cart was modified so that it was made solely from local materials . It contained no iron at all . Instead it was constructed entirely of wood and animal hide . Two twelve @-@ foot @-@ long parallel oak shafts or " trams " bracketed the draft animal in front and formed the frame of the cart to the rear . Cross @-@ pieces held the floorboards , while front , side and rear boards or rails enclosed the box . These wooden pieces were joined by mortices and tenons . The axle was also made of seasoned oak . It was lashed to the cart by strips of wet bison hide known by its Cree name of shaganappi , which shrank and tightened as they dried . The axles connected two spoked wheels , five or six feet in diameter , which were " dished " or in the form of a shallow cone , the apex of which was at the hubs , which were inboard of the rims . The carts were originally drawn by small horses obtained from the First Nations . After cattle were brought to the colony in the 1820s , oxen were used to haul the carts . They were preferred because of their strength , endurance , and cloven hooves which spread their weight in swampy areas . The cart , constructed of native materials , could easily be repaired . A supply of shaganappi and wood was carried as a cart could break a half @-@ dozen axles in a one @-@ way trip . The axles were unlubricated , as grease would capture dust which would act as sandpaper and immobilize the cart . The resultant squeal sounded like an untuned violin , giving it the sobriquet of " the North West fiddle " . One visitor wrote that " a den of wild beasts cannot be compared with its hideousness " . The noise was audible for miles . The carts were completely unsprung , and only their flexible construction cushioned the shocks transmitted from the humps and hollows of the trail . Southbound , the carts were loaded with fur , packed into the 90 @-@ pound ( 40 kg ) bundles known in the fur trade as pièces . A cart could handle up to 800 – 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 360 – 450 kg ) . On their return the traders carried staples , trade goods , and manufactured goods unavailable at Fort Garry . In both directions , the cargo was covered with hide or canvas . The carts were lashed together in brigades of ten carts , with three drivers and an overseer . These brigades could join in trains up to two miles ( three km ) in length . Carts numbering in the low hundreds annually used the trails in the 1840s , many hundreds in the 1850s , and thousands in the late 1860s . These cart trains travelled about two miles ( three km ) an hour , and about twenty miles ( thirty km ) in a day . After breaking camp in the morning , the carters set out across the prairie ; transits of the unprotected open prairie between places of refuge were known as traverses . Streams often had to be forded ; where the water was too deep , the carts were unloaded , the wheels were taken off and lashed together or affixed under the cart , the assemblage was covered with hide to form a hull , and the makeshift craft was reloaded and floated across . The traders endeavoured to ford a stream at the end of the day rather than start the next day with the crossing , to allow time to dry out overnight . Streamside camps offered wood , water , and some protection from the hazards of open land . The prairie could be dangerous in time of native unrest , and trade ceased entirely for a time during the Dakota War of 1862 . Prairie fires , driven by winds , were a risk in dry spells . Wet weather turned rivers into torrents , approaches to streams into bogs , and worn paths into morasses . Blizzards could strand traders and threaten them with starvation . Insects harassed both the traders and their draft animals , depriving them of sleep and weakening them . There were compensations . Game was plentiful and the traders rarely lacked fresh meat . Some saw in the seemingly boundless prairies a colourful ocean of grass , and summer storms could be awe @-@ inspiring , although dangerous . While the prairie had its own grandeur , after weeks of travel over treeless steppe the rivers , lakes , and woods of central Minnesota were a welcome relief . After six or so weeks on the trail , the brigades reached Saint Paul . There the carters camped on the bluff above the town growing on the riverfront . Not all was harmonious . To the locals , the swarthy @-@ complected carters up on the hill had a " devil @-@ may @-@ care " aspect , with their " curious commingling of civilized garments and barbaric adornments " . One trader from the north called his host city " a wretched little village " where " drinking whisky seems to occupy at least half the time of the worth [ y ] citizens " , while the rest were " employed in cheating each other or imposing upon strangers . " The economic benefits of trade , and the separation of the carters ' camp from the village below , may have helped keep relations civil . After about three weeks of trading , the " wild " carters from the north , now laden with goods , took their leave of the " den of blackguards " that was Saint Paul , returning to what they felt was a more civilized world . Their erstwhile hosts , on the other hand , thought their visitors were returning to an uncivilized and frozen wilderness . = = End of the trails = = At times , some ox cart trains did not go all the way through , but were supplemented by river craft . First flatboats and then shallow @-@ draft steamboats ascended the Minnesota River to Traverse des Sioux and upstream points , where they were met by cart brigades travelling the West Plains Trail . In 1851 , weekly steamboat service on the Mississippi began between Saint Anthony Falls and Sauk Rapids on the Middle and Woods trails . In 1859 , steamboat machinery was carried overland to the Red River where a boat was built , but service was intermittent . The Dakota War of 1862 and the American Civil War delayed further improvements . After the Civil War , the age of steam came to the region . After Ojibwe title to the Red River Valley had been extinguished on the United States side of the Canadian border by the Treaty of Old Crossing in 1863 , steamboat service was revived on the Red River , and railways were built west from Saint Paul and Duluth , Minnesota on Lake Superior . A branch of the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad reached St. Cloud in 1866 . Its mainline reached Willmar in 1869 and Benson , Minnesota the following year . Each end @-@ of @-@ track town in its turn became the terminus for many of the cart trains . In 1871 , the railway reached the Red River at Breckenridge , where revived steamboat service carried the traffic the rest of way to Fort Garry . The long trains of carts drawn by oxen were replaced by railway trains powered by steam , and the trails reverted to nature . A few traces of the vanished trails still exist . Some local roads follow their routes ; depressions in the landscape show where thousands of carts once passed , and even after more than a century of winters and springs , freezing and thawing the land , there are still places where soils remain compacted and resistant to the plow . Some of these subtle artifacts are marked or are visible to one with a discerning eye , but in most places the trails have been obliterated . Their locations are noted at parks and wayside signs , and trail locations near Baxter , St. Hilaire , and West Union , Minnesota are recognized on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places . = = Significance = = The Red River Trails are less well known today than many other pioneer trails and trade routes in North America , and do not occupy as large a place in folklore as the great western trails in the United States and the fur @-@ trading canoe routes of Canada . They were neither fought over nor the locus of battles ( with the exception of the Dakota War of 1862 ) , and although hazardous at times , other trails presented greater dangers . It may be that this relative lack of attention is due to the fact they did not lead to annexation of any territory to either of the nations in which the trails were located . The trails nevertheless were instrumental in the development of central North America . Traffic over the West Plains Trail sustained the Selkirk Settlement in its early years . The trails also gave settlers of that colony and their Métis neighbours a route for migration as well as a highway for trade that was not dependent on the Hudson 's Bay Company . As usage grew , old fur trading posts became settlements and new communities were established along the cart routes . The trails pioneered by the fur brigades accelerated development of Minnesota and North Dakota , and facilitated settlement of the Canadian northwest . The trails had profound political effects during a time of Anglo @-@ American tension . Both Britain and the U.S. were concerned about each other ’ s cross @-@ border influences . Born out of commercial needs and located by the dictates of geography , the trails helped create and contribute to these international influences and the tensions which resulted . The United States sent military expeditions along the route of the trails to assert national interests in the face of the continued British presence in the northwestern fur posts on soil which the U.S. claimed . The Americans were also concerned about the establishment of Lord Selkirk ’ s colony as well as British claims to the Red River Valley . Finally the U.S. wanted to curtail Britain ’ s attempts to get access to the Mississippi , access implicit in the Treaty of Paris ending the American War of Independence , and which Britain sought into the nineteenth century . The United States ' assertion of dominion over its new territories parried and reversed the British domination of the fur trade in the upper Mississippi valley , which had continued for decades after the Revolutionary War settlement which had assigned those territories to the new nation . Later , the economic dependence of the Selkirk Settlement and the Canadian northwest on the Red River trade routes to U.S. markets came to pose a threat to British and Canadian control of their territory . At a time when a sense of Canadian nationality was tenuous in the northwest , that region relied on the Red River Trails and its successor steamboat and rail lines as an outlet for its products and a source of supplies . An active Manifest Destiny faction in Minnesota sought to exploit these commercial ties as a means of acquiring northwestern Canada for the United States . This pressure prompted Canada to take over the Hudson 's Bay Company territory in return for monetary and land compensation . It contributed to Canadian Confederation and the establishment of Manitoba . It also led to the decision that there should be an all @-@ Canada route for the Canadian Pacific Railway . Not until completion of that line in 1885 did Manitoba and the northwest finally have reliable and efficient access to eastern Canada by a route located entirely on Canadian soil . Today , the international border is firmly established and peaceful ; there is a greater sense of Canadian nationality , and fears of U.S. Manifest Destiny have all but disappeared . Canada and the U.S. have formalized their trading partnership with the North American Free Trade Agreement , leading to increased trade between the two nations . This trade now coursing up and down the valleys of the Red and Mississippi rivers more than fulfils Lord Selkirk 's predictions made nearly two centuries ago ; while he first sought access over U.S. territory for the succour of his nascent colony , now commerce in manufactures and commodities goes in both directions . The trade corridor once occupied by the long @-@ gone Red River Trails continues to be employed for its historic purposes .
= Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary = Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary and Tiger Reserve is a protected area and tiger reserve along the Western Ghats in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . First declared as a wildlife sanctuary in 2008 and enlarged in 2011 , it covers a forest area of 1 @,@ 411 @.@ 6 km2 ( 545 @.@ 0 sq mi ) and is the largest wildlife sanctuary in Tamil Nadu . In 2013 , it became the fourth tiger reserve as a part of Project Tiger in the state of Tamil Nadu . Sathyamangalam forest range is a significant wildlife corridor in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve between the Western Ghats and the rest of the Eastern Ghats and a genetic link between the four other protected areas which it adjoins , including the Billigiriranga Swamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary , Sigur Plateau , Mudumalai National Park and Bandipur National Park . The sanctuary covers parts of Sathyamangalam taluk and Gobichettipalayam taluk of Erode District in north western Tamil Nadu . = = History = = The Sathyamangalam forests were declared as a sanctuary with effect from 3 November 2008 by the Governor of Tamil Nadu as per the Wild Life Protection Act of 1972 . In 2008 , the Government of Karnataka sent a proposal to declare the contiguous Billigiriranga Swamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary as a tiger reserve which was subsequently approved in 2010 . In a wildlife survey conducted by the Government of Tamil Nadu in 2010 , 46 tigers were sighted in the Sathyamangalam forest area . In July 2010 , the Minister of State for Environment and Forests Jairam Ramesh requested the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu to consider the possibility of proposing the Sathyamangalam wildlife sanctuary as a Project Tiger tiger reserve as per the provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 as the area is contiguous with the forests of Bandipur and Mudumalai tiger reserves . On 1 April 2010 , the Government of Tamil Nadu announced that it would initiate action to declare the sanctuary as a tiger reserve because of the consistent sighting of tigers in the forest area and the tiger reserve declaration would strengthen wildlife conservation efforts , as the sanctuary managers will get more financial support from the central government and the Government of India may also provide support to appoint an additional anti @-@ poaching watchers and fund the establishment of anti @-@ poaching camps . On 10 March 2011 , the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests said that the proposal for according tiger reserve status for the Sathyamangalam Reserve Forests is under consideration . He said that studies using camera traps indicated there could be 19 to 25 tigers in Sathyamangalam forests . A 2011 camera trap tiger density study conducted by World Wildlife Fund indicated that the sanctuary is home to at least 25 tigers . In the same year , a DNA based project initiated by the state forest department collected 150 samples of pugmarks from Sathyamangalam forests and 69 of them were found positive for tigers by tests conducted at the Center for Molecular Biology in Hyderabad . The findings also indicated that the region is home to as many as 30 tigers . Supported by the reports of tiger sightings , the Tamil Nadu Forest Department submitted a detailed report to the state government supporting the tiger reserve proposal . The proposal came up for consideration before the Tamil Nadu Council of Ministers in 2012 . On 6 April 2012 , the Chief Wildlife Warden said that the proposal to have a tiger reserve in Sathyamangalam has been sent to the Ministry of Environment and Forests for approval and funding . On 18 March 2013 , the Government of India order declared that the Sathyamangalam wildlife sanctuary will become the fourth tiger reserve in the state , with the other three being Mudumalai , Anamalai and Kalakkad @-@ Mundanthurai . = = Expanse = = The total area originally declared as a sanctuary was 524 @.@ 3494 km2 ( 202 @.@ 452 sq mi ) . The boundaries of the sanctuary were the Thalavadi range of Thalamalai forests and Hasanur , T.N.Palayam ranges of Gobichettipalayam taluk of Guthiyalathur forests , contiguous with Billigiriranga Swamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary in the north and the rivers of Moyar and Bhavani , contiguous with Mudumalai National Park and Sigur Plateau in the south . The eastern boundary is formed by the Bargur reserved forests in Anthiyur taluk and Bandipur National Park in the west . The sanctuary includes the areas of Guthiyalathur reserved forests ( 299 @.@ 47 km2 ( 115 @.@ 626 sq mi ) ) , Guthiyalathur extension ( 1 @.@ 6231 km2 ( 0 @.@ 627 sq mi ) ) , Thalamalai reserved forests ( 210 @.@ 85 km2 ( 81 @.@ 410 sq mi ) ) and Thalamalai extension ( 12 @.@ 4063 km2 ( 4 @.@ 790 sq mi ) ) . In September 2011 , the Department of forests increased the sanctuary area by declaring an additional 887 @.@ 26 km2 ( 342 @.@ 57 sq mi ) in seven reserve forests of Sathyamangalam forest division . The largest chunks of additional area are 487 @.@ 92 km2 ( 188 @.@ 39 sq mi ) from Guthiyalathur and 319 @.@ 87 km2 ( 123 @.@ 50 sq mi ) from Thalamalai reserve forests , thus increasing the total sanctuary area to 1 @,@ 411 @.@ 6 km2 ( 545 @.@ 0 sq mi ) . Of the total area , the core zone comprises 917 @.@ 27 km2 ( 354 @.@ 16 sq mi ) reserved forests and tourism is allowed in the buffer zone with only forest officials permitted entry into the core zone . = = Flora = = The Sathyamangalam forest is mostly tropical dry forest , part of the South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests ecoregion . There are five distinct forest types : tropical evergreen ( Shola ) , semi @-@ evergreen , mixed @-@ deciduous , dry deciduous and thorn forests . Evergreen forests are restricted to small patches in a few high altitude hill tops of Sathyamamgalam between 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) and 1 @,@ 649 metres ( 5 @,@ 410 ft ) . These patches are threatened on account of land use changing to hill agriculture and plantation crops , including fruit . Semi @-@ evergreen forests are found at high altitude . Mixed and dry deciduous forests are located on middle altitude slopes and the thorn forests are usually found in the foot hills and some times , due degradation of dry deciduous forests , at the middle elevations . About 65 % of the forest division is under forest cover . Significant areas of mixed shrubland and grasslands support a large population of herbivore ungulates , the preferred prey of tigers . = = Fauna = = The Sathyamangalam forests link the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats allowing gene flow between diverse fauna populations of the two eco @-@ regions . The 2009 wildlife survey conducted by Government of Tamil Nadu enumerated 10 Bengal tigers , 866 Indian elephants , 672 gaurs , and 27 leopards . The survey party observed four additional species of horned antelope including 2 @,@ 348 spotted deer , 1 @,@ 068 blackbucks , 304 sambar deer , 77 barking deer and four @-@ horned antelopes , 843 wild boars , 43 sloth bears and 15 striped hyenas . Herds of the famous feral buffaloes can also be spotted in places near the Moyar river . The 2010 wildlife survey counted 12 Bengal tigers . In December 2011 , the Conservator of Forests of Tamil Nadu stated that the sanctuary is home to at least 28 tigers as confirmed by a camera trap study conducted by World Wildlife Fund . In the 2012 national wildlife survey , 25 tigers were recorded . As per the 2011 census , the Sathyamangalam forests was home to over 850 Indian elephants and is part of a protected area , which consists of the largest Asian elephant population in the world . = = = Birds = = = Many bird species including treepies , bulbuls , babblers , mynahs and crows were noted . In 2010 , the first ever bird survey was conducted in the Sathyamangalam forests . A total of 230 species of birds were recorded in the survey . In 2010 , a small population of critically endangered Indian vulture ( Gyps indicus ) and three other species of vultures were discovered to be thriving in the Moyar river valley . 20 nests were sighted and the population was estimated to consist up of 40 adults . Last sighted in the region in the 1970s , the rediscovery of the vulture , a bird rapidly disappearing from India , has been significant . Diclofenac , which caused the decline of vulture population was banned in 2006 and since then , vulture numbers have started to grow back . = = Issues and conservation = = Conservation of the Sathyamangalam Forest Division is administered by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department governed through Conservator of Forests , Erode , Divisional Forest Officer , Gobichettipalayam and District Forest Officer , Sathyamangalam . The wildlife sanctuary is part of Project Tiger and Project Elephant conservation programmes run by the Government of India . The sanctuary is listed among the top five places in India for poaching tigers by the international wild life trade monitoring network , TRAFFIC . In February 2016 , the National Tiger Conservation Authority announced that drones will be used to monitor tiger population in five tiger reserves including Sathyamangalam . The reserve also faces issues due to forest fires , uncontrolled grazing of cattle and growth of invasive plant species , damaging the ecosystem . Man @-@ animal conflicts are common especially with elephants and leopards . Elephants raid crop fields and illegal electric fences used to protect crops mortally wound elephants and five elephants were electrocuted in three @-@ month period between January and April 2013 . As of 2011 , Solar powered fencing that give a short and safe electric shock was laid over a length of 239 kilometres ( 149 mi ) to prevent the entry of elephants into agricultural lands . The state forest department also dug trenches at a cost of ₹ 1 @.@ 51 crore ( US $ 220 @,@ 000 ) to prevent the elephants from entering human habitats . Leopards prey on domestic cattle with as many as 27 goats killed by them in a single month in November 2012 . National highway 948 passes through the wildlife sanctuary and wildlife deaths have been reported due to vehicular movement in the highway at night . = = Tribal population = = These forests are home to indigenous tribal people belonging largely to the Irula tribe ( also known as the Urali ) and Soliga communities . In 2011 , the Tamil Nadu state forest department officials conducted a study on the cattle and human population in the seven forest settlements and 12 revenue settlements inside the protected area . As of 2013 , tribals engage in collecting honey , more than 900 families live in 138 villages within a 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) radius surrounding the park . The tribals engage in agriculture , grazing of animals and collecting minor forest produce such as honey , tubers , fuel wood and fish . According to the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers ( Recognition of Forest Rights ) Act , 2006 , the tribals were entitled to use designated land within the park area for agriculture and the title deeds for the same are to be distributed within 2016 after the Supreme Court of India vacated a stay order issued by the Madras High Court prohibiting the same . The forests were also the home of notorious criminal and bandit Veerapan , who made a living poaching ivory and sandalwood from the forests and selling them on the black market . Veerapan was killed by the Tamil Nadu Police in October 2004 .
= Sakura ( Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle ) = Sakura ( サクラ ) , also known as Princess Sakura ( サクラ姫 , Sakura Hime ) , is a fictional character and one of the protagonists from Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle , a manga series written and illustrated by Clamp . In the series , Sakura is a princess from the Kingdom of Clow who has her memories separated from her body and sent to parallel dimensions in the form of feathers . Finding Sakura catatonic and near death , Syaoran , her childhood friend , goes on a quest to recover her memories . As a payment for travelling , Sakura will never recover her memories regarding Syaoran , who she was in love with . Nevertheless , as the journey continues , Sakura forms new bonds with Syaoran , and together they learn how the sorcerer Fei @-@ Wang Reed was responsible for the loss of her memories and will benefit from their recovery . Besides Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle , Sakura also appears in other works from Clamp including xxxHolic and the drama CD series Holitsuba . The character of Sakura and her relationship with Syaoran were both based on Sakura Kinomoto , the protagonist from Cardcaptor Sakura . Her character has been well received by Japanese readers and audiences , appearing in various popularity polls not only from Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle but also for anime and manga series in general . She has also received praise from media publications for her personality , her relation with Syaoran , and her development across the series . = = Character outline = = = = = In Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle = = = First introduced in Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle , Sakura is the princess of the Kingdom of Clow . A force fragments her soul , including her memories , into feathers , which are scattered across various parallel worlds . To retrieve the feathers and save her life , she and Syaoran go to Yūko Ichihara , who gives them Mokona Modoki to help them travel to parallel worlds . The cost for her help is Sakura 's memory of Syaoran , which causes him to be absent from any memories restored to her . Sakura is initially confused , and constantly tired , but she grows stronger as she regains her feathers . She becomes very friendly with the group 's new members , Fai D. Flowright , Kurogane and Mokona , and she grows close to Syaoran again . Even though she notices that she has forgotten somebody from her memories , whenever Sakura realizes the one missing is Syaoran , her memories revert to before her realization . Over time she also starts recover various abilities , including seeing spirits of nature , ghosts , and visions of the future . As the journey continues , Sakura comes to regard Syaoran as her most important person , but at the same time he betrays the group to Fei @-@ Wang Reed , the sorcerer who can control him and created him based on another teenager . Sakura learns that Fei @-@ Wang was responsible for scattering her memories and set up the journey to recover them for his own plans , but she still decides to continue in order to save Syaoran . From that point on , Sakura becomes very distant from the group , especially the newly arrived original Syaoran , because of his similarities to the clone whom she has come to know . When she sees a future involving Fai killing the original Syaoran as part of Fei @-@ Wang 's curse , Sakura attempts to change it and succeeds in taking Fai 's place , in that moment sending her soul to the Dream World and her body to Celes . Her soul is destroyed by the Syaoran clone when trying to recover her feathers . Just before her death , Sakura reveals that she is a clone of the original Sakura and asks Syaoran to go back to his previous self . Fei @-@ Wang created the clone Sakura to increase the power from the feathers , and as a backup in case the original Sakura died in the journey . After the destruction of her soul , the power stored in her soulless body is used by Fei @-@ Wang as part of his plan to revive Yūko . Since clones cannot properly die , the Sakura and Syaoran clones are reconstructed by Yūko , who wishes to compensate them for how their existences were used . She causes them to be reborn as humans , who eventually meet and start living together . Sakura gives birth to the original Syaoran and they realize they are in their own past . They raise him until it is time for him to begin the events of the series , then they seal themselves in a glass tube in order to await the time when Fei @-@ Wang will attempt to shatter reality . After breaking free from the tube , Sakura and Syaoran reverse Fei @-@ Wang 's damage to the dimension using the magic they inherited from the sorcerer Clow Reed during their reincarnation . They disappear after Fei @-@ Wang is killed by Kurogane , leaving behind only a feather which the original Sakura and Syaoran absorb . = = = Other appearances = = = Besides the manga and anime series from Tsubasa , Sakura also appears in the animated film The Princess in the Birdcage Kingdom in which she still travels with Syaoran , Fai , Kurogane and Mokona across dimensions . She is also a playable character in the two Nintendo DS video games from Tsubasa . In the drama CD series , The Matinée of the Palace , the group performs a play that reenacts the series ' story while searching for one of her feathers . Outside Tsubasa , Sakura makes various appearances in Clamp 's manga xxxHolic , showing some of the events happening in Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle . Sakura also appears in later volumes when her soul is separated from her body and sent to the Dream World . There , she meets Yūko 's assistant , a teenager named Kimihiro Watanuki , whom she finds similar to the original Syaoran . One of her feathers – that of her memories of Syaoran – appears in Watanuki 's world and gives the medium Kohane Tsuyuri the ability to exorcise spirits . After Kohane wishes for the removal of her ability , the feather stays with a black Mokona Modoki . Sakura does not appear in the animated adaptions of xxxHolic until the original video animations series xxxHolic Shunmuki , in which she appears in the Dream World talking with Watanuki . The drama CD series Holitsuba Gakuen features Sakura as one of the students from the fictional school Holitsuba , which includes characters from both Tsubasa and xxxHolic . = = Creation and conception = = Similarly to the characters created by Osamu Tezuka and his Star System , Sakura was based on the protagonist of Clamp 's previous manga Cardcaptor Sakura , Sakura Kinomoto , and her relationship with Syaoran Li . Both Sakura and Syaoran 's counterparts from Cardcaptor Sakura had a happy ending ; Clamp said that the Tsubasa protagonists would have to overcome trials throughout the series to get their " own happy ending " . Sakura losing her memories of Syaoran and struggling to once again develop feelings for him is one of the main themes of Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle , showing the value of relationships throughout the series . = = = Voice actresses = = = Sakura is voiced by Yui Makino in the anime adaptation , and by Monica Rial in the English adaptation . Sakura 's character was Makino 's first work as a voice actress and she states she did not have to adjust her voice for that , finding the character similar to her . During the series ' original video animations ( OVAs ) , Makino mentioned that one of Sakura 's scenes was very sad , and worked to make it appealing . = = Reception = = Singer Maaya Sakamoto wrote the anime 's insert song " Spica " based on Sakura 's character , describing how she moves forward across the series but still shows weakness at times . Various types of merchandising have also been made based on her appearance , such as plushes and keychains . Sakura 's character has been well received by publications for manga , anime and other media . While commenting on the series ' protagonists , Ed Sizemore from Comics Worth Reading stated that Sakura had " natural grace and charm " , indicating how she changes as the series continues . Comparing her with her Cardcaptor Sakura counterpart , Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network found Sakura a likeable female lead character based on her personality and how she cares for others . Animefringe writer Lesley Smith commented that Sakura was " becoming a much larger character " the more feathers she recovered , but even so " her relationship with Syaoran can never be the same . " Sakura 's change in the second half of the manga has also received many comments . Carlo Santos of Anime News Network called it a large improvement , as she starts manipulating events in order to obtain what she wants . On the other hand , Mania Entertainment 's Sakura Eries had mixed feelings about this , stating that while it is not surprising she volunteers to get involved in a dangerous task , the outcome was " unbelievable " due to how she ended facing the creatures from Tokyo . Megan Lavey from the same site found Sakura 's death in a later volume unexpected , and the revelation that Sakura was a clone like Syaoran made her feel " cheated " since the two of them were the series ' initial protagonists . Sakura 's relationship with Syaoran and the way in which she begins caring for him again even without her memories has often been described as one of the series ' strongest points . Carlo Santos stated that the relationship even makes up for the issues in the anime , while Active Anime 's Christopher Seaman found such a romantic relationship one of the most mature developments of the series . IGN 's N.S. Davidson mentioned that the series would still be appealing to those who dislike romance , because of the " haunting " situation of these two characters . Megan Lavey called it a " pretty simple love story " , but liked their personalities though . Sakura has been popular among readers readers from series , placing second among all the characters in Tsubasa : Reservoir Chronicle in a popularity poll held by Weekly Shōnen Magazine in 2005 right behind the Syaoran clone . She took a lower spot in the following poll behind Fai and the Syaoran clone , but has maintained a high ranking in other related polls from the series . In the Animage 's Anime Grand Prix poll from 2006 , Sakura was voted as the fifth most popular female anime character , and the following year she was seventh . In the Animedia " 2006 Animedia Character Awards " , Sakura ranked highly in several of its categories . The most notable include second place in the categories " Most Beautiful / Loveliest Character Award " and " Most Heroic Character Award " .
= The Boat Race 1998 = The 144th Boat Race took place on 28 March 1998 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge , with the heaviest crew in the history of the event , won by three lengths in a record time of 16 minutes 19 seconds . In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis defeated Cambridge 's Goldie in a time which equalled the record , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1997 race by two lengths , and led overall with 74 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race . Oxford boat club president Andrew Lindsay acknowledged the weight difference : " We are quite happy , it presents a challenge . They have got the equivalent of another cox to carry along . " Cambridge 's president David Cassidy ( who would row for Goldie ) was blunt in his assessment : " A powerful car will beat a less powerful car . " Cambridge , coached by Robin Williams , suffered a setback : their number five , Toby Wallace , was ill in the run @-@ in to the race , and did not participate in the outings just prior to the main event . Despite that , The Times reported that the Light Blue boat looked " ominously powerful " . The race was sponsored for the final time by Beefeater Gin who had invested £ 1 @.@ 4 million in the event over the previous three @-@ year contract period . They would be replaced by Aberdeen Asset Management for the 1999 race . = = Crews = = The official weigh @-@ in was held at The Hurlingham Club in London on 23 March . The Cambridge crew , the heaviest in the history of the Boat Race , weighed an average of 13 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) per rower more than their opponents , the second @-@ largest disparity between the Universities since 1829 . Oxford saw five members of their 1997 crew return , while Cambridge welcomed back two in Brad Crombie and Alex Story . Two German world champions rowed for Cambridge : Stefan Forster and Marc Weber won gold in the men 's eight at the 1995 World Rowing Championships . = = Race = = Cambridge were pre @-@ race favourite for the sixth consecutive year . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , only the eighth time such a decision has been made since 1945 . The river conditions were described as " smooth " . Despite holding a brief early lead , a series of blade clashes disrupted Oxford and Cambridge 's cox Potts called for a push which saw his boat pass the Mile Post with a canvas ' lead . At Hammersmith Bridge , by which time Umpire Mike Sweeney had issued fifty separate warnings to the crews , Cambridge were a length ahead and stretched away to win by three lengths in a record time of 16 minutes 19 seconds , 26 seconds quicker than the previous best time set by Oxford in the 1984 race . Cambridge beat the existing course record by 26 seconds , while Oxford finished 9 seconds behind them . In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , their first victory in nine years , and in a time of 17 minutes 2 seconds which equalled the 1996 record . Cambridge won the 50th Women 's Boat Race by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 6 minutes and 25 seconds , their seventh consecutive victory . = = Reaction = = Weber remarked " we practised our pushes and made them really effective . " Oxford 's president Lindsay conceded " Cambridge had that extra gear to increase their base for short times . It demolished us . " His stroke , Nick Robinson , commented : " It was going pretty well until the clash , but they came out better than we did . " Umpire Mike Sweeney was unperturbed : " They were both fighting for the same water . That is not a question of disqualification . " Cambridge 's Story said his crew were confident before the race : " We were never in doubt that we would win " and despite the record time , he remarked " We can row a lot better than that . "
= New City , New Drama = " New City , New Drama " is the pilot episode of The Hills , the first spin @-@ off of Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County . It originally aired on MTV on May 31 , 2006 . In the episode , Lauren Conrad and Heidi Montag move into an apartment in Los Angeles . Conrad befriends fellow Teen Vogue intern Whitney Port , while Montag bonds with their neighbor Audrina Patridge . Conrad is later scolded after Montag and her companions arrive uninvited to a corporate event . " New City , New Drama " was produced by Tony DiSanto , Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Colin Nash , and Andrew Perry . The episode received generally favorable reviews from critics , who appreciated its plotline and production . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 2 @.@ 9 million viewers . The episode was released on DVD on February 13 , 2007 , packaged with the remainder of the first season . = = Plot = = Lauren and her housemate Heidi move into their shared apartment in Los Angeles . Shortly after arriving , Lauren 's interview for an internship with Teen Vogue is unexpectedly changed to an earlier time . While Lauren meets with the magazine 's West Coast editor Lisa Love , Heidi befriends their neighbor Audrina . That evening , the women , Heidi 's boyfriend Jordan Eubanks , and his roommate Brian Drolet eat dinner at the sushi restaurant Geisha House . The following morning , Lauren and Heidi meet with the administrators at the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising . While Lauren impresses her superiors , they question if Heidi is prepared for college . Upon returning home , Blaine Zuckerman calls Lauren on behalf of Teen Vogue and offers her an internship with the magazine . On her first day , she befriends another intern Whitney , and the two begin preparing for the launch party of Teen Vogue 's " Hollywood " edition . As Lauren and Whitney learn that they will be working during the party , Heidi wants to attend the event , which Lauren is unwilling to risk her internship for . Nonetheless , as Heidi , Audrina , Jordan , and Brian arrive unexpectedly that evening , Lauren and Whitney allow the group in . Blaine and Lisa scold Lauren for an argument between Heidi and Jordan , in addition to allowing the group to sit in a reserved seating area . Lisa tells her that they will " discuss this on Monday " . = = Production = = After the first two seasons of Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County enjoyed continued ratings success , MTV approved production of the spin @-@ off series The Hills in 2005 . Like its predecessor , the reality television program was filmed in a narrative format more commonly seen in soap operas . Conrad , who served as the parent series ' first season narrator , became the focal point of the show as she moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the fashion industry . The pilot episode introduced three additional primary cast members . Montag , who was previously featured on Laguna Beach in a limited capacity , became Conrad 's housemate by the time production had begun on the first season of The Hills . On the series , it was depicted as if Montag had befriended Patridge by her own doing , though Patridge claimed that a producer offered her a position on the series to become friends with Conrad and Montag . Port was introduced to the series as Conrad 's co @-@ intern at Teen Vogue . " New City , New Drama " was produced by Tony DiSanto , Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Colin Nash , and Andrew Perry . The latter four individuals had previously served as producers for Laguna Beach . DiVello and Gateley served as the series ' executive producers until its conclusion in July 2010 . = = Reception and release = = " New City , New Drama " was met with generally favorable reviews from critics , who appreciated its plotline and production . Kelly West from Television Blend noted that The Hills commented that MTV " [ keeps ] things simple " , noting the similarities it shares with Laguna Beach , but given the network 's success with reality programming since the 1990s , opined that the series was " sure to be as much of a hit " as its predecessor . Writing for The New York Times , Virginia Heffernan enjoyed watching " charmed " work experiences and the " hammy deadbeat " Montag , further stating that she saw the program as being more fictional than reality . Kara Medalis of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette said that she missed Kristin Cavallari from Laguna Beach , but enjoyed Montag as " the new troublemaker in [ Conrad 's ] life " . In its original broadcast in the United States on May 31 , 2006 , " New City , New Drama " was watched by 2 @.@ 9 million viewers . The remainder of the season maintained a steady viewership of about two million viewers for each weekly episode , and was subsequently picked up for a second season . In the country , the first season was released as a two @-@ disc DVD set on February 13 , 2007 .
= Conduit ( The X @-@ Files ) = " Conduit " is the fourth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on October 1 , 1993 . It was written by Alex Gansa and Howard Gordon , directed by Daniel Sackheim , and featured a guest appearance by Carrie Snodgress as the mother of an abducted teenager . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully , when investigating the possible alien abduction of a teenage girl , find that the missing girl 's younger brother may be capable of receiving satellite transmissions , and that her mother may also have been party to a UFO encounter over twenty years earlier . Mulder finds himself becoming emotionally attached to the case due to its similarities to his own childhood experiences , when his younger sister Samantha was abducted from their home . The episode , although not directly tied to the series ' ongoing story arcs , provides more information on how Fox Mulder 's younger sister , Samantha Mulder , had been abducted as a child ; a plot thread which would go on to become one of the more prominent of the series . The episode was filmed in British Columbia , with Buntzen Lake being used as Lake Okobogee . = = Plot = = At a campground at Lake Okobogee [ sic ] National Park in Sioux City , Iowa , Darlene Morris witnesses a flash of light outside of her RV . When she ventures outside to find her young son , Kevin , he claims that his teenaged sister , Ruby , has vanished . In Washington , FBI Division Chief Scott Blevins informs Dana Scully that , unbeknownst to her , Fox Mulder has requested travel expenses to Sioux City based on a tabloid article about Ruby 's disappearance . Blevins also shows Scully an X @-@ File on the disappearance of Mulder 's sister Samantha . When Scully asks Mulder about the travel expenses , he explains that Lake Okobogee was the scene of a series of UFO sightings in 1967 ; Darlene Morris , then a member of a Girl Scout troop , was one of the witnesses . When Mulder and Scully travel to Iowa and meet the Morrises , Mulder observes Kevin writing down binary code on a piece of paper ; Kevin claims they are coming from static on a television screen . After submitting Kevin 's code for analysis , the agents meet with the local sheriff , who tells them that Ruby was a juvenile delinquent who likely ran away . They also meet a young woman , Tessa , who says that Ruby had gotten pregnant and was planning to run away with her boyfriend , Greg Randall . The agents are unable to find Greg at the bar where he works ; however , his boss tells them about UFO activity at Lake Okobogee . Kevin 's code is revealed to be part of a Defense Department satellite transmission . NSA agents ransack the Morris household , looking for any other documentation that might supposedly compromise national security . After the Morrises are taken into custody , Mulder examines the charred roof of their RV , prompting him to head to Lake Okobogee . There , the agents discover sand turned to glass and a burned tree line , indicating the presence of a massive heat source . Upon encountering some white wolves , Mulder and Scully find Greg Randall 's body in a shallow grave . On his person , they find a note in his wallet that eventually leads Scully and Mulder to conclude that it was Tessa , not Ruby , who was pregnant . Under interrogation , Tessa confesses to killing Greg but denies Ruby was at Lake Okobogee that night . Mulder and Scully return to the Morris ' house , and , finding it deserted , discover the binary @-@ covered pieces of paper laid out across the living room floor , forming an image of Ruby 's face . The agents return to Lake Okobogee , where they find Darlene and Kevin in the nearby woods . A motorcycle gang appears , and as Mulder hurries to rescue Kevin from their wake , Scully discovers Ruby nearby . Ruby is then seen in a hospital bed , with Kevin by her side . When questioned about her experience , she says she was told by an unnamed group not to say anything . Darlene also refuses to cooperate any further , given the ridicule that she faced after her experiences . Back in Washington , Scully listens to a tape of hypnotic sessions in which Mulder recalls the night his sister vanished . Mulder , meanwhile , sits in a church , crying as he looks at a picture of his sister . = = Production = = The episode was filmed in British Columbia , with Buntzen Lake being used as Lake Okobogee . Several crew members became lost in the surrounding area after the van responsible for installing signage got lost itself . The mural of Ruby made up of binary code was designed by assistant art director Greg Loewen and Vivien Nishi , who hand @-@ wrote all the numbers on the mural . Co @-@ writer Howard Gordon said of the episode , " Alex [ Gansa ] and I made an effort to play to our own strength , which is character . We thought this was an interesting place to reiterate Mulder 's quest for his sister . We set out to tell a simple abduction story , which was played out behind the shadows . We wanted to create an air of tension . With everything that happened , we wanted to explain what it could be . At every point , everything can be explained . Was she taken or killed by her boyfriend , who she was seeing against her mother 's wishes ? Is it Twin Peaks or an alien abduction ? That was the theme of the show . " Gordon and Gansa were afraid that series creator Chris Carter would not like the script , but Carter liked the script and approved the episode they wrote . Gordon praised the episode 's ending , saying " I think we 're most proud of the ending : Mulder 's quest is re @-@ established ( and Daniel Sackheim directed it beautifully ) with Mulder sitting alone in a church with only his faith . The story , again , was fueled by Mulder 's belief and emotional connection with this case . Another girl taken from her family . And , in a way , the little boy who is the conduit , who is also perhaps touched by the aliens , is essentially Mulder . These little touches the fans seem to respond to . It was difficult for us , but in the end satisfying . It came out of frustration on our parts , and creative uncertainty " . Producer Glen Morgan felt that the episode 's writers , Alex Gansa and Howard Gordon , " have a better character @-@ dramatic sense " , adding that he believed the episode " really helped define Mulder " . Chris Carter felt the episode 's highlights were the ending and the realization by Scully that Mulder may not be a crackpot , feeling it was very important to the show in establishing its point of view . He also felt that the episode proved effective at highlighting that the series was told from Scully 's point of view , citing instances of the character " pulling Mulder back " from his fringe theories and emotional attachment . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Conduit " premiered on the Fox network on October 1 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 10 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 3 with an 11 share — meaning that in the US , 6 @.@ 3 percent of television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of all households actively watching television , were watching the program . It was viewed by 5 @.@ 9 million households . In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Conduit " was rated a B , with the episode being described as " excellent for background " for the series , though it was noted that Duchovny gave " a performance that makes wood look lively " . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , reviewed the episode positively , rating it a B + , feeling that the episode worked well to expand on the motivations of the two lead characters , noting that " the work done here will pay off well later " . The episode has been seen as laying the foundation for the recurrence of Fox Mulder 's obsession with finding his missing sister , which would come to be one of the main plot threads of the series . Duchovny 's portrayal of Fox Mulder in this episode has been cited as an example of the character 's reversal of traditional gender roles — his openness and vulnerability when dealing with the similarities between the Morris case and that of his sister casts him " in a pattern typically engendered as female " . He represents a break from past archetypes , with his " emotional and empathic balance " providing a contrast to previous male detectives in fiction .
= Hurricane Alma ( 1970 ) = Hurricane Alma was one of only four Atlantic tropical cyclones to reach hurricane status in the month of May . It developed on May 17 , 1970 north of Panama , and rapidly intensified on May 20 to peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , near Jamaica and the Cayman Islands . It stalled south of Cuba and deteriorated due to wind shear , and by May 22 it weakened to tropical depression status . After progressing northwestward and crossing western Cuba , Alma reorganized in the Gulf of Mexico , although continued shear prevented strengthening . It moved across Florida on May 25 , and on May 27 it dissipated off the coast of Virginia . The storm first brought gusty winds and heavy rainfall to Jamaica and the Cayman Islands . While it was weakening , Alma produced flooding in central and eastern Cuba , causing seven deaths and forcing 3 @,@ 000 people to evacuate . Moderate precipitation spread across Florida , while thunderstorms from the storm caused light damage and killed one girl . Moisture from the storm spread up the Atlantic coast . = = Meteorological history = = Late on May 17 , the US National Hurricane Center , reported that a tropical depression had formed about 470 miles ( 760 km ) to the southeast of Kingston , Jamaica . Over the next couple of days , the depression became better organized as it moved towards the northwest ; on May 19 it entered an area of favorable environmental conditions , which enabled the depression to rapidly intensify . On May 20 it strengthened into a tropical storm , at which point it was given the name Alma . That day , it rapidly strengthened under favorable developmental conditions , which included low wind shear , strong upper @-@ level outflow , and apparent eastward inflow . Later on May 20 , a Navy reconnaissance plane recorded winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , which proved to be the peak intensity of Alma . It became one of only four Atlantic hurricanes on record in the month of May . Subsequent to its peak intensity , increasing westerly shear disrupted the storm 's circulation and thermal pattern , which caused rapid weakening to tropical storm strength and later tropical depression status . By May 22 , the low pressure area became poorly defined after stalling south of Cuba ; with only a few squalls and showers , advisories were discontinued on Alma . The remnants of Alma continued westward near the Cayman Islands , and later turned to the north , passing over western Cuba . On May 24 , the low pressure area reorganized as spiral rainbands became more evident on radar , and Alma was re @-@ classified as a tropical depression . As the depression approached the Florida coast , radar imagery indicated the system remained well @-@ organized , with a spiral band structure around an eye feature ; however , wind shear limited convection and strength , and Alma moved ashore as a depression near Cedar Key on May 25 . It turned northeastward and moved across the southeastern United States , becoming extratropical in North Carolina on May 27 . After moving off the coast of Virginia , the remnants of Alma were absorbed by an approaching cold front . = = Impact = = After Alma weakened from hurricane status , it passed near the Cayman Islands on May 21 , where winds of up to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) were recorded . Gale force winds and heavy rainfall also occurred in Jamaica . Heavy rains ahead of the storm caused flash flooding in central and eastern Cuba . Seven people died as a result , and several homes were destroyed . The flooding forced the evacuation of 3 @,@ 000 people in Oriente Province . Inclement weather closed 16 sugar mills , which stalled harvesting that was already behind schedule in the country . In Florida , the remnants of Alma brought rainfall across most of the state , with some isolated areas experiencing 5 inches ( 12 @.@ 70 cm ) or more . The highest rainfall from the storm was near Miami , Florida , with 6 @.@ 66 inches ( 16 @.@ 92 cm ) of rain . The rainfall was beneficial in alleviating drought conditions , although thunderstorms caused hazardous driving conditions in the Florida Keys and elsewhere in the state . Small craft warnings were posted along the coast . One girl died from lightning in Miami , and a thunderstorm near Fort Myers damaged some roofs and outbuildings . In Saint Petersburg , flooding disrupted phonelines in about 400 households . Merritt Island experienced 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) wind gusts . In Georgia , South Carolina , North Carolina , Virginia , and Maryland , Alma dropped moderate rainfall , with some isolated areas receiving up to 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 62 cm ) . Near Columbia , South Carolina , the remnants of Alma spawned a tornado which destroyed a roof .
= Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut = Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut is an enhanced remake and director 's cut of the classic 1996 point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars developed by Revolution Software . It was released for Wii , Nintendo DS , iOS , Microsoft Windows , OS X , Android and Linux spanning 2009 to 2012 . The player assumes the roles of George Stobbart and Nicole Collard , who was a pivotal but not a playable character in the original version . After being petitioned to bring Broken Sword to the Wii and Nintendo DS , Charles Cecil and Revolution decided to create a director 's cut . Comic book artist Dave Gibbons created additional artwork for the game . The game received positive reviews from critics , and is often listed as one of the best games on the Wii , DS and iOS / Android mobile devices . It was also a commercial success , outselling the third and fourth Broken Sword installments . = = Gameplay = = Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut is a 2D adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Unlike in the original game , where George Stobbart is the only playable character , Nicole " Nico " Collard is controllable for selected game sections . As a result of its release on various platforms , the game can be played through a point @-@ and @-@ click interface , touch user interface , and Wii Remote . While certain puzzles from the original segments were simplified , new first @-@ person puzzles were also added . Hotspots are highlighted , and a diary in which the player character takes notes and a hint system is added . Some of the original game 's dialogue and cutscenes were removed , with the blood edited out of retained cutscenes . = = Plot = = The game opens in Paris , a day before the original game 's start , with journalist Nicole Collard receiving a request to go to the Palais Royale , to interview a famous media tycoon and potential candidate for President of France , Pierre Carchon . A mime hangs around outside Carchon 's home , but Nico ignores him and goes on inside the house . She meets Carchon 's wife , Imelda , as well as Carchon , who reveals that he knew Nico 's father , Thierry Collard , very well . Soon , there is a noise in the drawing room ; Carchon investigates only to be shot . Nico rushes to the scene to see the mime over Pierre 's corpse . She is knocked to the ground before she can do anything and wakes up to find Imelda going to call the police . After persuading her that she wants to find the truth and help , Imelda allows Nico to access Carchon 's room , which contains an elephant carving – the same as one Nico received from her father , who had carved it himself , and a stone cylinder , which contained a hidden letter code . On Carchon 's corpse , Nico discovers a ticket stamped " Bateaux de la Conciergerie " and goes to investigate the dock where the Conciergerie was . By using the letters on the cylinder , she discovers a secret office area where Carchon and many others met for business . After she writes her story up , her editor Ronnie tells her to drop it , at which Nico becomes angry . However , she receives a mysterious phone call from a man called Plantard , who tells her he needs to speak to her about her story . The next day , the American tourist George Stobbart witnesses a terrorist attack at a cafe in Paris , during which a clown steals an old man 's briefcase and detonates a bomb . Soon after , George meets Nicole Collard , a journalist who is photographing the scene . George investigates the area to help Nicole gather information about the attack . He finds the clown 's discarded nose and learns that a man was seen escaping with a briefcase . After Nicole discovers the address of a costume shop inside the clown nose , George learns from that shop 's owner that the nose had been purchased by a man named Khan . George travels to the hotel where Khan is staying , where he obtains an ancient manuscript from Khan 's hotel safe . After evading two hired thugs , Flap and Guido , George takes the manuscript to Nicole , who deduces that it is related to the Knights Templar . In a nearby museum , George finds a tripod that is illustrated in the manuscript . He soon travels to the excavation site in Lochmarne , Ireland where the tripod had been discovered ; and , there , he obtains a gem identical to one on the manuscript . In a Templar chapel beneath the local castle ruins , George discovers a mural of a hanged man with " Montfauçon " written underneath . Nico attempts to find out more about her father 's involvement with Carchon . She deduces quickly that Imelda is in danger and rushes to the Palais Royale to save her . Nico is too late , but the dying Imelda gives Nico a key that fits a box Nico 's father gave her . Nico opens the box and finds out the truth . Her father and Imelda were lovers , and her father worked for the government as a sort of spy against Carchon 's secret organisation , meaning that Nico 's father was " one of the good guys " ; she decided to keep this a secret and not tell anyone , as did her father , out of respect for him . George returns to Paris and learns from Andre Lobineau , a colleague of Nicole 's , that Montfauçon is a location in Paris . Flap and Guido attempt to steal the tripod from the museum ; but they are beaten to the theft by Nicole , who gives the artifact to George . In the sewers of Montfauçon , George spies on a secret meeting of people who claim to be the Templars , and he learns of their plan to find the Sword of Baphomet . After the group leaves , George uses the tripod and gem in the underground chamber to reveal the name of a village in Syria : Marib . He travels to the village and discovers that Khan has been looking for him . At a nearby rock formation called the Bull 's Head , George finds a lens and deduces that it is represented on the manuscript as a crystal ball . He also discovers an idol with three bearded faces , Baphomet ; and a Latin inscription that describes Britain . Khan arrives and holds George at gunpoint , but George manages to escape . Back in Paris , George learns from Andre that the manuscript mentions the Spanish De Vasconcellos family , who were once connected with the Templars . At the family 's villa , George speaks to the family 's sole surviving member , a Countess , who leads him to the De Vasconcellos mausoleum . There , George discovers the family 's chalice , which the Countess entrusts to George . She asks him to find her missing ancestor , Don Carlos . In Paris , George uses the lens in the church at Montfauçon and discovers a hidden image of a burning man . In the church , George find Don Carlos ' tomb , which is inscribed with a series of biblical references . Andre reveals that an idol of Baphomet has been discovered in Paris , and George gains access to the excavation . Using the chalice , he discovers an image of a church with a square tower . George returns to the Countess , and he discovers that the biblical references show a secret area inside a well containing a chessboard mural with a river running through it . Compiling their clues , George , Nicole and Andre decide that the Templars are going to Bannockburn , Scotland . George and Nicole board a train , but she and an old woman in their compartment soon go missing . He reaches the conductor 's carriage , where the old woman , Khan in disguise , throws Flap out of the carriage . However , Khan is shot and killed by another man . George and Nicole reach the church in time to see the Grand Master of the Templars acquire a power from two huge Baphomet idols — the Sword of Baphomet , or the Broken Sword . After trying to tempt George to join their ranks , the Grand Master orders the couple to be killed , but they escape with the aid of explosives . The church explodes , killing Guido , the Templars and — presumably — the Grand Master . The game ends with George and Nico on their last date on the Eiffel Tower . = = Development and marketing = = On March 21 , 2009 , Ubisoft released a " director 's cut " of The Shadow of the Templars for the Wii and Nintendo DS . According to Cecil , the Director 's Cut came about thanks to a group of Broken Sword fans , who started an online petition begging him to bring the series to the Wii and DS . Rather than only porting the original game , as he did on the Game Boy Advance , Cecil thought it was time to reward fans with something new and different – hence the Director 's Cut 's additional material . Cecil decided the game would start a day before the Parisian cafe explosion in the original game , filling in some of Nicole Collard 's back @-@ story . To this end , Cecil also drafted in the acclaimed comic book artist Dave Gibbons , with whom Revolution worked previously on their 1994 cult classic adventure Beneath a Steel Sky . In addition to working on the visual references for the game , Gibbons also produced a comic book to accompany the game 's DS release . Gibbons stated that he decided to return to video game work on this game because he knew producing character shots with a range of expressions would be challenging , and he knew he would enjoy it , based upon past experience . The game was programmed by Tony Warriner and Joost Peters . In the Director 's Cut , Hazel Ellerby returns to voice Nicole Collard in the new sections , playing Nico again for the first time since the original game 's release . Rolf Saxon , as in every sequel , also returns to voice George Stobbart . Due to the platform 's size limits , the DS version contains no spoken dialogue , only subtitles . Unlike in the original game , players control Nicole Collard for selected game sections . Besides the new character artwork by Gibbons during conversations , the Director 's Cut also features a new first person view for certain puzzles . In the DS version , there is no spoken dialogue , only subtitles . A version of the Director 's Cut for iPhone and iPod Touch was released on January 20 , 2010 . In May 2010 , a version with higher resolution and a digital comic was released on the iPad . A PC version was released on August 27 , 2010 on various digital distribution services . An Android version , which is an enhanced version of the iPhone version , was released on Google Play on June 28 , 2012 . The Wii and Nintendo DS versions of the Director 's Cut are available only in stores . The Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut Original Soundtrack was released on the iTunes Store on December 28 , 2009 . With Director 's Cut purchases on GOG.com , the consumer also receives the original game , original manual , high @-@ definition wallpapers , the soundtrack , eleven avatars , and the comic book . The comic book of the same name was created by Cecil and artist Dave Gibbons for the DS release of the Director 's Cut in March 2009 . The short comic provides a further glimpse back into Nico 's past , showing readers what happened prior to the events of her playable segments in the game . = = Reception = = Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut was met with positive reception , particularly the iOS versions . The iPad version also received highly positive reviews . According to Cecil , the game 's sales were higher than The Sleeping Dragon 's and The Angel of Death 's . In 2011 , the Director ' Cut and The Smoking Mirror – Remastered together sold around 500 thousand copies on iOS alone and had around five million downloads . VideoGamer.com called it " the best of its platform " and " a great example of the genre " , praising its " excellent plot and puzzles " , and saying it makes good use of the DS ' screens . However , the magazine stated that fans may miss the spoken dialogue . Official Nintendo Magazine UK praised the Wii version 's puzzles , story , and art direction , and complimented the new hint system , finishing with : " One of the best point @-@ and @-@ click games ever , this will appeal to both newcomers and fans " . James Woodcock said of the iPhone version : " There are quite a few point and click adventures to choose from on the Apple iTunes Store and Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars is one of the finer selections if not the best to give your heartfelt attentions to and best of all travels with you in your pocket . " He also praised its story , puzzles , writing and art direction . Slide to Play also complimented the iPad version , saying : " Broken Sword : Director 's Cut HD is a great game that nearly anyone can enjoy . Our one caveat is that if you played through it on the iPhone , then the HD version probably doesn 't offer enough new content to warrant another purchase . But if you 're new to the game or you haven 't played it in a while , this is the version to get . The iPad truly is the ideal platform for adventure games . " BeefJack praised the PC version 's , puzzles , story , characters , new content and interface , but stated that audiovisual quality of older scenes is noticeably " ropey " , that there are too many sliding tile puzzles , and that " the new jarring transition between old and new aesthetics lets it down . " The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut received several awards and nominations . It was nominated for the award for Best Story at the 2009 British Academy Video Games Awards . Pocket Gamer awarded the iPhone version the Pocket Gamer Gold Award when it was released in 2010 . The Wii and DS versions were nominated for the award for Best Port / Updated Re @-@ release at Adventure Gamers ' 2010 Aggie Awards . The iPhone version was nominated for the award for Best Adventure / RPG Game at the 2011 Pocket Gamer Awards . The Wii version won the award for Best European Adventure at the 2011 European Games Awards . = = = Awards = = = The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut received several awards and nominations . It was nominated for the award for Best Story at the 2009 British Academy Video Games Awards . Pocket Gamer awarded the iPhone version the Pocket Gamer Gold Award when it was released in 2010 . The Wii and DS versions were nominated for the award for Best Port / Updated Re @-@ release at Adventure Gamers ' 2010 Aggie Awards . The iPhone version was nominated for the award for Best Adventure / RPG Game at the 2011 Pocket Gamer Awards . The Wii version won the award for Best European Adventure at the 2011 European Games Awards . The Director 's Cut edition is often listed as one of the greatest games on the iOS , Wii , and DS . GameYum listed it as one of " The Top 5 Nintendo DS Games " in 2009 , and placed it at No. 1 on its list of " The Top 5 iPhone Adventure Games " in 2011 . In 2010 , PCWorld listed it as one of the " 25 Best iPad Games " . Pocket Gamer listed it on its lists of " Top 10 point @-@ and @-@ click adventure games on iPhone and iPad " in 2010 , " Top 10 point @-@ and @-@ click adventures for iPad " , along with The Smoking Mirror – Remastered , and " Top 10 iOS games with Game Center " in 2011 . Metacritic ranked it ninth on its list of " The Best iPhone and iPad Games of 2010 . " Trusted Reviews ranked it at number 31 on its " 100 Best iPhone Games Ever " list in 2011 . Gameranx ranked it at number 10 on its list of " Top 25 Best iOS Games " in 2011 . It is currently VideoGamer.com 's fifth @-@ best @-@ reviewed Wii adventure game and best reviewed DS adventure game of all time .
= Canterbury city walls = Canterbury city walls are a sequence of defensive walls built around the city of Canterbury in Kent , England . The first city walls were built by the Romans , probably between 270 and 280 AD . These walls were constructed from stone on top of an earth bank , and protected by a ditch and wall towers . At least five gates were placed into the walls , linked to the network of Roman roads across the region . With the collapse of Roman Britain , Canterbury went into decline but the walls remained , and may have influenced the decision of Augustine to settle in the city at the end of the 6th century . The Anglo @-@ Saxons retained the defensive walls , building chapels over most of the gates and using them to defend Canterbury against Viking incursions . The Norman invaders of the 11th century took the city without resistance , and by the 12th century the walls were ill @-@ maintained and of little military value . Fears of a French invasion during the Hundred Years ' War led to an enquiry into Canterbury 's defences in 1363 . The decision was taken to restore the city walls and for around the next thirty years the old Roman defences were freshly rebuilt in stone , incorporating the older walls where they still remained . 24 towers were constructed around the circuit , and over the coming years many of the gatehouses were rebuilt in stone and brick , defended by some of the first batteries of guns in England . Parts of the wall were deliberately damaged by Parliament during the English Civil War of the 17th century and the doors to the city 's gates burnt ; with the restoration of Charles II in 1660 , new doors were reinstalled . During the 18th and 19th centuries , Canterbury 's city walls came under extensive pressure from urban development . All the gates but one , West Gate , were destroyed and extensive parts of the walled circuit were knocked down to make way for new roads and buildings . German bombing during the Second World War caused further damage . Despite this , the remaining walls and gatehouse survived post @-@ war redevelopment intact and some portions were rebuilt entirely . Over half the original circuit survives , enclosing an area of 130 acres ( 53 ha ) , and historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham consider the city wall to be " one of the most magnificent in Britain " . = = History = = = = = 3rd – 4th centuries = = = The first city walls in Canterbury were built by the Romans . Canterbury , then called Duverovernum Cantiacorum , was initially probably defended by a small fort but had not required any other civic defences . The security situation in Britain deteriorated in the late 3rd century AD and a circuit of defensive walls were built around the city , probably between 270 and 290 . They enclosed an area of 130 acres ( 53 ha ) , cutting off the old industrial parts of the western side of the city , but incorporating a cemetery area to the south @-@ east that had formerly been outside the city boundary . New coastal forts were also built across the region at around the same time , and a headquarters for them may have been established in Canterbury . The walls were typically 7 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) inches thick and built of flint and mortar , with some limited use of larger sandstone blocks . The height of these walls is uncertain , but sections have survived that are up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high . The walls stood on a bank of earth between 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) and 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide and at least 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high , protected by a ditch , typically 59 feet ( 18 m ) wide and 16 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) deep , but in places up to 82 feet ( 25 m ) wide . A 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide cobbled berm ran between the ditch and the wall . The walls had at least five gates , typically positioned near angles in the city wall , although , judging from the location of Roman roads , it is possible that another two Roman gates may also have existed . The gates linked to the network of major roads that ran across Kent . The Riding Gate , which took its name from the red bricks with which it was built , had two protective towers and a pair of entrance arches for pedestrians and carriages , as probably did Burgate . The Worth Gate , the London Gate and the Queningate had simpler entrance arches . A sequence of square towers protected the walls , and at least one additional wall tower was constructed following the Saxon invasion of Britain in 367 . = = = 5th – 11th centuries = = = During the 5th century , Canterbury went into decline and its Roman institutions and buildings crumbled , although the city walls survived . In 597 , Augustine was sent to Kent by Pope Gregory I to convert the local population to Christianity . Augustine established Canterbury Cathedral within the city , possibly because the walled site gave them additional protection or because it was symbolically important as a former Roman city . Canterbury , now called Cantwaraburh , prospered and its population and trade increased . Much of the land within the walls had become water meadows and farmland , and an palisade may have built around the cathedral and its precinct to form a secure inner stronghold . In the late Anglo @-@ Saxon period , the internal street layout of Canterbury was remodelled , but the line of the outer walls remained the same . A cattle market was created outside the city to the south @-@ east , and Newingate , later renamed St George 's Gate , was inserted into the walls to allow easy access to it . During this the period the main axis of the city shifted from the older line of streets running from London Gate and Riding Gate , to the new route between West Gate and Newingate . A lane was built running around the inside of the walls , in a similar way to the intramural streets built around the same time at Exeter and Winchester . Churches and chapels were built over the gates , including St Mary 's above the North Gate ; the Holy Cross over West Gate ; St Michael 's over Bargate ; St Edmund 's within Riding Gate ; and , potentially , St George 's Chapel over Newingate . Canterbury 's walls were mentioned by the early chronicler , Bede , in his history of England . Despite Canterbury 's walls , a Viking army successfully attacked the city in 835 , killing many of the inhabitants . Scandinavian raids recommenced from 991 onwards and in 1011 a Danish army demanded fresh tribute from the city . The city walls were used to defend the city during an 11 @-@ day siege , and the chronicler Roger of Hoveden recounts how the attacking Danes were thrown off the tops of the walls to their deaths by the citizens . Roger 's account may be an exaggeration , but the story shows that the city walls were in sufficiently good condition for such a story to be considered plausible at the time . After a fire broke out in the city , however , the Danes entered and pillaged Canterbury . = = = 11th – 13th centuries = = = The inhabitants of Canterbury put up no resistance to the Normans during their conquest of England in 1066 . William the Conqueror instructed that a castle was to be built in the city ; Canterbury Castle was built on the south side of the city and formed part of the circuit of defence , with property being destroyed to make room for it . Despite its location along the walls , historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham have observed that the castle was not an " addition " to the defences , but more an " imposition " on the town within it . The first timber motte and bailey castle was later abandoned and a second , with a square , stone keep , built in 1123 . The Worth Gate became the south entrance to the castle site , and a new gate was put into the walls to the east for general use . In 1086 , the Domesday Book recorded that 11 houses had been built in the ditches around the city walls , which by then appear to have been in a poor condition . The encroachment was possibly the result of population pressures on the inner , walled city , as Canterbury had spread out well beyond the walls by the mid @-@ 11th century . It is unclear how the walls were maintained during this period , and by the 12th century they were in ruins and of little practical defensive value . In the late @-@ 12th century , the walls were assigned some limited royal funding through the local sheriff , probably for the maintenance of existing structures , and just over £ 5 was spent in 1166 – 67 on these repairs . Wooden " bars " had been placed outside many of the city gates to regulate the flow of traffic by the 12th century , including Riding Gate , Worth Gate and North Gate . One area of the city beyond the wall , called the baggeberi , may also have been protected by its own earthworks during the middle of the 12th century . Canterbury was divided into wards by the 12th century , although these may potentially have been created as early as the Anglo @-@ Saxon period . These administrative districts , named after the city gates , were termed berthae and were linked to maintenance and manning of the city walls . The wards took the form of segments , spreading out from the centre of the city , incorporating the relevant gate and sometimes the suburbs beyond that had spread outside the walls . By the 1160s Canterbury 's wards included Burgate , Northgate and Newingate , with the wards of Riding Gate , Worthgate and West Gate being formed by the end of the century . After the 12th century , work on the walls appears to have stopped until the second half of the 14th century . The city walls fell further into disrepair as a result . In some places , over 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of debris came to cover the remaining stonework of the old Roman walls , while in another case a building was constructed directly over the top of the former defences . = = = 14th century = = = In the early 1360s , during the Hundred Years War , there was an increased level of concern about potential French raids or invasion along the south of England . Canterbury was particularly important for the defence of the south @-@ east , as it formed a potential barrier to any invaders marching on London . An enquiry was carried out in 1363 into the state of Canterbury 's defences , which concluded that the city was in a parlous position , as " the walls of Canterbury are for the most part fallen because of age , and the stones thereof carried away , and the ditches under the walls are obstructed " . Canterbury 's bailiffs were ordered to repair the walls , with similar instructions being issued to the authorities in vulnerable cities such as Colchester , Bath and Rochester . The result was what historian Hilary Turner has described as a " well @-@ planned operation " , designed to build the walls rapidly , but which still took around 30 years to complete . The city and the cathedral authorities worked closely together on the project , an unusual situation , given the local political tensions that existed between them . Money was needed to pay for this work . During the previous century , a method of taxation had been introduced to support the creation or maintenance of city walls , called murage , which was authorised by the king and applied to trade entering a city . In total , Canterbury was assigned 31 years of murage grants for its walls , starting in 1378 , when five years of murage was granted by Richard II , along with a writ allowing them to use stonemasons from across the county . In 1379 , a new 10 @-@ year murage grant was issued . In 1385 , £ 100 from the issues of Kent was given to Canterbury , and the murage tax extended for a further five years . In the financial year of 1385 – 86 , approximately £ 619 was spent on the walls . Despite the walls , during the Peasants Revolt of 1381 , Wat Tyler and his army were able to enter Canterbury unopposed . 1399 saw another five years of murage granted , followed in 1402 by a final grant of three years . Despite this , progress was not fast enough to suit the royal authorities . Richard II ordered the city to force workmen to repair the defences , and intervened in Canterbury 's local elections in 1387 to ensure that two trusted bailiffs – Henry Lincoln and John Proude – were returned to office , in order for the King to have confidence in the walls being maintained . In 1403 , Henry IV sent messages to the city complaining that the defences were not being adequately maintained , and that the city was still insecure . = = = 15th – 16th centuries = = = A survey in 1402 suggested that most of the city was walled , except for part of the stretch between the West Gate and North Gate . In 1409 , the city 's bailiffs were allowed to acquire lands worth £ 20 a year to support the maintenance of the walls , and Canterbury was permitted to draw funding from the royal customs duties for the walls . Murage taxes in Canterbury gave way to the introduction of support through a system of rates , with each ward being tasked to raise money through local taxes on its citizens . The walls became an important symbol of the city , and 15th @-@ century art from Canterbury presents the cathedral and the city wall as having equal status as key features of the city . The resulting circuit of walls followed the line of the former Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon defences , incorporating them where they survived in good condition . Parts of the 14th century walls , for example along Burgate Lane , have been shown to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) thick at the base and built of Kentish ragstone ; other sections incorporated the original Roman wall , which was still up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high in places . The new walls had a continuous wall walk and were crenellated . Most of the circuit was protected by an external ditch . The city walls retained the older system of Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon gates . West Gate was rebuilt around 1380 by the prominent mason , Henry Yevele , an unusually prominent architect for a city wall programme . As part of this work , Holy Cross Church was moved from over the gate to a nearby site . The old Roman Riding Gate was cut through by a new archway . Defensive towers were built around the city walls , and archaeological and historical evidence suggests that there were 24 of these . The towers had a generally uniform appearance , with 16 half @-@ circular , or " horse @-@ shoe " , hollow @-@ backed towers and eight square towers . The horse @-@ shoe towers followed a fashion that had been popular from around 1260 to 1390 , making Canterbury 's towers a late example of the trend . The square towers were a newer design , and were built around the turn of the 14th and 15th century by Thomas Chillenden of Christchurch Priory . The reconstructed walls also saw the introduction of gunports . West Gate was an innovative piece of defensive design in this regard , forming a powerful battery , carefully designed to have a wide angle of covering fire . Positioning of the gunloops is similar to those at Cooling Castle , built around the same time , and gave particular focus to the left flank along North Gate , the most likely route for any attackers . Gunports in south @-@ west corner of the city walls are put at alternate heights , for overlapping fire . The first documentary record of Canterbury 's guns appears in 1403 , when it is clear that there were several kept in the West Gate . A second wave of work took place on the city walls in the late 15th century . Backed by substantial communal effort and financial contributions , Newingate was rebuilt between 1450 and 1470 , and probably closely resembled the West Gate in style . Burgate was rebuilt in brick from 1475 onwards , again thanks to public contributions , but it was not completed until 1525 , furnished with gunports and anachronistic battlements . Queningate was closed up at shortly after the 15th century , probably following the construction of a new postern gate nearby . West Gate was appointed the city gaol in 1453 by Henry VI , with Canterbury Castle serving as the county gaol . In contrast to Wat Tyler 's entrance in 1381 , in 1450 , Jack Cade and 4 @,@ 000 rebels were barred entry from the city at West Gate . In 1533 , Canterbury reacted with concern to the news of Thomas Wyatt 's rebellion in Kent ; repairs were made to the walls , guns and ammunition mobilised , and the Riding Gate was blocked up . Queen Mary later thanked the city for their efforts . = = = 17th – 19th centuries = = = By 1614 , the ditch outside the walls appears to have been partially filled in and the reclaimed land rented out . During the English Civil War , Canterbury was initially held by Parliamentary forces . In 1647 , however , riots broke out in protest over the actions of the city 's Puritan mayor and Canterbury declared its loyalty for Charles I. Parliamentary forces intervened and reoccupied the city , burning the wooden city gates and deliberately damaging , or slighting , the walls near Canterbury Castle . With the restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 , new wooden doors were installed at the West Gate . Towards the end of the 18th century , horse @-@ drawn coaches became much more common in Canterbury , which lay at the centre of a new turnpike road system . This required extensive changes to the city streets and gateways , which were typically too narrow to be easily navigated by these vehicles . By 1779 , Northgate and Burgate had been destroyed to allow wider entrances for the city . Riding Gate was demolished in 1782 , but in 1791 the local citizen James Simmons built a new , brick archway on the old foundations , which was rapidly occupied by a new house , blocking most of the gateway . An iron bridge was later built over the site of Riding Gate . The Worth Gate was demolished in 1791 and reused in a local garden , a new entrance being built in its place . Newingate 's drum towers were used as a water reservoir for the city , and the gatehouse was not demolished until 1801 . Sections of the wall were cut away to allow new roads to be built ; the walls near St Radiguns 's Public Baths were demolished in 1794 and the city wall around London Gate was demolished around 1800 . In other parts of Canterbury , the city walls became used for promenades by the more fashionable citizens . The Dane John Gardens were built between 1790 and 1803 by Simmons in the south @-@ east corner of the walls , remodelling the old castle motte , and incorporating the Roman bank and the medieval wall @-@ walk into the design . The ownership of the land was disputed , and the park was taken into the control of the city shortly after its construction . West Gate continued to be used as the city gaol , resulting in it surviving the destruction of the other city gates . When the reformer John Howard visited the gaol in the mid @-@ 1770s , he noted that it contained a large day room for male and female prisoners and two small night rooms , but no courtyard for exercise . Prison reform became an important issue during the early 19th century , and the West Gate gaol was considered unsatisfactory , being condemned as dirty , cramped and insecure , resulting in the extension of the gaol into Pound Lane and the consequent dismantling of the adjacent city wall . There was a legal attempt to demolish the West Gate altogether in 1859 , in order to allow the Wombwell Circus to march a parade of elephants into the city ; the gatehouse was only saved by the casting vote of Canterbury 's mayor . In 1865 the prison was closed and the West Gate became used first for the storage of archives and then as a museum . = = = 20th – 21st centuries = = = During the Second World War , part of the city walls near the Dane John Gardens were turned into an ammunition depot , dug into the bank of the wall . German bombing campaigns in 1942 caused extensive damage to Canterbury , including the city walls around Riding Gate . The bomb damage provided fresh opportunities for archaeological investigation , however , and work by the Canterbury Excavation Committee began in 1944 . This research disproved older theories about the shape of the Roman city walls , demonstrating that the Roman and medieval defences formed an identical circuit . In the post @-@ war years , the city walls shaped the route of Canterbury 's modern ring road system , protecting the inner core of the ancient city , despite proposals under the Holden Plan of 1945 for a radical reshaping of the city 's road network . During the 1950s , a stretch of Canterbury 's walls were reconstructed , including two circular towers , as part of the redevelopment of the St George district . In the early 1980s , the volume of traffic around the West Gate was causing damage to the structure of the building . The remaining walls and West Gate are protected under UK law as scheduled monuments and as a Grade I listed building . = = Architecture = = Canterbury 's city walls in the 21st century are a mixture of survivals from the multiple periods of building , from Roman to the 20th century , but the majority of the visible walls are medieval in origin . Over half the original circuit survives , and historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham consider it " one of the most magnificent in Britain " . Of the original 24 medieval towers along the walls , 17 remain intact , and one entranceway into the city , the West Gate , also survives . North Gate was destroyed in the 19th century , but its former location is marked by a " Cozen Stone " , a marker laid down by amateur archaeologist Walter Cozens in the interwar years . Moving clockwise around the circuit from Northgate , St Mary 's Church incorporates parts of the walls into its structure , and the original medieval crenellations can be seen in the stonework . Four square towers survive around the walls here , mostly somewhat reduced in height from their original medieval form , and with their gunports converted to windows . The outline of Queningate is marked out on the local road , and parts of the Roman wall discovered in archaeological investigations are presented in a local display . A further two towers beyond Queningate survive , complete with their original gunports . The former site of Burgate is marked by another Cozen Stone , and on the next stretch of wall , one tower survives , used for a period as a water cistern and now incorporated into the 19th century Zoar Chapel . The south @-@ east stretch of the walls beyond the former site of Riding Gate , marked by a 19th @-@ century plaque , are particularly well preserved , including the Dane John Gardens , used as a public park and decorated with sculptures . The two towers near this stretch of wall are reconstructions from the 1950s on the original medieval foundations . Another four towers survive between the former sites of Riding Gate and Wincheap Gate , one of which remains near its original height and retains its defensive crenellations . Beyond the former site of Wincheap Gate the wall has mostly been destroyed , although one tower survives , converted into a private house ; the former site of Worth Gate is marked by a memorial stone . The West Gate has survived in excellent condition , and Creighton and Higham describe it as " one of the most monumental of all examples of town gate architecture " . Constructed from ragstone and flint , it has two large circular towers at the front , but has a square @-@ facing interior ; although fireplaces were built into each tower in the 14th century , their flues were designed to be hidden from sight so as not to spoil its military appearance . The West Gate hosts a local museum and cafe . A final three towers survive on the stretch of the walls between West Gate and the former North Gate .
= Brown thrasher = The brown thrasher ( Toxostoma rufum ) is a bird in the family Mimidae , which also includes the New World catbirds and mockingbirds . The dispersal of the brown thrasher is abundant throughout the eastern and central United States , southern and central Canada , and is the only thrasher to live primarily east of the Rockies and central Texas . It is the state bird of Georgia . As a member of the genus Toxostoma , the bird is a large @-@ sized thrasher . It has brown upper parts with a white under part with dark streaks . Because of this , it is often confused with the smaller wood thrush ( Hylocichla mustelina ) , among other species . The brown thrasher is noted for having over 1000 song types , and the largest song repertoire of birds . However , each note is usually repeated in two or three phrases . The brown thrasher is an omnivore , with its diet ranging from insects to fruits and nuts . The usual nesting areas are shrubs , small trees , or at times on ground level . Brown thrashers are generally inconspicuous but territorial birds , especially when defending their nests , and will attack species as large as humans . = = Taxonomy and naming = = The brown thrasher was originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae as Turdus rufus . The species name is the Latin adjective rufus " red " . Although not in the thrush family , this bird is sometimes erroneously called the brown thrush . The name misconception could be because the word thrasher is believed to derive from the word thrush . The naturalist Mark Catesby called it the fox @-@ coloured thrush . Genetic studies have found that the brown thrasher is most closely related to the long @-@ billed and Cozumel thrashers ( T. longirostre & guttatum ) , within the genus Toxostoma . = = Description = = The brown thrasher is bright reddish @-@ brown above with thin , dark streaks on its buffy underparts . It has a whitish @-@ colored chest with distinguished teardrop @-@ shaped markings on its chest . Its long , rufous tail is rounded with paler corners , and eyes are a brilliant yellow . Its bill is brownish , long , and curves downward . Both male and females are similar in appearance . The juvenile appearance of the brown thrasher from the adult is not remarkably different , except for plumage texture , indiscreet upper part markings , and the irises having an olive color . The brown thrasher is a fairly large passerine , although it is generally moderate in size for a thrasher , being distinctly larger than the sage thrasher ( Oreoscoptes montanus ) but similar or somewhat smaller in size than the more brownish Toxostoma species found further west . Adults measure around 23 @.@ 5 to 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 9 @.@ 3 to 12 @.@ 0 in ) long with a wingspan of 29 to 33 cm ( 11 to 13 in ) , and weigh 61 to 89 g ( 2 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 1 oz ) , with an average of 68 g ( 2 @.@ 4 oz ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 9 @.@ 5 to 11 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail is 10 @.@ 9 to 14 @.@ 1 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 6 in ) , the culmen is 2 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 87 to 1 @.@ 14 in ) and the tarsus is 3 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 4 in ) . There are two subspecies : the ' brown thrasher ' ( T. rufum rufum ) , which lies in the eastern half of Canada and the United States , and the ' western brown thrasher ' ( T. rufum longicauda ( Baird , 1858 ) ) , which resides in the central United States east of the Rocky Mountains and southern central Canada . The western brown thrasher is distinguished by a more cinnamon upper part , whiter wing bars , and darker breast spots than T.rufum rufum . The lifespan of the brown thrasher depends on a year @-@ to @-@ year basis , as the rate of survival the first year is 35 % , 50 % in between the second and third year , and 75 % between the third and fourth year . Disease and exposure to cold weather are among contributing factors for the limits of the lifespan . However , the longest lived thrasher in the wild is 12 years , and relatively the same for ones in captivity . = = = Similar species = = = The similar @-@ looking long @-@ billed thrasher has a significantly smaller range . It has a gray head and neck , and has a longer bill than the brown thrasher . The brown thrasher 's appearance is also strikingly similar to the wood thrush , the bird that it is usually mistaken for . However , the wood thrush has dark spots on its under parts rather than the brown thrashers ' streaks , has dark eyes , shorter tail , and is a smaller bird . = = Distribution and habitat = = The brown thrasher resides in various habitats . It prefers to live in woodland edges , thickets and dense brush , often searching for food in dry leaves on the ground . It can also inhabit areas that are agricultural and near suburban areas , but is less likely to live near housing than other bird species . The brown thrasher often vies for habitat and potential nesting grounds with other birds , which is usually initiated by the males . The brown thrasher is a strong , but partial migrant , as the bird is a year round resident in the southern portion of its range . The breeding range includes the United States and Canada east of the Rocky Mountains , but has been occasionally spotted West of the Rockies . The increase in trees throughout the Great Plains during the past century due to fire suppression and tree planting facilitated a westward range expansion of the brown thrasher as well as range expansions of many other species of birds . Studies indicate that thrashers that reside in the New England region of the United States during the breeding season fly toward the Carolinas and Georgia , birds located in the east of the Mississippi winter from Arkansas to Georgia , and birds located in the Dakotas and the central Canadian provinces head towards eastern Texas and Louisiana . When the species does migrate , it is typically for short distances and during the night . There are also records of the bird wintering in Mexico , as well as a British record of a transatlantic vagrant . = = Behavior = = The brown thrasher has been observed either solo or in pairs . The brown thrasher is usually an elusive bird , and maintains its evasiveness with low @-@ level flying . When it feels bothered , it usually hides into thickets and gives cackling calls . Thrashers spend most of their time on ground level or near it . When seen , it is commonly the males that are singing from unadorned branches . The brown thrasher has been noted for having an aggressive behavior , and is a staunch defender of its nest . However , the name does not come from attacking perceived threats , but is believed to have come from the thrashing sound the bird makes when digging through ground debris . It is also thought that the name comes from the thrashing sound that is made while it is smashing large insects to kill and eventually eat . = = = Feeding = = = This bird is omnivorous , which has a diet that includes insects , berries , nuts and seeds , as well as earthworms , snails , and sometimes lizards and frogs . Across seasons and its breeding range , it was found 63 % of stomach contents were made of animal matter , the remaining 37 % being plant material . During the breeding season , the diet consists primarily of beetles , grasshoppers , and other arthropods , and fruits , nuts and seeds . More than 80 % of the diet of brown thrasher from Illinois is made of animal matter , about 50 % being beetles . In Iowa , about 20 % of the summer diet was found to consist of grasshoppers . By the late summer , it begins to shift towards more of a herbivore diet , focusing on fruits , nuts , seeds , and grains , 60 % of the food in Illinois being fruits and seeds . By winter , the customary diet of the brown thrasher is fruit and acorns . Wintering birds in Texas were found to eat 58 % plant material ( mainly sugar berry and poison ivy ) and 42 % animal material in October ; by March , in the dry period when food supply is generally lower , 80 % of the food became animal and only 20 % plants . Vertebrates are only eaten occasionally and are often comprised by small reptiles and amphibians , such as lizards , small or young snakes , tree frogs and salamanders . The brown thrasher utilizes its vision while scouring for food . It usually forages for food under leaves , brushes , and soil debris on the ground using its bill . It then swipes the floor in side @-@ to @-@ side motions , and investigates the area it recently foraged in . The brown thrasher forages in a similar method to the Long @-@ billed thrasher and Bendire 's thrasher ( T. longirostre & bendirei ) , picking food off the ground and under leaf litter , whereas thrashers with sharply decurved bills are more likely to dig into the ground to obtain food . Foraging success is 25 % greater in dry leaf litter as compared to damp leaf letter . The brown thrasher can also hammer nuts such as acorns in order to remove the shell . It has also been noted for its flexibility in catching quick insects , as the amount of vertebrae in its neck exceeds giraffes and camels . In one case , a brown thrasher was observed to dig a hole about 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) deep , place an acorn in it and hit the acorn until it cracked , considered to be a form of tool usage . In a laboratory experiment , a brown thrasher was found to be able to discern and reject the toxic eastern newt ( Notophthalmus viridescens ) and a palatable mimic of that species , the red salamander ( Pseudotriton ruber ) , but continued to eat palatable dusky salamanders ( Desmognathus spp . ) . = = = Breeding = = = Brown thrashers are typically monogamous birds , but mate @-@ switching does occur , at times during the same season . Their breeding season varies by region . In the southeastern United States , the breeding months begin in February and March , while May and June see the commencement of breeding in the northern portion of their breeding range . When males enter the breeding grounds , their territory can range from 2 to 10 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 to 4 @.@ 05 ha ) . Around this time of the year the males are usually at their most active , singing blaringly to attract potential mates , and are found on top of perches . The courting ritual involves the exchanging of probable nesting material . Males will sing gentler as they sight a female , and this enacts the female to grab a twig or leaf and present it to the male , with flapping wings and chirping sounds . The males might also present a gift in response and approach the female . Both sexes will take part in nest building once mates find each other , and will mate after the nest is completed . The female lays 3 to 5 eggs , that usually appears with a blueish or greenish tint along with reddish @-@ brown spots . There are rare occurrences of no spots on the eggs . The nest is built twiggy , lined with grass , leaves , and other forms of dead vegetation . The nests are typically built in a dense shrub or low in a tree , usually up to 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) high , but have built nests as high as 6 m ( 20 ft ) . They also on occasion build nests on the ground . Between eleven days to two weeks , the eggs hatch . Both parents incubate and feed the young , with the female doing most of the incubating . Nine to thirteen days after hatching , the nestlings begin to fledge . These birds raise two , sometimes even three , broods in a year . The male sings a series of short repeated melodious phrases from an open perch to declare his territory , and is also very aggressive in defending the nest , known to strike people and animals . = = = Vocal development = = = The male brown thrasher may have the largest song repertoire of any North American bird , which has been documented at least over 1 @,@ 100 . Some sources state that each individual has up to 3 @,@ 000 song phrases , while others stated beyond 3 @,@ 000 . The males ' singing voice usually contains more of a melodic tone than that of the related grey catbird . Its song are coherent phrases that are iterated no more than three times , but has been done for minutes at a time . By the fall , the male sings with smoother sub @-@ songs . During the winter , the males may also sing in short spurts during altercations with neighboring males . In the birds ' youth , alarm noises are the sounds made . As an adult , the brown thrasher has an array of sounds it will make in various situations . Both male and females make smack and teeooo @-@ like alarm calls when provoked , and hijjj sounds at dust and dawn . Others calls may consist of an acute , sudden chakk , rrrrr , a Tcheh sound in the beginning that ends with an eeeur , kakaka , and sounds reminiscent of a stick scraping a concrete sidewalk . Brown thrashers are noted for their mimicry ( as a member of the family Mimidae ) , but they are not as diverse in this category as their relative the northern mockingbird . However , during the breeding season , the mimicking ability of the male is at its best display , impersonating sounds from tufted titmice ( Baeolophus bicolor ) , northern cardinals ( Cardinalis cardinalis ) , wood thrushes , northern flickers ( Colaptes auratus ) , among other species . = = Predation and threats = = Although this bird is widespread and still common , it has declined in numbers in some areas due to loss of suitable habitat . Despite the decrease , the rate does not warrant a status towards vulnerable . One of the natural nuisances is the parasitic brown @-@ headed cowbird ( Molothrus ater ) , but these incidents are rare . Whenever these situations occur , the brown thrashers usually discard of the cowbirds ' eggs . Occasionally , the thrasher has thrown out their own eggs instead of the cowbird eggs due to similar egg size , and at least one recorded event raised a fledgling . Northern cardinals and grey catbirds are also major competitors for thrashers in terms of territorial gain . Because of the apparent lack of opportunistic behavior around species like these , thrashers are prone to be driven out of zones for territory competition . Brown thrashers have tendencies to double @-@ brood or have failures on their first nesting attempts due to predation . Grey catbirds have been seen invading brown thrashers ' nests and breaking their eggs . Other than the catbird , snakes , birds of prey , and cats are among the top predators of the thrasher . In Kansas , at least eight species of snake were identifieid as potentially serious sources of nest failure . Among the identified avian predators of adults are Cooper 's hawks ( Accipiter cooperii ) , northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) , broad @-@ winged hawks ( Buteo platypterus ) , merlins ( Falco columbarius ) , peregrine falcons ( Falco peregrinus ) , eastern screech @-@ owls ( Megascops asio ) , great horned owls ( Bubo virginianus ) barred owls ( Strix varia ) and long @-@ eared owls ( Asio otus ) . The brown thrasher methods of defending itself include using its bill , which can inflict significant damage to species smaller than it , along with wing @-@ flapping and vocal expressions . = = State bird = = The brown thrasher is the state bird of Georgia . The brown thrasher also was the inspiration for the name of Atlanta 's former National Hockey League team , the Atlanta Thrashers .
= The Boat Race 1986 = The 132nd Boat Race took place on 29 March 1986 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge won by seven lengths and took their first victory in eleven years , in one of the fastest winning times in the history of the event . Isis won the reserve race , while Oxford were victorious in the Women 's Boat Race . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by four @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in the previous year 's race . However Cambridge held the overall lead , with 68 victories to Oxford 's 62 , despite Oxford having won the previous ten races . The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race . The race was sponsored by Ladbrokes for the tenth consecutive year , estimated to be worth about £ 30 @,@ 000 to each boat club , and was umpired by former Cambridge rower Mike Sweeney . = = Crews = = The Oxford crew weighed an average of over 5 pounds ( 2 @.@ 3 kg ) per rower more than Cambridge . Cambridge 's crew featured only two rowers over the age of 24 while Oxford had just three men under 25 . Oxford saw three Blues return while Cambridge welcomed back four . The Cambridge crew featured three international rowers , two Canadians in Gibson and Wilson , and the American Pew . Oxford 's MacDonald was the oldest in the race at the age of 30 , he was accompanied in the boat by international rowers Clark and Livingstone from the United States and Jones from Australia . Dan Topolski was the Oxford coach while Cambridge relied on Alan Inns and Canadian Olympic coach Neil Campbell . Cambridge were clear favourites to win , but prior to the race , Topolski claimed his crew had " pulled themselves back into contention by sheer hard work . " = = Races = = Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . The predicted severe wind did not materialise and from the start , Cambridge pulled ahead . A half @-@ length lead by the end of Putney boathouses became a two length lead by Hammersmith Bridge , and Cambridge 's cox Burton steered towards the safer Surrey side , extending Cambridge 's lead to 14 seconds by Chiswick Steps . Continuing to pull away , Cambridge passed the finishing post 21 seconds and seven lengths ahead of Oxford . It was the sixth fastest time in the history of the race . This was Cambridge 's first victory in eleven years and took the overall record to 69 – 62 in favour of Cambridge . In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by six lengths , while Oxford won the 41st Women 's Boat Race . = = Reaction = = The trophy was presented by former Cambridge student Prince Edward . Cambridge stroke John Pritchard said " After our initial start we built up for 20 strokes , steadied and then just grinded away . " He added " I was just stirring the tea while the others did the work . " Cambridge cox Carole Burton noted " I went where I wanted to go . " Oxford 's Jones remarked " we were as well prepared as last year but we found no magic . " Topolski conceded that even had Oxford been at their best , they would still have lost the race .
= Chapter 27 = Chapter 27 is a 2007 biographical film depicting the murder of John Lennon by Mark David Chapman . It was written and directed by Jarrett Schaefer , based on the book Let Me Take You Down by Jack Jones , produced by Robert Salerno , and stars Jared Leto as Chapman . The film takes place in December 1980 , and is intended to be an exploration of Chapman 's psyche . As an independent production , it was picked up for distribution by Peace Arch Entertainment and premiered at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival where it received polarized reactions from critics . It later went into limited theatrical release in the United States on March 28 , 2008 . Chapter 27 was cited as one of the most controversial films of 2007 . It won the Debut Feature Prize for Schaefer at the Zurich Film Festival , where Leto also received the Best Performance award for his portrayal of Chapman . The similar film The Killing of John Lennon was released the previous year , produced in the United Kingdom , and dealt more extensively with Chapman 's life prior to the shooting than Chapter 27 . = = Plot = = On December 8 , 1980 , Mark David Chapman shocked the world by murdering 40 @-@ year @-@ old musician and activist , John Lennon , outside The Dakota , his New York apartment building . Chapman 's motives were fabricated from pure delusion , fueled by an obsession with the fictional character Holden Caulfield and his similar misadventures in J.D. Salinger 's The Catcher in the Rye . In one instant , an anonymous , socially awkward and mentally unstable 25 @-@ year @-@ old fan of The Beatles , who had fluctuated between idealizing Lennon and being overcome with a desire to kill him , altered the course of the history of music . A man whose painfully restless mind thrashes about uncontrollably between paranoia , sociopathic lying and delusion is summed up in such character revealing comments as " I 'm too vulnerable for a world full of pain and lies " and " Everyone is cracked and broken . You have to find something to fix you . To give you what you need . To make you whole again . " From his lies to cab drivers ( identifying himself as The Beatles ' sound engineer ) to his socially unacceptable behavior around Jude , a young fan he meets outside The Dakota , to his argument with paparazzi photographer Paul , Chapman keeps the psychoses bubbling below the surface as his grasp on reality deteriorates into a completely misguided rage . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = The real Mark David Chapman is currently incarcerated at Wende Correctional Facility , on a guilty plea . Aside from two interviews with Larry King and Barbara Walters , both in 1992 , he has not spoken with the media . However , Chapman did reveal the mechanics of his unraveling during those three days in New York City to journalist Jack Jones . The interviews were published in 1992 as Let Me Take You Down : Inside the Mind of Mark David Chapman , a book of Chapman 's recollections of his act of violence . Chapter 27 is based on this text . The title " Chapter 27 " suggests a continuation of J. D. Salinger 's novel The Catcher in the Rye , which has 26 chapters , and which Chapman was carrying when he shot John Lennon . Chapman was obsessed with the book , to the point of attempting to model his life after its protagonist , Holden Caulfield . According to the British music magazine Mojo , the title was also inspired by Chapter 27 of Robert Rosen 's book Nowhere Man : The Final Days of John Lennon ( 2000 ) . Rosen 's book explores the numerological meaning of the number 27 , " the triple 9 " , a number of profound importance to John Lennon . Lennon was deeply interested in numerology , particularly Cheiro 's Book of Numbers , along with nine and all its multiples . It was Chapman ’ s goal , according to Rosen , to write Chapter 27 " in Lennon ’ s blood " . Like Chapman , Schaefer is a fan of both The Beatles and J.D. Salinger 's novel The Catcher in the Rye , and said he began the script to try to understand " how someone could be inspired to kill anyone as a result of being exposed to this kind of beautiful art . It really bothered me , because Lennon and Salinger have always made me feel so much better , and so much less alone . " = = = Casting = = = The script took Schaefer four years to write , but when it was finished , the film came together quickly . With the help of producers Alexandra Milchan and Robert Salerno , Schaefer cast Jared Leto as Mark David Chapman . For his role , Leto gained 67 pounds ( 30 kg ) by drinking microwaved pints of ice cream mixed with soy sauce and olive oil every night . Gaining the weight , he said , was tougher than dieting himself into skeletal shape for his role as drug addict Harry Goldfarb in Requiem for a Dream ( 2000 ) . The abruptness of Leto 's weight gain gave him gout . He had to use a wheelchair due to the stress of the sudden increase in weight put on his body . After the shooting of the film , Leto quickly went on a liquid diet . He explained , " I 've been fasting ever since . I 've been doing this very strange , like , lemon and cayenne pepper and water fast . I didn 't eat any food for 10 days straight ; I think I lost 20 pounds that first 10 days . " Losing the excess weight after Chapter 27 proved a challenge . " It took about a year to get back to a place that felt semi @-@ normal , " he said ; " I don 't know if I 'll ever be back to the place I was physically . I 'd never do it again ; it definitely gave me some problems . " Twenty @-@ two years prior to this film 's production , actor Mark Lindsay Chapman , while professionally using the name Mark Lindsay , had been almost cast as John Lennon in the biopic John and Yoko : A Love Story ( 1985 ) . Yoko Ono had been deeply involved in the production and had herself been initially impressed with his audition and approved his casting prior to discovering his full name was Mark Lindsay Chapman . She then nixed his casting on the grounds it was " bad karma " , and a great deal of press attention was given to his having almost gotten the role . The director of Chapter 27 , Jarrett Schaefer , auditioned many Lennon impersonators , but was especially impressed with Mark Lindsay Chapman 's tape because he conveyed the " tough town " street @-@ smart quality of Lennon that the impersonators failed to convey , as they always played Lennon as larger @-@ than @-@ life . Schaefer described Lennon as having a " chip on his shoulder and always cracking these cynical one @-@ liners " , and felt that actor Chapman was best at conveying this quality . Schaefer had some difficulty negotiating the casting with the film 's producers because of Chapman 's name . After Chapman was cast , he asked Chapman how he should be billed to which Chapman replied " Mark fucking Lindsay Chapman . That 's my fucking name . " Schaefer remarks that this was so reflective of how Lennon talked , it just reinforced his sense that Chapman was right for the part . = = = Filming = = = The film began shooting in Manhattan , New York in 2006 . " I don 't have much to compare it to , but the challenges were daunting , " said Schaefer , who directed several sequences outside The Dakota , the site of Lennon 's assassination . " I had to go into a place that was very sensitive to our story , with trucks , a crew , and a limited amount of time . It wasn 't easy . " " It was important to Jarrett that we didn 't glorify this event , " said Salerno . " He didn 't want to shoot any of the scenes with John Lennon at The Dakota out of respect for the residents that were there at the time John was killed , so all of that footage was shot separately at another location that we were able keep closed and controlled . " These scenes were shot at the Steiner Studios in Brooklyn . = = Release = = The studio held Chapter 27 's world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2007 . The film was subsequently screened at the Berlin International Film Festival , Athens Film Festival , Festroia International Film Festival , Waterfront Film Festival , Mediterranean Film Festival , Stockholm International Film Festival , Oslo International Film Festival and the Denver Film Festival . The Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) gave the film a Restricted rating for language and some sexual content . Chapter 27 had a limited release in the United States on March 28 , 2008 and earned $ 13 @,@ 910 in a single theater over the opening weekend . The film 's revenues increased by 11 @.@ 4 % in its second weekend in domestic markets , earning $ 15 @,@ 500 in five theaters . Chapter 27 grossed $ 56 @,@ 215 in the United States and $ 131 @,@ 273 overseas . In total , the film has grossed $ 187 @,@ 488 worldwide . Its international releases include Mexico ( $ 107 @,@ 443 ) , Portugal ( $ 20 @,@ 433 ) , and France ( $ 3 @,@ 397 ) . Chapter 27 was released on DVD on April 28 , 2008 in the United Kingdom . In the United States , it was released on the same formats on July 1 , 2008 in exclusives , and everywhere September 30 , 2008 . The British edition contains a making @-@ of and the trailer of the film , while the American edition includes only a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes . = = Critical reception = = When Chapter 27 premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , the film was debated fiercely by critics . A website reported , " the audience 's reactions made it obvious that some people would love it and others would not . " Andrew O 'Hehir from Salon wrote , " Some viewers may well find Chapter 27 sleazy or distasteful , and I won 't argue the point . But Schaefer 's movie creates its own highly compelling world , which is pretty much the prime directive in filmmaking . " He stated that " Leto almost makes you feel how it happened , " and called his acting a " highly compelling performance on many levels . " He also enjoyed Lohan 's performance . Duane Byrge of The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " Chapter 27 is a smart attempt to distill the twisted psychology and motivation of Mark David Chapman , which we 've all superficially gleaned through mass @-@ media reports and intermittent updates on Chapman 's incarceration . " He praised Leto 's acting saying , " Jared Leto is mesmeric as the bloated , deranged Chapman . It 's a brilliantly measured performance , evincing the tale of a madman through his own awful rhyme and reason . " He also praised Schaefer 's direction , the other cast and crew . Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three out of four stars saying , " By the end of this modest , strange venture , Leto made me believe it was worth being forced to hang out on the sidewalk with this man , if only to get a creeping sense of what that might 've been like . " Upon the film 's theatrical release , Richard Roeper wrote , " This is a very tough film to watch , especially for Beatles fans that worshipped Lennon , but it does provide a thought @-@ provoking take on the inner workings of Mark David Chapman 's twisted mind . " San Francisco Chronicle 's Joel Selvin praised Schaefer 's direction writing , " The film is impressively mounted and Schaefer has made a directorial debut of distinction , but it is an uncomfortable ride from the opening scenes of Chapman arriving in New York to the inevitable , inexorable final scene . " He also called Leto 's performance utterly convincing . Rex Reed gave the film a positive review writing , " Even if you are only moderately curious about the events that led up to the pointless death of a musical icon , I think you 'll find it a film of arm @-@ twisting fascination . " He praised Leto calling him unforgettable and writing , " it is the pulverizing concentration and almost somnambulistic intensity of Jared Leto that gives the film its life and pulse . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B saying , " Chapter 27 is far from flawless , but Leto disappears inside this angry , mouth @-@ breathing psycho geek with a conviction that had me hanging on his every delusion . " Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News described Chapter 27 as " a claustrophobic drama that gets uncomfortably into the head of Mark David Chapman , " and praised Leto saying , " Leto 's drawling , blotchy , creepy performance sets it apart . " Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 18 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 47 reviews . The critical consensus is : " Despite Jared Leto 's committed performance , Chapter 27 fails to penetrate to mind of Mark David Chapman , John Lennon 's killer . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 based on reviews from film critics , the film has a rating score of 32 % , aggregating 19 reviews . = = Accolades = = = = Cultural impact = = Chapter 27 was one of the most controversial films of the 2000s . In April 2006 , an on @-@ line petition group calling themselves Boycottchapter27.org campaigned to " pressurise ( sic ) movie theatres not to show the film , to stop the glorification of a murderer . " Lennon 's widow , Yoko Ono , expressed her thought saying , " This is another thing which will hurt me , I 'm sure . I would rather not make a story out of Mr. Chapman at all , although I sympathize with the actors . They need to work . It 's not just films , you 're always talking about it [ Lennon 's murder ] . " Sean Lennon , Lennon 's son , has gone on record calling the production and making of the film , including Lindsay Lohan 's involvement with it , " tacky . " Lennon also stated that Lohan understood his feelings and , despite his criticism , they were friends and he did not want to hurt her feelings . The film received substantial accolades from critics who praised the depiction of the mental state of Mark David Chapman , in the days leading up the murder of John Lennon in December 1980 .
= Development of Red Dead Redemption = The development of Red Dead Redemption began in 2005 . Rockstar Games published Red Dead Redemption on May 18 , 2010 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . One of their studios , Rockstar San Diego , oversaw the work , sharing it with other studios around the world . The development team considered the game a spiritual successor to Red Dead Revolver . Red Dead Redemption was delayed numerous times through its four @-@ year development , often attributed to technological problems . The working hours and managerial style of the studio during development was met with public complaints from staff members . Red Dead Redemption was officially announced in 2009 ; it was heavily promoted and widely anticipated . Rockstar improved their proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) to increase its animation and draw distance rendering capabilities . The game uses the Euphoria and Bullet engines for further animation and environment rendering tasks . The developers felt inspired to create the game after realising the potential power of both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , having exhausted the use of older hardware on previous projects . The development team conducted extensive research , visiting historical American landmarks and analyzing classic Western films , to achieve realism while creating the game . The game 's open world , set in New Austin , Nuevo Paraíso and West Elizabeth , represents iconic features of the American frontier , in which the game is set . In Red Dead Redemption , players mainly control former outlaw John Marston as he sets out to bring his former gang to justice . The team used motion capture to record the body movements of the characters and hired professional actors to provide voices . Red Dead Redemption features an original score composed over fifteen months by two music producers . Collaboratively , the duo composed over fourteen hours of music , which scores the game 's missions . = = Production = = Preliminary work on Red Dead Redemption began in 2005 ; full development commenced in 2006 , following the formation of a core development team . Rockstar San Diego co @-@ opted a number of other studios owned by parent company Rockstar Games to facilitate development between a full team of over 800 . Media analysts estimated the development budget for the game was between US $ 80 million and US $ 100 million , making Red Dead Redemption one of the most expensive video games ever made . = = = Story and setting = = = Red Dead Redemption primarily takes place in 1911 . The team chose this time period as they felt that exploring the transformation from " the old West " into the modern world was intriguing . Taking inspiration from The Wild Bunch ( 1969 ) , High Plains Drifter ( 1973 ) Unforgiven ( 1992 ) and The Proposition ( 2005 ) , the team felt that most Western fiction takes place between 1840 and 1880 . Game designer and writer Christian Cantamessa explained that the " overarching theme is the ' Death of the West ' rather than the more conventional ' Myth of the West ' that is often seen in the classic John Wayne films " . The team felt that " a classic ' we are conquering this wilderness ' story " was not very interesting in itself , but adding the transformation of the world during the game 's time period sparked their interest . The allusions to politics throughout the narrative are supposed to represent the darker undertones surrounding the foundations of the American Dream . In addition , the game itself exhibits qualities relating to the movement from a " violent freedom " to a situation of " overt state control " , told through a story of innocence and freedom . Vice President for Creativity Dan Houser made parallels with this representation , and the more recent predicament of the modern society of America . Houser also expressed the difficulty in balancing the game 's narrative to avoid feeling both " camp " and " pompous " ; he explained that balancing the two while maintaining realism was where the difficulty spawned . With the story , Houser felt that it does not fully represent the racial attitudes commonly associated with the game 's era . He stated that this was a choice made by the designers due to the unpleasantness of the attitudes . " [ T ] he language people use to describe other races is insanely offensive to modern ears and we hint at that but we maybe don 't do it with quite the vibrancy that people use in some of our research , " he explained . The team focused more on the combination of old and modern America , and the change that was experienced during this period . In terms of the violence depicted throughout the game , Houser spoke about the team 's need for it to feel " slightly raw and unpleasant " ; they tried to achieve realism without exaggerating . The team were hoping for players to display an " emotional response " from the game , and for them to feel immersed in the game world and time period . When designing the game 's fictional locations , the team tried to represent iconic features of the American frontier ; New Austin features small towns and outposts , Nuevo Paraíso includes rebel outposts and Mexican army forts , and Port Elizabeth represents the civilized areas of the world . These three locations represent a developing nation , a province on the brink of war , and an advanced nation , respectively . The American frontier was extensively researched for the game . The team organized field trips to Washington , visited the Library of Congress , captured a multitude of photographs , and analyzed various classic Western films . A challenge that the team faced as a direct result of the world 's size was to include enough content to interest players . Using this challenge as a strength and a major part of the design process , the team tried to make the countryside wild , with a variety of potential events to occur . They initially believed that it was possible to use the formula of Grand Theft Auto IV ( 2008 ) — a large variety of mission styles with different activities and objectives — in Red Dead Redemption ; as development continued , they realized that the emptiness of the world resulted in the inability to use this formula . = = = Character development = = = Red Dead Redemption required a large amount of voice work in order to feel alive . The team felt that the amount of voice work required for Redemption had been previously achieved in Grand Theft Auto IV , with prior experience to such amounts dating back to Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas ( 2004 ) and Bully ( 2006 ) . To cast the characters , the team held auditions ; until actors were officially signed to the project , it was only known as an " untitled video game project " , for secrecy . In the game , Rob Wiethoff portrayed John Marston , Jim Bently portrayed Edgar Ross , Steve J. Palmer portrayed Bill Williamson , Benjamin Byron Davis portrayed Dutch van der Linde , Kimberly Irion portrayed Bonnie MacFarlane , and Josh Blaylock portrayed Jack Marston . Rockstar displayed care in the direction of the voice work for the game ; full @-@ time specialist directors were employed to ensure success in the game 's dialogue . The performances of the actors were mostly recorded using motion capture technology , with additional dialogue and sound effects recorded in a studio . In Red Dead Redemption , the team wanted to create a story that mixed with the game 's mechanics to result in a fun and organic experience . As the story developed , a range of characters were organically created based on the period . " The stories are there to serve the game , " Houser explained . The character of John Marston was developed to be a " family man " . The team developed him as a nuanced character , as opposed to a straightforward hero or villain , in order to provide an interesting experience . Wiethoff considered Marston to be very determined about his goals . " He was a man about things , " Wiethoff remarked . Technical director Ted Carson felt that Marston became interesting due to the combination of cynicism and realism . Wiethoff felt that Marston was aware that his past actions were " wrong " , resulting in his attempt to abandon his former life . He stated that Marston 's early decisions in his life were a direct result of his need for acceptance . " I don 't know if he knew that what he was doing was wrong or not , " Wiethoff said . Palmer felt that the characters of Marston and Williamson represented siblings in their former gang , while Dutch was more of a parental figure . He stated that Williamson is envious of Marston , despite Marston being his " moral anchor " . Palmer also felt that , after Marston left the gang , Williamson 's life began to " tailspin " uncontrollably . " [ A ] s John grew into a man who conquered by achieving , Bill fell into a man who achieved simply by conquering , " said Palmer . The character of Edgar Ross was partly inspired by lawyer and political activist Charles Joseph Bonaparte , while the in @-@ game Mexican Revolution of Nuevo Paraíso was somewhat based on the Plan de San Diego . When developing other characters , the team was inspired by various historical figures of the 20th century , including Frank James , Pearl Hart and Tom Horn . In terms of the random non @-@ player character ( NPC ) dialogue , Houser felt that Redemption sits between Bully , in which NPCs remember the protagonist , and Grand Theft Auto , in which NPCs are unaware of the protagonist 's identity . " [ T ] here are countryside environments and people are to some extent bored so they 're looking for thing [ s ] to talk about so your actions get spoken about and people are aware of you more , " said Houser . = = = Technical and gameplay development = = = Like other projects since Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis ( 2006 ) , the game uses the proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) to perform animation and rendering tasks , and the Euphoria and Bullet engines for further animation and environment rendering tasks . Carson said that Euphoria provides " a physically based character performance system " that is " tightly integrated into RAGE 's proprietary physics engine " . Though the scope of the open world was initially a large challenge from a technical viewpoint , the team used it to their advantage . Overhauling the potential processing power of RAGE allows the game to create a high level of detail , including realistic animations and detailed textures . The technology that became available to Rockstar inspired them to begin development . The potential power of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 experienced through the development kits motivated the team to create a game that could fully render the countryside , which was difficult to achieve on previous hardware . Houser felt that primitive technology prevented game developers to create a game that " really did justice " to the Wild West . As an example , he referred to the animation of a lasso . " [ I ] t seems easy but we 've only now got the power to do that kind of stuff , " he said . Houser felt that previous Western games represented one specific aspect of the period , while Redemption attempts to represent all features . In developing the objects and surfaces of the game 's world , the team utilized a variety of textures and lighting effects . They also found difficulty in creating a realistic representation of nature ; " [ computers ] don 't draw curves , but nature is all about curves " , Houser explained . The game was envisioned to improve the core mechanics of Red Dead Revolver ( 2004 ) , to which Redemption is a spiritual successor , by scaling it up to the standard of other Rockstar games . The fundamental goal for the game was to maintain the shooting mechanic and expand on other game features ; like Revolver , the game 's weapons were inspired by real weaponry . Carson explained that the team attempted to achieve realism with every feature of the game , including the horses , lassos , animal ecosystem , and the open world . To assure that the horse movements were as realistic as possible , the team motion captured a stunt horse , recording all movement . This created various problems ; a gesture used by the stunt rider to communicate with the production team while on the horse was also the same command that made the horse rear . Furthermore , creating the horse 's skeletal and muscular systems also presented a problem , and took several years to overcome . In the early stages of development , Rockstar decided which elements from Red Dead Revolver could be carried over ; beyond the Dead Eye feature and the Western setting , very few other features remained . While Revolver represented many myths and iconic images of the American frontier , in Redemption the team tried to represent the reality of the time period . The tone of Redemption was aimed to be a combination of the primitive Wild West and early 20th century America ; with the latter , America was developing into a modern and contemporary society , which the team tried to portray . In addition , while they felt that Revolver was constrained by its level @-@ based structure , the team saw potential in creating a game similar to that of Rockstar 's Grand Theft Auto series , in terms of quality , scope and detail . = = = Music production = = = Red Dead Redemption is one of the first games by Rockstar to use an original score . Music supervisor Ivan Pavlovich has cited the large scale of the game as one of the largest difficulties when producing the score . He said that , in order to achieve an effective gaming experience , the game could not solely feature licensed music , like previous Rockstar games . " We figured we 'd need to write an original score , " Pavlovich said . To work on the score , Rockstar engaged Bill Elm and Woody Jackson , member and former member of Friends of Dean Martinez , respectively . In collaboration with each other , the duo composed over fourteen hours of music , which scores the game 's missions , across fifteen months . The original score and subsequent album were both recorded and mixed at Jackson 's personal recording studio in Los Angeles , and mastered at Capitol Studios . Following the recording , Irish producer and composer David Holmes listened to the original score , and subsequently spent three weeks compiling fifteen instrumental tracks that could be used as standalone songs for the game 's official soundtrack . Holmes attempted to make the soundtrack representative of the variety of sounds and moods in the game . Four vocal performances were also recorded for use in the soundtrack . Recorded at 130 beats per minute in A minor , most of songs featured are constructed from stems in the game 's dynamic soundtrack . A mix of modern instruments and those featured in traditional Western films , such as the jaw harp , were used . Creative uses of instruments were used to bring unique sounds , such as playing a trumpet onto the surface of a timpani drum . Rockstar also consulted musicians who played traditional Western instruments ; harmonica player Tommy Morgan , who had been featured on several films over his 60 @-@ year career , provided traditional harmonica segments for the game . Beyond trumpets , nylon guitars and accordions , the composers incorporated other instruments , such as flutes and ocarinas . When researching music for inspiration , Jackson found that there was no " Western sound " in 1911 ; he felt that the soundtracks of 1960s Western films , such as Ennio Morricone 's work on the Dollars Trilogy , was more representative of Western music . In appropriating the score to the game 's setting , Elm commented that the process was initially " daunting " , taking a long time to discover how the music was to work in an interactive way . From the beginning of development , the sound development team wished to achieve authenticity in the game 's sounds . After the art department sent artwork to the sound department , the latter were inspired to achieve realism , researching all sounds that were to be used in the game . Throughout development , sound editors often presented ideas , which would then be effortlessly achieved by the audio programmers . In the three main areas of the game world , there are unique ambiences ; these are broken down into smaller sounds , such as bugs and animals , which are further refined to reflect the weather and time . The sound department was given specific instructions for the tone of game locations ; for example , Thieves ' Landing was to feel " creepy " and " off @-@ putting " . The sounds of the game 's weapons were also intricately developed ; in order to feel as realistic as possible , each weapon has a variety of similar firing sounds . The development of the game 's Foley began with a week @-@ long session , where two Foley artists from Los Angeles were sent to record thousands of sounds relating to the game 's setting . The sound department also spent time on specific gameplay elements ; Dead Eye was meant to sound " organic " as opposed to " sci @-@ fi or electronic " , while animals — a feature that the team found challenging — was to immerse players in the experience . For the final sound mix , audio director Jeffrey Whitcher and lead sound designer Matthew Smith worked together to balance and blend the three main aspects of the soundtrack : dialogue , sound effects , and music . Smith coded systems to blend the three aspects , in order to keep the mix " dynamic " . = = Business = = = = = Announcement = = = An early trailer for Red Dead Redemption was sent to a select number of people at a Sony conference in 2005 , promoting the release of the PlayStation 3 . The trailer was a technology demonstration of the Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) . It was referred to as " Old West Project " , and a sequel to Red Dead Revolver . The trailer circulated throughout the Internet . On February 3 , 2009 , Rockstar Games officially announced Red Dead Redemption . The April 2009 edition of Game Informer confirmed that the game would be released for the PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Microsoft Windows ; Rockstar later confirmed that this listing was a mistake , and that the game would not be released for Windows . On November 25 , 2009 , Rockstar confirmed Red Dead Redemption would be released in April 2010 . On March 4 , 2010 , Rockstar pushed the release date back to May 2010 , citing the " optimal time frame " for release . = = = Promotion = = = The game was extensively marketed through video trailers and press demonstrations . On December 1 , 2009 , the debut trailer , titled " My Name is John Marston " , was released . It depicted several scenes from the game , introducing main protagonist John Marston ( Rob Wiethoff ) . On December 15 , 2009 , the first in a series of gameplay videos , titled " Introduction " , was released . It was the first footage to showcase the gameplay of Red Dead Redemption . The second in this series , titled " Weapons & Death " , was released on January 28 , 2010 , particularly focusing on the game 's weapons . On February 11 , 2010 , a new trailer was released . Titled " The Law " , the trailer introduced the characters who are a part of the law , including Marshal Leigh Johnson and Edgar Ross . This was followed by a new video on February 24 , 2010 , titled " The Women : Sinners , Saints & Survivors " , which focused on the female characters of the game . A trailer for the game 's exclusive pre @-@ order content was released on March 16 , 2010 . The third in the series of gameplay videos , titled " Life in the West " , was released on March 19 , 2010 . It focused on the activities available for players in the game . The game 's cover art was revealed on March 22 , 2010 , followed by a video titled " Gentlemen & Vagabonds " on March 24 , focusing on some of the male characters of the game . The game was exhibited at PAX in March 2010 . An exclusive gameplay demonstration was available at the Red Dead Redemption booth . The fourth gameplay video , titled " Life in the West Part II " , was released on April 2 , 2010 . It further showcased the activities available in the game . This was followed by " Multiplayer Free Roam " on April 8 , 2010 and " Multiplayer Competitive Modes " on April 22 , 2010 , both of which displayed exclusive footage from the online multiplayer mode of the game . From April 27 , 2010 , a trailer for the game was aired as a television commercial in the United States . A further video for the game , titled " Revolution " , was released on May 7 , 2010 . It focused on the Mexican characters of the game . Red Dead Redemption was the focus of the May 7 , 2010 episode of GameTrailers TV with Geoff Keighley , featuring exclusive gameplay footage of the game . The final pre @-@ launch trailer was released on May 13 , 2010 . Viral marketing strategies were used to market the game . The official Red Dead Redemption website was redesigned on March 16 , April 14 , April 21 , April 26 , May 10 , and May 12 , 2010 . To encourage pre @-@ order sales , Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to provide pre @-@ order bonuses . These included an exclusive outfit , weapon and horse for players to use in the game . The game 's official soundtrack was also offered as a pre @-@ order bonus . To promote the game , some pieces of artwork depicting the characters were painted as murals in some cities . Art depicting the game was featured on NASCAR driver Joey Logano 's car in April and June 2010 . A machinima short film , titled Red Dead Redemption : The Man from Blackwater , aired on the television network Fox on May 29 , 2010 . Directed by John Hillcoat , the film retells several of the game 's earlier missions in which Marston attempts to find and kill Bill Williamson . Rockstar also developed a Facebook application based on the game , titled Red Dead Redemption : Gunslingers . Released on April 12 , 2010 , the game was a role @-@ playing social game that allowed players to duel their friends ; it is no longer available , due to updates on the Facebook platform . = = = Staff complaints = = = In January 2010 , Gamasutra published a blog post written by an individual using the name " Rockstar Spouse " . The post outlined the unethical working practices in place at Rockstar San Diego during the game 's developing , including twelve @-@ hour work days and six @-@ day weeks , with lower @-@ than @-@ the @-@ industry @-@ average salary increase . Other former Rockstar San Diego employees described the project as " an organic disaster of the most epic proportions " , that the game had been in development for over four years , and that game developers from Rockstar Toronto , Vancouver , Leeds , New England , and the Midnight Club team at San Diego had been transferred over to work on the game . Rockstar responded in a statement , claiming " this is a case of people taking the opinions of a few anonymous posters on message boards as fact " . In April 2010 , an email sent by Rockstar 's public relations department to a journalist of the magazine Zoo was published online . The email reported that Rockstar was requesting Zoo 's review of the game should reflect " the huge achievement " of Red Dead Redemption . Subsequently , Zoo fired the journalist , reiterating that " at no time has Rockstar ever sought a preferential review in return for advertising " .
= John Barrymore = John Barrymore ( born John Sidney Blyth ; February 14 or 15 , 1882 – May 29 , 1942 ) was an American actor on stage , screen and radio . A member of the Drew and Barrymore theatrical families , he initially tried to avoid the stage , and briefly attempted a career as an artist , but appeared on stage together with his father Maurice in 1900 , and then his sister Ethel the following year . He began his career in 1903 and first gained attention as a stage actor in light comedy , then high drama , culminating in productions of Justice ( 1916 ) , Richard III ( 1920 ) and Hamlet ( 1922 ) ; his portrayal of Hamlet led to him being called the " greatest living American tragedian " . After a success as Hamlet in London in 1925 , Barrymore left the stage for 14 years and instead focused entirely on films . In the silent film era , he was well received in such pictures as Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde ( 1920 ) , Sherlock Holmes ( 1922 ) and The Sea Beast ( 1926 ) . During this period , he gained his nickname , the Great Profile . His stage @-@ trained voice proved an asset when sound films were introduced , and three of his works , Grand Hotel ( 1932 ) , Twentieth Century ( 1934 ) and Midnight ( 1939 ) have been inducted into the National Film Registry . Barrymore 's personal life has been the subject of much attention before and since his death . He struggled with alcohol abuse from the age of 14 , was married and divorced four times , and declared bankruptcy later in life . Much of his later work involved self @-@ parody and the portrayal of drunken has @-@ beens . His obituary in The Washington Post observed that " with the passing of the years – and as his private life became more public – he became , despite his genius in the theater , a tabloid character . " Although film historians have opined that Barrymore 's " contribution to the art of cinematic acting began to fade " after the mid @-@ 1930s , Barrymore 's biographer , Martin Norden , considers him to be " perhaps the most influential and idolized actor of his day " . = = Biography = = = = = Early life : 1882 – 1903 = = = Barrymore was born John Sidney Blyth in Philadelphia , and was known by family and friends as " Jack " . Although the Barrymore family bible puts his date of birth as February 15 , 1882 , his birth certificate shows February 14 . He was the youngest of three children . His siblings were Lionel ( 1878 @-@ 1954 ) , and Ethel ( 1879 @-@ 1959 ) . His father was Maurice Barrymore , an Indian @-@ born British actor who had been born Herbert Blyth , and had adopted Barrymore as a stage name after seeing it on a poster in the Haymarket Theatre in London . Barrymore 's mother , Georgie Drew Barrymore , was born into a prominent theatrical family . Barrymore 's maternal grandparents were Louisa Lane Drew , a well @-@ known 19th @-@ century American actress and the manager of the Arch Street Theatre , and John Drew , also an actor whose specialty was comedy . Barrymore 's maternal uncles were two more thespians , John Drew , Jr. and Sidney . Much of Barrymore 's early life was unsettled . In October 1882 , the family toured in the US for a season with Polish actress Helena Modjeska . The following year his parents toured again with Modjeska but left the children behind . Modjeska was influential in the family , and she insisted that all three children be baptized into the Catholic Church . In 1884 the family traveled to London as part of Augustin Daly 's theatrical company , returning to the US two years later . As a child , Barrymore was sometimes badly behaved , and he was sent away to schools in an attempt to instill discipline . The strategy was not always successful , and he attended elementary schools in four states . He was sent first to the boys ' annex of the Convent of Notre Dame in Philadelphia . One punishment that he received there was being made to read a copy of Dante 's Inferno ; he later recounted that , as he looked at the illustrations by Gustave Doré , " my interest was aroused , and a new urge was born within me . I wanted to be an artist " . He was expelled from the school in 1891 and was sent to Seton Hall Preparatory School in New Jersey , where Lionel was already studying . Barrymore was unhappy at Seton and was soon withdrawn , after which he attended several public schools in New York , including the Mount Pleasant Military Academy . In 1892 , his grandmother Louisa Drew 's business began to suffer , and she lost control of her theater , causing disruption in the family . The following year , when Barrymore was 11 years old , his mother died from tuberculosis ; her consistent touring and his absence at school meant that he barely knew her , and he was mostly raised by his grandmother . The loss of their mother 's income prompted both Ethel and Lionel to seek work as professional actors . Barrymore 's father was mostly absent from the family home while on tour , and when he returned he would spend time at The Lambs , a New York actors ' club . In 1895 , Barrymore entered Georgetown Preparatory School , then located on Georgetown University Campus , but he was expelled in November 1897 , probably after being caught waiting in a brothel . One of his biographers , Michael A. Morrison , posits the alternate theory that Barrymore was expelled after the staff saw him inebriated . By the time he left Georgetown he was , according to Martin Norden in his biography of Barrymore , " already in the early stages of a chronic drinking problem " . 1897 was an emotionally challenging year for Barrymore : he lost his virginity when he was seduced by his step @-@ mother , Mamie Floyd , and in August his grandmother , the main female role model in his life , died . Barrymore traveled with his father to England in 1898 , where he joined King 's College School , Wimbledon . A year later he joined the Slade School of Fine Art , to study literature and art . After a year of formal study , he left and " devoted much of his subsequent stay in London to bohemianism and nocturnal adventures " , according to his biographer Margot Peters . Barrymore returned to New York in the summer of 1900 , and by November he found work as an illustrator on The New York Evening Journal , at a salary of $ 50 a week . Barrymore had always professed a dislike of the acting profession , but in 1900 he was persuaded by his father to join him on stage for a few performances of a short play , " A Man of the World " . He appeared in the same piece again the following year , but he still thought of the experience as merely a way to supplement his income , rather than as a possible future career . In October 1901 , Ethel was appearing in Philadelphia in Captain Jinks of the Horse Marines when one of the younger actors became temporarily unavailable . She persuaded the director to allow Barrymore to accept the part of the minor character , and Barrymore traveled from New York , learning his lines on the train . In the first act , he stopped in the middle of his dialogue , unable to remember the text , and asked the audience and his fellow actors , " I 've blown up . Where do we go from here ? " , which led the cast to improvise the remainder of the scene . An incident in 1901 had a major impact on Barrymore . In March , his father had a mental breakdown as a result of tertiary syphilis , and Barrymore took him to Bellevue hospital . He was later transferred to a private institution in Amityville , Long Island , where he suffered a " rapid descent into madness " . The Encyclopedia of World Biography states that Barrymore was constantly " haunted by the bright and dark spell of his father " , and his close friend Gene Fowler reported that " the bleak overtone of this breaking of his parent 's reason never quite died away in Barrymore 's mind , and he was haunted by fears he would suffer the same fate " . The same year , Barrymore began an affair with a beautiful artists ' model , " Florodora girl " and aspiring actress named Evelyn Nesbit , who was a mistress of architect Stanford White . Barrymore later described Nesbit as " the most maddening woman . ... She was the first woman I ever loved " , and he proposed marriage to her . Nesbit 's mother did not think that , as a struggling artist , Barrymore was a good match for her daughter . To break off their relationship her mother sent Nesbit away to school in New Jersey . In 1906 , White was shot in public by Nesbit 's then @-@ husband , Pittsburgh millionaire Harry K. Thaw . Barrymore expected to testify at Thaw 's murder trial on the issue of Nesbit 's morality ; he worried that he might be asked whether he had arranged for Nesbit to have an abortion , disguised as an appendectomy , even though Nesbit had undergone two previous " appendectomies " . Barrymore was never called as a witness because Thaw pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity . In May 1902 , Barrymore was fired from his newspaper position after producing a poor illustration for the paper while hung over . He spent time as a poster designer but realized it was not lucrative enough for his lifestyle , which was being partly financed by Ethel , who was also paying for their father 's care . While discussing his future with his brother , Barrymore said " it looks as though I 'll have to succumb to the family curse , acting " , and he later admitted that " there isn 't any romance about how I went on stage . ... I needed the money . " = = = Early stage career : 1903 – 13 = = = Barrymore began to contact his family 's theatrical connections to find work and approached Charles Frohman , who had been the producer of Captain Jinks and had also been an employer of Barrymore 's mother Georgie a decade earlier . Frohman thought that Barrymore had comedic potential but needed more experience before making a Broadway debut . Barrymore joined the company of McKee Rankin , Sidney Drew 's father @-@ in @-@ law , on the Chicago leg of their tour , at the W. S. Cleveland Theatre in October 1903 . He first played the minor role of Lt. Max von Wendlowski in Magda , and in November when the troupe produced Leah the Forsaken , he took the small part of Max , a village idiot with one spoken line . A year later Barrymore appeared in his first Broadway production , in a small role in the comedy Glad of It , which only had a short run . Afterwards he played the role of Charles Hyne in the farce The Dictator at the Criterion Theatre , which starred William Collier . During the play 's run and subsequent tour across the US , Collier became a mentor to the young actor , although his patience was continually tested by Barrymore 's drinking , which led to occasional missed performances , drunken stage appearances , and general misbehavior . Collier taught Barrymore much about acting , including coaching him in comic timing , but " at times regretted his sponsorship " of his apprentice . In March 1905 , while The Dictator was playing in Buffalo , Barrymore 's father died in Amityville and was buried at Glenwood Cemetery in Philadelphia . At the close of the US tour , The Dictator visited Britain from April 1905 , where it played at the Comedy Theatre . The critic for The Observer wrote that Barrymore " admirably seconded " Collier . When he returned to America , Barrymore appeared at the Criterion Theatre in a double bill of works by J. M. Barrie ; he played a clown in Pantaloon opposite his brother , and Stephen Rollo in Alice Sit @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Fire opposite his sister . Both plays ran for 81 performances from December 1905 , and then went on tour . Barrymore continued drinking and lacked discipline , which affected his performances . Ethel was angry with her brother and had the producers fire him from the show , but re @-@ hire him the following day , to teach him a lesson . After a tour of the US and Australia with Collier in On the Quiet and The Dictator , Barrymore joined his sister in the 1907 comedy His Excellency the Governor at the Empire Theatre . He received mixed reviews for his performances , and The Wichita Daily Eagle commented that " Barrymore seems to imitate John Drew too much ever to be a good actor . Why doesn 't young Barrymore imitate a real actor if he must copy someone . " Barrymore gained his first leading role in early 1907 , in the comedy The Boys of Company B at the Lyceum Theatre . Although he was well received by the critics – The Washington Post noted that " his work has been pronounced astonishingly clever by the critics wherever he played " – at times he continued his unprofessional stage behavior , which led to a rebuke from John Drew , who attended a performance . After a short run in Toddles at the Garrick Theatre , Barrymore was given the lead role of Mac in A Stubborn Cinderella , both on tour and at the Broadway Theatre in Boston . He had previously been earning $ 50 a week during his sporadic employment but now enjoyed a wage increase to $ 175 . He briefly appeared in The Candy Shop in mid @-@ 1909 , before he played the lead role in Winchell Smith 's play The Fortune Hunter at the Gaiety Theatre in September the same year . It was his longest @-@ held role , running for 345 performances until May 1911 , initially at the Gaiety Theatre in New York , and then on tour . The critic for The New York Times thought the play was , " acted with fine comedy spirit by John Barrymore ... [ who ] gave indisputable signs last night of grown and growing powers . " In mid @-@ 1910 Barrymore met socialite Katherine Corri Harris , and the couple married in September that year . Harris ' father objected to the relationship and refused to attend the wedding . Shortly after the ceremony , The Dictator went on tour , and Harris was given a small role in the play . According to Peters , Barrymore " began to think of his marriage as a ' bus accident ' " . Film critic Hollis Alpert wrote that , within a week of the wedding , Katherine was complaining that she saw her new husband too infrequently . Barrymore 's increasing dependence on alcohol was also a cause of marital problems , and he explained that " unhappiness increased the drink , and drink increased the unhappiness " . Barrymore 's next two plays – Uncle Sam and Princess Zim @-@ Zim , both from 1911 – were critically and commercially weak , but the second work introduced him to playwright Edward Sheldon , who would " reshape ... [ Barrymore 's ] entire career " . In January 1912 , Barrymore appeared together with his sister in A Slice of Life at the Empire Theatre on Broadway , which ran for 48 performances . Charles Darnton , a critic for The Evening World , observed that " Barrymore takes delight in ' kidding ' his part not only to the limit , but perhaps beyond " . A review in The Washington Times stated that " Barrymore inimitably imitates his uncle John Drew " . Barrymore may have appeared in his first films in 1912 . In four short films , a cast member is listed as " Jack Barrymore " ; this is probably John Barrymore , although Norden notes that " we may never know for certain if [ these ] are in fact Barrymore movies . " The four films were Dream of a Motion Picture Director , The Widow Casey 's Return , A Prize Package ( all 1912 ) and One on Romance ( 1913 ) . The films were produced by the Philadelphia @-@ based Lubin Manufacturing Company and were lost in an explosion and fire at the Lubin vaults in 1914 . In July 1912 , Barrymore went to Los Angeles , where he appeared in three short @-@ running plays at the Belasco Theatre . He returned to New York in October , where he took the lead role in 72 performances of the comedy The Affairs of Anatol at the Little Theatre . Although the critical response was lukewarm , Barrymore 's salary for the play was $ 600 a week . He began the following year by appearing in a short run of A Thief for a Night in McVicker 's Theatre , Chicago , before returning to New York , and the Thirty @-@ Ninth St. Theatre , for a two @-@ month run in Believe Me Xantippe . = = = Entry into motion pictures , and theatrical triumphs : 1913 – 24 = = = In late 1913 , Barrymore made his first confirmed feature film , the romantic comedy An American Citizen , with Adolph Zukor 's Famous Players Film Company . When the film was released in January 1914 , Barrymore " delighted movie audiences with an inimitable light touch that made a conventional romance ' joyous ' , " writes Peters . A reviewer for The Oregon Daily Journal thought that Barrymore gave a " portrayal of unusual quality " . The success of the picture led to further film work , including The Man from Mexico ( 1914 ) , Are You a Mason ? , The Dictator and The Incorrigible Dukane ( all 1915 ) . Except for The Incorrigible Dukane , all of these early films are presumed lost . Despite the film work and the higher fees he earned from it , Barrymore continued to seek stage work , and in January 1914 he played the lead in The Yellow Ticket at New York 's Eltinge Theatre . The role marked a departure from the light comedy of his previous performances , a result of Sheldon urging him to turn towards more dramatic parts . The Yellow Ticket was not the breakthrough that Barrymore wanted . A few months before the outbreak of World War One , he took a vacation to Italy with Sheldon to enjoy a temporary break from his worsening marriage . He returned from Italy and accepted another serious stage role , that of an ex @-@ convict in Kick In , at New York 's Longacre Theatre . The play was a success , and Barrymore received praise from the critics ; The New York Times reviewer thought that in a play that had " uncommonly able and sincere playing " , Barrymore acted his role with " intelligence and vigor and impart [ ed ] to it a deal of charm " . Barrymore spent the second half of 1915 making three films , including The Red Widow , which he called " the worst film I ever made " in his 1926 autobiography . In April 1916 , he starred in John Galsworthy 's prison drama Justice , again at the instigation of Sheldon . The play was a critical success , and The New York Times thought the audience saw " Barrymore play as he had never played before , and so , by his work as the wretched prisoner in Justice , step forward into a new position on the American stage . " The critic went on to say that Barrymore gave " an extraordinary performance in every detail of appearance and manner , in every note of deep feeling ... a superb performance . " From early 1916 , Barrymore had been living apart from Katherine , and she sued for divorce in November 1916 . By the time the divorce was finalized in December 1917 , he had taken the lead role in the film Raffles , the Amateur Cracksman . He had also tried to enlist in the U.S. Army following the country 's entry into World War I , but Army doctors revealed that he had varicose veins , and he was not accepted for military service . For over a year beginning in April 1917 , he appeared together with Lionel in a stage version of George du Maurier 's 1891 novel Peter Ibbetson . The play and the two Barrymores were warmly regarded by the critics . Around this time , Barrymore began a relationship with a married mother of two , Blanche Oelrichs , a suffragist from an elite Rhode Island family with what Peters calls " anarchistic self @-@ confidence " . Oelrichs also published poetry under the name Michael Strange . While their relationship began in secret , it became more open after Oelrichs ' husband was commissioned into the army and then posted to France . Both Oelrichs and Sheldon urged Barrymore to take on his next role , Fedya Vasilyevich Protasov , in Leo Tolstoy 's play Redemption at the Plymouth Theatre . The critic for The New York Times felt that , although Barrymore 's performance was " marred by vocal monotony " , overall the performance was " a distinct step forward in Mr. Barrymore 's artistic development ... There is probably not another actor on our stage who has a temperament so fine and spiritual , an art so flexible and sure . " In 1918 , Barrymore starred in the romantic comedy film On the Quiet ; the Iowa City Press @-@ Citizen considered the film superior to the original Broadway performance . In 1919 , Barrymore portrayed a struggling lawyer in the film adaptation of the Broadway show Here Comes the Bride , which he followed with The Test of Honor . The latter film marked his first straight dramatic role on screen after years of performing in comedy dramas . Later that year , when Barrymore again appeared on stage with Lionel in Sem Benelli 's historical drama The Jest , audience members " agree [ d ] that the American stage had never witnessed finer acting " , according to Peters . Alexander Woollcott , writing in The New York Times , thought that " John and Lionel Barrymore hold spellbound each breathless audience " , and he commented that Barrymore " contributes to that appeal by every step , every hand , every posture of a body grown unexpectedly eloquent in recent years " . In November , Barrymore began filming Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde , playing the dual leading role , and the film was released in theaters the following year . Wid 's Daily thought that " it is the star 's picture from the very outset , and it is the star that makes it " , going on to say that Barrymore 's portrayal was " a thing of fine shadows and violent emotions " . The Washington Post was in agreement , and considered the performance to be " a masterpiece " , and " a remarkable piece of work " . The film was so successful that the US Navy used stills of Barrymore in its recruiting posters . After planning for over a year – largely in secret – Barrymore played his first Shakespeare part , the title role in Richard III . Conscious of the criticism of his vocal range , he underwent training with Margaret Carrington , the voice and diction trainer , to ensure he sounded right for the part , and the pair worked together daily for up to six hours a day for six weeks . After the debut in March 1920 , the critics were effusive in their praise . The Washington Herald observed that the audience were " held by the sheer power of Barrymore 's performance " , which was " remarkable for ... [ the actor 's ] unexpected vocal richness " , while Woollcott , in The New York Times , thought the performance " marked a measurable advance in the gradual process of bringing [ Barrymore 's ] technical fluency abreast with his winged imagination and his real genius for the theatre " . Although a commercial and critical success , the play closed after 31 performances when Barrymore collapsed , suffering a nervous breakdown . Since appearing in Redemption he had worked ceaselessly , appearing on stage in the evenings , while planning or rehearsing the next production during the day , and by the time he appeared as Richard , he was spending his daytimes filming Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde . He spent six weeks recuperating under the ministrations of his father 's friend , wrestler William Muldoon , who ran a sanitarium . During the summer of 1920 , Oelrichs became pregnant with Barrymore 's child , and a quick divorce was arranged with her husband , which left her and Barrymore free to marry in August that year ; a daughter , Diana Barrymore , followed in March 1921 . Soon after the birth , he began rehearsals for Clair de Lune , which his wife had adapted from Victor Hugo 's 1869 novel The Man Who Laughs . Barrymore persuaded Ethel to play the role of the Queen – it was the first time the two had appeared on stage together in over a decade . The play was a critical flop , although the presence of the siblings ensured that it ran for over 60 performances . In 1921 , Barrymore portrayed a wealthy Frenchman in New York in the film The Lotus Eater , with Colleen Moore . In September , Barrymore and Oelrichs went to Europe on holiday ; cracks were appearing in their relationship , and she fell in love with a poet during their extended stay in Venice . In October , Oelrichs returned to New York and Barrymore traveled to London to film the exterior scenes for his latest movie , Sherlock Holmes , in which he played the title role . He then returned to New York to work on the film 's interior scenes in January 1922 . Barrymore became involved in the pre @-@ production work for the film and provided designs for Moriarty 's lair . The film was released later that year and was generally thought " a little dull and ponderous , with too many intertitles " , although James W. Dean of The Evening News of Harrisburg opined that " the personality of Barrymore is the film 's transcendent quality " . Barrymore decided next to star in Hamlet on stage , with Arthur Hopkins directing . They spent six months preparing , cutting over 1 @,@ 250 lines from the text as they did so , and Barrymore opted to play Hamlet as " a man 's man " , according to Norden . Barrymore later described his Hamlet as a " normal , healthy , lusty young fellow who simply got into a mess that was too thick for him ... he was a great fencer , an athlete , a man who led an active , healthy life . How can you make a sickly half @-@ wit out of a man like that ? " Barrymore again used Carrington as a vocal coach ; rehearsals started in October , and the play opened on November 16 . The production was a box @-@ office success , and the critics were lavish in their praise . Woollcott , writing for the New York Herald , opined that it was " an evening that will be memorable in the history of the American theater " . while John Corbin , the drama critic for The New York Times , agreed , writing that " in all likelihood we have a new and a lasting Hamlet " . The reviewer for Brooklyn Life stated that Barrymore had " doubtless won the right to be called the greatest living American tragedian " . In 1963 , Orson Welles said that Barrymore was the best Hamlet he had seen , describing the character as " not so much princely – he was a man of genius who happened to be a prince , and he was tender , and virile , and witty , and dangerous " . Barrymore and Hopkins decided to end the run at 101 performances , just breaking the record of one hundred by Edwin Booth , before the play closed in February 1923 . In November and December that year , a three @-@ week run of the play was staged at the Manhattan Opera House , followed by a brief tour that closed at the end of January 1924 . = = = Films with the major studios : 1924 – 32 = = = News of Barrymore 's success in Hamlet piqued the interest of Warner Bros. , which signed him as the lead in the 1924 film Beau Brummel . Unhappy in his marriage , Barrymore – aged 40 at the time – sought solace elsewhere and had an affair with his 17 @-@ year @-@ old co @-@ star Mary Astor during filming . Although the film was not an unqualified success , the cast , including Barrymore , was generally praised . Around this time , Barrymore acquired the nickname " the Great Profile " , as posters and photographs of him tended to favor the left @-@ hand side . He later said : " The right side of my face looks like a fried egg . The left side has features that are to be found in almost any normal anthropological specimen , and those are the apples I try to keep on top of the barrel . " In February 1925 , Barrymore staged Hamlet in London at the Haymarket Theatre , which the Manchester Guardian later said had " the most memorable first night for years " . The reviews were positive , and " although none of the London critics found Barrymore superior to [ Henry ] Irving and [ Johnston ] Forbes @-@ Robertson , many were favorable in their comparisons " . Among the audience members was the 20 @-@ year @-@ old actor John Gielgud , who wrote in his program " Barrymore is romantic in appearance and naturally gifted with grace , looks and a capacity to wear period clothes , which makes his brilliantly intellectual performance classical without being unduly severe , and he has tenderness , remoteness , and neurosis all placed with great delicacy and used with immense effectiveness and admirable judgment " . Looking back in the 1970s , he said : " The handsome middle @-@ aged stars of the Edwardian theatre romanticised the part . Even John Barrymore , whose Hamlet I admired very much , cut the play outrageously so that he could , for instance , play the closet scene all out for sentiment with the emphasis on the ' Oedipus complex ' – sobbing on Gertrude 's bosom . Yet Barrymore ... had a wonderful edge and a demonic sense of humour . " At the end of this run of Hamlet , Barrymore traveled to Paris , where Oelrichs had stayed during his residence in London , but the reunion was not a happy one and the couple argued frequently . When he returned to America , she remained in Paris , and the couple drew up a separation agreement that provided Oelrichs with $ 18 @,@ 000 a year and stated that neither could sue for divorce on the grounds of adultery . While he had been in London , Warner Bros and Barrymore entered into a contact for three further films at a salary of $ 76 @,@ 250 per picture . He later claimed that his motivation for moving from stage to films was the " lack of repetition — the continual playing of a part , which is so ruinous to an actor , is entirely eliminated " . Barrymore 's first film under the contract was The Sea Beast ( 1926 ) , loosely based on the 1851 novel Moby @-@ Dick , in which he played Captain Ahab Ceeley . This was one of the biggest money @-@ makers of the year for Warner Bros. Although Barrymore wanted Astor to play the female lead , she was unavailable , and Dolores Costello was cast in her place . He later said that " I fell in love with her instantly . This time I knew I was right " , and the couple began an affair . Costello 's father was angered by the relationship , but his complaints were ignored by both Costello and her mother : Costello 's parents separated and were divorced as a result . The film was well received by critics , and Mordaunt Hall , the film critic of The New York Times , praised the " energy , earnestness and virility " Barrymore displayed in the role of Ceeley . As filming finished on The Sea Beast , work began on Don Juan , the first feature @-@ length film with synchronized Vitaphone sound effects and a musical soundtrack . Although Barrymore wanted to play opposite Costello again , Jack L. Warner , the film 's producer , signed Astor . After completing his Warner Bros. contract with When a Man Loves , with Costello , Barrymore joined United Artists ( UA ) under a three @-@ film deal . For the next three years , according to Morrison , he " enjoyed unprecedented prosperity and spent lavishly " . Nevertheless , he received some harsh reviews . Critic and essayist Stark Young wrote in The New Republic that Barrymore 's films were " rotten , vulgar , empty , in bad taste , dishonest , noisome with a silly and unwholesome exhibitionism , and odious with a kind of stale and degenerate studio adolescence . Their appeal is cheap , cynical and specious " . In 1927 , Barrymore planned to revive Hamlet at the Hollywood Bowl , but in August he canceled the production , without explanation , and began filming the third of the UA pictures , Eternal Love , for which he was paid $ 150 @,@ 000 . In February 1928 , Barrymore obtained a quiet divorce from Oelrichs ; she eagerly agreed to the separation , as she was in a relationship with a lawyer , Harrison Tweed , whom she later married . Barrymore and Costello married in November that year ; their daughter , Dolores , was born in April 1930 and a son , John Drew Barrymore , followed in June 1932 . Barrymore purchased and converted an estate in the Hollywood Hills into 16 different buildings with 55 rooms , gardens , skeet ranges , swimming pools , fountains and a totem pole . By the late 1920s , sound films had become common , following the 1927 sensation , The Jazz Singer . Actors with trained voices were in demand by the studios , and Barrymore was offered a five @-@ film deal with Warner Bros. at $ 150 @,@ 000 per picture , and a share of the profits . Before he began this contract , he played his first speaking role on film : a one @-@ off section in The Show of Shows ( 1929 ) , playing Richard , Duke of Gloucester in Henry VI , Part 3 . His first two films under contract were General Crack and The Man from Blankley 's , each of which were modestly successful . As he had been frustrated at the inability of making The Sea Beast as a sound film , Barrymore returned to Moby Dick as the source for a 1930 film of the same name . Peters thinks little of the film , describing it as " a seesaw between the cosmic and the comic , a travesty of Melville as well as a silly film all on its own " . The following year , Barrymore played the title role of a manipulative voice coach in Svengali , opposite Marian Marsh . Martin Dickstein , the critic for the Brooklyn Daily Eagle , wrote that Barrymore " registers a personal triumph in the role " , calling his performance " brilliant ... one of the best of his movie career " . Later in 1931 , he played a crippled puppeteer , who tries to fulfill his frustrated ambitions by manipulating the life of a young male ballet dancer and the dancer 's lover ( also Marsh ) in The Mad Genius ; the film was a commercial failure . With disappointing box office returns from their five @-@ film deal , Warner Bros. decided not to offer Barrymore a contract renewal . Instead , Barrymore signed a non @-@ exclusive contract with Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) and took a $ 25 @,@ 000 salary cut per film . = = = Years of transition : 1932 – 36 = = = Barrymore 's first film for MGM was the 1933 mystery Arsène Lupin , in which he co @-@ starred with his brother Lionel . In The New York Times , Hall called Barrymore 's performance " admirable " and wrote that " it is a pleasure to see [ him ] again in something in a lighter vein . " The same year , Barrymore starred as jewel thief Baron Felix von Geigern together with Greta Garbo in the 1932 film Grand Hotel , in which Lionel also appeared . Critical opinion of Barrymore 's acting was divided ; John Gilbert 's biographer Eve Golden refers to Barrymore as seeming " more like ... [ Garbo 's ] affectionate father than her lover " , while George Blaisdell of International Photographer praised the dialogue and wrote that a viewer would be " deeply impressed with the rarity in screen drama on which he is looking . " Grand Hotel won the Academy Award for Best Picture and was one of the highest @-@ grossing films of the year . It was later added to the National Film Registry . In 1932 , Barrymore appeared in three films . For RKO Pictures he played a borderline @-@ alcoholic lawyer in State 's Attorney , before he returned to MGM to play an escaped lunatic in A Bill of Divorcement , opposite Katharine Hepburn in her screen debut . Film scholar Daniel Bernardi later noted the humanism demonstrated between Barrymore 's character and his family , particularly the " close bond " between father and daughter . In his final film of the year , Rasputin and the Empress , Barrymore , Ethel and Lionel co @-@ starred . Physically , Barrymore had deteriorated since filming Svengali , and he had gained weight because of his drinking . Peters notes the " dissipation of the once ascetic face , a dissipation only underlined by the studio 's attempt to reconstruct with lights , filters and make @-@ up a spiritual beauty that had been corrupted . " The film was a critical and commercial failure , and MGM lost significant amounts of money . The New Yorker thought the three Barrymores had produced their worst work . The year 1933 was a busy one for Barrymore , and his decline began to be evident . He appeared in five films during the year , including as a meek schoolteacher @-@ turned @-@ businessman in Topaze , opposite Myrna Loy , and Dinner at Eight , with Lionel . Peters opines that Barrymore 's portrayal of a washed @-@ up alcoholic actor " could well have fixed ... in the public 's and MGM 's mind that John Barrymore was a drunken has @-@ been . " After the run of films with MGM , the company ended its contact with Barrymore amid its financial woes caused by the Great Depression . He then signed with Universal Studios to portray a troubled Jewish lawyer in Counsellor at Law . During filming he struggled to remember his lines for even small scenes . Filming was stopped on one occasion after more than 25 takes when he struggled to recall the right lines ; it was a problem with which he began to suffer regularly . Despite the problems , Norden believes that this was " one of his best film performances " . In December 1933 , Barrymore agreed with RKO to film Hamlet . He underwent screen tests and hired Carrington to act as vocal coach again , but during one session , his memory failed him again , and the project was eventually scrapped . Barrymore starred in two films released in 1934 , the drama Long Lost Father and the screwball comedy Twentieth Century . In the latter film , Barrymore played madcap Broadway impresario Oscar Jaffe , a role in which he demonstrated a " rare genius as a comedian " . Morrison writes that the portrayal was one " that many consider to be his finest contribution to film " . In 2011 , the picture was added to the National Film Registry , where it was described as Barrymore 's " last great film role " . In May 1934 , Barrymore was filming Hat , Coat and Glove for RKO when , during the filming of one scene , he again forgot his lines and even the name of his character . Filming was postponed until the following day , but the result was the same . After he took a break for a few days , he returned to the set , but he still could not remember any of the script , and RKO replaced him with Ricardo Cortez . Soon afterwards , he suffered a mental and physical breakdown and was hospitalized . Costello confirmed that his drinking over the previous two years had worsened , and she described him as a " hopeless alcoholic " . Barrymore 's relationship with Costello was deeply troubled and , believing she was going to declare him mentally incompetent , he left their home in Los Angeles and traveled first to London and then to India . He returned to the US in early 1935 and settled in New York , leaving his wife in Los Angeles . Shortly after his return , he was hospitalized for a month with bronchitis and influenza . A 19 @-@ year @-@ old fan , Elaine Jacobs , visited him , and the two became good friends . On his release from the hospital , her mother invited him to recuperate at their house . She changed her name to Elaine Barrie , which she explained was to get " as near to Barrymore as I dared " , and they began a relationship . In May , the couple underwent the first of several professional collaborations , when they appeared on Rudy Vallée 's The Fleischmann 's Yeast Hour radio show . The relationship was widely reported in the tabloid press , who labeled the couple Caliban and Ariel . Costello filed for divorce , but after a series of arguments with Barrie , Barrymore considered the relationship with Barrie to be at an end , and he left for Los Angeles . A newspaper editor chartered a plane and flew Barrie to Chicago , to meet Barrymore 's train ; she broadcast a plea for him to return , and her pursuit became national news . Morrison thinks that the headlines established a new reputation for Barrymore of " the aging satyr , the has @-@ been alcoholic , the much @-@ married ham " . This was a blow to his self @-@ respect , but he faced his troubles " with aplomb and a sense of humor " , according to Morrison . To escape from the spotlight , Barrymore took vacations on his yacht ; it cost him over $ 35 @,@ 000 a year to run , and so he sold it in 1938 after encountering financial difficulties . = = = Decline and death : 1936 – 42 = = = Barrymore 's alcohol dependence meant most studios were unwilling to employ him , but MGM risked casting him in the role of Mercutio in their 1936 film Romeo and Juliet . To minimize disruption to the schedule , the studio put Barrymore in Kelley 's Rest Home , a sanatorium for alcoholics , but he continued to drink covertly and was disruptive on set . Basil Rathbone , who was playing Tybalt , later recounted that " he was drinking and unreliable on the set ... It was sad to see him in such a state . " Opinions on his portrayal were divided . Some critics , such as Welford Beaton of the Hollywood Spectator , thought " Barrymore is an acting gem " , although Gielgud was uncomplimentary , writing to Peggy Ashcroft that " Barrymore , who is like a monstrous old male impersonator jumping through a hoop , should really have been shot . " Word about Barrymore 's problems on and off the set spread around the industry , and he did not work on another film for over a year , when he had a supporting role in the musical film Maytime . His divorce from Costello was finalized in October 1936 , and he married Barrie in November the same year . The couple had a heated argument in public shortly afterwards , and he again spent time in Kelley 's Rest Home and hospital , which cost him an average of $ 800 daily , draining his finances . When he came out , he collapsed on the Maytime set . On January 15 , 1937 , he was served with divorce papers , and a month later he filed for bankruptcy protection , with debts of $ 160 @,@ 000 . The divorce was granted in April , but the couple reconciled before it was finalized . Barrymore decided to work on more Shakespeare roles . In June 1937 , he signed up with NBC Radio to produce a series of six episodes under the name Streamlined Shakespeare , which also featured Barrie . The first program was Hamlet , which was well received by critics . The New York Times commented that " Shakespeare 's lines uttered dramatically by the voice of John Barrymore sweep through the ' ether ' with a sound of finality ; it seems that they are his words and no one else could speak them with such lifelike force " . Peters disagrees however , and considers that " because he was desperate he pressed too hard and ended by caricaturing , not capturing , his great Shakespearean acting " . Throughout the NBC series , Barrymore had been reliable , sober and responsible , and the studios reacted positively with offers of work . This led to appearances in nine films in 1937 and 1938 , including as Colonel Nielson in three Bulldog Drummond films , and roles in True Confession and Marie Antoinette . He was offered predominantly supporting roles , but he worked conscientiously on the films and as a consequence was able to honor his debts . His memory was still problematic , and he used cue cards as an aid ; his fellow actors and the directors of the films were sympathetic to his condition . When he filmed his last serious role , Gregory Vance in the 1939 film The Great Man Votes , the director , Garson Kanin , ensured that the cast and crew addressed him as " Mr. Barrymore " as a mark of respect . Barrymore and his wife both appeared in supporting roles in the 1939 screwball comedy Midnight , her only film role . The New York Times thought the film was " one of the liveliest , gayest , wittiest and naughtiest comedies of a long hard season " and that Barrymore , " the [ Lou ] Gehrig of eye @-@ brow batting , rolls his phrases with his usual richly humorous effect " . The film was inducted into the National Film Registry in 2013 . Barrymore and his wife appeared together in the stage farce My Dear Children , which opened in March 1939 at Princeton University 's McCarter Theatre . He played the lead role , Allan Manville , an ageing hammy Shakespearean has @-@ been . Because of his failing memory , Barrymore ad @-@ libbed constantly throughout the show . In some points the new additions were an improvement , but he also greeted friends in the audience , and used profanities freely . Nevertheless , the show was a success . Life magazine wrote that " People flock to see [ Barrymore ] , not for polished performance , but because he converts the theater into a rowdy histrionic madhouse . Sometimes he arrives late . Sometimes he is tight . Usually he forgets his lines . But he always puts on a great show . " When the show reached Broadway , Life wrote that " Barrymore 's return to Times Square was a huge professional triumph " . Brooks Atkinson , writing for The New York Times thought that Barrymore was " still the most gifted actor in this country . ... Although he has recklessly played the fool for a number of years , he is nobody 's fool in My Dear Children but a superbly gifted actor on a tired holiday . " Barrymore and his wife continued to argue during the play 's run , and she left the play part way through the tour . They attempted a reconciliation when the production reached New York , but the couple divorced in late 1940 . In 1940 , Barrymore appeared in The Great Profile , a spoof of his life in the months prior to My Dear Children . Barrymore played Evans Garrick , closely modeled on his own experience , and Mary Beth Hughes played his wife . The critics reacted harshly to the film , and to Barrymore 's association with it . The New York Times wrote that " As a play it is a feeble thing , hardly matching the spectacular public accounts of his amours ... for all of Mr. Barrymore 's shenanigans and devastating wit , The Great Profile is more than a little pathetic . In the Winter of his Discontent Mr. Barrymore is selling his talent at cut @-@ rate " . In terms of his reputation , worse was to come in his final film , Playmates ( 1941 ) , which " amply illustrated the depths to which he had fallen ; he played an alcoholic Shakespearean ham named John Barrymore " . In October 1940 , Barrymore returned to the NBC Radio network to work on Rudy Vallée 's show , now called the Sealtest Show . Barrymore recorded 74 episodes of the program , continuing in the vein of self @-@ parody , with jokes about his drinking , declining career and marital issues . On May 19 , 1942 , while recording a line from Romeo and Juliet for the show , Barrymore collapsed . He was taken to the Hollywood Presbyterian Hospital and died there on May 29 , from cirrhosis of the liver and kidney failure , complicated by pneumonia . Shortly before his death , Barrymore returned to the faith of the Catholic Church . Although Errol Flynn 's memoirs claim that the film director Raoul Walsh " borrowed " Barrymore 's body before burial to leave his corpse propped in a chair for a drunken Flynn to discover when he returned home , Gene Fowler , a close friend of Barrymore , stayed with the body all night and denies the story . Barrymore was buried at Calvary Cemetery in Los Angeles on June 2 . In 1980 , Barrymore 's son had his father 's body reinterred at Philadelphia 's Mount Vernon Cemetery . = = Legacy = = The New York Times obituary stated that during the period when Barrymore 's performed in Justice , Richard III and Hamlet , the actor " was accepted by most critics as the foremost English @-@ speaking actor of his time ... equipped both by nature and by art . " The Washington Post agreed , noting that during his stage triumphs and early years in film , " he was the great profile , the darling of the ' royal family ' of the stage . " Many of the obituaries made the point that Barrymore fell short of his potential . The Manchester Guardian thought that he " might with some self @-@ discipline have added his name to the list of truly great actors ... yet he dissipated his energies " . The New York Times noted that he could twist his abilities " to parody , burlesque himself and play the clown " , and they considered that it was " unfortunate that the public in recent years saw him in ... [ that ] mood . It was a mood of careless abdication " . The Washington Post observed that " with the passing of the years – and as his private life became more public – he became , despite his genius in the theater , a tabloid character . " According to Morrison , Barrymore 's stage portrayals of Richard III and Hamlet were a model for modern performances of these roles . His interpretation along psychological lines was innovative , and his " dynamic portrayals ... changed the direction of subsequent revivals . " Barrymore 's natural acting style reversed the stage conventions of the time ; his " ' colloquial ' verse speaking introduced to the stage the vocal manner of a postwar gentleman . " Barrymore was honored on few occasions by the entertainment industry and its members . Although both his brother and sister won Academy Awards , the only award Barrymore ever received for his screen work was from Rudolph Valentino in 1925 for Beau Brummel . Valentino created an award in his own name and felt that his fellow actors should receive accolades for their screen work . When Barrymore attended his ceremony at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in 1940 , he left more than the customary hand and footprints in the theater 's forecourt : aided by the owner , Sid Grauman , Barrymore left a cement imprint of his facial profile . In February 1960 , for his contribution to the motion picture industry , Barrymore was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame , with a star at 6667 Hollywood Boulevard ; Barrymore , along with his two siblings , is included in the American Theater Hall of Fame . The Barrymore " Royal Family " of actors continued through two of his children – his son with Costello , John Drew Barrymore and his daughter with Oelrichs , Diana – both of whom became actors , as did John Jr . ' s daughter Drew . Barrymore 's brother Lionel died on November 15 , 1954 , and their sister Ethel died on June 18 , 1959 . Barrymore 's achievements and his colorful life have ensured that several biographical studies followed his 1926 autobiography , Confessions of an Actor . Alma Power @-@ Waters produced a 1941 study , authorized by the subject , John Barrymore : The Legend and the Man ; Fowler , wrote Good Night , Sweet Prince : The Life and Times of John Barrymore ( 1943 ) ; Alpert published The Barrymores ( 1964 ) ; and John Kobler wrote Damned in Paradise : The Life of John Barrymore ( 1977 ) , although Norden noted in 2000 that many of these earlier works are less than reliable . Those he identified as being more thoroughly researched are Peters ' 1990 history , The House of Barrymore , and his own study of the actor 's work in John Barrymore : A Bio @-@ Bibliography ( 1995 ) . Subsequent to Norden 's comments on the available literature , Morrison published the positively reviewed John Barrymore , Shakespearean Actor in 1997 , which focuses on Barrymore 's stage work . There were several celebratory events in 1982 , on the centenary of Barrymore 's birth . The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and the Museum of Modern Art jointly hosted a commemorative program of his work , which included numerous excepts from his films and interviews with some who knew him , including Barrie and his one @-@ time co @-@ star Myrna Loy . The same year , in celebration of the centenary of the Actors Fund of America , the US Postal Service issued a postage stamp featuring Barrymore and his siblings . In February 2010 , an intersection in Fort Lee , New Jersey , was renamed John Barrymore Way on what would have been the actor 's 128th birthday . The intersection marked the spot of the former Buckheister 's Hotel , where Barrymore had his 1900 stage debut in " A Man of the World " . = = Portrayals and characterizations = = Barrymore has been used as the inspiration for characters on stage and film . He performed as himself in a number of works ( including The Great Profile , My Dear Children and Playmates ) , and in the Ziegfeld Follies of 1921 he was played by his friend W. C. Fields . In 1927 the Barrymore family was parodied in The Royal Family in which a character based on him was portrayed by Fredric March , whose performance Barrymore admired . The play was staged in London in 1934 as Theatre Royal , with Laurence Olivier in the Barrymore role , and adapted as a film in 1930 , with March reprising his performance . In 1991 , Paul Rudnick 's comedy I Hate Hamlet , performed at the Walter Kerr Theatre , was set in Barrymore 's former apartment . He returns after a séance , dressed in his Hamlet costume . Nicol Williamson played the Barrymore role . Three years later , a London production , Jack : A Night on the Town with John Barrymore , ran for 60 performances at the Criterion Theatre , and Williamson again played the lead . Barrymore , a two @-@ person play by William Luce , premiered in 1996 and depicts Barrymore shortly before his death in 1942 as he is rehearsing a revival of his Richard III . Christopher Plummer played the title role . A film version was released in 2012 , with Plummer again taking the main role . Barrymore had been a friend and drinking companion of Fields . In the 1976 film W.C. Fields and Me , Barrymore was played by Jack Cassidy . Barrymore 's friend , Errol Flynn , played him in a 1958 film Too Much , Too Soon , an adaptation of the autobiography of Diana Barrymore , with Dorothy Malone playing the female lead . Howard Thompson , the film critic of The New York Times , wrote that " Flynn , as the late John Barrymore , a moody , wild @-@ drinking ruin of a great actor , steals the picture , lock , stock and keg . It is only in the scenes of his savage disintegration , as the horrified girl hangs on , that the picture approaches real tragedy . "
= Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science = The Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science ( RSMAS / ˈræz.məs / ) is a college and research institute for the study of oceanography and the atmospheric sciences within the University of Miami ( UM ) . It is located on a 16 acre ( 65 @,@ 000 m ² ) campus on Virginia Key in Miami , Florida , USA . It is the only subtropical applied and basic marine and atmospheric research institute in the continental United States . Up until 2008 , RSMAS was solely a graduate school within the University of Miami , while it jointly administrated an undergraduate program with UM 's College of Arts and Sciences . In 2008 , the Rosenstiel School has taken over administrative responsibilities for the undergraduate program , granting Bachelor of Science in Marine and Atmospheric Science ( BSMAS ) and Bachelor of Arts in Marine Affairs ( BAMA ) baccalaureate degree . Master 's , including a Master of Professional Science degree , and doctorates are also awarded to RSMAS students by the UM Graduate School . The Rosenstiel School 's research includes the study of marine life , particularly Aplysia and coral ; climate change ; air @-@ sea interactions ; coastal ecology ; and admiralty law . The school operates a marine research laboratory ship , and has a research site at an inland sinkhole . Research also includes the use of data from weather satellites and the school operates its own satellite downlink facility . = = History = = In 1940 , University of Miami President Bowman Ashe recruited F.G. Walton Smith , a young British marine biologist who was working in the Bahamas . Smith joined the Department of Zoology , and began organizing the development of a marine laboratory . In 1943 , the Board of Trustees of the University of Miami established the Marine Laboratory for the University . They invited researchers and oceanographers to associate themselves with this laboratory . Its three original objectives were teaching , basic research , and applied marine research . The laboratory focused on subjects specific to the tropical environment . Initially , the Marine Lab was located in a private boathouse on an estate on Belle Isle in Miami Beach , Florida . In 1945 , when the boathouse became structurally unsafe , the lab moved to a converted apartment building in Coral Gables , Florida near the main campus . In 1947 , a delegation from Dade County prompted the Florida State Legislature to support the development of a state Marine Laboratory in conjunction with the UM lab . It reported to the State Board of Conservation , which had no marine research facility and little budget of its own at the time . The relationship lasted for 12 years until the state of Florida built the board a lab in St. Petersburg . In 1953 , the School 's classrooms and laboratories were built at the current Virginia Key location . It was renamed the Institute of Marine Science in 1961 , it became part of the University of Miami 's School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences . In 1969 , the institution was made into an independent school and named to honor Lewis and Dorothy Rosenstiel after a major contribution from the Rosenstiel 's foundation to support progress in atmospheric and marine sciences . In 1977 , the school began a joint undergraduate program with Miami 's College of Arts & Sciences . The school bought Research vessels and built more facilities to further research projects . From 2003 to 2008 , the school operated the Pew Institute for Ocean Science as a joint venture with the The Pew Charitable Trusts , and in 2008 , the program relocated to SUNY at Stony Brook . In 2008 , RSMAS took over administrative functions of the University of Miami 's undergraduate Marine Science , Marine Affairs , and Meteorology programs . Also in 2008 , RSMAS 's library merged with the central University of Miami Library . Recently , RSMAS started unique a one @-@ year Master of Professional Science degree program aimed at students planning non @-@ research careers in business , government , or non @-@ profit organizations . = = Academics = = While the graduate programs are conducted by the RSMAS faculty who in turn report to the Dean of RSMAS , the University of Miami 's Graduate School awards the graduate degrees . RSMAS offers a joint program with the UM Law School which awards its students both a Juris Doctor degree and a Master of Arts in Marine Affairs and Policy . RSMAS also administrates the University of Miami 's undergraduate Marine Science , Marine Affairs , and Meteorology programs on the main campus in Coral Gables , Florida . The Rosenstiel School is divided into six academic divisions , each focusing on a different aspect of oceanography : Applied Marine Physics ( fluid dynamics , remote sensing , waves ) Marine & Atmospheric Chemistry Marine Affairs & Policy ( admiralty law , aquaculture , marine conservation , maritime archaeology , natural resource economics , political ecology ) Marine Biology & Fisheries Marine Geology & Geophysics Meteorology & Physical Oceanography In addition to the academic divisions , RSMAS also has several research units : the Oceans and Human Health Center , the National Resource for Aplysia , the National Center for Coral Reef Research , the Center for Southeastern Tropical Advanced Remote Sensing ( CSTARS ) , and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences . As of 2011 , 358 professors and scientists conduct research programs and teach at RSMAS and the Coral Gables campus . Of these , 81 are regular full @-@ time faculty members . The school operates the F.G. Walton Smith research vessel . Designed to met the school 's specifications , the catamaran was put on water in 2000 . It is equipped with a special sea water flow system that can take samples . The on @-@ board lab can perform chemical analysis of those water samples . It also has transducers for measuring ocean currents , sub @-@ bottom profiling , and deep water bathymetry . In response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill , the vessel was reassigned to environmental monitoring of affected areas and to track underwater plumes of oil . The Rosenstiel School 's research invertebrate museum houses one of the world 's most extensive collections of invertebrate tropical marine life with 400 @,@ 000 specimens . It includes Atlantic tropical marine invertebrates . The collection consists of 60 @,@ 000 specimen lots , out of which 38 @,@ 900 are cataloged and identified species . Since 2005 , RSMAS has conducted an underwater photography contest that draws international submissions . RSMAS also makes underwater photographs available through its Digital Atlas of Marine Species and Locations , which is a database that includes photos of specific marine species . Since 1951 , RSMAS has published the Bulletin of Marine Science a scientific journal which publishes research papers in the marine subject areas covered by the school . It is published four times a year . The United States National Research Council ranked graduate research programs based on 2008 data , and RSMAS ranked 11th to 40th among Oceanography , Atmospheric Sciences , and Meteorology Rankings . The RSMAS entering graduate students ' Average Quantitative Graduate Record Examination score was 681 . = = Campus = = The Virginia Key 18 @-@ acre ( 73 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus includes classroom facilities , laboratories , a dock , and a student center . The center , called the F. G. Walton Smith Commons , holds a cafeteria and a bar that was rated as one of Miami 's best secrets by the Miami New Times in 2008 . The RSMAS campus features mangroves , sea grape trees , and other dune plants to protect its sand dunes and the campus from storm damage . In 2009 , UM received a $ 15 million federal grant to help construct a new $ 43 @.@ 8 million , 56 @,@ 500 square feet ( 5 @,@ 250 m2 ) Marine Technology and Life Sciences Seawater Research Building . The Virginia Key campus is located at a 65 @-@ acre ( 260 @,@ 000 m2 ) marine research and education park that is also home to two National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) research laboratories and the Maritime and Science Technology Academy magnet school . RSMAS also operates a 76 @-@ acre ( 310 @,@ 000 m2 ) site on mainland Miami @-@ Dade County that was formerly the United States Naval Observatory Secondary National Time Standard Facility , which already had buildings and a 20M antenna used for Very Long Baseline Interferometry ( VLBI ) . The Rosenstiel School 's Center for Southeastern Tropical Advanced Remote Sensing ( CSTARS ) and Richmond Satellite Operations Center ( RSOC ) have research facilities located on what is now named the Richmond Campus . = = Research = = As of 2008 , RSMAS receives $ 50 million in annual external research funding . Laboratories at Virginia Key are equipped with specialized instruments including a salt @-@ water wave tank , the five @-@ tank Conditioning and Spawning Systems , multi @-@ tank Aplysia Culture Laboratory , Controlled Corals Climate Tanks , and DNA analysis equipment . The Richmond Campus ' CSTARS provides RSMAS with a near @-@ real @-@ time weather satellite downlink . The Rosenstiel School also operates the Bimini Biological Field Station , an array of oceanographic high @-@ frequency radar along the US east coast , and the Bermuda aerosol observatory . Since 1977 , the Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies ( CIMAS ) , a scientific partnership between UM and the NOAA , has been studying climate change , air @-@ sea interactions and coastal ecology . Research projects at RSMAS are in the domain of atmospheric and marine sciences and include : Coral reef research , focusing on corals survival in a new climate conditions ; coral reef protection Field programs evaluating trace gas chemistry and transport The aquaculture program Climate change modeling Tropical weather , climate , and atmospheric / oceanic circulations Air @-@ sea interactions research through buoys , remote sensing , analysis in situ , a wave tank laboratory , numerical modeling ; Volcanoes in the Pacific , Everglades water level measurements and subsidence through satellite images Studies of the coastal quality and the impact on human health . RSMAS 's Marine Affairs & Policy Division also conducts archaeological and paleontological research at Little Salt Spring in Sarasota County . The site was donated to the University of Miami in 1982 . RSMAS also hosts the National Center for Coral Reef Research ( NCORE ) , which works to understand , conserve and manage coral reefs worldwide . RSMAS has focused significant resources to studying the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and its long term environmental effect . The school is an active member of the State of Florida 's Oil Spill Academic Task Force that works with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection on spill issues . In the summer of 2010 , a CIMAS team working with the research vessel Walton Smith was able to document a 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) long oil plume extending toward the Dry Tortugas . The Development Bank of Latin America has awarded a grant to RSMAS to conduct a feasibility study for a new experimental water tunnel facility located in Panama . The facility would be similar to a wind tunnel , but would flow water at high velocity around the objects being studied . The quality of the school is evaluated through peer @-@ reviewed competition for faculty research grants . In addition , each year , the National Science Foundation conduct a nationwide student competition for Graduate Research Award Fellowship , and in 2010 , five RSMAS students received such awards with two additional honorable mentions . = = Notable faculty = = Frederick Bayer ( Marine Biology ) Cesare Emiliani ( Geology and Geophysics ) - " founder of paleoceanography " Samuel H. Gruber ( Marine Biology and Fisheries ) José Carlos Millás ( Meteorology ) Fred Tappert ( Applied Marine Physics )
= Madison Bumgarner = Madison Kyle Bumgarner ( born August 1 , 1989 ) , commonly known by his nickname , " MadBum " , is an American professional baseball pitcher for the San Francisco Giants of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Bumgarner was born in Hickory , North Carolina , and attended South Caldwell High School in Hudson , North Carolina , where he helped his baseball team win the 2007 4A State Championship . He was drafted by the San Francisco Giants in the first round ( tenth overall ) in the 2007 MLB draft out of high school . In his first year playing professionally , 2008 , he won the South Atlantic League pitching triple crown . He made his major league debut in 2009 with the Giants . In 2010 , he began the season in the minor leagues but was called up midway through the season and wound up becoming the youngest left @-@ handed pitcher to throw eight scoreless innings in a World Series as the Giants won the 2010 World Series , their first since 1954 . In 2014 , Bumgarner set a career high number of wins with 18 and won his third World Series as a Giant . Following one of the most dominant postseason and World Series pitching performances in modern MLB history , he was named the Most Valuable Player of the 2014 World Series , the 2014 Babe Ruth Award winner , the 2014 Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year , and the 2014 Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year . He made history by becoming one of only 4 pitchers to ever intentionally bat for himself in a game played in an American League park , rather than use the designated hitter . = = Early life = = Bumgarner was born August 1 , 1989 , in Hickory , North Carolina , and grew up in an area ten miles away nicknamed " Bumtown " because of the abundance of people with the surname Bumgarner who have lived there over the years after their ancestors had arrived from Germany . He grew up in a log house that his father , Kevin , built , sleeping in a loft at nights . Bumgarner 's first word was " ball " , and by the age of four , he was already playing in a youth baseball league . His father had to sign a waiver because the league was for five- to eight @-@ year @-@ olds . His parents , Kevin and Debbie , divorced while Bumgarner was in high school . Much like fellow Major League pitcher Brett Cecil , throwing a ball is the only thing Bumgarner does left @-@ handed Bumgarner attended South Caldwell High School in Hudson , North Carolina , where he was known as " Maddie " to his friends and was a member of the Spartans baseball team . In his junior season , he had a 12 – 2 record , an 0 @.@ 99 earned run average ( ERA ) , and 120 strikeouts in 84 innings pitched as he led his team to a runner @-@ up in the 2006 4A State Championship . Next season , he went 11 – 2 with a 1 @.@ 05 ERA and 143 strikeouts in 86 innings while this time helping his team win the 2007 4A State Championship . He batted .424 with 11 home runs and 38 runs batted in . He was named Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of the playoffs and the Gatorade North Carolina Player of the Year , garnering the nickname " The Carolina Peach " . In 2013 , the North Carolina High School Athletic Association included him on its " 100 To Remember " male athletes list , which included Michael Jordan , Carl Eller , and Jim Beatty . Bumgarner attracted so much attention from scouts and agents in high school that his father built a wall around the bullpen at his high school field to keep them from distracting him as he warmed up for games . He committed to attend the University of North Carolina on a college baseball scholarship . = = Professional career = = = = = Draft and minor leagues = = = The San Francisco Giants selected Bumgarner in the first round ( 10th overall ) of the 2007 MLB draft . Going into the draft , Baseball America had ranked him as the 14th best prospect overall . He was the first high school pitcher to be selected by the Giants on their first pick since Matt Cain in 2002 , and the first left @-@ handed pitcher selected in the first round by the organization since Noah Lowry in 2001 . Bumgarner pitched for the Augusta Greenjackets , the Giants ' Low @-@ A South Atlantic League affiliate , in 2008 . The Giants sought for him to alter the angle of his head during his delivery , but after Bumgarner struggled over his first three starts in Augusta , he reverted to the way he had thrown in high school . With Augusta , he worked on the changeup , the slider , and " the ability to pitch inside . " When asked if it was tough to work on off @-@ speed pitches in a league in which most of the hitters can be fooled with the fastball , Bumgarner replied , " The minors are all about player development . I needed to work on other pitches and have the confidence to throw them . " He won the South Atlantic League pitchers ' Triple Crown , tying for the league lead in wins ( 15 , tied with Levi Maxwell ) , leading the league in earned run average ( 1 @.@ 46 ) , and leading the league in strikeouts ( 164 ) . He began the 2009 season with the Giants ' High @-@ A affiliate , the San Jose Giants of the California League . After five starts , in which he went 3 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 48 ERA and 23 strikeouts , he was called up to the Giants AA affiliate , the Connecticut Defenders of the Eastern League . On July 22 , he hit a grand slam against Eric Niesen and picked up the victory in a 9 – 3 triumph over the Binghamton Mets . In 20 games ( 19 starts ) with them , he went 9 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 93 ERA and 69 strikeouts . In 2008 , Baseball America ranked him the third @-@ best prospect in the Giants organization . Before the start of the 2009 season , the magazine ranked Bumgarner as the ninth @-@ best prospect in baseball . Entering 2010 , he dropped to the 14th @-@ best prospect in baseball on the magazine 's list , as some writers were concerned about a drop in Bumgarner 's velocity . Jason Grey of ESPN wrote that the drop was " puzzling . " = = = San Francisco Giants ( 2009 – present ) = = = = = = = 2009 – 2010 = = = = Bumgarner was called up to the majors on September 8 , 2009 , to make his first major league start and debut in place of Tim Lincecum , who was scratched with back spasms . At the age of 20 , he became the second youngest pitcher ever to start a game for the Giants since the franchise moved west in 1958 . He was older only than Mike McCormick , who played as a 19 @-@ year @-@ old for San Francisco but had made his debut with the Giants two years earlier when the team was still in New York . Bumgarner made four appearances with the Giants in 2009 , posting an ERA of 1 @.@ 80 , striking out 10 batters , and pitching 10 innings without recording a decision . Bumgarner attended the Giants ' spring training before the 2010 season , competing for the position of fifth starter . However , out of shape after attending his half @-@ sister 's funeral , he struggled and was sent down to the AAA Fresno Grizzlies , partly due to a drop in his velocity . In 14 starts with Fresno , he went 7 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 16 ERA and 59 strikeouts . On June 26 , 2010 , Bumgarner was called up again to join the club , facing the Boston Red Sox the next day . He replaced Joe Martinez , who had made one start in place of an injured Todd Wellemeyer , in the rotation . On July 6 , 2010 , against the Milwaukee Brewers in Milwaukee , Bumgarner earned his first major league victory , 6 – 1 , going eight innings without yielding a run . Bumgarner pitched well enough that when Wellemeyer returned from the disabled list in August , Giants ' manager Bruce Bochy chose to use him in the bullpen and leave Bumgarner in the rotation . In five September starts during the Giants ' successful run to the National League West Division championship , Bumgarner posted an ERA of 1 @.@ 13 . At the end of September , Bumgarner earned his first win at home , making him 7 – 6 on the season . Despite a ten @-@ day layoff , Bumgarner became the youngest pitcher in Giants ' franchise history to pitch in and win a postseason game , which he did against the Braves in the NLDS @-@ clinching game on October 11 . In addition to his clinching performance in the NLDS , he pitched two shutout innings in relief in the NLCS clinching game versus the Philadelphia Phillies . On October 31 , Bumgarner pitched eight shutout innings in Game 4 of the 2010 World Series , becoming the fourth @-@ youngest pitcher to start and win a World Series game , as well as the youngest to make a scoreless start of six innings or more . This win gave the Giants a 3 – 1 lead in the series , en route to the Giants winning their first World Series championship in 56 years . After the season , he was named a starting pitcher on Baseball America 's 2010 All @-@ Rookie Team . = = = = 2011 – 2013 = = = = After his start May 13 , 2011 , Bumgarner was 0 – 5 with a 4 @.@ 58 ERA in his first seven starts of the season . He struggled in his first two games of the season , but soon after regained his post @-@ season form . However , he was the victim of poor run support and bad luck . Despite pitching at least six innings and giving up more than one earned run only once in his five starts from April 27 through May 19 , it wasn 't until the 19th that he got his first win , collecting an ERA of 3 @.@ 71 for the season at that point . By June 9 , Bumgarner had a 1 @.@ 93 ERA over his last nine starts , yet had two wins and five losses to show for it . In seven of his eight losses at that point , the Giants either only scored once or scored no times at all . On September 5 , Bumgarner struck out thirteen batters while yielding two earned runs , seven hits and one walk over 8 @.@ 1 innings while earning the win against the San Diego Padres at Petco Park . It was his second consecutive double digit strikeout game , having struck out 11 batters in his previous start against the Chicago Cubs . With his win September 16 , Bumgarner had won five consecutive starts ; he finished the season 13 – 13 with a 3 @.@ 21 ERA , 204 innings pitched , and 191 strikeouts . Worth noting , however , is that Bumgarner was 12 – 1 for the games in which his teammates scored three or more runs for him . In April 2012 , Bumgarner agreed to a six @-@ year contract worth $ 35 @.@ 56 million through the 2017 season , with additional $ 12 million options for 2018 and 2019 . Bumgarner began the 2012 season by going 5 – 1 with a 2 @.@ 31 ERA . With his win over the Brewers on May 5 , he became the first Giant since Jason Schmidt to win 14 games in a 20 @-@ game span . His ERA then rose to 2 @.@ 85 after he lost three consecutive games , with his record moving to 5 – 4 . After May 14 , the Giants went 16 home games without a home run until Bumgarner hit the first of his career into left field on June 12 , against Houston Astros pitcher Bud Norris . Bumgarner , with his home run and 12 strikeouts , became the most recent Giant to hit a home run and throw 10 + strikeouts since Mike Krukow , who was announcing the game . On June 28 , Bumgarner pitched nine shutout innings against the Cincinnati Reds to earn his first complete game and shutout . With this victory , the Giants franchise established a new San Francisco record for consecutive scoreless innings , a total of 36 . In 2012 , Bumgarner won 16 games ( with only seven losses ) while posting a 3 @.@ 37 ERA and striking out 191 in 208 1 ⁄ 3 innings . After struggling earlier in the playoffs with an 11 @.@ 25 ERA , Bumgarner pitched seven scoreless innings and struck out eight in Game 2 of the 2012 World Series on October 25 . Bumgarner became the first pitcher to begin his World Series career with 15 scoreless innings since Bruce Hurst did so in 1986 . Hall of Famer Christy Mathewson in 1905 was the last Giant before Bumgarner to have scoreless outings in his first two career World Series starts . The 2013 season saw Bumgarner set career bests for ERA ( 2 @.@ 77 ) , walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) ( 1 @.@ 03 ) and strikeouts ( 199 ) in 31 starts , finishing with a 13 – 9 record . Bumgarner 's WHIP was the lowest for a Giants ' left @-@ hander since Carl Hubbell 's in 1933 . Bumgarner was also selected by Giants manager Bruce Bochy and the manager of the National League team , to pitch in the All Star game for the first time . However , Bumgarner didn 't pitch in the game . He took pride in pitching 200 + innings for the third consecutive season ( 201 @.@ 1 ) and improving at holding runners on base , conceding 8 stolen bases in 2013 compared with 27 in 2012 . Bumgarner was rested for what would have been his final start of the season , following a great seven @-@ inning , one @-@ run , 10 @-@ strikeout win over the New York Mets . Bochy said he wanted to give Bumgarner a break and also allow Barry Zito a final home start . = = = = 2014 = = = = Following his outstanding 2013 season , on February 25 , Bumgarner was named the Giants ' Opening Day starter for the first time in his career . On April 11 , Bumgarner hit his first career grand slam and registered a career @-@ high five RBIs against the Colorado Rockies ' Jorge de la Rosa , the third home run of Bumgarner 's major league career . Bumgarner was named NL Pitcher of the Month for May after going 5 – 0 in six starts , with 48 strikeouts and a 2 @.@ 08 ERA . On July 13 , in an 8 – 4 win over the Arizona Diamondbacks at AT & T Park , Bumgarner and batterymate Buster Posey each hit grand slam home runs , marking the first ever occurrence in MLB history that batterymates each hit grand slams in the same game . Bumgarner also tied the all @-@ time MLB records for grand slams in a career and in a single season by a pitcher with two . Tony Cloninger had been the last pitcher to hit two grand slams in one season , doing so in one game on July 3 , 1966 . On August 26 at AT & T Park , in a 3 – 0 win over the Colorado Rockies , Bumgarner pitched his second career complete game one @-@ hit shutout , which included pitching seven perfect innings to start the game until Justin Morneau reached out on a 1 – 2 pitch that went down deep right field for a double . In the process , he set a franchise @-@ record sixth career game with ten or more strikeouts and no walks . Bumgarner beat Jorge de la Rosa at AT & T Park for the second time that season . Bumgarner was named the NL Pitcher of the Month for August . He went 4 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 57 ERA , threw three complete games , and had 56 strikeouts against just three walks . On September 12 at AT & T Park , in a 9 – 0 win over the Los Angeles Dodgers Bumgarner struck out former teammate Juan Uribe for his 207th strikeout of the season , breaking Ray Sadecki 's mark and setting a new San Francisco Giants single season strikeout record by a left @-@ handed pitcher . Bumgarner set a career @-@ high in wins with eighteen , posting an 18 – 10 record , a 2 @.@ 98 ERA , and 219 strikeouts for the 2014 MLB regular season . On October 1 , Bumgarner pitched a 4 @-@ hit shutout in the NL Wild Card game against the Pittsburgh Pirates at PNC Park , allowing the Giants to advance to the NLDS against the Washington Nationals .. He joins Sandy Koufax from the 1965 World Series and Justin Verlander from the 2012 ALDS as the only postseason pitchers to pitch a shutout and strikeout ten or more batters in a winner @-@ take @-@ all game . On October 11 , in Game 1 of the NLCS , by tossing 7 2 ⁄ 3 shutout innings against the St. Louis Cardinals at Busch Stadium , Bumgarner set a new , all @-@ time MLB pitching record for postseason consecutive scoreless innings on the road , with 26 2 ⁄ 3 . In doing so he broke the 90 @-@ year @-@ old record held by fellow Giant , Art Nehf . For his performance , he was named NLCS MVP . On October 21 , in Game 1 of the 2014 World Series , Bumgarner pitched seven innings of one @-@ run ball . Although his streak of scoreless innings ended at 21 2 ⁄ 3 when he gave up a home run to Salvador Pérez in the 7th inning , he earned his third career win in World Series competition as his team defeated the host Kansas City Royals 7 – 1 in Kauffman Stadium . Describing Bumgarner , Giants manager Bruce Bochy said , " This is a big stage , a loud crowd . But he just keeps that maniacal focus . He 's as good as anybody I 've seen at it . " Bumgarner threw a four @-@ hit , complete @-@ game shutout in Game 5 on October 26 . He set all @-@ time MLB records for lowest World Series ERA ( 0 @.@ 29 ) among pitchers of at least 25 innings pitched , and was the first pitcher in Series history to pitch a shutout with no walks and at least eight strikeouts . On October 29 , in Game 7 , on two days rest , Bumgarner pitched five scoreless innings in relief in the final game of the World Series . This effort drew media comparisons to Barry Bonds , in terms of unusual statistical performance . He was named the 2014 World Series MVP , finishing the Series with a 2 – 0 record , 1 save , and a 0 @.@ 43 ERA . In three pitching appearances , Bumgarner gave up one run in 21 innings . Some analysts have posited that Bumgarner 's entire 2014 postseason record — in which the 25 @-@ year @-@ old threw a record @-@ breaking 52 2 ⁄ 3 innings — was the most dominant postseason pitching performance ever . Following the postseason , he won the Babe Ruth Award as the postseason MVP and was named Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year and Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year . = = = = 2015 = = = = In a 4 – 0 win over the Los Angeles Dodgers on May 21 , Bumgarner paired up and beat Clayton Kershaw for the third time that season , becoming the first pitcher to hit a home run off of Kershaw . The homer made Kershaw the second Cy Young Award winner to surrender a home run to Bumgarner after Zack Greinke . He became the first reigning World Series MVP to homer off the defending League MVP . On June 23 at AT & T Park against the San Diego Padres , Bumgarner struck out a career @-@ high fourteen batters , tying Atlee Hammaker 's franchise record for most strikeouts in a single game by a left @-@ handed pitcher . On June 28 , in a 6 – 3 win over the Colorado Rockies at AT & T Park , Bumgarner had two hits , one a solo home run , scored twice , and struck out Brandon Barnes for his 1,000th career strikeout . He is also the third left @-@ handed pitcher in the San Francisco Era and the third youngest in franchise history to reach the milestone . Only Amos Rusie ( 21 ) and Christy Mathewson ( 25 ) were younger . On July 14 at the 2015 MLB All @-@ Star Game held at Great American Ball Park against the American League , Bumgarner pitched a scoreless fourth inning for the National League with batterymate Buster Posey . On August 11 at AT & T Park , Bumgarner pitched a complete game 3 – 1 victory over the Houston Astros where he struck out twelve and walked none . During the outing , he struck out a career @-@ high seven straight batters to tie a San Francisco record with Juan Marichal and Jonathan Sánchez . On August 16 , he tied his career @-@ high by striking out fourteen batters , including striking out that year 's National League MVP Bryce Harper a career @-@ high three times , hit a home run , and pitched a complete game shutout against the Washington Nationals . He became the first Giants left @-@ handed pitcher to record multiple fourteen @-@ strikeout games in a single season and career , and joined Juan Marichal as the only Giants pitchers in the San Francisco Era to strike out ten or more batters , hit a home run , and record a shutout in the same game . Bumgarner was honored for the first time in his career with National League Player of the Week honors . Bumgarner logged his first career pinch hit in the seventh inning on August 18 at Busch Stadium in a 2 – 0 win over the St. Louis Cardinals . He became the first Giants pitcher to record a hit in a pitch @-@ hitting appearance since Kirk Rueter did so on August 17 , 2004 against the Montreal Expos . On August 21 at PNC Park , in a 6 – 4 win over the Pittsburgh Pirates , Bumgarner hit his fifth homer and won his fifteenth game of the season , the first to do so since Carlos Zambrano in 2006 , and the sixth pitcher since 1970 according to SportsCenter . On August 28 at AT & T Park , in a 9 – 1 win over the Chicago Cubs , Bumgarner struck out twelve batters through six innings , logging his third straight game with twelve or more strikeouts . This marks the first occurrence a Giants pitcher has struck out twelve or more batters in at least three games in a single calendar month since John Montefusco in August 1975 . On September 1 at Dodger Stadium , Bumgarner paired up against Zack Greinke , both of whom batted eighth in the starting lineup . It marked the first time in the same Giants @-@ Dodgers game that both pitchers batted eighth . He also became the first left @-@ handed pitcher in the live @-@ ball era to hit five home runs and strikeout two hundred batters in a single season . On September 12 at AT & T Park , in an 8 – 0 win over the San Diego Padres , Bumgarner pitched his third career complete game one @-@ hit shutout , including a career @-@ high 72 ⁄ 3 perfect innings to start the game . On September 24 at Petco Park , Bumgarner struck out his 220th batter of the season , breaking his own San Francisco Giants single season strikeout record by a left @-@ handed pitcher . Bumgarner tied a career @-@ high in wins with eighteen , posting an 18 – 9 record , a 2 @.@ 93 ERA , and also set career @-@ highs with a .667 win percentage , 218 @.@ 1 innings pitched and 234 strikeouts for the 2015 MLB regular season . According to CSN Bay Area , his 234 strikeouts are the most by a Giants left @-@ handed pitcher since Rube Marquard struck out 237 batters in the 1911 season . He was named the winner of the 2015 National League Silver Slugger Award at pitcher . = = = = 2016 = = = = On April 9 , 2016 at AT & T Park , Bumgarner matched up with Clayton Kershaw less than a year after hitting his first home run off of Kershaw , and Bumgarner hit another one into the left @-@ field seats in nearly exactly the same spot . Since the 2014 season , Bumgarner , Troy Tulowitzki , and Daniel Murphy are the only three players to have homered off of Kershaw multiple times . Over Kershaw 's last twenty @-@ seven starts , Kershaw has allowed two of his eleven home runs to Bumgarner .. Bumgarner allowed two earned runs or fewer in twelve consecutive starts from April 20 to June 20 , which is tied with Fred Anderson for the third longest streak in Giants franchise history since 1913 , according to Comcast SportsNet Bay Area . On June 30 , in a 12 @-@ 6 win over the Oakland Athletics at Oakland Alameda Coliseum , Bumgarner was started at pitcher hitting for himself in an American League ballpark , the first time this was intentionally done in the Majors since 1976 , according to SportsCenter , and only the fifth time since the creation of the designated hitter rule in 1973 . He went 1 for 4 , opening the third inning with a double and starting a six @-@ run rally . On July 10 at AT & T Park , in a 4 @-@ 0 Win over the Arizona Diamondbacks , Bumgarner pitched his fourth career complete game one @-@ hit shutout and third career game by striking out fourteen batters , tying his career @-@ high and extending his record . Bumgarner 's four career one @-@ hitters are the most by a Giants pitcher in the last one @-@ hundred years , not since Christy Mathewson 's six career one @-@ hitters . Bumgarner started the game by throwing 4 2 ⁄ 3 perfect innings until an outfield error by Gregor Blanco as he was battling the sun . He also carried a no @-@ hitter through 7 1 ⁄ 3 innings until it was broken up by Jake Lamb , an All @-@ Star snub . = = Pitching style = = Bumgarner 's repertoire consists of four pitches including a curveball he throws at two different speeds with two different types of movement . He features a four @-@ seam fastball in the 90 to 93 miles per hour ( 145 to 150 km / h ) range that tops off at 95 mph , a cutter around 86 to 90 miles per hour ( 138 to 145 km / h ) , a curveball that usually ranges from 75 to 78 miles per hour ( 121 to 126 km / h ) with sharp , mostly downward break , but he occasionally throws a much slower curve with a more exaggerated and horizontal break in the mid @-@ to @-@ high 60 miles per hour range , and a change @-@ up that sits at 82 to 85 miles per hour ( 132 to 137 km / h ) . The fastball and cutter are his main pitches ; through 2013 , he has thrown the fastball 43 @.@ 68 % of the time and the cutter 33 @.@ 84 % of the time . Madison has a unique pitching style . As he throws , it appears he is throwing toward first base . = = Career highlights = = On December 8 , 2014 , Sports Illustrated named Madison Bumgarner Sportsman of the Year . On December 31 , 2014 , the Associated Press named Madison Bumgarner the Male Athlete of the Year regarding his phenomenal 2014 postseason performance and overall success as an MLB left @-@ handed pitcher . Bumgarner has hit 13 career home runs . = = = Awards = = = = = Personal life = = Bumgarner 's parents are Kevin and Debbie , who divorced when Madison was in high school . In high school , Bumgarner dated a girl also named Madison Bumgarner . Bumgarner married Ali Saunders on February 14 , 2010 , in a private ceremony in which he wore jeans . During the offseason , they live on a farm in North Carolina that is about thirty minutes from where he grew up in the old furniture manufacturing area of the state , and during the season in a condo in San Francisco . Bumgarner has been a Baptist since his childhood . Andrew Baggarly , a reporter who covers the Giants , wrote of Bumgarner , " While I wouldn 't describe him as outgoing , he struck me as being smart , well spoken and polite . He is deeply Christian and seems to be very grounded . " Bumgarner had a half @-@ sister , Dena , who died in 2010 reportedly from accidentally overdosing on pain medication following hospitalization from cancer . Bumgarner has a stepsister and two older half @-@ brothers . His father , Kevin , built the log house the younger Bumgarner grew up in , and works nights at a food distribution company . His mother is an accountant for PepsiCo . Bumgarner has an endorsement deal with Carhartt , and is featured in one of their television commercials . In 2015 , Bumgarner admitted to being a smokeless tobacco user since he was in 5th grade . = = Baseball records and accomplishments = = = = = Regular season = = = MLB record for grand slams by a pitcher in one season – 2 ( tied with Tony Cloninger ) MLB record for career grand slams by a pitcher – 2 ( tied with 6 others ) . Along with Buster Posey , the only starting pitcher @-@ catcher duo in MLB history to both hit a grand slam in one game . Second pitcher in SF Giants history to throw a complete @-@ game shutout , strikeout 10 + batters , and hit a home run in one game ( August 16 , 2015 ) . The first was Juan Marichal . First left @-@ handed pitcher in the live @-@ ball era to hit five home runs and strikeout two hundred batters in a single season . = = = Post @-@ season = = = MLB record for most starts in a single post @-@ season – 6 in 2014 ( tied for the record with Chris Carpenter , 2011 and Curt Schilling , 2001 ) MLB record for most innings pitched in a single post @-@ season – 52 2 / 3rds in 2014 MLB record for lowest career world series ERA ( minimum 20 innings of work ) – 0 @.@ 25 MLB record for fewest hits allowed in a single World Series by any pitcher with at least 20 innings of work – 9 in 21 innings in 2014 MLB record for most shutout innings in relief in a World Series game 7 – 5 ( tie with Joe Page ) MLB record for longest save in a World Series – 5 innings in Game 7 in 2014 MLB record for longest save in a winner @-@ take @-@ all game – 5 innings in Game 7 in 2014 MLB record for most World Series games won through age 25 – 4 First MLB pitcher in a single World Series to earn at least two wins , throw a shutout and earn a save – in 2014 First MLB pitcher in a World Series to pitch a shutout with no walks and at least eight strikeouts – game 5 in 2014 His 0 @.@ 43 ERA in the 2014 World Series was the lowest in a single World Series ( minimum 15 innings ) since Sandy Koufax posted a 0 @.@ 38 ERA in the 1965 World Series Second @-@ most strikeouts in a single World Series while walking no more than one batter – 17 in 2014 . Christy Mathewson of the New York Giants struck out 18 in 1905 First pitcher to throw at least four scoreless innings in a World Series Game 7 ( 2014 ) on two days ' rest since Sandy Koufax 's shutout for the Dodgers in 1965 In the 2014 post @-@ season , he threw more than double the innings of any other pitcher
= Sheng nu = Sheng nu ( 剩女 ; shèngnǚ ; common translation : " leftover women " or " leftover ladies " ) is a derogatory term made popular by the All @-@ China Women 's Federation that classifies women who remain unmarried in their late twenties and beyond . The term is most prominently used in China , including a state sponsored directive and program , but has been used to describe women across Asia , India , and North America . The term has gone on to become widely used in the mainstream media and has been the subject of several televisions series , magazine and newspaper articles , and book publications focusing on both the good and bad aspects of the term and surrounding culture . Xu Xiaomin of The China Daily described the sheng nus as " a social force to be reckoned with " while others have argued the term should be taken as a positive to mean " successful women " . The slang term , 3S or 3S Women , meaning " single , seventies ( 1970s ) , and stuck " has also been used in place of sheng nu . The equivalent term for men , guang gun ( 光棍 ) meaning bare branches , is used to refer to men who do not marry and thus do not add ' branches ' to the family tree . Similarly , shengnan ( 剩男 ) or " leftover men " has also been used . = = Background = = The one @-@ child policy ( Family Planning Program ) and sex @-@ selective abortions in China have caused a growing disproportion in the country 's gender balance . Since 1979 , when the one @-@ child policy was introduced , approximately 20 million more men than women have been born , or 120 males to 100 females born , and by 2020 , China is expected to have 24 million more men than women . The global average is 103 males to 107 females . According to The New York Times , the State Council of the People 's Republic of China ( Central People 's Government ) issued an " edict " in 2007 regarding the Population and Family Planning Program ( one @-@ child @-@ policy ) to address the urgent gender imbalance and cited it as a major " threat to social stability " . The council further cited " upgrading population quality ( suzhi ) " as one of its primary goals and appointed the All @-@ China Women 's Federation , a state agency established in 1949 to " protect women 's rights and interests " , to oversee and resolve the issue . The exact etymology of the term is not conclusively known , but most reliable sources cite it as having entered the mainstream in 2006 . The China Daily reported in 2011 that Xu Wei , the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Cosmopolitan Magazine China , coined the term . The term , sheng nu , literally translates to " leftover ladies " or " leftover women " . In 2007 , the Ministry of Education of the People 's Republic of China released an official statement defining sheng nu as any " unmarried women over the age of 27 " and added it to the national lexicon . The ministry expanded the meaning as a " failure to find a husband " due to " overly high expectations for marriage partners " in a subsequent statement . According to several sources , the government mandated the All @-@ China Women 's Federation to publish series of articles stigmatizing unwed women who were in their late twenties . In March 2011 , the All @-@ China Women 's Federation posted a controversial article titled ' Leftover Women Do Not Deserve Our Sympathy ' shortly after International Women 's Day . An excerpt states , " Pretty girls do not need a lot of education to marry into a rich and powerful family . But girls with an average or ugly appearance will find it difficult " and " These girls hope to further their education in order to increase their competitiveness . The tragedy is , they don 't realise that as women age , they are worth less and less . So by the time they get their MA or PhD , they are already old — like yellowed pearls . " Originally at least 15 articles were available on its website relating to the subject of sheng nu , which have now been subsequently removed , that included matchmaking advice and tips . = = China = = = = = Culture and statistics = = = The National Bureau of Statistics of the People 's Republic of China ( NBS ) and state census figures reported approximately 1 in 5 women between the age of 25 @-@ 29 remain unmarried . In contrast , the proportion of unwed men in that age range is much higher , sitting at around 1 in 3 . In a 2010 Chinese National Marriage Survey , it was reported that 9 out of 10 men believe that women should be married before they are 27 years old . 7 @.@ 4 % of Chinese women between 30 @-@ 34 were unmarried and the percentage falls to 4 @.@ 6 % between the ages 35 – 39 . In comparison with other neighbouring countries with similar traditional values , these figures put China as having some of the highest female marriage rates in the world . Despite being categorized as a " relatively rare " demographic , the social culture and traditions of China have put the issue in the social spotlight . A study of married couples in China noted that men tended to marry down the socio @-@ economic ladder . " There is an opinion that A @-@ quality guys will find B @-@ quality women , B @-@ quality guys will find C @-@ quality women , and C @-@ quality men will find D @-@ quality women , " says Huang Yuanyuan . " The people left are A @-@ quality women and D @-@ quality men . So if you are a leftover woman , you are A @-@ quality . " A University of North Carolina demographer who studies China 's gender imbalance , Yong Cai , further notes that " men at the bottom of society get left out of the marriage market , and that same pattern is coming to emerge for women at the top of society " . China , and many other Asian countries , share a long history of conservative and patriarchal view of marriage and the family structure including marrying at a young age and hypergamy . The pressure from society and family has been the source criticism , shame , social embarrassment and social anxiety for many women who are unmarried . Chen , another women interviewed by the BBC , said the sheng nu are " afraid their friends and neighbours will regard me as abnormal . And my parents would also feel they were totally losing face , when their friends all have grandkids already " . Similar sentiment has been shared amongst other women in China , particularly amongst recent university graduates . A report by CNN cited a survey of 900 female university graduates across 17 Chinese universities where approximately 70 percent of those surveyed said " their greatest fear is becoming a 3S lady " . The increasing popularity of unwed women in China has been largely accredited to the growing educated middle class . Women are more free and able to live independently in comparison to previous generations . Forbes reported that in 2013 , " 11 of the 20 richest self @-@ made women in the world are Chinese " . In addition , it cites that Chinese female CEOs make up 19 percent of women in management jobs making it the second highest worldwide after Thailand . Another noted outcome has been the reluctance amongst male partners to date women who are professionally more successful than they or unwilling to give up work or both . A rapidly growing trend in premarital sex has been commonly surveyed and noted amongst women in China . In 1989 , 15 % of Chinese women engaged in premarital sex against 2013 where between 60 @-@ 70 % had done so . Chinese Academy of Social Sciences professor Li states that this shows an increase in the types of relationships amongst new generations in China . A movement in China to have the word banned from most government websites , including the All @-@ China Women 's Federation website , was marginally successful . The wording was changed to " old unmarried women " , but sheng nu remains a widespread and mainstream idea . The term has also been embraced by some feminists with the opening of ' sheng nu ' social clubs . In an interview with fashion editor Sandra Bao by the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting , Bao stated that " many modern , single women in China enjoy their independence and feel comfortable holding out for the right man , even as they grow older . " She further explained , " We don 't want to make compromises because of age or social pressure " . Between 2008 and 2012 , sociologist Sandy To , while at the University of Cambridge , conducted a ' grounded theory method ' study in China regarding the topic . To 's research focused on " marriage partner choice " by Chinese professional women in the form of a typology of four different " partner choice strategies " . The main finding of the study found that contrary to the popular belief that highly educated and single women remain unmarried , or do not want to take on traditional roles in marriage , because of personal preference , that in contrast , they commonly have an appetite for marriage and that their main obstacle is traditional patriarchal attitudes . The study also pointed out that in other Asian countries such as Japan , Singapore , South Korea , and Taiwan , where women have been receiving a higher education , that correspondingly , the average age of marriage amongst them is much higher . The Chinese People 's Daily cited a 2012 United Nations survey that found 74 percent of women in the United Kingdom and 70 percent of women in Japan were single between the ages of 25 and 29 . The China Daily published an article that cited figures from the 2012 United Nations ' World Marriage Data which reported 38 % of women in the United States , and more than 50 % of women in Britain remained unmarried in their 30s . = = = Media = = = The Chinese media has capitalized on the subject matter with television shows , viral videos , newspapers and magazine articles , and pundits that have sharply criticized women for " waiting it out for a man with a bigger house or fancier car " . The television series comedy Will You Marry Me and My Family , which premièred on CCTV @-@ 8 , that revolves around the principal concept of sheng nu as a family frantically searches for a prospective spouse of the main character who is in her 30s . The series Old Women Should Get Married and You Are the One ( MediaCorp Channel 8 ) have been accredited with minting terms like " the shengnu economy " and further bringing the subject into public fascination and obsession . If You Are the One ( Jiangsu Satellite Television ) is a popular Chinese game show , loosely based on Taken Out , whose rise has been credited with the " national obsession " surrounding sheng nu . The show between 2010 @-@ 2013 was China 's most viewed game show . In response to a popular music video called " No Car , No House " about blue @-@ collar Chinese bachelors , another music video called " No House , No Car " was made by a group of women and uploaded on International Women 's Day . The video was viewed over 1 @.@ 5 million times over the first two days on the Chinese video site Youku . Other commercial interests have taken advantage of the situation such as the increased popularity of " boyfriends for hire " . The concept has also been turned into a popular television drama series called Renting a Girlfriend for Home Reunion . = = = Longevity and consequences = = = Experts have further theorized about the term 's longevity as the National Population and Family Planning Commission has been moving towards phasing out the one @-@ child policy in favour of an " appropriate and scientific family planning policy ( one @-@ child policy ) " where the child limit may be increased . He Feng in The China Daily points out , " the sheng nu phenomenon is nothing like the feminist movement in the West , in which women consciously demanded equal rights in jobs and strived for independence . " Rather , the change has been " subtle " and that " perhaps decades later , will be viewed as symbolic of China 's social progress and a turning point for the role of women in its society . " In an article by the South China Morning Post , it concludes , " with mounting pressure and dwindling hopes of fulfilling both career and personal ambitions at home , for women such as Xu the urge to pack up and leave only grows stronger with time . Without women such as her , though , the mainland will be left with not only a weaker economy , but an even greater pool of frustrated leftover men . " Divorce rates in Shanghai and Beijing , China 's two most populated economic centres , have been steadily rising since 2005 with it reaching 30 % in 2012 . This among other contributing factors such as online dating and the upward mobility of people have been attributed to pushing the average age of marriage in China to 27 . Up from 20 in 1950 making it closer to global marriage trends . = = In other cultures = = = = = United States = = = Comparisons have been made to a 1986 Newsweek cover and featured article that said " women who weren 't married by 40 had a better chance of being killed by a terrorist than of finding a husband " . Newsweek eventually apologized for the story and in 2010 launched a study that discovered 2 in 3 women who were 40 and single in 1986 had married since . The story caused a " wave of anxiety " and some " skepticism " amongst professional and highly educated women in the United States . The article was cited several times in the 1993 Hollywood film Sleepless in Seattle starring Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan . The Chinese People 's Daily noted a United Nations study , mentioned earlier , that in the United States in 2012 , nearly half of all women between 25 and 29 were single . The term bachelorette is used to describe any unmarried women who is still single . The popular American reality television series The Bachelorette capitalizes on matchmaking often successful businesswomen in their mid to late twenties with other eligible bachelors . Former Los Angeles deputy mayor Joy Chen , a Chinese @-@ American , wrote a book titled Do Not Marry Before Age 30 ( 2012 ) . Chen 's book , a pop culture bestseller , was commissioned and published by the Chinese government as a self @-@ help book for unmarried women . In an earlier interview with The China Daily , she was quoted with saying , " We should not just try to find a ' Mr Right Now ' , but a ' Mr Right Forever ' " . The same year , Chen was named " Woman of the Year " by the All @-@ China Women 's Federation . = = = Other countries = = = Singapore is noted to have gone through a similar period . In 1983 , then Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew sparked the ' Great Marriage Debate ' when he encouraged Singapore men to choose highly educated women as wives . He was concerned that a large number of graduate women were unmarried . Some sections of the population , including graduate women , were upset by his views . Nevertheless , a match @-@ making agency Social Development Unit ( SDU ) was set up to promote socialising among men and women graduates . In the Graduate Mothers Scheme , Lee also introduced incentives such as tax rebates , schooling , and housing priorities for graduate mothers who had three or four children , in a reversal of the over @-@ successful ' Stop @-@ at @-@ Two ' family planning campaign in the 1960s and 1970s . By the late 1990s , the birth rate had fallen so low that Lee 's successor Goh Chok Tong extended these incentives to all married women , and gave even more incentives , such as the ' baby bonus ' scheme . Lee reaffirmed his controversial position in his personal memoir , From Third World to First , " many well @-@ educated Singaporean women did not marry and have children . " The 2012 UN study cited by the Chinese People 's Daily reported that in Britain 74 percent and in Japan 70 percent of all women between 25 and 29 were single . A similar feature in the People 's Daily focused on the reception of the concept of sheng nu from netizens outside of China , particularly in Asia , specifically Korea , Japan , and India . One Japanese netizen noted that during the 1980s , the term " Christmas cakes " was commonly used to refer to women who were unmarried and beyond the national age average of married women . The actual reference to Christmas cakes is the saying , " who wants Christmas cakes after December 25 " . Another contributor wrote , similarly " a class of highly educated , independent age 27 + women who choose to live a more liberated life and put their talent / skill to good use in society " is happening in India . " People must make their own choices and must simply refuse others ' labels and be blissfully happy , " she further explained . Alternatively , for men in Japan , the term Herbivore men is used to describe men who have no interest in getting married or finding a girlfriend . The China Daily posted the question , " Are ' leftover women ' a unique Chinese phenomenon ? " on their opinions column . Readers cited their own experiences universally stating they too felt societal and family pressures in their 30s and 40s for marriage . Yong Cai who studies China 's gender imbalance at the University of North Carolina stated , " The ' sheng nu ' phenomenon is similar to trends we 've already seen around the world , in countries ranging from the United States to Japan as higher education and increased employment give women more autonomy " . Cai cites studies that show that women are now breaking the tradition of " mandatory marriage " to have fewer children or marry later on in life . Other similar terms that are still used in the modern lexicon of other countries and cultures show the concept has existed in some cases as far back as the 16th century . The term spinster was used to describe unmarried or single women of a marriageable age . It wasn 't until 2004 when the Civil Partnership Act replaced the word spinster with " single " in the relationship history section of marriage certificates in the UK . Subsequently , at the height of the Industrial Revolution , the term surplus women was used to describe the excess of unmarried women in Britain . Catherinette was a traditional French label for women 25 years old or older who were still unmarried by the Feast of Saint Catherine of Alexandria on 25 November . The French idiom , " to do St. Catherine 's hair , " meaning " to remain an old maid " is also associated with this tradition .
= Fishing Creek ( North Branch Susquehanna River ) = Fishing Creek is a 29 @.@ 98 @-@ mile ( 48 @.@ 25 km ) long tributary of the Susquehanna River in Columbia County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It joins the Susquehanna River near the census @-@ designated place of Rupert and the town of Bloomsburg . The watershed has an area of 385 square miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Nomadic Native Americans arrived in the lower reaches of Fishing Creek around 8000 BCE , and some were spending winters in the upper reaches of the valley by 3000 to 2000 BCE . In the past few centuries , the Fishing Creek area has been home to many industries , mills , and dams . It drains parts of five Pennsylvania counties : Columbia , Montour , Sullivan , Luzerne , and Lycoming . The creek 's main tributaries include Hemlock Creek , Little Fishing Creek , Green Creek , Huntington Creek , West Branch Fishing Creek , and East Branch Fishing Creek . Public recreation activities include canoeing , birdwatching , and fishing . The creek is known for its trout population , which includes brook , brown and rainbow trout ; it also contains many other species of fish . Northern hardwood trees and ruffed grouse live in the surrounding area . Some stretches of Fishing Creek contain significant amounts of algae because of leaking septic systems in the watershed . The area around the tributary West Creek is the least habitable part of the Fishing Creek area , according to a 2011 study . The water quality of Fishing Creek can vary . Its pH ranges from 4 @.@ 9 to 8 @.@ 5 , while the concentration of dissolved oxygen ranges from 5 to 17 @.@ 5 mg per liter . The creek 's average discharge is 615 cubic feet per second ( 17 @.@ 4 m3 / s ) ; its watershed contains gravel , shale and various loams — in particular the Albrights soil series and the Leck Kill soil . = = Course = = Fishing Creek 's source is 920 feet ( 280 m ) above sea level in Sugarloaf Township , south of State Game Lands Number 13 and Pennsylvania Route 118 , where East Branch and West Branch Fishing Creeks of southern Sullivan County meet in northern Columbia County . The creek heads approximately south with a few bends through Sugarloaf Township for about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . In the southern part of the township , it turns east for less than a mile and picks up Coles Creek — its first named tributary after the confluence of the East and West Branches . It empties into Fishing Creek from the northeast , 26 @.@ 34 miles ( 42 @.@ 39 km ) upstream of its mouth . Around this point , Fishing Creek turns sharply south into Benton Township and starts flowing parallel to Pennsylvania Route 487 . Here it flows four or five miles , including about a mile in Benton , where West Creek parallels Fishing Creek and empties into it from the west just south of Benton and 21 @.@ 72 miles ( 34 @.@ 95 km ) upstream of the mouth . Fishing Creek crosses under Pennsylvania Route 239 and continues approximately south , passing through the community of Maple Grove and flowing into Fishing Creek Township and Stillwater . In Stillwater , Raven Creek empties into the creek from the northeast , 18 @.@ 62 miles ( 29 @.@ 97 km ) above the mouth . About 1 @.@ 5 to 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 2 km ) south , the creek turns and picks up Huntington Creek , and then flows past the communities of Zaners , Forks , and Pealertown . The mouth of Huntington Creek is 15 @.@ 1 miles ( 24 @.@ 3 km ) above the mouth of Fishing Creek . Upon leaving Fishing Creek Township , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) after picking up Huntington Creek , Fishing Creek flows southwest past Knob Mountain and into Orange Township . It passes near the northern edge of Knob Mountain 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream , then by Orangeville , and makes a 90 ° turn to the northwest . Shortly after this turn it picks up Green Creek 10 @.@ 84 miles ( 17 @.@ 45 km ) above its mouth and turns west . After some distance , it turns south again , passing Bowman Bridge and a gauging station . From this point , the creek flows along the border between Orange and Mount Pleasant Townships for almost 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . While on the border between these two townships , it flows past Kocher Park . The creek stays considerably nearer to the western edge of the river valley than the eastern edge at this point . Near Lightstreet , it turns west into Mount Pleasant Township , passing several lakes and the Turkey Hill Oxbow . Upon entering Mount Pleasant Township , the creek stops paralleling Pennsylvania Route 487 and flows in the vicinity of Interstate 80 for 2 to 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 8 km ) . Along the border of Mount Pleasant Township and Bloomsburg , Fishing Creek picks up Little Fishing Creek at a distance of 3 @.@ 86 miles ( 6 @.@ 21 km ) upstream of its mouth before turning south and paralleling the western border of Bloomsburg . As it flows between Bloomsburg and Fernville , it turns sharply westward , paralleling U.S. Route 11 , and picks up Hemlock Creek , which is 1 @.@ 52 miles ( 2 @.@ 45 km ) above the mouth . Shortly after picking up Hemlock Creek , Fishing Creek turns southeast under U.S. Route 11 and flows parallel to Pennsylvania Route 42 for slightly over 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , picking up Montour Run from the right , then empties 0 @.@ 72 miles ( 1 @.@ 16 km ) later into the Susquehanna between Bloomsburg and Rupert . The Rupert Covered Bridge No. 56 crosses the main stem of the creek . Its mouth is 456 feet ( 139 m ) above sea level — 464 feet ( 141 m ) lower than , and 29 @.@ 98 miles ( 48 @.@ 25 km ) downstream of , the source . = = = Tributaries = = = Fishing Creek has several major tributaries and numerous minor ones . The major tributaries are Hemlock Creek , Little Fishing Creek , Green Creek , Huntington Creek , and the East and West Branch Fishing Creeks . West Branch Fishing Creek rises on North Mountain and flows east into Fishing Creek . East Branch Fishing Creek is a tributary that starts on North Mountain in Sullivan County and is approximately 4 @.@ 4 miles ( 7 @.@ 1 km ) long . Huntington Creek starts in State Game Lands number 57 and heads southwest through Luzerne County until it reaches the north side of Knob Mountain , which it runs parallel to until it merges with Fishing Creek . Huntington Creek drains the eastern and northeastern parts of the Fishing Creek watershed . Four covered bridges cross Huntington Creek ; these are the Twin Bridges – East Paden Covered Bridge No. 120 , the Twin Bridges – West Paden Covered Bridge No. 121 , the Josiah Hess Covered Bridge No. 122 , and the Huntington Mills Bridge . Green Creek rises near Waller and heads roughly south to Rohrsburg and on to Orangeville , where it joins Fishing Creek . It drains the central part of the Fishing Creek watershed . Little Fishing Creek starts just in Lycoming County near the Columbia County Line . It winds through rural areas before reaching Pennsylvania Route 42 , which it runs parallel to for the remainder of its length . It drains the western part of the Fishing Creek watershed . Four covered bridges cross Little Fishing Creek ; these are the Wanich Covered Bridge No. 69 , the Sam Eckman Covered Bridge No. 92 , the Jud Christie Covered Bridge No. 95 , and the Creasyville Covered Bridge . Other tributaries of the main stem include Coles Creek and West Creek near Benton , Raven Creek in Fishing Creek Township , Hemlock Creek in Hemlock Township , Montour Run in Montour Township , and Deerlick Run and Stony Brook , both near Orange Township . = = Watershed = = Fishing Creek drains most of Columbia County north of the Susquehanna River except for an area in the eastern part of the county , which is drained by Briar Creek . It also drains southern Sullivan County and western Luzerne County . Minor tributaries drain small portions of Montour County and southeastern Lycoming County . The upper part of the watershed is 85 percent forest and 13 percent farmland . Near its source , the other two percent is residential ; closer to Benton , the remainder is urban . The creek 's drainage basin consists of a number of sub @-@ watersheds . The largest ones are the Huntington Creek watershed , with an area of 114 square miles ; the Little Fishing Creek watershed , with an area of 68 @.@ 1 square miles ; the Green Creek drainage basin , with an area of 36 @.@ 9 square miles ; and the West Branch Fishing Creek drainage basin , with an area of 32 @.@ 9 square miles . = = = Oxbow lake = = = Northern Bloomsburg and Scott Township include a small oxbow lake of Fishing Creek ; the area around this lake is known as the Turkey Hill Oxbow . The lake is located between Interstate 80 and the forests on the side of Turkey Hill . The oxbow is on a flood plain and includes grasses , forested wetlands , and areas of open water . In wet periods of the year , the Turkey Hill Oxbow lake receives overflow from the waters of Fishing Creek while during dry periods it contains water in only a few places . Most land around the oxbow is steep . It is covered by hemlock and hardwood forests , as well as skunk cabbage seeps . The forests around the lake also contain black birch , yellow birch , white oak , red oak , sugar maple , tulip poplar , and Norway maple , while the understory contains slippery elm , European privet , Japanese barberry , American elderberry , wild hydrangea , witch hazel , mountain laurel , ironwood , and the rare American yew . The American yew population was in significant decline by 2004 due to heavy grazing by deer . There are numerous wildflower species in the uplands and rock outcroppings of the Turkey Hill Oxbow . These include white baneberry , northern maidenhair fern , spikenard , blue cohosh , foamflower , false Solomon 's seal , purple trillium , and wild columbine . Animals inhabiting the areas surrounding the pools include pickerel frogs , green frogs , wood ducks , and snapping turtles . Plants in this location include broadleaf arrowhead , northern blueflag , manna grasses , water starwort , and several varieties of sedges . Japanese knotweed has been seen near Interstate 80 on the northern edges of the Turkey Hill Oxbow . = = History = = = = = Native American settlement = = = Having first inhabited Pennsylvania between 16 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 BCE , nomadic Native Americans reached the area near the mouth of Fishing Creek by 8000 BCE . By 3000 to 2000 BCE , some of them were going into the Fishing Creek valley during the winter to hunt deer and bears and returning to the Susquehanna River in the summer , creating trade routes . There was no permanent habitation until 1000 BCE when some Native American villages were built at the mouth of Fishing Creek . The Native Americans who settled in this area included the Shawnee and Susquehannock Indians . A Native American path ran along the creek from Bloomsburg to Orangeville before turning away in the direction of Tunkhannock Creek . Since at least 1769 , there has also been a path between the mouths of Huntington and Green Creeks . = = = European settlement = = = The first lots at the mouth of Fishing Creek were surveyed in 1769 when European settlers began moving into the area , and in the same year , the Penn family purchased 1060 acres ( 430 hectares ) of land 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) upstream of Benton . In 1778 , Moses Van Campen built a fort of logs covered with earth with a small swivel cannon on Fishing Creek to protect settlers on the frontier . There were settlers on the creek in Orange Township in 1780 , and the Fishing Creek valley north of Orangeville , in what is now Stillwater , was first settled in 1783 by Daniel McHenry . The headwaters of the creek were settled in the late 1780s and early 1790s . Leonard Rupert established a ferry on the creek in 1786 . The first sawmill on the upper portion of Fishing Creek was built in the late 1790s ; it was destroyed in a flood in 1848 . The first mill in Sugarloaf Township was built alongside Fishing Creek in 1802 , and another mill in the same township was noted for its buckwheat flour . A schoolhouse had been built by 1806 . In 1818 , John Barton built a flour and grist mill on Fishing Creek . It was destroyed by fire in 1855 and again in 1905 . Although rebuilt , it burned down again in 1932 . Another gristmill stood on the creek until 1830 when it was converted into a paper mill . Iron ore was discovered in the area of Fishing Creek in 1822 , and in 1844 , an anthracite @-@ burning furnace was built on the creek near Bloomsburg . In the 19th century , an aqueduct was built across the creek . From around 1840 to 1900 , the wagon @-@ making industry was important to the upper Fishing Creek area . Another historic industry was the Susquehanna Slate Company , which operated in the late 19th century . The Fishing Creek Confederacy ( August – November 1864 ) during the American Civil War was a suspected uprising of a high number of deserters and draft evaders . A thousand soldiers occupied and searched the Fishing Creek valley and the mountains of its headwaters but were unable to find any deserters . Nevertheless , 100 residents of Columbia County were arrested and imprisoned for desertion and draft evasion although most were later released . Starting in 1877 , the Bloomsburg Water Company used Fishing Creek as its water supply . The Bloomsburg and Sullivan Railroad , which paralleled the creek , was built in 1888 . There were limestone mines at the junction of Fishing Creek and Little Fishing Creek , but these have not been used since at least 1887 . During the Great Depression , a beach was constructed on the creek near Fernville by the Works Progress Administration . After the creek flooded in 1972 from Hurricane Agnes , a flash flood warning system was installed there . In 2002 , a tract of land from the Custer / Kocher homestead on Fishing Creek near Lightstreet was converted into a park called the Frank W. Kocher Memorial Park , which was later expanded to cover 7 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) . In the 21st century , the only significant industry in the watershed is the Benton Foundry . = = Hydrology = = Approximately 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream of Orangeville a gauging station was established on the creek in 1938 . Other monitoring of the creek has included detailed studies at a stream @-@ gauging station near Bloomsburg , which operated from 2002 to 2012 . = = = Discharge = = = Just downstream of Orangeville , Fishing Creek 's discharge averages 615 cubic feet per second ( 17 @.@ 4 m3 / s ) , with a median of 361 cubic feet per second ( 10 @.@ 2 m3 / s ) . The lowest recorded discharge was 90 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 5 m3 / s ) while the highest was 2 @,@ 580 cubic feet per second ( 73 m3 / s ) . Further upstream in Benton , it is almost always less than 720 cubic feet per second ( 20 m3 / s ) , and usually approaches zero during the summer . The typical discharge is around 540 cubic feet per second ( 15 m3 / s ) . In years of drought , the streambeds of West Branch and East Branch Fishing Creeks typically run dry for 105 days over summer ; even in wet years they are dry for an average of 5 days . Near Bloomsburg , Fishing Creek 's discharge has ranged between 10 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 28 m3 / s ) and 5 @,@ 350 cubic feet per second ( 151 m3 / s ) . = = = pH = = = Near Benton , Fishing Creek 's pH ranges from around 5 @.@ 6 to 7 @.@ 25 , while near Bloomsburg , a wider range has been recorded , from 5 @.@ 8 to 8 @.@ 5 . Near Camp Lavigne , it ranges from 5 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 1 . East Branch Fishing Creek is the only stream in the watershed whose pH drops below 5 @.@ 5 ; it can fall as low as 4 @.@ 9 . West Creek and Coles Creek are the least acidic streams in the watershed , with pH levels usually above 6 @.@ 3 and often above 7 . Typically , the creek and its tributaries are not at risk of becoming too acidic for the optimal health of fish , but in early spring during snowmelts , the levels approach the limit that brook trout can tolerate . Fishing Creek 's waters are acidic because of acid rain . = = = Dissolved chemicals = = = = = = = Nonmetals = = = = The concentration of dissolved oxygen in Fishing Creek ranges from approximately 5 to 17 @.@ 5 mg / L at Benton . A site near Camp Lavigne had slightly less variability , ranging from 8 to 17 mg / L. The concentration near Bloomsburg ranged between 4 @.@ 1 and 17 @.@ 1 mg / L , with an average of 10 @.@ 9 mg / L. The amount of carbon dioxide near Bloomsburg ranged from 0 @.@ 3 to 34 mg / L , with an average of 2 @.@ 04 mg / L. The total concentration of nitrogen near Bloomsburg between 2002 and 2012 ranged from 0 @.@ 52 to 2 @.@ 8 mg / L. The average concentration was 1 @.@ 212 mg / L. The ammonia levels in the creek ranged from less than 0 @.@ 02 mg / L to 0 @.@ 06 mg / L , while the concentration of nitrates was always less than 0 @.@ 04 mg / L. The total concentration of phosphates ranged from less than 0 @.@ 031 mg / L to 0 @.@ 11 mg / L , while for phosphorus the figures ranged from less than 0 @.@ 01 mg / L to 0 @.@ 575 mg / L. The total concentration of dissolved solids near Bloomsburg ranges from less than 2 to 166 mg / L. = = = = Metals = = = = In most places on Fishing Creek , there is not enough dissolved aluminum to be toxic , although East Branch Fishing Creek has aluminum concentrations of over 100 μg per liter , approaching a lethal level for fish . Fishing Creek itself and all its other tributaries have concentrations of less than 70 μg per liter . The concentration is seasonal : aluminum trapped in frozen ground is released into the streams when the soil thaws . As a result , aluminum levels in the creek peak in March and April and drop to almost zero in the summer . The concentration of calcium at the gauging station near Bloomsburg has ranged from 5 @.@ 5 mg / L to 26 mg / L , averaging 7 @.@ 532 mg / L. The concentration of magnesium has ranged from 1 @.@ 5 mg / L to 6 @.@ 7 mg / L , with an average of 1 @.@ 748 mg / L. = = = Dams = = = There are five dams on Fishing Creek . The lowhead dam called Boone 's Dam is the furthest downstream , in Montour Township . It is 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) high and 253 feet ( 77 m ) long . Further upstream is the Diverting Dam , a 2 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 6 @-@ meter ) high and 100 @-@ foot ( 31 @-@ meter ) long dam in Bloomsburg . It was built to power the nearby Irondale furnaces . A 380 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) wide and 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high unnamed dam is on the creek further upstream , in Mount Pleasant Township . The uppermost dams are the 130 @-@ foot ( 40 m ) wide and 11 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) high Benton Dam and the 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) wide and 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) high Mill Dam , which are in Benton Township and Benton . Additionally , the Jonestown Dam is on the tributary Huntington Creek in Jonestown . This dam is 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high and 120 feet ( 37 m ) wide . = = = Water temperature = = = The highest water temperature is at West Creek , which can reach 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) in the summer . In Benton , Fishing Creek can reach 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) in the summer while Coles Creek only reaches 66 to 68 ° F ( 19 to 20 ° C ) . In the winter , the water in the main stem is around 32 ° F ( 0 ° C ) , while in West Branch Fishing Creek it can drop to 28 ° F ( − 2 ° C ) in the winter , making it the coldest stream in the watershed . At the gauging station near Bloomsburg , the temperature has ranged from 32 to 78 ° F ( 0 to 26 ° C ) ; it was at its lowest on January 10 , 2011 . The highest temperature occurred on August 3 , 2006 . The average temperature in August was 72 @.@ 81 ° F ( 22 @.@ 67 ° C ) and the average water temperature in January was 35 @.@ 46 ° F ( 1 @.@ 92 ° C ) . The temperature has averaged approximately 53 @.@ 65 ° F ( 12 @.@ 03 ° C ) . = = Geology = = The Fishing Creek watershed has been affected by glaciation , which has left a glacial till near the source and glacial outwash in the lower parts of the watershed . The watershed lies in two major geological regions : the Deep Valley section of the Allegheny Plateau and the Susquehanna Lowlands Section . The Allegheny Plateau lies in the upper reaches of the watershed and is characterized by deep valleys and rounded mountains with elevations of around 2 @,@ 400 feet ( 730 m ) . The Susquehanna Lowlands section is characterized by linear ridges of moderate elevation and valleys less steep than those of the Deep Valley region . There are also flood plains along the creek . Near its mouth , it cuts through Montour Ridge , and a basalt @-@ containing section of the Catskill Formation extends to the creek 's banks in Hemlock Township . Other rock formations along the banks include the Clinton Formation , the Selena Formation , the Lower Helderburg Formation , and the Hamilton Formation . There is a terminal moraine , which crosses the creek near Benton . The bed of Fishing Creek contains red and brown shale in some places . Other parts of the watershed lie over gray sandstone or conglomerates . There are numerous deposits of iron ore , limestone and marble in the watershed of Fishing Creek . Most of the rock in the watershed , including the Trimmers Rock Formation and Catskill Formation , is from the Devonian Period , but some of the northernmost tributaries have watersheds on rock from the Mississippian Period , such as the Huntley Mountain Formation and Burgoon sandstone . The creek is a freestone stream although its water is colder than that of most eastern freestone streams . Areas along Fishing Creek contain pools followed by riffles , which are further followed by more pools . This configuration of pools and riffles creates an ideal situation for fly @-@ fishing . The lower part of the creek forms one side of a triangle of low @-@ lying land in western Bloomsburg , which floods severely during heavy rains . = = = Soil = = = The main soil in the area of Fishing Creek belongs to the Albrights series , which contains a 7 @-@ inch ( 18 cm ) layer of sticky , reddish @-@ brown , gravelly silt loam . Below this is a layer of yellowish @-@ red , gravelly , silty clay loam , which extends to approximately 30 inches ( 76 cm ) below ground and lies over a layer of equal portions of gravel and silty clay loam . Bedrock occurs several feet below the surface . The top 8 inches ( 20 cm ) of the Leck Kill @-@ Meckesville @-@ Calvin series in the watershed is dark brown silt loam with small pieces of sandstone and shale . A subsoil of reddish @-@ brown silt loam from 8 to 32 inches ( 20 to 81 cm ) below ground is followed by a 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) layer of sticky clay loam , below which is a bedrock of red shale . The Barbour series occurs near the source of the creek . It is topped with a crumbly , 10 @-@ inch ( 25 cm ) layer of brownish @-@ red silt loam over a loose subsoil of reddish @-@ brown loam with some gravel . The top layer can easily be penetrated by roots and water . Further down is a layer of reddish @-@ brown gravel and sand , which extends to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) or more underground . The Basher series also occurs along upper Fishing Creek . The top layer is a loose , crumbly , reddish @-@ brown sandy loam extending to 9 inches ( 23 cm ) underground , and the subsoil is a loose , porous , reddish @-@ brown sandy loam with some gravel , extending to 20 inches ( 51 cm ) underground . Lower down , there is a layer of red sandy loam with some gravel that extends from 15 to 30 inches ( 38 to 76 cm ) underground . The Pekin series is found along Fishing Creek and its tributary Huntington Creek . The uppermost layer , a dark brown silt loam that extends to 8 inches ( 20 cm ) underground , lies over a layer of brown silt loam with 10 percent gravel extending 16 inches ( 41 cm ) underground . The subsoil is mottled , brown , silty clay loam with cobbles and extends to 40 inches ( 100 cm ) underground . Bedrock occurs at a depth of 6 to 40 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 12 @.@ 2 m ) underground . The Pekin soils near the creek contain more cobbles than typical Pekin soils . Soils of the Chen1ango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly series have also been found along it . In 1914 the soils of the Fishing Creek watershed were found to yield large quantities of farm crops . Potatoes yielded 100 to 200 bushels per acre , corn 70 to 90 bushels per acre , oats 40 bushels per acre , wheat 20 to 30 bushels per acre , and hay one to two tons per acre . J. H. Battle 's 1887 History of Columbia and Montour Counties , Pennsylvania stated that the Fishing Creek valley was fertile . = = Biology = = Benthic algae densely cover the bed of Fishing Creek , their preponderance attributed to leaking septic systems . At one location on the main stem downstream of Grassmere Park , coverage exceeds 60 percent . The dominant algal organism on West Branch Fishing Creek near the village of Elk Grove is Cladophora . The green algae Tetraspora dominates the stretch of Fishing Creek for 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) downstream of Grassmere Park , where it covers 80 percent of the riverbed . South of Pennsylvania Route 239 's crossing of the creek , the dominant algal organisms are Microspora , Mougeotia , and Spirogyra . In the fall , decomposing algae covers 50 percent of the riverbed . Thirty @-@ six species of macroinvertebrates live in Fishing Creek . The highest level of macroinvertebrate biodiversity on upper Fishing Creek is near Grassmere Park while the lowest is in Benton . The number of these organisms per square meter on Fishing Creek ranges from under 200 in Benton to nearly 400 halfway between Coles Creek and Benton . The highest density of them in the watershed occurs at West Creek where there are between 600 and almost 900 per m2 and the lowest density occurs at a site on East Branch Fishing Creek , where there are approximately 100 per m2 . Some of Fishing Creek is stocked by the Fishing Creek Sportsman 's Association and contains populations of brook trout , rainbow trout , and brown trout . Many of them are sizable ; the largest one caught in Fishing Creek weighed 8 pounds ( 3 @.@ 6 kg ) and was 28 inches ( 71 cm ) long . All streams in the watershed are suitable for trout habitation according to the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission . An 1887 book stated that Fishing Creek and its tributaries may have once been " alive with trout " . In the upper part of the watershed , wild brook trout are most common in West Branch Fishing Creek and fish in general are least common in East Branch Fishing Creek . West Creek has higher fish diversity than any other stream in the upper part of the watershed and is also the only place that is inhabited by wild brown trout . In addition , sculpin and cutlips minnow have been observed in large numbers in the creek and its tributaries . Less commonly observed fish in the upper part of the watershed include johnny darters , white suckers , and black @-@ nosed dace . It is difficult for fish to spawn in the creek because of poor water quality near Benton , a lack of food , and dry headwaters for part of the year . The fish diversity in East Branch Fishing Creek and West Branch Fishing Creek is also significantly affected by episodic acidification , which is caused by acid rain falling in areas with no limestone in the bedrock . The main stem experiences similar problems but to a lesser extent , and the tributaries Coles Creek and West Creek experience the problems even less . Northern hardwood trees are common in the Fishing Creek watershed . Ruffed grouse are common along Little Fishing Creek and its tributaries north of Iola . There are populations of Japanese knotweed , an invasive plant , along the creek and its tributaries south of Pennsylvania Route 118 . = = = Habitat quality = = = In 2011 , the habitat quality of upper Fishing Creek and its tributaries were rated on a scale of 1 to 200 ( with a higher rating indicating better habitability ) by Point Park University and the Fishing Creek Sportsmans ' Association . Most of this part of the creek and its tributaries were rated 166 or higher , which was considered optimal . The waters near the mouths of West Branch and East Branch Fishing Creeks , and Fishing Creek near Benton , were rated 113 to 160 , considered suboptimal . A portion of West Creek was rated 60 – 112 , considered marginal . The highest Shannon Diversity Index of any stream in the Fishing Creek watershed is around 2 @.@ 75 , for West Branch Fishing Creek . This value is closely followed by that of West Creek , which has an index of 2 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 6 . The lowest value in the watershed is that of East Branch Fishing Creek , which is around 1 @.@ 2 . The main stem has a Shannon Diversity Index of 2 @.@ 1 to 2 @.@ 4 , depending on the site . The Fishing Creek Sportsmans ' Association has proposed a number of methods to conserve Fishing Creek and its tributaries . These include planting riparian buffers , eliminating leaky septic systems , and protecting the area from hydraulic fracturing . = = Recreation = = The Fishing Creek Watershed Association plans to open a public section of the creek that stretches for 6500 feet ( 1980 meters ) , with a park of 92 acres ( 37 @.@ 2 ha ) . There are other tracts of public property along the creek , one of which , called the Power Dam , is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) upstream of Benton . It covers 19 acres ( 7 @.@ 7 ha ) and stretches for 2900 feet ( 880 meters ) of Fishing Creek , and contains the remains of a concrete dam . Another public area is the Benton Overlook 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) into Benton , which covers 42 acres ( 17 @.@ 0 ha ) and stretches for 2600 feet ( 790 meters ) near the creek . A public site at the Zaners Bridge in Zaner 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) downstream from Stillwater covers 31 acres ( 12 @.@ 5 ha ) along about 1000 feet ( 300 meters ) of the creek and contains an abandoned railroad grade . The Grassmere Park Campground was established in the early 1900s on Fishing Creek . Further downstream , near Lightstreet , is Kocher Park , which occupies more than 7 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) . Typical activities there include canoeing , dog walking , birdwatching and fishing . The western part of Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 13 is in a gorge cut by West Branch Fishing Creek . These state game lands have an area of 50 @,@ 000 acres and feature many forest roads and old grades . The hiking trail Waterfall Wonderland , which affords views of Big , Twin , Lewis , and Sullivan Falls , is described as " a place of almost mystical beauty " by Jeff Mitchell in his book Hiking the Endless Mountains : Exploring the Wilderness of Northeastern Pennsylvania . The state game lands are less crowded than the nearby Ricketts Glen State Park . The Jakey Hollow Natural Area is on a small tributary of Little Fishing Creek . It is near Mordansville and features old @-@ growth forests . The natural area is one of the smallest in Pennsylvania .
= Interstate 370 = Interstate 370 ( abbreviated I @-@ 370 ) is a 2 @.@ 54 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 09 km ) Interstate Highway spur route off I @-@ 270 in Gaithersburg , Maryland to the western end of toll road Maryland Route 200 ( MD 200 , Intercounty Connector ) at an interchange that provides access to the park and ride lot at the Shady Grove station on the Red Line of the Washington Metro . Despite the number , I @-@ 370 does not connect to I @-@ 70 itself . The road continues to the west of I @-@ 270 as Sam Eig Highway , a surface road . Along the way , I @-@ 370 has interchanges with MD 355 and Shady Grove Road . The freeway was completed in the late 1980s to connect I @-@ 270 to the Shady Grove Metro station . I @-@ 370 was always part of the planned Intercounty Connector , but was the only segment to be built at the time . The opening of MD 200 east of I @-@ 370 resulted in the truncation of I @-@ 370 to the interchange with MD 200 and the re @-@ designation of the road leading into the Shady Grove Metro station as MD 200A . = = Route description = = I @-@ 370 begins a short distance to the west of the I @-@ 270 interchange in Gaithersburg , Montgomery County , heading northeast as a six @-@ lane freeway . Southwest of this interchange , the road continues as Sam Eig Highway ( named after Washington real estate developer Sam Eig ) which interchanges with Washingtonian Boulevard before becoming a surface road . The highway passes woods to the northwest and a shopping center to the southeast as it reaches an interchange with I @-@ 270 . From this point , I @-@ 370 turns east and runs between residential neighborhoods to the north and business parks to the south , with trees separating the road from these areas . The freeway curves northeast again and comes to the MD 355 interchange . Past this , the highway passes more commercial development before reaching a bridge over CSX 's Metropolitan Subdivision . A short distance later , I @-@ 370 comes to a trumpet interchange with MD 200A , a road that provides access to Shady Grove Road and the Shady Grove station of Washington Metro 's Red Line . At this point , I @-@ 370 ends and the freeway continues east as MD 200 ( Intercounty Connector ) . = = History = = What is now I @-@ 370 was originally proposed as part of the Intercounty Connector in the late 1970s . The I @-@ 370 freeway opened on December 17 , 1988 , connecting I @-@ 270 to the Shady Grove Metro station . After three and a half years of construction , the freeway was four lanes wide and 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) long . Its construction cost $ 169 million , with federal funds paying for ninety percent of the cost . The state of Maryland 's portion of the cost was funded with a portion of the proceeds of a nickel @-@ per @-@ gallon gas tax increase in 1987 . Prior to its opening , driving from I @-@ 270 to the Shady Grove Metro station involved exiting at Shady Grove Road and passing six traffic lights to arrive at the station . Upon its opening , the remainder of the Intercounty Connector was planned but not yet built . At the time , it was the third shortest interstate , after I @-@ 878 in New York and I @-@ 395 in Baltimore . In 2007 , construction began on MD 200 , which was to head east from I @-@ 370 . At this time , the ramp from Shady Grove Road to westbound I @-@ 370 was shifted to a new alignment . In 2009 , the lanes along I @-@ 370 were shifted to allow for construction of the MD 200 interchange . Construction on this segment of MD 200 was completed in February 2011 , with the road opening to traffic on February 23 . As a result of the completion of MD 200 , the eastern terminus of I @-@ 370 was truncated to the west end of MD 200 , with the freeway connection to the Shady Grove Metro station becoming MD 200A . = = Exit list = = The entire route is in Montgomery County .
= Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden = Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden is a 2011 concert special which documents the February 21 and 22 , 2011 shows of American pop singer Lady Gaga 's worldwide concert , The Monster Ball Tour . Filmed at Madison Square Garden in Gaga 's hometown of New York City , the two @-@ hour special was directed by the singer 's choreographer Laurieann Gibson and produced by HBO . It was first broadcast on the channel on May 7 , 2011 , a day after Gaga 's last date of The Monster Ball Tour . The special was released on November 21 , 2011 , on DVD and Blu @-@ ray by Media Blasters . Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden features concert footage as well as pre @-@ concert and backstage content . The special received critical acclaim ; critics praised Gaga 's performance and the onstage theatrics while expressing doubt in Gaga 's sincerity during her monologues and in pre @-@ concert scenes . When aired , the special was watched by 1 @.@ 2 million viewers and was nominated for five awards at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , winning one for Outstanding Picture Editing for a Special ( Single or Multi @-@ Camera ) . The video album released for the special includes extra footage like a capella performances and photo gallery . The 5 @.@ 1 surround sound of the release utilized DTS @-@ HD Master Audio and new technology to provide the viewer an optimum experience of watching the live concert . Emphasis was given on the main music and the vocals sung during the concert , while adjusting them against the screaming and the cheering of the crowd . The release was a commercial success , reaching the top of the DVD charts in the United States , France and Italy and the top @-@ ten in other nations . It received double platinum certifications in Australia and France , while in the United Kingdom , it was certified gold . = = Background = = The Monster Ball Tour was the second worldwide concert tour by Lady Gaga . Staged in support of her EP The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) and comprising a set list of songs from the EP and her debut album The Fame ( 2008 ) , the tour visited arenas and stadiums from 2009 through 2011 . Described as " the first @-@ ever pop electro opera " by Gaga , the tour was announced in October 2009 after an intended joint concert tour with hip @-@ hop artist Kanye West was suddenly canceled . The tour commenced four days after the release of The Fame Monster in November 2009 . A revision of the tour occurred after only a few months of performances , due to Gaga 's concern that the original version was constructed within a very short span of time . The stage of the original show looked like a frame , comparable to that of a hollowed @-@ out television set . Since The Fame Monster dealt with the paranoias Gaga had faced , the main theme of the original shows became human evolution , while elements of the canceled tour with West were still included in some parts . From 2010 onward , the revamped shows had a New York theme and portrayed a story set in the city , where Gaga and her friends got lost and had to find their way to " the Monster Ball " . Both versions of the show were divided into five segments , with the last being the encore . Each of them featured Gaga in new outfits , singing songs related to the concept of the segment , as they were followed by a video interlude . The tour received general critical acclaim , with critics praising Gaga 's singing abilities , the theatricality of the show , and her sense of style and fashion . The Monster Ball was a commercial success , with sold @-@ out shows and demand for tickets prompting organizers to add more dates to the itinerary . It ultimately grossed an estimated $ 227 @.@ 4 million ( $ 239 million in 2016 dollars ) from 200 reported shows and an audience of 2 @.@ 5 million , becoming one of the highest @-@ grossing tours of all time . At the 2010 Billboard Touring Awards , Gaga won the Breakthrough Performer Award , as well as the Concert Marketing and Promotion Award , the latter being an acknowledgment of her partnership with sponsor Virgin Mobile . = = Content = = The special opens with a black @-@ and @-@ white introduction that sees Gaga ordering a cup of coffee from a New York convenience store before being escorted by security into a black SUV , where she reminisces about the many times she had been at the arena to watch other acts perform , and realizes that she will now be performing there herself . After being escorted backstage , she removes her makeup and cries as she discusses feeling like a " loser " . She then sings the opening lines of " Marry the Night " while preparing to take the stage . Full @-@ color footage of the concert ( shot on February 21 and 22 , 2011 ) is then seen , interspersed with black @-@ and @-@ white backstage footage . The special ends with another black @-@ and @-@ white backstage scene where Gaga and her backup singers perform " Born This Way " a capella . = = Release and reception = = Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was filmed at Madison Square Garden in Gaga 's hometown of New York City , the two @-@ hour special was directed by the singer 's choreographer Laurieann Gibson and produced by HBO , with the first broadcast on the channel on May 7 , 2011 , a day after Gaga 's last date of The Monster Ball Tour . The channel had released a trailer for the special in YouTube and a poster in their website , which showed Gaga with her characteristic pyrotechnic bra emitting sparks . According to Billboard , the special was watched by 1 @.@ 2 million viewers . The special received critical acclaim . On review aggregate website Metacritic , the special holds a rating of 81 out of 100 based on four critic reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " . Jed Gottlieb of the Boston Herald wrote , " [ B ] etween the orgy of visuals — stripper strobes , androgynous dancers and a very loose , X @-@ rated ' Wizard of Oz ' theme — we get some great song and dance numbers : ' Poker Face ' , ' Paparazzi ' and ' Bad Romance ' . These are amazing hits , club @-@ thumping tracks that define joy and sadness for a generation of suburban teens and the urban disenfranchised . " However , he felt that the show 's non @-@ concert content was not genuine , and found the special to be similar to Madonna 's 1991 documentary Madonna : Truth or Dare . The A.V. Club 's Genevieve Koski gave the special a B + rating , claiming that Gaga " proves that she is a performer " and that " she puts on a show " , though she felt that the concert was overly emotional and artistically ambitious , and that Gaga 's on @-@ stage banter was slightly annoying . Koski also compared the special to the Madonna documentary . Linda Stassi from New York Post was also positive in her assessment of the concert special . She complimented the behind the scenes footage , the costumes and the dancing and the pyrotechnics of the show , describing it as " a concert that would make Madonna ’ s shows look like run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill dinner theater . " A review in website Idolator described Gaga as " ringleader of her own circus — in complete control of her little monsters " . It went on to appreciate Gaga 's vocals and the fact that she did not lip @-@ synch , as well as the hurried costume changes , while commending the " raw " nature of the show . Paul Schrodt of Slant Magazine was more critical in his review , though he gave it a 2 @.@ 5 star ( out of 4 ) rating . While he positively called Gaga 's performances outrageous and " occasionally fierce " , he questioned Gaga 's authenticity , both on stage and in the pre @-@ concert scenes . Ultimately , he wrote , " Unsurprisingly , HBO 's Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden raises more questions about Stefani Germanotta ( Gaga 's birth name ) than it answers , which is probably as it should be . " Radio host Howard Stern also compared the black @-@ and @-@ white scenes of the special to Madonna : Truth or Dare , adding that when he darts a glance at Lady Gaga , she is occasionally registered in his brain as Madonna . On his show , Stern was also critical of inappropriateness and unreasonability of the numerous speeches Gaga gave between the songs in the special , calling them " prattle " , " drivel " , and " condescending " . Dedicating over half an hour of his show on May 9 and 10 , 2011 , to express his criticism of the concert , Stern compared the manner of Gaga 's speaking to professional wrestling due to echoing , Gaga 's gasping between the words , and the audience 's arguable inability to hear the words enough to understand them . In particular , Gaga claimed in the concert that her incentive to work is to " set [ her audience ] free " , not money . Stern attempted to debunk that claim by arguing that Gaga takes potentially psychiatric problems of her audience lightly by urging her fans to " forget all of [ their ] insecurities " overnight . The special received five nominations at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . It was nominated for Outstanding Variety , Music or Comedy Special ; Outstanding Directing for a Variety , Music or Comedy Special ; Outstanding Technical Direction , Camerawork , Video Control for a Miniseries , Movie or a Special ; Outstanding Picture Editing for a Special ( Single or Multi @-@ Camera ) ; and Outstanding Lighting Design / Lighting Direction for a Variety , Music or Comedy Special . It won the picture editing award and lost all of its other bids . The five nominations were among the 104 HBO received for 2011 ; it made up over one @-@ fifth of the total nominations . The special also received a nomination at the 2012 Dorian Awards in the category of " TV Musical Program of the Year " . = = Video album = = = = = Development = = = Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on November 21 , 2011 , and was also released as a digital download to iTunes Store . In addition to the content of the original HBO broadcast , it includes new , previously @-@ unseen footage . The video is also a part of a bundled package — along with the 17 @-@ track special edition of Born This Way and a remix album , Born This Way : The Remix — titled Born This Way , The Collection , which was released the same day . Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was captured with a 14 @-@ camera High Definition shoot . The Blu @-@ ray edition of the video album is presented in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 78 : 1 , encoded with MPEG @-@ 4 AVC and grants a 1080i transfer . It contains two audio tracks DTS @-@ HD Master Audio 5 @.@ 1 and LPCM 2 @.@ 0 . According to Jim Belcher , Vice President for Advanced Technology and Production of Universal Music Group , the advanced technologies associated with Dolby DTS @-@ HD would allow the audience the best experience while viewing the DVD . Brian Riordan , one of the engineers who worked on mastering the audio for the DVD described in a video interview with Rolling Stone how the mix was achieved . He recalled getting a call from one of the show 's producers who were looking for specialized sound arrangements to acquire an authentic live concert feeling for the release . Riordan remembered that the main difficulty was trying to preserve the " craziness " of the audience and Gaga 's fans , and their screaming during the concert , nevertheless make the music of the show primary . His team used Lossy which did not use compression , instead one @-@ to @-@ one audio mixing giving the whole sound system " much more of an impactful experience " . Riordan decided to engineer the concert sound as " center @-@ channeled " since Gaga did not use backing audio , resulting in the listener getting the whole impact of her vocals , when listened with a headphone . Other difficulty faced by team included converting the heavy production of Gaga 's songs to a live format and utilizing the singer 's bands . " You also have the crowd , the house going nuts and all the reverberations at Madison Square Garden , so it was really difficult for me to figure out globally how real , how dry , how punchy can we get this thing to sound " , he added . Initially Riordan had featured more of the live instrumentation and mixed the songs a number of times , however felt that they needed a dry reverb hence he pondered on the mix along with co @-@ producer coming to a consensus regarding the sound . According to Riordan , the mixing process was approved by Gaga who watched the cuts while travelling on the tour however , she did not ask Riordan to change anything , unlike previous projects the engineer had undertaken . The 5 @.@ 1 mix was further orchestrated by using the sound recordings from the microphones placed around the audience members in Madison Square Garden , giving a new dimension to the surround sound in the Blu @-@ ray . It has a length of over 114 minutes and contains five subtitles : English , French , Spanish , Portuguese and German . Extra features added to the release included another a cappella version of " Born This Way " which was performed on stage unlike the one in the closing credits . A photo gallery was also included as well as backstage footage showing Gaga meeting with actress Liza Minnelli . According to Jeffrey Kauffman of Blu @-@ ray.com , the audio tracks were commendable for their crisp sound . He stated that " One of the best things about this concert is despite its artifice , even its artificiality , there 's absolutely no question that Lady Gaga is actually singing . What a novel idea for a live concert , and one that seemed especially refreshing after having just sat through the Britney Spears Live : The Femme Fatale Tour concert Blu @-@ ray , where Brit 's live voice was all but buried in the pre @-@ records . " = = = Chart performance = = = In the United States , it entered Billboard 's Top Music Video chart at the top , selling 26 @,@ 000 copies of the DVD — the greatest total for a music video since Beyoncé Knowles ' I Am ... World Tour live CD / DVD sold 37 @,@ 000 and 31 @,@ 000 copies in its first two weeks in November and December 2010 , and held this title until the release of Adele 's Live at the Royal Albert Hall . Its final appearance on the chart was for the issue dated November 30 , 2013 , where upon it tallied a total of 64 weeks in side the chart . Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden became the fourth best @-@ selling music video of 2011 in the United States . In Australia , the DVD debuted at number two on the ARIA DVD Chart . The next week , it remained in the same position , while being certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the DVD . Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was certified double platinum in January 2012 , denoting shipments of 30 @,@ 000 copies . It was the fifth and eleventh best selling DVD of 2011 and 2012 in Australia , respectively . The DVD charted on the UK Music Video chart at number four , for the issue dated December 3 , 2011 . It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for selling more than 25 @,@ 000 copies . Across Europe , the DVD reached the top of the charts in France and Italy , the former region it was also certified double platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 30 @,@ 000 copies of the release . It reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in other nations . = = = Track listing = = = Bonus content " Born This Way " ( a cappella ) – 3 : 16 " Backstage at the Monster Ball " – 12 : 50 Photo gallery Track listing adapted from Amazon.com. = = = Certifications = = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden DVD booklet . Main personnel Production crew Costumes and makeup Sound Department Special Effects Lighting crew Principal photography
= Ulysses S. Grant = Ulysses S. Grant ( born Hiram Ulysses Grant ; April 27 , 1822 – July 23 , 1885 ) was the 18th President of the United States ( 1869 – 77 ) . As Commanding General of the United States Army ( 1864 – 69 ) , Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War . He implemented Congressional Reconstruction , often at odds with Lincoln 's successor , Andrew Johnson . Twice elected president , Grant led the Republicans in their effort to remove the vestiges of Confederate nationalism and slavery , protect African @-@ American citizenship , and support economic prosperity nationwide . His presidency has often come under criticism for protecting corrupt associates and in his second term leading the nation into a severe economic depression . Grant graduated in 1843 from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point , served in the Mexican – American War and initially retired in 1854 . He struggled financially in civilian life . When the Civil War began in 1861 , he rejoined the U.S. Army . In 1862 , Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee , and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh , earning a reputation as an aggressive commander . He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort . In July 1863 , after a series of coordinated battles , Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg , giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two . After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign , Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant @-@ general and Commanding General of the United States Army in March 1864 . Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles , trapping Lee 's army in their defense of Richmond . Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters . In April 1865 , Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox , effectively ending the war . Historians have hailed Grant 's military genius , and his strategies are featured in military history textbooks , but a minority contend that he won by brute force rather than superior strategy . After the Civil War , Grant led the army 's supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states . Elected president in 1868 and reelected in 1872 , Grant stabilized the nation during the turbulent Reconstruction period , prosecuted the Ku Klux Klan , and enforced civil and voting rights laws using the army and the Department of Justice . He used the army to build the Republican Party in the South , based on black voters , Northern newcomers ( " carpetbaggers " ) , and native Southern white supporters ( " scalawags " ) . After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates , Republicans gained majorities and African Americans were elected to Congress and high state offices . In his second term , the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers ( conservative whites ) regained control using coercion and violence . Grant 's Indian peace policy initially reduced frontier violence , but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876 , where George Custer and his regiment were killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn . Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president . He appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system . In foreign policy , Grant sought to increase American trade and influence , while remaining at peace with the world . His administration successfully resolved the Alabama Claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain , ending wartime tensions . Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair , but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic . In trade policy , Grant 's administration implemented a gold standard and sought to strengthen the dollar . Corruption charges escalated during his second term , while his response to the Panic of 1873 proved ineffective nationally in halting the five @-@ year industrial depression that produced high unemployment , low prices , low profits , and bankruptcies . Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a widely praised world tour lasting over two years . In 1880 , Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining a Republican presidential nomination for a third term . Facing severe investment reversals and dying of throat cancer , he completed his memoirs , which proved a major critical and financial success . His death in 1885 prompted an outpouring of national unity . 20th century historical evaluations were negative about his presidency before recovering somewhat beginning in the 1980s . Scholars rank his presidency below the average of other presidents . Grant 's critics take a negative view of his economic mismanagement and his failed Dominican Republic annexation treaty , while admirers emphasize his concern for Native Americans and enforcement of civil and voting rights for African Americans . = = Early life = = Hiram Ulysses Grant was born in Point Pleasant , Ohio , on April 27 , 1822 , to Jesse Root Grant , a tanner , and Hannah ( née Simpson ) Grant . His ancestors Matthew and Priscilla Grant arrived aboard the Mary and John at Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 . Grant 's great @-@ grandfather fought in the French and Indian War , and his grandfather served in the American Revolution at Bunker Hill . Grant 's father was a Whig Party supporter with abolitionist sentiments . In 1823 , the family moved to the village of Georgetown in Brown County , Ohio , where five more siblings were born : Simpson , Clara , Orvil , Jennie , and Mary . Young Grant regularly attended public schools and later was enrolled in private schools . While hating the tannery , he chose work on his father 's farm . Unlike his siblings , Grant was not forced to attend church by his Methodist parents ; for the rest of his life , he prayed privately and never officially joined any denomination . Observers , including his own son , thought he was an agnostic . In his youth , Grant developed an unusual ability to work with and control horses . As a general he rode the strongest and most challenging horse available , and was sometimes injured in riding . When Grant was 17 , Congressman Thomas L. Hamer nominated him to the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York . Hamer mistakenly wrote down the name as " Ulysses S. Grant of Ohio " , and this became his adopted name . His nickname became " Sam " among army colleagues at the academy since the initials " U.S. " also stood for " Uncle Sam " . As he later recalled it , " a military life had no charms for me " ; he was lax in his studies , but he achieved above @-@ average grades in mathematics and geology . Quiet by nature , he established a few intimate friends , including Frederick Tracy Dent and Rufus Ingalls . Grant developed a reputation as a fearless and expert horseman known as a horse whisperer , setting an equestrian high @-@ jump record that stood for almost 25 years . He also studied under Romantic artist Robert Walter Weir and produced nine surviving artworks . He graduated in 1843 , ranking 21st in a class of 39 . Glad to leave the academy , his plan was to resign his commission after his four @-@ year term of duty . Despite his excellent horsemanship , he was not assigned to the cavalry ( assignments were determined by class rank , not aptitude ) , but to the 4th Infantry Regiment . He was made regimental quartermaster , managing supplies and equipment , with the rank of brevet second lieutenant . = = Early military career and personal life = = Grant 's first assignment after graduation took him to the Jefferson Barracks near St. Louis , Missouri . It was the nation 's largest military base in the west , commanded by Colonel Stephen W. Kearny . Grant was happy with his new commander , but looked forward to the end of his military service and a possible teaching career . He spent some of his time in Missouri visiting the family of his West Point classmate , Frederick Tracy Dent ; he became engaged to Dent 's sister , Julia , in 1844 . Amid rising tensions with Mexico , Grant 's unit shifted to Louisiana as part of the Army of Observation under Major General Zachary Taylor . When the Mexican – American War broke out in 1846 , the Army entered Mexico . Although a quartermaster , Grant led a cavalry charge at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma . At Monterrey he demonstrated his equestrian ability , by volunteering to carry a dispatch through sniper @-@ lined streets while hanging off the side of his horse , keeping the animal between him and the enemy . President James K. Polk , wary of Taylor 's growing popularity , divided his forces , sending some troops ( including Grant 's unit ) to form a new army under Major General Winfield Scott . Scott 's army landed at Veracruz and advanced toward Mexico City . The army met the Mexican forces at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec outside Mexico City . Grant was a quartermaster in charge of supplies and did not have a combat role , but he yearned for one and finally was allowed to take part in dangerous missions . At Chapultepec , men under Grant 's direction dragged a disassembled howitzer into a church steeple , reassembled it , and bombarded nearby Mexican troops . His bravery and initiative earned him brevet promotions ; he became a temporary captain while his permanent rank was lieutenant . Scott 's army entered the city , and the Mexicans agreed to peace soon afterward . During this war Grant studied the tactics and strategies of Scott and others , often second guessing their moves beforehand . In his Memoirs , he wrote that this is how he learned about military leadership , and in retrospect identified his leadership style with Taylor 's . Even so , he believed that the Mexican war was wrongful and that the territorial gains from the war were designed to expand slavery . Grant reflected in 1883 , " I was bitterly opposed to the measure , and to this day , regard the war , which resulted , as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation . " He opined that the Civil War was punishment inflicted on the nation for its aggression in Mexico . Grant 's mandatory service expired during the war , but he chose to remain a soldier . Four years after becoming engaged , he married Julia on August 22 , 1848 . They had four children : Frederick , Ulysses Jr . ( " Buck " ) , Ellen ( " Nellie " ) , and Jesse . Grant 's first post @-@ war assignments took him and Julia to Detroit and then to Sackets Harbor , New York . In 1852 , Grant 's next assignment sent him west to Fort Vancouver in the Oregon Territory . Julia , who was eight months pregnant with Ulysses Jr . , did not accompany him . While traveling overland through Panama , an outbreak of cholera among his fellow travelers caused 150 fatalities ; Grant arranged makeshift transportation and hospital facilities to care for the sick . He debarked in San Francisco during the height of the California Gold Rush . Grant 's time in the Pacific Northwest followed the Cayuse War ; the army was stationed there to keep peace between settlers and Indians . To supplement a military salary which was inadequate to support his family , Grant tried and failed at several business ventures , confirming Jesse Grant 's belief that his son had no head for business . He was unhappy being separated from his family , and rumors circulated that he was drinking to excess . Historians overwhelmingly agree that his drunkenness , although off duty , at the time was a fact , though there are no eyewitness reports extant . Promoted to captain in the summer of 1853 , Grant was assigned to command Company F , 4th Infantry , at Fort Humboldt in California . The commanding officer at Fort Humboldt , Lieutenant Colonel Robert C. Buchanan , received reports that Grant became intoxicated off @-@ duty while seated at the pay officer 's table . In lieu of a court @-@ martial , Buchanan gave Grant an ultimatum to resign ; he did so , effective July 31 , 1854 , without explanation and returned to St. Louis . The War Department stated on his record , " Nothing stands against his good name . " After Grant 's retirement , rumors persisted in the regular army of his drinking . Years later , he said , " the vice of intemperance ( drunkenness ) had not a little to do with my decision to resign . " = = Civilian struggles and politics = = At age 32 , with no civilian vocation , Grant struggled through seven financially lean years . His father initially offered him a place in the Galena , Illinois , branch of the family 's tannery and leather goods business , on condition that Julia and the children stay with her parents in Missouri or with the Grants in Kentucky . Ulysses and Julia opposed another separation and declined the offer . In 1855 , Grant farmed on his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's property near St. Louis , using slaves owned by Julia 's father . The farm was not successful and to earn money he sold firewood on St. Louis street corners . The next year , the Grants moved to land on Julia 's father 's farm , and built a home Grant called " Hardscrabble " . Julia hated the rustic house , which she described as an " unattractive cabin " . In 1857 , Grant acquired a slave , a thirty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old man named William Jones , from his father @-@ in @-@ law . The Panic of 1857 devastated farmers , including Grant , who was forced to rent out Hardscrabble the following year . Having met with no success farming , the Grants left the farm when their fourth and final child was born in 1858 . The following year in 1859 Grant freed his only slave Jones , who was 35 years old and worth about $ 1 @,@ 500 , instead of selling him at a time when Grant desperately needed money . For the next year , the family took a small house in St. Louis where he worked with Julia 's cousin Harry Boggs as a bill collector , again without success . In 1860 , Jesse offered him the job in Galena without conditions , and Grant accepted . The leather shop , " Grant & Perkins " , sold harnesses , saddles , and other leather goods , and purchased hides from farmers in the prosperous Galena area . Grant and family moved to a rental house that year . After Grant had retired from the military , many considered him allied politically to Julia 's father , Frederick Dent , a prominent Missouri Democrat . In the 1856 election , Grant cast his first presidential vote for the Democrat , James Buchanan , later saying he was really voting against John C. Frémont , the first Republican candidate , over concern that Frémont 's anti @-@ slavery position would motivate southern states to secede . In 1859 , Grant 's vote for Buchanan and his political affiliation to his father @-@ in @-@ law cost him an appointment to become county engineer . Grant 's own father in Illinois , Jesse , was an outspoken Republican in Galena . In 1860 , Grant was an open Democrat , favoring Democrat Stephen A. Douglas over Abraham Lincoln , and Lincoln over the Southern Democrat , John C. Breckinridge . Lacking the residency requirements in Illinois at the time , he could not vote . Grant opposed the southern states ' secession at the outbreak of the Civil War and remained loyal to the Union . = = Civil War = = On April 12 , 1861 , the American Civil War began as Confederate troops attacked Fort Sumter in Charleston , South Carolina . Two days later , President Lincoln called for 75 @,@ 000 volunteers and a mass meeting was held in Galena to encourage recruitment . Recognized as a military professional , Grant was asked to lead the ensuing effort . Before the attack on Fort Sumter , Grant had not reacted strongly to Southern secession . The news of the attack came as a shock in Galena , and Grant shared his neighbors ' mounting concern about the onset of war . After hearing a speech by his father 's attorney , John Aaron Rawlins , Grant found renewed energy in the Union cause . Rawlins later became Grant 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp and close friend during the war . Grant recalled with satisfaction that after that first recruitment meeting in Galena , " I never went into our leather store again . " Without any formal rank in the army , Grant helped recruit a company of volunteers and accompanied them to Springfield , the state capital . During this time , Grant quickly perceived that the war would be fought for the most part by volunteers and not career soldiers . Illinois ' Governor Richard Yates offered Grant a militia commission to recruit and train volunteer units , which he accepted , but he still wanted a field command in the army . He made several efforts through his professional contacts , including Major General George B. McClellan . McClellan refused to meet him , remembering Grant 's earlier reputation for drinking while stationed in California . Meanwhile , Grant continued serving at the training camps and made a positive impression on the volunteer Union recruits . With the aid of his advocate in Washington , Illinois congressman Elihu B. Washburne , Grant was formally promoted to Colonel on June 14 , 1861 , and put in charge of disciplining the unruly 21st Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment . To restore discipline , Grant had one troublemaker bound and gagged to a post for being drunk and disorderly . Transferred to northern Missouri , Grant was promoted by Lincoln to Brigadier General , backdated to May 17 , 1861 , again with Washburne 's support . Believing Grant was a general of " dogged persistence " and " iron will " , Major General John C. Frémont assigned Grant command of troops near Cairo , Illinois by the end of August 1861 . Under Frémont 's authority Grant advanced into Paducah and took the town without a fight . = = = Belmont , Forts Henry and Donelson = = = On November 7 , 1861 Grant and his troops crossed the Mississippi to attack Confederate soldiers encamped in Belmont , Missouri . They took the camp , but the reinforced Confederates under Brigadier General Gideon J. Pillow forced a retreat to Cairo . A tactical defeat , the battle nonetheless gave Grant and his volunteers confidence and experience . After Belmont , Grant asked his new commander Henry Halleck ( Lincoln had relieved Frémont of command ) for permission to move against Fort Henry in Tennessee , which would open the Tennessee River to Union gunboats ; Halleck agreed on condition that the attack be conducted in coordination with navy Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote . Grant 's troops , in close cooperation with Foote 's naval forces captured Fort Henry on February 6 , 1862 . Emboldened by Lincoln 's call for a general advance of all Union forces , Grant ordered an immediate assault on nearby Fort Donelson , which dominated the Cumberland River ( this time without Halleck 's permission ) . On February 15 , Grant and Foote met stiff resistance from Confederate forces under Pillow . Reinforced by 10 @,@ 000 troops , Grant 's army totaled 25 @,@ 000 troops against 12 @,@ 000 Confederates . Foote 's first approach was repulsed , and the Confederates attempted a breakout , pushing Grant 's right flank into disorganized retreat . Grant rallied his troops , resumed the offensive , retook the Union right , and attacked Pillow 's left . Pillow ordered Confederate troops back into the fort and relinquished command to Brigadier General Simon Bolivar Buckner , who the next day acceded to Grant 's demand for his " unconditional and immediate surrender . " Lincoln promoted Grant to major @-@ general of volunteers while the Northern press treated Grant as a hero . Playing off his initials , they took to calling him " Unconditional Surrender Grant " . = = = Shiloh and aftermath = = = Encamped on the western bank of the Tennessee River , Grant 's Army of the Tennessee , now numbering about 45 @,@ 000 troops , prepared to attack a Confederate army of roughly equal strength at Corinth , Mississippi , a vital railroad junction . The Confederates , led by Generals Albert Sidney Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard , struck first on April 6 , 1862 , attacking five divisions of Grant 's army bivouacked at Pittsburg Landing , not far from the Shiloh meetinghouse . Grant 's troops were not entrenched and were taken by surprise , falling back before the Confederate onslaught . At day 's end , the Confederates captured one Union division , but Grant 's army was able to hold the Landing . The remaining Union army might have been destroyed , but the Confederates halted due to exhaustion , confusion , and a lack of reinforcements . Grant , bolstered by 18 @,@ 000 fresh troops from the divisions of Major Generals Don Carlos Buell and Lew Wallace , counterattacked at dawn the next day The Northerners regained the field and forced the rebels to retreat back to Corinth . In Shiloh 's aftermath , the Northern press criticized Grant for high casualties and for his alleged drunkenness during the battle . Shiloh was the costliest battle in American history to that point , with total casualties of about 23 @,@ 800 . Halleck arrived at Pittsburg Landing on April 9 , and removed Grant from field command , proceeding to capture Corinth . Discouraged and disappointed , Grant considered resigning his commission , but Brigadier General William Tecumseh Sherman , one of his division commanders , convinced him to stay . Lincoln overruled Grant 's critics , saying " I can 't spare this man ; he fights . " Ordered to Washington , Halleck on July 11 reinstated Grant as field commander of the Army of the Tennessee . On September 19 , Grant 's army defeated Confederates at the Battle of Iuka , then successfully defended Corinth , inflicting heavy casualties on the enemy . On October 25 , Grant assumed command of the District of the Tennessee . In November , after Lincoln 's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation , Grant ordered units under his command , headed by Chaplain John Eaton , to incorporate contraband slaves into the Union war effort , giving them clothes , shelter , and wages for their services . = = = Vicksburg campaign = = = Located on the high bluffs of the Mississippi River , Vicksburg , Mississippi was the last major obstacle to Union control of that river ; both Lincoln and Grant saw it as the key to victory in the West and were determined to take the rebel stronghold . Grant 's Army held western Tennessee having almost 40 @,@ 000 troops available to fight . Grant was aggravated to learn that Lincoln authorized Major General John A. McClernand to raise a separate army for the purpose . Halleck ordered McClernand to Memphis , and placed him under Grant 's authority . Grant planned to attack Vicksburg on land from the east while Sherman attacked the fortress from the Mississippi River , but two Confederate cavalry raids , on December 11 and 20 , prevented the armies from connecting . On December 29 , a Confederate army led by Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton repulsed Sherman 's direct approach to Vicksburg at Chickasaw Bayou . McClernand reached Sherman 's army , assumed command , and independently of Grant led a campaign that captured Confederate Fort Hindman . Along with his military responsibilities in the months following Grant 's return to command , he was concerned over an expanding illicit cotton trade in his district . He believed the trade undermined the Union war effort , funded the Confederacy , and prolonged the war , while Union soldiers died in the fields . On December 17 , he issued General Order No. 11 , expelling " Jews , as a class , " from the district , saying that Jewish merchants were violating trade regulations . Writing in 2012 , historian Jonathan D. Sarna said Grant " issued the most notorious anti @-@ Jewish official order in American history . " Historians ' opinions vary on Grant 's motives for issuing the order . Jewish leaders complained to Lincoln while the Northern press criticized Grant . Lincoln demanded the order be revoked and Grant rescinded it within three weeks . Grant made amends with the Jewish community during his presidency . On January 29 , 1863 , Grant assumed personal overall command and during the months of February and March made a series of attempts to advance his army through water @-@ logged terrain to bypass Vicksburg 's guns ; these also proved ineffective , however , Union soldiers became better trained . On April 16 , 1863 , Grant ordered Admiral David Porter 's Union gunboats south under fire from the Vicksburg batteries to meet up with his Union troops who had marched south down the west side of the Mississippi River . Grant ordered diversionary battles , confusing Pemberton and allowing Grant 's army to cross east over the Mississippi , landing troops at Bruinsburg . Continuing eastward , Grant 's army captured Port Gibson , Raymond , and Jackson , the state capital and Confederate railroad supply center . Advancing his army to Vicksburg , Grant defeated Pemberton 's army at the Battle of Champion Hill on May 16 , forcing Pemberton to retreat into Vicksburg . After Grant 's men assaulted the Vicksburg entrenchments twice , suffering severe losses , they settled in for a siege lasting seven weeks . Pemberton surrendered Vicksburg to Grant on July 4 , 1863 . The fall of Vicksburg gave Union forces control over the Mississippi River and split the Confederacy in two . By that time , Grant 's political sympathies fully coincided with the Radical Republicans ' aggressive prosecution of the war and emancipation of the slaves . Although the success at Vicksburg was a great morale boost for the Union war effort , Grant received criticism for his decisions and his alleged drunkenness . The personal rivalry between McClernand and Grant continued after Vicksburg , until Grant removed McClernand from command when he contravened Grant by publishing an order without permission . When Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton suggested Grant be brought back east to run the Army of the Potomac , Grant demurred , writing that he knew the geography and resources of the West better and he did not want to upset the chain of command in the East . = = = Chattanooga and promotion = = = Lincoln commissioned Grant a major general in the regular army and assigned him command of the newly formed Division of the Mississippi in October 1863 , including the Armies of the Ohio , Tennessee , and Cumberland . After the Battle of Chickamauga , the Army of the Cumberland retreated into Chattanooga , where they were trapped . When informed of the situation , Grant put Major General George H. Thomas in charge of the besieged army . Taking command , Grant arrived in Chattanooga by horseback , devising plans to resupply the city and break the siege . Lincoln also sent Major General Joseph Hooker and two divisions of the Army of the Potomac to assist . Union forces captured Brown 's Ferry and opened a supply line to Bridgeport . On November 23 , 1863 , Grant organized three armies to attack at Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain . Two days later in the early morning , Hooker 's forces successfully took Lookout Mountain . Grant ordered Thomas and the Army of the Cumberland to advance when Sherman 's army failed to take Missionary Ridge from the northeast . The Army of the Cumberland , led by Major General Philip Sheridan and Brigadier General Thomas J. Wood , charged uphill and captured the Confederate entrenchments on top of the ridge , forcing the rebels into disorganized retreat . The decisive battle gave the Union control of Tennessee and opened Georgia , the heartland of the Confederacy , to Union invasion . On March 3 , 1864 Lincoln promoted Grant to lieutenant general , giving him command of all Union Armies , answering only to the President . Grant assigned Sherman the Division of the Mississippi and traveled east to Washington D.C. , meeting with Lincoln to devise a strategy of total war against the Confederacy . After settling Julia into a house in Georgetown , Grant established his headquarters with General George Meade 's Army of the Potomac in Culpeper , Virginia . He devised a strategy of coordinated Union offensives , attacking the rebel armies at the same time to keep the Confederates from shifting reinforcements within their interior lines . Sherman was to pursue Joseph E. Johnston 's Army of the Tennessee , while Meade would lead the Army of the Potomac , with Grant in camp , to attack Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia . Major General Benjamin Butler was to advance towards Richmond from the south , up the James River . If Lee was forced south as expected , Grant would join forces with Butler 's armies and be fed supplies from the James . Major General Franz Sigel was to capture the railroad line at Lynchburg , move east , and attack from the Blue Ridge Mountains . Grant knew that Lee had limited manpower and that a war of attrition fought on a battlefield without entrenchments would lead to Lee 's defeat . Grant was now riding a rising tide of popularity , and there was talk that a Union victory early in the year could lead to his candidacy for the presidency . Grant was aware of the rumors , but had ruled out a political candidacy ; the possibility would soon vanish with delays on the battlefield . = = = Overland Campaign and Union victory = = = Sigel 's and Butler 's efforts sputtered , and Grant was left alone to fight Lee in a series of bloody battles known as the Overland Campaign . Grant crossed the Rapidan River on May 4 , 1864 , and attacked Lee in the Battle of the Wilderness , a hard @-@ fought three @-@ day battle with many casualties . Rather than retreat as his predecessors had done , Grant flanked Lee 's army to the southeast and attempted to wedge his forces between Lee and Richmond at Spotsylvania Court House . Lee 's army got to Spotsylvania first , and a costly battle ensued , lasting thirteen days . During the battle , Grant attempted to break through Lee 's line of defense , resulting in one of the bloodiest assaults of the Civil War , known as the Battle of the Bloody Angle . Unable to break Lee 's defenses , Grant again flanked the Confederate army to the southeast , meeting at North Anna , where a battle lasted three days . The Confederates had the defensive advantage , and Grant maneuvered his army to Cold Harbor , a vital railroad hub that linked to Richmond , but Lee 's men were again able to entrench against the Union assault . During the third day of the thirteen @-@ day battle , Grant led a costly assault on Lee 's trenches . As casualty reports became known in the North , heavy criticism fell on Grant , who was castigated as " the Butcher " by the Northern press after taking 52 @,@ 788 casualties in the thirty days since crossing the Rapidan . Lee 's army suffered 32 @,@ 907 casualties , but he was less able to replace them . The costly Union assault at Cold Harbor was the second of two battles in the war that Grant later said he regretted ( the other being his initial assault on the fortifications around Vicksburg ) . Without being detected by Lee , Grant pulled out of Cold Harbor and moved his army south of the James River , freed Butler from the Bermuda Hundred ( where the Rebels had surrounded his army ) , and advanced toward Petersburg , Richmond 's central railroad hub . After crossing the James River undetected , Grant and the Army of the Potomac arrived at Petersburg . Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard defended the city , and Lee 's veteran reinforcements soon arrived . The result was a nine @-@ month @-@ long siege of Petersburg , stalling the advance . Northern resentment grew as the war dragged on , but an indirect benefit of the Petersburg siege was that Lee was forced to entrench and defend Richmond , and was unable to reinforce the Army of the Tennessee . Sheridan was assigned command of the Union Army of the Shenandoah and Grant directed him to " follow the enemy to their death " . Lee had sent General Jubal Early up the Shenandoah Valley to attack the federal capital and draw troops away from the Army of the Potomac , but Sheridan defeated Early , ensuring that Washington would not be endangered . Grant then ordered Sheridan 's cavalry to destroy vital Confederate supplies in the Shenandoah Valley . When Sheridan reported suffering attacks by irregular Confederate cavalry under John S. Mosby , Grant recommended rounding up their families for imprisonment as hostages at Fort McHenry . Grant approved of a plan to blow up part of the enemy trenches from an underground tunnel . The explosion created a crater , into which poorly @-@ led Union troops poured . Recovering from the surprise , Confederates surrounded the crater and easily picked off Union troops within it . The Union 's 3500 casualties outnumbered the Confederates ' by three @-@ to @-@ one ; although the plan could have been successful if implemented correctly , Grant admitted the tactic had been a " stupendous failure " . On August 9 , 1864 , Grant , who had just arrived at his headquarters in City Point , narrowly escaped death when Confederate spies blew up an ammunition barge in the James River . Rather than fight Lee in a full frontal attack as he had done at Cold Harbor , Grant continued to extend Lee 's defenses south and west of Petersburg , to capture vital railroad links . As Grant continued to push the Union advance westward , Lee 's lines became overstretched and undermanned . After the Federal army rebuilt the City Point Railroad , Grant was able to use mortars to attack Lee 's entrenchments . On September 2 , Sherman captured Atlanta while Confederate forces retreated , ensuring Lincoln 's reelection in November . Sherman convinced Grant and Lincoln to send a Union Army to march to Savannah devastating the Confederate heartland . Once Sherman reached the East Coast and Thomas dispatched John Bell Hood 's forces in Tennessee , Union victory appeared certain , and Lincoln attempted negotiations . He enlisted Francis Preston Blair to carry a message to Confederate President Jefferson Davis . Davis and Lincoln each appointed commissioners , but the conference soon stalled . Grant contacted Lincoln , who agreed to personally meet with the commissioners at Fort Monroe . The peace conference that took place near Union @-@ controlled Fort Monroe was ultimately fruitless , but represented Grant 's first foray into diplomacy . In late March 1865 , Grant 's forces finally took Petersburg , then captured Richmond that April . Grant , Sherman , Admiral Porter and Lincoln held a conference on the River Queen to discuss Reconstruction of the South . Lee 's troops began deserting in large numbers ; disease and lack of supplies also diminished the remaining Confederates . Lee attempted to link up with the remnants of Joseph E. Johnston 's defeated army , but Union cavalry forces led by Sheridan were able to stop the two armies from converging , cutting the line of advance to the Confederate supply trains . Lee and his army surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9 , 1865 . Grant gave generous terms ; Confederate troops surrendered their weapons and were allowed to return to their homes with their mounts , on the condition that they would not take up arms against the United States . On April 26 , Johnson 's Confederate army surrendered to Sherman under the same terms Grant offered to Lee . On May 26 , Kirby Smith 's western Confederate army surrendered and the Civil War was over , ending in Union victory . = = = Lincoln 's assassination = = = On April 14 , five days after Grant 's victory at Appomattox , he attended a cabinet meeting in Washington . Lincoln invited him and his wife to Ford 's Theater , but they declined as they had plans to travel to Philadelphia . In a conspiracy that targeted several government leaders , Lincoln was fatally shot by John Wilkes Booth at the theater , and died the next morning . Many , including Grant himself , thought that he had been a target in the plot . Secretary of War Stanton notified him of the President 's death and summoned him back to Washington . Attending Lincoln 's funeral on April 19 , Grant stood alone and wept openly ; he later said Lincoln was " the greatest man I have ever known . " Regarding the new President , Andrew Johnson , Grant told Julia that he dreaded the change in administrations ; he judged Johnson 's attitude toward white southerners as one that would " make them unwilling citizens " , and initially thought that with President Johnson , " Reconstruction has been set back no telling how far . " = = Commanding General = = = = = Transition to peacetime = = = At the war 's end , Grant remained commander of the army , with duties that included enforcement of Reconstruction Acts in the former Confederate states and supervision of Indian wars on the western Plains . Grant secured a house for his family in Georgetown Heights in 1865 , but instructed Elihu Washburne that for political purposes his legal residence remained in Galena , Illinois . That same year , Grant spoke at Cooper Union in New York , where the New York Times reported that " ... the entranced and bewildered multitude trembled with extraordinary delight . " Further travels that summer took the Grants to Albany , New York , back to Galena , and throughout Illinois and Ohio , with enthusiastic receptions . In November 1865 , President Andrew Johnson sent Grant on a fact @-@ finding mission to the South . Afterwards , Grant recommended continuation of a reformed Freedmen 's Bureau , which Johnson opposed , but advised against the use of black troops in garrisons , which he believed encouraged an alternative to farm labor . Grant did not believe the people of the devastated South were ready for civilian self @-@ rule , and that both whites and blacks in the South required protection by the federal government . He also warned of threats by disaffected poor people , black and white , and recommended that local decision @-@ making be entrusted only to " thinking men of the South " ( i.e. , white men of property ) . In this respect , Grant 's opinion on Reconstruction aligned with Johnson 's policy of pardoning established southern leaders and restoring them to their positions of power . He joined Johnson in arguing that Congress should allow representatives from the South to take their seats . On July 25 , 1866 , Congress promoted Grant to the newly created rank of General of the Army of the United States . = = = Breach with Johnson = = = Johnson favored a lenient approach to Reconstruction , calling for an immediate return of the former Confederate states into the Union without any guarantee of African American civil rights . The Radical Republican @-@ controlled Congress opposed the idea and refused to admit Congressmen from the former Confederate states . Over Johnson 's vetoes , Congress renewed the Freedmen 's Bureau and passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 . During the congressional election campaign later that year , Johnson took his case to the people in his " Swing Around the Circle " speaking tour . Johnson pressured Grant , by then the most popular man in the country , to go on the tour ; Grant , wishing to appear loyal , agreed . Grant believed that Johnson was purposefully agitating conservative opinion to defy Congressional Reconstruction . Finding himself increasingly at odds with Johnson , Grant confided to his wife that he thought the President 's speeches were a " national disgrace " . Publicly , Grant attempted to appear loyal to Johnson while not alienating Republican legislators essential to his future political career . Concerned that Johnson 's differences with Congress would cause renewed insurrection in the South , he ordered Southern arsenals to ship arms north to prevent their capture by Southern state governments . Conflict between radicals and conservatives continued after the 1866 congressional elections . Rejecting Johnson 's vision for quick reconciliation with former Confederates , Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts , which divided the southern states into five military districts to protect the freedman 's constitutional and congressional rights . Military district governors were to lead transitional state governments in each district . Grant , who was to select the general to govern each district from a group designated by Johnson , preferred Congress 's plan for enforcement of Reconstruction . Grant was optimistic that Reconstruction Acts would help pacify the South . By complying with the Acts and instructing his subordinates to do likewise , Grant further alienated Johnson . When Sheridan removed public officials in Louisiana who impeded Reconstruction , Johnson was displeased and sought Sheridan 's removal . Grant recommended a rebuke , but not a dismissal . Throughout the Reconstruction period , Grant and the military protected the rights of more than 1 @,@ 500 African Americans elected to political office . In 1866 , Congress renewed the Freedmen 's Bureau over Johnson 's vetoes and with Grant 's support , and passed the first Civil Rights Act protecting African American civil rights by nullifying black codes . On July 19 , 1867 , Congress , again over Johnson 's veto , passed a measure that authorized Grant to have oversight in enforcing congressional Reconstruction , making Southern state governments subordinate to military control . = = = Johnson 's impeachment = = = Johnson wished to replace Stanton , a Lincoln appointee who sympathized with Congressional Reconstruction . To keep Grant under control as a potential political rival , Johnson asked him to take the post . Grant recommended against the move , in light of the Tenure of Office Act , which required Senate approval for cabinet removals . Johnson believed the Act did not apply to officers appointed by the previous president , and forced the issue by making Grant an interim appointee during a Senate recess . Grant agreed to accept the post temporarily , and Stanton vacated the office until the Senate reconvened . When the Senate reinstated Stanton , Johnson told Grant to refuse to surrender the office and let the courts resolve the matter . Grant told Johnson in private that violating the Tenure of Office Act was a federal offense , which could result in a fine or imprisonment . Believing he had no other legal alternatives , Grant returned the office to Stanton . This incurred Johnson 's wrath ; at a cabinet meeting immediately afterwards , Johnson accused Grant of breaking his promise to remain Secretary of War . Grant disputed that he had ever made such a promise although cabinet members later testified he had done so . Newspapers friendly to Johnson published a series of articles to discredit Grant over returning the War Department to Stanton , stating that Grant had been deceptive in the matter . This public insult infuriated Grant , and he defended himself in an angry letter to Johnson , after which the two men were confirmed foes . When Grant 's statement became public , it increased his popularity among Radical Republicans and he emerged from the controversy unscathed . Although Grant favored Johnson 's impeachment , he took no active role in the impeachment proceedings against Johnson , which were fueled in part by Johnson 's removal of Stanton . Johnson barely survived , and none of the other Republican leaders directly involved benefited politically in their unsuccessful attempt to remove the president . = = = Election of 1868 = = = While remaining Commanding General , Grant entered the 1868 campaign season with increased popularity among the Radical Republicans following his abandonment of Johnson over the Secretary of War dispute . The Republicans chose Grant as their presidential candidate on the first ballot at the 1868 Republican National Convention in Chicago . In his letter of acceptance to the party , Grant concluded with " Let us have peace " , which became his campaign slogan . For vice president , the delegates nominated House Speaker Schuyler Colfax . Grant 's 1862 General Order No. 11 became an issue during the presidential campaign ; he sought to distance himself from the order , saying " I have no prejudice against sect or race , but want each individual to be judged by his own merit . " As President , Grant would atone for 1862 's expulsion of the Jews . Historian Jonathan Sarna argues that Grant became one of the greatest friends of Jews in American history , meeting with them often and appointing them to high office . He was the first president to condemn atrocities against Jews in Europe , thus putting human rights on the American diplomatic agenda . As was expected at the time , Grant returned to his home state and left the active campaigning and speaking on his behalf to his campaign manager William E. Chandler and others . The Republican campaign focused on continuing Reconstruction and restoring the public credit . The Democrats nominated former New York Governor Horatio Seymour . Their campaign focused mainly on ending Reconstruction and returning control of the South to the white planter class , which alienated many War Democrats in the North . The Democrats attacked Reconstruction and the Republican Party 's support of African American rights , while deriding Grant , calling him captain of the " Black Marines " . Grant won the election by 300 @,@ 000 votes out of 5 @,@ 716 @,@ 082 votes cast , receiving an electoral college landslide , of 214 votes to Seymour 's 80 . Grant , at the age of 46 was ( at the time ) the youngest president ever elected . His election was a triumph of conservative principles that included sound money , efficient government , and the restoration of Southern reconstructed states . Grant was the first president elected after the nation had outlawed slavery and granted citizenship to former slaves . Implementation of these new rights was slow to come ; in the 1868 election , the black vote counted in only 16 of the 37 states , nearly all in the South . Grant lost Louisiana and Georgia primarily due to Ku Klux Klan violence against African American voters . During the election there was a noticeably large number of black citizens in Washington . = = Presidency ( 1869 – 77 ) = = On March 4 , 1869 , Grant was sworn in as the eighteenth President of the United States by Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase . His presidency began with a break from tradition , as Johnson did not attend Grant 's inauguration at the Capitol or ride with him as he departed the White House for the last time . In his inaugural address , Grant urged the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment and said he would approach Reconstruction " calmly , without prejudice , hate or sectional pride . " Grant recommended the " proper treatment " of Native Americans be studied ; advocating their civilization and eventual citizenship . Grant took an unconventional approach to choosing his cabinet , declining to consult with the Senate and keeping his choices secret until he submitted them for confirmation . In his effort to create national harmony , Grant purposely avoided choosing Republican Party leaders . Grant appointed his wartime comrade John A. Rawlins as Secretary of War and Hamilton Fish , a conservative New York statesman , as Secretary of State . Sherman earned promotion to Commanding General , but his relationship with Grant became strained when the President took Rawlins 's side when the Secretary of War sought to limit Sherman 's authority . Grant initially granted Sherman command over War Department bureau chiefs , but rescinded it when Rawlins and Congress complained . Rawlins died in office a few months later , and Grant appointed William W. Belknap as his replacement . Grant selected several non @-@ politicians to his cabinet , including Adolph E. Borie and Alexander Turney Stewart , with limited success . Borie served briefly as Secretary of the Navy , later replaced by George M. Robeson , while Stewart was prevented from becoming Secretary of the Treasury by a 1789 statute that barred businessmen from the position ( Senators Charles Sumner and Roscoe Conkling opposed amending the law . ) In place of Stewart , Grant appointed Massachusetts Representative George S. Boutwell , a radical , as Treasury Secretary . Grant 's other cabinet appointments — Jacob D. Cox ( Interior ) , John Creswell ( Postmaster General ) , and Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar ( Attorney General ) — were well @-@ received and uncontroversial . Grant also appointed four Justices to the Supreme Court : William Strong , Joseph P. Bradley , Ward Hunt and Chief Justice Morrison Waite . Hunt voted to uphold Reconstruction laws while Waite and Bradley did much to undermine them . = = = Later Reconstruction and civil rights = = = Grant took office in 1869 during the middle of the Reconstruction of the South or former Confederate states . Unlike his predecessor , Grant advocated systematic federal enforcement of fundamental civil rights regardless of race . He lobbied Congress to pass the Fifteenth Amendment , guaranteeing that no state could prevent someone from voting based on race , and believed that its passage would secure freedmen 's rights . Grant asked Congress to admit representatives from the remaining unrepresented Southern states in conformity with Congressional Reconstruction ; they did so , passing legislation providing that Mississippi , Virginia , and Texas would be represented in Congress after they ratified the Fifteenth Amendment . Grant pressured Congress to draw up legislation that would seat African American state legislators in Georgia , who had been ousted by white conservatives . Congress responded through special legislation ; the members were re @-@ seated in the Georgia legislature , and Georgia was required to adopt the Fifteenth Amendment to gain representation in Congress . By July 1870 , the four remaining states were readmitted . To bolster the new amendment , Grant relied on the army and in 1870 he signed legistlation creating the Justice Department , primarily to enforce federal laws in the South . Where the attorney general had once been only a legal adviser to the president , he now led a cabinet department dedicated to enforcing federal law , including a solicitor general to argue on the government 's behalf in court . Under Grant 's first attorney general , Ebenezer R. Hoar , the administration was not especially aggressive in prosecuting white Southerners who terrorized their black neighbors , but Hoar 's successor , Amos T. Akerman , was more zealous . Alarmed by a rise in terror by the Ku Klux Klan and other groups against African Americans , Congress ( with Grant 's encouragement ) passed a series of three laws , the Enforcement Acts from 1870 to 1871 , which made depriving African Americans their civil rights a federal offense and authorized the president to use the military to enforce the laws . In May 1871 , Grant ordered federal troops to help marshals in arresting Klansmen . That October , on Akerman 's recommendation , Grant suspended habeas corpus in part of South Carolina and sent federal troops to enforce the law there . After prosecutions by Akerman and his replacement , George Henry Williams , the Klan 's power collapsed ; by 1872 , elections in the South saw African Americans voting in record numbers . That same year , Grant signed the Amnesty Act , which restored political rights to former Confederates . Lacking sufficient funding , the Justice Department stopped prosecutions of the Klan in June 1873 , and Grant offered the Klan clemency in exchange for peace . The Justice Department 's civil rights prosecutions continued throughout Grant 's second term but with fewer yearly cases and minimal convictions . After the Klan 's decline , other conservative whites formed armed groups , such as the Red Shirts and the White League who openly used violence and intimidation to take control of state governments . The Panic of 1873 and the ensuing depression contributed to public fatigue , and the North grew less concerned with Reconstruction . Supreme Court rulings in the Slaughter @-@ House Cases ( 1873 ) and United States v. Cruikshank ( 1875 ) restricted federal enforcement of civil rights . Grant began to favor limiting the use of troops , to avoid the impression that he was acting as a military dictator ; he was also concerned that increased military pressure in the South might cause conservative whites in the North to bolt the Republican Party . In 1874 , Grant by proclamation ended the Brooks – Baxter War bringing Reconstruction in Arkansas to a peaceful conclusion , but that same year , he sent troops and warships under Major General William H. Emory to New Orleans in the wake of the Colfax Massacre and disputes over the election of Governor William Pitt Kellogg . Emory peacefully restored Kellogg to office and the following year the parties reached a compromise allowing Democrats to retain control of the Louisiana House . Under public pressure Grant recalled General Sheridan and most of the federal troops from Louisiana . By 1875 , Democratic " Redeemer " politicians took control of all but three Southern states . As violence against black Southerners escalated once more , Edwards Pierrepont ( Grant 's fourth attorney general ) told Governor Adelbert Ames of Mississippi that the people were " tired of the autumnal outbreaks in the South " , and declined to intervene directly , instead , sending an emissary to negotiate a peaceful election . Grant signed an ambitious Civil Rights Act of 1875 , which expanded federal law enforcement by prohibiting discrimination on account of race in public lodging , public transportation , and jury service . However , it did not stop the rise of white supremacist forces in the South . In October 1876 , Grant sent troops to South Carolina to aid Republican Governor Daniel Chamberlain . Even so , the remaining three Republican governments in the South fell to Redeemers after the 1876 presidential election , and the ensuing Compromise of 1877 marked the end of Reconstruction . = = = Indian peace policy = = = Grant 's attempts to live peacefully with Native Americans marked a radical reversal of what had since the 1830s been the government 's policy of Indian removal . He appointed Ely S. Parker , a Seneca Indian and member of his wartime staff , as Commissioner of Indian Affairs . " My efforts in the future will be directed , " Grant said in his second inaugural address , " by a humane course , to bring the aborigines of the country under the benign influences of education and civilization ... Wars of extermination ... are demoralizing and wicked . " Grant 's " Peace Policy " aimed to replace entrepreneurs serving as Indian agents with missionaries . In 1869 , Grant signed a law establishing a Board of Indian Commissioners to oversee spending and reduce corruption in the Bureau of Indian Affairs . Two years later , he signed a bill ending the Indian treaty system ; the law now treated individual Native Americans as wards of the federal government , and no longer dealt with the tribes as sovereign entities . Grant wished for Indian tribes to be protected on reservations and educated in European @-@ style farming and culture , abandoning their hunter @-@ gatherer way of life . Although , as biographer Jean Edward Smith wrote , Grant 's peace policy was " remarkably progressive and humanitarian " for its time , it ultimately disregarded native cultures , something modern Americans see " as a grave error . " The peace policy showed some success in reducing battles between Indians and whites on the western frontier , but the increased slaughter of the buffalo , encouraged by Grant 's subordinates , led to conflict with the Plains Indians . The Sioux and other Plains tribes accepted the reservation system , but encroachments by whites in search of gold in the Black Hills led to renewed war by the end of Grant 's second term , ending the understanding that had developed between Grant and Sioux Chief Red Cloud . Under Major Generals Oliver Otis Howard and George Crook , Grant 's policy had greater success in the Southwest . Howard , the former head of the Freedmen 's Bureau , negotiated peace with the Apache in 1872 , convincing their leader , Cochise , to move the tribe to a new reservation , and ending a war started the year before . In Oregon , relations were less peaceful , as war with the Modocs erupted in April 1873 . The Modocs refused to move to a reservation and killed the local army commander , Major General Edward Canby . Although Grant was upset over Canby 's death , he ordered restraint , disregarding Sherman 's advice to seek revenge or exterminate the tribe . The army captured , tried , and executed the four Modoc warriors responsible for Canby 's murder in October 1873 . Grant ordered the rest of the Modoc tribe relocated to the Indian Territory . During the Great Sioux War , fueled by the discovery of gold in the Black Hills , Grant came into conflict with Colonel George Armstrong Custer after Custer testified in 1876 about corruption in the War Department . Grant ordered Custer arrested for breach of military protocol and barred him from leading an upcoming campaign against the Sioux . Grant later relented and let Custer fight under Brigadier General Alfred Terry . Sioux warriors led by Crazy Horse killed Custer at the Battle of the Little Big Horn , the army 's most famous defeat in the Indian wars . Two months later , Grant castigated Custer in the press , saying " I regard Custer 's massacre as a sacrifice of troops , brought on by Custer himself , that was wholly unnecessary – wholly unnecessary . " Custer 's death shocked the nation , leading Congress to appropriate funds for more troops , two more Western forts and barred Indians from purchasing weapons . = = = Foreign affairs = = = Even before Grant became president , expansionists in American politics desired control over the Caribbean islands . Andrew Johnson had recommended annexation but the early anti @-@ imperialist Republicans in Congress rejected the plan . Grant renewed negotiations to annex the Dominican Republic , led by Orville E. Babcock , a wartime confidant . Grant was initially skeptical , but at the urging of Admiral Porter , who wanted a naval base at Samaná Bay , and Joseph W. Fabens , a New England businessman employed by the Dominican government , Grant became convinced of the plan 's merit . Grant sent Babcock to the Dominican Republic and consult with Buenaventura Báez , the Dominican president who supported annexation . Although he had no official government standing , Babcock secretly negotiated an annexation treaty with Baez and returned to Washington in December 1869 . Grant believed in peaceful expansion of the nation 's borders , and thought acquisition of the majority @-@ black nation would allow new economic opportunities for African Americans in the United States while increasing American naval power in the Caribbean . Grant believed the island would offer a refuge for black Americans suffering from violent attacks in the South by white Americans during Reconstruction . Secretary of State Hamilton Fish dismissed annexation , seeing the island as politically unstable and troublesome . Grant personally lobbied Senators to pass the treaty , going so far as to visit Sumner at his home . Fish added to the effort out of loyalty to the administration , but to no avail ; the Senate refused to pass the treaty . Sumner 's role in leading opposition toward annexation led to political enmity between him and Grant . A congressional investigation in 1870 by Senator Carl Schurz revealed land speculators financially motivated passage of the treaty . After the Dominican initiative failed , Grant convinced Fish to stay in the cabinet and gave him greater authority to run the State Department . Unwilling to admit defeat , Grant successfully lobbied Congress to send a commission to the West Indies to investigate , including Frederick Douglass . Although Douglass and the commission approved of Grant 's claims for annexation in its findings released on April 5 , 1871 , the Senate remained opposed while Grant was forced to abandon further annexation attempts . Grant and Fish were more successful in their resolution of the Alabama claims . This dispute with the United Kingdom stemmed from the damage done to American shipping during the Civil War by the five ships built for the Confederacy in British shipyards including , most famously , the CSS Alabama . The Americans claimed that Britain had violated neutrality by building ships for the Confederate Navy . When the war ended , the United States demanded restitution , which the British refused to pay . Negotiations continued fitfully , a sticking point being the claims of " indirect damages " on top of the harm directly caused by the five ships . Sumner opposed the Johnson administration 's proposed settlement , which had been rejected by the Senate , believing that Britain should directly pay $ 2 billion in gold or , alternatively , cede Canada to the United States . Fish convinced Grant that peaceful relations with Britain were more important than acquisition of more territory , and the two nations agreed to negotiate along those lines . A commission in Washington produced a treaty whereby an international tribunal would settle the damage amounts ; the British admitted regret , but not fault . The Senate approved the Treaty of Washington , which also settled disputes over fishing rights and maritime boundaries , by a 50 – 12 vote in 1871 . In 1873 , a Spanish cruiser took captive a merchant ship , Virginius , flying the U.S. flag , carrying war materials and men to aid the Cuban insurrection . The passengers and crew , including eight American citizens , were illegally traveling to Cuba to help overthrow the government . Spanish authorities executed the prisoners , and many Americans called for war with Spain . Fish , with Grant 's support , worked to reach a peaceful resolution . Spain 's President , Emilio Castelar y Ripoll , expressed regret for the tragedy and agreed to decide reparations through arbitration ; Spain surrendered the Virginius and paid a cash indemnity of $ 80 @,@ 000 to the families of the executed Americans . In June 1874 , Grant 's Secretary of the Navy , George M. Robeson , commissioned the reconstruction of five redesigned double @-@ turreted monitor warships to compete with the superior Spanish Navy . The administration 's diplomacy was also at work in the Pacific as , in December 1874 , Grant held a state dinner at the White House for the King of Hawaii , David Kalakaua , who was seeking duty @-@ free sugar importation to the United States . Grant and Fish were able to produce a successful free trade treaty in 1875 with the Kingdom of Hawaii , incorporating the Pacific islands ' sugar industry into the United States ' economic sphere . = = = Gold standard and the Gold Ring = = = Soon after taking office , Grant took steps to return the nation 's currency to a more secure footing . During the Civil War , Congress had authorized the Treasury to issue banknotes that , unlike the rest of the currency , were not backed by gold or silver . The " greenback " notes , as they were known , were necessary to pay the unprecedented war debts , but they also caused inflation and forced gold @-@ backed money out of circulation ; Grant determined to return the national economy to pre @-@ war monetary standards . Many in Congress agreed , and they passed the Public Credit Act of 1869 , which guaranteed that bondholders would be repaid in gold , not greenbacks . To strengthen the dollar , Treasury Secretary George S. Boutwell , backed by Grant , sold gold from the Treasury each month and bought back high @-@ interest Treasury bonds issued during the war ; this had the effect of reducing the deficit , but deflating the currency . These actions had a large impact on the gold market and the national economy . Jay Gould , a Wall Street trader and railroad magnate , and financier Jim Fisk , seeking to drive up the gold price , enlisted the help of another speculator Abel Corbin , Grant 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , who used his connection with the president to get inside information ( the collaborators were later known as the " Gold Ring . " ) Corbin convinced Grant to appoint a Gould associate , Daniel Butterfield , as assistant Treasurer , where he could gather information for the Ring . Meanwhile , Gould and Fisk quietly stockpiled gold . Gould convinced Corbin that a high gold price would be good for the nation 's prosperity , and Corbin passed this theory on to Grant , who allowed the Treasury to act accordingly . After consulting in early September with Alexander Stewart ( his erstwhile nominee for Treasury Secretary ) , Grant stopped the sale of gold , believing a higher gold price would help Western farmers . By mid @-@ September , Grant warned Boutwell to be on his guard as the gold price continued to rise , while the conspirators bought ever more and the rising price affected the wider economy . Grant , seeing that the increase was unnatural , told Boutwell to sell gold , which reduced its price . Boutwell did so the next day , on September 24 , 1869 , later known as Black Friday . The sale of gold from the Treasury defeated Gould 's scheme as the gold price plummeted , relieving the growing economic tension . Gould and Fisk managed to escape without much harm to themselves . Many brokerage firms collapsed while trade volume and agriculture prices plummeted , causing a mild recession , but by January 1870 , the economy resumed its post @-@ war recovery . = = = Election of 1872 = = = Despite his administration 's many scandals , Grant continued to be personally popular . A growing number of reformers , however , were disappointed by Grant 's support of Reconstruction , the Gold Ring , and corruption in the New York Customs House . To placate reformers , Grant created a Civil Service Commission authorized by Congress in 1871 . The Commission , chaired by reformer George William Curtis , proposed certain reform rules and regulations , which Grant implemented by executive order in April 1872 , Congress appropriating funds in May . Congress stopped funding the Commission in December 1875 having refused to pass legislation to implement its recommendations . There was further division within the party between the faction most concerned with the plight of the freedmen and that concerned with the growth of industry . During the war , both factions ' interests had aligned , and in 1868 both had supported Grant . As the wartime coalition began to fray , Grant 's alignment with the party 's pro @-@ Reconstruction elements alienated party leaders who favored an end to federal intervention in Southern racial issues . Many of that faction split from the party in 1872 , calling themselves the Liberal Republican Party . Led by Charles Francis Adams of Massachusetts and Senator Carl Schurz of Missouri , they publicly denounced the federal patronage system that Sumner , a Liberal Republican sympathizer , called " Grantism " and demanded amnesty for Confederate soldiers . The Liberal Republicans distrusted black suffrage and demanded literacy tests for voting while opposing federal enforcement of equal voting rights in the South . The Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley , another Republican who had come to dislike Grant and his policies , and Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown of Missouri for Vice President . The Democrats , seeking to benefit from anti @-@ Grant sentiment , nominated Greeley as well . The rest of the Republican Party nominated Grant for reelection , with Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts replacing Colfax as vice @-@ presidential nominee . Wilson , viewed as a practical reformer and civil rights advocate , was meant to strengthen the Republican ticket . The Crédit Mobilier scandal revealed in September 1872 , in which a railroad company bribed many members of Congress in 1868 , did not involve Grant , but did ensnare Vice President Colfax and Senator Wilson , adding to the general sense of dishonesty in Washington . To the Liberals ' chagrin , Greeley made Grant 's Southern policy , rather than reform , the main campaign issue . The fusion effort failed and Grant was easily reelected . The Liberal Republicans were unable to deliver many votes , and Greeley was only successful in areas the Democrats would have carried without him . A strong economy , debt reduction , lowered tariffs , repeal of the income tax , and civil service reforms helped Grant defeat the Liberal Republicans . Grant won 56 percent of the popular vote and an Electoral College landslide of 286 to 66 . A majority of African Americans in the South voted for Grant , while Democratic opposition remained mostly peaceful . = = = Panic of 1873 , the Long Depression , and currency debates = = = As his first term was ending , Grant continued to work for a strong dollar , signing into law the Coinage Act of 1873 , which effectively ended the legal basis for bimetallism ( the use of both silver and gold as money ) , and established the gold standard in practice . The Coinage Act discontinued the standard silver dollar and established the gold dollar as the sole monetary standard . Critics who wanted more money in circulation to facilitate easier credit later denounced the move as the " Crime of 1873 " , claiming the law caused deflation and helped bankers while hurting farmers . Grant 's second term saw renewed economic turmoil . In September 1873 , Jay Cooke & Company , a New York brokerage house , collapsed after it failed to sell all of the bonds issued by Cooke 's Northern Pacific Railway . The collapse sent ripples through Wall Street , and other banks and brokerages that owned railroad stocks and bonds were also ruined . On September 20 , the New York Stock Exchange suspended trading for ten days . Grant , who knew little about finance , traveled to New York to consult leading businessmen and bankers for advice on how to resolve the crisis , which became known as the Panic of 1873 . Grant believed that , as with the collapse of the Gold Ring in 1869 , the panic was merely an economic fluctuation that affected bankers and brokers . He responded cautiously , instructing the treasury to buy $ 10 million in government bonds , thus injecting cash into the system . These purchases curbed the panic on Wall Street , but a five @-@ year industrial depression , later called the Long Depression , nonetheless swept the nation . Many of the nation 's railroads — 89 out of 364 — went bankrupt . Congress hoped inflation would stimulate the economy and passed what became known as the Inflation Bill in 1874 . Many farmers and workingmen favored the bill , which would have added $ 64 million in greenbacks to circulation , but some Eastern bankers opposed it because it would have weakened the dollar . Belknap , Williams , and Delano told Grant a veto would hurt Republicans in the November elections . Grant believed the bill would destroy the credit of the nation , and he vetoed it despite their objections . Grant 's veto , supported by Fish , placed him in the conservative faction of the Republican party , and was the beginning of the party 's commitment to a strong gold @-@ backed dollar . Grant later pressured Congress for a bill to further strengthen the dollar by gradually reducing the number of greenbacks in circulation . After losing the House to the Democrats in the 1874 elections , the lame @-@ duck Republican Congress did so before the Democrats took office . On January 14 , 1875 , Grant signed the Specie Payment Resumption Act into law . The Resumption Act required gradual reduction of the amount of greenbacks allowed to circulate and declared that specie payment ( i.e. , in gold or silver ) would resume in 1879 . = = = Gilded Age corruption and reform = = = Grant served as president during the Gilded Age , a time when the economy was open to speculation and western expansion that fueled corruption in government offices . Against the harsh public revelation of the Credit Mobilier of America scandal , Grant responded to charges of misconduct in nearly all federal departments , engaging his administration in constant conflict between corrupt associates and reformers . Although personally honest with his own money matters , Grant was trusting and had difficulty in spotting corruption in others . Stubbornly protective of corrupt associates , Grant often saw their prosecutions as unjust and shielded them from attack even at the cost of his own reputation , unless evidence of personal misconduct was overwhelming . No person linked any of the scandals together , except possibly Grant 's personal secretary , Orville E. Babcock , who indirectly controlled many cabinet departments and delayed federal investigations . There was additional scandal in New York . In 1871 , Thomas Murphy , the Collector of the Port of New York and a member of New York Senator Roscoe Conkling 's political machine , was forced to resign . Murphy , a Grant appointee to the patronage @-@ rich position , had become embroiled in a dispute with another faction of the Republican party over the jobs at his disposal and was accused of corruption in office ( a charge confirmed in an 1872 congressional investigation ) . In December , Grant appointed Chester A. Arthur , another Conkling man , to replace Murphy , and administration of the Customs House steadily improved . In Grant 's second term , a congressional investigation exposed corruption in the Treasury Department , in a case that would become known as the Sanborn incident : Treasury Secretary William Richardson had hired John Sanborn ( a friend of Congressman Benjamin Butler ) as an independent tax collector on a 50 percent commission basis , also known as a moiety . Treasury officials were then privately instructed not to press for payment , so that accounts would eventually become delinquent in taxes and Sanborn would get paid more when he " discovered " the accounts ' delinquency . The congressional committee report condemned Richardson for permitting the aggressive tax collection system Sanborn used , but did not attempt impeachment . To quell the public outcry and prevent future fraud , Congress passed the Anti @-@ Moiety Act . Signed into law by Grant in 1874 , it abolished the moiety system . Grant removed Richardson from the Treasury appointing him judge of the Court of Claims . In 1874 , Grant replaced Richardson as Treasury Secretary with Benjamin H. Bristow , a man known for his honesty , who began a series of reforms in the department , including tightening up the detective force and firing the second @-@ comptroller for inefficiency . Discovering that millions of gallons of whiskey escaped taxation , and having Grant 's endorsement to act ( " Let no guilty man escape " ) , Bristow in May 1875 struck down the Whiskey Ring , seizing 32 installations , impounding documents , and arresting some 350 men while obtaining 176 indictments . These led to 110 convictions and $ 3 @,@ 150 @,@ 000 in tax dollars was restored to the Treasury . When Bristow 's investigation implicated Babcock as part of the Whiskey Ring , Grant became defensive , believing Babcock was the innocent victim of a witch hunt . While denying immunity to minor Whiskey Ring conspirators , Grant worked to protect Babcock . In 1876 , a jury acquitted Babcock at a trial influenced by Grant 's deposition in Babcock 's favor . After the trial , under public pressure , Grant dismissed Babcock from the White House . Grant pardoned some Ring members after a few months in prison , and pardoned Ring founder John McDonald after 17 months in jail . As the scandals increased , Congress , with the House now under Democratic control , began several investigations into corruption in the administration , the most notable of which dealt with profiteering at western trading posts. involving Secretary of War William W. Belknap which led to his resignation . Congress also investigated and reprimanded Navy Secretary George M. Robeson in 1876 for receiving bribes . Grant 's Civil Service Commission reforms had limited success , as his cabinet implemented a merit system that increased the number of qualified candidates and relied less on Congressional patronage . Interior Secretary Columbus Delano , however , exempted his department from competitive examinations , and Congress refused to enact permanent Civil Service reform . Zachariah Chandler , who succeeded Delano , made sweeping reforms in the entire Interior Department ; Grant ordered Chandler to fire all corrupt clerks in the Bureau of Indian Affairs . Grant appointed reformers Edwards Pierrepont and Marshall Jewell as Attorney General and Postmaster General , respectively , who supported Bristow 's investigations . In 1875 , Pierrepont cleaned up corruption among the United States Attorneys and Marshals in the South . Grant suggested other reforms as well , including a proposal that states should offer free public schooling to all children ; he also endorsed the Blaine Amendment , which would have forbidden government aid to schools with religious affiliations . = = = Election of 1876 = = = Even as Grant drew cheers at the opening of the Centennial Exposition in May 1876 , the collected scandals of his presidency , the country 's weak economy , and the Democratic gains in the House led many in the Republican party to repudiate him in June . Bristow was among the leading candidates to replace him , suggesting that a large faction desired an end to " Grantism " and feared that Grant would run for a third term . Ultimately , Grant declined to run , but Bristow also failed to capture the nomination , as the convention settled on Governor Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio , a reformer . The Democrats nominated Governor Samuel J. Tilden of New York . Voting irregularities in three Southern states caused the election that year to remain undecided for several months . Grant told Congress to settle the matter through legislation and assured both sides that he would not use the army to force a result , except to curb violence . On January 29 , 1877 , Grant signed legislation passed by Congress to form an Electoral Commission to decide the matter . The result was the Compromise of 1877 : the Electoral Commission ruled that the disputed votes belonged to Hayes , but the last troops were withdrawn from Southern capitals . The Republicans had won , but Reconstruction was over . According to biographer Jean Edward Smith , " Grant 's calm visage in the White House reassured the nation . " = = = Cabinet = = = = = Post @-@ presidency = = = = = World tour = = = After leaving the White House , Grant and his family stayed with friends for two months , before setting out on a world tour . The trip , which would last two years , began in Liverpool in May 1877 , where enormous crowds greeted the ex @-@ president and his entourage . The Grants dined with Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle , and Grant gave several speeches in London . After a tour on the continent , the Grants spent a few months with their daughter Nellie , who had married an Englishman and moved to that country several years before . Grant and his wife journeyed to France and Italy , spending Christmas 1877 aboard USS Vandalia , a warship docked in Palermo . A winter sojourn in the Holy Land followed , and they visited Greece before returning to Italy and a meeting with Pope Leo XIII . They toured Spain before moving on to Germany , where Grant discussed military matters with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , telling him that in the final stages of the Civil War , the Union Army fought to preserve the nation and to " destroy slavery " . The Grants left from England by ship , sailing through the Suez Canal to India . They visited cities throughout the Raj , welcomed by colonial officials . After India , they toured Burma , Siam ( where Grant met with King Chulalongkorn ) , Singapore , and Cochinchina ( Vietnam ) . Traveling on to Hong Kong , Grant began to change his mind on the nature of colonization , believing that British rule was not " purely selfish " but also good for the colonial subjects . Leaving Hong Kong , the Grants visited the cities of Canton , Shanghai , and Peking , China . He declined to ask for an interview with the Guangxu Emperor , a child of seven , but did speak with the head of government , Prince Gong , and Li Hongzhang , a leading general . They discussed China 's dispute with Japan over the Ryukyu Islands , and Grant agreed to help bring the two sides to agreement . After crossing over to Japan and meeting the Emperor Meiji , Grant convinced China to accept the Japanese annexation of the islands , and the two nations avoided war . By then , the Grants had been gone two years , and were homesick . They crossed the Pacific and landed in San Francisco in September 1879 , greeted by cheering crowds . After a visit to Yosemite Valley , they returned at last to Philadelphia on December 16 , 1879 . The voyage around the world had captured popular imagination , and Republicans — especially those of the Stalwart faction excluded from the Hayes administration — saw Grant in a new light . The Republican nomination for 1880 was wide open after Hayes forswore a second term and many Republicans thought that Grant was the man for the job . = = = Third term attempt = = = Stalwarts , led by Grant 's old political ally , Roscoe Conkling , saw the ex @-@ president 's renewed popularity as a way for their faction to regain power . Opponents denounced the idea as a violation of the two @-@ term rule that had been the norm since George Washington . Grant said nothing publicly , but he wanted the job and encouraged his men . Elihu B. Washburne urged him to run ; Grant demurred , saying he would be happy for the Republicans to win with another candidate , though he preferred James G. Blaine to John Sherman . Even so , Conkling and John A. Logan began to organize delegates in Grant 's favor . When the convention convened in Chicago in June , there were more delegates pledged to Grant than to any other candidate , but he was still short of a majority vote to capture the nomination . At the convention , Conkling nominated Grant with an elegant speech , the most famous line being : " When asked which state he hails from , our sole reply shall be , he hails from Appomattox and its famous apple tree . " With 370 votes needed for nomination , the first ballot had Grant at 304 , Blaine at 284 , Sherman at 93 , and the rest scattered to minor candidates . Subsequent ballots followed , with roughly the same result ; neither Grant nor Blaine could win . After thirty @-@ six ballots , Blaine 's delegates deserted him and combined with those of other candidates to nominate a compromise candidate : Representative James A. Garfield of Ohio . The 306 votes Grant received on the last ballot was not enough to secure the nomination . A procedural motion made the vote unanimous for Garfield , who accepted the nomination . Grant gave speeches for Garfield , but declined to criticize the Democratic nominee , Winfield Scott Hancock , a general who had served under him in the Army of the Potomac . Garfield won the popular vote by a narrow margin , but solidly won the Electoral College — 214 to 155 . After the election , Grant gave Garfield his public support , and pushed him to include Stalwarts in his administration . = = = Business ventures = = = Grant 's world tour had been costly . When he returned to America , Grant had depleted most of his savings and needed to earn money and find a new home . Wealthy friends bought him a home on Manhattan 's Upper East Side , and to make an income , Grant , Jay Gould , and former Mexican Finance Secretary Matías Romero chartered the Mexican Southern Railroad , with plans to build a railroad from Oaxaca to Mexico City . Grant urged Chester A. Arthur , who had succeeded Garfield as president in 1881 , to negotiate a free trade treaty with Mexico . Arthur and the Mexican government agreed , but the United States Senate rejected the treaty in 1883 . The railroad was similarly unsuccessful , falling into bankruptcy the following year . At the same time , Grant 's son Ulysses Jr. had opened a Wall Street brokerage house with Ferdinand Ward . Regarded as a rising star , Ward , and the firm , Grant & Ward , were initially successful . In 1883 , Grant joined the firm and invested $ 100 @,@ 000 of his own money . Investors bought securities through the firm , and Ward used the securities as collateral to borrow money to buy more securities . Grant & Ward pledged that collateral to borrow more money to trade in securities on the firm 's own account . The practice — called hypothecation — was legal and accepted ; what was illegal was rehypothecation , the practice of pledging the same securities as collateral for multiple loans . Ward , having colluded with the bank involved , did this for many of the firm 's assets . When the trades went bad , multiple loans came due , all backed up by the same collateral . Historians agree that Grant was likely unaware of Ward 's tactics , but it is unclear how much Buck Grant knew . In May 1884 , enough investments went bad to convince Ward that the firm would soon be bankrupt . Ward told Grant of the impending failure , but suggested that this was a temporary shortfall . Grant approached businessman William Henry Vanderbilt , who gave him a personal loan of $ 150 @,@ 000 . Grant invested the money in the firm , but it was not enough to save the firm from failure . Essentially penniless , but compelled by a sense of personal honor , he repaid what he could with his Civil War mementos and the sale or transfer of all other assets . Although the proceeds did not cover the loan , Vanderbilt insisted the debt had been paid in full . Grant was left destitute . = = = Memoirs and death = = = To restore his family 's income , Grant wrote several articles on his Civil War campaigns for The Century Magazine at $ 500 each . The articles were well received by critics , and the editor , Robert Underwood Johnson , suggested that Grant write a book of memoirs , as Sherman and others had done . Grant 's articles would serve as the basis for several chapters . In the summer of 1884 , Grant complained of a soreness in his throat , but put off seeing a doctor until late October where he finally learned it was throat cancer . Before being diagnosed , Grant was invited to a Methodist service for Civil War veterans in Ocean Grove , New Jersey , on August 4 , 1884 , receiving a standing ovation from more than ten thousand veterans and others ; it would be his last public appearance . In March of the following year , the New York Times finally announced that Grant was dying of cancer and a nationwide public concern for the former president began . Later , Grant , who had forfeited his military pension when he assumed the presidency , was honored by his friends and the Congress when he was restored to the rank of General of the Army with full retirement pay . Despite his debilitating illness , Grant worked diligently on his memoirs at his home in New York City , and then from a cottage on the slopes of Mount McGregor , finishing only days before he died . Grant asked his former staff officer , Adam Badeau , to help edit his work . Grant 's son Fred assisted with references and proofreading . Century magazine offered Grant a book contract with a 10 percent royalty , but Grant accepted a better offer from his friend , Mark Twain , who proposed a 75 percent royalty . His memoir ends with the Civil War , and does not cover the post @-@ war years , including his presidency . The book , Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant , was a critical and commercial success . In the end , Julia Grant received about $ 450 @,@ 000 in royalties . The memoir has been highly regarded by the public , military historians , and literary critics . Grant portrayed himself in the persona of the honorable Western hero , whose strength lies in his honesty and straightforwardness . He candidly depicted his battles against both the Confederates and internal army foes . Twain called the Memoirs a " literary masterpiece . " Given over a century of favorable literary analysis , reviewer Mark Perry states that the Memoirs are " the most significant work " of American non @-@ fiction . In the days preceding his death , Grant 's wife , Julia , all of his children , and three grandchildren were present . After a year @-@ long struggle with the cancer , Grant died at 8 o 'clock in the morning in the Mount McGregor cottage on July 23 , 1885 , at the age of 63 . Sheridan , then Commanding General of the Army , ordered a day @-@ long tribute to Grant on all military posts , and President Grover Cleveland ordered a thirty @-@ day nationwide period of mourning . After private services , the honor guard placed Grant 's body on a special funeral train , which traveled to West Point and New York City . A quarter of a million people viewed it in the two days before the funeral . Tens of thousands of men , many of them veterans from the Grand Army of the Republic ( GAR ) or other veterans ' organizations , marched with Grant 's casket drawn by two dozen horses to Riverside Park in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan , New York City . His pallbearers included Union generals Sherman and Sheridan , Confederate generals Simon Bolivar Buckner and Joseph E. Johnston , Admiral David Dixon Porter , and Senator John A. Logan , the head of the GAR . Grant 's body was laid to rest in Riverside Park , first in a temporary tomb , and then — twelve years later , on April 17 , 1897 — in the General Grant National Memorial , also known as " Grant 's Tomb " . The tomb is the largest mausoleum in North America . Attendance at the New York funeral topped 1 @.@ 5 million . Ceremonies were held in other major cities around the country , and those who eulogized Grant in the press likened him to George Washington and Abraham Lincoln . = = Historical reputation = = No presidential reputations have changed as dramatically as Grant 's . Hailed across the North as the winning general in a great war , his nomination as president seemed inevitable . Grant 's popularity declined with congressional investigations into corruption in his administration and Custer 's defeat at the Battle of the Little Big Horn . In 1877 , there was bipartisan approval of Grant 's peaceful handling of the electoral crisis . Grant 's reputation soared during his well @-@ publicized world tour . At his death , Grant was seen as " a symbol of the American national identity and memory " , when millions turned out for his funeral procession in 1885 and attended the 1897 dedication of his tomb . Grant 's popularity increased in the years immediately after his death . At the same time , commentators and scholars portrayed his administration as the most corrupt in American history . As the popularity of the pro @-@ Confederate Lost Cause movement increased early in the 20th century , a more negative view became increasingly common . As they had early in the Civil War , Grant 's new critics charged that he was a reckless drunk , and in light of his presidency , that he was also corrupt . In the 1930s , biographer William B. Hesseltine noted that Grant 's reputation deteriorated because his enemies were better writers than his friends . In 1931 , Frederic Paxson and Christian Bach in the Dictionary of American Biography praised Grant 's military vision and his execution of that vision in defeating the Confederacy , but of his political career , the authors were less complimentary . Speaking specifically of the scandals , they wrote that " personal scandal has not touched Grant in any plausible form , but it struck so close to him and so frequently as to necessitate the vindication of his honor by admitting his bad taste in the choice of associates . " Views of Grant reached new lows as he was seen as an unsuccessful president and an unskilled , if lucky , general . Bruce Catton and T. Harry Williams began the reassessment of Grant 's military career in the 1960s , shifting the analysis of Grant as victor by brute force to that of successful and skillful strategist and commander . Even for scholars with a particular concern for the plight of former slaves and Indians , Grant left a problematic legacy and , with changing attitudes toward warfare after the end of the Vietnam War , Grant 's military reputation suffered again . William S. McFeely won the Pulitzer Prize for his critical 1981 biography that emphasized the failure of Grant 's presidency to carry out lasting progress and concluded that " he did not rise above limited talents or inspire others to do so in ways that make his administration a credit to American politics . " John Y. Simon in 1982 responded to McFeely : " Grant 's failure as President ... lies in the failure of the Indian peace policy and the collapse of Reconstruction ... But if Grant tried and failed , who could have succeeded ? " Simon praised Grant 's first term in office , arguing that it should be " remembered for his staunch enforcement of the rights of freedmen combined with conciliation of former Confederates , for reform in Indian policy and civil service , for successful negotiation of the Alabama Claims , and for delivery of peace and prosperity . " According to Simon , the Liberal Republican revolt , the Panic of 1873 , and the North 's conservative retreat from Reconstruction weakened Grant 's second term in office , although his foreign policy remained steady . Historians ' views have grown more favorable since the 1990s , appreciating Grant 's protection of African Americans and his peace policy towards Indians , even where those policies failed . Grant 's reputation rose further with Jean Edward Smith 's 2001 biography . Smith argued that the same qualities that made Grant a success as a general carried over to his political life to make him , if not a successful president , then certainly an admirable one . Smith wrote that " the common thread is strength of character — an indomitable will that never flagged in the face of adversity ... Sometimes he blundered badly ; often he oversimplified ; yet he saw his goals clearly and moved toward them relentlessly . " Brooks Simpson continued the trend in the first of two volumes on Grant in 2000 , although the work was far from a hagiography . H. W. Brands , in his more uniformly positive 2012 book , wrote favorably of Grant 's military and political careers alike , saying : As commanding general in the Civil War , he had defeated secession and destroyed slavery , secession 's cause . As President during Reconstruction he had guided the South back into the Union . By the end of his public life the Union was more secure than at any previous time in the history of the nation . And no one had done more to produce the result than he . As Reconstruction scholar Eric Foner wrote , Brands gave " a sympathetic account of Grant 's forceful and temporarily successful effort as president to crush the Ku Klux Klan , which had inaugurated a reign of terror against the former slaves . " Foner criticized Grant for not sending military aid to Mississippi during the 1875 election to protect African Americans from threats of violence . According to Foner , " Grant 's unwillingness to act reflected the broader Northern retreat from Reconstruction and its ideal of racial equality . " According to historian Brooks Simpson , Grant was on " the right side of history " . Simpson said , “ [ w ] e now view Reconstruction ... as something that should have succeeded in securing equality for African @-@ Americans , and we see Grant as supportive of that effort and doing as much as any person could do to try to secure that within realm of political reality . " John F. Marszalek said , " You have to go almost to Lyndon Johnson to find a president who tried to do as much to ensure black people found freedom . " Besides civil rights , issues of environmental protection have also attracted historiographical attention . Historian Joan Waugh , in her generally favorable book , says Grant appreciated the beauty of the West , and in 1872 signed the law establishing the country 's first national park at Yellowstone . However , she argues : ... he approved of projects that took great swaths of land and opened them to timber , cattle , land speculators , and millions of settlers ... the idea of preserving the region 's environment and concerns about industrial pollution were of much less importance to Grant ... Throughout the 20th century , historians ranked his presidency near the bottom . In the 21st century , his military reputation is strong , while most scholars rank his presidency well below average . His accomplishments as President have been overlooked due to corruption charges of his Cabinet members and appointees during his administration . = = Memorials and presidential library = = Several memorials honor Grant . In addition to his mausoleum , the General Grant National Memorial in New York , there is the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial at the foot of Capitol Hill in Washington , D.C. Dedicated in 1922 , it overlooks the Capitol Reflecting Pool and is made of bronze and marble created by sculptor Henry Merwin Shrady and architect Edward Pearce Casey . On April 23 , 2015 , the 193rd anniversary of Grant 's birth , restoration work began ; the restoration is expected to be completed before the bicentennial of Grant 's birth in 2022 . The Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site near St. Louis , and several other sites in Ohio and Illinois memorialize Grant 's life . There are smaller memorials in Chicago 's Lincoln Park and Philadelphia 's Fairmount Park . Named in his honor are Grant Park , as well as several counties in western and midwestern states . On June 3 , 1891 , a bronze statue of Grant , created by Danish sculptor Johannes Gelert and commissioned by publisher H. H. Kohlsaat , was dedicated at Grant Park in Galena , Illinois . From 1890 to 1940 , part of what is now Kings Canyon National Park was called General Grant National Park , named for the General Grant sequoia . Grant has appeared on the front of the United States fifty @-@ dollar bill since 1913 , and appears on several stamps . In May 2012 , the Ulysses S. Grant Foundation , on the institute 's fiftieth anniversary , selected Mississippi State University as the permanent location for Ulysses S. Grant 's presidential library . Historian John Y. Simon edited Grant 's letters into a 32 @-@ volume scholarly edition published by Southern Illinois University Press .
= Joseph Staten = Joseph Michael Staten is an American writer . At Bungie , Staten served as director of cinematics for the studio 's games , including the Halo series ; he would write mission scripts and movie dialogue for the titles . He has also been involved in managing the expansion of the Halo franchise to other game studios and producers , including Peter Jackson 's Wingnut Interactive . Though not a published author previously , Tor Books approached Staten to write the fifth Halo novelization , Halo : Contact Harvest . Released in 2007 , the novel reached # 3 on The New York Times bestseller list in the first week of its release and received positive reviews . Staten 's latest project was a brand new game series entitled Destiny , a first @-@ person shooter . Staten rejoined Microsoft Studios as a senior creative director on January 9 , 2014 . = = Biography = = = = = Early life and education = = = Joseph Staten is the son of a minister who is a professor of theology and philosophy of religion . He was born in San Francisco , California . Staten entered Northwestern University in 1990 with the aspiration of becoming a professional actor . Realizing he was not material to be a leading man , he switched focus to other subjects and graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in communication and international studies in 1994 . Staten also has studied at the University of Chicago where is he received a Master of Arts degree in international relations in 1997 . After being rejected for employment with the Central Intelligence Agency , Staten dropped the idea of entering the foreign service and helped his family at their winery in Sonoma Valley . He instead pursued a number of jobs before becoming a staff member at game developer Bungie in 1998 after meeting some of the developers in online Myth matches . = = = Bungie = = = Staten 's former role at Bungie was director of cinematics and was responsible for the in @-@ game movies for Bungie 's Halo : Combat Evolved , Halo 2 , and Halo 3 . Work on the games at " crunch time " involved 80 @-@ hour weeks and stretches without sleep maxing out at 72 hours . Staten worked alongside three other staff writers at Bungie , each with their own separate role : Frank O 'Connor developed Halo 3 's combat dialogue , Rob McLees focused on Halo canon and working with licensing partners , Luke Smith interacted with the fans online , and Staten developed the cinematics and missions scripts . Staten said in an interview that he considered it challenging to write for the games , as " first person shooters [ are ] all about writing ' between the bullets ' " — relating plot information to the players in between action sequences . " You need to be efficient and clever to give players the story — the context — they need . But you don 't want to push too hard or they 'll reject it . " During his work on the games he read science fiction works by Iain Banks , Robert A. Heinlein , and Vernor Vinge . In addition to his writing contributions , Staten lends his voice to small aliens known as Grunts in all three video games . Though previous Halo novels had been written by professional writers like Eric Nylund and William C. Dietz , publisher Tor Books chose Staten to write the fifth Halo novelization , entitled Halo : Contact Harvest . Editor Eric Raab noted in the book 's press release that " who better to tell the tale " of humanity 's encounter with the antagonistic alien Covenant than Staten , who had " intimate knowledge " of the series ' story . The novel is an ensemble piece , with the action being narrated from both human and alien viewpoints ; the work of Staten 's favorite science @-@ fiction authors helped teach him the importance of honing a " strong , consistent voice " . Staten found that writing compelling action involved slowing things down , paradoxically the opposite of the fast @-@ paced gameplay of a Halo title . He considered the book the perfect way to elaborate on the Halo story without stripping it down for a video game , . and flesh out the character of Avery Johnson more than the games had allowed . On release , Contact Harvest reached a top spot of # 3 on the New York Times bestseller list , where it remained for four weeks . The novel also appeared on the USA Today bestseller 's list at the same time . Reviewers noted that despite being an unproven writer , Staten had succeeded in crafting an excellent novel . The novel 's success was considered to be evidence that games were breaking into the mainstream , and that the genre was becoming increasingly about the story . After Contact Harvest 's release Staten played an important role in the development of offshoots to the Halo franchise . He traveled to New Zealand several times to work with Peter Jackson and Weta Workshop . Staten assisted with the fiction of Ensemble Studios title Halo Wars , and the now @-@ postponed Halo film . In interviews , Staten has explained that the game 's protagonist , the Master Chief , would serve as a supporting character rather than who the film would focus on . He worked on story development for the Halo 3 expansion , Halo 3 : ODST ; Staten provided the voices for a number of characters as placeholder audio during the representational play testing of the game in December 2008 . Staten was last working for Bungie as the writer and design director for Destiny . On September 24 , 2013 , Bungie announced that Staten had left the company to pursue new creative challenges . = = = Microsoft = = = Staten rejoined Microsoft Studios as a senior creative director on January 9 , 2014 . On March 12 , 2015 , 343 Industries official website posted a blog post detailing a list of upcoming Halo novels . One of the novels listed is Halo : Shadow of Intent authored by Joseph Staten and was released on December 7 , 2015 . He is the lead writer for Microsoft 's ReCore , which is set to be released in 2016 . = = = Personal life = = = Staten is married and has two children . On June 18 , 2011 , Staten gave the convocation address to the class of 2011 of the Northwestern University School of Communication .
= Lionel Gilbert = Lionel Arthur Gilbert OAM ( 8 December 1924 – 28 January 2015 ) was an Australian historian , author , curator , lecturer , and biographer , specializing in applied , natural , and local history . Born in Burwood , New South Wales , he studied at Sydney Teachers College and , beginning in 1946 , worked as a teacher and later a headmaster in state schools in various locations around New South Wales until 1961 . In 1963 Gilbert graduated from the University of New England with a Bachelor of Arts in History . That same year , he was appointed a lecturer and curator at the Armidale Teachers ' College Museum of Education , in which capacity he served until his retirement in 1984 , overseeing several expansions of the museum and establishment of a historical research centre . During his time with the college , Gilbert published a number of articles , papers , and books , many of them focusing on local history of New South Wales , including the state 's New England area . He attained a Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D ) in Botanical History from the University of New England in 1972 . After retirement , Gilbert authored several books on Australian natural history , including biographies of three Australian botanists and a history of Sydney 's Royal Botanic Gardens . In recognition of his work in education and history , he was selected as a fellow by several historical organizations . In 1995 he was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia , a Centenary Medal in 2001 , and in 2007 with an honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of New England . = = Early life and career with state schools = = Gilbert was born in Burwood , a suburb of Sydney , on 8 December 1924 . His primary and secondary education took place at Burwood Primary School , Homebush Boys High School , and Fort Street High School , receiving a leaving certificate from the latter . After graduation , Gilbert took temporary employment at Gowings Men 's Store in Sydney . In 1942 , he received a Teacher 's Scholarship to Sydney Teachers College , where he trained for one year to be a school teacher . In 1943 , Gilbert enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force , joining 570 other Teachers College students who served in the armed forces during World War II , 68 of whom were killed during the conflict . Assigned as a radar operator in Arnhem Land , Gilbert served until 1946 . After his discharge from the military , Gilbert was employed as secondary school teacher at Nabiac Central School from 1946 until 1954 . In 1955 , he was appointed Deputy Headmaster of Wauchope Primary School , and served in that capacity until 1960 . That year , he accepted an appointment as headmaster of Rocky River Primary School near Uralla , New South Wales , a position he held until 1961 . While at Nabiac , Gilbert met Margaret Roberts and the two married in 1949 . Their daughter Anne was born in 1960 . = = Academia and curator career = = In 1955 , Gilbert enrolled as an external student at the University of New England in the first class of the university 's external studies program . In 1961 , he was appointed by the university as a Research and Information Officer in the Department of External Studies . In this capacity , Gilbert taught weekend classes on the methodology of local history for the university 's adult education department throughout the northwest area of New South Wales . In 1963 , he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in History with First Class Honors , submitting his thesis on the history of botanical knowledge of the eastern seaboard of Australia for the years 1788 @-@ 1815 . In July 1963 , Gilbert accepted an appointment as lecturer in applied history and curator with the Armidale Teachers ' College ( later College of Advanced Education ) Museum of Education . Holding the position for 21 years , he guided expansion of the facility to better present the history of education in Australia . Between 1976 and 1980 he supervised the relocation to the museum of three historic school buildings from Armidale High School and Dumaresq Public School . In addition , Gilbert designed courses in applied and local history for internal and external students of the college , which became the Armidale College of Advanced Education in 1971 . In 1974 , Gilbert successfully requested an Innovations Grant from the Schools Commission to establish a Historical Resources Centre at the college . Opened in 1976 with Gilbert as its first director , the centre 's goal was to provide education on the history of New England to primary , secondary , tertiary , and postgraduate students , and community groups . Gilbert recalled in 2008 that between 1975 and 1978 , 5 @,@ 758 primary or secondary pupils toured the museum on field trips . A further 1 @,@ 653 adults visited during that time to conduct historical or genealogical research at the museum or the Historical Resources Centre . In 1981 the Museums Association of Australia recognised the museum with a certificate of merit for its , " authenticity and detail in building , display and education . " In 1972 , Gilbert was named chair of the school 's newly formed Department of History . He attained the position of Acting Deputy Principal for the college before retiring in June 1984 . In 1967 , Gilbert assisted the National Trust of Australia and the Australian National University 's Department of Adult Education with a series of lectures and exhibits on local history of the New England area . Held in Armidale , the series helped establish a local chapter of the National Trust and the subsequent preservation of several historical colonial buildings in the area . While at the college , Gilbert pursued post @-@ graduate studies at New England and received a Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D ) in Botanical History in 1972 , with his thesis titled Botanical investigation of New South Wales , 1811 @-@ 1880 . Also in 1972 , he was awarded a Churchill Fellowship to the U.K. for four weeks to study how museums in the U.K. contributed to general education . = = Other work = = In 1962 , Gilbert succeeded Eric Dunlop as Honorary Curator of the Armidale City Council 's Folk Museum , serving in the position until 1982 . When the museum reached capacity in its original facility , he joined the Armidale town clerk in a successful petition to the Department of Education for New South Wales to relocate the museum into the nearby Hillgrove School . Opened in 1977 , the new facility is known as the Museum of Rural Life and Industry . Beginning in 1975 , he served on the New South Wales State Archives Authority . During his career at the college , Gilbert authored or co @-@ authored a number of papers and books , particularly on Australian biographical , genealogical , and local history . In 1974 , Gilbert joined William Patrick Driscoll , Alan Sutherland , and David Rose in publishing History Around Us : An Enquiry Approach to Local History , a book on historical research targeted at younger readers . The book was re @-@ issued in 1984 . In 1978 , Gilbert and co @-@ author Elwyn Sydney Elphick wrote a book titled of Forty @-@ three and Seven : A Short Illustrated History of the First Fifty Years of Teacher Education in Armidale : Armidale Teachers ' College , 1928 @-@ 1971 and Armidale College of Advanced Education 1971 @-@ 1978 to commemorate the school 's 50 @-@ year jubilee celebration . In 1980 , two books by Gilbert were published : A Grave Look at History : Glimpses of a Vanishing Form of Folk Art and New England from Old Photographs . The former studied graveyard monuments and was representative of Gilbert 's lifelong interest in studying and documenting epitaphs . The latter book focused on local history of New South Wales . From 1966 , he contributed a series of articles to the Australian Dictionary of Biography . = = Post retirement work , professional associations , and honors = = Gilbert continued to write in retirement , often focusing on natural history . In 1985 , 1992 , and 2001 , he respectively authored books on botanists William Woolls , Herman Rupp , and Joseph Maiden . In 1986 , his book on the history of Sydney 's Royal Botanic Gardens was published . Two years after its publication , Gilbert was appointed an Honorary Research Associate of the gardens . He was also a patron of the Australian National Museum of Education and a member of Australia 's National Trust . Gilbert was named a Fellow of the Society of Australian Genealogists in 1955 , an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Australian Historical Society in 1997 , and a Fellow of the Federation of Australian Historical Societies in 2007 . On 12 June 1995 he was recognised with the Medal of the Order of Australia ( OAM ) , " In recognition of service to the community as a researcher and curator of local history in the New England region . " On 1 January 2001 he was awarded the Centenary Medal , " For service to the community through education and local history . " The University of New England presented Gilbert with an honorary Doctor of Letters ( Hon. D. Litt . ) in 2008 . Also in 2008 , he contributed a historical essay on the Auchinleck @-@ Ross family of New England to the biographical compendium , New England Lives III . Gilbert served as president of the Armidale and District Historical Society and has been honored with Freedom of the City of Armidale . = = Personal life and death = = Gilbert and his wife , Margaret , resided in Armidale , New South Wales from 1961 . He died in Armidale on 28 January 2015 and was survived by his wife , daughter Anne , son @-@ in @-@ law Tony Bennett , and grandson Alexei . = = Awards and professional elections = = 1955 Fellow , Society of Australian Genealogists 1972 Churchill Fellowship 1988 Honorary Research Associate , Royal Botanic Gardens , Sydney 1995 Medal of the Order of Australia 1997 Honorary Fellow , Royal Australian Historical Society 2001 Centenary Medal 2007 Fellow , Federation of Australian Historical Societies 2008 Doctor of Letters , University of New England Freedom of the City of Armidale , New South Wales President of the Armidale and District Historical Society = = Selected publications = = Elphick , Elwyn Sydney ; Lionel Arthur Gilbert ( 1978 ) . Forty @-@ three and Seven : A Short Illustrated History of the First Fifty Years of Teacher Education in Armidale : Armidale Teachers ' College , 1928 @-@ 1971 and Armidale College of Advanced Education 1971 @-@ 1978 . Armidale , New South Wales : Armidale College of Advanced Education. p . 85 . OCLC 220377802 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1980 ) . A Grave Look at History : Glimpses of a Vanishing Form of Folk Art . Sydney : John Ferguson. p . 143 . ISBN 9780909134297 . OCLC 456553652 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1980 ) . New England from Old Photographs . Sydney : John Ferguson. p . 144 . ISBN 9780909134297 . OCLC 8953985 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ; William Patrick Driscoll ; Alan Sutherland ; David Rose ( 1984 ) . History Around Us : An Enquiry Approach to Local History ( 2nd ed . ) . North Ryde , New South Wales : Methuen Australia. p . 140 . ISBN 9780454006766 . OCLC 27489941 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1985 ) . William Woolls , 1814 @-@ 1893 : " A Most Useful Colonist " . Canberra : Mulini Press. p . 138 . ISBN 9780949910158 . OCLC 247984779 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 23 June 1986 ) . The Royal Botanic Gardens , Sydney : A History , 1816 @-@ 1985 . Melbourne ; New York : Oxford University Press. p . 210 . ISBN 9780195547191 . OCLC 14694184 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1987 ) . Mr Smith , Mr Jones and a Time of Bliss . Armidale , New South Wales : Armidale College of Advanced Education . ISBN 9780959389357 . OCLC 27623153 . Retrieved 30 November 2012 . Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1992 ) . The Orchid Man : The Life , Work and Memoirs of the Rev. H.M.R. Rupp , 1872 @-@ 1956 . Kenthurst , New South Wales : Kangaroo Press. p . 248 . ISBN 9780864174154 . OCLC 27240057 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1 March 2001 ) . The Little Giant : The Life & Work of Joseph Henry Maiden , 1859 @-@ 1925 . Sydney : Kardoorair Press in association with Royal Botanic Gardens. p . 429 . ISBN 9780908244447 . OCLC 54078075 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 2005 ) . The Last Word : Two Centuries of Australian Epitaphs . Armidale , New South Wales : Kardoorair Press. p . 451 . ISBN 9780908244645 . OCLC 65526598 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 .
= Grunge = Grunge ( sometimes referred to as the Seattle sound ) is a subgenre of alternative rock that emerged during the mid @-@ 1980s in the American state of Washington , particularly in Seattle . The early grunge movement revolved around Seattle 's independent record label Sub Pop , but by the early 1990s its popularity had spread , with grunge acts in California and other parts of the U.S. building strong followings and signing major record deals . Grunge became commercially successful in the first half of the 1990s , due mainly to the release of Nirvana 's Nevermind , Pearl Jam 's Ten , Soundgarden 's Badmotorfinger , Alice in Chains ' Facelift , and Stone Temple Pilots ' Core . The success of these bands boosted the popularity of alternative rock and made grunge the most popular form of rock music at the time . Although most grunge bands had disbanded or faded from view by the late 1990s , their influence continues to affect modern rock music . More recent bands have also embraced grunge sounds and themes , with bands such as Violent Soho described as " grunge revival " artists . Grunge typically fuses elements of punk rock and heavy metal , such as the distorted electric guitar used in both genres , although some bands performed with more emphasis on one or the other . The music shares with punk a raw sound and similar lyrical concerns . However , it also involves much slower tempos , dissonant harmonies , and more complex instrumentation — which is reminiscent of heavy metal . Lyrics are typically angst @-@ filled , often addressing themes such as social alienation , apathy , confinement , and a desire for freedom . A number of factors contributed to grunge 's decline in prominence . During the mid @-@ late 1990s , many grunge bands broke up or became less visible . Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain , labeled by Time as " the John Lennon of the swinging Northwest " , appeared unusually tortured by success and " struggled with an addiction to heroin before he committed suicide at the age of 27 in 1994 " . = = Origin of the term = = Although writer Paul Rambali used " grunge " in a 1978 NME article to describe mainstream guitar rock , Mark Arm , the vocalist for the Seattle band Green River — and later Mudhoney — is generally credited as being the first to use the term grunge to describe this genre of music . Arm first used the term in 1981 , when he wrote a letter under his given name Mark McLaughlin to the Seattle zine Desperate Times , criticizing his own band Mr. Epp and the Calculations as " Pure grunge ! Pure noise ! Pure shit ! " . Clark Humphrey , contributor to Desperate Times , cites this as the earliest use of the term to refer to a Seattle band , and mentions that Bruce Pavitt of Sub Pop popularized the term as a musical label in 1987 – 88 , using it on several occasions to describe Green River . Arm said years later , " Obviously , I didn 't make grunge up . I got it from someone else . The term was already being thrown around in Australia in the mid- ' 80s to describe bands like King Snake Roost , The Scientists , Salamander Jim , and Beasts of Bourbon . " Arm used grunge as a descriptive term rather than a genre term , but it eventually came to describe the punk / metal hybrid sound of the Seattle music scene . Some bands associated with the genre , such as Soundgarden , Pearl Jam and Alice in Chains , have not been receptive to the label , preferring instead to be referred to as " rock and roll " bands . = = Characteristics = = = = = Musical style = = = Grunge is generally characterized by a sludgy guitar sound with a " thick midrange " and rolled @-@ off treble tone and a high level of distortion and fuzz , typically created with small stompbox pedals , with some guitarists chaining several fuzz pedals together and plugging them into a tube amplifier . The use of pedals by grunge guitarists was a move away from the expensive , studio @-@ grade rackmount effects units used in other rock genres . Grunge guitarists played loud , with Kurt Cobain 's early guitar sound coming from an unusual set @-@ up of four 800 watt PA system power amplifiers . Guitar feedback effects were used . Grunge guitarists were influenced by the raw , primitive sound of punk , and they favored " ... energy and lack of finesse over technique and precision " ; key guitar influences included the Sex Pistols , The Dead Boys , Neil Young ( Rust Never Sleeps , side two ) , The Replacements , Husker Du , Black Flag and The Melvins . Grunge guitarists often downtuned their instruments for a lower , heavier sound . Grunge guitarists " flatly rejected " the virtuostic " shredding " guitar solos that had become the centerpiece of heavy metal songs , instead opting for melodic , blues @-@ inspired solos - focusing " ... on the song , not the guitar solo " - with Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains stating that solos should be to serve the song , rather than to show off a guitarist 's technical skill . In place of the strutting guitar heroes of metal , grunge had " guitar anti @-@ heroes " like Cobain , who showed little interest in mastering the instrument . Grunge fuses elements of hardcore punk and heavy metal , although some bands performed with more emphasis on one or the other . The music shares with punk a raw sound and similar lyrical concerns . However , it also involves much slower tempos , dissonant harmonies , and more complex instrumentation — which is reminiscent of heavy metal . Some individuals associated with the development of grunge , including Sub Pop producer Jack Endino and the Melvins , explained grunge 's incorporation of heavy rock influences such as Kiss as " musical provocation " . Grunge artists considered these bands " cheesy " but nonetheless enjoyed them ; Buzz Osborne of the Melvins described it as an attempt to see what ridiculous things bands could do and get away with . In the early 1990s , Nirvana 's signature " stop @-@ start " song format became a genre convention . Allmusic calls grunge a " hybrid of heavy metal and punk " . Although keyboards are generally not used in grunge , Seattle band Gorilla created controversy by breaking the " guitars only " approach and using a 1960s @-@ style Vox organ in their group . According to The Atlantic , the four most influential singing styles of grunge were exemplified by Alice in Chains ' Layne Staley , who was called the " most memorable voice " of the genre for his " ... ability to project power and vulnerability " ; Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain , who could both scream and sing melodically in the same song like John Lennon ; Soundgarden 's Chris Cornell , who " wailed and hit high notes " like Robert Plant ; and Pearl Jam 's Eddie Vedder , who " ... combined a Jim Morrison @-@ style natural baritone range with other punk and rock influences . " = = = Lyrics = = = Grunge lyrics are typically angst @-@ filled , and anguished , often addressing themes such as social alienation , apathy , confinement , and a desire for freedom . A number of factors influenced the focus on such subject matter . Many grunge musicians displayed a general disenchantment with the state of society , as well as a discomfort with social prejudices . Such themes bear similarities to those addressed by punk rock musicians . In 1992 , music critic Simon Reynolds said that " there 's a feeling of burnout in the culture at large . Kids are depressed about the future " . The topics of grunge lyrics – " broken homes , drug addiction and self @-@ loathing " contrasted sharply to the glam metal lyrics of Poison , which described " life in the fast lane " . = = = Concerts = = = Grunge concerts were known for being straightforward , high @-@ energy performances . Grunge bands rejected the complex and high budget presentations of many musical genres , including the use of complex light arrays , pyrotechnics , and other visual effects unrelated to playing the music . Stage acting and " onstage theatrics " were generally avoided . Instead the bands presented themselves as no different from minor local bands . Jack Endino said in the 1996 documentary Hype ! that Seattle bands were inconsistent live performers , since their primary objective was not to be entertainers , but simply to " rock out " . One of the philosophies of the grunge scene was authenticity . Dave Rimmer writes that with the revival of punk ideals of stripped @-@ down music in the early 1990s , " for Cobain , and lots of kids like him , rock & roll ... threw down a dare : Can you be pure enough , day after day , year after year , to prove your authenticity , to live up to the music ... And if you can 't , can you live with being a poseur , a phony , a sellout ? " = = = Clothing = = = Clothing commonly worn by grunge musicians in Washington consisted of thrift store items and the typical outdoor clothing ( most notably flannel shirts ) of the region , as well as a generally unkempt appearance and long hair . Seattle and Aberdeen , Washington were logging towns and hence , the lumberjack attire was a common sight in the thrift stores for the low prices that musicians could afford . Grunge fashion consisted of ripped jeans , mom jeans , Doc Martens , combat boots , band T @-@ shirts , oversized knit sweaters , long and droopy skirts , ripped tights , Birkenstocks , hiking boots , and eco @-@ friendly clothing made from recycled textiles or fair trade organic cotton . “ Grunge also became an anti @-@ consumerist movement where the less you spent on clothes , the more ‘ coolness ’ you had . ” The style did not evolve out of a conscious attempt to create an appealing fashion ; music journalist Charles R. Cross said , " [ Nirvana frontman ] Kurt Cobain was just too lazy to shampoo " , and Sub Pop 's Jonathan Poneman said , " This [ clothing ] is cheap , it 's durable , and it 's kind of timeless . It also runs against the grain of the whole flashy aesthetic that existed in the 80s . " Grunge fashion was very much an anti @-@ fashion response and a non @-@ conformist move against the “ manufactured image ” , often pushing musicians to dress in authentic ways and not glamourising themselves . At the same time , Sub @-@ Pop utilised the ‘ grunge look ’ in their marketing of their bands . In an interview with VH1 , photographer Charles Peterson commented that members from grunge band Tad “ were given blue collar identities that weren ’ t entirely earned . Bruce ( Pavitt ) really got him to dress up in flannel and a real chain saw and really play up this image of a mountain man and it worked . ” Grunge music hit mainstream in early ‘ 90s with Soundgarden and Nirvana being signed to major record labels . Grunge fashion began to break into mainstream fashion and in mid @-@ 1992 for both sexes and peaked in late 1993 and early 1994 . As it picked up momentum , the grunge tag was being used by shops selling expensive flannelette shirts in an effort to cash in on the trend . Ironically , the non @-@ conformist look suddenly became a mainstream trend . In the fashion world , Marc Jacobs presented a show for Perry Ellis in 1992 , featuring grunge @-@ inspired clothing mixed up with high @-@ end fabrics . For Jacobs , he found inspiration in the ‘ realism ’ of streetwear and mixed it up with the luxury of fashion by sending models down in beanies , floral dresses and silk flannel shirts . Unfortunately , this did not sit well with the brand owners and Jacobs was dismissed . Other designers like Anna Sui , also drew inspiration from grunge during that Spring Summer 1993 season . In the same year , Vogue did a spread called “ Grunge & Glory ” with fashion photographer Steven Miesel who shot supermodels Naomi Campbell and Kristen McMenamy in a savannah landscape wearing grunge @-@ styled clothing . This shoot made McMenamy the perfect face for grunge , having had her eyebrows shaved and her hair cropped short in the shoot . In later years , designers like Christian Lacroix , Donna Karen and Karl Lagerfeld interpreted the influence into their looks . In 1993 , James Truman , editor of Details , said : “ to me the thing about grunge is it ’ s not anti @-@ fashion , it ’ s unfashion . Punk was anti @-@ fashion . It made a statement . Grunge is about not making a statement , which is why it ’ s crazy for it to become a fashion statement . ” It can be said that this generation X was reacting against the excessive glamour of the yuppies in the early ‘ 80s who were perhaps more driven , materialistic and successful in some way . The power suits of the eighties with the exaggerated silhouettes and well @-@ kept appearances of office workers contrasted with the slouchy casual silhouettes and unwashed long hair of the grunge bands . His unkempt fashion sense defined the look of the “ slacker generation ” , who “ skipped school , smoked pot , smoked cigarettes and listened to music ” hoping to be a rockstar one day . Vogue stated in 2014 that " Cobain pulled liberally from both ends of a woman ’ s and a man ’ s wardrobe , and his Seattle thrift @-@ store look ran the gamut of masculine lumberjack workwear and 40s @-@ by @-@ way @-@ of @-@ 70s feminine dresses . It was completely counter to the shellacked , flashy aesthetic of the 1980s in every way . In disheveled jeans and floral frocks , he softened the tough exterior of the archetypal rebel from the inside out , and set the ball in motion for a radical , millennial idea of androgyny . " Cobain 's way of dressing " was the antithesis of the macho American man " , because he " ... made it cooler to look slouchy and loose , no matter if you were a boy or a girl . " Music and culture writer Julianne Escobedo Shepherd wrote that with Cobain 's style of dress “ [ n ] ot only did he make it okay to be a freak , he made it desirable . " Even though the grunge movement died down in 1994 after the death of Kurt Cobain , designers have continued to draw inspiration from the movement from time to time . Grunge appeared as a trend again in 2008 and for Fall / Winter 2013 , Hedi Slimane at Saint Laurent brought back grunge to the runway . With Courtney Love as his muse for the collection , she reportedly loved the collection . " No offense to MJ [ Marc Jacobs ] but he never got it right , " Courtney said . " This is what it really was . Hedi knows his shit . He got it accurate , and MJ and Anna [ Sui ] did not . ” Both Cobain and Love apparently burnt the Perry Ellis collection they received from Marc Jacobs back in 1993 . In 2016 , grunge makes an appearance with A $ AP Rocky , Rihanna and Kanye West reinventing grunge style by upscaling it . However , “ dressing grunge is no longer a badge of authenticity , though : the signifiers of rebellion ( Dr Martens boots , plaid shirts ) are omnipotent on the high street ” , says Lynette Nylander , deputy editor of i @-@ D magazine . = = = Graphic design = = = Regarding graphic design and image , a common feature of grunge bands was the use of lo @-@ fi and deliberately unconventional album covers , for example presenting intentionally murky or mis @-@ colored photography , collage or distressed lettering . This was already a common feature of punk rock design , but could be extended in the grunge period due to the increasing use of computers for desktop publishing and digital image processing . The style was sometimes called ' grunge typography ' when used outside music . A famous example of ' grunge ' -style experimental design was Ray Gun magazine , art directed by David Carson . = = History = = = = = Roots , predecessors and influences = = = Grunge 's sound partly resulted from Seattle 's isolation from other music scenes . As Sub Pop 's Jonathan Poneman noted , " Seattle was a perfect example of a secondary city with an active music scene that was completely ignored by an American media fixated on Los Angeles and New York . " Mark Arm claimed that the isolation meant , " this one corner of the map was being really inbred and ripping off each other 's ideas " . Grunge evolved from the local punk rock scene , and was inspired by bands such as The Fartz , The U @-@ Men , 10 Minute Warning , The Accüsed , and the Fastbacks . Additionally , the slow , heavy , and sludgy style of the Melvins was a significant influence on the grunge sound . Outside the Pacific Northwest , a number of artists and music scenes influenced grunge . Noise rock bands such as Scratch Acid and the Butthole Surfers influenced Nirvana . Alternative rock bands from the Northeastern United States , including Sonic Youth , Pixies , and Dinosaur Jr . , are important influences on the genre . Through their patronage of Seattle bands , Sonic Youth " inadvertently nurtured " the grunge scene , and reinforced the fiercely independent attitudes of its musicians . The influence of Pixies on Nirvana was noted by Kurt Cobain , who commented in a Rolling Stone interview , " I connected with that band so heavily that I should have been in that band — or at least a Pixies cover band . We used their sense of dynamics , being soft and quiet and then loud and hard . " In August 1997 , in an interview with Guitar World , Dave Grohl said : " From Kurt , Krist and I liking the Knack , Bay City Rollers , Beatles and Abba just as much as we liked Flipper and Black Flag ... You listen to any Pixies record and it 's all over there . Or even Black Sabbath 's " War Pigs " -it 's there : the power of the dynamic . We just sort of abused it with pop songs and got sick with it . " Aside from the genre 's punk and alternative rock roots , many grunge bands were equally influenced by heavy metal of the early 1970s . Clinton Heylin , author of Babylon 's Burning : From Punk to Grunge , cited Black Sabbath as " perhaps the most ubiquitous pre @-@ punk influence on the northwest scene " . Black Sabbath played a role in shaping the grunge sound , through their own records and the records they inspired . Musicologist Bob Gulla asserted that Black Sabbath 's sound " shows up in virtually all of grunge 's most popular bands , including Nirvana , Soundgarden , and Alice in Chains " . The influence of Led Zeppelin is also evident , particularly in the work of Soundgarden , whom Q magazine noted were " in thrall to ' 70s rock , but contemptuous of the genre 's overt sexism and machismo " . Jon Wiederhorn of Guitar World wrote : " So what exactly is grunge ? ... Picture a supergroup made up of Creedence Clearwater Revival , Black Sabbath and the Stooges , and you 're pretty close . " The Los Angeles hardcore punk band Black Flag 's 1984 record My War , on which the band combined heavy metal with their traditional sound , made a strong impact in Seattle . Mudhoney 's Steve Turner commented , " A lot of other people around the country hated the fact that Black Flag slowed down ... but up here it was really great ... we were like ' Yay ! ' They were weird and fucked @-@ up sounding . " Turner explained grunge 's integration of metal influences , noting , " Hard rock and metal was never that much of an enemy of punk like it was for other scenes . Here , it was like , ' There 's only twenty people here , you can 't really find a group to hate . ' " Bands began to mix metal and punk in the Seattle music scene around 1984 , with much of the credit for this fusion going to The U @-@ Men . The raw , distorted and feedback @-@ intensive sound of some noise rock bands had an influence on grunge . Among them are Wisconsin 's Killdozer , and most notably San Francisco 's Flipper , a band known for its slowed @-@ down and murky " noise punk " . The Butthole Surfers ' mix of punk , heavy metal and noise rock was a major influence , particularly on the early work of Soundgarden . Several Australian bands , including The Scientists , Cosmic Psychos and feedtime , are cited as precursors to grunge , their music influencing the Seattle scene through the college radio broadcasts of Sub Pop founder Jonathan Poneman and members of Mudhoney . After Neil Young played a few concerts with Pearl Jam and recorded the album Mirror Ball with them , some members of the media gave him the title " Godfather of Grunge " . This was grounded not only in his work with his band Crazy Horse and his regular use of distorted guitar — most notably on the album Rust Never Sleeps — but also his dress and persona . A similarly influential yet often overlooked album is Neurotica by Redd Kross , about which Jonathan Poneman said , " Neurotica was a life changer for me and for a lot of people in the Seattle music community . " = = = Early development ( 1980s ) = = = A seminal release in the development of grunge was the Deep Six compilation , released by C / Z Records in 1986 . The record featured multiple tracks by six bands : Green River , Soundgarden , Melvins , Malfunkshun , Skin Yard , and The U @-@ Men . For many of them it was their first appearance on record . The artists had " a mostly heavy , aggressive sound that melded the slower tempos of heavy metal with the intensity of hardcore " . As Jack Endino recalled , " People just said , ' Well , what kind of music is this ? This isn 't metal , it 's not punk , What is it ? ' [ ... ] People went ' Eureka ! These bands all have something in common . ' " Later that year Bruce Pavitt released the Sub Pop 100 compilation and Green River 's Dry As a Bone EP as part of his new label , Sub Pop . An early Sub Pop catalog described the Green River EP as " ultra @-@ loose GRUNGE that destroyed the morals of a generation " . Sub Pop 's Bruce Pavitt and Jonathan Poneman , inspired by other regional music scenes in music history , worked to ensure that their label projected a " Seattle sound " , reinforced by a similar style of production and album packaging . While music writer Michael Azerrad acknowledged that early grunge bands like Mudhoney , Soundgarden , and Tad had disparate sounds , he noted " to the objective observer , there were some distinct similarities . " Early grunge concerts were sparsely attended ( many by fewer than a dozen people ) but Sub Pop photographer Charles Peterson 's pictures helped create the impression that such concerts were major events . Mudhoney , which was formed by former members of Green River , served as the flagship band of Sub Pop during their entire time with the label and spearheaded the Seattle grunge movement . Other record labels in the Pacific Northwest that helped promote grunge included C / Z Records , Estrus Records , EMpTy Records and PopLlama Records . Grunge attracted media attention in the United Kingdom after Pavitt and Poneman asked journalist Everett True from the British magazine Melody Maker to write an article on the local music scene . This exposure helped to make grunge known outside of the local area during the late 1980s and drew more people to local shows . The appeal of grunge to the music press was that it " promised the return to a notion of a regional , authorial vision for American rock " . Grunge 's popularity in the underground music scene was such that bands began to move to Seattle and approximate the look and sound of the original grunge bands . Mudhoney 's Steve Turner said , " It was really bad . Pretend bands were popping up here , things weren 't coming from where we were coming from . " As a reaction , many grunge bands diversified their sound , with Nirvana and Tad in particular creating more melodic songs . Dawn Anderson of the Seattle fanzine Backlash recalled that by 1990 many locals had tired of the hype surrounding the Seattle scene and hoped that media exposure had dissipated . = = = Mainstream success ( early – mid 1990s ) = = = Grunge bands had made inroads to the musical mainstream in the late 1980s . Soundgarden was the first grunge band to sign to a major label when they joined the roster of A & M Records in 1989 . Soundgarden , along with other major label signings Alice in Chains and Screaming Trees , performed " okay " with their initial major label releases , according to Jack Endino . Nirvana , originally from Aberdeen , Washington , was also courted by major labels , while releasing its first album Bleach in 1989 . Nirvana got signed by Geffen Records in 1990 . In September 1991 , Nirvana released its major label debut , Nevermind . The album was at best hoped to be a minor success on par with Sonic Youth 's Goo , which Geffen had released a year earlier . It was the release of the album 's first single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " that " marked the instigation of the grunge music phenomenon " . Due to constant airplay of the song 's music video on MTV , Nevermind was selling 400 @,@ 000 copies a week by Christmas 1991 . In January 1992 , Nevermind replaced pop superstar Michael Jackson 's Dangerous at number one on the Billboard 200 . Nevermind was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 1999 . The success of Nevermind surprised the music industry . Nevermind not only popularized grunge , but also established " the cultural and commercial viability of alternative rock in general . " Michael Azerrad asserted that Nevermind symbolized " a sea @-@ change in rock music " in which the glam metal that had dominated rock music at that time fell out of favor in the face of music that was perceived as authentic and culturally relevant . Grunge made it possible for genres thought to be of a niche audience , no matter how radical , to prove their marketability and be co @-@ opted by the mainstream , cementing the formation of an individualist , fragmented culture . Other grunge bands subsequently replicated Nirvana 's success . Pearl Jam , which featured former Mother Love Bone members Jeff Ament and Stone Gossard , had released its debut album Ten in August 1991 , a month before Nevermind , but album sales only picked up a year later . By the second half of 1992 Ten had become a breakthrough success , being certified gold and reaching number two on the Billboard charts . Ten by Pearl Jam was certified 13x platinum by the RIAA . Soundgarden 's album Badmotorfinger and Alice in Chains ' Dirt , along with the Temple of the Dog album collaboration featuring members of Pearl Jam and Soundgarden , were also among the 100 top selling albums of 1992 . The popular breakthrough of these grunge bands prompted Rolling Stone to nickname Seattle " the new Liverpool " . Major record labels signed most of the prominent grunge bands in Seattle , while a second influx of bands moved to the city in hopes of success . The grunge scene was the backdrop in the 1992 Cameron Crowe film Singles . There were several small roles , performances , and cameos in the film by popular Seattle grunge bands including Pearl Jam , Soundgarden , and Alice in Chains . Filmed in and around Seattle in 1991 , the film was not released until 1992 during the height of grunge popularity . The popularity of grunge resulted in a large interest in the Seattle music scene 's perceived cultural traits . While the Seattle music scene in the late 1980s and early 1990s in actuality consisted of various styles and genres of music , its representation in the media " served to depict Seattle as a music ' community ' in which the focus was upon the ongoing exploration of one musical idiom , namely grunge " . The fashion industry marketed " grunge fashion " to consumers , charging premium prices for items such as knit ski hats and plaid shirts . Critics asserted that advertising was co @-@ opting elements of grunge and turning it into a fad . Entertainment Weekly commented in a 1993 article , " There hasn 't been this kind of exploitation of a subculture since the media discovered hippies in the ' 60s " . The New York Times compared the " grunging of America " to the mass @-@ marketing of punk rock , disco , and hip hop in previous years . Ironically the New York Times was tricked into printing a fake list of slang terms that were supposedly used in the grunge scene ; often referred to as the grunge speak hoax . This media hype surrounding grunge was documented in the 1996 documentary Hype ! . A backlash against grunge began to develop in Seattle ; in late 1992 Jonathan Poneman said that in the city , " All things grunge are treated with the utmost cynicism and amusement [ . . . ] Because the whole thing is a fabricated movement and always has been . " Many grunge artists were uncomfortable with their success and the resulting attention it brought . Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain told Michael Azerrad , " Famous is the last thing I wanted to be . " Pearl Jam also felt the burden of success , with much of the attention falling on frontman Eddie Vedder . Nirvana 's follow @-@ up album In Utero ( 1993 ) was an intentionally abrasive album that Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic described as a " wild aggressive sound , a true alternative record " Nevertheless , upon its release in September 1993 In Utero topped the Billboard charts . In 1996 , In Utero was certified 5x platinum by the RIAA . Pearl Jam also continued to perform well commercially with its second album , Vs . ( 1993 ) . The album sold a record 950 @,@ 378 copies in its first week of release , topped the Billboard charts , and outperformed all other entries in the top ten that week combined . In 1993 , the grunge band Candlebox released their self @-@ titled album , which was certified 4x platinum by the RIAA . The album 's songs " You " and " Far Behind " reached the Billboard Hot 100 chart ; " You " peaked at number 78 on the chart and " Far Behind " peaked at number 18 on the chart . Soundgarden 's album Superunknown , which was released in 1994 , was certified 5x platinum by the RIAA . In 1995 , Alice in Chains ' self @-@ titled album peaked at number 1 on the Billboard 200 and was certified 2x platinum . At the height of grunge 's commercial success in the early 1990s , the commercial success of grunge put record labels on a nationwide search for undiscovered talent to promote . This included San Diego , California @-@ based Stone Temple Pilots , Texas @-@ based Tripping Daisy and Toadies , Chicago @-@ based Veruca Salt , and Australian band Silverchair , bands whose early work continues to be identified broadly ( if not in Seattle itself ) as " grunge " . In 2014 , Paste Magazine ranked Veruca Salt 's " All Hail Me " # 39 and Silverchair 's " Tomorrow " # 45 on their list of the 50 best grunge songs of all time . Loudwire named Stone Temple Pilots one of the ten best grunge bands of all time . During this period , acts promoted as " grunge " that were not from Seattle were often panned by critics , who accused them of being bandwagon @-@ jumpers . Stone Temple Pilots in particular fell victim to this . In a January 1994 Rolling Stone poll , Stone Temple Pilots was simultaneously voted " Best New Band " by Rolling Stone 's readers and " Worst New Band " by the magazine 's music critics , highlighting the disparity between critics and fans . Stone Temple Pilots became very popular ; their album Core was certified 8x platinum by RIAA and their album Purple was certified 6x platinum by the RIAA . The British band Bush released their debut album Sixteen Stone in 1994 . Described as grunge , the album was certified 6x platinum by the RIAA . The band 's second album Razorblade Suitcase , which was released in 1996 and peaked at number 1 on the Billboard 200 , was certified 3x platinum by the RIAA . In a review of Razorblade Suitcase , Rolling Stone criticized the album and called Bush " the most successful and shameless mimics of Nirvana 's music " . In the book Fargo Rock City : A Heavy Metal Odyssey in Rural North Dakota , Chuck Klosterman wrote , " Bush was a good band who just happened to signal the beginning of the end ; ultimately , they would became the grunge Warrant " . In the book Accidental Revolution : The Story of Grunge , Kyle Anderson wrote : " The twelve songs on Sixteen Stone sound exactly like what grunge is supposed to sound like , while the whole point of grunge was that it didn 't really sound like anything , including itself . Just consider how many different bands and styles of music have been shoved under the " grunge " header in this discography alone , and you realize that grunge is probably the most ill @-@ defined genre of music in history . " = = = Decline of mainstream popularity ( mid – late 1990s ) = = = A number of factors contributed to grunge 's decline in prominence . During the latter half of the 1990s , grunge was supplanted by post @-@ grunge , which remained commercially viable into the start of the 21st century . These artists were seen as lacking the underground roots of grunge and were largely influenced by what grunge had become , namely " a wildly popular form of inward @-@ looking , serious @-@ minded hard rock " . Post @-@ grunge was a more commercially viable genre that tempered the distorted guitars of grunge with polished , radio @-@ ready production . Although the bands Bush and Candlebox have been categorized as grunge , both bands have been categorized as post @-@ grunge , too . Bush and Candlebox became popular after 1992 . Tim Grierson of About.com wrote about bands such as Bush and Candlebox , writing : " Perhaps not surprisingly , because these bands seemed to be merely ripping off a trendy sound , critics dismissed them as bandwagon @-@ jumpers . Tellingly , these bands were labeled almost pejoratively as “ post @-@ grunge , ” suggesting that rather than being a musical movement in their own right , they were just a calculated , cynical response to a legitimate stylistic shift in rock music . " Other bands categorized as post @-@ grunge that emerged when Bush and Candlebox emerged include Collective Soul and Live . Post @-@ grunge still was popular in the late 1990s and early 2000s with bands such as Creed , Nickelback , 3 Doors Down and Puddle of Mudd . These post @-@ grunge artists were criticized for their commercialized sound as well as their " worldview built around the comforts of community and romantic relationships " , as opposed to grunge 's lyrical exploration of " troubling issues such as suicide , societal hypocrisy and drug addiction . " Conversely , another rock genre , Britpop , emerged in part as a reaction against the dominance of grunge in the United Kingdom . In contrast to the dourness of grunge , Britpop was defined by " youthful exuberance and desire for recognition " . Britpop artists were vocal about their disdain for grunge . In a 1993 NME interview , Damon Albarn of Britpop band Blur agreed with interviewer John Harris ' assertion that Blur was an " anti @-@ grunge band " , and said , " Well , that 's good . If punk was about getting rid of hippies , then I 'm getting rid of grunge " . Noel Gallagher of Oasis , while a fan of Nirvana , wrote music that refuted the pessimistic nature of grunge . Gallagher noted in 2006 that the 1994 Oasis single " Live Forever " " was written in the middle of grunge and all that , and I remember Nirvana had a tune called ' I Hate Myself and I Want to Die , ' and I was like ... ' Well , I 'm not fucking having that . ' As much as I fucking like him [ Cobain ] and all that shit , I 'm not having that . I can 't have people like that coming over here , on smack , fucking saying that they hate themselves and they wanna die . That 's fucking rubbish . " During the mid @-@ 1990s many grunge bands broke up or became less visible . Kurt Cobain , labeled by Time as " the John Lennon of the swinging Northwest " , appeared " unusually tortured by success " and struggled with an addiction to heroin . Rumors surfaced in early 1994 that Cobain suffered a drug overdose and that Nirvana was breaking up . On April 8 , 1994 , Cobain was found dead in his Seattle home from an apparently self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound ; Nirvana summarily disbanded . That same year Pearl Jam canceled its summer tour in protest of what it regarded as ticket vendor Ticketmaster 's unfair business practices . Pearl Jam then began a boycott of the company ; however , Pearl Jam 's initiative to play only at non @-@ Ticketmaster venues effectively , with a few exceptions , prevented the band from playing shows in the United States for the next three years . In 1996 , Alice in Chains gave their final performances with their ailing and estranged lead singer , Layne Staley , who subsequently died from an overdose of cocaine and heroin in 2002 . In 1996 , Soundgarden and Screaming Trees released their final studio albums of the 1990s , Down on the Upside and Dust , respectively . = = = Revival ( 21st century ) = = = Many grunge bands have continued recording and touring with success . Perhaps the most notable grunge act of the 21st century has been Pearl Jam . In 2006 Rolling Stone writer Brian Hiatt described Pearl Jam as having " spent much of the past decade deliberately tearing apart their own fame " , he noted the band developed a loyal concert following akin to that of the Grateful Dead . They saw a return to wide commercial success with 2006 's Pearl Jam ( the band Pearl Jam 's self @-@ titled album ) , 2009 's Backspacer and 2013 's Lightning Bolt . Despite Kurt Cobain 's demise , Nirvana has continued to be successful posthumously . Due to the high sales for Kurt Cobain 's Journals and the band 's best @-@ of compilation Nirvana upon their releases in 2002 , The New York Times argued Nirvana " are having more success now than at any point since Mr. Cobain 's suicide in 1994 . " This trend has continued through the century 's second decade , with the reissuing of the band 's discography and release of the authorized documentary " Kurt Cobain : Montage of Heck " . Alice In Chains reformed for a handful of reunion dates in 2005 with several different vocalists replacing Layne Staley . Eventually settling on William Duvall as Staley 's replacement , in 2009 they released Black Gives Way to Blue , their first record in 15 years . The band 's 2013 release , The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , reached number 2 on the Billboard 200 . Soundgarden reformed in 2010 and released their album King Animal two years later which reached the top five of the national albums charts in Denmark , New Zealand , and the United States . Matt Cameron and Ben Shepherd joined Alain Johannes ( Queens of the Stone Age , Eleven ) , Mark Lanegan ( Screaming Trees , Queens of the Stone Age ) and Dimitri Coats ( Off ! ) to form side project Ten Commandos in 2016 . One of the most successful rock groups of the 21st Century , Queens of the Stone Age , has featured major contributions from various grunge musicians . Josh Homme had briefly played in Screaming Trees with off @-@ and @-@ on QOTSA member Mark Lanegan , before forming the group . Nirvana 's Dave Grohl and Eleven 's Alain Johannes have also provided notable contributions . Homme and Grohl joined with Led Zeppelin 's John Paul Jones to form the supergroup Them Crooked Vultures in 2009 . Johannes also performed with the group as a touring member . In 2005 , The Seattle Times made note of grunge @-@ influenced groups returning in the Seattle scene . Similarly , The Guardian reported of grunge @-@ influenced groups from Yorkshire , including Dinosaur Pile @-@ Up , Pulled Apart by Horses , and Wonderswan . Also , in 2003 , the New York Times noted a resurgence in grunge fashion . The 2010s have featured bands influenced by grunge . Unlike their forebears , some of these acts ascribe the label to themselves willingly . Many acts have been noted for affiliating and / or collaborating with prominent figures from the original alternative rock era . Steve Albini has produced for or worked with members of bands such as Bully , Vomitface , and Shannon Wright , while Emma Ruth Rundle of Marriages has toured with Buzz Osbourne of the Melvins . Other acts that have been labelled as grunge or are heavily influenced by the music of the grunge era , include Courtney Barnett , Wolf Alice , Yuck , Speedy Ortiz , 2 : 54 , Dilly Dally , Kagoule , and Torres . Ireland 's Turfboy are also associated with the genre . = = Prominent grunge artists = = Bands prominently labelled as grunge include : Seattle area
= Edward Teller = Edward Teller ( Hungarian : Teller Ede ; January 15 , 1908 – September 9 , 2003 ) was a Hungarian @-@ American theoretical physicist who was born in Hungary , and is known colloquially as " the father of the hydrogen bomb " , although he claimed he did not care for the title . He made numerous contributions to nuclear and molecular physics , spectroscopy ( in particular , the Jahn – Teller and Renner – Teller effects ) and surface physics . His extension of Enrico Fermi 's theory of beta decay , in the form of Gamow – Teller transitions , provided an important stepping stone in its application , while the Jahn – Teller effect and the Brunauer – Emmett – Teller ( BET ) theory have retained their original formulation and are still mainstays in physics and chemistry . Teller also made contributions to Thomas – Fermi theory , the precursor of density functional theory , a standard modern tool in the quantum mechanical treatment of complex molecules . In 1953 , along with Nicholas Metropolis and Marshall Rosenbluth , Teller co @-@ authored a paper which is a standard starting point for the applications of the Monte Carlo method to statistical mechanics . Teller emigrated to the United States in the 1930s , and was an early member of the Manhattan Project , charged with developing the first atomic bomb . During this time he made a serious push to develop the first fusion @-@ based weapons as well , but these were deferred until after World War II . After his controversial testimony in the security clearance hearing of his former Los Alamos Laboratory superior J. Robert Oppenheimer , Teller was ostracized by much of the scientific community . He continued to find support from the U.S. government and military research establishment , particularly for his advocacy for nuclear energy development , a strong nuclear arsenal , and a vigorous nuclear testing program . He was a co @-@ founder of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL ) , and was both its director and associate director for many years . In his later years , Teller became especially known for his advocacy of controversial technological solutions to both military and civilian problems , including a plan to excavate an artificial harbor in Alaska using thermonuclear explosive in what was called Project Chariot . He was a vigorous advocate of Ronald Reagan 's Strategic Defense Initiative . Throughout his life , Teller was known both for his scientific ability and his difficult interpersonal relations and volatile personality , and is considered one of the inspirations for the character Dr. Strangelove in the 1964 movie of the same name . = = Early life and work = = Ede Teller was born on January 15 , 1908 , in Budapest , Hungary ( then part of Austria @-@ Hungary ) , into a Jewish family . His parents were Ilona ( born Deutsch ) , a pianist , and Max Teller , an attorney . Despite being raised in a Jewish family , he later on became an agnostic . " Religion was not an issue in my family " , he later wrote , " indeed , it was never discussed . My only religious training came because the Minta required that all students take classes in their respective religions . My family celebrated one holiday , the Day of Atonement , when we all fasted . Yet my father said prayers for his parents on Saturdays and on all the Jewish holidays . The idea of God that I absorbed was that it would be wonderful if He existed : We needed Him desperately but had not seen Him in many thousands of years . " Like Einstein and Feynman , Teller was a late talker . He developed the ability to speak later than most children but became very interested in numbers , and would calculate large numbers in his head for fun . Teller left Hungary in 1926 , partly due to the discriminatory numerus clausus rule under Miklós Horthy 's regime . The political climate and revolutions in Hungary during his youth instilled a lingering animosity for both Communism and Fascism in Teller . When he was a young student , his right foot was severed in a streetcar accident in Munich , requiring him to wear a prosthetic foot , and leaving him with a lifelong limp . Werner Heisenberg said that it was the hardiness of Teller 's spirit , rather than stoicism , that allowed him to cope so well with the accident . Teller graduated in chemical engineering at the University of Karlsruhe , and received his Ph.D. in physics under Werner Heisenberg at the University of Leipzig . Teller 's dissertation dealt with one of the first accurate quantum mechanical treatments of the hydrogen molecular ion . In 1930 he befriended Russian physicists George Gamow and Lev Landau . Teller 's lifelong friendship with a Czech physicist , George Placzek , was also very important for his scientific and philosophical development . It was Placzek who arranged a summer stay in Rome with Enrico Fermi in 1932 , thus orienting Teller 's scientific career in nuclear physics . In 1930 , Teller moved to the University of Göttingen , then one of the world 's great centers of physics due to the presence of Max Born and James Franck , but after Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933 , Germany became unsafe for Jewish people , and he left through the aid of the International Rescue Committee . He went briefly to England , and moved for a year to Copenhagen , where he worked under Niels Bohr . In February 1934 , he married his long @-@ time girlfriend Augusta Maria " Mici " ( pronounced " Mitzi " ) Harkanyi , the sister of a friend . He returned to England in September 1934 . Mici had been a student in Pittsburgh , and wanted to return to the United States . Her chance came in 1935 , when , thanks to George Gamow , Teller was invited to the United States to become a Professor of Physics at George Washington University , where he worked with Gamow until 1941 . At George Washington University in 1937 , Teller predicted the Jahn – Teller effect , which distorts molecules in certain situations ; this affects the chemical reactions of metals , and in particular the coloration of certain metallic dyes . Teller and Hermann Arthur Jahn analyzed it as a piece of purely mathematical physics . In collaboration with Brunauer and Emmet , Teller also made an important contribution to surface physics and chemistry : the so @-@ called Brunauer – Emmett – Teller ( BET ) isotherm . Teller and Mici became naturalized citizens of the United States on March 6 , 1941 . When World War II began , Teller wanted to contribute to the war effort . On the advice of the well @-@ known Caltech aerodynamicist and fellow Hungarian émigré Theodore von Kármán , Teller collaborated with his friend Hans Bethe in developing a theory of shock @-@ wave propagation . In later years , their explanation of the behavior of the gas behind such a wave proved valuable to scientists who were studying missile re @-@ entry . = = Manhattan Project = = = = = Los Alamos Laboratory = = = In 1942 , Teller was invited to be part of Robert Oppenheimer 's summer planning seminar , at the University of California , Berkeley for the origins of the Manhattan Project , the Allied effort to develop the first nuclear weapons . A few weeks earlier , Teller had been meeting with his friend and colleague Enrico Fermi about the prospects of atomic warfare , and Fermi had nonchalantly suggested that perhaps a weapon based on nuclear fission could be used to set off an even larger nuclear fusion reaction . Even though he initially explained to Fermi why he thought the idea would not work , Teller was fascinated by the possibility and was quickly bored with the idea of " just " an atomic bomb even though this was not yet anywhere near completion . At the Berkeley session , Teller diverted discussion from the fission weapon to the possibility of a fusion weapon — what he called the " Super " , an early concept of what was later to be known as a hydrogen bomb . Arthur Compton , the chairman of the University of Chicago physics department , coordinated the uranium research of Columbia University , Princeton University , the University of Chicago , and the University of California , Berkeley . To remove disagreement and duplication , Compton transferred the scientists to the Metallurgical Laboratory at Chicago . Teller was left behind at first , because while he and Mici were now American citizens , they still had relatives in enemy countries . In early 1943 , the Los Alamos laboratory was established in Los Alamos , New Mexico to design an atomic bomb , with Oppenheimer as its director . Teller moved there in March 1943 . Apparently , Teller managed to annoy his neighbors there by playing the piano late in the night . Teller became part of the Theoretical ( T ) Division . He was given a secret identity of Ed Tilden . He was irked at being passed over as its head ; the job was instead given to Hans Bethe . Oppenheimer had him investigate unusual approaches to building fission weapons , such as autocatalysis , in which the efficiency of the bomb would increase as the nuclear chain reaction progressed , but proved to be impractical . He also investigated using uranium hydride instead of uranium metal , but its efficiency turned out to be " negligible or less " . He continued to push his ideas for a fusion weapon even though it had been put on a low priority during the war ( as the creation of a fission weapon proved to be difficult enough ) . On a visit to New York , he asked Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer to carry out calculations on the Super for him . She confirmed Teller 's own results : the Super was not going to work . A special group was established under Teller in March 1944 to investigate the mathematics of an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . It too ran into difficulties . Because of his interest in the Super , Teller did not work as hard on the implosion calculations as Bethe wanted . These too were originally low @-@ priority tasks , but the discovery of spontaneous fission in plutonium by Emilio Segrè 's gave it increased importance . In June 1944 , at Bethe 's request , Oppenheimer moved Teller out of T Division , and placed him in charge of a special group responsible for the Super , reporting directly to Oppenheimer . He was replaced by Rudolf Peierls from the British Mission , who in turn brought in Klaus Fuchs , who was later revealed to be a Soviet spy . Teller 's Super group became part of Fermi 's F Division when he joined the Los Alamos Laboratory in September 1944 . It included Stanislaw Ulam , Jane Roberg , Geoffrey Chew , Harold and Mary Argo , and Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer . Teller made valuable contributions to bomb research , especially in the elucidation of the implosion mechanism . He was the first to propose the solid pit design that was eventually successful . This design became known as a " Christy pit " , after the physicist Robert F. Christy who made the pit a reality . Teller was one of the few scientists to actually watch ( with eye protection ) the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945 , rather than follow orders to lie on the ground with backs turned . He later said that the atomic flash " was as if I had pulled open the curtain in a dark room and broad daylight streamed in . " = = = Decision to drop the bombs = = = In the days , before and after the first demonstration of a nuclear weapon , the Trinity test in July 1945 , his fellow Hungarian Leo Szilard circulated the Szilard petition , which argued that a demonstration to the Japanese of the new weapon should occur prior to actual use on Japan , and with that hopefully the weapons would never be used on people . In response to Szilard 's petition , Teller consulted his friend Robert J. Oppenheimer . Teller believed that Oppenheimer was a natural leader and could help him with such a formidable political problem . Oppenheimer reassured Teller that the nation 's fate should be left to the sensible politicians in Washington . Bolstered by Oppenheimer 's influence , he decided to not sign the petition . Teller therefore penned a letter in response to Szilard that read : ... I am not really convinced of your objections . I do not feel that there is any chance to outlaw any one weapon . If we have a slim chance of survival , it lies in the possibility to get rid of wars . The more decisive a weapon is the more surely it will be used in any real conflict and no agreements will help . Our only hope is in getting the facts of our results before the people . This might help to convince everybody that the next war would be fatal . For this purpose actual combat @-@ use might even be the best thing . On reflection on this letter years later when he was writing his memoirs , Teller wrote : First , Szilard was right . As scientists who worked on producing the bomb , we bore a special responsibility . Second , Oppenheimer was right . We did not know enough about the political situation to have a valid opinion . Third , what we should have done but failed to do was to work out the technical changes required for demonstrating the bomb [ very high ] over Tokyo and submit that information to President Truman . Unknown to Teller at the time , four of his colleagues were solicited by the then secret May to June 1945 Interim Committee . It is this organization which ultimately decided on how the new weapons should initially be used . The committee 's four @-@ member Scientific Panel was led by Oppenheimer , and concluded immediate military use on Japan was the best option : The opinions of our scientific colleagues on the initial use of these weapons are not unanimous : they range from the proposal of a purely technical demonstration to that of the military application best designed to induce surrender ... Others emphasize the opportunity of saving American lives by immediate military use ... We find ourselves closer to these latter views ; we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war ; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use . Teller later learned of Oppenheimer 's solicitation and his role in the Interim Committee 's decision to drop the bombs , having secretly endorsed an immediate military use of the new weapons . This was contrary to the impression that Teller had received when he had personally asked Oppenheimer about the Szilard petition : that the nation 's fate should be left to the sensible politicians in Washington . Following Teller 's discovery of this , his relationship with his advisor began to deteriorate . In 1990 , the historian Barton Bernstein argued that it is an " unconvincing claim " by Teller that he was a " covert dissenter " to the use of the weapon . In his 2001 Memoirs , Teller claims that he did lobby Oppenheimer , but that Oppenheimer had convinced him that he should take no action and that the scientists should leave military questions in the hands of the military ; Teller claims he was not aware that Oppenheimer and other scientists were being consulted as to the actual use of the weapon and implies that Oppenheimer was being hypocritical . = = Hydrogen bomb = = Despite an offer from Norris Bradbury , who had replaced Oppenheimer as the director of Los Alamos in November 1945 , to become the head of the Theoretical ( T ) Division , Teller left Los Alamos on February 1 , 1946 , to return to the University of Chicago as a professor and close associate of Fermi and Goeppert @-@ Mayer . Mayer 's work on the internal structure of the elements would earn her the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 . On April 18 – 20 , 1946 , Teller participated in a conference at Los Alamos to review the wartime work on the Super . The properties of thermonuclear fuels such as deuterium and the possible design of a hydrogen bomb were discussed . It was concluded that Teller 's assessment of a hydrogen bomb had been too favourable , and that both the quantity of deuterium needed , as well as the radiation losses during deuterium burning , would shed doubt on its workability . Addition of expensive tritium to the thermonuclear mixture would likely lower its ignition temperature , but even so , nobody knew at that time how much tritium would be needed , and whether even tritium addition would encourage heat propagation . At the end of the conference , in spite of opposition by some members such as Robert Serber , Teller submitted an optimistic report in which he said that a hydrogen bomb was feasible , and that further work should be encouraged on its development . Fuchs also participated in this conference , and transmitted this information to Moscow . With John von Neumann , he contributed an idea of using implosion to ignite the Super . The model of Teller 's " classical Super " was so uncertain that Oppenheimer would later say that he wished the Russians were building their own hydrogen bomb based on that design , so that it would almost certainly retard their progress on it . By 1949 , Soviet @-@ backed governments had already begun seizing control throughout Eastern Europe , forming such puppet states as the Hungarian People 's Republic in Teller 's homeland of Hungary , where much of his family still lived , on August 20 , 1949 . Following the Soviet Union 's first test detonation of an atomic bomb on August 29 , 1949 , President Harry Truman announced a crash development program for a hydrogen bomb . Teller returned to Los Alamos in 1950 to work on the project . He insisted on involving more theorists. but many of Teller 's prominent colleagues , like Fermi and Oppenheimer , were sure that the project of the H @-@ bomb was technically infeasible and politically undesirable . None of the available designs were yet workable . However Soviet scientists who had worked on their own hydrogen bomb have claimed that they developed it independently . In 1950 , calculations by the Polish mathematician Stanislaw Ulam and his collaborator Cornelius Everett , along with confirmations by Fermi , had shown that not only was Teller 's earlier estimate of the quantity of tritium needed for the H @-@ bomb a low one , but that even with higher amounts of tritium , the energy loss in the fusion process would be too great to enable the fusion reaction to propagate . However , in 1951 Teller and Ulam made a breakthrough , and invented a new design , proposed in a classified March 1951 paper , On Heterocatalytic Detonations I : Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors , for a practical megaton @-@ range H @-@ bomb . The exact contribution provided respectively from Ulam and Teller to what became known as the Teller – Ulam design is not definitively known in the public domain , and the exact contributions of each and how the final idea was arrived upon has been a point of dispute in both public and classified discussions since the early 1950s . In an interview with Scientific American from 1999 , Teller told the reporter : I contributed ; Ulam did not . I 'm sorry I had to answer it in this abrupt way . Ulam was rightly dissatisfied with an old approach . He came to me with a part of an idea which I already had worked out and had difficulty getting people to listen to . He was willing to sign a paper . When it then came to defending that paper and really putting work into it , he refused . He said , " I don 't believe in it . " The issue is controversial . Bethe considered Teller 's contribution to the invention of the H @-@ bomb a true innovation as early as 1952 , and referred to his work as a " stroke of genius " in 1954 . In both cases , however , Bethe emphasized Teller 's role as a way of stressing that the development of the H @-@ bomb could not have been hastened by additional support or funding , and Teller greatly disagreed with Bethe 's assessment . Other scientists ( antagonistic to Teller , such as J. Carson Mark ) have claimed that Teller would have never gotten any closer without the assistance of Ulam and others . Ulam himself claimed that Teller only produced a " more generalized " version of Ulam 's original design . The breakthrough — the details of which are still classified — was apparently the separation of the fission and fusion components of the weapons , and to use the X @-@ rays produced by the fission bomb to first compress the fusion fuel ( by process known as " radiation implosion " ) before igniting it . Ulam 's idea seems to have been to use mechanical shock from the primary to encourage fusion in the secondary , while Teller quickly realized that X @-@ rays from the primary would do the job much more symmetrically . Some members of the laboratory ( J. Carson Mark in particular ) later expressed the opinion that the idea to use the x @-@ rays would have eventually occurred to anyone working on the physical processes involved , and that the obvious reason why Teller thought of it right away was because he was already working on the " Greenhouse " tests for the spring of 1951 , in which the effect of x @-@ rays from a fission bomb on a mixture of deuterium and tritium was going to be investigated . Whatever the actual components of the so @-@ called Teller – Ulam design and the respective contributions of those who worked on it , after it was proposed it was immediately seen by the scientists working on the project as the answer which had been so long sought . Those who previously had doubted whether a fission @-@ fusion bomb would be feasible at all were converted into believing that it was only a matter of time before both the USA and the USSR had developed multi @-@ megaton weapons . Even Oppenheimer , who was originally opposed to the project , called the idea " technically sweet . " Though he had helped to come up with the design and had been a long @-@ time proponent of the concept , Teller was not chosen to head the development project ( his reputation of a thorny personality likely played a role in this ) . In 1952 he left Los Alamos and joined the newly established Livermore branch of the University of California Radiation Laboratory , which had been created largely through his urging . After the detonation of Ivy Mike , the first thermonuclear weapon to utilize the Teller – Ulam configuration , on November 1 , 1952 , Teller became known in the press as the " father of the hydrogen bomb . " Teller himself refrained from attending the test — he claimed not to feel welcome at the Pacific Proving Grounds — and instead saw its results on a seismograph in the basement of a hall in Berkeley . There was an opinion that by analyzing the fallout from this test , the Soviets ( led in their H @-@ bomb work by Andrei Sakharov ) could have deciphered the new American design . However , this was later denied by the Soviet bomb researchers . Because of official secrecy , little information about the bomb 's development was released by the government , and press reports often attributed the entire weapon 's design and development to Teller and his new Livermore Laboratory ( when it was actually developed by Los Alamos ) . Many of Teller 's colleagues were irritated that he seemed to enjoy taking full credit for something he had only a part in , and in response , with encouragement from Enrico Fermi , Teller authored an article titled " The Work of Many People , " which appeared in Science magazine in February 1955 , emphasizing that he was not alone in the weapon 's development . He would later write in his memoirs that he had told a " white lie " in the 1955 article in order to " soothe ruffled feelings " , and claimed full credit for the invention . Teller was known for getting engrossed in projects which were theoretically interesting but practically unfeasible ( the classic " Super " was one such project . ) About his work on the hydrogen bomb , Bethe said : Nobody will blame Teller because the calculations of 1946 were wrong , especially because adequate computing machines were not available at Los Alamos . But he was blamed at Los Alamos for leading the laboratory , and indeed the whole country , into an adventurous programme on the basis of calculations , which he himself must have known to have been very incomplete . During the Manhattan Project , Teller advocated the development of a bomb using uranium hydride , which many of his fellow theorists said would be unlikely to work . At Livermore , Teller continued work on the hydride bomb , and the result was a dud . Ulam once wrote to a colleague about an idea he had shared with Teller : " Edward is full of enthusiasm about these possibilities ; this is perhaps an indication they will not work . " Fermi once said that Teller was the only monomaniac he knew who had several manias . Carey Sublette of Nuclear Weapon Archive argues that Ulam came up with the radiation implosion compression design of thermonuclear weapons , but that on the other hand Teller has gotten little credit for being the first to propose fusion boosting in 1945 , which is essential for miniaturization and reliability and is used in all of today 's nuclear weapons . = = Oppenheimer controversy = = Teller became controversial in 1954 when he testified against Oppenheimer at Oppenheimer 's security clearance hearing . Teller had clashed with Oppenheimer many times at Los Alamos over issues relating both to fission and fusion research , and during Oppenheimer 's trial he was the only member of the scientific community to state that Oppenheimer should not be granted security clearance . Asked at the hearing by Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) attorney Roger Robb whether he was planning " to suggest that Dr. Oppenheimer is disloyal to the United States " , Teller replied that : " I do not want to suggest anything of the kind . I know Oppenheimer as an intellectually most alert and a very complicated person , and I think it would be presumptuous and wrong on my part if I would try in any way to analyze his motives . But I have always assumed , and I now assume that he is loyal to the United States . I believe this , and I shall believe it until I see very conclusive proof to the opposite . " He was immediately asked whether he believed that Oppenheimer was a " security risk " , to which he testified : In a great number of cases I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act — I understood that Dr. Oppenheimer acted — in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand . I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated . To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better , and therefore trust more . In this very limited sense I would like to express a feeling that I would feel personally more secure if public matters would rest in other hands . Teller also testified that Oppenheimer 's opinion about the thermonuclear program seemed to be based more on the scientific feasibility of the weapon than anything else . He additionally testified that Oppenheimer 's direction of Los Alamos was " a very outstanding achievement " both as a scientist and an administrator , lauding his " very quick mind " and that he made " just a most wonderful and excellent director . " After this , however , he detailed ways in which he felt that Oppenheimer had hindered his efforts towards an active thermonuclear development program , and at length criticized Oppenheimer 's decisions not to invest more work onto the question at different points in his career , saying : If it is a question of wisdom and judgment , as demonstrated by actions since 1945 , then I would say one would be wiser not to grant clearance . By recasting a difference of judgment over the merits of the early work on the hydrogen bomb project into a matter of a security risk , Teller effectively damned Oppenheimer in a field where security was necessarily of paramount concern . Teller 's testimony thereby rendered Oppenheimer vulnerable to charges by a Congressional aide that he was a Soviet spy , which resulted in the destruction of Oppenheimer 's career . Oppenheimer 's security clearance was revoked after the hearings . Most of Teller 's former colleagues disapproved of his testimony and he was ostracized by much of the scientific community . After the fact , Teller consistently denied that he was intending to damn Oppenheimer , and even claimed that he was attempting to exonerate him . Documentary evidence has suggested that this was likely not the case , however . Six days before the testimony , Teller met with an AEC liaison officer and suggested " deepening the charges " in his testimony . Teller always insisted that his testimony had not significantly harmed Oppenheimer . In 2002 , Teller contended that Oppenheimer was " not destroyed " by the security hearing but " no longer asked to assist in policy matters . " He claimed his words were an overreaction , because he had only just learned of Oppenheimer 's failure to immediately report an approach by Haakon Chevalier , who had approached Oppenheimer to help the Russians . Teller said that , in hindsight , he would have responded differently . Historian Richard Rhodes said that in his opinion it was already a foregone conclusion that Oppenheimer would have his security clearance revoked by then AEC chairman Lewis Strauss , regardless of Teller 's testimony . However , as Teller 's testimony was the most damning , he was singled out and blamed for the hearing 's ruling , losing friends due to it , such as Robert Christy , who refused to shake his hand in one infamous incident . This was emblematic of his later treatment which resulted in his being forced into the role of an outcast of the physics community , thus leaving him little choice but to align himself with industrialists . = = US Government work and political advocacy = = After the Oppenheimer controversy , Teller became ostracized by much of the scientific community , but was still quite welcome in the government and military science circles . Along with his traditional advocacy for nuclear energy development , a strong nuclear arsenal , and a vigorous nuclear testing program , he had helped to develop nuclear reactor safety standards as the chair of the Reactor Safeguard Committee of the AEC in the late 1940s , and in the late 1950s headed an effort at General Atomics which designed research reactors in which a nuclear meltdown would be impossible . The TRIGA ( Training , Research , Isotopes , General Atomic ) has been built and used in hundreds of hospitals and universities worldwide for medical isotope production and research . Teller promoted increased defense spending to counter the perceived Soviet missile threat . He was a signatory to the 1958 report by the military sub @-@ panel of the Rockefeller Brothers funded Special Studies Project , which called for a $ 3 billion annual increase in America 's military budget . In 1956 he attended the Project Nobska anti @-@ submarine warfare conference , where discussion ranged from oceanography to nuclear weapons . In the course of discussing a small nuclear warhead for the Mark 45 torpedo , he started a discussion on the possibility of developing a physically small one @-@ megaton nuclear warhead for the Polaris missile . His counterpart in the discussion , J. Carson Mark from the Los Alamos National Laboratory , at first insisted it could not be done . However , Dr. Mark eventually stated that a half @-@ megaton warhead of small enough size could be developed . This yield , roughly thirty times that of the Hiroshima bomb , was enough for Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke , who was present in person , and Navy strategic missile development shifted from Jupiter to Polaris by the end of the year . He was Director of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , which he helped to found with Ernest O. Lawrence , from 1958 to 1960 , and after that he continued as an Associate Director . He chaired the committee that founded the Space Sciences Laboratory at Berkeley . He also served concurrently as a Professor of Physics at the University of California , Berkeley . He was a tireless advocate of a strong nuclear program and argued for continued testing and development — in fact , he stepped down from the directorship of Livermore so that he could better lobby against the proposed test ban . He testified against the test ban both before Congress as well as on television . Teller established the Department of Applied Science at the University of California , Davis and LLNL in 1963 , which holds the Edward Teller endowed professorship in his honor . In 1975 he retired from both the lab and Berkeley , and was named Director Emeritus of the Livermore Laboratory and appointed Senior Research Fellow at the Hoover Institution . After the fall of communism in Hungary in 1989 , he made several visits to his country of origin , and paid careful attention to the political changes there . = = Global Climate Change = = Teller was one of the first prominent people to raise the danger of climate change , driven by the burning of fossil fuels . At an address to the membership of the American Chemical Society in December 1957 , Teller warned that the large amount of carbon @-@ based fuel that had been burnt since the mid @-@ 19th century was increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere , which would " act in the same way as a greenhouse and will raise the temperature at the surface " , and that he had calculated that if the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased by 10 % " an appreciable part of the polar ice might melt . " Teller changed his mind , however , becoming the most prestigious signer of the Oregon Petition . The petition , drafted in 1998 , states , in part : “ There is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide , methane , or other greenhouse gases is causing or will , in the foreseeable future , cause catastrophic heating of the Earth 's atmosphere and disruption of the Earth 's climate . ” = = Operation Plowshare and Project Chariot = = Teller was one of the strongest and best @-@ known advocates for investigating non @-@ military uses of nuclear explosives , which the United States explored under Operation Plowshare . One of the most controversial projects he proposed was a plan to use a multi @-@ megaton hydrogen bomb to dig a deep @-@ water harbor more than a mile long and half a mile wide to use for shipment of resources from coal and oil fields through Point Hope , Alaska . The Atomic Energy Commission accepted Teller 's proposal in 1958 and it was designated Project Chariot . While the AEC was scouting out the Alaskan site , and having withdrawn the land from the public domain , Teller publicly advocated the economic benefits of the plan , but was unable to convince local government leaders that the plan was financially viable . Other scientists criticized the project as being potentially unsafe for the local wildlife and the Inupiat people living near the designated area , who were not officially told of the plan until March 1960 . Additionally , it turned out that the harbor would be ice @-@ bound for nine months out of the year . In the end , due to the financial infeasibility of the project and the concerns over radiation @-@ related health issues , the project was abandoned in 1962 . A related experiment which also had Teller 's endorsement was a plan to extract oil from the tar sands in northern Alberta with nuclear explosions , titled Project Oilsands . The plan actually received the endorsement of the Alberta government , but was rejected by the Government of Canada under Prime Minister John Diefenbaker , who was opposed to having any nuclear weapons in Canada , although Canada had nuclear weapons , from a US nuclear sharing agreement , from 1963 to 1984 . = = Nuclear technology and Israel = = For some twenty years , Teller advised Israel on nuclear matters in general , and on the building of a hydrogen bomb in particular . In 1952 , Teller and Oppenheimer had a long meeting with David Ben @-@ Gurion in Tel Aviv , telling him that the best way to accumulate plutonium was to burn natural uranium in a nuclear reactor . Starting in 1964 , a connection between Teller and Israel was made by the physicist Yuval Ne 'eman , who had similar political views . Between 1964 and 1967 , Teller visited Israel six times , lecturing at Tel Aviv University , and advising the chiefs of Israel 's scientific @-@ security circle as well as prime ministers and cabinet members . At each of his talks with members of the Israeli security establishment 's highest levels , he would make them swear that they would never be tempted into signing the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty . In 1967 when the Israeli nuclear program was nearing completion , Teller informed Neeman that he was going to tell the CIA that Israel had built nuclear weapons , and explain that it was justified by the background of the Six @-@ Day War . After Neeman cleared it with Prime Minister Levi Eshkol , Teller briefed the head of the CIA 's Office of Science and Technology , Carl Duckett . It took a year for Teller to convince the CIA that Israel had obtained nuclear capability ; the information then went through CIA Director Richard Helms to the president at that time , Lyndon B. Johnson . Teller also persuaded them to end the American attempts to inspect the Negev Nuclear Research Center in Dimona . In 1976 Duckett testified in Congress before the Nuclear Regulatory Commission , that after receiving information from " American scientist " , he drafted a National Intelligence Estimate ( NIE ) on Israel 's nuclear capability . In the 1980s , Teller again visited Israel to advise the Israeli government on building a nuclear reactor . Three decades later , Teller confirmed that it was during his visits that he concluded that Israel was in possession of nuclear weapons . After conveying the matter to the U.S. government , Teller reportedly said : " They [ Israeli ] have it , and they were clever enough to trust their research and not to test , they know that to test would get them into trouble . " = = Three Mile Island = = Teller suffered a heart attack in 1979 , and blamed it on Jane Fonda , who had starred in The China Syndrome , which depicted a fictional reactor accident and was released less than two weeks before the Three Mile Island accident . She spoke out against nuclear power while promoting the film . After the accident , Teller acted quickly to lobby in favor of nuclear energy , testifying to its safety and reliability , and soon after one flurry of activity suffered the attack . He signed a two @-@ page @-@ spread ad in the July 31 , 1979 , Wall Street Journal with the headline " I was the only victim of Three @-@ Mile Island " . It opened with : On May 7 , a few weeks after the accident at Three @-@ Mile Island , I was in Washington . I was there to refute some of that propaganda that Ralph Nader , Jane Fonda and their kind are spewing to the news media in their attempt to frighten people away from nuclear power . I am 71 years old , and I was working 20 hours a day . The strain was too much . The next day , I suffered a heart attack . You might say that I was the only one whose health was affected by that reactor near Harrisburg . No , that would be wrong . It was not the reactor . It was Jane Fonda . Reactors are not dangerous . = = Strategic Defense Initiative = = In the 1980s , Teller began a strong campaign for what was later called the Strategic Defense Initiative ( SDI ) , derided by critics as " Star Wars , " the concept of using ground and satellite @-@ based lasers , particle beams and missiles to destroy incoming Soviet ICBMs . Teller lobbied with government agencies — and got the approval of President Ronald Reagan — for a plan to develop a system using elaborate satellites which used atomic weapons to fire X @-@ ray lasers at incoming missiles — as part of a broader scientific research program into defenses against nuclear weapons . Scandal erupted when Teller ( and his associate Lowell Wood ) were accused of deliberately overselling the program and perhaps had encouraged the dismissal of a laboratory director ( Roy Woodruff ) who had attempted to correct the error . His claims led to a joke which circulated in the scientific community , that a new unit of unfounded optimism was designated as the teller ; one teller was so large that most events had to be measured in nanotellers or picotellers . Many prominent scientists argued that the system was futile . Hans Bethe , along with IBM physicist Richard Garwin and Cornell University colleague Kurt Gottfried , wrote an article in Scientific American which analyzed the system and concluded that any putative enemy could disable such a system by the use of suitable decoys that would cost a very small fraction of the SDI program . In 1987 Teller published a book supporting civil defense and active protection systems such as SDI which was titled Better a Shield than a Sword and his views on the role of lasers in SDI were published , and are available , in two 1986 @-@ 7 laser conference proceedings . = = Asteroid impact avoidance = = At a 1995 meeting at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL ) in Calif . , Edward Teller proposed to a collective of U.S. and Russian ex @-@ Cold War weapons designers and space engineers the use of nuclear fusion warheads in diverting the paths of extinction event class asteroids . Edward Teller suggested the creation of an orbital platform for faster missile delivery . He further suggested the need for nuclear weapons more powerful than the Tsar Bomba for this purpose . = = Death and legacy = = Teller died in Stanford , California on September 9 , 2003 , at the age of 95 . He had suffered a stroke two days previous , and had long been suffering from a number of conditions related to his advanced age . A wish for his 100th birthday , made around the time of his 90th , was for Lawrence Livermore 's scientists to give him " excellent predictions @-@ calculations and experiments @-@ about the interiors of the planets " . In his early career , Teller made contributions to nuclear and molecular physics , spectroscopy ( the Jahn – Teller and Renner – Teller effects ) , and surface physics . His extension of Fermi 's theory of beta decay ( in the form of the so @-@ called Gamow – Teller transitions ) provided an important stepping stone in the applications of this theory . The Jahn – Teller effect and the BET theory have retained their original formulation and are still mainstays in physics and chemistry . Teller also made contributions to Thomas – Fermi theory , the precursor of density functional theory , a standard modern tool in the quantum mechanical treatment of complex molecules . In 1953 , along with Nicholas Metropolis and Marshall Rosenbluth , Teller co @-@ authored a paper which is a standard starting point for the applications of the Monte Carlo method to statistical mechanics . Teller 's vigorous advocacy for strength through nuclear weapons , especially when so many of his wartime colleagues later expressed regret about the arms race , made him an easy target for the " mad scientist " stereotype . In 1991 he was awarded one of the first Ig Nobel Prizes for Peace in recognition of his " lifelong efforts to change the meaning of peace as we know it " . He was also rumored to be one of the inspirations for the character of Dr. Strangelove in Stanley Kubrick 's 1964 satirical film of the same name ( others speculated to be RAND theorist Herman Kahn , mathematician John von Neumann , rocket scientist Wernher von Braun , and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara ) . In the aforementioned Scientific American interview from 1999 , he was reported as having bristled at the question : " My name is not Strangelove . I don 't know about Strangelove . I 'm not interested in Strangelove . What else can I say ? ... Look . Say it three times more , and I throw you out of this office . " Nobel Prize winning physicist Isidor I. Rabi once suggested that " It would have been a better world without Teller . " In addition , Teller 's false claims that Stanislaw Ulam made no significant contribution to the development of the hydrogen bomb ( despite Ulam 's key insights of using compression and staging elements to generate the thermonuclear reaction ) and his personal attacks on Oppenheimer caused great animosity towards Teller within the general physics community . In 1986 , he was awarded the United States Military Academy 's Sylvanus Thayer Award . He was elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 1948 . He was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Science , and the American Nuclear Society . Among the honors he received were the Albert Einstein Award in 1958 , the Enrico Fermi Award in 1962 , the Eringen Medal in 1980 , the Harvey Prize in 1975 , the National Medal of Science in 1983 , the Presidential Citizens Medal in 1989 , and the Corvin Chain in 2001 . He was also named as part of the group of " U.S. Scientists " who were Time magazine 's People of the Year in 1960 , and an asteroid , 5006 Teller , is named after him . He was awarded with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush in 2003 , less than two months before his death . His final paper , published posthumously , advocated the construction of a prototype liquid fluoride thorium reactor .
= Halo 2 Original Soundtrack = The Halo 2 Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack for Bungie 's 2004 video game Halo 2 . The soundtrack was released as two separate volumes , released almost two years apart . Volume 1 , released at the same time as Halo 2 on November 9 , 2004 , contains arranged instrumental pieces written by Martin O 'Donnell and his partner Michael Salvatori , as well as " inspired by " tracks from bands Incubus , Hoobastank and Breaking Benjamin . Volume 2 was released on April 25 , 2006 and contains all the game music arranged in a suite form . O 'Donnell , who had previously composed the music for Bungie games such as Myth and Halo : Combat Evolved , sought to develop the " Halo sound " of the previous game as well as introduce new sounds and influences to the music . The music was based on what was happening in the game , rather than using leitmotifs or theme repetitively . The music was recorded in pieces with a fifty @-@ piece orchestra at Studio X in Seattle , Washington . To mark its release both Microsoft and Sumthing Else Music Works planned an aggressive marketing campaign . Upon release , the music of Halo 2 was well received . Critics were split on the merits of Volume 1 , with some publications enjoying the bonus offerings while others felt the first volume lacked cohesion . Volume 2 was declared the " real " soundtrack to Halo 2 . Upon release both soundtracks became commercial successes , with more than 100 @,@ 000 copies sold . The soundtracks ' success was pointed to as a sign of increasing legitimacy of video game music in the entertainment industry . Halo 's music has since been played in concert settings , including Play ! A Video Game Symphony and Video Games Live . = = Background = = In the summer of 2004 , Halo 2 composer Martin O 'Donnell and album producer Nile Rodgers decided it would be a good idea to present Halo 2 's music in two distinct volumes . The first volume would contain the game 's themes that were finished and mixed as well as " inspired @-@ by " offerings from other artists . The first volume was released alongside the video game as Volume 1 on November 9 of the same year . As the soundtrack was finished before all the in @-@ game music was completed , none of the tracks written by O 'Donnell appear in Halo 2 in the same arrangement . The bands featured in Volume 1 , including Breaking Benjamin and Incubus , were enthusiastic about adding music to the soundtrack . Incubus was tapped to produce a suite of music which appears scattered throughout the soundtrack as four movements . Incubus guitarist Mike Einziger said that " Halo is the only video game that ever inspired us to write a whole suite [ of music ] . " The first pieces of music O 'Donnell wrote for Halo 2 were promotional in nature ; O 'Donnell scored the cinematic announcement trailer for Halo 2 on August 2 , 2002 , and followed up with interactive music for the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2003 Halo 2 demo . O 'Donnell confirmed that the chanting monks of Halo : Combat Evolved 's choral theme , along with additional guitars by Steve Vai , would return in Halo 2 . O 'Donnell noted that the new setting of Africa prompted him to look at " Afro @-@ Cuban " influences , but most of this type of music did not make it to the final product . Rather than write for locations or use leitmotifs for all the different characters in what O 'Donnell called a " Peter and the Wolf approach to music " , O 'Donnell wrote " sad music for sad moments , scary music to score the scary bits and so forth . " Recurring themes developed more by accident than planning . Recording of orchestrated music was completed over several sessions with the Northwest Sifonia orchestra at Studio X in Seattle , Washington . Nile Rodgers produced both volumes of the soundtrack , in addition to writing and performing the track " Never Surrender " in collaboration with songwriter / remixer Nataraj . Rodgers himself is a video game player , noting in an interview that " 30 % to 40 % of the [ recording ] budget was spent in downtime playing video games . Since all that money was going to that part of the recording session , I decided to figure out what was so compelling about it , and I got hooked [ by the game ] . " Due to legal issues , the second Halo 2 soundtrack containing the entire finished score , Volume 2 , was not released until more than a year after the soundtrack had been mixed and mastered . The volume 's music is formatted in a ' suite ' structure that corresponds with the chapters within the game , or order to create a " music representation " of the video game . O 'Donnell stated that this presentation of the music as a concept album was natural because the overall story and atmosphere of Halo 2 directly influenced the sound to begin with . = = Promotion = = The first volume of the Halo 2 Original Soundtrack was specifically timed to coincide with the launch of the video game , to cash in on the " Halo effect " ; players would go to buy the game and get the soundtrack and other merchandise by association . The first several million copies of the game sold all contained promotional inserts for the soundtrack . The soundtrack was seen as an integral part of the marketing and merchandise push Microsoft planned for Halo 2 . The soundtrack 's publisher , Sumthing Distribution , also planned and executed an aggressive marketing campaign , including special music listening stations and side @-@ by @-@ side soundtrack and game placement at participating retailers . The " Halo Theme MJOLNIR Mix " , the first track on Volume 1 , was released on November 22 , 2007 as a free track for Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock on the Xbox 360 . = = Reception = = Upon release , the reaction to Halo 2 's score was generally positive . Reception for the two soundtrack releases , however , varied . Volume 1 's inclusion of other artists in addition to original music received both praise and criticism . Mike Brennan Soundtrack.net 's review claimed that the inclusion of Hoobastank and Breaking Benjamin as well as Incubus made the soundtrack " more harsh " sounding but overall lacked cohesion . On the other hand , G4 TV found the four @-@ part Odyssey by Incubus comprised " a progressive rock / fusion jam the likes of which haven 't been recorded since the 1970s . " Nuketown.com declared that Volume 2 was the soundtrack that fans had been waiting for ; other publications agreed , saying that it " feels like the real soundtrack to Halo 2 " . IGN found the soundtrack ultimately enjoyable , but felt that the more traditional orchestration that appeared in Halo 2 clashed with the ambient and electronic sounds that had appeared before , making the album " divided " . Overall , the Halo 2 soundtracks sold well . Volume 1 sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies , and peaked at the number 162 position of the Billboard 200 , the first video game soundtrack to ever enter the chart . This compares favorably to typical movie soundtracks , which generally sell no more than 10 @,@ 000 copies . The Halo 2 Original Soundtrack 's success was pointed to as a sign of increasing legitimacy of video game music in the entertainment industry , which had graduated from " simple beeps " to complex melodies with big budgets . = = Track listings = = = = = Volume 1 = = = = = = Volume 2 = = = All music composed by Martin O 'Donnell , Michael Salvatori . = = Personnel = = All information is taken from the CD credits . Martin O 'Donnell ( ASCAP ) – composer Michael Salvatori ( ASCAP ) – composer Simon James – concert master / contractor Christian Knapp – Northwest Sinfonia conductor Marcie O 'Donnell – choir conductor Nile Rodgers – producer Nile Rodgers , Michael Ostin - music co @-@ supervisors Lorraine McLees - album art director
= Wicked Priest = Wicked Priest ( Hebrew : הכהן הרשע ; Romanized Hebrew : ha @-@ kōhēn hā @-@ rāš 'ā ) is a sobriquet used in the Dead Sea scrolls pesharim , four [ 1 ] times in the Habakkuk Commentary ( 1QpHab ) and once in the Commentary on Psalm 37 ( 4QpPsa ) , to refer to an opponent of the " Teacher of Righteousness . " It has been suggested [ 2 ] that the phrase is a pun on " ha @-@ kōhēn hā @-@ rōš " , as meaning " the High Priest " , but this is not the proper term for the High Priest . He is generally identified with a Hasmonean ( Maccabean ) High Priest or Priests . However , his exact identification remains controversial , and has been called " one of the knottiest problems connected with the Dead Sea Scrolls . " The most commonly argued @-@ for single candidate is Jonathan Maccabaeus , followed by Simon Maccabaeus ; the widespread acceptance of this view , despite its acknowledged weaknesses , has been dubbed the " Jonathan consensus . " More recently , some scholars have argued that the sobriquet does not refer to only one individual . Most notably the " Groningen Hypothesis " advanced by García Martinez and van der Woude , argues for a series of six Wicked Priests . = = Background = = The Habakkuk Commentary ( 1QpHab ) was one of the original seven Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in 1947 and published in 1951 . The thirteen @-@ column scroll is a pesher , or " interpretation " , of the Book of Habakkuk . The Commentary on Psalm 37 is one of the three pesharim on the Book of Psalms and the only other Dead Sea scroll to use the sobriquet . Psalm 37 has been said to have " the strongest literary and thematic links " with the Book of Habakkuk , compared to the other Psalms , and the language of Psalm 37 is borrowed by the Habakkuk pesherist in the commentary on Hab . 2 : 17 . The similar language and themes of the Commentaries on Habakkuk and Psalm 37 have been suggested as evidence of common authorship , or at least similar interpretive methods . Radiocarbon dating tests conducted on 1QpHab and 4QpPsa at the Arizona Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility gave a one standard deviation confidence interval of 104 @-@ 43 BCE and a two sigma confidence interval of 120 @-@ 5 BCE ( 97 % ) ; for 4QpPsa ( 4Q171 ) the one standard deviation confidence interval was 22 @-@ 78 CE and the two sigma confidence interval was 5 @-@ 111 CE . Earlier paleographic dating of 1QpHab indicated a date range of 30 @-@ 1 BCE . The prediction of column 7 of 1QpHab that " the final age shall be prolonged " is sometimes interpreted to mean that the Habakkuk Commentary was written approximately 40 years after the death of the Teacher of Righteousness — the time when the final age should have ended , according to the Damascus Document . = = Text = = = = Description = = The references to the Wicked Priest have been divided into three overlapping themes : violence against the Teacher of Righteousness and his followers , cultic transgressions and non @-@ observance , and divine punishment against the Wicked Priest for these acts . = = = Role in the history of the Qumran community = = = Many scholars have gleaned from this passage that the Wicked Priest and the Teacher of Righteousness followed different liturgical calendars , thus enabling the Wicked Priest to travel on Yom Kippur ; some have even suggested that the Teacher of Righteousness was a schismatic High Priest during the pre @-@ Jonathan intersacerdotium . = = = " Illegitimate Priest " = = = Several scholars have interpreted the sobriquest of " Wicked Priest " as meaning " Illegitimate Priest , " i.e. not of Zadokite lineage . Some interpret 1QpHab 8 @.@ 9 @-@ 10 — that the Wicked Priest was " called by the name of truth when he first arose " — as the initial acceptance of the Wicked Priest by the Qumran community , before Jonathan combined the diarchy of the Kingship and the Priesthood . The " Groningen Hypothesis " also follows this interpretation , based not on evidence from the pesharim but rather from external sources , namely 1 and 2 Maccabees and Josephus Other scholars , however , argue that hereditary illegitimacy is not listed among the indiscretions of the Wicked Priest , and that this interpretation has been foisted upon the text by decades of questionable interpretation . Collins argues further that there is no evidence in the Community Rule or the Damascus Document to support the view that the Qumran community was concerned with the legitimacy of a non @-@ Zadokite High Priest . = = Other possible references = = Suggested equivalents of the Wicked Priest are scattered throughout the pesharim . 4QTestimonia ( 4Q175 ) mentions " an accursed man , one of Belial " who — with his sons as accomplices — spilt blood " on the breastwork of Lady Zion . " Some scholars consider 4QTestimonia a reference to the Wicked Priest , arguing that it fits Simon , who was murdered with his two sons : Judas and Mattathias . The Nahum Commentary ( 4Q169 ) contains numerous explicit references to historical figures , including Alexander Jannaeus , the " furious young lion " who takes revenge on the " seekers of smooth things " for inviting " Demetrius " to conquer Jerusalem . Vermes regards the Nahum Commentary as describing " an age following that of the Teacher of Righteousness and the Wicked Priest , " but interprets the " furious young lion " of 4QpHos 2 : 2 @-@ 3 as " the last Priest . " The liturgical calendar of 4Q322 , 324a @-@ b also drops some names associated with various proposed Wicked Priests . The " scoffers " in Jerusalem from 4QpIsab have also been suggested as followers of the Wicked Priest . = = = The Liar = = = Some scholars do not differentiate between the Wicked Priest and the Liar ( " Man of the Lie " , Iysh Hakkazav ) , another sobriquet used in 1QpHab . For example , the description of the liar building " his city of vanity with blood " ( 1QpHab 10 @.@ 10 ) has been marshaled another clue to the identity of the Wicked Priest . The best evidence for distinguishing between the two figures is that the Liar is always associated with " false doctrine and the act of misleading " whereas the Wicked Priest is associated with " cultic transgressions and non @-@ observance . " Indeed , such a separation has been suggested even without recourse to sources outside the Commentary on Habakkuk . = = Proposed identifications = = Since the time of de Vaux , the default assumption has been that the Wicked Priest is a single individual , if only because of the appealing parallelism to the Teacher of Righteousness . The consensus time period for the founding of Qumran ( 150 @-@ 140 BCE ) includes five High Priests : three Hellenized and two Maccabean : Jason , Menelaus , Alcimus , Jonathan , and Simon , and also the various figures potentially associated with the intersacerdotium . Various early theories situated the Wicked Priest within time periods running the full gamut from the pre @-@ Hasmonaean period , to that of early Christianity , to that of the Crusades . However , that the Wicked Priest " ruled over Israel " ( 1QpHab 8 @.@ 10 ) and was able to partake in " plundering " ( 9 @.@ 7 ) has persuaded most scholars to exclude from consideration the predecessors of the Hasmonean High Priests , who did not share their ability to attack other nations militarily , having been militarily subjugated to Egypt or Syria , and their successors , who were dominated by the Romans . To a lesser extent , that the Wicked Priest was once called " by the name of the truth " ( 8 @.@ 8 @-@ 9 ) is used to disqualify the pre @-@ Maccabean , Hellenized High Priests , who were not held in high regard by their coreligionists . Similarly , post @-@ Hasmonean High Priests have not received much serious attention because the " Kittim " ( identifiable as the Romans due to the distinct practice of " sacrifice to their standards " attested to in 1QpHab 6 @.@ 6 ) are referred to in the imperfect and none of the characters associated with the beginning of the Qumran community would have come into contact with the Romans The " Maccabean theory " — as advanced by Cross , Milik , and Vermes — traditionally identifies the Wicked Priest as either Jonathan or Simon . = = = Jonathan = = = Jonathan is the most commonly identified single candidate for the identity of the Wicked Priest . The most popularly accepted piece of evidence for the identification of Jonathan is his " death at the hands of the Gentiles , " a characteristic shared only by Menelaus ( 172 @-@ 162 BCE ) , who is generally chronologically excluded . 1 Maccabees 13 recounts the capture and execution of Jonathan at Bascama ( in modern Jordan ) by Diodotus Tryphon , the general of Seleucid King Alexander Balas , which some have attempted to fit with this incident . However , there is no compelling textual basis that the " enemies " who " took vengeance on this body of flesh " ( 1QpHab 9 @.@ 2 ) need be Gentiles . Nor can Jonathan be accurately said to have died of " disease . " The so @-@ called " King Jonathan Fragment " ( 4Q448 ) has been used both to argue against his identification or for it by connecting it to the Wicked Priest to having been originally " called by the name of truth . " = = = Alexander Jannaeus = = = Alexander Jannaeus died , according to Josephus , of quartan fever and alcoholism , which has been compared to the references to " disease " and " drunkenness " of the Wicked Priest . Jannaeus also may lay claim to the " delivered into the hands of his enemies " passage because , according to Jewish Antiquities ( 13 : 13 @.@ 5 ) , he succumbed to an ambush by " Obedas , the King of the Arabs " before escaping to Jerusalem . The same passage has also been suggested as a pun on Jannaeus ’ s verbose moniker ( as attested to by contemporary coins , pictured ) — Yehonathan ( " Yahweh gave " ) , often shorted as Yannai — a pun which allegedly also occurs in 1QpHab 10 @.@ 3 @-@ 5 . Jannaeus ’ s " fortification , or beautification " of Jerusalem has been compared to the Wicked Priest 's illicit building activities . The Wicked Priests pursuit of the Teacher of Righteousness to the " house of his exile " ( 1QpHab 11 @.@ 6 ) on the " Day of Atonement " ( 11 @.@ 7 @-@ 8 ) has also been compared to Jannaeus ’ s known attack on the Pharisees on the Feast of Tabernacles . = = = Antigonus Mattathias = = = Antigonus Mattathias was proposed as the figure of the Wicked Priest in 2013 by Gregory Doudna . Antigonus was the last Hasmonean king of Israel , executed by the Romans in 37 BCE . Doudna also proposes that Hyrcanus II was seen as the Teacher of Righteousness . According to Doudna , Hyrcanus II ’ s sectarian orientation is now generally understood to have been Sadducee ; whereas Antigonus was more sympathetic towards the Pharisees . = = = Multiple Wicked Priests = = = Several scholars argue that there is no one High Priest who is the strongest candidate for identification with each of the Wicked Priest passages . The different demises of the Wicked Priest and the tenses associated with them are often cited as evidence of the impossibility of a single Wicked Priest . Biblical examples of a title applied to a series of successors include Daniel 11 , [ 3 ] where " King of the North " and " King of the South " can apply to multiple Seleucid and Ptolemaic kings , respectively ; other potential sobriquets and titles in the pesharim that can refer to a multiplicity of people include : the " Teacher of Righteousness " ( both the founder and future eschatological teacher of the Qumran community ) , the " Searcher of the Law " ( both the Teacher of Righteousness and another eschatological figure ) , and " Anointed " ( both past prophets and future priests or kings ) . = = = = Groningen hypothesis = = = = The " Groningen hypothesis " advanced by Florentino García Martinez , later together with A.S. van der Woude , interprets columns 8 to 12 of 1QpHab as describing six Wicked Priests in chronological ( but not absolute , sequential order as Aristobulus I is excluded ) . The six " Groningen " High Priests are : Judas Maccabeus ( 8 @.@ 8 @-@ 13 ) , Alcimus ( 8 @.@ 16 @-@ 9 @.@ 2 ) , Jonathan ( 9 @.@ 9 @-@ 12 ) , Simon ( 9 @.@ 16 @-@ 10 @.@ 5 ) , John Hyrcanus I ( 11 @.@ 4 @-@ 8 ) , and Alexander Jannaeus ( 11 @.@ 12 @-@ 12 @.@ 10 ) . The pontificate of Alexander Jannaeus was to overlap with the writing of the Habakkuk Commentary but not the life of the Teacher of Righteousness . The " Groningen hypothesis " argues that relative clauses and the perfect are used to describe ( and disambiguate ) the first five Wicked Priests , while an absolute clause and the imperfect are used to describe the sixth Wicked Priest . However , Lim contends that this requires the granting of " a number of debatable changes to the text , " and argues that the relative pronoun is used in the final columns in relation to the " sixth " Wicked Priest . Furthermore , the " second " and " fourth " Wicked Priests are not explicitly referred to as such in the Habakkuk Commentary but rather " the priest who rebelled " ( 8 @.@ 16 ) and " the [ Priest ] who … " ( 9 @.@ 16 ) , respectively . The positing of Judas as the " first " Wicked Priest is attested to in Josephus ( JA 12 : 4 @.@ 14 , 19 , 34 ) , but later contradicted ( 20 : 10 @.@ 3 ) , and precluded by 1 Maccabees 9 , which states that Judas died before Alcimus . Van der Woude reverts to 1 Maccabees 9 for the order of the High Priests . John Hyrcanus I is assigned the role of the " fifth " Wicked Priest — the one who pursues the Teacher of Righteousness to his house of exile — merely because it fits the preconceived sequence and in the absence of any documentary evidence . John Hyrcanus I is chosen over Aristobulus I only because of the shortness of the latter ’ s reign . = = = Other = = = Alternative identifications of the Wicked Priest include Ananus ben Ananus ( cf . Robert Eisenman ) . and Jesus ( cf . Barbara Thiering )

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.