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= Saitō Hajime ( Rurouni Kenshin ) =
Saitō Hajime ( 斎藤 一 ) , known as Hajime Saito in the English @-@ language anime dubs , is a fictional character from the Rurouni Kenshin manga and anime series created by Nobuhiro Watsuki . Being a fan of the Shinsengumi , Watsuki created Saitō as an anti @-@ heroic foil to Himura Kenshin , the main character of the story , while basing him on the real life Shinsengumi member of the same name .
Set during a fictional version of Japan in the Meiji period , Saitō , known as the " Mibu no Okami " ( 壬生の狼 ? , lit . " Wolf of Mibu " ) , is the former third squad captain of the Shinsengumi , a pro @-@ shogunate force . During the Bakumatsu , he had a long time rivalry with Himura Kenshin , an assassin of the Imperialist cause . In the series , he is initially introduced as an antagonist who encounters and once again duels with Kenshin . It is later revealed that Saitō , who had only been testing Kenshin 's strength , is now a spy agent working for the Meiji Government . After the reveal , Saitō becomes one of the main protagonists of the series , forming an uneasy alliance with Kenshin .
Saitō appears in the featured movies of the series , as well as the original video animation ( OVA ) series and other media relating to the franchise , including a wide range of electronic games . He has also been one of the most popular characters of the Rurouni Kenshin series , ranking near the top of the series ' popularity polls . His character is featured in various types of merchandising developed for the series , such as figurines and key @-@ chains . Several anime and manga publications have commented on Saitō 's character .
= = Creation and conception = =
Nobuhiro Watsuki based Saitō Hajime on the actual historic figure of the same name who was the captain of the third squad of the Shinsengumi in the Meiji era . Watsuki altered the character to a higher degree than the other historic figures who appear in Rurouni Kenshin since the character Saitō has a greater role in the story than the other characters . In the development of Rurouni Kenshin Watsuki planned for Saitō to be a " dirty " hero who maintains his " Swift Death to Evil " policy and does not become friendly with Kenshin 's group , being rather aloof to them . Hajime has no specific model for his design . Since Watsuki intended for the character Saitō to be a villain , he made the character 's face " villain @-@ ish . "
Watsuki considers Saitō as the " curse " of the villains in the series since he defeats the enemies who consider themselves the strongest . Watsuki came up with the idea of the Gatotsu sword technique that Saitō uses in the series from the fact that the historical figure 's favorite move was the " left single @-@ handed thrust , " or hirazuki , a technique mainly for slashing downward , stabbing , and thrusts . Watsuki gave Saitō 's left @-@ handed technique the name " Gatotsu " to fit with the action comic theme .
In July 2006 , the Japanese publishers of Rurouni Kenshin released the kanzenban edition . In the sixth kanzenban volume , Watsuki included a draft page featuring a redesigned appearance of Saitō 's character .
In the anime adaptation of Rurouni Kenshin , Watsuki 's designs of Saitō were combined with the talents of voice actor Hirotaka Suzuoki , who also voiced Saitō in the original video animations and Rurouni Kenshin : The Motion Picture . However , due to Suzuoki 's death in 2006 , he was replaced by Ken Narita as the new voice actor for Saitō in the two @-@ part Rurouni Kenshin : New Kyoto Arc movies .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Rurouni Kenshin = = =
Saitō Hajime , known as the " Mibu no Okami " ( 壬生の狼 ? , lit . " Wolf of Mibu " ) , is the former captain of the third squad of the Shinsengumi , a loyalist force of the Tokugawa shogunate . A powerful and ruthless swordsman , Saitō lives by the code " Aku Soku Zan " ( 悪即斬 ? , Swift Death to Evil ) , and frequently fights using the Gatotsu , a special left @-@ handed stab variant of the Hirazuki technique of the Shinsengumi , and its different stances . During his time in the Shinsengumi , he was a close associate of fellow Shinsengumi member and first squad captain Okita Sōji , and also developed a rivalry with the pro @-@ Imperialist Himura Kenshin . At the end of the Bakumatsu , the pro @-@ shogunate forces were ultimately defeated and Saitō was forced to go into hiding . He later changed his name to Fujita Gorō ( 藤田 五郎 ) and started working for the Meiji Government as a spy agent . Saitō is also married to a woman named Tokio ( 時尾 ) , who does not appear in the story .
In his introduction in the series , Saitō attacks and seriously injures Sagara Sanosuke . Saitō has been hired by Shibumi , a corrupt politician , to kill Kenshin ; thus , his attack on Sanosuke serving as a warning to Kenshin . While Kenshin is dueling Shibumi 's assassin Akamatsu Arundo , Saitō appears at the Kamiya dojo , using his alias " Fujita Gorō " , and poses as a police officer who urgently needs to speak with Kenshin . When Kenshin returns , upon recognizing Saitō , he reveals Saitō 's true identity as the former Shinsengumi third squad captain . They fight , and just as they are about to kill each other , Ōkubo Toshimichi appears and stops the duel , revealing that Saitō was only testing Kenshin 's abilities to see if he was skilled enough to face Shishio Makoto . Having revealed his true allegiance with Ōkubo , Saitō postpones the duel , and leaves to kill Shibumi and Arundo .
Saitō then travels to Kyoto to fight Shishio under government orders . Along with Kenshin and Sanosuke , he assaults Shishio 's battleship , the Purgatory . Accepting Shishio 's challenge to fight on Mount Hiei , Saitō kills Uonuma Usui , one of the Ten Swords , and later ambushes Shishio , almost , but failing to kill him as Shishio had been wearing a hachigane ( iron headband ) . Months later , Saitō is sent to arrest Yukishiro Enishi and he helps Kenshin fight against The Six Comrades , defeating Yatsume Mumyōi . He also fights against the first of the four Sū @-@ shin guards of Woo Heishin , Enishi 's second @-@ in @-@ command , and defeats him . Afterwards , Saitō is transferred to work in another location after rejecting the continuation of his duel with Kenshin . Five years after the end of series , it is revealed that Saitō continues to work for the government .
= = = In other media = = =
In the movie Rurouni Kenshin : The Motion Picture , Saitō is assigned by the government to stop the samurai Takimi Shigure from overthrowing the Meiji Government as an act of revenge . He also receives assistance from Himura Kenshin to protect a foreign minister from the rebels . Saitō makes an appearance in the two @-@ part New Kyoto Arc movies , where some of his scenes and fights from the manga series are altered and removed .
Saitō also appears in both of the original video animation ( OVA ) series . In Rurouni Kenshin : Trust & Betrayal , his role and activities as a Shinsengumi captain during the Bakumatsu are depicted . As a result of his involvement in the Ikedaya Affair , he and his Shinsengumi comrades successfully prevent the burning of Kyoto by an extremist faction of the Ishin Shishi . His interactions with Okita Sōji as well as his first encounter with Himura Kenshin are also shown . Saitō has very brief cameo appearance in a flashback scene of Rurouni Kenshin : Reflection .
Saitō is also a playable character in the Rurouni Kenshin video games . He also appears in Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars , but not as a playable character .
= = Reception = =
The character of Saitō has been well received by manga readers and as the series continued he went on to become one of the most popular characters among the Rurouni Kenshin reader base , having consistently placed near the top of the Weekly Shōnen Jump character popularity polls of the series , ranking third in the last two . He has also ranked second in the " Who is the best enemy of Kenshin ? " poll featuring all Kenshin 's opponents . Two polls by the official Rurouni Kenshin anime featured Saitō as one of the series ' most popular characters . In the " Favorite Character Then " poll , Saitō was ranked third , while in the " Favorite Character Now " he was also placed third . Saitō 's design initially received negative feedback from Shinsengumi fans who believed that Saitō had a more handsome face than the face Watsuki used . Watsuki also recalled that one of the complaints criticized Saitō 's selling of " Ishida powdered medicine " from the Hijikata family . Later , Watsuki was pleased with the fact that Saitō 's popularity with fans increased as the story progressed . A plethora of merchandise have been released in Saitō 's likeness including figurines , keychains and wall scroll posters .
Several anime and manga publications have provided praise for Saitō . His fight scenes in the series , in particular , have also been acclaimed . While reviewing the volume 7 from the manga , Mania Entertainment writer Megan Lavey applauded the fight between Himura Kenshin and Saito Hajime at the Kamiya Dojo as the " high spot of the [ Kyoto Arc ] high spot " . In the volume 14 review for the manga , Lavey described the end of the fight between Saitō and Usui as " very gruesome and not for the faint of heart " . In the DVD volume 7 review for the anime , Mania Entertainment 's Chris Beveridge described the fight scene between Saitō and Kenshin as " definitely choreographed well " . He praised " the viciousness in the attacks , masked under their cold calculating facade " as being " wonderfully done , providing a real feel for these ultimate killers " . His appearance in the OVAs has also received praise . Mike Crandol of Anime News Network states that during the character 's brief appearances in the Rurouni Kenshin : Reflection OVA series , he appears to be " truly menacing . " Mark A. Grey of Anime News Network said that the song " Hoeru Miburo ( Howling Wolf of Mibu ) " in the anime series " perfectly " represents the character .
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= Boricua Popular Army =
The Boricua Popular / People 's Army - or Ejército Popular Boricua in Spanish - is a clandestine organization based in Puerto Rico , with cells in the U.S. mainland . It campaigns for , and supports , the independence of Puerto Rico from the United States . In 2001 , FBI Director Louis J. Freeh linked the group to acts of terrorism , but some authors , including Ronald Fernandez , view such labeling as political convenience by the United States Government , intended to " shift the blame for any attacks on U.S. policy or personnel from us to them " .
Also known as Los Macheteros ( " The Machete Wielders " ) and the Puerto Rican Popular Army , their active membership was calculated in 2006 by professor Michael González Cruz , in his book Nacionalismo Revolucionario Puertorriqueño , to consist of approximately 5 @,@ 700 members with an additional unknown number of supporters , sympathizers , collaborators and informants throughout the U.S. and other countries . A report by The Economist placed the number of active members at 1 @,@ 100 , excluding supporters . The group claimed responsibility for the 1978 bombing of a small power station in the San Juan area , the 1979 retaliation attacks against the United States armed forces personnel , the 1981 attacks on Puerto Rico Air National Guard aircraft , and a 1983 Wells Fargo bank robbery .
Boricua Popular Army was led primarily by former FBI fugitive Filiberto Ojeda Ríos until his killing by the FBI in 2005 . Ojeda Rios 's killing was termed " an illegal killing " by the Government of Puerto Rico 's Comision de Derechos Civiles ( Civil Rights Commission ) after a 7 @-@ year investigation and a 227 @-@ page report issued on 22 September 2011 .
= = History = =
The name Machetero evokes images of an impromptu band of Puerto Ricans who assembled to defend the island of Puerto Rico from the invading forces of the United States Army during the Spanish – American War , between July 26 and August 12 , 1898 . Macheteros de Puerto Rico were dispatched throughout the island , working in cooperation with other voluntary groups including the Guardias de la Paz in Yauco and Tiradores de Altura in San Juan . These voluntary units were involved in most of the battles in the Puerto Rican Campaign . Their last involvement was in the Battle of Asomante , where along units led by Captain Hernaíz , defended Aibonito Pass from invading units . The allied offensive was effective , prompting a retreat order from the American side . However , the following morning the signing of the Treaty of Paris was made public . Subsequently , both Spanish and Puerto Rican soldiers and volunteers disengaged and Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States .
The Boricua Popular Army was organized in the 1970s by Filiberto Ojeda Ríos , Juan Enrique Segarra @-@ Palmer and Orlando González Claudio . The group began its operations in 1976 , however it can trace its origins back to the Armed Forces of National Liberation ( FALN ) .
Upon its beginnings , the group attracted a wide variety of Puerto Rican independence supporters , including some of the members of the University Pro @-@ Independence Federation of Puerto Rico ( FUPI ) and the Pro @-@ Independence Movement .
= = = Under Ojeda Ríos ' command = = =
In August 1978 , the group accepted responsibility for the murder of San Juan police officer Julio Rodríguez Rivera while attempting to steal his police car .
In 1979 , two attacks were made on unarmed US Navy technicians . In the first , on December 3 , Macheteros opened fire on a bus carrying sailors to Naval Security Group Activity Sabana Seca , killing CTO1 John R. Ball and RM3 Emil E. White , as well as wounding nine others . A second attack , on off @-@ duty sailors returning from liberty , killed one and wounded three . The attack was in retaliation for the murder in a prison of a member of the Macheteros by the prison guards who were retired Marines .
On January 12 , 1981 , in the 1981 Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport attack , Machetero commandos infiltrated the Puerto Rico Air National Guard 's Muñiz Air National Guard Base , located on the northeastern corner of the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan . The infiltrators destroyed or damaged ten A @-@ 7 Corsair II light attack aircraft and a single F @-@ 104 Starfighter supersonic fighter @-@ interceptor aircraft . Total damages were estimated to be in excess of $ 45 million in 1981 US dollars . The subsequent investigation concluded security at the base was so lax that the attackers managed to enter and depart the base without ever being detected . The attack later served as the basis for upgrading base security , especially flight line security , at all Air National Guard installations on civilian airports in the United States to the same level as active duty U.S. Air Force installations .
On September 12 , 1983 , in an operation entitled Águila Blanca ( White Eagle ) the group assaulted the Wells Fargo depot located in West Hartford , Connecticut stealing a total of seven million dollars . After the robbery , the Macheteros threw some of the stolen money into the air from high floor buildings and used most of the remaining sum to fund their continued operations . According to a written statement from the Macheteros , the action was a symbolic protest against the " greed @-@ infested men and mechanisms which strain our elected officials , government agencies , and social aspirations in this country , as well as in Puerto Rico . "
In 1998 , Los Macheteros claimed responsibility for an explosion at a small power station in the San Juan metropolitan area . The explosion caused limited power outages .
On September 23 , 2005 , the anniversary of " el Grito de Lares " ( " The Cry of Lares " ) members of the FBI San Juan field office surrounded a modest home in the outskirts of the town of Hormigueros , Puerto Rico , where Ojeda Ríos was believed to be living in . The FBI claims that it was performing surveillance of the area because of reports that Ojeda Ríos had been seen in the home . In their press release , the FBI stated their surveillance team was detected , and proceeded to serving an arrest warrant against Ojeda Ríos . The FBI claims that as the agents approached the home , shots were fired from inside and outside the house wounding an FBI agent . The FBI alleges it then returned fire fatally wounding Ojeda Ríos . A subsequent autopsy of Ojeda 's body determined that he bled to death over the course of 15 to 30 minutes . The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Civil Rights Commission started an investigation of the incident shortly after Ojeda Rios ' death that lasted 7 years . The 227 @-@ page report issued on 22 September 2011 stated that Ojeda Rios 's killing was " an illegal killing " by the FBI .
= = = Change in guard , Comandante Guasábara = = =
Following the incident that concluded in the death of its former leader , the command of the Boricua Popular Army was inherited by an anonymous figure known as " Comandante Guasábara " , named after the Taíno word for " war " . Under his leadership , the group appears to have shifted its focus towards intelligence . For example , the group has not recorded a single military action . Instead , Guasábara has generally used the media to publish classified information . The Boricua Popular Army took credit for denouncing what was called " paramilitary training " that private corporation Triangle Experience Group was carrying on in the mountains of the municipality of Utuado . The media later revealed that these exercises were being done illegally , in covert fashion and lacking the required permits .
= = Terrorism vs. national liberation = =
Supporters of independence for Puerto Rico argue that the U.S. favored the establishment of the present Commonwealth status to create a perpetual consumer base for U.S. and foreign products and services . Foreign products and services are redirected to Puerto Rico and other " unincorporated " lands of the United States to satisfy a portion of foreign trade agreements , while allowing domestic products and services a greater " home " market share . Another argument by the independence movement is that the Macheteros are continuing the historical rebellion that Puerto Ricans such as Pedro Albizu Campos and the Nationalist Party have waged , against U.S. domination of the island . It is known , for example , that Los Macheteros deliberately chose September 12 for their White Eagle assault on the Wells Fargo depot , because September 12 was the birthday of Puerto Rican Nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos . Beginning in the 1960s , the FBI infiltrated Puerto Rico 's free press and political circles in order to monitor and disrupt efforts related to independence movements like Los Macheteros . This operation was part of COINTELPRO . In 2001 , FBI Director Louis J. Freeh claimed the group committed acts of terrorism , but some authors , including Ronald Fernandez , view such labeling as political convenience by the United States Government , intended to " shift the blame for any attacks on U.S. policy or personnel from us to them " .
= = Focus on public education = =
Recently , the Macheteros have focused on public education regarding the use of Culebra and Vieques as bombing targets for the U.S. Navy ; the disproportionate number of military bases on the island ( compared to states in the Union ) ; the proportion of deaths within the ranks of the Independence and Nationalist leadership , including the alleged experimentation with radiation on Nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos while he was incarcerated ; the secret testing of Agent Orange on Puerto Rican soil ; and cancer " experiments " administered by Cornelius P. Rhoads , in which he claimed to have killed Puerto Rican patients and injected cancer cells to others , while working as part of a medical investigation conducted in San Juan 's Presbyterian Hospital for the Rockefeller Institute .
= = Documentary = =
An 80 @-@ minute documentary film about the Macheteros , titled MACHETERO , was released in 2008 . Starring Not4Prophet ( Ricanstruction ) , as Pedro Taíno , and Isaach De Bankolé ( Casino Royale ) , as French journalist Jean Dumont , the film takes place in both New York City and Puerto Rico . Other actors Kelvin Fernández ( first starring role ) and Dylcia Pagán . The film was the winner of the 2008 South Africa International Film Festival , 2009 Swansea Film Festival , 2009 Heart of England Film Festival , 2009 International Film Festival Thailand , and the 2009 International Film Festival Ireland .
= = Notable group members = =
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= French ironclad Friedland =
The French ironclad Friedland was originally intended to be an iron @-@ hulled version of Océan class armoured frigate built for the French Navy during the 1870s , but she was much altered during her prolonged construction . Named after the French victory at the Battle of Friedland in 1807 , the ship spent the bulk of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron and supported the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881 . She was condemned in 1902 .
= = Design and description = =
Friedland was a central battery ironclad with the armament concentrated amidships . Like most ironclads of her era she was fitted with a plough @-@ shaped ram .
The ship measured 101 @.@ 1 meters ( 331 ft 8 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 7 meters ( 58 ft 1 in ) . Friedland had a maximum draft of 8 @.@ 6 meters ( 28 ft 3 in ) and displaced 8 @,@ 540 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 410 long tons ) , some 750 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) larger than the Ocean @-@ class ironclads . Her crew numbered around 750 officers and men .
Five 100 @-@ millimetre ( 4 in ) watertight bulkheads divided the hull into compartments , although they only reached up to the main deck . Friedland did not have a double bottom . The metacentric height of the ship was low , a little above 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Friedland had one Indret 3 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting rod compound steam engine driving a single propeller . Its engine was powered by eight oval boilers . On sea trials the engine produced 4 @,@ 428 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 302 kW ) and Friedland reached 13 @.@ 3 knots ( 24 @.@ 6 km / h ; 15 @.@ 3 mph ) . She carried 630 metric tons ( 620 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for approximately 2 @,@ 666 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 937 km ; 3 @,@ 068 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Friedland was initially ship rigged with three masts , then barque @-@ rigged and finally fore @-@ and @-@ aft rigged after her mainmast was removed .
= = = Armament and Armour = = =
Two 274 @-@ millimetre Modèle 1870 guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , one gun at the forward corner of the battery , with the remaining six 274 @-@ millimetre Modèle 1870 guns on the battery deck below the barbettes . Eight 138 @-@ millimetre Modèle 1870 guns were on the upper deck , fore and aft of the barbettes , and on the battery deck .
The 18 @-@ calibre 274 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) gun fired an armour @-@ piercing , 476 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 216 @.@ 0 kg ) shell while the gun itself weighed 22 @.@ 84 long tons ( 23 @.@ 21 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 424 ft / s ( 434 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 3 inches ( 360 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) gun was 21 calibres long and weighed 2 @.@ 63 long tons ( 2 @.@ 67 t ) . It fired a 61 @.@ 7 @-@ pound ( 28 @.@ 0 kg ) explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 529 ft / s ( 466 m / s ) . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
At some point the ship received 22 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute . The hull was not recessed to enable any of the guns on the battery deck to fire forward or aft . However , the guns mounted in the barbettes sponsoned out over the sides of the hull did have some ability to fire fore and aft . In 1884 two above @-@ water 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes were added . Two more were added in 1891 .
Friedland had a complete 220 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) wrought iron waterline belt . The sides and the transverse bulkheads of the battery itself were armoured with 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron . The barbettes were unarmoured .
= = Service = =
Friedland was laid down at Lorient in January 1865 and launched on 15 October 1873 . While the exact reason for such prolonged construction time is not known , the budget for the French Navy was cut after the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 and the French dockyards had not been reformed with working practices more suitable for the industrial age . The ship began her sea trials on 1 May 1875 , but was not completed until 20 June 1877 . Friedland joined the Mediterranean Squadron in 1878 and the ship bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax from 6 – 16 July 1881 as part of the French occupation of Tunisia . She was reduced to reserve in 1887 and decommissioned in 1893 . Friedland returned to active duty in 1893 , but was paid off in 1898 and condemned in 1902 .
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= Samuel Aba =
Samuel Aba ( Hungarian : Aba Sámuel ; before 990 or c . 1009 – 5 July 1044 ) was the third King of Hungary between 1041 and 1044 . He was born to a prominent family with extensive domains in the region of the Mátra Hills . Based on reports in the Gesta Hungarorum and other Hungarian chronicles about the non @-@ Hungarian origin of the Aba family , modern historians write that the Abas headed the Kabar tribes that seceded from the Khazar Khaganate and joined the Hungarians in the 9th century .
Around 1009 , Samuel or his father married a sister of Stephen I , the first King of Hungary . Thereafter the originally pagan or Jewish Aba family converted to Christianity . King Stephen appointed Samuel to head the royal court as his palatine . However , the king died in 1038 , and the new monarch , Peter the Venetian , removed Samuel from his post .
The Hungarian lords dethroned Peter in 1041 and elected Samuel king . According to the unanimous narration of the Hungarian chronicles , Samuel preferred commoners to noblemen , causing discontent among his former partisans . His execution of many opponents brought him into conflict with Bishop Gerard of Csanád . In 1044 , Peter the Venetian returned with the assistance of the German monarch , Henry III , who defeated Samuel 's larger army at the battle of Ménfő near Győr . Samuel fled from the battlefield but was captured and killed .
= = Origins and early life = =
According to the anonymous author of the Gesta Hungarorum , Samuel 's family descended from two " Cuman " chieftains , Ed and Edemen , who received " a great land in the forest of Mátra " from Árpád , Grand Prince of the Hungarians around 900 . In contrast , the Illuminated Chronicle and other 14th @-@ century Hungarian chronicles describe Ed and Edemen as the sons of Csaba – himself a son of Attila the Hun – by a lady from Khwarezm . Since all Hungarian chronicles emphasize the Oriental – either " Cuman " or " Khwarezmian " – origin of Ed and Edemen , Gyula Kristó , László Szegfű and other historians propose that the Aba clan descending from them ruled the Kabars , a people of Khazar origin who joined the Hungarians in the middle of the 9th century , before the Hungarians ' arrival in the Carpathian Basin around 895 . Kristó argues that both Samuel 's Khazar origin and his first name suggest that he was born to a family that adhered to Judaism .
Despite the uncertainty over the clan 's origins , Samuel undoubtedly descended from a distinguished family , since an unnamed sister of Stephen I , who had in 1000 or 1001 been crowned the first King of Hungary , was given in marriage to a member of the Aba clan around 1009 . However , historians still debate whether Samuel himself or Samuel 's father married the royal princess . If Samuel was her husband , he must have been born before 990 and converted – either from Judaism or paganism – to Christianity when he married Stephen I 's sister . His Christian credentials are further evidenced by Samuel 's establishment of an abbey at Abasár which was recorded by Hungarian chronicles . According to Gyula Kristó and other historians , Samuel 's conversion coincided with the creation of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Eger encompassing his domains .
Samuel held important offices during the reign of King Stephen . Pál Engel proposes that Abaújvár ( " Aba 's new castle " ) was named after him , implying that he was also the first ispán , or head , of that fortress and the county surrounding it . Samuel was a member of the royal council and became the first palatine of Hungary . The death of King Stephen on 15 August 1038 led to his nephew , Peter Orseolo of Venice , ascending to the throne . The new monarch preferred his German and Italian courtiers and set aside the native lords , including Samuel . In 1041 , discontented Hungarian noblemen expelled King Peter in a coup d 'état and elected Samuel king .
= = King of Hungary = =
... King Aba became insolent and began to rage cruelly against the Hungarians . For he held that all things should be in common between lords and servants ; but to have violated his oath he considered a mere trifle . Despising the nobles of the kingdom , he consorted with peasants and commoners . The Hungarian nobles were unwilling to endure this from him , and chafing under this insulting behaviour they conspired and plotted that they would kill him . But one of them informed the King of the conspiracy against his life , whereupon the King imprisoned as many of them as he could and had them put to death without examination or trial , which did great damage to his cause .
Samuel abolished all laws introduced by Peter the Venetian and had many of his predecessor 's supporters killed or tortured . The contemporaneous Hermann of Reichenau even called him " the tyrant of Hungary " in his Chronicon . Hungarian chronicles sharply criticized Samuel for socializing with the peasants instead of the nobles . Samuel even abolished some levies payable by the commoners .
Following his ousting , Peter the Venetian took refuge in Germany . In response , Samuel stormed Austria in 1042 , provoking a retaliatory invasion by the German monarch , Henry III in 1043 . It forced Samuel to renounce all Hungarian territories to the west of the rivers Leitha and Morava as well as agree to the payment of a tribute . The funding of the tribute payment was through new taxes on the Christian prelates and seizure of Church estates . This policy caused discontent even among the members of Samuel 's own council . He had a number of his councillors executed during Lent . In order to punish the king , Bishop Gerard of Csanád ( modern @-@ day Cenad , Romania ) refused to perform the annual ceremony of putting the royal crown Gerard upon the monarch 's head at Easter .
King Henry III again invaded Hungary in 1044 to restore Peter the Venetian . The decisive battle was fought at Ménfő near Győr , where Samuel 's army was routed . Samuel 's fate following the battle is still uncertain . According to nearly contemporaneous German sources , he was captured in short order and executed on Peter the Venetian 's command . However , 14th @-@ century Hungarian chronicles narrate that he fled up the river Tisza where he was seized and murdered by the locals . The latter sources further state that Samuel was first buried in a nearby church , but was later transferred to his family 's monastery at Abasár .
When King Aba had broken his oath and his treaty , King Henry invaded Hungary with a very small force . Aba , who had equipped a very large army , held him in such contempt that he allowed him to enter the province , as though it would be easy to kill or to capture him . Henry , however , trusting in divine help , rapidly crossed the River Raab with part of his force and began the battle , while all the knights rushed hither and thither . In the first attack he defeated and put to flight the innumerable army of the Hungarians , losing very few of his own men . He himself fought very bravely and he won a most glorious victory on 5 July . King Aba narrowly escaped by fleeing , while all the Hungarians rushed in crowds to surrender to King Henry and promised subjection and service . ... Not long afterwards Aba was taken prisoner by King Peter and paid the penalty of his crimes with his head .
= = Family = =
No report on the fate of Samuel 's widow and children has been preserved . Even so , historians – including Gyula Kristó and László Szegfű – suppose that the powerful Aba family descended from him .
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= HMS Duchess ( H64 ) =
HMS Duchess was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship was initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the China Station in early 1935 . She was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea during late 1935 during the Abyssinia Crisis , before returning to her duty station where she remained until mid @-@ 1939 . Duchess was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet just before the Second World War began in September 1939 . Whilst escorting the battleship HMS Barham back to the British Isles , she was accidentally rammed by the battleship in thick fog and sank with heavy loss of life on 12 December 1939 .
= = Description = =
Duchess displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Duchess carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Duchess had a single 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ) gun and two quadruple Mk I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mk III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Service = =
Duchess was ordered on 2 February 1931 under the 1930 Naval Estimates and was laid down at the yards of the Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , Jarrow on 12 June 1931 . She was launched on 19 July 1932 and commissioned on 24 January 1933 , at a total cost of £ 229 @,@ 367 , excluding equipment supplied by the Admiralty , such as weapons , ammunition and wireless equipment . The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – November 1933 . Upon her return , her superheaters were repaired at Malta between 18 December and 6 January 1934 . She was given a refit at Chatham Dockyard from 3 September to 23 October to prepare the ship for service on the China Station .
Duchess arrived in Hong Kong in January 1935 where she joined the 8th Destroyer Flotilla . The ship was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in the Red Sea from September to November during the Abyssinian Crisis . She made a number of good @-@ will visits during her time on the station as well as conducted anti @-@ piracy patrols . During a typhoon at Hong Kong on 2 September 1937 , a merchant ship crushed Duchess 's stern when it dragged its anchors . Her repairs were not completed until 14 October .
The ship remained on the station until late August 1939 , when the imminent start of the Second World War caused the Admiralty to order her to take up her war station with the Mediterranean Fleet at Malta . Duchess arrived there on 12 October and remained in the Mediterranean for the next two months . In December the ship , along with her sisters HMS Delight , HMS Duncan and HMS Dainty , was assigned to escort the battleship HMS Barham back to the UK , and they departed Gibraltar on 6 December . During the morning of 12 December , Barham collided with Duchess off the Mull of Kintyre in heavy fog . The destroyer capsized and her depth charges exploded , killing 124 of her crew including her commanding officer , Lieutenant Commander Robin White , who was stuck in his sea cabin when the sliding door jammed .
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= Analysis of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 satellite communications =
The analysis of communications between Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 and Inmarsat 's satellite telecommunication network provide the only source of information about Flight 370 's location and possible in @-@ flight events after it disappeared from radar coverage at 2 : 22 Malaysia Standard Time ( MYT ) on 8 March 2014 ( 17 : 22 UTC , 7 March ) , one hour after communication with air traffic control ended and the aircraft departed from its planned flight path while over the South China Sea . Flight 370 was a scheduled commercial flight with 227 passengers and 12 crew which departed Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia at 0 : 41 and was scheduled to land in Beijing , China at 6 : 30 China Standard Time ( 6 : 30 MYT ; 22 : 30 UTC , 7 March ) . Malaysia has worked in conjunction with the Australian Transport Safety Bureau to co @-@ ordinate the analysis , which has also involved the UK 's Air Accidents Investigation Branch , Inmarsat , and US National Transportation Safety Board , among others . Others have also made efforts to analyse the satellite communications , albeit challenged by a lack of publicly available information for several months after the disappearance . On 29 July 2015 , debris was discovered on Réunion Island which was later confirmed to come from Flight 370 ; it is the first physical evidence that Flight 370 ended in the Indian Ocean .
During flight , the aircraft maintains a datalink with a satellite communication network for data and telephone calls . The datalink connects the aircraft and a ground station via satellite , which translates ( changes ) the signal 's frequency and amplifies the signal ; the ground station is connected to telecommunication networks which allows messages to be sent to and received from other locations , such as the airline 's operations centre . Normal communications from Flight 370 were last made at 1 : 07 MYT and the datalink between the aircraft and satellite telecommunication network was lost at some point between 1 : 07 and 2 : 03 , when the aircraft did not acknowledge a message sent from the ground station . Three minutes after the aircraft left the range of radar coverage — at 2 : 25 — the aircraft 's satellite data unit ( SDU ) transmitted a log @-@ on message , which investigators believe occurred as the SDU started after a power interruption . Between the 2 : 25 message and 8 : 19 , the SDU acknowledged two ground @-@ to @-@ aircraft telephone calls , which were not answered , and responded to automated , hourly requests from the ground station that were made to determine whether the SDU was still active . None of the communications from 2 : 25 – 8 : 19 contain explicit information about the aircraft 's location . The aircraft 's final transmission at 8 : 19 was a log @-@ on message ; the aircraft did not respond to a message from the ground station at 9 : 15 . Investigators believe the 8 : 19 log @-@ on message was made when the SDU was restarting after the aircraft ran out of fuel and the aircraft 's auxiliary power unit was started .
The search for Flight 370 was launched in Southeast Asia near the location of the last verbal and radar contact with air traffic control . The day after the accident , staff at Inmarsat reviewed the log of communications between their network and Flight 370 and discovered that Flight 370 continued for several hours after contact with air traffic control was lost . On 11 March , they provided a preliminary analysis to investigators based on recorded burst timing offset ( BTO ) values . Relatively simple calculations can be made from BTO values to determine the distance between the aircraft and satellite at each transmission . When these distances are plotted on Earth , they result in rings which are further reduced to arcs , due to the limited range of the aircraft . Another value — burst frequency offset ( BFO ) — was analysed to determine the movement of the aircraft relative to the satellite , based on the Doppler shift of the signals , which provides the location of the aircraft along the BTO @-@ derived arcs . Initial analysis of the BFO values showed a strong correlation with a track south into the southern Indian Ocean , west of Australia . On 24 March , Malaysia 's Prime Minister cited this analysis to conclude that Flight 370 ended in the southern Indian Ocean with no survivors . After the initial analysis , the BFO calculations were later adjusted to account for a wobble in the satellite 's orbit and thermal changes in the satellite which affected the recorded BFO values . Further analysis considered the BTO and BFO calculations with flight dynamics , such as possible and probable aircraft speeds , altitudes , and autopilot modes . Two statistical analyses were made and combined with calculations of Flight 370 's maximum range to determine the most probable location of Flight 370 at the time of the 8 : 19 transmission , which is along the 8 : 19 BTO arc from approximately 38 @.@ 3 ° S 88 ° E / -38.3 ; 88 ( Southwest corner of the area of interest along the 8 : 19 BTO arc , ATSB Flight Path Analysis Update ( October 2014 ) ) to 33 @.@ 5 ° S 95 ° E / -33.5 ; 95 ( Southwest corner of the area of interest along the 8 : 19 BTO arc , ATSB Flight Path Analysis Update ( October 2014 ) ) .
= = Background = =
= = = Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 = = =
Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 departed Kuala Lumpur International Airport at 00 : 41 Malaysia Standard Time ( MYT ) on 8 March 2014 ( 16 : 41 UTC , 7 March ) , bound for Beijing Capital International Airport . At 1 : 19 , Malaysian air traffic control ( ATC ) initiated a hand @-@ off to Ho Chi Minh area ATC . The captain responded " Good night Malaysian Three Seven Zero " , after which no further communications were made with the pilots . At 1 : 21 , the aircraft disappeared from the radar of air traffic control after passing navigational waypoint IGARI ( 6 ° 56 ′ 12 ″ N 103 ° 35 ′ 6 ″ E ) in the South China Sea between Malaysia and Vietnam . The aircraft continued to be tracked by Malaysian military radar , which recorded that Flight 370 deviated from its planned flight path , turning around and crossing the Malay Peninsula . Flight 370 left the range of Malaysian military radar at 2 : 22 and was last located 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) northwest of Penang . Flight 370 was expected to arrive in Beijing at 6 : 30 China Standard Time ( CST ) on 8 March ( 06 : 30 MYT ; 22 : 30 UTC , 7 March ) . At 7 : 24 MYT / CST , Malaysia Airlines issued a media statement that Flight 370 was missing .
= = = Satellite datalink = = =
The datalink for Malaysia Airline 's avionics communications at the time of the incident was supplied by SITA , which contracted with Inmarsat to provide a satellite communication link using Inmarsat 's Classic Aero service . Aeronautical satellite communication ( SATCOM ) systems are used to transmit messages from the aircraft cockpit as well as automated messages from on @-@ board systems using the ACARS communications protocol , but may also be used to transmit FANS and ATN messages and provide voice , fax , and data links using other protocols . An appropriate comparison of ACARS ' relationship to the SATCOM system is that of a messaging application to a smartphone ; the smartphone functions and will remain registered on a mobile phone network even if the messaging application is closed .
The data / messages from the aircraft are transmitted by the aircraft 's Satellite Data Unit ( SDU ) and relayed via satellite to a ground station , where they are routed to other communication networks to reach their destination . Messages may also be sent to the aircraft , in reverse order . When passing through the satellite , the signals are amplified and translated in frequency — mixed with the signal from an oscillator in the satellite , leaving the satellite at the combined frequency . Transmissions from the aircraft are made on one of several channels ( frequencies ) near 1 @.@ 6 GHz , combined with frequency of the satellite 's oscillator , and transmitted to the GES at the combined frequency ( one of several channels near 3 @.@ 6 GHz ) . The ground station then translates the received signal before it reaches equipment to be processed . The ground station keeps a log of transmissions and some data about them .
When the SDU tries to connect with the Inmarsat network , it will transmit a log @-@ on request , which the ground station acknowledges . This is , in part , to determine that the SDU belongs to an active service subscriber and also used to determine how to route messages to the SDU . After connecting , if a ground station hasn 't received any contact from a terminal for one hour , the ground station will transmit a " Log @-@ on Interrogation " ( LOI ) message — informally referred to as a " ping " ; an active terminal automatically responds . The entire process of interrogating the terminal is referred to as a ' handshake ' .
Equipment at Inmarsat 's Perth ground station had been upgraded in 2013 with additional storage capacity and new software to record an expanded data set for transmissions , including the addition of Burst Frequency Offset ( BFO ) and Burst Timing Offset ( BTO ) values . Without the addition of the BFO and BTO values , it would not have been possible to determine the aircraft 's distance from the satellite at each handshake and hence significantly narrow the search region . The expanded data values were prompted by Inmarsat 's involvement in the search for Air France Flight 447 , which disappeared over the Atlantic Ocean in 2009 . The company felt the additional data values could be useful in future incidents . According to Inmarsat 's vice @-@ president of satellite operations , Mark Dickinson , the company " did not know precisely how [ these additional data values ] might be useful but [ they ] had a hunch and decided to [ invest in upgrades to ground station equipment to record these values ] . "
= = = Emergency locator transmitters = = =
The aircraft was equipped with four emergency locator transmitters ( ELTs ) :
a fixed ELT on the aft fuselage which is activated by sudden deceleration ,
a portable ELT in a cabinet located in the front of the aircraft which must be activated by moving a switch , and
two ELTs attached to slide rafts which are armed when the rafts are inflated and activated by water immersion
Once activated , the ELTs emit a radio signal which can be detected by the satellites of the International Cospas @-@ Sarsat Programme . The ELTs are designed to work at or near the water 's surface . Damage during a crash , shielding by aircraft wreckage or terrain , and submersion in deep water are all factors which may prevent the signal 's detection . In a review of accident records maintained by the ICAO over the past 30 years , there were 173 accidents involving aircraft over 5 @,@ 701 kilograms ( 12 @,@ 569 lb ) equipped with ELTs ; of these , an effective ELT detection was made in only 39 accidents . No signals from ELTs aboard Flight 370 were detected .
= = Communications from Flight 370 = =
The SDU on 9M @-@ MRO ( the aircraft used for Flight 370 ) logged onto the Inmarsat network at midnight MYT . In the 30 minutes prior to take @-@ off , seventeen messages were exchanged between the SDU and the Inmarsat network . An additional three messages were exchanged between take @-@ off and the time Flight 370 disappeared from secondary radar . The final message to use the ACARS protocol was sent at 01 : 07 ; ACARS reports expected at 01 : 37 and 02 : 07 were not received . At 02 : 03 and 2 : 05 , messages from the ground station went unanswered , indicating that the link was lost at some point between 1 : 07 and 2 : 03 .
After last contact by primary radar west of Malaysia , the following records were recorded in the log of Inmarsat 's ground station at Perth , Western Australia ( HH : MM : SS ; UTC times 7 – 8 March ) :
= = Analysis by the Joint Investigation Team = =
The analysis of the satellite communication relies on a limited number of data points that were analysed using innovative techniques that were only developed after the incident . The analysis has worked to determine useful information about in @-@ flight events and the location of Flight 370 at the 08 : 19 MYT signal — believed to have occurred near the time of fuel exhaustion and thus is close to the final location of Flight 370 .
= = = Joint Investigation Team = = =
Malaysian investigators set up an international working group — the Joint Investigation Team ( JIT ) — consisting of various agencies with experience in aircraft performance and satellite communications , to further analyse the signals between Flight 370 and the ground station , especially the signal at 08 : 19 . These included representatives from the UK 's Inmarsat , Air Accidents Investigation Branch , and Rolls @-@ Royce ; China 's Civil Aviation Administration and Aircraft Accident Investigation Department ; the US National Transportation Safety Board and Federal Aviation Administration ; and Malaysian authorities .
After initial analysis determined that Flight 370 's last location was within Australia 's Search and Rescue region in the southern Indian Ocean , Australia has played a major role in co @-@ ordinating the analysis in conjunction with Malaysia . The Australian Transport Safety Bureau ( ATSB ) is responsible for the search for Flight 370 and has brought together a team of experts to determine the location of Flight 370 at the 08 : 19 communication . The team brought together by the ATSB includes the UK 's Air Accidents Investigation Branch , Boeing , the Defence Science and Technology Organisation ( Australia ) , Malaysia 's Department of Civil Aviation , Inmarsat , the National Transportation Safety Board ( US ) , and Thales .
= = = Concepts = = =
The analysis of communications from Flight 370 focuses on two key parameters associated with the messages :
Burst timing offset ( BTO ) — The time difference between when a signal is sent from the ground station and when the response is received . This measure is twice the distance from the ground station to satellite to the aircraft and includes the time that the SDU takes between receiving and responding to the message and time between reception and processing at the ground station ( the latter two times are constant and can be calculated and removed ) . This measure can be analysed to determine the distance between the satellite and the aircraft and results in a ring on the Earth 's surface that is equidistant from the satellite at the calculated distance .
Burst frequency offset ( BFO ) – The difference between the expected and received frequency of transmissions . The difference is caused by doppler shift as the signals travelled from the aircraft to the satellite to the ground station ; the frequency translations made in the satellite and at the ground station ; a small , constant error ( bias ) in the SDU that results from drift and ageing ; and compensation applied by the SDU to counter the Doppler shift on the uplink . This measure can be analysed to determine where along the BTO rings the aircraft was located .
= = = Deductions = = =
A few deductions can also be made from the satellite communications . The first deduction that can be made from the satellite communications is that the aircraft remained operational until at least 08 : 19 — seven hours after final contact was made with air traffic control over the South China Sea . The varying BFO values indicate the aircraft was moving at speed . The aircraft 's SDU needs location and track information to keep its antenna pointed towards the satellite , so it can also be deduced that the aircraft 's navigation system was operational .
Since the aircraft did not respond to a ping at 09 : 15 , it can be concluded that at some point between 08 : 19 and 09 : 15 , the aircraft lost the ability to communicate with the ground station . Malaysia 's Department of Civil Aviation noted this time was " consistent with the maximum endurance of the aircraft " and this time is believed to have been the result of the aircraft entering the ocean after fuel starvation . The ATSB is " confident the seventh handshake represents the area where the aircraft ran out of fuel before entering the ocean . "
The log @-@ on message sent from the aircraft at 08 : 19 : 29 was not immediately well understood . The 02 : 25 handshake was also initiated by the aircraft . Only a few reasons that the SDU would transmit a log @-@ on message exist , such as a power interruption , software failure , loss of critical systems providing input to the SDU , or a loss of the link due to aircraft attitude . Investigators consider the most likely reason to be that they were sent during power @-@ up after an electrical outage . At 08 : 19 , the aircraft had been airborne for 7 h 38 min ; the typical Kuala Lumpur @-@ Beijing flight is 51 ⁄ 2 hours and fuel exhaustion was likely . In the event of fuel exhaustion and engine flame @-@ out , the aircraft 's ram air turbine would deploy , providing power to various instruments and flight controls , including the SDU . Approximately 90 seconds after the 02 : 25 handshake , communications from the aircraft 's inflight entertainment system were recorded in the ground station log . Similar messages would be expected following the 08 : 19 handshake but none were received , supporting the fuel starvation scenario .
= = = Burst timing offset = = =
For system efficacy and reliability , aircraft transmissions made in response to a signal from a satellite are sent in timed slots referenced to the time the signal from the satellite arrived , using the slotted ALOHA protocol . The time that the signal is sent from the ground station begins the time slot . The burst timing offset ( BTO ) is the time difference between the start of the time slot and the start of the transmission received from the aircraft ; it equals twice the distance ( for the ground station 's signal then aircraft 's response ) from the ground station to the satellite to the aircraft plus the time the aircraft 's SDU takes between receiving the signal and responding ( the SDU bias ) and the delay between the time the signal arrives at the ground station and the time it is processed ( when the BTO value is logged ; the ground station bias ) . The satellite 's location is known , thus the distance from the satellite to the ground station can be calculated , while the combined bias of the SDU and ground station is relatively constant and can be calculated from signals exchanged earlier in the flight while it was on the ground at KLIA , thus leaving the distance between the aircraft and satellite as the only variable .
The combined SDU and ground station bias was calculated from 17 signals exchanged between the ground station and the aircraft during a 30 @-@ minute period before take @-@ off , when the aircraft 's location was known ( at Kuala Lumpur International Airport ) . To establish the accuracy of their calculations , the bias value was used to calculate the distance from the aircraft to the satellite during the time it was on the ground at KLIA , with errors of < 1 km @-@ 8 @.@ 85 km ( < 1 mi @-@ 5 @.@ 5 mi ) . The distance from the satellite to the aircraft was also calculated while the aircraft was in @-@ flight and at a known location shortly after take @-@ off , showing similar accuracy . The distance between the satellite and aircraft could thus calculated for signals exchanged between 02 : 25 – 08 : 19 , after Flight 370 disappeared from radar . However , this could only produce a ring on Earth 's surface that is equidistant from the satellite at the calculated value , adjusted to account for the aircraft flying at 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) . The ring could also be reduced to an arc by taking into consideration the maximum range of the aircraft if it flew at its maximum speed .
The BTO value was added to the ground station 's data set to assist in geo @-@ locating an aircraft following the Air France Flight 447 accident in 2009 and the initial BFO analysis — relating the BFO value to the elevation angle between the aircraft and satellite — was based on methods developed during the Flight 447 investigation . The first and seventh handshakes gave anomalous results and were excluded from the initial analysis , but the issue was later resolved . The initial analysis , accurate to approximately 1 ° , determined that elevation angle between the aircraft and satellite at the 08 : 11 handshake was 40 ° . When this was publicly disclosed by Malaysian officials , the arc was broken into two arcs — dubbed the " northern corridor " and " southern corridor . " The first and seventh handshakes were later determined to be part of a log @-@ on sequence , as opposed to the other handshakes that were log @-@ on interrogation messages . The bias value during the logon sequence is different and was calculated using historical data for the aircraft 's SDU . This allowed the distance between the satellite and aircraft to be determined at these times .
= = = Burst frequency offset = = =
While the BTO is able to determine the distance between the satellite and the aircraft at the time of each handshake , it was still necessary to determine where along the BTO arcs the aircraft was . To accomplish this , an analysis was performed on another attribute of received signals that was recorded by the ground station : the burst frequency offset ( BFO ) — the difference between the expected and actual frequencies of the signal received from the aircraft . The BFO is primarily caused by the Doppler shift — a shift in frequency caused by the relative movement of the aircraft , satellite , and ground station — along with several other factors which can be calculated and removed , allowing the Doppler shift between the aircraft and satellite to be isolated . The Doppler shift between the aircraft and satellite indicates the relative motion of the aircraft relative to the satellite , although multiple combinations of aircraft speed and heading exist that match a given Doppler shift value .
When the aircraft 's SDU responds to messages sent from the ground station , it uses the aircraft 's navigation system to determine the aircraft 's position , track , and ground speed and adjusts the transmit frequency to compensate for the Doppler shift on the uplink signal , based on the satellite being located in its nominal position in geostationary orbit ( 35786 km above the equator ) at 64 @.@ 5 ° E. The initial analysis was calculated with the satellite at its nominal location in geostationary orbit , 35 @,@ 786 km ( 22 @,@ 236 mi ) above the equator at 64 @.@ 5 ° E longitude . However , the Inmarsat @-@ 3F1 satellite was launched in 1996 with an expected life span of 13 years and to extend its lifespan by conserving remaining fuel , it was allowed to drift from its nominal location into a slightly inclined orbit . A map of the sub @-@ satellite points — the location on Earth 's surface directly beneath the satellite — shows that the satellite moves counterclockwise in an oval shape between 1 @.@ 6 ° S – 1 @.@ 6 ° N and 64 @.@ 45 – 64 @.@ 58 ° E. As a result , the adjustments made by the SDU only partially compensate for the Doppler shift on the uplink . This error is " immaterial " to the performance of the satellite network , but was crucial to eliminate the northern corridor during the initial analysis .
As the signal passes through the satellite , it is translated by — added to — a signal generated by an oscillator in the satellite . Although the oscillator is housed in a temperature @-@ controlled enclosure , it is subjected to thermal variation throughout the day that results in minor changes in the frequency of the translation signal . The thermal variation results from the rotation of the satellite relative to the sun over a given 24 @-@ hour period , including the time the satellite passes through the Earth 's shadow ( which affected the 3 : 40 and 4 : 26 handshakes ) , and is complicated by the use of heaters that run when the oscillator temperature exits pre @-@ determined limits . The variation in the translation frequency was calculated over several days , including the day of Flight 370 's disappearance , and could be factored into the BFO measurement .
Additional factors that affect the BFO are a translation made at the ground station between the reception and processing of the signal ( which is monitored and can be factored in ) and a fixed bias in the aircraft and satellite oscillators due to drift and ageing ( which can be calibrated by measures recorded when the aircraft 's location and speed were known ) . At 2 : 40 and 6 : 14 , ground @-@ to @-@ aircraft phone calls were made that were unanswered by the cockpit but acknowledged by the SDU . The signals associated with these calls could not be analysed to generate a BTO value , but BFO values of these signals can be considered in the analysis with the other BTO and BFO data .
The technique used to analyse the BFO values was validated against 87 aircraft with the same SATCOM equipment operating in the region around the time of Flight 370 's disappearance and against 9 previous flights operated by the same aircraft ( 9M @-@ MRO ) . The sensitivity to error was calculated during the early phase of Flight 370 when the aircraft 's location , track , and ground speed were known . This resulted in an uncertainty of ± 28 ° heading and ± 9 ° of latitude .
= = = Combined analysis with flight dynamics = = =
The BTO analysis was able to determine the distance between the satellite and aircraft with a relatively high degree of accuracy , while the BFO analysis was able to estimate the heading and speed of the aircraft , but is sensitive to small changes in input data . To determine the final location of Flight 370 , the BTO and BFO analyses were considered in combination with aircraft performance limitations , such as altitude , airspeed , and wind . The BFO analysis was able to isolate the Doppler shift between the aircraft and determine the relative motion of the aircraft to the satellite , which is reduced by the limited range of speeds at which the aircraft can fly and thus a limited set of speed / direction combinations exist that correlate with the calculated Doppler shifts .
The aircraft has three autopilot modes . The standard mode for en @-@ route navigation is LNAV , which navigates along a great circle route between waypoints , adjusting the aircraft 's heading to allow for wind . Other modes will maintain the aircraft 's heading — direction the nose is pointed ( flight path with be affected by winds ) — or the aircraft 's track — direction the aircraft travels ( flight path in a straight direction ) . The latter two modes are further affected by whether the aircraft used magnetic ( normal reference ) or true north ( typically only used at high latitudes ) as the reference for the autopilot . Since Flight 370 flew near waypoints VAMPI , MEKAR , NILAM , and possibly IGOGU — all along air route N571 — while traversing the Malacca Strait , investigators considered whether Flight 370 followed any air routes or intersected any waypoints in the Southern Indian Ocean . Waypoints MUTMI and RUNUT were considered possible points that Flight 370 may have traversed , but tracks through these waypoints did not correlate well with paths generated from the BTO and BFO analysis .
Two analysis techniques were used to combine the BTO and BFO results with flight parameters :
Data error optimisation – Candidate paths varied speed and heading at each handshake to minimise the error between the calculated BFO of that path versus the actual BFO recorded from Flight 370 . These paths were not constrained by the behaviour of the aircraft 's autopilot .
Constrained autopilot dynamics – The aircraft is assumed to be flying under the control of one of the autopilot modes . Candidate paths were generated using each mode . BTO and BFO values of each path were calculated and compared against the recorded values from Flight 370 .
The top 100 constrained autopilot dynamics candidate paths were selected on the basis of their match with the satellite data from Flight 370 and their consistency with autopilot behaviour . The distribution of these paths at the intersection with the 6th handshake was then generated , with some paths outside ( south ) of the maximum range of the aircraft and which can therefore be eliminated . The candidate paths generated by the data error optimisation method were weighed according to the root mean square of the BFO values at each handshake . The distribution of results from these two methods were charted together , indicating that the total probability areas overlap on the 08 : 11 arc between approximately 35 – 39 ° S. These paths have then been extrapolated to the seventh handshake at 08 : 19 and constrained by the maximum range , intersecting the seventh arc between approximately 33 @.@ 5 – 38 @.@ 3 ° S. This is the most likely location of Flight 370 at the time of the seventh handshake .
= = = Determining the final location of Flight 370 and search area = = =
Knowing the location at the seventh handshake , investigators then needed to determine an appropriate width of the search area from the seventh arc . The seventh handshake was a ' log @-@ on request ' initiated by the aircraft and is believed to be the result of the SDU starting after power failure , resulting from fuel exhaustion and following the deployment of the ram air turbine and restart of the auxiliary power unit . The log @-@ on request would have occurred 3 minutes and 40 seconds after fuel exhaustion — commonly known as flameout in aviation — of the second engine ( flameout of both engines would not have occurred simultaneously ) , at which point the autopilot would have disengaged . The BFO value of this handshake indicates the aircraft may have been descending and the aircraft was travelling northeast to southwest . The ATSB has determined that an unresponsive crew / hypoxia event " appeared to best fit the available evidence " for the period of flight that Flight 370 tracked south over the Indian Ocean .
An analysis of aircraft systems , particularly the electrical system and autopilot , are ongoing . Boeing and Malaysia Airlines have conducted numerous end @-@ of @-@ flight scenarios in their Boeing 777 simulators . The scenarios involve flameout in one engine before the other without any input from the cockpit . This scenario results in the aircraft entering a spiraling low @-@ bank turn with the aircraft entering the water a relatively short distance from the last engine flameout . If control inputs were made ( i.e. the plane was under the control of a pilot ) and depending on the initial altitude , it is possible that the aircraft could glide over 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) . However , investigators believe Flight 370 was most likely uncontrolled at this point . The ATSB cites a previous study conducted for the BEA , which determined that in cases of an upset followed by loss of control all impact points were within 20 nmi ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) of the start of the emergency , and in most cases within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) . Based on this , the ATSB chose a 50 nmi ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) width — 20 nmi ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) to the west and 30 nmi ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) to the east of the arc — for the underwater search in June 2014 . While keeping the 50 nmi width for the priority search area , the ATSB determined that the aircraft most likely entered the ocean close to the seventh arc and the underwater search would be conducted from the seventh arc and progress outwards .
= = Other analyses = =
In the weeks after Flight 370 's disappearance , discussions concerning the analysis of satellite data began on the website of space scientist Duncan Steel . The informal group of people , most with scientific backgrounds , soon became known as the Independent Group ( IG ) and has worked to analyse possible flight paths to determine the most likely final location of Flight 370 . For the first few months , their efforts were hindered by a lack of data publicly released and they were critical of the official analysis by Inmarsat ; the IG also pressured officials to release data related to Flight 370 's satellite communications . The IG did not believe there was sufficient evidence , using publicly available information , to exclude the possibility of Flight 370 following a northern track prior to the release of the communication logs on 27 May . Some of the IG members have worked on analysing specific elements of Flight 370 's flight path , such as the mid @-@ flight speed of Flight 370 and precise location of the Inmarsat @-@ 3F1 satellite .
On 17 June , before 26 June release of a report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau ( ATSB ) detailing the analysis of the satellite communications , the IG released a statement that they believed the final location of Flight 370 is 36 @.@ 02 ° S 88 @.@ 57 ° E / -36.02 ; 88 @.@ 57 ( Final location determined by Independent Group , June 2014 ) at the time of the 6th handshake , which was used because the seventh handshake was not well understood at the time . Their most recent evaluation , published in July 2015 , of the final location of Flight 370 is 37 @.@ 105 ° S 89 @.@ 871 ° E / -37.105 ; 89 @.@ 871 ( Final location determined by Independent Group , Flight Path model v15.1 ( July 2015 ) ) .
Another analysis was made by Simon Hardy , a Boeing 777 captain , and published in March 2015 . Hardy 's analysis is a mathematical model to determine the track of Flight 370 from the 4th to 6th handshakes , assuming that the aircraft 's track and speed would be constant during this period of the flight . He calculated that the aircraft was likely flying on a 188 ° magnetic track , which the aircraft would compensate for winds to continue in a straight line , and that the final location of Flight 370 is near 38 @.@ 082 ° S 87 @.@ 400 ° E / -38.082 ; 87 @.@ 400 ( Final location determined by Simon Hardy , June 2014 ) .
= = Timeline = =
On 8 March , Inmarsat provided basic flight data relating to Flight 370 to SITA , which relayed information to Malaysia Airlines and investigators . On 9 – 10 March , Inmarsat engineers noted that the ground station log recorded pings from the aircraft for several hours after contact was lost with air traffic control . Malaysian investigators set up an international working group , consisting of various agencies with experience in aircraft performance and satellite communications , to further analyse the signals between Flight 370 and the ground station , especially the signal at 08 : 19 . These included representatives from the UK 's Inmarsat , AAIB , and Rolls @-@ Royce ; China 's Civil Aviation Administration and Aircraft Accident Investigation Department ; the US NTSB and FAA ; and Malaysian authorities .
An analysis of the time difference between the transmission of the ping and the aircraft 's response allowed Inmarsat to determine the aircraft 's distance from the satellite . This resulted in two arcs — referred to as the " northern corridor " and " southern corridor " — where the aircraft may have been located at the time of its last complete handshake at 08 : 11 . Using an " innovative technique " that has " never before [ been ] used in an investigation of this sort " , the team determined it could also use the burst frequency offset to determine the aircraft 's speed and position along the identified arcs . Inmarsat cross @-@ checked its methodology to known flight data from six Boeing 777 aircraft flying in various directions on the same day , and found a good match . Applying the technique to the handshake signals from Flight 370 gave results that correlated strongly with the expected and actual measurements of a southern trajectory over the Indian Ocean , but poorly with a northern trajectory . Further revised calculations to account for movements of the satellite relative to the earth allowed the northern corridor to be ruled out completely . This analysis was passed on to Malaysian authorities on 23 March .
At 22 : 00 local time the next day , 24 March , Prime Minister Najib cited this development concluding at a press conference that Flight 370 ended in the southern Indian Ocean .
Using a type of analysis never before used in an investigation of this sort ... Inmarsat and the AAIB have concluded that [ Flight 370 ] flew along the southern corridor , and that its last position was in the middle of the Indian Ocean , west of Perth . This is a remote location , far from any possible landing sites . It is therefore with deep sadness and regret that I must inform you that , according to this new data , [ Flight 370 ] ended in the southern Indian Ocean .
In an article published on 8 May several satellite experts questioned the analysis of satellite pings made by Inmarsat staff because the Doppler frequency shifts measured were apparently not properly corrected against the satellite 's own drift ( a periodic North @-@ South oscillation of 3 ° every 24 hours ) . Without any additional data being released , the implication of this new analysis was that the northern portion of the Inmarsat satellite pings arc could not be ruled out . The Malaysian government released the satellite data three weeks later .
Details of the methodology used to analyse the satellite communications were provided in the Australian Transport Safety Bureau 's report MH370 – Definition of Underwater Search Areas , published in June , and a supplement released in October .
A peer @-@ reviewed paper by Inmarsat scientists published in the Journal of Navigation in October 2014 provides an account of the analysis applied to the satellite communications from Flight 370 . Their analysis concluded that Flight 370 was near 34 @.@ 7 ° S 93 @.@ 0 ° E / -34.7 ; 93 @.@ 0 ( Location at last contact provided by Inmarsat scientists in the Journal of Navigation paper , October 2014 ) when the final transmission from the aircraft was made , but in their conclusion they " [ stress ] that the sensitivity of the reconstructed flight path to frequency errors is such that there remains significant uncertainty in the final location . " Their analysis used a simplified model of the aircraft 's flight dynamics " to illustrate how the measurements may be transformed into a reasonable flight path " and note that other investigators used more sophisticated models to determine the underwater search area . Although access to the journal requires a subscription , its publishers " [ felt ] this paper and subject are too important , and that it should be shared with the world " and the paper was released as an Open Access article with a Creative Commons Attribution license .
Since the October reports , analysis of the satellite data has continued to be refined . In March 2015 , ATSB Chief Commissioner Mark Dolan remarked that he is " slightly more optimistic than six months ago , because we have more confidence in the data " .
On 29 July 2015 , a flaperon from Flight 370 was discovered on Reunion Island . The ATSB reviewed their drift calculations for debris from the aircraft and , according to the JACC , they are " satisfied that the discovery of the flaperon at La Réunion ... is consistent with the current underwater search area in the southern Indian Ocean . " Reverse drift modelling of the debris , to determine its origin after 16 months , also supports the current underwater search area , although reverse drift modelling is very imprecise over long periods of time .
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= New York State Route 45 =
New York State Route 45 ( NY 45 ) is a north – south state highway in central Rockland County , New York , in the United States . It spans 8 @.@ 60 miles ( 13 @.@ 84 km ) from the village of Chestnut Ridge at the New Jersey – New York border , where it becomes County Route 73 ( CR 73 ) in Bergen County , New Jersey , to U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) in the town of Haverstraw . Though an interchange does exist between NY 45 and the Palisades Interstate Parkway , the route has no access to the New York State Thruway .
NY 45 was originally designated as New York State Route 305 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It was renumbered to New York State Route 94 in the early 1940s before becoming NY 45 on January 1 , 1949 .
= = Route description = =
NY 45 begins at the New Jersey – New York border in Chestnut Ridge . Although the first NY 45 reassurance shield is a quarter @-@ mile north of the state line , the reference marker below the " Welcome to New York " sign at the crossing indicates the beginning of NY 45 .
NY 45 runs parallel to the small portion of the Garden State Parkway ( GSP ) that enters New York . Officially this portion is considered an extension of the New York State Thruway . While NY 45 never intersects the GSP , it provides a link to the parkway . South of the New Jersey border in Bergen County , CR 73 intersects the GSP , and in New York , NY 45 intersects CR 41 , which intersects the parkway . Through Chestnut Ridge ( where it is known as Chestnut Ridge Road , just as CR 73 , its southern extension , is in New Jersey ) , it crosses the New York State Thruway .
Once it enters Spring Valley ( where it is known locally first as South Main Street , then as North Main Street after it crosses its very busy intersection with NY 59 ) , NY 45 continues northward through the downtown business district . Traffic here tends to pile up many times a day . After NY 45 's intersection at Hillcrest with CR 74 ( the location of several small shopping centers ) , traffic tends to ease up . North of there , NY 45 provides a link to the Hassidic Jewish community of New Square , although it never enters the village limits . At CR 80 , NY 45 enters New Hempstead . Again the road becomes relatively quiet , but it begins to parallel the Palisades Interstate Parkway , until its intersection at exit 12 in Pomona . NY 45 quickly leaves Pomona and enters Mount Ivy . This is where NY 45 comes to its northern terminus at US 202 . This area of US 202 is in downtown Mount Ivy , and exit 13 of the Palisades is just 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 2 km ) west of NY 45 's northern terminus .
= = History = =
What is now NY 45 was originally designated NY 305 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . At the same time , the portion of modern NY 305 north of Portville in Cattaraugus and Allegany counties was assigned NY 94 , while the current NY 94 in Orange County was designated NY 45 . The NY 305 and NY 94 designations were swapped in the early 1940s , placing NY 305 on its current alignment and NY 94 on what is now NY 45 . NY 94 was then swapped again , this time for NY 45 , on January 1 , 1949 , placing both routes on their modern routings .
In 1958 , Ramapo town engineer Edwin Wallace noticed an increase in the amount of traffic passing through the village of Spring Valley . This led Wallace to propose a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) bypass of the village , starting at NY 59 in Monsey and ending at NY 45 in Hillcrest . Rockland County approved the proposed bypass two years later , and the plans were forwarded to the New York State Department of Transportation . In 1966 , the Tri @-@ State Transportation Commission released its long @-@ term highway report for the area . The new study replaced the Spring Valley Bypass with the NY 45 expressway , a north – south bypass of Spring Valley connecting the Garden State Parkway to the Palisades Interstate Parkway . The road would serve a steadily growing area of commercial businesses along the NY 45 corridor . No action was taken on this proposal .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Rockland County .
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= One Hot Minute =
One Hot Minute is the sixth studio album by the American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers , released on September 12 , 1995 , on Warner Bros. Records . The worldwide success of the band 's previous album , Blood Sugar Sex Magik ( 1991 ) , caused guitarist John Frusciante to become uncomfortable with their status , eventually quitting mid @-@ tour in 1992 .
One Hot Minute was the only album that guitarist Dave Navarro recorded with the band . His presence altered the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' sound considerably . It contains fewer sexual themes than previous records and explores darker subject matters , such as drug use , depression , anguish , and grief . It also re @-@ integrated use of heavy metal guitar riffs . Vocalist Anthony Kiedis , who had resumed addictions to cocaine and heroin in 1994 after being sober for more than five years , approached his lyricism with a reflective outlook on drugs and their harsh effects .
One Hot Minute was a commercial disappointment despite producing three hit singles and reaching number four on the Billboard 200 chart . It sold fewer than half as many copies as Blood Sugar Sex Magik and received much less critical acclaim . Navarro was ultimately fired from the band in 1998 due to creative differences .
= = Background = =
The Red Hot Chili Peppers had released Blood Sugar Sex Magik in 1991 . The album was an instant hit , selling over seven million copies in the United States , and turned the band into an international sensation . Guitarist John Frusciante was having difficulty coping with the band 's newfound fame and started to dislike it . Frusciante often argued with his bandmates , and sabotaged performances . He began taking heroin and steadily increased his usage of the drug over time . Frusciante quit the band in 1992 , during its Japanese leg of the tour . He returned to his home in California and became a recluse .
Stunned , the remaining Chili Peppers , who had no suitable replacement for Frusciante , hired Arik Marshall to play the remaining dates after being forced to reschedule . Upon returning to Hollywood , the band placed an ad in the L.A. Weekly for open guitar auditions , which Kiedis considered to be a waste of time . After several months of unsuccessfully looking for a suitable guitarist , drummer Chad Smith suggested Dave Navarro . He had always been the band 's first choice , but had been too busy following the 1991 breakup of Jane 's Addiction . Navarro eventually accepted the position after productive jam sessions .
= = Recording and production = =
Kiedis knew that the band 's sound would inevitably change when Navarro joined . In July 1994 , the band entered The Sound Factory , a recording studio in Los Angeles , to record the album . The band completed a few basic tracks , when Kiedis began having difficulty singing . He had been through a dental procedure in which an addictive sedative , Valium , was used ; this caused him to relapse , and he once again became dependent on drugs . Kiedis had slipped from five years of sobriety and began reusing narcotics he 'd sworn never to use again . The band took a short break from recording to perform at Woodstock ' 94 , which was the first show Navarro played with the Red Hot Chili Peppers .
After resuming production , Navarro questioned the methods of the Chili Peppers ' recording procedures . He wondered why such a considerable amount of jamming was involved with the album 's conception . Various qualms followed , and the process soon became uncomfortable for the band . Months went by , and only small amounts of material were written . Kiedis made a trip to Grand Rapids , Michigan in December , where his family realized he 'd resumed an active addiction once again . He returned to Hollywood in late January 1995 , when he finally finished recording his vocals . The rest of the recording was completed within the next month .
= = Writing and composition = =
Considering Kiedis had resumed heavy drug use and Frusciante was no longer present for collaboration , songs were written at a far slower rate . Working with Frusciante had been something Kiedis took for granted : " John Frusciante had been a true anomaly when it came to song writing . He made it even easier than Hillel Slovak to create music , even though I 'd known Hillel for years . I just figured that was how all guitar players were , that you showed them your lyrics and sang a little bit and the next thing you knew you had a song . That didn 't happen right off the bat with Dave . " Drummer Chad Smith suggested it was writer 's block that was holding Kiedis back from coming up with lyrics , however Kiedis strongly denied this . With the writing process taking too much time and Kiedis returning to his drug habit , Flea for the first time on any of the band 's albums , besides contributing music as usual , took over and wrote some of the song 's lyrics , including " Transcending " , his tribute to River Phoenix along with the intro and outro to " Deep Kick " , a song that told the story of his and Kiedis 's youth . Also for the first time on any album , Flea contributed lead vocals which he performed on his solo track titled " Pea " .
Stylistically , One Hot Minute diverged from the Chili Peppers ' previous records — especially Blood Sugar Sex Magik . The album was characterized by prominent use of heavy metal guitar riffs and hints of psychedelic rock . Navarro , unlike Flea and Kiedis , was not influenced by funk music . He told Guitar World in 1996 , " It doesn 't really speak to me . But then again , when I 'm playing with three other guys who I love and feel camaraderie with , it 's enjoyable to play funk . " Navarro 's own style was influenced mainly by classic rock guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix and Jimmy Page , as well as gothic rock guitarists Robert Smith and Daniel Ash . Continuing a trend that started on Blood Sugar Sex Magik , Kiedis diverged even further away from his signature rapping , only doing so on a few tracks . One Hot Minute took almost two years to write , and its recording and production was not a smooth process . Navarro felt as though he was an outsider to the other members . His writing in Jane 's Addiction was independent from other contributors , whereas the Red Hot Chili Peppers was a far more collaborative group . Navarro himself noted that the band 's dynamic was more balanced than that of Jane 's Addiction , which was often dominated by frontman Perry Farrell .
Overall , One Hot Minute lyrically confronted the dark , melancholy and remorseful feelings Kiedis kept to himself . Many of the songs were written at a time when he was hiding his resumed addiction .
" Warped " directly faced Kiedis 's distraught moods as a hysterical cry for help : " My tendency for dependency is offending me / It 's upending me / I 'm pretending to be strong and free from my dependency / It 's warping me . " He also felt disappointed that " no one had suspected that I 'd slipped from my more than five years of sobriety . " The track itself was composed of heavy guitar riffs and echoing vocals which attempted to convey a distressed state .
" Aeroplane " , the album 's third single , was more upbeat than many of the album 's songs ; but it still contained various references to Kiedis 's personal issues : " Looking into my own eyes / I can 't find the love I want / Someone better slap me before I start to rust / before I start to decompose . " The song also featured Flea 's daughter Clara and her kindergarten class singing backing vocals on the last verse .
" Tearjerker " was a tribute to Nirvana lead singer Kurt Cobain . Kiedis felt Cobain 's death " was an emotional blow , and we all felt it . I don 't know why everyone on earth felt so close to that guy ; he was beloved and endearing and inoffensive in some weird way . For all of his screaming and all of his darkness , he was just lovable . "
" My Friends " addressed more of Kiedis ' own somber thoughts rather than those of " his friends " : " My friends are so distressed / And standing on the brink of emptiness / No words I know of to express / This emptiness . "
= = Promotion and release = =
While piecing together the final components of the album , the band recorded a video for " Warped " . They asked Flea 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Gavin Bowden , to direct it . The video involved Kiedis and Navarro kissing towards the end as a way of breaking the monotony of cumbersome video recording . Thinking nothing of it , they continued to shoot and finished several days later . Warner Bros. , however , saw the video and instantly wanted it thrown away , considering it to be unmarketable and that the kiss would alienate a large portion of the band 's fan base . The band came to a consensus to let the kiss remain on the final cut , prompting a backlash from the college segment of their audience , who took offense at the action . Kiedis said of the situation : " If they couldn 't accept what we were doing , we didn 't need them anymore . "
One Hot Minute was released September 12 , 1995 . It was certified Gold just more than two months later on November 11 ; since then it has gone Double Platinum in the United States . The album peaked at number four on the Billboard Top 200 . " My Friends " peaked at number one on the Modern Rock and Mainstream Rock charts . The song also peaked at number 29 on the UK Singles Chart , and " Aeroplane " at number 11 . Several days following the album 's release , Kiedis continued to use drugs despite the numerous interviews he was scheduled to attend .
= = Critical reception = =
One Hot Minute was not as universally well received as Blood Sugar Sex Magik , and was ultimately considered to be a poor follow @-@ up . It did however receive mixed to positive reviews from critics . Daina Darzin of Rolling Stone said " One Hot Minute dives into the emotionally deep end of drug addiction and loss " , and that the album " is a ferociously eclectic and imaginative disc that also presents the band members as more thoughtful , spiritual — even grown @-@ up . After a 10 plus @-@ year career , they 're realizing their potential at last . " David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said that " One Hot Minute wails and flails like a mosh @-@ pit workout tape , but it also has moments of outright subtlety and maturity . " He goes on to praise Kiedis for " keeping his boorish tendencies under control . " Browne , however , criticizes the band for " attempts at cosmic philosophy which often trip up on hippie @-@ dippie sentiments " , and some songs " fall back on tired frat @-@ funk flop sweat . " " The Peppers work their own little patch with considerable expertise , " wrote Peter Kane in Q. " The incoming Navarro rarely fails to deliver the goods and upfront the taut ball of energy going by the name of Anthony Keidis still makes for a suitably rubbery @-@ lipped frontman , if not exactly a lovable one . " Q also included One Hot Minute in its ' best of the year ' roundup : " A bulging , blistering blend of a skewed ballads and physically intimidating workouts that charge around like a bull on a promise . "
Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that " following up Blood Sugar Sex Magik proved to be a difficult task for the Red Hot Chili Peppers " , and " Navarro 's metallic guitar shredding should have added some weight to the Chili Peppers ' punk @-@ inflected heavy @-@ guitar funk , but tends to make it plodding . " Erlewine went on to add that " by emphasizing the metal , the funk is gradually phased out of the blend , as is melody . " Robert Christgau gave the album a rating of " dud " .
" My Friends " was considered by Erlewine to be a blatant attempt to hold on to the mainstream audience gained by " Under the Bridge " , and that in contrast , " the melodies are weak and the lyrics are even more feeble . " The song also " tries to be a collective hug for all [ of Kiedis 's ] troubled pals . " Rolling Stone , on the other hand , said the song was " lovely " , and incorporated a " vaguely folky chorus , and sports the same sad wishfulness of ' Under the Bridge ' and ' Breaking the Girl ' . " The article went on to praise " Warped " claiming it " mixes harrowing lyrics with a multi @-@ toned , layered intro and a whirling dervish of noises and big @-@ rock rhythms surfing through and over big , funky hooks . It 's like , well , a drug rush . " Rolling Stone went on to say that the title track was " funky and fun . It 's about love and sex . What the hell . Some things don 't have to change . " Entertainment Weekly said " some of these songs last a little too long and could have benefited from a trimming " , though they credited Kiedis for sounding " nearly spiritual " on " Falling into Grace " .
= = Unreleased Deep Kick documentary = =
In 1994 and 1995 the band , along with director Gavin Bowden , began work on a documentary titled " Deep Kick " , named after the third track on the album . The documentary was expected to be similar to Funky Monks , which documented the making of band 's 1991 album , Blood Sugar Sex Magik although it would also feature mini @-@ films intercut featuring each member of the band . Some footage from the documentary has been released on the internet including Anthony 's segment along with a segment of the band with The Velvet Underground 's " I 'm Waiting for the Man " playing over the footage . Footage from the in @-@ studio version of the " My Friends " music video also came from this shoot . It is unknown if the project was ever completed and if it was , why Warner never released it .
= = One Hot Minute tour = =
The One Hot Minute tour began several days after the release of the album . The band opened the tour with a European leg . Kiedis felt that as a musician , he was becoming somewhat lackluster . The short European leg ended in early November , and the U.S. portion was scheduled to begin 10 days later ; however , it was postponed until early February . A few shows into the commencement of the U.S. leg , Kiedis badly injured his leg while engaging in what he calls " eyes @-@ closed robotic dancing " . He tripped over a monitor and fell off the stage , ending up hanging by his calf from his microphone cable , resulting in a cast which he wore for the next two months . Kiedis reflected that it " was nice to see that people were still interested in coming out to see what we do " , as there had been a four @-@ year gap since the release of Blood Sugar Sex Magik . Following the conclusion of the U.S. tour , the Chili Peppers took two weeks off before several Australia and New Zealand performances . The band then played at the Tibetan Freedom Concert in San Francisco , before finishing the tour in Europe .
Kiedis had remained sober the entire tour and maintained positive disposition during shows . Navarro , however , was growing tired of touring , and that was beginning to grate on his fellow band @-@ mates . Kiedis suffered an additional injury in Prague after falling off the stage while attempting to execute a back flip . He was forced to wear a back brace for the next few shows , which restricted his actions to the area around his microphone . After shows in Paris and London , the band returned home to Los Angeles . Kiedis began taking drugs once again , though he forced himself to discontinue after several weeks . The band was then asked to play in the North Pole for roughly 100 contest winners of a concert set up by Molson , a Canadian beer company . While the show was mildly motivating to the band , they returned home after two days .
Months went by without any scheduled concerts due to the album 's poor sales . Following another relapse and a stint in rehab , Kiedis and the rest of the band prepared for a summer tour , their first in almost seven months . Before the tour could begin , Kiedis had an accident on his motorcycle and was rushed to the hospital after severely injuring his hand . Due to his drug addiction , it took seven doses of morphine before the pain was assuaged . Following discharge from the hospital , he was forced to wear a full @-@ arm cast for several months , resulting in the cancellation of all remaining scheduled concerts . Halfway through Kiedis 's recovery , the band was asked to play the Fuji Rock Festival in July 1997 . By that time , Kiedis 's cast had receded down to the elbow and he felt well enough to play . A large typhoon had been forecast to hit the festival several hours before the show . The concert took place anyway , and when the Chili Peppers got on stage to play , the audience was being soaked in torrential rains , and the band found it virtually impossible to play their instruments . After eight songs , the lighting and sound equipment was torn from the stage and the band was obliged to an impromptu finish .
= = Follow @-@ up album and Navarro 's departure = =
Returning home , the Chili Peppers parted ways and , for the most part , remained secluded from each other through the rest of 1997 . No new material was written during that time , and it was not until the beginning of 1998 that the band began rehearsal . At that point , Navarro had become dependent on drugs , with Kiedis also struggling to remain clean . The band decided they would have a talk with Navarro and attempt to convince him to enter rehab . The discussion escalated into a heated dispute , and Navarro fell over an amplifier in a drug @-@ induced daze . In April 2010 , Navarro discussed this incident , stating that : " One [ of the reasons I was fired ] was [ because of ] my drug use at the time . The other was musical differences . Anthony says it was because I tripped and fell over an amp while on drugs . I say that he was on more drugs than me at that point . We both had a loose relationship with reality . Who do you want to believe ? "
The band made an attempt to begin writing for a follow @-@ up and had written and began recording one song titled " Circle of the Noose " , but it was never completed or officially released . The song , which is the last to feature guitar work from Navarro prior to his departure , was a tribute to the late qawwali @-@ devotional singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan . Navarro described the song as totally pop , dirge @-@ like and said the song was one of the favorite songs he had done with the band . He said " The best way I can describe it is it 's like pepped- up ' 60s folk with ' 90s ideals , but I would hate to label it as folk because it 's not , it moves . " On June 7 , 2011 , Navarro was asked by a Chili Peppers fan on his blog about " Circle of the Noose " and said he didn 't have the recordings but would love to hear them . Flea was also asked in 2011 through his Twitter page about the song and was shocked that anyone knew about it . He responded by saying " Holy cow ! how in the hell do you know about that ? It had a sample of nusrat fateh Ali khan in it ... never was finished " . On February 3 , 2016 , a rough mix of " Circle of the Noose " , which had been recorded on March 16 , 1998 , was leaked to the internet . Dave Navarro tweeted " WOW what a trip down memory lane " in response to the leak .
At this point in 1998 , Kiedis and Flea decided it was time to fire their guitarist . Navarro was furious when confronted by Kiedis and Flea , but eventually accepted his termination . The Chili Peppers were fighting , and on the verge of breaking up . Flea was beginning to question the band 's future and thought it may be necessary to break the band up . He made one last attempt to keep the band together , asking Frusciante to rejoin . Frusciante had recently completed a drug rehabilitation program after more than five years of heroin addiction , and gladly accepted the invitation .
As of 2016 , " Pea " and " Aeroplane " are the only songs from One Hot Minute that the Red Hot Chili Peppers have played in full since Dave Navarro left the band . The band however did tease " My Friends " , " Let 's Make Evil " and " Walkabout " during the I 'm With You World Tour . Chad Smith was asked by fans during a February 2014 online interview about the band 's reasons behind not performing the songs and he responded by saying " We don 't really feel that connected to that record anymore . No special reason , not to say we would never play those songs but we don 't feel that emotionally connected to that music right now . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Red Hot Chili Peppers ( Flea , Kiedis , Navarro , Smith ) .
= = Album outtakes = =
Twenty @-@ one songs from the One Hot Minute sessions are known to exist . Thirteen made it to the final cut of the album . " Melancholy Mechanics " was released as a b @-@ side to the " Warped " single and " Let 's Make Evil " and " Stretch " ( originally a song that was connected onto the end of " One Big Mob " ) were released on the " My Friends " single . " Bob " ( a song about close friend Bob Forrest ) would finally surface eleven years later as a iTunes bonus track in 2006 . The song features percussion by Stephen Perkins . " Blender " was one of two songs ( " Stretch " being the other ) that was dropped from the album 's final cut at the last minute . The song has never been released . " I Found Out " , a cover song originally recorded by John Lennon was released on the 1995 album Working Class Hero : A Tribute to John Lennon . It is unconfirmed if the song was recorded during the album sessions although many speculate it was because Rick Rubin produced the song . " The Intimidator " and " Slow Funk " , two songs mentioned in interviews by Chad Smith have never been released . It is unknown if either song was a working title for another released song . An unsequenced / unmastered version of the album exists which features extended jams , more lyrics , longer intros / outros and some studio chatter .
= = Personnel = =
Red Hot Chili Peppers
Flea – bass guitar , backing vocals , lead vocals on " Pea " and co @-@ lead vocals on " Deep Kick "
Anthony Kiedis – lead vocals
Dave Navarro – guitars , backing vocals
Chad Smith – drums
Additional musicians
Keith " Tree " Barry – violin on " Tearjerker "
Jimmy Boyle – backing vocals
Lenny Castro – percussion on " Walkabout " , " My Friends " , " One Hot Minute " , " Deep Kick " , and " Tearjerker "
Aimee Echo – backing vocals on " One Hot Minute " , " One Big Mob "
Gurmukh Kaur Khalsa – chants on " Falling into Grace "
John Lurie – harmonica on " One Hot Minute "
Stephen Perkins – percussion on " One Big Mob " and " Bob " ( iTunes bonus track )
Kristen Vigard – backing vocals on " Falling into Grace "
Recording personnel
Stephen Marcussen – mastering engineer
Rick Rubin – producer
Dave Sardy – mixing engineer , recording engineer
Dave Schiffman – engineer
Don C. Tyler – digital editor
Additional personnel
Mark Ryden – album artwork
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruisers , with the Soviet designation as Project 69 heavy cruisers , ( Russian : Тяжёлые крейсера проекта 69 ) , were ordered for the Soviet Navy in the late 1930s . Two ships were started but none were completed due to World War II . These ships had a complex and prolonged design process which was hampered by constantly changing requirements and the Great Purge in 1937 . They were laid down in 1939 , with an estimated completion date in 1944 , but Stalin 's naval construction program proved to be more than the shipbuilding and armaments industries could handle . Prototypes of the armament and machinery had not even been completed by 22 June 1941 , almost two years after the start of construction . This is why the Soviets bought twelve surplus 38 @-@ centimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) SK C / 34 guns , and their twin turrets , similar to those used in the Bismarck @-@ class battleships , from Germany in 1940 . The ships were partially redesigned to accommodate them , after construction had already begun , but no turrets were actually delivered before Operation Barbarossa .
Only Kronshtadt 's hull survived the war reasonably intact and was about 10 % complete in 1945 . She was judged obsolete and the Soviets considered converting her into an aircraft carrier , but the idea was rejected and both hulls were scrapped in 1947 .
= = Design = =
The Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruisers had their origin in a mid @-@ 1930s requirement for a large cruiser ( Russian : bol 'shoi kreiser ) capable of destroying 10 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 10 @,@ 160 t ) cruisers built to the limits imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty , to which the Soviets were not a signatory . Several designs were submitted by the end of 1935 , but the Navy was not satisfied and rejected all of them . It asked for another design , displacing 23 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 637 long tons ) and armed with 254 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) guns , in early 1936 , eventually designated Project 22 , but this design was cancelled after the Soviets began negotiations in mid @-@ 1936 with the British that ultimately resulted in the Anglo @-@ Soviet Quantitative Naval Agreement of 1937 and agreed to follow the terms of the Second London Naval Treaty which limited battleships to a displacement of 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 35 @,@ 562 t ) . The Soviets had been working on a small battleship design ( Battleship ' B ' ) for service in the Baltic and Black Seas and had to shrink it as a result of these discussions to a size close to that of the Project 22 large cruiser so that the latter was cancelled . Battleship ' B ' was redesignated as Project 25 and given the task of destroying Treaty cruisers and German pocket battleships . The Project 25 design was accepted in mid @-@ 1937 after major revisions in the armor scheme and the machinery layout and four were ordered with construction to begin in late 1937 and early 1938 . However , this decision occurred right before the Great Purge began to hit the Navy in August 1937 and two of the ship 's designers were arrested and executed within a year . The Project 25 design was then rejected on the grounds that it was too weak compared to foreign ships and the whole program was cancelled in early 1938 after an attempt to modify the design with larger guns had been made .
However the Soviet Navy still felt a need for a fast ship that could deal with enemy cruisers and the original concept was revived as Project 69 . They wanted a ship not to exceed 23 @,@ 000 metric tons with a speed of 34 knots ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) and an armament of nine 254 mm guns , but the requirement proved to be too ambitious for the specified size and it increased to 26 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 25 @,@ 786 long tons ) in the design submitted in June 1938 . By this time , however , details were becoming available for the Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships and the ship was deemed inferior to the German ships . The State Defense Committee revised the requirements and specified a size about 31 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 30 @,@ 510 long tons ) , an armament of nine 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , an armor belt 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick and a speed about 31 – 32 knots ( 57 – 59 km / h ; 36 – 37 mph ) . A revised design was finished by October which was wargamed against the Japanese Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , the French Dunkerque @-@ class battleships as well as the Scharnhorst class . It was deemed superior to the Kongos at medium range and inferior to the Dunkerques at the same range , but generally superior to the Scharnhorsts , although it is doubtful that the Soviets were fully aware of the true specifications of the Kongōs as rebuilt or of the Scharnhorsts as the displacement of the latter had been given as 26 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 25 @,@ 589 long tons ) , more than 5 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 921 long tons ) short of their true displacement . The Navy 's Shipbuilding Administration thought that the original secondary armament of 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) guns was too small and that the armor on the turrets , conning tower and the forward transverse bulkhead was too thin . A revised , 35 @,@ 000 @-@ ton design with 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) guns and extra armor was submitted to the State Defense Council in January 1939 .
This was approved and the detailed design work began with the basic concept that the ship should be superior to the Scharnhorst @-@ class ships and able to outrun the Bismarck @-@ class battleships . At this time the horizontal protection was revised after full @-@ scale trials revealed that a 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bomb would penetrate both a 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) upper deck and a 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) middle deck to burst on the main armor deck . So the middle deck was thickened to 90 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) with the lower deck intended to catch any splinters penetrating the armor deck . This mean that the main belt had to be extended upwards to meet the main armor deck at a significant penalty in weight . The Defense Committee approved the sketch design on 13 July 1939 , but the detailed design was not approved until 12 April 1940 , after construction had already begun on the first two ships .
It was already apparent that the 305 mm guns and turrets were well behind schedule when Joseph Stalin asked the German representatives in Moscow on 8 February 1940 to negotiate a trade agreement if it would be possible to use the triple 283 @-@ millimeter ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) turrets in lieu of the triple 305 mm turrets of the Project 69 ships . They replied that the turrets were out of production , but new ones could be built . He then asked if twin 380 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) turrets could be used instead . The Germans said that they would have to check back for the technical details . Krupp had six incomplete turrets on hand that had originally been ordered before the war to rearm the Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships , but they were cancelled after the start of World War II when the Germans decided that they could not afford to have the ships out of service during the war . A preliminary purchase agreement was made to buy twelve guns and six turrets later that month , well before any studies were even made to see if the substitution was even possible . The Shipbuilding Commissariat reported on 17 April that it was possible so the agreement was finalized in November 1940 with the deliveries scheduled from October 1941 to 28 March 1943 . The order also included 10 @-@ meter ( 33 ft ) rangefinders and 150 @-@ centimeter ( 59 in ) searchlights .
The Soviets never did get the detailed data required to redesign the ship 's barbettes and magazines , but they did know that the 380 @-@ mm barbettes was bigger in diameter than that of the 305 mm turret as well as taller than the Russian turrets . So the barbette of turret number two had to be raised to clear turret number one and the height of the conning tower had to be raised to clear turret number two . Similarly the 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns behind turret number three had to be raised as well . The new turrets required more electrical power which meant that the output of the turbo generators had to be increased to 1 @,@ 300 kilowatts . All of these changes added over 1 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 984 long tons ) to the ships ' displacement and the sketch design was completed by 16 October 1940 , as Project 69 @-@ I ( Importnyi — Imported ) , even though they still lacked data for the turrets and their barbettes . This was presented to the State Defense Committee on 11 February 1941 , but the design was not approved until 10 April when it ordered that the first two ships be completed with German guns while the others would continue to use the 305 mm guns . The detailed design was supposed to be completed by 15 October 1941 , but it was rendered pointless when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Project 69 @-@ class ships were 250 @.@ 5 meters ( 821 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a waterline length of 240 meters ( 787 ft 5 in ) . They had a beam of 31 @.@ 6 meters ( 103 ft 8 in ) and at full load a draft of 9 @.@ 45 meters ( 31 ft 0 in ) . As designed they displaced 35 @,@ 240 metric tons ( 34 @,@ 683 long tons ) at standard load and 41 @,@ 539 metric tons ( 40 @,@ 883 long tons ) at full load . The displacement of the two Project 69 @-@ I @-@ class ships increased to 36 @,@ 250 metric tons ( 35 @,@ 677 long tons ) at standard load and 42 @,@ 831 metric tons ( 42 @,@ 155 long tons ) at full load which increased the draft to 9 @.@ 7 meters ( 31 ft 10 in ) at full load while the waterline length grew to 242 @.@ 1 meters ( 794 ft 3 in ) simply because the extra draft submerged more of the sharply raked stem and spoon @-@ shaped stern . The speed remained the same as the deeper draft was offset by a more efficient propeller form .
The hull form was very full with a block coefficient of 0 @.@ 61 which compared badly to the 0 @.@ 54 of the Dunkerque , the 0 @.@ 52 of the German O @-@ class battlecruiser or the 0 @.@ 5266 of the American Alaska @-@ class cruiser . This meant that a lot of horsepower was necessary to achieve even modest speeds . Stalin 's decision that the Project 69 ships would use three shafts increased the shaft loading and reduced propulsive efficiency , although it did shorten the length of the armored citadel and thus overall displacement . The riveted hull was subdivided by 24 transverse bulkheads and used longitudinal framing in the citadel , but transverse framing for the structure fore and aft of the citadel . The metacentric height was 2 @.@ 8 meters ( 9 ft 2 in ) for the 305 mm gunned ships , but dropped to 2 @.@ 58 meters ( 8 ft 6 in ) in the 380 mm gunned ships . The tactical diameter was estimated at about 1 @,@ 200 meters ( 1 @,@ 312 yd ) .
The Kronshtadt @-@ class ships were provided with two KOR @-@ 2 flying boats which would be launched by the catapult mounted between the funnels .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The power plant was laid out on a unit system . The forward boiler room contained eight boilers and was followed by an engine room for the two wing propeller shafts . The second boiler room contained four boilers and was followed by a turbine room for the central shaft . The single @-@ reduction , impulse @-@ reduction geared steam turbines were an imported Brown Boveri design shared with the Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleship , but the factory in Kharkiv that was to build them never finished a single turbine before the Germans invaded . They produced a total of 210 @,@ 000 shp ( 156 @,@ 597 kW ) . Twelve 7u @-@ bis water @-@ tube boilers worked at a pressure of 37 kg / cm2 ( 3 @,@ 628 kPa ; 526 psi ) and temperature of 380 ° C ( 716 ° F ) . There were two other small boilers for harbor service and to power the auxiliary machinery . The electrical plant originally consisted of four 1200 kW turbo generators and four 650 kW diesel generators , but these were upgraded for the Project 69 @-@ I ships .
Maximum speed was estimated at 31 knots ( 57 km / h ; 36 mph ) , using the revised propeller design , although forcing the machinery would yield an extra knot . The normal fuel oil capacity was 2 @,@ 920 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 874 long tons ) , which provided an estimated endurance of 1 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 040 km ; 1 @,@ 270 mi ) at full speed . Maximum fuel capacity was 5 @,@ 570 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 482 long tons ) which gave a range of 8 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 370 km ; 9 @,@ 550 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) and 6 @,@ 900 nmi ( 12 @,@ 780 km ; 7 @,@ 940 mi ) at 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of three electrically powered MK @-@ 15 triple turrets , each with three 54 @-@ caliber 305 mm B @-@ 50 guns . The turrets were based on the MK @-@ 2 turrets planned for the Project 25 large cruiser . The guns could be depressed to − 3 ° and elevated to 45 ° . They had a fixed loading angle of 6 ° and their rate of fire varied with the time required to relay the gun . It ranged from 2 @.@ 36 to 3 @.@ 24 rounds per minute depending on the elevation . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 10 degrees per second and traverse at 5 @.@ 1 degrees per second . 100 rounds per gun were carried . The gun fired 470 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 040 lb ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 900 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 47 @,@ 580 meters ( 52 @,@ 030 yd ) .
The secondary armament consisted of eight 57 @-@ caliber B @-@ 38 152 mm guns mounted in four dual MK @-@ 4 turrets concentrated at the forward end of the superstructure . The forward turrets were inboard and above the outer turrets which provided both turrets with good arcs of fire . Their elevation limits were -5 ° to + 45 ° with a fixed loading angle of 8 ° . Their rate of fire also varied with the elevation from 7 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 8 rounds per minute . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 13 degrees per second and traverse at 6 degrees per second . They had a maximum range of about 30 @,@ 000 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 yd ) with a 55 @-@ kilogram ( 121 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 950 m / s ( 3 @,@ 100 ft / s ) .
Heavy anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) fire was provided by eight 56 @-@ caliber 100 mm B @-@ 34 dual @-@ purpose guns in four twin MZ @-@ 16 turrets mounted at the aft end of the superstructure with the aft turrets mounted inboard of the forward turrets . They could elevate to a maximum of 85 ° and depress to -8 ° . They could traverse at a rate of 12 ° per second and elevate at 10 ° per second . They fired 15 @.@ 6 @-@ kilogram ( 34 lb ) high explosive shells at a muzzle velocity of 895 m / s ( 2 @,@ 940 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 22 @,@ 241 meters ( 24 @,@ 323 yd ) against surface targets , but their maximum range against aerial targets was 9 @,@ 895 meters ( 32 @,@ 464 ft ) , the limit of their time fuse .
Light AA defense was handled by six quadruple , water @-@ cooled , 46 @-@ K mounts fitted with 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K guns . Two mounts were abreast the forward funnel , two just abaft the rear funnel and the last two on the centerline of the aft superstructure superfiring over the rear main gun turret . Initially seven mounts were planned , but the one above the conning tower was exchanged for a director for the 100 mm guns in early 1940 when the Navy realized that the other directors were blocked by the superstructure . The guns fired .732 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @.@ 61 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 880 m / s ( 2 @,@ 887 ft / s ) . Their effective anti @-@ aircraft range was 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) .
The Germans sold the Soviets twelve 52 @-@ caliber 38 @-@ centimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) SKC / 34 guns and their associated Drh LC / 34 turrets as part of the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact . Their elevation limits were -5.5 ° to + 30 ° with a fixed loading angle of 2 @.@ 5 ° . Their rate of fire was 2 @.@ 3 rounds per minute . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 6 ° per second and traverse at 5 ° per second . They had a maximum range of 36 @,@ 520 meters ( 39 @,@ 940 yd ) with a 800 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 800 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 820 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) .
= = = Fire control = = =
Two KDP @-@ 8 @-@ III fire @-@ control directors were used to control the main armament . These had two 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft 3 in ) stereoscopic rangefinders , one to track the target and the other to measure the range to the ship 's own shell splashes . Two of these were protected by 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) of armor and were mounted atop the rear superstructure and the tower @-@ mast . Two KDP @-@ 4t @-@ II directors , with two 4 @-@ meter ( 13 ft 1 in ) rangefinders each , controlled the secondary armament . The dual @-@ purpose guns were controlled by two , later three , stabilized directors , each with a 3 @-@ meter ( 9 ft 10 in ) rangefinder .
= = = Protection = = =
The ships had relatively light armor . The main belt was 230 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) thick , with a taper to the lower edge , and inclined outwards six degrees . It was 5 meters ( 16 ft 5 in ) high of which 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 ft 3 in ) was intended to be submerged as originally designed . The belt was 185 meters ( 606 ft 11 in ) long and covered 76 @.@ 8 percent of the waterline ; forward of this was a 20 mm belt that extended all the way to the bow . The forward transverse 330 @-@ millimeter ( 13 @.@ 0 in ) bulkhead was 330 mm thick while the rear bulkhead was 275 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The upper deck was only 14 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) thick and was intended to initiate shell and bomb fuzes . The main armor deck , which was even with the top of the waterline belt , was 90 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) thick and a 30 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) splinter deck was underneath it , although it tapered to 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) in thickness over the torpedo protection system . The underwater protection was an American @-@ style design with a bulge and four longitudinal bulkheads intended to withstand a 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 102 lb ) warhead of TNT . It covered 61 @.@ 5 % of the ship 's length and had a total depth of 6 meters ( 19 ft 8 in ) , that reduced to 4 meters ( 13 ft 1 in ) forward and aft where the hull lines became finer .
The main turrets had 305 mm faces and backs and 125 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) sides and roofs . Their barbettes were protected with 330 mm of armor . The secondary turrets had 100 mm faces with 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) sides and roofs and 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) barbettes . The dual @-@ purpose mountings had 50 mm armor with 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) barbettes . The conning tower had 330 mm sides and a 125 mm roof with a 230 mm communications tube running down to the armor deck . The admiral 's bridge was protected with 50 mm armor . Each of the directors had 14 mm of armor as did the 37 mm gun mounts . The funnels had 20 mm armor for their entire height above the deck and a 50 mm box protected the smoke generators .
= = Construction = =
The Soviet shipbuilding and related industries proved to be incapable of supporting the construction of the four Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleships as well as the two Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruisers at the same time . The largest warships built in the Soviet Union prior to 1938 were the 8 @,@ 000 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 7 @,@ 874 @-@ long @-@ ton ) Kirov @-@ class cruisers and even they had suffered from a number of production problems , but the Soviet leadership preferred to ignore the industrial difficulties when making their plans . The shipyards in Leningrad and Nikolayev had less than half the workers intended . Shipbuilding steel proved to be in short supply in 1939 – 1940 and a number of batches were rejected because they did not meet specifications . An attempt to import 14 @,@ 000 long tons ( 14 @,@ 225 t ) of steel and armor plate from the United States in 1939 failed , probably as a result of the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September 1939 . Armor plate production was even more problematic as only 27 @,@ 438 metric tons ( 27 @,@ 005 long tons ) were delivered in 1940 of the anticipated 30 @,@ 000 – 32 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 29 @,@ 526 – 31 @,@ 495 long tons ) and 30 – 40 % of that was rejected . Furthermore , the armor plants proved to be incapable of making cemented plates over 230 mm and inferior face @-@ hardened plates had to be substituted for all thicknesses over 200 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) .
Machinery problems were likely to delay the ships well past their intended delivery dates of 1943 – 44 . The Kharkhovskii Turbogenerator Works never completed a single turbine before the German invasion in June 1941 . Another problem were the 305 mm guns and turrets as the armament factories were focused on the higher @-@ priority guns for the Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleships . Prototypes of neither had been completed by the time the Germans invaded . The situation was not much better for the smaller guns as mountings for both the 152 mm and 100 mm guns were still incomplete on 22 June 1941 and all of these programs were terminated quickly afterwards .
= = = Ships = = =
The ships were originally intended to be laid down 1 September 1939 , but they were delayed until November to allow improvements to the shipyards to be completed . A total of sixteen ships were planned in the August 1939 building program , but this was scaled back to four in July 1940 and two in October 1940 when it became clear just how unprepared the Soviets were for any large @-@ scale naval construction program . Work on these ships ceased shortly after the German invasion .
Kronshtadt ( Russian : Кронштадт ) was built by the Shipyard No. 194 , Marti in Leningrad . She was laid down 30 November 1939 and judged 10 @.@ 6 % complete when the Germans invaded . Her building slip was too short for her entire length so her stern was built separately . Some of her material was used during the Siege of Leningrad to repair other ships and in defensive works , but she could have been finished after the end of the war . Proposals were made to complete her as an aircraft carrier and as a base ship for a whaling flotilla , but both ideas were rejected and she was ordered scrapped on 24 March 1947 . Her dismantling began shortly afterwards and was completed the following year .
Sevastopol ( Russian : Севастополь ) was built by Shipyard No. 200 , 61 Communards in Nikolayev . She was laid down on 5 November 1939 and estimated as 11 @.@ 6 % complete on 22 June 1941 . She was captured by the Germans when they occupied Nikolayev in late 1941 , but the Germans did little with her other than to use some of her material for defensive positions and some was apparently shipped to Germany . Before the Germans evacuated the city they damaged her building slip and hull with explosives and made her a constructive total loss . She was ordered scrapped on 24 March 1947 and her dismantling began shortly afterwards . It was completed in 1948 .
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= Tom Kahn =
Tom David Kahn ( September 15 , 1938 – March 27 , 1992 ) was an American social democrat known for his leadership in several organizations . He was an activist and influential strategist in the Civil Rights Movement . He was a senior adviser and leader in the U.S. labor movement .
Kahn was raised in New York City . At Brooklyn College , he joined the U.S. socialist movement , where he was influenced by Max Shachtman and Michael Harrington . As an assistant to civil rights leader Bayard Rustin , Kahn helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington , during which Martin Luther King delivered his " I Have a Dream " speech . Kahn 's analysis of the civil rights movement influenced Bayard Rustin ( who was the nominal author of Kahn 's " From Protest to Politics " ) .
A leader in the Socialist Party of America , Kahn supported its 1972 name change to Social Democrats , USA ( SDUSA ) . Like other leaders of SDUSA , Kahn worked to support free labor @-@ unions and democracy and to oppose Soviet communism ; he also worked to strengthen U.S. labor unions . Kahn worked as a senior assistant to and speechwriter for Democratic Senator Henry " Scoop " Jackson , AFL – CIO Presidents George Meany and Lane Kirkland , and other leaders of the Democratic Party , labor unions , and civil @-@ rights organizations .
In 1980 Lane Kirkland appointed Kahn to organize the AFL – CIO 's support for the Polish labor @-@ union Solidarity ; this support was made despite protests by the USSR and the Carter administration . He acted as the Director of the AFL – CIO 's Department of International Affairs in 1986 and was officially named Director in 1989 . Kahn died in 1992 , at the age of 53 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Kahn was born Thomas John Marcel on September 15 , 1938 , and was immediately placed for adoption at the New York Foundling Hospital . He was adopted by Adele and David Kahn , and renamed Thomas David Kahn . His father , a member of the Communist Party USA , became President of the Transport Workers Local 101 of the Brooklyn Union Gas Company .
Tom Kahn was a civil libertarian who " ran for president of the Student Organization of Erasmus Hall High School in 1955 on a platform calling for the destruction of the student assembly , because it had no power " , an election he lost . In high school , he met Rachelle Horowitz , who would become his lifelong friend and political ally .
= = = Democratic socialism = = =
At Brooklyn College ( CUNY ) , the undergraduate students Kahn and Horowitz joined the U.S. movement for democratic socialism after hearing Max Shachtman denounce the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary : Shachtman described
rolling Russian tanks ... defenceless Hungarian workers and students fighting back with stones ... a heroic people ’ s crushed hopes , and ... our democratic socialist links to those hopes . Freedom , democracy — they were not abstractions ; they were real and could therefore be destroyed . Communist totalitarianism was not merely a political force , an ideological aberration that could be smashed in debate ; it was a monstrous physical force . Democracy was not merely the icing on the socialist cake . It was the cake — or there was no socialism worth fighting for .
As young socialists , Kahn 's and Horowitz 's talents were recognized by Michael Harrington . Harrington had joined Shachtman after working with Dorothy Day 's Catholic Worker 's house of hospitality in the Bowery of Lower Manhattan . Harrington was about to become famous in the United States for his book on poverty in the United States , The Other America . Kahn idolized Harrington , particularly for his erudition and rhetoric , both in writing and in debate .
= = = Civil rights = = =
As a leader of the American socialist movement , Michael Harrington sent Tom Kahn and Rachelle Horowitz to help Bayard Rustin , one of the leaders of the Civil Rights Movement , who became a mentor to Kahn . Kahn and Horowitz were affectionately called the " Bayard Rustin Marching and Chowder Society " by Harrington . Kahn helped Rustin organize the 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage to Washington and the 1958 and 1959 Youth March for Integrated Schools .
= = = = Homosexuality and Bayard Rustin = = = =
As a young man , Tom Kahn " was gay but wanted to be straight ... It was a different world then " , according to Rachelle Horowitz . He had a short relationship with a member of the Young People 's Socialist League ( YPSL ) :
Although everyone active in the movement was aware of it , [ before 1956 ] he was never explicitly out of the closet . He took his sexual orientation as an affliction , a source of pain and embarrassment . In part , perhaps , because he was so unreconciled to his longings , he limited himself for a long time to brief encounters . But then he became involved with one of the YPSL ’ s and was compelled to seek the counsel of a psychiatrist to explain his unfamiliar feelings . The diagnosis , he told me , was “ you ’ re in love . ”
Tom Kahn was " very good looking , a very attractive guy " according to longtime socialist David McReynolds , who is also an openly gay New Yorker . Kahn accepted his homosexuality in 1956 , the year that Kahn and Horowitz volunteered to help Bayard Rustin with his work in the civil @-@ rights movement . " Once he met Bayard [ Rustin ] , then Kahn knew that he was gay and had this long @-@ term relationship with Bayard , which went through many stages " , according to Horowitz , who quoted Kahn 's remembrance of Rustin :
When I met him for the first time he was a few years younger than I am now , and I was barely on the edge of manhood . He drew me into a vortex of his endless campaigns and projects ... He introduced me to Bach and Brahms , and to the importance of maintaining a balance in life between the pursuit of our individual pleasures and engagements in , and responsibility for , the social condition . He believed that no class , caste or genre of people were exempt from this obligation .
However , cohabiting in Rustin 's apartment proved unsuccessful , and their romantic relationship ended when Kahn enrolled in the historically black Howard University . Kahn and Rustin remained lifelong friends and political comrades .
= = = = Howard University = = = =
Kahn , a white student , enrolled for his junior and senior years at Howard University , where he became a leader in student politics . Kahn worked closely with Stokely Carmichael , who later became a national leader of young civil @-@ rights activists and then one of the leaders of the Black Power movement . Kahn and Carmichael helped to fund a five @-@ day run of Three Penny Opera , by the Marxist playwright Berthold Brecht and the socialist composer Kurt Weill : " Tom Kahn — very shrewdly — had captured the position of Treasurer of the Liberal Arts Student Council and the infinitely charismatic and popular Carmichael as floor whip was good at lining up the votes . Before they knew what hit them the Student Council had become a patron of the arts , having voted to buy out the remaining performances . " Kahn and Carmichael worked with Howard University 's chapter of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee ( SNCC ) . Kahn introduced Carmichael and his fellow SNCC activists to Bayard Rustin , who became an influential adviser to SNCC . Kahn and Rustin 's emphasis on economic inequality influenced Carmichael . Kahn graduated from Howard in 1961 .
= = = = Leadership = = = =
Kahn ( along with Horowitz and Norman Hill ) helped Rustin and A. Philip Randolph to plan the 1963 March on Washington , at which Martin Luther King , Jr. delivered his " I have a dream " speech . For this march , Kahn also ghost wrote the speech of A. Philip Randolph , the senior leader of the civil @-@ rights movement and the African @-@ American labor movement . Kahn 's analysis of the civil @-@ rights movement influenced Bayard Rustin ( who was the nominal author of Kahn 's 1964 – 1965 essay " From protest to politics " ) , Stokely Carmichael , and William Julius Wilson .
= = = League for Industrial Democracy = = =
Kahn was Director of the League for Industrial Democracy after 1964 . Beginning in 1960 , he wrote several LID pamphlets , many of which were published in political journals like Dissent and Commentary , and some of which appeared in anthologies . Kahn 's The Economics of Equality LID pamphlet gave an " incisive radical analysis of what it would take to end racial oppression " .
= = = = Student League for Industrial Democracy : Students for a Democratic Society ( SDS ) = = = =
Before Kahn became LID director in 1964 , he was involved with the Student League for Industrial Democracy , which became Students for a Democratic Society ( SDS ) . Along with other LID members Rachelle Horowitz , Michael Harrington , and Don Slaiman , Kahn attended the LID @-@ sponsored meeting that discussed the Port Huron Statement . Kahn was listed as a student representative from Howard University and was elected to the National Executive Committee . The LID representatives criticized the Port Huron Statement for promoting students as leaders of social change , for criticizing the U.S. labor movement and its unions , and for its criticisms of liberal and socialist opposition to Soviet communism ( " anti @-@ communism " ) . Kahn believed that the SDS students were " elitist " , being overly critical of labor unions and liberals , and attributed upper @-@ class origins and Ivy @-@ league schooling to them , according to Port @-@ Huron activist Todd Gitlin , who observes that Kahn was the son of a " manual laborer " .
LID and SDS split in 1965 , when SDS voted to remove from its constitution the " exclusion clause " that prohibited membership by communists , against Kahn 's arguments . The SDS exclusion clause had barred " advocates of or apologists for " " totalitarianism " . The clause 's removal effectively invited " disciplined cadre " to attempt to " take over or paralyze " SDS , as had occurred to mass organizations in the thirties . Afterward , Marxism Leninism , particularly the Progressive Labor Party , helped to write " the death sentence " for SDS . Nonetheless Kahn continued to argue with SDS leaders about the need for accountable leadership , about tactics , and about strategy . In 1966 , Kahn attended the Illinois Convention of SDS , where his forceful arguments and delivery overwhelmed and were resented by the other activists ; Kahn was then 28 years old .
Kahn 's determined style of debate emerged from the socialist movement led by Max Shachtman . Kahn expressed his admiration for Shachtman 's intellectual toughness in his 1973 memorial : " His answers , of course , could not always be correct . But they were on target and always fundamental . "
= = = Social Democrats , USA = = =
Kahn and Horowitz were leaders in the Socialist Party USA , and supported its change of name to Social Democrats , USA ( SDUSA ) , despite Harrington 's opposition . Ben Wattenberg commented that SDUSA members seemed to be
... ingeniously trying to bury the Soviet Union in a blizzard of letterheads . It seemed that each of Tom 's colleagues — Penn Kemble , Carl Gershman , Josh Muravchik and many more — ran a little organization , each with the same interlocking directorate listed on the stationery . Funny thing : The Letterhead Lieutenants did indeed churn up a blizzard , and the Soviet Union is no more .
I never did quite get all the organizational acronyms straight — YPSL , LID , SP , SDA , ISL — but the key words were " democratic " , " labor " , " young " and , until events redefined it away from their understanding , " socialist " . Ultimately , the umbrella group became " Social Democrats , U.S.A " , and Tom Kahn was a principal " theoretician .
They talked and wrote endlessly , mostly about communism and democracy , despising the former , adoring the latter . It is easy today to say " anti @-@ communist " and " pro @-@ democracy " in the same breath . But that is because American foreign policy eventually became just such a mixture , thanks in part to those " Yipsels " ( Young People 's Socialist League ) , with Tom Kahn as provocateur @-@ at @-@ large .
On the conservative side , foreign policy used to be anti @-@ communist , but not very pro @-@ democracy . And foreign policy liberal @-@ style might be piously pro @-@ democracy , but nervous about being anti @-@ communist . Tom theorized that to be either , you had to be both .
It was tough for labor @-@ liberal intellectuals to be " anti @-@ communist " in the 1970s . It meant being taunted as " Cold Warriors " who saw " Commies under every bed " and being labeled as — the unkindest cut — " right @-@ wingers " .
Kahn worked as a senior assistant and speechwriter for Senator Henry " Scoop " Jackson , AFL – CIO Presidents George Meany and Lane Kirkland , and other leaders of the Democratic Party , labor unions , and civil rights organizations . He was an effective speechwriter because he was able to express ideas to an American audience , according to Wattenberg .
= = = Estrangement with Harrington = = =
Another protégé of Shachtman 's , Michael Harrington , called for an immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam in 1972 . His proposal was rejected by the majority , who criticized the war 's conduct and called for a negotiated peace treaty , the position associated with Shachtman and Kahn . Harrington resigned his honorary chairmanship of the Socialist Party and organized a caucus for like @-@ minded socialists . The conflict between Kahn and Harrington became " pretty bad " , according to Irving Howe .
Harrington handed former SDS activist and New York City journalist Jack Newfield a speech by AFL – CIO President George Meany . Addressing the September 1972 Convention of the United Steelworkers of America , Meany ridiculed the Democratic Party Convention , which had been held in Miami :
We heard from the gay @-@ lib [ gay @-@ liberation ] people who want to legalize marriage between boys and boys , and between girls and girls ... We heard from the people who looked like Jacks , acted like Jills , and had the odor of Johns [ customers of prostitutes ] about them .
This gay @-@ baiting taunt was attributed to Kahn by Harrington , and repeated by Newfield in his autobiography . Maurice Isserman 's biography of Harrington also described this speech as Kahn 's self hatred , as " Kahn 's resort to gay bashing " .
The blaming of Kahn for Meany 's speech and Isserman 's scholarship have been criticized by Rachelle Horowitz , Kahn 's friend , and by Joshua Muravchik , then an officer of the Young People 's Socialist League ( 1907 ) . According to Horowitz , Meany had many speechwriters — two specialists besides Kahn and even more writers from the AFL – CIO 's Committee on Political Education ( COPE ) Department . Horowitz stated , " It is in fact inconceivable that Kahn wrote those words . " She quoted a concurring assessment from Arch Puddington : [ Isserman ] " assumes that because Kahn was not publicly gay he had to be a gay basher . He never was . " According to Muravchik , " there is no reason to believe that Kahn wrote those lines , and Isserman presents none . "
Harrington failed to support an anti @-@ discrimination ( gay rights ) plank in the 1978 platform of the Democratic Party Convention , but noted his personal support after being criticized in The Nation . Along with others in the AFL – CIO and SDUSA , Kahn was accused of criticizing Harrington 's application for his Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee to join the Socialist International and to organize a 1983 conference on European socialism ; Harrington complained for six pages in his autobiography The Long Distance Runner , and " brooded " about Kahn 's opposition , exaggerating the importance of the Socialist International to America , according to Isserman 's biography . In 1991 , even after Harrington 's 1989 death , Howe warned Harrington 's biographer , Maurice Isserman , that Kahn 's description of Harrington " may well be a little nasty " and " hard line " .
= = = AFL – CIO support for free trade @-@ unions = = =
After becoming an assistant to the President of the AFL – CIO in 1972 , a position he held until 1986 , Kahn developed an expertise in international affairs . In 1980 AFL – CIO officer Lane Kirkland appointed Kahn to organize the AFL – CIO 's support for the Polish labor @-@ union Solidarity , which was maintained and indeed increased even after protests by the USSR and Carter administration .
= = = = Support of Solidarity , the Polish union = = = =
Kahn was heavily involved in supporting the Polish labor @-@ movement . The trade union Solidarity ( Solidarność ) began in 1980 . The Soviet @-@ backed Communist regime headed by General Wojciech Jaruzelski declared martial law in December 1981 .
In 1980 AFL – CIO President Lane Kirkland appointed Kahn to organize the AFL – CIO 's support of Solidarity . The AFL – CIO sought approval in advance from Solidarity 's leadership , to avoid jeopardizing their position with unwanted or surprising American help . Politically , the AFL – CIO supported the twenty @-@ one demands of the Gdansk workers , by lobbying to stop further U.S. loans to Poland unless those demands were met . Materially , the AFL – CIO established the Polish Workers Aid Fund . By 1981 it had raised almost $ 300 @,@ 000 , which was used to purchase printing presses and office supplies . The AFL – CIO donated typewriters , duplicating machines , a minibus , an offset press , and other supplies requested by Solidarity .
It is up to Solidarity ... to define the aid they need . Solidarity made its needs known , with courage , with clarity , and publicly . As you know , the AFL – CIO responded by establishing a fund for the purchase of equipment requested by Solidarity and we have raised about a quarter of a million dollars for that fund .
This effort has elicited from the Soviet Union , Czechoslovakia , East Germany , and Bulgaria the most massive and vicious propaganda assault ... in many , many years . The ominous tone of the most recent attacks leaves no doubt that if the Soviet Union invades , it shall cite the aid of the AFL – CIO as evidence of outside anti @-@ Socialist intervention .
All this is by way of introducing the AFL – CIO ’ s position on economic aid to Poland . In formulating this position , our first concern was to consult our friends in Solidarity ... and their views are reflected in the statement unanimously adopted by the AFL – CIO Executive Council :
The AFL – CIO will support additional aid to Poland only if it is conditioned on the adherence of the Polish government to the 21 points of the Gdansk Agreement . Only then could we be assured that the Polish workers will be in a position to defend their gains and to struggle for a fair share of the benefits of Western aid .
In testimony to the Joint Congressional Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe , Kahn suggested policies to support the Polish people , in particular by supporting Solidarity 's demand that the Communist regime finally establish legality , by respecting the twenty @-@ one rights guaranteed by the Polish constitution .
The AFL – CIO 's support enraged the Communist regimes of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union , and worried the Carter Administration , whose Secretary of State Edmund Muskie told Kirkland that the AFL – CIO 's continued support of Solidarity could trigger a Soviet invasion of Poland . After Kirkland refused to withdraw support to Solidarity , Muskie met with the USSR 's Ambassador , Anatoly Dobyrnin , to clarify that the AFL – CIO 's aid did not have the support of the U.S. government . Aid to Solidarity was also initially opposed by neo @-@ conservatives Norman Podhoretz and Jeane Kirkpatrick , who before 1982 argued that communism could not be overthrown and that Solidarity was doomed .
The AFL – CIO 's autonomous support of Solidarity was so successful that by 1984 both Democrats and Republicans agreed that it deserved public support . The AFL – CIO 's example of open support was deemed to be appropriate for a democracy , and much more suitable than the clandestine funding through the CIA that had occurred before 1970 . Both parties and President Ronald Reagan supported a non @-@ governmental organization , National Endowment for Democracy ( NED ) , through which Congress would openly fund Solidarity through an allocation in the State Department 's budget , beginning in 1984 . The NED was designed with four core institutions , associated with the two major parties and with the AFL @-@ CIO and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce ( representing business ) . The NED 's first president was Carl Gershman , a former Director of Social Democrats , USA and former U.S. Representative to the United Nations committee on human rights . From 1984 until 1990 , the NED and the AFL – CIO channeled equipment and support worth $ 4 million to Solidarity .
= = = = Director of the AFL – CIO 's Department of International Affairs = = = =
In 1986 Kahn became the Director of the AFL – CIO Department of International Affairs , where he implemented Kirkland 's program of having a consensus foreign policy . Working with leaders from member unions , Kahn helped to draft resolutions that represented consensus decisions for nearly all issues .
Kahn acted as Director of the AFL – CIO 's Department of International Affairs in 1986 , after Irving Brown suffered a stroke and resigned that same year ; after Brown 's death in 1989 , Kahn was officially named the Director .
= = = Living with AIDS = = =
Earlier in 1986 , Kahn had learned that he was infected with human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) , " which was then a death sentence " . Kahn longed to spend his remaining years with his " new and most beloved partner " , who was " the love of his life " . However , he accepted the office of Director out of a feeling of duty , knowing that he was taking " a job that would most surely work him to death " . He warned his co @-@ workers that his terminal condition would bring intellectual degeneration , and asked that they monitor him for signs of debilitation . An upgrade of the International Department 's computer systems was to have allowed Kahn to work from home .
Kahn died from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) in Silver Spring , Maryland on March 27 , 1992 , at the age of 53 , after having been cared for by his partner and supported by his friends and colleagues . He was survived by his partner and also his sister and his niece . Kahn planned most of his own memorial service , which was held in the AFL – CIO headquarters .
= = Works = =
" The Power of the March — And After , " Dissent , vol . 10 , no . 4 ( Autumn 1963 ) , pp. 316 – 320 .
" Problems of the Negro Movement , " Dissent , vol . 11 , no . 1 ( Winter 1964 ) , pp. 108 – 138 .
The Economics of Equality . Foreword by A. Philip Randolph and Michael Harrington . New York : League for Industrial Democracy , 1964 .
Bayard Rustin , From Protest to Politics : The Future of the Civil Rights Movement . New York : League for Industrial Democracy , Feb. 1965 . — Ghost written by Kahn , according to Horowitz ( 2007 ) , pp. 223 – 224 .
" Direct Action and Democratic Values , " Dissent , vol . 13 , no . 1 , whole no . 50 ( Jan.-Feb. 1966 ) , pp. 22 – 30 .
" The Riots and the Radicals , " Dissent , vol . 14 , no . 5 , whole no . 60 ( Sept.-Oct. 1967 ) , pp. 517 – 526 .
" The Problem of the New Left , " Commentary , vol . 42 ( July 1966 ) , pp. 30 – 38 .
" Max Shachtman : His Ideas and His Movement , " New America , Nov. 15 , 1972 .
" Farewell to a Decade of Illusions , " New America , vol . 11 ( Dec. 1980 ) , pp. 6 – 9 .
" How to Support Solidarnosc : A Debate . " With Norman Podhoretz ; introduction by Midge Decter ; moderated by Carl Gershman . Democratiya , vol . 13 ( Summer 2008 ) , pp. 230 – 261 .
" Moral Duty , " Transaction , vol . 19 , no . 3 ( March 1982 ) , pg . 51 .
" Beyond the Double Standard : A Social Democratic View of the Authoritarianism versus Totalitarianism Debate , " New America , July 1985 . — Speech of January 1985 .
= = = Photographs = = =
Picture of Tom Kahn — with Rachelle Horowitz , James Farmer ( CORE leader ) , and Ernest Green — at 1964 World 's Fair , protesting poverty , before their arrest. in Levine , Daniel ( 2000 ) . Bayard Rustin and the civil rights movement . New Jersey : Rutgers University Press. p . 352 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8135 @-@ 2718 @-@ X.
Tom Kahn with Donald Slaiman of Social Democrats , USA .
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= White stork =
The white stork ( Ciconia ciconia ) is a large bird in the stork family Ciconiidae . Its plumage is mainly white , with black on its wings . Adults have long red legs and long pointed red beaks , and measure on average 100 – 115 cm ( 39 – 45 in ) from beak tip to end of tail , with a 155 – 215 cm ( 61 – 85 in ) wingspan . The two subspecies , which differ slightly in size , breed in Europe ( north to Finland ) , northwestern Africa , southwestern Asia ( east to southern Kazakhstan ) and southern Africa . The white stork is a long @-@ distance migrant , wintering in Africa from tropical Sub @-@ Saharan Africa to as far south as South Africa , or on the Indian subcontinent . When migrating between Europe and Africa , it avoids crossing the Mediterranean Sea and detours via the Levant in the east or the Strait of Gibraltar in the west , because the air thermals on which it depends do not form over water .
A carnivore , the white stork eats a wide range of animal prey , including insects , fish , amphibians , reptiles , small mammals and small birds . It takes most of its food from the ground , among low vegetation , and from shallow water . It is a monogamous breeder , but does not pair for life . Both members of the pair build a large stick nest , which may be used for several years . Each year the female can lay one clutch of usually four eggs , which hatch asynchronously 33 – 34 days after being laid . Both parents take turns incubating the eggs and both feed the young . The young leave the nest 58 – 64 days after hatching , and continue to be fed by the parents for a further 7 – 20 days .
The white stork has been rated as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . It benefited from human activities during the Middle Ages as woodland was cleared , but changes in farming methods and industrialisation saw it decline and disappear from parts of Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries . Conservation and reintroduction programs across Europe have resulted in the white stork resuming breeding in the Netherlands , Belgium , Switzerland and Sweden . It has few natural predators , but may harbour several types of parasite ; the plumage is home to chewing lice and feather mites , while the large nests maintain a diverse range of mesostigmatic mites . This conspicuous species has given rise to many legends across its range , of which the best @-@ known is the story of babies being brought by storks .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The white stork was one of the many bird species originally described by Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae , where it was given the binomial name of Ardea ciconia . It was reclassified to ( and was designated the type species of ) the new genus Ciconia by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 . Both the genus and specific epithet , cǐcōnia , are the Latin word for " stork " , originally recorded in the works of Horace and Ovid . The Latin word survives in most Romance languages ( cicogna , cigüeña , cegonha and the like ) . The word stork is derived from the Old English word storc , and appeared in the 10th @-@ century works the Erfurt Glossary , where the word is equated with Ciconia , and Aelfric 's Homilies . The word is related to the Old High German storah , " stork " , and similar words in many other European languages , all of which are descended from the Germanic sturko @-@ z .
There are two subspecies :
C. c. ciconia , the nominate subspecies described by Linnaeus in 1758 , breeds from Europe to northwest Africa and westernmost Asia , and in southern Africa , and winters mainly in Africa south of the Sahara Desert , though some birds winter in India .
C. c. asiatica , described by Russian naturalist Nikolai Severtzov in 1873 , breeds in Turkestan and winters from Iran to India . It is slightly larger than the nominate subspecies .
The stork family contains six genera in three broad groups : the open @-@ billed and wood storks ( Mycteria and Anastomus ) , the giant storks ( Ephippiorhynchus , Jabiru and Leptoptilos ) , and the " typical " storks , Ciconia . The typical storks include the white stork and six other extant species , which are characterised by straight pointed beaks and mainly black and white plumage . Its closest relatives are the larger , black @-@ billed Oriental white stork ( Ciconia boyciana ) of East Asia , which was formerly classified as a subspecies of the white stork , and the maguari stork ( C. maguari ) of South America . Close evolutionary relationships within Ciconia are suggested by behavioural similarities and , biochemically , through analysis of both mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences and DNA @-@ DNA hybridization .
A Ciconia fossil representing the distal end of a right humerus has been recovered from Miocene beds of Rusinga Island , Lake Victoria , Kenya . The 24 – 6 million year old fossil could have originated from either a white stork or a black stork ( C. nigra ) , which are species of about the same size with very similar bone structures . The Middle Miocene beds of Maboko Island have yielded further remains .
= = Description = =
The white stork is a large bird . It has a length of 100 – 115 cm ( 39 – 45 in ) , and a standing height of 100 – 125 cm ( 39 – 49 in ) . The wingspan is 155 – 215 cm ( 61 – 85 in ) and its weight is 2 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 9 lb ) . Like all storks , it has long legs , a long neck and a long straight pointed beak . The sexes are identical in appearance , except that males are larger than females on average . The plumage is mainly white with black flight feathers and wing coverts ; the black is caused by the pigment melanin . The breast feathers are long and shaggy forming a ruff which is used in some courtship displays . The irises are dull brown or grey , and the peri @-@ orbital skin is black . The adult has a bright red beak and red legs , the colouration of which is derived from carotenoids in the diet . In parts of Spain , studies have shown that the pigment is based on astaxanthin obtained from an introduced species of crayfish ( Procambarus clarkii ) and the bright red beak colours show up even in nestlings , in contrast to the duller beaks of young white storks elsewhere .
As with other storks , the wings are long and broad enabling the bird to soar . In flapping flight its wingbeats are slow and regular . It flies with its neck stretched forward and with its long legs extended well beyond the end of its short tail . It walks at a slow and steady pace with its neck upstretched . In contrast , it often hunches its head between its shoulders when resting . Moulting has not been extensively studied , but appears to take place throughout the year , with the primary flight feathers replaced over the breeding season .
Upon hatching , the young white stork is partly covered with short , sparse , whitish down feathers . This early down is replaced about a week later with a denser coat of woolly white down . By three weeks , the young bird acquires black scapulars and flight feathers . On hatching the chick has pinkish legs , which turn to greyish @-@ black as it ages . Its beak is black with a brownish tip . By the time it fledges , the juvenile bird 's plumage is similar to that of the adult , though its black feathers are often tinged with brown , and its beak and legs are a duller brownish @-@ red or orange . The beak is typically orange or red with a darker tip . The bills gain the adults ' red colour the following summer , although the black tips persist in some individuals . Young storks adopt adult plumage by their second summer .
= = = Similar species = = =
Within its range the white stork is distinctive when seen on the ground but , when seen at a distance in flight , it can be confused with several other species with similar underwing patterns , such as the yellow @-@ billed stork , great white pelican and Egyptian vulture . The yellow @-@ billed stork is identified by its black tail and a longer , slightly curved , yellow beak . The white stork also tends to be larger than the yellow @-@ billed stork . The great white pelican has short legs which do not extend beyond its tail , and it flies with its neck retracted , keeping its head near to its stocky body , giving it a different flight profile . Pelicans also behave differently , soaring in orderly , synchronised flocks rather than in disorganised groups of individuals as the white stork does . The Egyptian vulture is much smaller , with a long wedge @-@ shaped tail , shorter legs and a small yellow @-@ tinged head on a short neck . The common crane , which can also look black and white in strong light , shows longer legs and a longer neck in flight .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The nominate race of the white stork has a wide although disjunct summer range across Europe , clustered in the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa in the west , and much of eastern and central Europe , with 25 % of the world 's population concentrated in Poland , as well as parts of western Asia . The asiatica population of about 1450 birds is restricted to a region in central Asia between the Aral Sea and Xinjiang in western China . The Xinjiang population is believed to have become extinct around 1980 . Migration routes extend the range of this species into many parts of Africa and India . Some populations adhere to the eastern migration route , which passes across Israel into eastern and central Africa .
A few records of breeding from South Africa have been known since 1933 at Calitzdorp , and about 10 birds have been known to breed since the 1990s around Bredasdorp . A small population of white storks winters in India and is thought to derive principally from the C. c. asiatica population as flocks of up to 200 birds have been observed on spring migration in the early 1900s through the Kurram Valley . However , birds ringed in Germany have been recovered in western ( Bikaner ) and southern ( Tirunelveli ) India . An atypical specimen with red orbital skin , a feature of the Oriental white stork , has been recorded and further study of the Indian population is required . North of the breeding range , it is a passage migrant or vagrant in Finland , Great Britain , Iceland , Ireland , Norway and Sweden , and west to the Azores and Madeira . In recent years , the range has expanded into western Russia .
The white stork 's preferred feeding grounds are grassy meadows , farmland and shallow wetlands . It avoids areas overgrown with tall grass and shrubs . In the Chernobyl area of northern Ukraine , white stork populations declined after the 1986 nuclear accident there as farmland was succeeded by tall grass shrubs . In parts of Poland , poor natural foraging grounds have forced birds to seek food at rubbish dumps since 1999 . White storks have also been reported foraging in rubbish dumps in the Middle East , North Africa and South Africa .
The white stork breeds in greater numbers in areas with open grasslands , particularly grassy areas which are wet or periodically flooded , and less in areas with taller vegetation cover such as forest and shrubland . They make use of grasslands , wetlands , and farmland on the wintering grounds in Africa . White storks were probably aided by human activities during the Middle Ages as woodland was cleared and new pastures and farmland were created , and they were found across much of Europe , breeding as far north as Sweden . The population in Sweden is thought to have established in the 16th century after forests were cut down for agriculture . About 5000 pairs were estimated to breed in the 18th century which declined subsequently . The first accurate census in 1917 found 25 pairs and the last pair failed to breed around 1955 . The white stork is a rare visitor to the British Isles , as about 20 birds are seen in Britain every year , but there are no records of nesting . A pair nested atop St Giles High Kirk in Edinburgh , Scotland in 1416 .
A decline in population began in the 19th century due to industrialisation and changes in agricultural methods . White storks no longer nest in many countries , and the current strongholds of the western population are in Portugal , Spain , Ukraine and Poland . In the Iberian Peninsula , populations are concentrated in the southwest , and have also declined due to agricultural practices . A study published in 2005 found that the Podhale region in the uplands of southern Poland had seen an influx of white storks , which first bred there in 1931 and have nested at progressively higher altitudes since , reaching 890 m ( 3000 ft ) in 1999 . The authors proposed that this was related to climate warming , and the influx of other animals and plants to higher altitudes . White storks arriving in Poznań province ( Greater Poland Voivodeship ) in western Poland in spring to breed did so some 10 days earlier in the last twenty years of the 20th century than at the end of the 19th century .
= = = Migration = = =
Systematic research into migration of white stork began with German ornithologist Johannes Thienemann who commenced ringing studies in 1906 at the Rossitten Bird Observatory , on the Curonian Spit in what was then East Prussia . Although not many storks passed through Rossitten itself , the observatory coordinated the large @-@ scale ringing of the species throughout Germany and elsewhere in Europe . Between 1906 and the Second World War about 100 @,@ 000 , mainly juvenile , white storks were ringed , with over 2 @,@ 000 long @-@ distance recoveries of birds wearing Rossitten rings reported between 1908 and 1954 .
= = = = Routes = = = =
White storks fly south from their summer breeding grounds in Europe in August and September , heading for Africa . There , they spend the winter in savannah from Kenya and Uganda south to the Cape Province of South Africa . In these areas they congregate in large flocks which may exceed a thousand individuals . Some diverge westwards into western Sudan and Chad , and may reach Nigeria . In spring , the birds return north ; they are recorded from Sudan and Egypt from February to April . They arrive back in Europe around late March and April , after an average journey of 49 days . By comparison , the autumn journey is completed in about 26 days . Tailwinds and scarcity of food and water en route ( birds fly faster over regions lacking resources ) increase average speed .
To avoid a long sea crossing over the Mediterranean , birds from central Europe either follow an eastern migration route by crossing the Bosphorus to Turkey , traversing the Levant , then bypassing the Sahara Desert by following the Nile valley southwards , or follow a western route over the Strait of Gibraltar . These migration corridors maximise help from the thermals and thus save energy . The eastern route is by far the more important with 530 @,@ 000 white storks using it annually , making the species the second commonest migrant there ( after the European honey buzzard ) . The flocks of migrating raptors , white storks and great white pelicans can stretch for 200 km ( 125 mi ) . The eastern route is twice as long as the western , but storks take the same time to reach the wintering grounds by either .
Juvenile white storks set off on their first southward migration in an inherited direction but , if displaced from that bearing by weather conditions , they are unable to compensate , and may end up in a new wintering location . Adults can compensate for strong winds and adjust their direction to finish at their normal winter sites , because they are familiar with the location . For the same reason , all spring migrants , even those from displaced wintering locations , can find their way back to the traditional breeding sites . An experiment with young birds raised in captivity in Kaliningrad and released in the absence of wild storks to show them the way revealed that they appeared to have an instinct to fly south , although the scatter in direction was large .
= = = = Energetics = = = =
White storks rely on the uplift of air thermals to soar and glide the long distances of their annual migrations between Europe and Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . For many , the shortest route would take them over the Mediterranean Sea ; however , since air thermals do not form over water , they generally detour over land to avoid the trans @-@ Mediterranean flights that would require prolonged energetic wing flapping . It has been estimated that flapping flight metabolises 23 times more body fat than soaring flight per distance travelled . Thus , flocks spiral upwards on rising warm air until they emerge at the top , up to 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 500 m ( 3 @,@ 900 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) above the ground ( though one record from Western Sudan observed an altitude of 3 @,@ 300 m ( 10 @,@ 800 ft ) ) .
Long flights over water may occasionally be undertaken . A young white stork ringed at the nest in Denmark subsequently appeared in England , where it spent some days before moving on . It was later seen flying over St Mary 's , Isles of Scilly , and arrived in a poor condition in Madeira three days later . That island is 500 km ( 320 mi ) from Africa , and twice as far from the European mainland . Migration through the Middle East may be hampered by the khamsin , winds bringing gusty overcast days unsuitable for flying . In these situations , flocks of white storks sit out the adverse weather on the ground , standing and facing into the wind .
= = Behaviour = =
The white stork is a gregarious bird ; flocks of thousands of individuals have been recorded on migration routes and at wintering areas in Africa . Non @-@ breeding birds gather in groups of 40 or 50 during the breeding season . The smaller dark @-@ plumaged Abdim 's stork is often encountered with white stork flocks in southern Africa . Breeding pairs of white stork may gather in small groups to hunt , and colony nesting has been recorded in some areas . However , groups among white stork colonies vary widely in size and the social structure is loosely defined ; young breeding storks are often restricted to peripheral nests , while older storks attain higher breeding success while occupying the better quality nests toward the centres of breeding colonies . Social structure and group cohesion is maintained by altruistic behaviours such as allopreening . White storks exhibit this behaviour exclusively at the nest site . Standing birds preen the heads of sitting birds , sometimes these are parents grooming juveniles , and sometimes juveniles preen each other . Unlike most storks , it never adopts a spread @-@ winged posture , though it is known to droop its wings ( holding them away from its body with the primary feathers pointing downwards ) when its plumage is wet .
A white stork 's droppings , containing faeces and urine , are sometimes directed onto its own legs , making them appear white . The resulting evaporation provides cooling and is termed urohidrosis . Birds that have been ringed can sometimes be affected by the accumulation of droppings around the ring leading to constriction and leg trauma . The white stork has also been noted for tool use by squeezing moss in the beak to drip water into the mouths of its chicks .
= = = Communication = = =
The adult white stork 's main sound is noisy bill @-@ clattering , which has been likened to distant machine gun fire . The bird makes these sounds by rapidly opening and closing its beak so that a knocking sound is made each time its beak closes . The clattering is amplified by its throat pouch , which acts as a resonator . Used in a variety of social interactions , bill @-@ clattering generally grows louder the longer it lasts , and takes on distinctive rhythms depending on the situation — for example , slower during copulation and briefer when given as an alarm call . The only vocal sound adult birds generate is a weak barely audible hiss ; however , young birds can generate a harsh hiss , various cheeping sounds , and a cat @-@ like mew they use to beg for food . Like the adults , young also clatter their beaks . The up @-@ down display is used for a number of interactions with other members of the species . Here a stork quickly throws its head backwards so that its crown rests on its back before slowly bringing its head and neck forwards again , and this is repeated several times . The display is used as a greeting between birds , post coitus , and also as a threat display . Breeding pairs are territorial over the summer , and use this display , as well as crouching forward with the tails cocked and wings extended .
= = = Feeding = = =
White storks consume a wide variety of animal prey . They prefer to forage in meadows that are within roughly 5 km ( 3 mi ) of their nest and sites where the vegetation is shorter so that their prey is more accessible . Their diet varies according to season , locality and prey availability . Common food items include insects ( primarily beetles , grasshoppers , locusts and crickets ) , earthworms , reptiles , amphibians , particularly frog species such as the edible frog ( Pelophylax kl. esculentus ) and common frog ( Rana temporaria ) and small mammals such as voles , moles and shrews . Less commonly , they also eat bird eggs and young birds , fish , molluscs , crustaceans and scorpions . They hunt mainly during the day , swallowing small prey whole , but killing and breaking apart larger prey before swallowing . Rubber bands are mistaken for earthworms and consumed , occasionally resulting in fatal blockage of the digestive tract .
Birds returning to Latvia during spring have been shown to locate their prey , moor frogs ( Rana arvalis ) , by homing in on the mating calls produced by aggregations of male frogs .
The diet of non @-@ breeding birds is similar to that of breeding birds , but food items are more often taken from dry areas . White storks wintering in western India have been observed to follow blackbuck to capture insects disturbed by them . Wintering white storks in India sometimes forage along with the woolly @-@ necked stork ( Ciconia episcopus ) . Food piracy has been recorded in India with a rodent captured by a western marsh harrier appropriated by a white stork , while Montagu 's harrier is known to harass white storks foraging for voles in some parts of Poland .
= = = Breeding and lifespan = = =
The white stork breeds in open farmland areas with access to marshy wetlands , building a large stick nest in trees , on buildings , or on purpose @-@ built man @-@ made platforms . Each nest is 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in depth , 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 2 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in diameter , and 60 – 250 kg ( 130 – 550 lb ) in weight . Nests are built in loose colonies . Not persecuted as it is viewed as a good omen , it often nests close to human habitation ; in southern Europe , nests can be seen on churches and other buildings . The nest is typically used year after year especially by older males . The males arrive earlier in the season and choose the nests . Larger nests are associated with greater numbers of young successfully fledged , and appear to be sought after . Nest change is often related to a change in the pairing and failure to raise young the previous year , and younger birds are more likely to change nesting sites . Although a pair may be found to occupy a nest , partners may change several times during the early stages and breeding activities begin only after a stable pairing is achieved .
Several bird species often nest within the large nests of the white stork . Regular occupants are house sparrows , tree sparrows , and common starlings ; less common residents include Eurasian kestrels , little owls , European rollers , white wagtails , black redstarts , Eurasian jackdaws , and Spanish sparrows . Paired birds greet by engaging in up @-@ down and head @-@ shaking crouch displays , and clattering the beak while throwing back the head . Pairs copulate frequently throughout the month before eggs are laid . High @-@ frequency pair copulation is usually associated with sperm competition and high frequency of extra @-@ pair copulation ; however , extra @-@ pair copulation is infrequent in white storks .
A white stork pair raises a single brood a year . The female typically lays four eggs , though clutches of one to seven have been recorded . The eggs are white , but often look dirty or yellowish due to a glutinous covering . They measure 72 @.@ 58 mm × 51 @.@ 86 mm ( 2 @.@ 857 in × 2 @.@ 042 in ) , and weigh 96 – 129 g ( 3 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 6 oz ) , of which 10 @.@ 76 g ( 0 @.@ 380 oz ) is shell . Incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid , so the brood hatches asynchronously , beginning 33 to 34 days later . The first hatchling typically has a competitive edge over the others . While stronger chicks are not aggressive towards weaker siblings , as is the case in some species , weak or small chicks are sometimes killed by their parents . This behaviour occurs in times of food shortage to reduce brood size and hence increase the chance of survival of the remaining nestlings . White stork nestlings do not attack each other , and their parents ' method of feeding them ( disgorging large amounts of food at once ) means that stronger siblings cannot outcompete weaker ones for food directly , hence parental infanticide is an efficient way of reducing brood size . Despite this , this behaviour has not commonly been observed .
The temperature and weather around the time of hatching in spring is important ; cool temperatures and wet weather increase chick mortality and reduce breeding success rates . Somewhat unexpectedly , studies have found that later @-@ hatching chicks which successfully reach adulthood produce more chicks than do their earlier @-@ hatching nestmates . The body weight of the chicks increases rapidly in the first few weeks and reaches a plateau of about 3 @.@ 4 kg ( 7 @.@ 5 lb ) in 45 days . The length of the beak increases linearly for about 50 days . Young birds are fed with earthworms and insects , which are regurgitated by the parents onto the floor of the nest . Older chicks reach into the mouths of parents to obtain food . Chicks fledge 58 to 64 days after hatching .
White storks generally begin breeding when about four years old , although the age of first breeding has been recorded as early as two years and as late as seven years . The oldest known wild white stork lived for 39 years after being ringed in Switzerland , while captive birds have lived for more than 35 years .
= = Parasites and diseases = =
White stork nests are habitats for an array of small arthropods , particularly over the warmer months after the birds arrive to breed . Nesting over successive years , the storks bring more material to line their nests and layers of organic material accumulate within them . Not only do their bodies tend to regulate temperatures within the nest , but excrement , food remains and feather and skin fragments provide nourishment for a large and diverse population of free @-@ living mesostigmatic mites . A survey of twelve nests found 13 @,@ 352 individuals of 34 species , the most common being Macrocheles merdarius , M. robustulus , Uroobovella pyriformis and Trichouropoda orbicularis , which together represented almost 85 % of all the specimens collected . These feed on the eggs and larvae of insects and on nematodes , which are abundant in the nest litter . These mites are dispersed by coprophilous beetles , often of the family Scarabaeidae , or on dung brought by the storks during nest construction . Parasitic mites do not occur , perhaps being controlled by the predatory species . The overall impact of the mite population is unclear , the mites may have a role in suppressing harmful organisms ( and hence be beneficial ) , or they may themselves have an adverse effect on nestlings .
The birds themselves host species belonging to more than four genera of feather mites . These mites , including Freyanopterolichus pelargicus and Pelargolichus didactylus live on fungi growing on the feathers . The fungi found on the plumage may feed on the keratin of the outer feathers or on feather oil . Chewing lice such as Colpocephalum zebra tend to be found on the wings , and Neophilopterus incompletus elsewhere on the body .
The white stork also carries several types of internal parasites , including Toxoplasma gondii and intestinal parasites of the genus Giardia . A study of 120 white stork carcasses from Saxony @-@ Anhalt and Brandenburg in Germany yielded eight species of trematode ( fluke ) , four cestode ( tapeworm ) species , and at least three species of nematode . One species of fluke , Chaunocephalus ferox , caused lesions in the wall of the small intestine in a number of birds admitted to two rehabilitation centres in central Spain , and was associated with reduced weight . It is a recognised pathogen and cause of morbidity in the Asian openbill ( Anastomus oscitans ) . More recently , the thorough study performed by J. Sitko and P. Heneberg in the Czech Republic in 1962 – 2013 suggested that the central European white storks host 11 helminth species . Chaunocephalus ferox , Tylodelphys excavata and Dictymetra discoidea were reported to be the dominant ones . The other species found included Cathaemasia hians , Echinochasmus spinulosus , Echinostoma revolutum , Echinostoma sudanense , Duboisia syriaca , Apharyngostrigea cornu , Capillaria sp. and Dictymetra discoidea . Juvenile white storks were shown to host less species , but the intensity of infection was higher in the juveniles than in the adult storks .
West Nile virus ( WNV ) is mainly a bird infection that is transmitted between birds by mosquitos . Migrating birds appear to be important in spread of the virus , the ecology of which remains poorly known . On 26 August 1998 , a flock of about 1 @,@ 200 migrating white storks that had been blown off course on their southward journey landed in Eilat , in southern Israel . The flock was stressed as it had resorted to flapping flight to return to its migratory route , and a number of birds died . A virulent strain of West Nile virus was isolated from the brains of eleven dead juveniles . Other white storks subsequently tested in Israel have shown anti @-@ WNV antibodies . In 2008 three juvenile white storks from a Polish wildlife refuge yielded seropositive results indicating exposure to the virus , but the context or existence of the virus in Poland is unclear .
= = Conservation = =
The white stork 's decline due to industrialisation and agricultural changes ( principally the draining of wetlands and conversion of meadows to crops such as maize ) began in the 19th century : the last wild individual in Belgium was seen in 1895 , in Sweden in 1955 , in Switzerland in 1950 and in the Netherlands in 1991 . However , the species has since been reintroduced to many regions . It has been rated as least concern by the IUCN since 1994 , after being evaluated as near threatened in 1988 . The white stork is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies . Parties to the agreement are required to engage in a wide range of conservation strategies described in a detailed action plan . The plan is intended to address key issues such as species and habitat conservation , management of human activities , research , education , and implementation . Threats include the continued loss of wetlands , collisions with overhead power lines , use of persistent pesticides ( such as DDT ) to combat locusts in Africa , and largely illegal hunting on migration routes and wintering grounds .
A large population of white storks breeds in central ( Poland , Ukraine and Germany ) and southern Europe ( Spain and Turkey ) . In a 2004 / 05 census , there were 52 @,@ 500 pairs in Poland , 30 @,@ 000 pairs in Ukraine , 20 @,@ 000 pairs in Belarus , 13 @,@ 000 pairs in Lithuania ( the highest known density of this species in the world ) , 10 @,@ 700 pairs in Latvia , and 10 @,@ 200 in Russia . There were around 5 @,@ 500 pairs in Romania , 5 @,@ 300 in Hungary and an estimated 4 @,@ 956 breeding pairs in Bulgaria . In Germany , the majority of the total 4 @,@ 482 pairs were in the eastern region , especially in the states of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg @-@ Vorpommern ( 1296 and 863 pairs in 2008 respectively ) . Apart from Spain and Portugal ( 33 @,@ 217 and 7 @,@ 684 pairs in 2004 / 05 respectively ) , populations are generally much less stable . The Danish population declined to just three pairs in 2005 . In the eastern Mediterranean region Turkey has a sizeable population of 6195 pairs , and Greece 2139 pairs . In Western Europe the white stork remains a rare bird despite conservation efforts . In 2004 France had only 973 pairs , and the Netherlands 528 pairs .
In the early 1980s , the population had fallen to fewer than nine pairs in the entire upper Rhine River valley , an area closely identified with the white stork for centuries . Conservation efforts successfully increased the population of birds there to 270 pairs ( in 2008 ) , largely due to the actions of the Association for the Protection and Reintroduction of Storks in Alsace and Lorraine . The reintroduction of zoo @-@ reared birds has halted further declines in Italy , the Netherlands , and Switzerland . There were 601 pairs breeding in Armenia and around 700 pairs in the Netherlands in 2008 , and few pairs also breed in South Africa , typically recent colonists from within the normal wintering population . In Poland , electric poles have been modified with a platform at the top to prevent the white stork 's large nest from disrupting the electricity supply , and sometimes nests are moved from an electric pole to a man @-@ made platform . Introductions of zoo @-@ reared birds in the Netherlands has been followed up by feeding and nest @-@ building programs by volunteers . Similar reintroduction programs are taking place in Sweden , and Switzerland , where 175 pairs were recorded breeding in 2000 . Long term viability of the population in Switzerland is unclear as breeding success rates are low , and supplementary feeding does not appear to be of benefit .
= = Cultural associations = =
Due to its large size , predation on vermin , and nesting behaviour close to human settlements and on rooftops , the white stork has an imposing presence that has had an impact on human culture and folklore . In Ancient Egypt , it was associated with , and was the hieroglyph for , the Ba , or " soul " . The Hebrew word for the white stork is chasidah ( חסידה ) , meaning " merciful " or " kind " . Greek and Roman mythology portray storks as models of parental devotion , and it was believed that they did not die of old age , but flew to islands and took the appearance of humans . The bird is featured in at least three of Aesop 's Fables : The Fox and the Stork , The Farmer and the Stork , and The Frogs Who Desired a King . Storks were also thought to care for their aged parents , feeding them and even transporting them , and children 's books depicted them as a model of filial values . A Greek law called Pelargonia , from the Ancient Greek word pelargos for stork , required citizens to take care of their aged parents . The Greeks also held that killing a stork could be punished with death . It was allegedly protected in Ancient Thessaly as it hunted snakes , and widely held to be Virgil 's " white bird " . Roman writers noted the white stork 's arrival in spring , which alerted farmers to plant their vines .
Followers of Islam revered storks because they made an annual pilgrimage to Mecca on their migration . Some of the earliest understanding on bird migration were initiated by an interest in white storks ; Pfeilstörche ( " arrow storks " ) were found in Europe with African arrows embedded in their bodies . A well @-@ known example of such a stork found in the summer of 1822 in the German town of Klütz in Mecklenburg was made into a mounted taxidermy specimen , complete with the ornate African arrow , that is now in the University of Rostock .
Storks have little fear of humans if not disturbed , and often nest on buildings in Europe . In Germany , the presence of a nest on a house was believed to protect against fires . They were also protected because of the belief that their souls were human . German and Dutch households would encourage storks to nest on houses , sometimes by constructing purpose @-@ built high platforms , to bring good luck . Poles , Lithuanians and Ukrainians believe that storks bring harmony to a family on whose property they nest .
The white stork is a popular motif on postage stamps , and it is featured on more than 120 stamps issued by more than 60 stamp @-@ issuing entities . It is the national bird of Lithuania and Belarus , and it was a Polish mascot at the Expo 2000 Fair in Hanover . In the 19th century , storks were also thought to only live in countries having a republican form of government . Polish poet Cyprian Kamil Norwid mentioned storks in his poem Moja piosnka ( II ) ( " My Song ( II ) " ) :
For the land where it 's a great travesty
To harm a stork 's nest in a pear tree ,
For storks serve us all ...
I am homesick , Lord ! ...
= = = Storks and childbirth = = =
According to European folklore , the stork is responsible for bringing babies to new parents . The legend is very ancient , but was popularised by a 19th @-@ century Hans Christian Andersen story called The Storks . German folklore held that storks found babies in caves or marshes and brought them to households in a basket on their backs or held in their beaks . These caves contained adebarsteine or " stork stones " . The babies would then be given to the mother or dropped down the chimney . Households would notify when they wanted children by placing sweets for the stork on the window sill . From there the folklore has spread around the world to countries such as the Philippines and South America . Birthmarks on the back of the head of newborn baby , nevus flammeus nuchae , are sometimes referred to as stork @-@ bite .
In Slavic mythology and religion , storks were thought to carry unborn souls from Iriy to Earth in spring and summer . This belief still persists in the modern folk culture of many Slavic countries , in the simplified child story that " storks bring children into the world " . Storks were seen by the Slavs as bringing luck , and killing one would bring misfortune . A long @-@ term study that showed a spurious correlation between the numbers of stork nests and human births is widely used in the teaching of basic statistics as an example to highlight that correlation does not necessarily indicate causation . The child @-@ bringing myth has appeared in different forms in history . Children of African American slaves were sometimes told that white babies were brought by storks , while black babies were born from buzzard eggs .
Psychoanalyst Marvin Margolis suggests the enduring nature of the stork fable of the newborn is linked to its addressing a psychological need , in that it allays the discomfort of discussing sex and procreation with children . Birds have long been associated with the maternal symbols from pagan goddesses such as Juno to the Holy Ghost , and the stork may have been chosen for its white plumage ( depicting purity ) , size ( in that it is big enough to carry an infant ) , and flight at high altitude ( likened to flying between Earth and Heaven ) . The fable and its relation to the internal world of the child have been discussed by Sigmund Freud , and Carl Jung . In fact , Jung recalled being told the story himself upon the birth of his own sister . The traditional link with the newborn continues with their use in advertising for such products as nappies and birth announcements .
There were negative aspects to stork folklore as well ; a Polish folk tale relates how God made the stork 's plumage white , while the Devil gave it black wings , imbuing it with both good and evil impulses . They were also associated with handicapped or stillborn babies in Germany , explained as the stork having dropped the baby en route to the household , or as revenge or punishment for past wrongdoing . A mother who was confined to bed around the time of childbirth was said to have been " bitten " by the stork . In Denmark , storks were said to toss a nestling off the nest and then an egg in successive years . In medieval England , storks were also associated with adultery , possibly inspired by their courtship rituals . Their preening and posture saw them linked with the attribute of self @-@ conceit .
= = = In literature = = =
Patrick Leigh Fermor describes a flock of storks migrating south across the Balkans in 1934 in his memoir published as The Broken Road .
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= The Beatles in Hamburg =
The Beatles members John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison , Stuart Sutcliffe and Pete Best regularly performed at different clubs in Hamburg , Northern Germany , during the period from August 1960 to December 1962 ; a chapter in the group 's history which honed their performance skills , widened their reputation , and led to their first recording , which brought them to the attention of Brian Epstein .
The Beatles ' booking agent , Allan Williams , decided to send the group to Hamburg when another group he managed , Derry and the Seniors , proved successful there . Having no permanent drummer at the time , they recruited Best a few days before their departure . After breaking their contract by playing at another club , Harrison was deported for being under @-@ age , and McCartney and Best were arrested and deported for attempted arson ( after McCartney and Best had set fire to a condom in their living quarters ) .
The Beatles first met Astrid Kirchherr in Hamburg , who was instrumental in their adoption of the famous Beatle haircut . During their time in Hamburg , Sutcliffe decided to leave the group to continue his studies . In April 1962 , less than a year after leaving the group , he died of a brain hemorrhage .
= = Hamburg in the 1960s = =
Hamburg had once been Germany 's main seaport , the fourth largest in the world , but in 1943 virtually the entire city had been reduced to rubble by World War II bombing raids . By 1960 , when they arrived , the Hamburg that had grown up from the ruins of WWII had established its reputation throughout Europe as a city of vice and criminal activity . In contrast to an economically depressed post @-@ war Liverpool , Hamburg was a wealthy city .
= = = Leaving Liverpool = = =
Williams , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old Liverpool businessman and promoter , had sent his leading group , Derry and the Seniors ( later known as Howie Casey and the Seniors ) to Hamburg , where they were enjoying success , and wanted to send an additional group . He initially tried to send Rory Storm and the Hurricanes , but Storm and his group were committed to a Butlins holiday camp and turned Williams ' offer down , as did Gerry and the Pacemakers . Williams started promoting concerts for The Beatles in May 1960 , after they had played at his Jacaranda club in Liverpool , and offered The Beatles the Hamburg bookings . He booked them into Bruno Koschmider 's Indra club in Hamburg for a season of bookings starting on 12 August 1960 , but said that he was not impressed with them as a musical group , and hoped to find a better act to follow them .
As they had no permanent drummer , McCartney looked for someone to fill the Hamburg position , which was difficult , as Lennon later said that drummers were " few and far between " , because a set of drums was an expensive item . Harrison had seen Best playing with the Black Jacks in The Casbah Coffee Club ( which was run by his mother , Mona Best ) . He was regarded as a steady drummer , playing the bass drum on all four beats in the bar , which pushed the rhythm , and was known in Liverpool at the time as being " mean , moody , and magnificent " by female fans , which convinced McCartney he would be good for the group . After the Black Jacks broke up , McCartney asked Best to go to Hamburg , telling him they would earn £ 15 per week each . Best had the chance to go to a teacher @-@ training college , as he had passed his school exams — unlike Lennon , McCartney and Harrison , who had failed most of theirs — but decided that playing in Hamburg would be a better career move .
The St. Pauli quarter of Hamburg , where the Indra club was located , was well known as an area where prostitutes were to be found , and was a dangerous place for anyone that looked different from the usual clientele . McCartney 's father , Jim McCartney , was reluctant to let his teenage son go to Hamburg , but relented after a visit from Williams , who told him that he " shouldn 't worry " . Lennon 's aunt , Mimi Smith , was also reluctant to allow Lennon to go to Hamburg , wanting Lennon to continue his studies , but Lennon placated her by exaggerating the amount he would earn . Best had an audition in Williams ' Jacaranda club on 15 August 1960 , and travelled to Hamburg the next day as a member of the group . Williams later admitted that the audition with Best was not needed , as they had not found any other drummer willing to travel to Hamburg , but did not tell Best in case he asked for more money . The group were to be paid about £ 100 per week , which was much more than promoters in Liverpool paid . Williams drove the group and their equipment in his Austin J4 minibus which was loaded by crane onto a ferry at Harwich on 16 August 1960 , and landed at the Hook of Holland .
All five Beatles , Williams and his wife Beryl , her brother Barry Chang , and " Lord Woodbine " were in the minivan , along with Georg Sterner ( Koschmider 's translator and future waiter ) , making a total of ten people , which resulted in a journey that was both uncomfortable and dangerous . As Williams had not obtained work permits for West Germany , they were detained at Harwich for five hours . Williams finally convinced the authorities that they were students on holiday , although work permits were later obtained after their arrival in Hamburg . Note : ' Lord Woodbine ' and Williams ran a Strip Club called New Cabaret Artistes club at 174a Upper Parliament Street , Liverpool . Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Sutcliffe once played backing music for " Janice the Stripper " there , in July 1960 .
= = Hamburg clubs = =
In the early 1960s , the Hamburg scene revolved around the Kaiserkeller , Top Ten , Star @-@ Club , Beer @-@ Shop , Mambo , Holle , Wagabond ( pronounced vagabond in German ) and the Pacific Hotel , as well as the less popular clubs like Grannies , the Ice Cream Shop , Chugs , and Sacha 's . The Reeperbahn and the Grosse Freiheit were decorated with neon lights , with posters advertising the performers in the clubs . Each club had a doorman whose job was to entice customers inside , as the drinks were expensive ( for Babycham and watered @-@ down beer ) . Customers who would not , or could not afford to pay were dealt with severely by being beaten and then thrown out .
= = = The Indra and Kaiserkeller = = =
The Beatles arrived very early in the morning of 17 August 1960 , but had no trouble finding the St. Pauli area of Hamburg , as it was so infamous . Unfortunately the Indra Club ( 64 Grosse Freiheit ) was closed , so a manager from a neighbouring club found someone to open it up , and the group slept on the red leather seats in the alcoves . The group played at the club on the same night , but were told they could sleep in a small cinema 's storeroom , which was cold and in very poor condition , the Bambi Kino ( 33 Paul @-@ Roosen Strasse ) .
McCartney later said , " We lived backstage in the Bambi Kino , next to the toilets , and you could always smell them . The room had been an old storeroom , and there were just concrete walls and nothing else . No heat , no wallpaper , not a lick of paint ; and two sets of bunk beds , with not very much covers — Union Jack flags — we were frozen . " Lennon remembered : " We were put in this pigsty . We were living in a toilet , like right next to the ladies ' toilet . We 'd go to bed late and be woken up next day by the sound of the cinema show and old German fraus [ women ] pissing next door . " After having been awoken in this fashion , the group were then obliged to use cold water from the urinals for washing and shaving . They were paid £ 2 @.@ 50 each a day , seven days a week , playing from 8 : 30 @-@ 9 : 30 , 10 until 11 , 11 : 30 @-@ 12 : 30 , and finishing the evening playing from one until two o 'clock in the morning . German customers found the group 's name comical , as " Beatles " sounded like " Peedles " , which meant a small boy 's penis .
Harrison remembered the Reeperbahn and Grosse Freiheit as the best thing the group had ever seen , as it had so many neon lights , clubs and restaurants , although also saying , " The whole area was full of transvestites and prostitutes and gangsters , but I couldn 't say that they were the audience ... Hamburg was really like our apprenticeship , learning how to play in front of people . " Best remembered the Indra as being a depressing place that was filled with a few tourists , and having heavy , old , red curtains that made it seem shabby compared to the larger Kaiserkeller , a club also owned by Koschmider and located nearby at 36 Grosse Freiheit . After the closure of the Indra because of complaints about the noise , the Beatles played in the Kaiserkeller , starting on 4 October 1960 .
= = = = Performances = = = =
Their playing schedule at the Kaiserkeller remained the same as it had been in the Indra . Lennon said : " We had to play for hours and hours on end . Every song lasted twenty minutes and had twenty solos in it . That 's what improved the playing . There was nobody to copy from . We played what we liked best and the Germans liked it as long as it was loud . " The Beatles had been used to simply standing still when they had performed in Liverpool , but Koschmider would come to the front of the stage and loudly shout “ Mach schau , mach schau ! ” ( " make [ a ] show " or , more idiomatically , " put on a show " for the customers ) . Harrison explained that this prompted Lennon to “ dance around like a gorilla , and we ’ d all knock our heads together . ” As Best had been the only one to take O @-@ Level German at school , he could communicate with Koschmider and the clientele better than the rest of the group , and was invited to sing a speciality number called " Peppermint Twist " ( while McCartney played the drums ) but Best complained that he always felt uncomfortable being at the front of the stage . Willie Limpinski , Koschmider 's business manager , decided that the club would attract more customers if it presented continuous live music .
Williams warned the Beatles about the competition they would face by playing in the same club as the Hurricanes by saying , " You 'd better pull your socks up because Rory Storm and the Hurricanes are coming in , and you know how good they are . They 're going to knock you for six . " In early October 1960 , Storm and the Hurricanes were free to travel to Hamburg , replacing Derry and the Seniors at the Kaiserkeller . They arrived in Hamburg on 1 October 1960 , having negotiated to be paid more than the Seniors or the Beatles . They played five or six 90 @-@ minute sets every day , alternating with the Beatles . They were appalled at the living conditions the Beatles and other groups like Howie Casey and the Seniors ( who were sleeping in one room at the back of the Kaiserkeller ) had to put up with , so they booked into Hamburg 's Seamens ' Mission .
= = = = Violence and conflict = = = =
The stage of the Kaiserkeller was made of planks of wood balanced on the top of beer crates , so the two groups made a bet to see to who would be the first to break it . After punishing the stage for days , a slight crack appeared , and when Storm jumped off the top of the upright piano it finally broke . Johnny ' Guitar ' Byrne remembered that as Storm hit the stage , it cracked loudly and formed a V @-@ shape around him . He disappeared into it , and all the amplifiers and drummer Ringo Starr 's cymbals slid into the hole . Koschmider was furious , and had to replace the live music with a juke box . Both groups went across the road to Harold 's cafe for breakfast on the Grosse Freiheit , but were followed by Koschmider 's doormen , armed with coshes , who beat them all as punishment .
Horst Fascher ( born 1936 , Hamburg ) was Koschmider 's nightclub bouncer , who had been the 1959 West German featherweight boxing champion , but his career was cut short after he unintentionally killed a sailor in a street fight . He later became a friend of the Beatles , and protected them from drunken customers . Lennon occasionally urinated out of his apartment ’ s window onto the street below , and often started arguments with the audience , so that eventually one member of the audience would jump on stage to hit him , but it was Fascher ’ s job to protect Lennon and the group . In some occasions beer bottles were thrown at them . Fascher remembered Lennon often greeting the audience with a " Heil Hitler " , and a Nazi salute : " He 'd pull out a black comb and pretend it was a moustache ... people laughed . "
Lennon was missing for a performance one evening , and Fascher found him in the toilet with a woman . He broke up the tête @-@ à @-@ tête with a bucket of cold water which he threw over them both , and ordered Lennon onto the stage . Lennon was furious , and complained that he could not go on stage dripping wet . Fascher snapped back : " I don 't give a shit , you 're going onstage and I don 't care if you do it naked . " A short time later the audience was roaring with laughter . Fascher ran to see what the commotion was , and saw Lennon playing guitar , but only wearing underpants with a toilet seat around his neck . ( Epstein later asked Liverpool journalist Bill Harry not to publish photos showing Lennon walking along the Reeperbahn in his underpants ) . Fascher 's brother , Fred sang lead vocals with the group on " Be Bop A Lula " , while he sang with them on " Hallelujah I Love Her So " , and his alliance with the Beatles continued , as he later went to work at the Star @-@ Club .
= = = = Performance skills = = = =
According to McCartney , Sutcliffe was a " typical art student " , with bad skin and pimples , but his reputation grew after he began wearing tight trousers and dark Ray @-@ Ban sunglasses . Sutcliffe 's high spot was singing " Love Me Tender " , which drew more applause than when the other Beatles sang , increasing the friction between himself and McCartney . Lennon also started to criticise Sutcliffe ; making jokes about Sutcliffe 's size and playing . While Sutcliffe is often described in Beatles ' biographies as appearing very uncomfortable onstage , and often playing with his back to the audience , Best denies this , recalling Sutcliffe as usually good @-@ natured and " animated " before an audience .
The Beatles steadily improved during their time in Hamburg , and this was noticed by other musicians who were there at the time . McCartney recalled , " We got better and better and other groups started coming to watch us . The accolade of accolades was when Sheridan would come in from the Top Ten ( the big club where we aspired to go ) or when Rory Storm or Ringo [ Starr ] would hang around to watch us . ‘ What 'd I Say ’ was always the one that really got them . " The song was often played by the group , once being played for 90 minutes non @-@ stop , with group members walking off stage to wash and drink before returning . Sutcliffe wrote a letter to his mother saying , " We have improved a thousand @-@ fold since our arrival and Allan Williams , who is here at the moment , tells us that there is no group in Liverpool to touch us . "
On Saturday 18 October 1960 , Williams arranged a recording session for Lou Walters ( of the Hurricanes ) at the Akustik Studio , a small booth on the fifth floor of 57 Kirchenallee ( The Klockmann @-@ House ) . Williams asked Lennon , McCartney , and Harrison to play and sing harmonies on the recording . Best was in town buying drumsticks , so Starr , the Hurricanes ' drummer , played drums . This was the first time Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Starr recorded together . They recorded three songs : " Fever " , " September Song " and " Summertime " .
= = = The Top Ten = = =
Formerly the Hippodrome ( Reeperbahn 136 ) , the Top Ten club was opened in 1960 by Peter Eckhorn , and was operated by Iain Hines , who was an organist . In late October 1960 , The Beatles left Koschmider 's club to work at the Top Ten Club , as Eckhorn offered the group more money , a better PA ( with reverb and echo ) and a slightly better place to sleep ( above the club itself ) although by doing so the group broke their contract with Koschmider . Koschmider then reported Harrison for working under the legal age limit ( even though he had been working at Koschmider 's club ) and Harrison was deported on 21 November 1960 . When Best and McCartney went back to the Bambi Kino to get their belongings they found it in almost total darkness . As a snub to Koschmider , McCartney and Best found a condom in their luggage , attached it to a nail on the concrete wall of the room , and set fire to it . There was no real damage done , but Koschmider reported them both for attempted arson . McCartney : " One evening we were just walking down the Reeperbahn , when we heard this ' ta @-@ ti @-@ ti @-@ ta ' , and then ' Komm mit mir ! ' ( ' Come with me ! ' ) " . Best and McCartney spent three hours in the Davidwache Police Station , and were deported on 1 December 1960 . Lennon 's work permit was revoked a few days later and he went home by train , but as Sutcliffe had a cold , he stayed in Hamburg . Sutcliffe later borrowed money from Kirchherr ( his German girlfriend ) for the airfare back to Liverpool in early January 1961 . Back in Liverpool , no one contacted each other for two weeks , but Best and his mother made numerous phone calls to Hamburg to recover the group 's equipment .
Back in Liverpool , the group played an engagement on 17 December 1960 , at the Casbah Coffee Club , with Chas Newby substituting for Sutcliffe , playing bass with them for four shows . Newby was shocked at the vast improvement of their playing and singing after the residency in Hamburg , and was struck by how powerful Best 's drumming now was , pushing the group to play harder and louder . ( It was probably due to McCartney that Best developed a loud drumming style , as he would often tell Best in Hamburg to " Crank it up " = play as loud as possible ) .
After Harrison turned 18 and the immigration problems had been solved , the Beatles went back to Hamburg for another residency at the Top Ten Club , playing from 27 March to 2 July 1961 . To secure their return , Eckhorn paid DM 158 to the German authorities , which was the cost of deporting McCartney and Best back to Liverpool the previous winter . Fellow musician , Tony Sheridan , later remembered the living conditions at the club : “ John , George , Paul , Stuart and Pete and I were booked to open the smart Top Ten in the Reeperbahn . We moved into a dormitory over the club and slept in bunks . It was terrible really , now I look back . We all washed our own shirts and socks so the place smelt like a Chinese laundry . But we had great times and I ’ m afraid we used to tease the life out of the old lady who [ took care of ] us . ”
Sutcliffe decided to leave the Beatles to concentrate on his art studies and to be with Kirchherr , so McCartney ( unwillingly ) took over as bass player for the group . Sutcliffe later enrolled at the Hamburg College of Art under the tutelage of the pop artist Eduardo Paolozzi . Sutcliffe lent McCartney his Höfner President 500 / 5 model bass guitar but asked McCartney not to change the strings around , so McCartney had to play it with the strings arranged backwards , until he could buy a specially made left @-@ handed Höfner bass of his own . McCartney bought his first Höfner Violin bass guitar ( model 500 / 1 ) from the Steinway @-@ Haus Music Store ( Colonnaden 29 ) Lennon bought a Rickenbacker guitar ( 1958 Model 325 ) and Harrison bought a Gibson amplifier .
The matching lilac jackets , made by McCartney 's next @-@ door neighbour in Liverpool to be worn as stage clothes , were soon threadbare , as were any other items of clothing , so the group bought cowboy boots , jeans and black leather jackets and trousers , from Paul Hundertmark 's ( Spielbudenplatz 9 ) and a tailor 's shop at Thadenstrasse 6 . Lennon said : " We had a bit more money the second time so we bought leather pants ... we looked like four Gene Vincents .
= = = The Star @-@ Club = = =
On 13 April 1962 , the Beatles were booked as the opening act for the launch of a new club . The Star @-@ Club , opened by Manfred Weissleder , had a capacity for two thousand people , as well as cinema @-@ style seating . When the Beatles were booked to play there , Neil Aspinall left his job to become the Beatles ' permanent road manager , as he was earning more money driving them around than he was earning by being an accountant , and had his van ferried to Hamburg . The Beatles returned to Hamburg by plane to play from 13 April to 31 May 1962 . Upon their arrival , they were informed of Sutcliffe 's death .
By the time of their second Star @-@ Club visit from 1 – 14 November 1962 , Starr had become the group 's drummer . The Beatles stayed at the Hotel Germania ( Detlev @-@ Bremer @-@ Strasse 8 ) , having the luxury of single rooms for the first time , and then stayed at the Hotel Pacific ( Neuer Pferdemarkt 30 ) for another booking from 18 – 31 December 1962 . Harrison said : " We came back to play the Star @-@ Club , a big place and fantastic because it had a great sound system . This time we had a hotel . I remember it was quite a long walk from the club , at the top of the Reeperbahn going back towards the city . " Portions of their final performances were taped with a portable recorder by an associate of Ted " King Size " Taylor of the Dominoes , another group playing at the club . The tapes were released on West Germany 's Bellaphon label in 1977 as The Beatles : Live ! at the Star @-@ Club in Hamburg , Germany ; 1962 , and subsequently re @-@ released in various formats and titles .
The set list at the Star @-@ Club ( with the lead singer in parentheses ) :
" I Saw Her Standing There " ( McCartney ) " Roll Over Beethoven " ( Harrison ) " Hippy Hippy Shake " ( McCartney ) " Sweet Little Sixteen " ( Lennon ) " Lend Me Your Comb " ( Lennon ) " Your Feet 's Too Big " ( McCartney ) " Red Sails in the Sunset " ( McCartney ) " Everybody 's Trying to Be My Baby " ( Harrison ) " Matchbox " ( Lennon ) " Talkin ' ' Bout You " ( Lennon ) " Shimmy Shimmy " ( McCartney ) " Long Tall Sally " ( McCartney ) " I Remember You " ( McCartney ) " I 'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Cry ( Over You ) " ( Lennon ) " Where Have You Been All My Life " ( Lennon )
" Twist and Shout " ( Lennon ) " Mr. Moonlight " ( Lennon ) " A Taste of Honey " ( McCartney ) " Besame Mucho " ( McCartney ) " Reminiscing " ( Harrison ) " Kansas City " ( McCartney ) " Nothin ' Shakin ' But the Leaves On a Tree " ( Harrison ) " To Know Her is to Love Her " ( Harrison or Lennon ) " Little Queenie " ( McCartney ) " Falling in Love Again " ( McCartney ) " Ask Me Why " ( Lennon ) " Hallelujah I Love Her So " ( club manager Horst Fascher ) " Be @-@ Bop @-@ A @-@ Lula " ( Fred Fascher , Horst 's brother ) " Till There Was You " ( McCartney ) " Sheila " ( Harrison )
= = = Sex , drugs and rock and roll = = =
McCartney explained that the Beatles had only experienced sex with girls from Liverpool , but when they got to Hamburg the only women who hung around the clubs late at night were strippers , dancers , or prostitutes . Harrison ( who was then only 17 ) called Hamburg , “ The naughtiest city in the world ” . McCartney said : “ By the time you got to Hamburg , a girlfriend there was likely to be a stripper , so to be suddenly involved with a hard @-@ core striptease artist , who obviously knew a thing or two about sex ... it was quite an eye @-@ opener . ” Gerry Marsden — frontman for Gerry & the Pacemakers — remembered visiting a Hamburg brothel in Herbertstrasse with Lennon : " We paid our money , went in and sat down . This guy came out with the biggest lady we had ever seen in our lives . She looked like a bus with a bra on . We ran out that door so quick we didn 't hear it shut . I wanted to go back to get my money back but John said : ' No , we 'd better not . Might cause trouble . ' "
The Beatles 's introduction to " Prellies " ( Preludin ) was in Hamburg . As the group had to play for hours , Sheridan offered them Preludin , saying : " Here 's something to keep you awake . " Astrid Kirchherr also supplied Sutcliffe and the other Beatles with Preludin , which when taken with beer , made them feel euphoric and helped to keep them awake until the early hours of the morning . Looking back , Harrison said that the whole group would be “ frothing at the mouth , ” and would sometimes stay awake for days . Lennon recalled , “ The waiters always had these pills [ Preludin ] , so when they saw the musicians falling over with tiredness or drink , they ’ d give you the pill . You could work almost endlessly until the pill wore off , and then you ’ d have another . ” McCartney said that he would usually take one , but Lennon would often take four or five .
Legitimate use of Preludin required a doctor 's prescription note , but Kirchherr 's mother was able to obtain it from a local chemist which supplied the drug without asking questions . Epstein later asked the Star @-@ Club owner , Weissleder , not to publish photographs showing the group playing with tubes of Preludin . Starr explained that Dexedrine too was in plentiful supply in Hamburg , as it was known to produce increased wakefulness and focus , in association with decreased fatigue , and decreased appetite .
= = Record release = =
The first recording ever released was the single " My Bonnie " , which was recorded in Hamburg during the group 's time at the Top Ten club . The recording came about when the Beatles were recruited by singer Sheridan , who also had a residency at the Top Ten club , to act as his backing group on a series of recordings . The recordings were made for the German Polydor Records label , and were produced by the famed bandleader Bert Kaempfert , who had an instrumental hit called " Wonderland by Night " ( " Wunderland bei Nacht " ) which reached number one in the U.S. in 1961 , the same year he produced " My Bonnie " . On 22 June 1961 , Sheridan and the Beatles drove to Hamburg @-@ Harburg ( about 30 minutes from Hamburg ) to record in the Friedrich @-@ Ebert @-@ Halle ( auditorium / hall ) and were paid 330 Deutschmarks ( about $ 75 ) for the recording , although there was a second recording session on 23 June and a third session in May 1962 . Kaempfert signed the group to a one @-@ year Polydor contract at the first session on 22 June 1961 .
On 31 October 1961 , Polydor released " My Bonnie " ( Mein Herz ist bei dir nur ) which appeared on the West German charts under the name " Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers " — a generic name used for whoever happened to be in Sheridan 's backup group , although McCartney explained : " They didn 't like our name and said , ' Change to the Beat Brothers , this is more understandable for the German audience . ' We went along with it ... it was a record . " The song was later released in the UK , on 5 January 1962 . A few copies were also pressed under the American Decca Records label .
= = = Brian Epstein = = =
" My Bonnie " was to bring the Beatles to the attention of a key figure in their subsequent development and commercial success , Brian Epstein . In September 1961 , Harrison had a German copy of the record , which Sutcliffe had sent to him , as he was still in Hamburg . Harrison loaned it to Bob Wooler ( The Cavern Club DJ ) who played it at various venues , when the members of the group lent it to him . On 28 October 1961 , the 27 @-@ year @-@ old Epstein , manager of the record department in his father 's NEMS music store in Whitechapel Street , Liverpool , was asked for the record by an 18 @-@ year @-@ old boy , Raymond Jones . Epstein could find nothing on his files about the Beatles or the record , but the following day it was requested again by two girls , this time mentioning that the Beatles had been seen playing at the Cavern , a club in nearby Mathew Street . Alistair Taylor ( Epstein 's assistant ) later said that the story had been invented and that he had used the name Jones to order copies of the record himself .
Mersey Beat founder Bill Harry later repudiated the story about Epstein not knowing who the Beatles were , as Harry had been talking to Epstein about the band for a long time ( being the group he promoted the most in Mersey Beat ) and by McCartney saying , “ Brian [ Epstein ] knew perfectly well who the Beatles were , they were on the front page of the second issue of Mersey Beat . ” Regardless , the interest in the record eventually led Epstein to make his way to the Cavern with Taylor , during lunch hour on 9 November 1961 . He was initially repelled by the dark , damp club , but he congratulated them on their performance .
= = Astrid Kirchherr , Voormann , and Vollmer = =
Kirchherr , Klaus Voormann , and Jürgen Vollmer were early fans of the Beatles after they heard the group play in the Kaiserkeller . Kirchherr , Voormann 's girlfriend , was initially horrified at the idea of spending any time in such a sordid district , but Voormann , after watching the Beatles several times without her , eventually persuaded her to come too . After having previously only listened to Trad jazz , the Platters , and Nat King Cole , the Rock n ' Roll that the Beatles played was totally new to them . The three friends visited the Kaiserkeller almost every night , arriving at 9 o 'clock and sitting by the front of the stage . Kirchherr , then 22 years old , later said : " It was like a merry @-@ go @-@ round in my head , they looked absolutely astonishing ... My whole life changed in a couple of minutes . All I wanted was to be with them and to know them . " Sutcliffe was fascinated by Kirchherr , and Harry later wrote that when Kirchherr walked in , every head would immediately turn her way . Sutcliffe wrote to a friend that he could hardly take his eyes off her when she had first walked into the club , and tried to talk to her during the next break , but she had already left .
Kirchherr asked the Beatles if they would mind letting her take photographs of them in a photo session , which impressed them , as other groups only had snapshots that were taken by friends . The next morning Kirchherr took photographs in a fairground park called " Der Dom " which was close to the Reeperbahn . Kirchherr started dating Sutcliffe , and they were engaged in November 1960 .
Kirchherr is credited with inventing the Beatles ' moptop haircut , although she personally disagrees . In 1995 , she told BBC Radio Merseyside : " All my friends in art school used to run around with this sort of what you call Beatles ' haircut , and my boyfriend then , Klaus Voormann , had this hairstyle , and Stuart [ Sutcliffe ] liked it very very much . He was the first one who really got the nerve to get the Brylcreem out of his hair and asking me to cut his hair for him . Pete [ Best ] has really curly hair and it wouldn 't work . " After suffering blackouts and intense headaches , Sutcliffe was taken to a hospital on 10 April 1962 — Kirchherr rode with him in the ambulance — but died before the ambulance reached the hospital . Three days later Kirchherr met the Beatles at the Hamburg airport and told them Sutcliffe had died of a brain haemorrhage .
In 1966 , Voormann was asked by Lennon to design the sleeve for the Beatles ' album Revolver , and also played bass on solo recordings by Lennon , McCartney , Harrison , and Starr . In 1995 , Voormann designed the artwork for the three @-@ volume CD sets in The Beatles Anthology series . In 1999 , Kirchherr published a book called Hamburg Days ( a two @-@ volume limited edition ) containing a set of photographs by Kirchherr and " memory drawings " by Voormann of the Beatles time in Hamburg .
= = Later years = =
The Beatles returned to Hamburg in June 1966 , staying at the Tremsbüttel castle ( Schlosstrasse 10 ) , and played two concerts in the Ernst @-@ Merck @-@ Halle on 26 and 27 June . Lennon later said , " I might have been born in Liverpool - but I grew up in Hamburg " . Lennon made the door of Jäger @-@ Passage at Wohlwillstrasse 22 famous when he posed in front of it for a photo which was later used on the covers of the Rock ' n ' Roll and Rock ' n ' Roll Sessions albums . The photo was taken by Jürgen Vollmer , during the time The Beatles were playing at the Top Ten club .
Individual Beatles later commented about their memories of Hamburg , with Lennon reflecting , " We 'd outlived the Hamburg stage and wanted to pack that up . We hated going back to Hamburg those last two times . We 'd had that scene . Brian [ Epstein ] made us go back to fulfill the contract ... " . Harrison had positive memories of the period : " I 'd have to say with hindsight that Hamburg bordered on the best of Beatles times . We didn 't have any luxury , we didn 't have any bathrooms or any clothes , we were pretty grubby , we couldn 't afford anything , but on the other hand we weren 't yet famous , so we didn 't have to contend with the bullshit that comes with fame . " McCartney was philosophical : " Hamburg was certainly a great childhood memory . But I think all things are enhanced by time . It was very exciting , though I think it felt better to me a little later in our career , once we 'd started to get a bit of success with the records . "
A memorial square , Beatles @-@ Platz , was constructed in Hamburg in 2008 at the meeting of Reeperbahn and Große Freiheit streets , containing five stainless steel sculptures of the Beatles . Construction costs amounted to € 550 @,@ 000 ( $ 776 @,@ 000 ) , of which € 200 @,@ 000 was provided by sponsors and donors . The idea of creating a memorial to the Beatles had been initiated in 2001 by Hamburg radio station Oldie 95 . Hamburg 's Mayor , Ole von Beust , said at the opening , " It is about time that Hamburg commemorated this great group . " The square when illuminated resembles a spinning turntable . Because the band members are shown only in outline form , the figure of the drummer can be either Best or Starr .
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= The Boys ( Girls ' Generation song ) =
" The Boys " is a song recorded by South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation for their third Korean language studio album with the same name . It was produced by Teddy Riley , Teasung Kim , DOM , and Richard Garcia . The Korean version was released on October 18 , 2011 by S.M. Entertainment as the lead single from the album . An English version was subsequently released in the United States on December 20 , 2011 by Interscope Records and Universal Music Group in order to expand the group 's popularity outside their native country . " The Boys " is a dance @-@ pop , electropop and R & B song with elements of hip hop that lyrically discusses female attractiveness .
Following the release of " The Boys " , Girls ' Generation appeared on several South Korean music programs including Music Bank , Show ! Music Core , Inkigayo , and M Countdown . To further promote the song to American audiences , the group performed at Madison Square Garden in New York City on December 19 , 2011 and made their debut on US television with appearances on Late Show with David Letterman and Live ! with Kelly and Michael in February 2012 . A music video for the song was directed by Hong Won @-@ ki and choreographed by Rino Nakasone and was released on October 19 , 2011 .
" The Boys " was a success domestically . It peaked atop the South Korean Gaon Digital Chart and sold over three million digital copies in 2011 , becoming the 43th best @-@ performing single on the chart of the year . Internationally , the single received generally positive reviews from music critics , who complimented the song as one of the highlights of the Korean Wave . In the United States , it managed to sell over 21 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release and peaked at number 5 on the Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales , while in Japan , the single peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 .
= = Background and composition = =
" The Boys " was produced by Teddy Riley . The original Korean version of the song was written by Riley , Yoo Young @-@ jin , Teasung Kim , DOM , and Richard Garcia . The English version was also written by the same songwriters ; it was released on October 18 , 2011 as a digital single worldwide by S.M. Entertainment . A digital extended play which consists of the English version and remixes of " The Boys " was released on December 20 , 2011 by S.M. Entertainment under exclusive license to Universal Music Group . A maxi single of the song released on December 21 , 2011 . A remix version of the song produced by electronica musicians Clinton Sparks and The Disco Fries featuring Snoop Dogg was included on the US edition . A Japanese version was written by Hidenori Tanaka and Nozomi Maezawa and was included on the group 's reissue of their debut Japanese album , Girls ' Generation , which was entitled The Boys and released on December 28 , 2011 .
To further promote their popularity to Western countries , S.M. Entertainment had the group signed with Interscope Records , which is affiliated with Universal Music Group , to debut in the United States . In an interview with MTV K , member Tiffany shared that the recording session of the song , both the English and Korean version , took one week to finish . She also expressed her excitement of the song 's release in the United States , " We haven ’ t started on a full @-@ length album , but we ’ re kicking off with this maxi single and hopefully it will lead to a full @-@ length album . "
Musically , " The Boys " is a dance @-@ pop , electropop and R & B song , with elements of hip hop , a genre that Girls ' Generation had never ventured into . It features " military style drum breakdowns and killer vocal harmonies " in its composition , according to Angelica Wallingford from the San Diego City Times . The song 's lyrics as explained by Eun @-@ Young Jung on the book The Korean Wave : Korean Media Go Global ( 2013 ) as portraying " sexually daring girls " who are confident in their attractiveness and enjoy attention from men :
I can tell you 're looking at me , I know what you see
Any closer and you 'll feel the heat
You don 't have to pretend that you didn 't notice me
Every look will make it hard to breathe
B @-@ Bring the boys out
= = Promotion = =
In November and December 2011 , Girls ' Generation appeared on several South Korean music programs including Music Bank , Show ! Music Core , Inkigayo , and M Countdown to promote " The Boys " and the album . To further promote the song to American audiences , the group appeared at Madison Square Garden in New York on October 23 , 2011 and performed the song , as part of an SM Town concert , which also featured other S.M. Entertainment 's singers and performers including Shinee and f ( x ) .
Girls ' Generation promoted " The Boys " upon making their debut on American television in February 2011 . The group performed the English version of the song on two television shows : Late Show with David Letterman and Live ! with Kelly and Michael on February 1 . Their performances received generally positive reviews from US media outlets . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse labelled the group 's appearances on US television a " stunning win " for supporters of Korean music , while David Bevan from Spin wrote " It 's like a dream . " Nevertheless , viewers ' response were divided – some accused the members of lip syncing and expressed their disdain for their performance , while others were impressed by the group 's dancing skills and musical style .
A music video for " The Boys " was directed by Hong Won @-@ ki and choreographed by Rino Nakasone . It was released on October 19 , 2011 , on YouTube and several South Korean music websites . The video starts with a close up @-@ of each members before switching to the dancing scenes . It was an instant success on YouTube , achieving 13 million views in one week . It has since attracted over 100 million views on YouTube , becoming the group 's third music video to do so following " Gee " and " I Got a Boy " . With this achievement , Girls ' Generation became the first music girl group to have three music videos with over 100 million views as of September 2014 , surpassing the Pussycat Dolls , who had two videos with over 100 million views .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial = = =
" The Boys " was a success in South Korea . Following its release , the song immediately achieved number one spots on music programs Music Bank , Inkigayo , and M Countdown . On Music Bank , the single occupied the number one position for six weeks . It peaked at number one on the Gaon Digital Chart and sold over 3 @.@ 032 million digital downloads in 2011 , becoming the 10th best @-@ selling single and the 43th best @-@ performing single ( including streaming and instrumental track downloads ) on the Gaon Chart . The single also peaked atop the Billboard Korea K @-@ Pop Hot 100 instead . In the United States , the track peaked at numbers 5 and 15 the Hot Dance Singles Sales and Hot Singles Sales , respectively , and managed to sell 21 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , according to Nielsen SoundScan . In Japan , " The Boys " charted at number 12 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 chart .
= = = Critical = = =
" The Boys " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Katherine St Asaph from Popdust gave the song three and a half out of five stars , complimenting the song 's production but criticizing its lack of a " memorable " chorus . Jen Erenza from Ryan Seacrest 's official blog praised it as a " foot @-@ stomping , head @-@ crackin ' , and girl @-@ powered track sung by nine girls that everyone needs to hear " . AllMusic 's Tim Sendra named it the best song on The Boys and wrote that " Girls ' Generation have what it takes to conquer the world of pop " . Chris True from the same website picked " The Boys " as well as its English version and remix featuring Snoop Dogg as three outstanding songs throughout the group 's career .
Jaeki Cho from Vibe described the group 's music as " Spice Girls meet Pussycat Dolls " and recommended " The Boys " to download . Smith Sonian noted " The Boys " as one of the highlights of Korean music ( K @-@ pop ) in the Korean Wave along with " Only One " by BoA , " Sorry , Sorry " by Super Junior , " Gangnam Style " by Psy , " Fantastic Baby " by Big Bang " , and " I Am the Best " by 2NE1 .
Several reviewers expected that Girls ' Generation would achieve success with their electropop music styles following their appearance on US television . Mio Scobie , editor of Us Weekly wrote that " They produce feelgood beats , instantly memorable choruses and , as I 'm sure people have already noticed , they 're stunning . " McClure 's Asia Music News writer Steve McClure also anticipated that the group would succeed on the Western music scene , saying that " I have a feeling that Girls ' Generation will stick round for a while . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" The Boys " – 3 : 46
" The Boys " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 46
Maxi single and EP
" The Boys " – 3 : 48
" The Boys " ( Clinton Sparks & Disco Fries Remix ) ( featuring Snoop Dogg ) – 4 : 17
" The Boys " ( Clinton Sparks & Disco Fries Remix ) ( featuring Lil Playy ) – 4 : 17
" The Boys " * Bring Dem Boys * ( Teddy Riley Remix ) ( featuring Suzi ) – 3 : 39
" The Boys " * Bring the Boys Out * ( David Anthony Remix ) – 4 : 27
" The Boys " * Bring the Boys * ( Teddy Riley Remix ) – 3 : 48
" The Boys " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 48
" The Boys " ( A Capella ) – 3 : 46
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Boron =
Boron is a metalloid chemical element with symbol B and atomic number 5 . Produced entirely by cosmic ray spallation and supernovae and not by stellar nucleosynthesis , it is a low @-@ abundance element in the Solar system and in the Earth 's crust . Boron is concentrated on Earth by the water @-@ solubility of its more common naturally occurring compounds , the borate minerals . These are mined industrially as evaporites , such as borax and kernite . The largest known boron deposits are in Turkey , the largest producer of boron minerals .
Chemically uncombined boron is found in small amounts in meteoroids but is not found naturally on Earth . Industrially , very pure boron is produced with difficulty because of refractory contamination by carbon or other elements . Several allotropes of boron exist : amorphous boron is a brown powder ; crystalline boron is silvery to black , extremely hard ( about 9 @.@ 5 on the Mohs scale ) , and a poor electrical conductor at room temperature . The primary use of elemental boron is as boron filaments with applications similar to carbon fibers in some high @-@ strength materials .
Boron is primarily used in chemical compounds . About half of all consumption globally , boron is used as an additive in glass fibers of boron @-@ containing fiberglass for insulation and structural materials . The next leading use is in polymers and ceramics in high @-@ strength , lightweight structural and refractory materials . Borosilicate glass glassware is desired for its greater strength and thermal shock resistance than ordinary soda lime glass . Boron compounds are used as fertilizers in agriculture and in sodium perborate bleaches . A small amount of boron is used as a dopant in semiconductors , and reagent intermediates in the synthesis of organic fine chemicals . A few boron @-@ containing organic pharmaceuticals are used or are in study . Natural boron is composed of two stable isotopes , one of which ( boron @-@ 10 ) has a number of uses as a neutron @-@ capturing agent .
In biology , borates have low toxicity in mammals ( similar to table salt ) , but are more toxic to arthropods and are used as insecticides . Boric acid is mildly antimicrobial , and a natural boron @-@ containing organic antibiotic is known . Boron is essential to life . Small amounts of boron compounds play a strengthening role in the cell walls of all plants , making boron a necessary plant nutrient . Boron is involved in the metabolism of calcium in both plants and animals . It is considered an essential nutrient for humans , and boron deficiency is implicated in osteoporosis .
= = History = =
The word boron was coined from borax , the mineral from which it was isolated , by analogy with carbon , which boron resembles chemically .
Borax , its mineral form then known as tincal , glazes were used in China from AD 300 , and some crude borax reached the West , where the Persian alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān apparently mentioned it in AD 700 . Marco Polo brought some glazes back to Italy in the 13th century . Agricola , around 1600 , reports the use of borax as a flux in metallurgy . In 1777 , boric acid was recognized in the hot springs ( soffioni ) near Florence , Italy , and became known as sal sedativum , with primarily medical uses . The rare mineral is called sassolite , which is found at Sasso , Italy . Sasso was the main source of European borax from 1827 to 1872 , when American sources replaced it . Boron compounds were relatively rarely used until the late 1800s when Francis Marion Smith 's Pacific Coast Borax Company first popularized and produced them in volume at low cost .
Boron was not recognized as an element until it was isolated by Sir Humphry Davy and by Joseph Louis Gay @-@ Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard . In 1808 Davy observed that electric current sent through a solution of borates produced a brown precipitate on one of the electrodes . In his subsequent experiments , he used potassium to reduce boric acid instead of electrolysis . He produced enough boron to confirm a new element and named the element boracium . Gay @-@ Lussac and Thénard used iron to reduce boric acid at high temperatures . By oxidizing boron with air , they showed that boric acid is an oxidation product of boron . Jöns Jakob Berzelius identified boron as an element in 1824 . Pure boron was arguably first produced by the American chemist Ezekiel Weintraub in 1909 .
= = Preparation of elemental boron in the laboratory = =
The earliest routes to elemental boron involved the reduction of boric oxide with metals such as magnesium or aluminium . However , the product is almost always contaminated with borides of those metals . Pure boron can be prepared by reducing volatile boron halides with hydrogen at high temperatures . Ultrapure boron for use in the semiconductor industry is produced by the decomposition of diborane at high temperatures and then further purified with the zone melting or Czochralski processes .
The production of boron compounds does not involve the formation of elemental boron , but exploits the convenient availability of borates .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Allotropes = = =
Boron is similar to carbon in its capability to form stable covalently bonded molecular networks . Even nominally disordered ( amorphous ) boron contains regular boron icosahedra which are , however , bonded randomly to each other without long @-@ range order . Crystalline boron is a very hard , black material with a melting point of above 2000 ° C. It forms four major polymorphs : α @-@ rhombohedral and β @-@ rhombohedral ( α @-@ R and β @-@ R ) , γ and β @-@ tetragonal ( β @-@ T ) ; α @-@ tetragonal phase also exists ( α @-@ T ) , but is very difficult to produce without significant contamination . Whereas α , β and T phases are based on B12 icosahedra , the γ @-@ phase can be described as a rocksalt @-@ type arrangement of the icosahedra and B2 atomic pairs . It can be produced by compressing other boron phases to 12 – 20 GPa and heating to 1500 – 1800 ° C ; it remains stable after releasing the temperature and pressure . The T phase is produced at similar pressures , but higher temperatures of 1800 – 2200 ° C. As to the α and β phases , they might both coexist at ambient conditions with the β phase being more stable . Compressing boron above 160 GPa produces a boron phase with an as yet unknown structure , and this phase is a superconductor at temperatures 6 – 12 K. Borospherene ( fullerene @-@ like B40 ) molecules ) and borophene ( proposed graphene @-@ like structure ) have been described in 2014 .
= = = Chemistry of the element = = =
Elemental boron is rare and poorly studied because the pure material is extremely difficult to prepare . Most studies of " boron " involve samples that contain small amounts of carbon . The chemical behavior of boron resembles that of silicon more than aluminium . Crystalline boron is chemically inert and resistant to attack by boiling hydrofluoric or hydrochloric acid . When finely divided , it is attacked slowly by hot concentrated hydrogen peroxide , hot concentrated nitric acid , hot sulfuric acid or hot mixture of sulfuric and chromic acids .
The rate of oxidation of boron depends on the crystallinity , particle size , purity and temperature . Boron does not react with air at room temperature , but at higher temperatures it burns to form boron trioxide :
4 B + 3 O2 → 2 B2O3
Boron undergoes halogenation to give trihalides ; for example ,
2 B + 3 Br2 → 2 BBr3
The trichloride in practice is usually made from the oxide .
= = = = Chemical compounds = = = =
In the most familiar compounds , boron has the formal oxidation state III . These include oxides , sulfides , nitrides , and halides .
The trihalides adopt a planar trigonal structure . These compounds are Lewis acids in that they readily form adducts with electron @-@ pair donors , which are called Lewis bases . For example , fluoride ( F − ) and boron trifluoride ( BF3 ) combined to give the tetrafluoroborate anion , BF4 − . Boron trifluoride is used in the petrochemical industry as a catalyst . The halides react with water to form boric acid .
Boron is found in nature on Earth entirely as various oxides of B ( III ) , often associated with other elements . More than one hundred borate minerals contain boron in oxidation state + 3 . These minerals resemble silicates in some respect , although boron is often found not only in a tetrahedral coordination with oxygen , but also in a trigonal planar configuration . Unlike silicates , the boron minerals never contain boron with coordination number greater than four . A typical motif is exemplified by the tetraborate anions of the common mineral borax , shown at left . The formal negative charge of the tetrahedral borate center is balanced by metal cations in the minerals , such as the sodium ( Na + ) in borax .
Boranes are chemical compounds of boron and hydrogen , with the generic formula of BxHy . These compounds do not occur in nature . Many of the boranes readily oxidise on contact with air , some violently . The parent member BH3 is called borane , but it is known only in the gaseous state , and dimerises to form diborane , B2H6 . The larger boranes all consist of boron clusters that are polyhedral , some of which exist as isomers . For example , isomers of B20H26 are based on the fusion of two 10 @-@ atom clusters .
The most important boranes are diborane B2H6 and two of its pyrolysis products , pentaborane B5H9 and decaborane B10H14 . A large number of anionic boron hydrides are known , e.g. [ B12H12 ] 2 − .
The formal oxidation number in boranes is positive , and is based on the assumption that hydrogen is counted as − 1 as in active metal hydrides . The mean oxidation number for the borons is then simply the ratio of hydrogen to boron in the molecule . For example , in diborane B2H6 , the boron oxidation state is + 3 , but in decaborane B10H14 , it is 7 / 5 or + 1 @.@ 4 . In these compounds the oxidation state of boron is often not a whole number .
The boron nitrides are notable for the variety of structures that they adopt . They exhibit structures analogous to various allotropes of carbon , including graphite , diamond , and nanotubes . In the diamond @-@ like structure , called cubic boron nitride ( tradename Borazon ) , boron atoms exist in the tetrahedral structure of carbons atoms in diamond , but one in every four B @-@ N bonds can be viewed as a coordinate covalent bond , wherein two electrons are donated by the nitrogen atom which acts as the Lewis base to a bond to the Lewis acidic boron ( III ) centre . Cubic boron nitride , among other applications , is used as an abrasive , as it has a hardness comparable with diamond ( the two substances are able to produce scratches on each other ) . In the BN compound analogue of graphite , hexagonal boron nitride ( h @-@ BN ) , the positively charged boron and negatively charged nitrogen atoms in each plane lie adjacent to the oppositely charged atom in the next plane . Consequently , graphite and h @-@ BN have very different properties , although both are lubricants , as these planes slip past each other easily . However , h @-@ BN is a relatively poor electrical and thermal conductor in the planar directions .
= = = = = Organoboron chemistry = = = = =
A large number of organoboron compounds are known and many are useful in organic synthesis . Many are produced from hydroboration , which employs diborane , B2H6 , a simple borane chemical . Organoboron ( III ) compounds are usually tetrahedral or trigonal planar , for example , tetraphenylborate , [ B ( C6H5 ) 4 ] − vs. triphenylborane , B ( C6H5 ) 3 . However , multiple boron atoms reacting with each other have a tendency to form novel dodecahedral ( 12 @-@ sided ) and icosahedral ( 20 @-@ sided ) structures composed completely of boron atoms , or with varying numbers of carbon heteroatoms .
Organoboron chemicals have been employed in uses as diverse as boron carbide ( see below ) , a complex very hard ceramic composed of boron @-@ carbon cluster anions and cations , to carboranes , carbon @-@ boron cluster chemistry compounds that can be halogenated to form reactive structures including carborane acid , a superacid . As one example , carboranes form useful molecular moieties that add considerable amounts of boron to other biochemicals in order to synthesize boron @-@ containing compounds for boron neutron capture therapy for cancer .
= = = = = Compounds of B ( I ) and B ( II ) = = = = =
Although these are not found on Earth naturally , boron forms a variety of stable compounds with formal oxidation state less than three . As for many covalent compounds , formal oxidation states are often of little meaning in boron hydrides and metal borides . The halides also form derivatives of B ( I ) and B ( II ) . BF , isoelectronic with N2 , cannot be isolated in condensed form , but B2F4 and B4Cl4 are well characterized .
Binary metal @-@ boron compounds , the metal borides , contain boron in negative oxidation states . Illustrative is magnesium diboride ( MgB2 ) . Each boron atom has a formal − 1 charge and magnesium is assigned a formal charge of + 2 . In this material , the boron centers are trigonal planar with an extra double bond for each boron , forming sheets akin to the carbon in graphite . However , unlike hexagonal boron nitride , which lacks electrons in the plane of the covalent atoms , the delocalized electrons in magnesium diboride allow it to conduct electricity similar to isoelectronic graphite . In 2001 , this material was found to be a high @-@ temperature superconductor .
Certain other metal borides find specialized applications as hard materials for cutting tools . Often the boron in borides has fractional oxidation states , such as − 1 / 3 in calcium hexaboride ( CaB6 ) .
From the structural perspective , the most distinctive chemical compounds of boron are the hydrides . Included in this series are the cluster compounds dodecaborate ( B12H122 − ) , decaborane ( B10H14 ) , and the carboranes such as C2B10H12 . Characteristically such compounds contain boron with coordination numbers greater than four .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Boron has two naturally occurring and stable isotopes , 11B ( 80 @.@ 1 % ) and 10B ( 19 @.@ 9 % ) . The mass difference results in a wide range of δ11B values , which are defined as a fractional difference between the 11B and 10B and traditionally expressed in parts per thousand , in natural waters ranging from − 16 to + 59 . There are 13 known isotopes of boron , the shortest @-@ lived isotope is 7B which decays through proton emission and alpha decay . It has a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 5 × 10 − 22 s . Isotopic fractionation of boron is controlled by the exchange reactions of the boron species B ( OH ) 3 and [ B ( OH ) 4 ] − . Boron isotopes are also fractionated during mineral crystallization , during H2O phase changes in hydrothermal systems , and during hydrothermal alteration of rock . The latter effect results in preferential removal of the [ 10B ( OH ) 4 ] − ion onto clays . It results in solutions enriched in 11B ( OH ) 3 and therefore may be responsible for the large 11B enrichment in seawater relative to both oceanic crust and continental crust ; this difference may act as an isotopic signature .
The exotic 17B exhibits a nuclear halo , i.e. its radius is appreciably larger than that predicted by the liquid drop model .
The 10B isotope is useful for capturing thermal neutrons ( see neutron cross section # Typical cross sections ) . The nuclear industry enriches natural boron to nearly pure 10B . The less @-@ valuable by @-@ product , depleted boron , is nearly pure 11B .
= = = = Commercial isotope enrichment = = = =
Because of its high neutron cross @-@ section , boron @-@ 10 is often used to control fission in nuclear reactors as a neutron @-@ capturing substance . Several industrial @-@ scale enrichment processes have been developed ; however , only the fractionated vacuum distillation of the dimethyl ether adduct of boron trifluoride ( DME @-@ BF3 ) and column chromatography of borates are being used .
= = = = Enriched boron ( boron @-@ 10 ) = = = =
Enriched boron or 10B is used in both radiation shielding and is the primary nuclide used in neutron capture therapy of cancer . In the latter ( " boron neutron capture therapy " or BNCT ) , a compound containing 10B is incorporated into a pharmaceutical which is selectively taken up by a malignant tumor and tissues near it . The patient is then treated with a beam of low energy neutrons at a relatively low neutron radiation dose . The neutrons , however , trigger energetic and short @-@ range secondary alpha particle and lithium @-@ 7 heavy ion radiation that are products of the boron + neutron nuclear reaction , and this ion radiation additionally bombards the tumor , especially from inside the tumor cells .
In nuclear reactors , 10B is used for reactivity control and in emergency shutdown systems . It can serve either function in the form of borosilicate control rods or as boric acid . In pressurized water reactors , boric acid is added to the reactor coolant when the plant is shut down for refueling . It is then slowly filtered out over many months as fissile material is used up and the fuel becomes less reactive .
In future manned interplanetary spacecraft , 10B has a theoretical role as structural material ( as boron fibers or BN nanotube material ) which would also serve a special role in the radiation shield . One of the difficulties in dealing with cosmic rays , which are mostly high energy protons , is that some secondary radiation from interaction of cosmic rays and spacecraft materials is high energy spallation neutrons . Such neutrons can be moderated by materials high in light elements such as polyethylene , but the moderated neutrons continue to be a radiation hazard unless actively absorbed in the shielding . Among light elements that absorb thermal neutrons , 6Li and 10B appear as potential spacecraft structural materials which serve both for mechanical reinforcement and radiation protection .
= = = = Depleted boron ( boron @-@ 11 ) = = = =
= = = = = Radiation @-@ hardened semiconductors = = = = =
Cosmic radiation will produce secondary neutrons if it hits spacecraft structures . Those neutrons will be captured in 10B , if it is present in the spacecraft 's semiconductors , producing a gamma ray , an alpha particle , and a lithium ion . Those resultant decay products may then irradiate nearby semiconductor " chip " structures , causing data loss ( bit flipping , or single event upset ) . In radiation @-@ hardened semiconductor designs , one countermeasure is to use depleted boron , which is greatly enriched in 11B and contains almost no 10B . This is useful because 11B is largely immune to radiation damage . Depleted boron is a byproduct of the nuclear industry .
= = = = = Proton @-@ boron fusion = = = = =
11B is also a candidate as a fuel for aneutronic fusion . When struck by a proton with energy of about 500 keV , it produces three alpha particles and 8 @.@ 7 MeV of energy . Most other fusion reactions involving hydrogen and helium produce penetrating neutron radiation , which weakens reactor structures and induces long @-@ term radioactivity , thereby endangering operating personnel . However , the alpha particles from 11B fusion can be turned directly into electric power , and all radiation stops as soon as the reactor is turned off .
= = = = NMR spectroscopy = = = =
Both 10B and 11B possess nuclear spin . The nuclear spin of 10B is 3 and that of 11B is 3 / 2 . These isotopes are , therefore , of use in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ; and spectrometers specially adapted to detecting the boron @-@ 11 nuclei are available commercially . The 10B and 11B nuclei also cause splitting in the resonances of attached nuclei .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Boron is rare in the Universe and solar system due to trace formation in the Big Bang and in stars . It is formed in minor amounts in cosmic ray spallation nucleosynthesis and may be found uncombined in cosmic dust and meteoroid materials . In the high oxygen environment of Earth , boron is always found fully oxidized to borate . Boron does not appear on Earth in elemental form . Extremely tiny elemental boron was detected in Lunar regolith
Although boron is a relatively rare element in the Earth 's crust , representing only 0 @.@ 001 % of the crust mass , it can be highly concentrated by the action of water , in which many borates are soluble . It is found naturally combined in compounds such as borax and boric acid ( sometimes found in volcanic spring waters ) . About a hundred borate minerals are known .
= = Production = =
Economically important sources of boron are the minerals colemanite , rasorite ( kernite ) , ulexite and tincal . Together these constitute 90 % of mined boron @-@ containing ore . The largest global borax deposits known , many still untapped , are in Central and Western Turkey , including the provinces of Eskişehir , Kütahya and Balıkesir . Global proven boron mineral mining reserves exceed one billion metric tonnes , against a yearly production of about four million tonnes .
Turkey and the United States are the largest producers of boron products . Turkey produces about half of the global yearly demand , though Eti Mine Works ( Turkish : Eti Maden İşletmeleri ) a Turkish state @-@ owned mining and chemicals company focusing on boron products . It holds a government monopoly on the mining of borate minerals in Turkey , which possesses 72 % of the world 's known deposits . In 2012 , it held a 47 % share of production of global borate minerals , ahead of its main competitor , Rio Tinto Group .
Almost a quarter ( 23 % ) of global boron production comes from the single Rio Tinto Borax Mine ( also known as the U.S. Borax Boron Mine ) 35 ° 2 ′ 34 @.@ 447 ″ N 117 ° 40 ′ 45 @.@ 412 ″ W near Boron , California .
= = = Market trend = = =
The average cost of crystalline boron is $ 5 / g . Free boron is chiefly used in making boron fibers , where it is deposited by chemical vapor deposition on a tungsten core ( see below ) . Boron fibers are used in lightweight composite applications , such as high strength tapes . This use is a very small fraction of total boron use . Boron is introduced into semiconductors as boron compounds , by ion implantation .
Estimated global consumption of boron ( almost entirely as boron compounds ) was about 4 million tonnes of B2O3 in 2012 . Boron mining and refining capacities are considered to be adequate to meet expected levels of growth through the next decade .
The form in which boron is consumed has changed in recent years . The use of ores like colemanite has declined following concerns over arsenic content . Consumers have moved toward the use of refined borates and boric acid that have a lower pollutant content .
Increasing demand for boric acid has led a number of producers to invest in additional capacity . Turkey 's state @-@ owned Eti Mine Works opened a new boric acid plant with the production capacity of 100 @,@ 000 tonnes per year at Emet in 2003 . Rio Tinto Group increased the capacity of its boron plant from 260 @,@ 000 tonnes per year in 2003 to 310 @,@ 000 tonnes per year by May 2005 , with plans to grow this to 366 @,@ 000 tonnes per year in 2006 . Chinese boron producers have been unable to meet rapidly growing demand for high quality borates . This has led to imports of sodium tetraborate ( borax ) growing by a hundredfold between 2000 and 2005 and boric acid imports increasing by 28 % per year over the same period .
The rise in global demand has been driven by high growth rates in glass fiber , fiberglass and borosilicate glassware production . A rapid increase in the manufacture of reinforcement @-@ grade boron @-@ containing fiberglass in Asia , has offset the development of boron @-@ free reinforcement @-@ grade fiberglass in Europe and the USA . The recent rises in energy prices may lead to greater use of insulation @-@ grade fiberglass , with consequent growth in the boron consumption . Roskill Consulting Group forecasts that world demand for boron will grow by 3 @.@ 4 % per year to reach 21 million tonnes by 2010 . The highest growth in demand is expected to be in Asia where demand could rise by an average 5 @.@ 7 % per year .
= = Applications = =
Nearly all boron ore extracted from the Earth is destined for refinement into boric acid and sodium tetraborate pentahydrate . In the United States , 70 % of the boron is used for the production of glass and ceramics . The major global industrial @-@ scale use of boron compounds ( about 46 % of end @-@ use ) is in production of glass fiber for boron @-@ containing insulating and structural fiberglasses , especially in Asia . Boron is added to the glass as borax pentahydrate or boron oxide , to influence the strength or fluxing qualities of the glass fibers . Another 10 % of global boron production is for borosilicate glass as used in high strength glassware . About 15 % of global boron is used in boron ceramics , including super @-@ hard materials discussed below . Agriculture consumes 11 % of global boron production , and bleaches and detergents about 6 % .
= = = Elemental boron fiber = = =
Boron fibers ( boron filaments ) are high @-@ strength , lightweight materials that are used chiefly for advanced aerospace structures as a component of composite materials , as well as limited production consumer and sporting goods such as golf clubs and fishing rods . The fibers can be produced by chemical vapor deposition of boron on a tungsten filament .
Boron fibers and sub @-@ millimeter sized crystalline boron springs are produced by laser @-@ assisted chemical vapor deposition . Translation of the focused laser beam allows to produce even complex helical structures . Such structures show good mechanical properties ( elastic modulus 450 GPa , fracture strain 3 @.@ 7 % , fracture stress 17 GPa ) and can be applied as reinforcement of ceramics or in micromechanical systems .
= = = Boronated fiberglass = = =
Fiberglass is a fiber reinforced polymer made of plastic reinforced by glass fibers , commonly woven into a mat . The glass fibers used in the material are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use . These glasses all contain silica or silicate , with varying amounts of oxides of calcium , magnesium , and sometimes boron . The boron is present as borosilicate , borax , or boron oxide , and is added to increase the strength of the glass , or as a fluxing agent to decrease the melting temperature of silica , which is too high to be easily worked in its pure form to make glass fibers .
The highly boronated glasses used in fiberglass are E @-@ glass ( named for " Electrical " use , but now the most common fiberglass for general use ) . E @-@ glass is alumino @-@ borosilicate glass with less than 1 % w / w alkali oxides , mainly used for glass @-@ reinforced plastics . Other common high @-@ boron glasses include C @-@ glass , an alkali @-@ lime glass with high boron oxide content , used for glass staple fibers and insulation , and D @-@ glass , a borosilicate glass , named for its low Dielectric constant ) .
Not all fiberglasses contain boron , but on a global scale , most of the fiberglass used does contain it . Because the ubiquitous use of fiberglass in construction and insulation , boron @-@ containing fiberglasses consume half the global production of boron , and are the single largest commercial boron market .
= = = Borosilicate glass = = =
Borosilicate glass , which is typically 12 – 15 % B2O3 , 80 % SiO2 , and 2 % Al2O3 , has a low coefficient of thermal expansion giving it a good resistance to thermal shock . Schott AG 's " Duran " and Owens @-@ Corning 's trademarked Pyrex are two major brand names for this glass , used both in laboratory glassware and in consumer cookware and bakeware , chiefly for this resistance .
= = = Boron carbide ceramic = = =
Several boron compounds are known for their extreme hardness and toughness . Boron carbide is a ceramic material which is obtained by decomposing B2O3 with carbon in the electric furnace :
2 B2O3 + 7 C → B4C + 6 CO
Boron carbide 's structure is only approximately B4C , and it shows a clear depletion of carbon from this suggested stoichiometric ratio . This is due to its very complex structure . The substance can be seen with empirical formula B12C3 ( i.e. , with B12 dodecahedra being a motif ) , but with less carbon , as the suggested C3 units are replaced with C @-@ B @-@ C chains , and some smaller ( B6 ) octahedra are present as well ( see the boron carbide article for structural analysis ) . The repeating polymer plus semi @-@ crystalline structure of boron carbide gives it great structural strength per weight . It is used in tank armor , bulletproof vests , and numerous other structural applications .
Boron carbide 's ability to absorb neutrons without forming long @-@ lived radionuclides ( especially when doped with extra boron @-@ 10 ) makes the material attractive as an absorbent for neutron radiation arising in nuclear power plants . Nuclear applications of boron carbide include shielding , control rods and shut @-@ down pellets . Within control rods , boron carbide is often powdered , to increase its surface area .
= = = High @-@ hardness and abrasive compounds = = =
Boron carbide and cubic boron nitride powders are widely used as abrasives . Boron nitride is a material isoelectronic to carbon . Similar to carbon , it has both hexagonal ( soft graphite @-@ like h @-@ BN ) and cubic ( hard , diamond @-@ like c @-@ BN ) forms. h @-@ BN is used as a high temperature component and lubricant. c @-@ BN , also known under commercial name borazon , is a superior abrasive . Its hardness is only slightly smaller than , but its chemical stability is superior , to that of diamond . Heterodiamond ( also called BCN ) is another diamond @-@ like boron compound .
= = = Boron metal coatings = = =
Metal borides are used for coating tools through chemical vapor deposition or physical vapor deposition . Implantation of boron ions into metals and alloys , through ion implantation or ion beam deposition , results in a spectacular increase in surface resistance and microhardness . Laser alloying has also been successfully used for the same purpose . These borides are an alternative to diamond coated tools , and their ( treated ) surfaces have similar properties to those of the bulk boride .
For example , rhenium diboride can be produced at ambient pressures , but is rather expensive because of rhenium . The hardness of ReB2 exhibits considerable anisotropy because of its hexagonal layered structure . Its value is comparable to that of tungsten carbide , silicon carbide , titanium diboride or zirconium diboride . Similarly , AlMgB14 + TiB2 composites possess high hardness and wear resistance and are used in either bulk form or as coatings for components exposed to high temperatures and wear loads .
= = = Detergent formulations and bleaching agents = = =
Borax is used in various household laundry and cleaning products , including the " 20 Mule Team Borax " laundry booster and " Boraxo " powdered hand soap . It is also present in some tooth bleaching formulas .
Sodium perborate serves as a source of active oxygen in many detergents , laundry detergents , cleaning products , and laundry bleaches . However , despite its name , " Borateem " laundry bleach no longer contains any boron compounds , using sodium percarbonate instead as a bleaching agent .
= = = Insecticides = = =
Boric acid is used as an insecticide , notably against ants , fleas , and cockroaches .
= = = Semiconductors = = =
Boron is a useful dopant for such semiconductors as silicon , germanium , and silicon carbide . Having one fewer valence electron than the host atom , it donates a hole resulting in p @-@ type conductivity . Traditional method of introducing boron into semiconductors is via its atomic diffusion at high temperatures . This process uses either solid ( B2O3 ) , liquid ( BBr3 ) , or gaseous boron sources ( B2H6 or BF3 ) . However , after the 1970s , it was mostly replaced by ion implantation , which relies mostly on BF3 as a boron source . Boron trichloride gas is also an important chemical in semiconductor industry , however not for doping but rather for plasma etching of metals and their oxides . Triethylborane is also injected into vapor deposition reactors as a boron source . Examples are the plasma deposition of boron @-@ containing hard carbon films , silicon nitride @-@ boron nitride films , and for doping of diamond film with boron .
= = = Magnets = = =
Boron is a component of neodymium magnets ( Nd2Fe14B ) , which are among the strongest type of permanent magnet . These magnets are found in a variety of electromechanical and electronic devices , such as magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) medical imaging systems , in compact and relatively small motors and actuators . As examples , computer HDDs ( hard disk drives ) , CD ( compact disk ) and DVD ( digital versatile disk ) players rely on neodymium magnet motors to deliver intense rotary power in a remarkably compact package . In mobile phones ' Neo ' magnets provide the magnetic field which allows tiny speakers to deliver appreciable audio power .
= = = Shielding and neutron absorber in nuclear reactors = = =
Boron shielding is used as a control for nuclear reactors , taking advantage of its high cross @-@ section for neutron capture .
In pressurized water reactors a variable concentration of boronic acid in the cooling water is used to compensate the variable reactivity of the fuel : when new rods are inserted the concentration of boronic acid is maximal , and then reduced during the lifetime .
= = = Other nonmedical uses = = =
Because of its distinctive green flame , amorphous boron is used in pyrotechnic flares .
Starch and casein @-@ based adhesives contain sodium tetraborate decahydrate ( Na2B4O7 · 10 H2O )
Some anti @-@ corrosion systems contain borax .
Sodium borates are used as a flux for soldering silver and gold and with ammonium chloride for welding ferrous metals . They are also fire retarding additives to plastics and rubber articles .
Boric acid ( also known as orthoboric acid ) H3BO3 is used in the production of textile fiberglass and flat panel displays and in many PVAc- and PVOH @-@ based adhesives .
Triethylborane is a substance which ignites the JP @-@ 7 fuel of the Pratt & Whitney J58 turbojet / ramjet engines powering the Lockheed SR @-@ 71 Blackbird . It was also used to ignite the F @-@ 1 Engines on the Saturn V Rocket utilized by NASA 's Apollo and Skylab programs from 1967 until 1973 . Triethylborane is suitable for this because of its pyrophoric properties , especially the fact that it burns with a very high temperature . Triethylborane is an industrial initiator in radical reactions , where it is effective even at low temperatures .
Borates are used as environmentally benign wood preservatives .
= = = Pharmaceutical and biological applications = = =
Boric acid has antiseptic , antifungal , and antiviral properties and for these reasons is applied as a water clarifier in swimming pool water treatment . Mild solutions of boric acid have been used as eye antiseptics .
Bortezomib ( marketed as Velcade and Cytomib ) . Boron appears as an active element in its first @-@ approved organic pharmaceutical in the pharmaceutical bortezomib , a new class of drug called the proteasome inhibitors , which are active in myeloma and one form of lymphoma ( it is in currently in experimental trials against other types of lymphoma ) . The boron atom in bortezomib binds the catalytic site of the 26S proteasome with high affinity and specificity .
A number of potential boronated pharmaceuticals using boron @-@ 10 , have been prepared for use in boron neutron capture therapy ( BNCT ) .
Some boron compounds show promise in treating arthritis , though none have as yet been generally approved for the purpose .
Tavaborole ( marketed as Kerydin ) is a Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase inhibitor which is used to treat toenail fungus . It gained FDA approval in July 2014 .
= = = Research areas = = =
Magnesium diboride is an important superconducting material with the transition temperature of 39 K. MgB2 wires are produced with the powder @-@ in @-@ tube process and applied in superconducting magnets .
Amorphous boron is used as a melting point depressant in nickel @-@ chromium braze alloys .
Hexagonal boron nitride forms atomically thin layers , which have been used to enhance the electron mobility in graphene devices . It also forms nanotubular structures ( BNNTs ) , which have with high strength , high chemical stability , and high thermal conductivity , among its list of desirable properties .
= = Biological role = =
Boron is needed by life . In 2013 , a hypothesis suggested it was possible that boron and molybdenum catalyzed the production of RNA on Mars with life being transported to Earth via a meteorite around 3 billion years ago .
There exists one known boron @-@ containing natural antibiotic , boromycin , isolated from streptomyces .
Boron is an essential plant nutrient , required primarily for maintaining the integrity of cell walls . However , high soil concentrations of greater than 1 @.@ 0 ppm lead to marginal and tip necrosis in leaves as well as poor overall growth performance . Levels as low as 0 @.@ 8 ppm produce these same symptoms in plants that are particularly sensitive to boron in the soil . Nearly all plants , even those somewhat tolerant of soil boron , will show at least some symptoms of boron toxicity when soil boron content is greater than 1 @.@ 8 ppm . When this content exceeds 2 @.@ 0 ppm , few plants will perform well and some may not survive . When boron levels in plant tissue exceed 200 ppm , symptoms of boron toxicity are likely to appear .
As an ultratrace element , boron is necessary for the optimal health of rats . Boron deficiency in rats is not easy to produce , since boron is needed by rats in such small amounts that ultrapurified foods and dust filtration of air are required . Boron deficiency manifests in rats as poor coat or hair quality . Presumably boron is necessary to other mammals . No deficiency syndrome in humans has been described . Small amounts of boron occur widely in the diet , and the amounts needed in the diet would , by extension from rodent studies , be very small . The exact physiological role of boron in the animal kingdom is poorly understood .
Boron occurs in all foods produced from plants . Since 1989 its nutritional value has been argued . It is thought that boron plays several biochemical roles in animals , including humans . The United States Department of Agriculture conducted an experiment in which postmenopausal women took 3 mg of boron a day . The results showed that supplemental boron reduced excretion of calcium by 44 % , and activated estrogen and vitamin D , suggesting a possible role in the suppression of osteoporosis . However , whether these effects were conventionally nutritional , or medicinal , could not be determined . The U.S. National Institutes of Health states that " Total daily boron intake in normal human diets ranges from 2 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 3 mg boron / day . "
Congenital endothelial dystrophy type 2 , a rare form of corneal dystrophy , is linked to mutations in SLC4A11 gene that encodes a transporter reportedly regulating the intracellular concentration of boron .
= = = Analytical quantification = = =
For determination of boron content in food or materials the colorimetric curcumin method is used . Boron is converted to boric acid or borates and on reaction with curcumin in acidic solution , a red colored boron @-@ chelate complex , rosocyanine , is formed .
= = = Health issues and toxicity = = =
Elemental boron , boron oxide , boric acid , borates , and many organoboron compounds are nontoxic to humans and animals ( with toxicity similar to that of table salt ) . The LD50 ( dose at which there is 50 % mortality ) for animals is about 6 g per kg of body weight . Substances with LD50 above 2 g are considered nontoxic . The minimum lethal dose for humans has not been established . An intake of 4 g / day of boric acid was reported without incident , but more than this is considered toxic in more than a few doses . Intakes of more than 0 @.@ 5 grams per day for 50 days cause minor digestive and other problems suggestive of toxicity .
Single medical doses of 20 g of boric acid for neutron capture therapy have been used without undue toxicity . Fish have survived for 30 min in a saturated boric acid solution and can survive longer in strong borax solutions . Boric acid is more toxic to insects than to mammals , and is routinely used as an insecticide .
The boranes ( boron hydrogen compounds ) and similar gaseous compounds are quite poisonous . As usual , it is not an element that is intrinsically poisonous , but their toxicity depends on structure .
The boranes are toxic as well as highly flammable and require special care when handling . Sodium borohydride presents a fire hazard owing to its reducing nature and the liberation of hydrogen on contact with acid . Boron halides are corrosive .
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= Antoinism =
Antoinism is a healer and Christian @-@ oriented new religious movement founded in 1910 by the Walloon Louis @-@ Joseph Antoine ( 1846 – 1912 ) in Jemeppe @-@ sur @-@ Meuse , Seraing . With a total of 64 temples , over forty reading rooms across the world and thousands of members , it remains the only religion established in Belgium whose notoriety and success went outside the country . Mainly active in France , the religious movement is characterized by a decentralized structure , simple rites , discretion and tolerance towards other faiths .
Raised a Catholic , Antoine worked as a coal miner in his youth , then as a steelworker , before performing his military service in 1866 . After marrying Catherine in 1873 , he moved several times for professional reasons . Deeply impressed by Allan Kardec 's writings , he organized a spiritualist group in the 1890s . In 1893 , the death of his son marked the definitive loss of his faith in Catholicism . In 1896 , he explained his Spiritist views in a book , then discovered the gifts of healing . Quickly known as a healer , he gathered many followers , mainly among workers disappointed by Catholicism or medicine . In 1906 , he broke with Spiritism and started a religion , then published three books outlining his doctrine and consecrated the first Antoinist temple . After his death in 1912 , Catherine ensured the continuity of the religion , promoting a centralized worship around the person of her husband and providing additional rules in the organization . When she died in 1940 , some differences happened between the French and the Belgian temples .
Antoinist beliefs combine some elements of Catholicism , reincarnation , and healing . In the Antoinist views , the man must reach consciousness by getting rid of the illusion of matter produced by his intelligence — the source of evil and suffering . The purpose of the life is to release oneself from the cycle of reincarnation through a moral progression aided by " fluids " — all human actions , acquired by silent prayer and the harm caused by diseases and enemies . As freedom of conscience and free will are considered very important in Antoinist creed , the religion does not practice proselytism and is not exclusive . It does not provide any prescription on social issues . Although focused on healing , Antoinism does not interfere with the medical field , and does not discourage the resort to traditional medicine .
Simple and brief , services are performed in the temples , generally twice per day , and are composed of two forms of worship : " The General Operation " , which consists of the transmission of the fluid to the churchgoers , and " The Reading " of Antoine 's writings . Members who performed the services wear an entirely black dress , as sign of an intense involvement in the religion ; they are not paid . Temples are also the place of consultations of a healer by people who wish to obtain a request , frequently related to health . Antoinist celebrations include Christian holidays and other three days that commemorate the founding couple and the dedication of the first temple . Registered as organism of public utility in Belgium and as religious association in France , the religion is directed by a college composed of the most active members called desservants . It is financed by anonymous donations and do not ask for money from its followers . In France , the cult classification of Antoinism in the 1995 Parliamentary Report was criticized by the sociologists who studied the religious group , and many people involved in the anti @-@ cults fight did not report cultic deviances .
= = History = =
= = = 1846 – 1912 : Founder Louis Antoine = = =
= = = = Childhood and professional activities = = = =
Louis @-@ Joseph Antoine was born on 7 June 1846 in Mons @-@ Crotteux , at a place called " In the Chapel " , the youngest of a large family , which belonged to the Roman Catholic Church . His mother was Catherine Castille , born in 1797 . He was raised in the Priesse street and attended primary school in Mons . From the age of twelve , Louis was employed as a coal miner , following in the footsteps of his father . One day , while working at the mine , his lamp went out without apparent reason , which he interpreted as a divine sign that he should abandon this work . He worked for two years in the mine , then was a steelworker in the Cockerill factory in Seraing . He was enrolled in the militia of Belgium in 1866 , and filled his military obligations in Bruges . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War , he accidentally killed a comrade ; although there was no legal action , this event led him to question the meaning of life . After marrying Jeanne Catherine Collon on 15 April 1873 , while he was a hammerer , he became the father of a son , Louis Martin Joseph , born in Hamborn , Prussia on 23 September 1873 , and baptized five days later in the Catholic Church of St. John . Then the family went to Belgium in August 1876 , where Antoine bought a horse and became a vegetable vendor . In 1878 , he began to suffer from recurring stomach aches . In February 1879 , he returned to Poland where he was hired as hammerer chief by Mr. Pastor in the Pragua steelworks ; there his wife ran a school canteen . Five years later , the family moved to Jemeppe @-@ sur @-@ Meuse ( Belgium ) , where he built twenty houses for workers . On 5 February 1886 , Antoine was sentenced to a fine of two francs on the grounds of physical violence on Denis Collon on 10 October 1885 . Until 1900 , he was a portier and a collector of Lexhy factory .
= = = = Influence by Spiritism = = = =
Though young , Antoine showed great piety , which the historian Pierre Debouxhtay described as a " devotion of a rather scrupulous formalism " . Despite his strong faith , Antoine was unsatisfied with his religion . He began to be influenced by the writings of Allan Kardec and , through his friend Gustave Gon , was initiated in 1884 in Spiritism in attending Spiritist meetings to Tilleur , alongside his wife and his nephew Pierre Dor . In Jemeppe @-@ sur @-@ Meuse , with friends , he started a Spiritist movement called " The Vine Growers of the Lord " ( " Les Vignerons du Seigneur " ) . Often ill , his son attended evening school in Jemeppe , then worked at the Society of Belgian Northern Railways ( Société des Chemins de Fer du Nord Belge ) ; At his death on 23 April 1893 because of a phlebitis , Antoine and his group definitively broke with Christianity ; moreover , after participating in Spiritist meetings , parents believed that their deceased son was reincarnated as a pharmacist in Paris . Antoine published in 1896 a book entitled Little Spiritist Catechism ( Petit catéchisme spirite ) to explain his own doctrinal views ; shaped on the Catechism of the Catholic Church , this writing was successful and was translated into Spanish . Antoine organized public meetings of Spiritism the first Sunday of each month at his home , and the second and the fourth Sundays at Pierre Debroux 's home , people being invited to meetings through flyers . He then discovered the gifts of healing and by 1900 , he received many sufferers to heal ; thenceforth , he was known as the " healer of Jemeppe " . He distributed remedies learned from Spiritism and advocated vegetarianism , as well as temperance and avoidance of fatty foods .
On 8 November 1900 , the prosecutor of Liège , who had received an anonymous letter , asked doctors Louis Lenger and Gabriel Corin to investigate the healing activities of Antoine . On 14 December , the Commissioner raided the pharmacist Nizet , installed in Jemeppe , who received orders made by Antoine to heal the sick . Three days later , the prosecutor and the two doctors asked Antoine about his healing activities and attended several consultations . In his report , the prosecutor stated that Anthony was very cooperative , that his treatments were " simple " and that it was certain that he obtained many recoveries but only under suggestion ; he noticed his " absolute sincerity " , but also asserted his activities could be " a danger to public health " . Antoine appeared before the Criminal Court on 19 February 1901 ; Dr. Corin and three patients who reported having been cured succeeded at the witness box . Finally , Antoine was sentenced to a suspended fine of 60 francs , which did not prevent him to enjoy great renown . Meanwhile , on 25 December 1900 , approximately 180 people attended the inauguration of a new building located at the corner of Tomballes and Bois @-@ du @-@ Mont streets that Antoine had purchased earlier the same year , and then decorated with portraits of Allan Kardec , the cure of Ars and Dr. House .
In 1901 , Antoine posted an advertisement in the Spiritist journal The Messenger ( Le Messager ) , seeking doctors who would associate with him , but the attempt did not meet with success . At the same time , he was deeply influenced by Léon Denis ' book In the Invisible . He began to give up his remedies , particularly because of his then recent trial , and gradually left Spiritism , as he was sometimes deceived by false mediums . In 1902 , his group The Vine Growers of the Lord , although solicited , did not participate in the creation of a Spiritist Federation , then in 1905 , the members did not attend the preparatory meeting of the Congress in Liège and refused the 0 @.@ 25 franc contribution . In 1905 , he consultated up to 400 patients per day . Around the same time , he published a four @-@ page leaflet which commented passages of the Gospels without reference to Spiritism .
= = = = Foundation of a new religion = = = =
In 1906 , Antoine discovered a spirituality he called a " new spiritualism " , which led him to definitely give up Spiritism , to decide to heal by faith alone and to perform only collective healing in a temple , and thus started to lay the foundations of a structured religious movement . That year , the followers of The Vine Growers of the Lord attended for the last time the national convention of Spiritists in Charleroi , which officially marked the end of their mutual support , ande the following year , Antoine publicly abjured any practice of Spiritism . In addition , the moral dimension became more present in the doctrine , while the experimental disappeared . Given this abandonment of the Spiritist doctrine , the new religious group was criticized in Spiritist journals .
At that time , Antoine had a student named Martin Jeanfils , an employee at the Corbeau coal . A few years ago , Jeanfils was certain to get a gift of healing by treating knee and foot sprains of his wife and himself , and was then consulted by patients in Jemeppe . Antoine and him were sued on 16 January 1907 on the grounds of illegal practice of the art of healing . Jeanfils explained to the Court that he just wanted to do disappear the pain , and that he always sent his patients to doctors . For his part , Antoine told the judge that he simply put his hand on the forehead of patients and that he prescribed drugs ; he denied the charge , and all the witnesses heard testified of the altruism of Antoine , who distributed money to the poor . Antoine and Jeanfils appeared before the Criminal Court on 15 June 1907 , and the courtroom was entirely filled . Dr. Delville and the parents of a child cured by Antoine testified at the witness box , Mr. Dupret then pronounced the indictment . Adjourned , The judgment was adjourned and was finally , on 21 June 1907 , President Hamoir acquitted the two men , who were absent in court then . Following an appeal by the prosecutor , Antoine and Jeanfils appeared before the Court again on 16 October 1907 . The General Advocate Meyers made the indictment , analyzing the legislation of 1918 on the illegal art of healing , claiming that it was not what Antoine did . On 22 October of the same year , the acquittal was confirmed , and Meyers was deeply thanked by several faithful .
Mrs. Desart , a stenographer , transcribed the teachings of Antoine in a magazine , The Halo of Consciousness ( L 'Auréole de la conscience ) , published from May 1907 to April 1909 , while three books were successively published , works in which the new doctrine was developed and which contained the Antoinist creed , " The Ten Principles of the Father " . At that time , the temple was quickly filled every day and Antoine received daily about 250 letters or telegrams . Unlike today , some prozelytism was then performed by 70 hawkers wearing coats and hats and with briefcases . From May 1909 to Easter 1910 , Antoine did not appear in public , and lived alone to practice fasting and prayer , and the worship was assumed by one of his followers , Florian Deregnaucourt , who also published the Antoinist literature . On 15 August 1910 , Antoine announced that he would no longer do individual consultations , and consecrated the temple of Jemeppe @-@ sur @-@ Meuse , located rue Alfred Smeets and which cost about 100 @,@ 000 francs . Antoine presented his wife as his successor and appointed a council composed of followers to manage financial issues of the religion . At the meeting of 11 June 1911 , the council proposed the publishing of a newspaper titled The Unitive ( L 'Unitif ) which was released in September of the same year , with a printing of 400 @,@ 000 copies for the first issue , and 6 @,@ 000 subscribers . In the context of legal proceedings for the worship registration , secretary of the Antoinist committee Deregnaucourt wrote to the Minister of the Interior on 29 March 1910 and to the Minister of Justice and Religious Affairs on 19 April 1910 . A petition of 160 @,@ 000 signatures to demand official recognition of the Antoinist religion was sent to the House of Representatives on 2 December 1910 , and forwarded to the Minister of Justice on 27 January 1911 .
Although his predictions were sometimes inaccurate , Antoine was then regarded as a prophet by his followers , and some of them said it could perform supernatural apparitions ; for his part , Antoine said nothing about the possible truthfulness of these phenomena . Named " The Father " by his followers , Antoine died — " disembodied " in Antoinist doctrine — on 25 June 1912 as the result of an attack of stroke . Then there were rumors that he would resurrect on the third day , but Debouxhtay believed that they emenated from " jesters " and that Antoinists did not believe this . The procession which took place at his funeral on 30 June 1912 was a great event in Jemeppe , and on this occasion , 100 @,@ 000 faithful came to pray over his body . Subsequently , Antoinists were allowed to move the body , initially in the pauper 's grave , to the town cemetery . In 1920 , Antoine 's widow asked the country 's Queen to allow her the carry the body in the temple garden of Jemeppe where a chapel would be erected , but this request failed .
As legacy , a street in Spa was named " Father Antoine Street " ( " Rue du Père Antoine " ) after a decision by the Liberal Party of the city in 1931 , and a 1952 painted plaster bust of Antoine is exhibited at the Museum of Walloon Life ( Musée de la Vie wallonne ) in Liège .
= = = = Splinter groups = = = =
When Antoine was alive , a minor split group was led in Verviers by a man named Jousselin . A more important schism from Antoinism was initied by Pierre Dor ( born 15 May 1862 , Mons @-@ Crotteux ) , Louis Antoine 's nephew , and was named " Dorism " . He first participated in the Spiritist circle of his uncle , " The Vine Growers of the Lord " , but decided to splinter off , as he believed he had himself gifts of healing . He tried to heal sufferers , but did not achieve success and returned to the group of his uncle . However , he accompanied one of his patients in Russia , where he enjoyed success since he healed about 7 @,@ 000 people per week , but came back to Belgium after complaints from doctors . In Roux @-@ Wilbeauroux , he built a hall called " The Moral School " ( " L 'École Morale " ) where he healed the sick and dispensed roughly the same teachings as that of his uncle . He explained his theory in two books respectively published in 1912 and 1913 , entitled Catechism of the Restoration of the Soul ( Catéchisme de la restauration de l 'âme ) and Christ Speaks Again ( Le Christ parle à nouveau ) — as he identified himself to Jesus Christ , and Antoine to John the Baptist — which Debouxhtay considered as a potential plagiarism of Antoine 's writings . Dor encouraged a diet of vegetables boiled in water and chastity before marriage . In 1916 , he was convicted of illegally practicing the healing art . Thereafter , he moved to Uccle , and his movement disappeared following his death on 5 March 1947 . As Antoinism , Dorism was criticized by some Catholic clergy members .
= = = 1912 – 1940 : Wife Catherine as successor = = =
The illiterate wife of Louis Antoine , Catherine ( born 26 May 1850 , Jemeppe sur Meuse – died 3 November 1940 , Jemeppe sur Meuse ) , called " The Mother " by the followers , was designated by him as his successor , but received no advice from him on how to manage the religion . In December 1918 , then in September 1919 , she sent letters respectively to the King of Belgium and the Minister of Justice to obtain legal recognition of the Antoinist worship ; in the month of March of the following two years , Secretary of worship Ferdinand Delcroix sent two letters in the same purpose , which resulted in 1922 in the recognition of public utility of the religion .
To seek to prevent any misappropriation of the charism of Antoine within the movement after his death , the Antoinist journal L 'Unitif published articles which presented Catherine as the legitimate successor and also redefined precisely the limits of the healers ' role . To avoid a succession crisis and to ensure the continuity of the religion , Catherine decided to promote a centralized worship around the person of her husband and thus established various rules between 1925 and 1930 . For example , she placed , in the temple before the high platform , the photograph of her husband with the mention " The Father is making the Operation " , then added her own portrait . She also authorized the desservants — the members the most involved in the religion — to perform the General Operation from the higher platform , but wanted that the ceremony would be preceded by a statement that it is the Father who performs the Operation and that the faith must be placed in him to obtain satisfaction . She insisted that the desservant installed in the platform would be sat during the reading of Antoine 's writings . She also organized the Father 's day , on 25 June , and rituals such as baptism , communion and marriage , which transformed the group into institutionalized religion . She ordered that nothing should be changed in her husband 's writings and in 1932 closed reading rooms in which followers gave personal teachings . However , unlike the writings of her husband which can be sold by anyone , changes and rules established by Catherine are recorded in books only available to the desservants , thus remaining confidential . From 17 June 1930 , a faithful named Narcisse Nihoul replaced her to perform the General Operation at the platform of the temple .
= = = 1940 – 2016 : Continuity of the worship = = =
The history of Antoinism was very quiet after 1940 . In Belgium , Joseph Nihoul , the President of the Antoinist Council , then his successors , led the religion until their death , alongside the members of this body . The authority of Catherine was challenged just after her death by the Belgian branch of the movement , which has withdrawn the religious changes she made : removal of photographs in the temples , deletion of baptism , marriage and communion , opposition to the translation of Antoine 's works ... However , a Belgian group who , claiming to be faithful to the true Antoinist tradition , opened a temple in Angleur on 1 April 1943 , preferred to keep the portraits of the Antoines in the temple . In France , the Antoinists wanted to be faithful to all requirements provided by the founding couple . In spite of these differences , the two branches show each other support and tolerance . Thus , after the death of Catherine , there were two forms of Antoinism , which still remain different today : one in Belgium , and one in France .
In Belgium , the growth of the religion quickly begin to slow down , even to decline , as indicated by the fact that no temple has been built since 1968 and that several of them are currently unused because of a lack of dressed members and / or money . In contrast , the constructions of the temples in France has been continued until 1993 , when a new temple in Toulouse was opened .
= = Beliefs = =
= = = Theology = = =
Antoinism believes in a dualistic universe composed of a spiritual world governed by the law of God or consciousness , and of a corporal world , governed by natural laws , in which matter is an illusion perceived by the imagination generated by intelligence . The man combines in himself both worlds , as he has a physical body and a divine consciousness . In Antoinist views , the importance of human laws and science is weakened as they are based not on consciousness , but on intelligence . The view of the matter is , however , not considered a sin , but an error that causes suffering .
The religious movement believes in a moral progression through reincarnation after death : the transmigration of the spirit in a human body only reflects the degree of spiritual elevation . The reincarnated person has no recollection of the past lives , and can again make progress in his spiritual course that allows him , at the end , to reach the divine state which releases him from the cycle of reincarnation . The harm caused by disease and by people is seen as a beneficial cure , as the pain can increase one 's spiritual progress and thus contribute to one 's salvation . The silent prayer is also considered as a way to connect the spirit to consciousness . Antoine , who suffered from disease and demonstrated asceticism and dedication throughout his life , is regarded by followers as a role model to attain salvation .
Antoinist doctrine provides another interpretation to the original sin in the book of Genesis : Adam began to follow Eve , who had placed her confidence in a serpent , symbol of matter . By imagining the materiality of the physical world , he abandoned the divine consciousness in which he lived and produced the ideas of good and evil . The " tree of knowledge of good and evil " in the Bible is redefined as " the tree of the science of the sight of evil " . Antoinism claimed to not be an atheist religion , but has a particular conception of God : this one does not exist outside of humans , and they do not exist outside of God . Therefore as God would live in every humain , it is highly recommended to love one 's enemies . In addition , the doctrine of the Trinity is not accepted .
Flexible and little binding , Antoinist beliefs are close to the contemporary belief , as followers can choose the beliefs they wish and interpret events as they want . The religion attaches great importance to freedom of conscience and free will , which renders it attractive and promotes a diversity of beliefs among the followers who can refer simultaneously to other religious traditions . Some believers see Antoine as an incarnation of God ; others , who continue to practice Catholicism , consider him a prophet equal to Jesus Christ ; others , who adhere to New Age doctrines , perceive him as a spiritual figure . The movement rejects indoctrination of children and prozelytism , even towards people who visit the temple , tolerates other religions as they teach the faith and prayer and thus detach people from the material world , and considers tolerance the highest virtue to practise . The religion does not provide any prescription on issues such as divorce , abortion and sexuality , has no political purpose and do not use honorary titles , considering all people equal . A periodical directed by writer Louis Pauwels summarized the main purposes of the religion as being the " mutual aid , spiritual and human solidarity , availability and hospitality " .
= = = Fluids = = =
Fundamental principle of the cosmos , the fluid is a recurrent theme in Antoinism . Thoughts , words , human actions and social ties are considered as fluids . As their quality depends on the moral progress of a person , there are " spiritual " and " heavy " fluids . They can be transmitted , perceived by the intelligence and purified through meditation . A good fluid is supposed to be acquired by love and prayer , and has various uses : it can act as a divine power that regenerates the whole person , destroy evil and heal . It is believed that Antoine can transmit the good fluid and that the temple platform is the place of the most number of fluids .
As good fluids are supposed to be transferable , the Antoinist dress used during the worship is often placed on the bed of a suffering person to help his recovery ; similarly , some faithful put a request on a paper in a box under the platform so that the wish happen , others buy a photo of Antoine at a ceremony to be protected . To prevent negative fluids to enter the temple , several rules were established : for example , those who perform the worship are not allowed to wear jewelry or makeup in the building .
= = = Healing = = =
Although focused on healing , Antoinism does not propose any diagnosis nor prescription , and does not practice the laying on of hands ; the faithful may also resort to traditional medicine . In the books of the temple , it is stated that desservants are not allowed to discourage them to consult a doctor and they should pray that they find an " inspired " doctor . Generally , consulting an Antoinist healer is merely a supplement to allopathic medicine . Because of its healer doctrine , the religious group is almost always compared to Christian Science ; however , in spite of several similarities with this religion as well as with Friedrich Hegel 's works , Belgian historian Pierre Debouxhtay rejected the idea that they could have been potential influences on Antoine 's doctrines . According to him , it is possible that Antoine was influenced by Doukhobors .
When Antoine was alive , many observers thought that the healings he obtained resulted to suggestion only , and Dr. Schuind , who wrote two articles in The Meuse ( La Meuse ) on the subject at the time , criticized the lack of control and vague diagnostics surrounding these healings . Sociologist Anne @-@ Cécile Bégot considered the Antoinist healing of the first decades a form of protest against ( 1 ) the efficiency of medicine , ( 2 ) the traditional representation of disease — the real healing can be attained only through a new approach to the disease , which is never considered a particular misfortune and thus is not reduced to its biological dimension — and ( 3 ) the management of disease — sick are always responsible for their own illness . However , she concluded that this protest has evolved throughout time as ( 1 ) the disease is now represented on an endogenous etiological model , which indicates a process of individualization of the religion , and ( 2 ) the personal real @-@ life experience is more presented as the cause of the disease than the relation to the global society .
= = Practices = =
= = = Worship = = =
The Antoinism worship takes place in temples . A dressed member welcomes anyone who enters the temple by calling them " brother " and " sister " , even if they are just visitors . The service is very unceremonial and informal , as there is no liturgy , singing , or pre @-@ set prayers , and lasts from 15 to 30 minutes . Attendance at worship is not required and many people come sporadically . According to sociologist Régis Dericquebourg , " the Antoinist worship is a ritual of intercession . ( ... ) It is a time of big emotional intensity with an intimate aspect " .
The service is composed of two practices :
" The General Operation " ( " L 'Opération Générale " ) : Established by Antoine in 1910 , it begins and ends with three strokes of bell . It is briefly announced by a dressed member . After meditating in a room on the back of the temple , a desservant climb to the highest platform , and the dressed follower goes to the other platform . Both are standing and pray for a few minutes to transmit the fluid to the churchgoers . Then , if the reading of the sacred texts is scheduled just after , as it is the case in France , the desservant whispers to the dressed follower to perform the reading . Originally Antoine practiced this form of worship only on holidays ( except Sundays ) and on the 1st and 15th days of each month , before extending it to the first four days of the week . It was in 1932 that the General Operation was performed in all Antoinist temples , and no longer only in the one of Jemeppe ; furthermore , on 3 December 1933 , Catherine decided that the ritual would be also perform every Sunday .
" The Reading " ( " La Lecture " ) : It lasts twenty minutes and consists of the reading of Antoine 's book L 'Enseignement by the dressed follower . The reading ends when he thanks the audience .
There are few differences in schedules between the services in Belgium and that of France ( see the table ) .
= = = Consultations by a healer = = =
After the service , some people — regular faithful or visitors — may ask to consult a healer in one of the small rooms of the temple — although the desservant who lives in the apartment adjacent to the temple is always available to receive suffering persons . During these consultations , both are standing before Antoine 's image : the patient expresses for a few minutes the request that he wishes to obtain , and the healer prays , sometimes while touching the consultant 's shoulder or hand , presumably to convey the fluid . The healer 's work is said to put again the consultant in the love of God that will allow him to find himself the spiritual journey leading to healing . For this purpose , the healer has to discover the origin of the consultant 's problem , which is , in Antoinist beliefs , always linked to a person 's own history , and to understand that he should bear the consequences of what was done in a preceding life .
A 2001 survey reported by Dr. Axel Hoffman showed that an Antoinist healer had received 216 patients over a period of twenty days , that the reasons to consultate were related to physical ( 47 % ) , psychological ( 19 % ) , sentimental ( 13 % ) and professional ( 13 % ) issues , and that most of these people also consulted a doctor . The Antoinist healing process does not include a doctrinal teaching nor a psychological manipulation . It does not necessarily imply the end of the problem or illness , and can be divided into three phases : the relief provided by the healer through listening and intercession with God , then acceptance of the problem which requires the recognition of one 's responsibilities , and finally the inner peace that results . Whether immediate or gradual , healings are never considered as miracles in the religion because they are supposed to occur inevitably when all necessary conditions , including the faith of the patient , are met . Even after several consultations , the consultant does not necessarily become a follower . Several sociologists deemed the Antoinist healing as " exorcist " as well as " adorcist " .
= = = Marriage , communion , baptism and funeral = = =
Catherine established rituals such as baptism of infants , blessing of couples and communion of young people . They simply consist of an " elevation of thought " that take place after the services in a consulting room of the temple . These rituals have no particular meaning in the religion and are not considered sacraments ; they are performed only at the request of followers , including young people , who want to provide a religious dimension to the important moments of their lives . Funerals are also performed at the request of the concerned person , unless the family asks for rituals of another religion . The procession always takes place at the cemetery or the funeral home , and the deceased person is never brought to the temple . Desservants read the " Ten Principles of the Father " , then an Antoinist text on reincarnation , to help the soul to come off the body to be reincarnated . Sociologists note that many people who never attend the Antoinist services asked for funeral rites of that religion .
= = = Holidays = = =
As Antoine decided to model Antoinist holidays on Catholicism , followers celebrate Christian holidays , including All Saints , Christmas , Easter , Easter Monday and Ascension ; these days , appropriate portions of Antoine 's works are read during the services . There are also three special days in Antoinism , and attendance at worship is generally higher at these moments : ( 1 ) 25 June , the Father 's Day . It was established by Antoine 's wife shortly after his death . At first , from 1913 , all the temples except the one in Jemeppe were closed that day in the purpose that followers came to attend the ceremony in that city . So many Antoinists performed a pilgrimage to Jemeppe @-@ sur @-@ Meuse to participate in a procession through the city which outlined the main events of Antoine 's life . The procession was withdrawn in 1937 and the pilgrimage seems to be no longer organized . That day , the faithful pay homage to the founder in the temples . ( 2 ) 15 August , the consecration of the temple 's Day , which commemorates the consecration of the first temple . In 1911 , on that day , the General Operation took place at the temple , then the ceremony continued into a public hall , which shocked followers ; therefore , the following year , the whole ceremony took place exclusively in the temple . ( 3 ) 3 November , the Mother 's Day , as anniversary of Catherine 's death .
= = = Religious clothing and symbols = = =
Wearing Antoinist religious clothing indicates an intense involvement in the religion by the person who makes this choice . Although not mandatory , it is devoted to faithful who perform the worship , celebrations and other tasks in the temple — all of them are called " moral work " , as they are expected to participate in the moral elevation of followers . It was in 1906 that Antoine wore a special clothe for the first time , and it was the case of the faithful in 1910 . Entirely black , the dress for men was designed by Antoine , and that for women by Catherine , who precisely codified their dimensions in their writings . There are also dresses for young people of both sexes , but they are never actually worn . Historically , the wearing of the dress was the subject of a debate among the first Antoinists , some of them refusing to wear it , and even generated a scandal so that Antoine had to justify himself on this subject , saying it had been revealed by inspiration . In the past , the dress was also worn in the street , and that was how the followers were immediately identified by the public . Currently , it is generally only worn in the context of worship , and it is put and removed in the locker room of the temple . Clothing for men is composed of a dress which resembles the one worn by Catholic clergy in the monastery , and closed by 13 buttons , plus a cashmere top hat . Clothing for women is a wide dress accompanied with a cape and a bonnet with a veil . In the Antoinist view , the collar is important as it is believed that the fluid resides here .
The only emblem of Antoinism is the tree of science of the sight of evil that features on the facade of the highest platform in the temple . It has seven branches which represent the seven deadly sins ( although sin is rejected in the religion ) , two eyes which symbolize the view of the sins , and the tree roots which are the symbol of the intelligence which links man to matter . In the branches the mention " Culte Antoiniste " ( " Antoinist worship " ) is written .
= = Organization = =
= = = Status = = =
In Belgium , the religion was organized as an association without lucrative purpose ( absl ) in 1922 and was immediately registered as organism of public utility on a request of the Department of Justice . It is not recognized as a public worship , because there is no worship of a deity in the ceremonies . Currently headed by a college of desservants , the religion is legally registered as religious association in France . It was published in the Journal Officiel de la République Française of 9 February 1924 , and the last modification of the statutes appeared in the JO of 3 August 1988 . Antoinist worship has been exempt from property taxes on the public part of its buildings since 1925 in Belgium and in France since 1934 .
= = = Places of worship = = =
The temples are Antoinism 's only place of worship . They are financed with anonymous donations and patronages , and often members participate in the construction . They are all consecrated prior to their use for worship , which means that , at a ceremony , they received a " good fluid " by one of the founders when they were alive or by a duly authorized follower .
The exterior facade displays an architecture which can be variable according to the temples , but always includes the words " Antoinist Worship " ( " Culte Antoiniste " ) and the year of the building consecration . At the entrance , there is a porch where various writings of the religious movement , the internal regulations ( in France only ) , the list of the places of worship and the holidays , as well as photos of the Antoine couple and of the various temples , are exhibited behind display windows .
The inside walls are always painted in green , as symbol of reincarnation . There is no decoration , and small papers on the walls indicate to visitors that they should not speak in the temple . Several rows of wooden benches separated by a center aisle are devoted to the faithful and visitors . They are facing a two @-@ floor platform where the worship is performed , and a text called " The Halo of Consciousness " ( " L 'Auréore de la Conscience " ) which is written on the back wall . In France only , the highest platform is adorned , from left to right , with a representation of the " tree of science of the sight of evil " , the Antoinist symbol , then a photo of Antoine and another one of Catherine ; the photo of the Father is slightly higher than the other two . On the left and the right , side rooms of around 15 m ³ are used as consulting offices whose walls are orned with five tables ; the most impressive of them is Antoine 's image . There is also a cloakroom and , adjacent to the temple , a small apartment continuously occupied by an Antoinist healer .
The movement is also owner of reading rooms , but no worship is celebrated in these places . As of 2011 , Antoinism counts 64 temples : 32 in Belgium , 31 in France and 1 in the Principality of Monaco . It has also opened reading rooms in Belgium , Metropolitan France , Réunion , Guadeloupe , Australia , Brazil , Italy , Congo and Luxembourg . A reading room in Egypt was quickly closed in November 1913 .
= = = Publications = = =
The Antoinist literature is mainly composed of Antoine 's writings , which are considered as sacred by followers and should not be modified . They include three doctrinal books grouped into two volumes which are sold in the temples and read during the worship : Revelation of the Father ( La Révélation par le Père ) , The Coronation of the Revealed Work ( Le Couronnement de l 'Œuvre révélée ) and Development of the Teaching of Father ( Le Développement de l 'Enseignement du Père ) . According to Debouxhtay , " the writings of Antoine do not shine by their qualities of style " , a view shared by other observers . Many statements from the Antoines are gathered into 14 books called Tomes , which remain only accessible to dressed members . From May 1907 to April 1909 , the religion published the journal The Halo of Consciousness , then from September 1911 to August 1914 , The Unitive . In 1936 , Belgian writer Robert Vivier published a hagiographic biography — although based on real facts — of Louis Antoine , which is also used by Antoinists to strengthen their faith , and thus sold in the temples .
= = = Hierarchy and financial issues = = =
The organization , which is the most reduced as possible , is slightly different in France and Belgium :
In Belgium , a General Council was organized in 1911 by Antoine to manage all material issues . It is currently composed of nine members including a chairman , a treasurer and a secretary . The founction of the First Representative of the Father was abolished in 1971 , and there are no internal regulations in the temples . In France , the movement is led by a religious association called " Culte Antoiniste " ( " Antoinist Worship " ) . All the desservants are part of a College of Desservants which manage the material issues , and whose decisions are implemented by an Administrative Committee . Within the college , a Moral Secretary is elected and serves as legal representative of the religion . Locally , the desservants nominate auxiliaries among the dressed followers so that they perform reading during worship and / or serve as healers . A Council of Local Interior composed of seven members including desservants is used for issues related to the temple on which it depends . Women as well as men can be chosen as ministers , as Catherine promoted gender equality in the worship . In all cases , Antoine , although deceased , remains the leader of the religion , which led Debouxhtay to compare him to the Pope in the Catholic Church .
Antoinist healers are always dressed members , and are not paid . They do not attend specific training or receive any initiation rite . Those who want to access this function must feel spiritually " inspired " and obtain the desservant 's approval . They must also promise to respect Antoinist rules including nondisclosure of confessions by consultants and not discouraging traditional medicine . Before receiving consultants , no kind of asceticism is required , but mental preparation includes prayer and meditation . Regarded as mere intercessors , healers have a " charisma of function " as they reproduce that of Antoine , which does not prevent some healers from becoming very popular among consultants .
Worship is practiced voluntarily , and desservants and dressed followers are not paid , neither for worship , nor for consultations . The religion sold nothing , except the sacred books , and refuses any form of contribution and any will made by a person who still has a family . When the founding couple was living , donations were rejected when the religion had enough money in its treasury . Only anonymous donations and bequests are accepted , and they go to the " Antoinist worship " ' s treasury . In Belgium , the finances , which have been published in Le Moniteur Belge every year after the Council meeting , are on the decline and show a minimal activity of the religion .
= = = Membership = = =
There are four categories of Antoinists : desservants who perform worship , people who wear the religious clothing , regular faithful who attend the service every week , and occasional members or visitors . As its aim is to heal and comfort through faith , Antoinism does not seek to convert new people . The number of followers is difficult to assess as there are no statistics established by the religion . After a period of rapid growth in Belgium , the number of followers is currently on the decline in the country and some temples were forced to close due to lack of money or faithful ; for example , in 2003 , Human Rights Without Frontiers counted less than 150 worshipers in the country . In France , however , the religion remains active and counts about 2 @,@ 500 regular members . Estimates of the worldwide membership vary from few thousand to 200 @,@ 000 . The future growth of the number of followers , however , can be affected by certain rules of the group . As it does not practice proselytism , Antoinism suffers from a lack of social visibility and many people are unaware even of Antoinist temples in their neighborhood . Moreover , because of the availability required for worship and the absence of income in the religion , dressed members and desservants are often old @-@ age retired people .
Mainly composed of 40- to 50 @-@ year @-@ old people and a majority of women , the membership is almost the same as that which was attracted by Spiritism in Belgium in the 19th century . The followers have mostly modest social status , such as miners and artisans , and are generally people interested in spirituality , but who are at odds with the Catholic Church or display a skeptical attitude towards traditional medicine . Antoinists are also sometimes Jews , Muslims , Buddhists , adepts of reiki , yoga , or t 'ai chi ch 'uan , or former Catholics . An accurate depiction of Antoinists of Northern France was made by writer André Thérive in his 1928 novel Without Soul ( Sans âme ) . In 1945 , Debouxhtay described followers as " very kind , very charitable and very obliging people " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Growth and criticism = = =
When Antoine died in 1912 , there were fewer than a thousand followers and thousands of supporters ; in the 1920s , the number of followers rose to 700 @,@ 000 , including 300 @,@ 000 in Belgium . During its first decades , Antoinism spread so fast that even American newspapers published coverages about the religion , one of them stating that it " [ was ] attracting considerable attention in Europe " . Author Françoise d 'Eaubonne considered that the physique of Antoine , which she found attractive , may have contributed to his success . According to Bégot , the success of Antoinist healing in the early 20th century can be explained by the fact that " it offered an alternative to the legitimate institutions of control of body and soul " , i.e. the Catholic Church and medicine . She added : " Carrier of a social protest , it is nevertheless a way of socioeconomic integration " . French historian and sociologist Émile Poulat stated that the religion " has always appeared calm and beneficient " .
As it disapproved that the group of Antoine turned away from Spiritism , journals from Spiritist circles criticized Antoinism in its beginnings , and the president of the Belgian Federation of Spiritist ( Fédération spirite de Belgique ) Chevalier Clement Saint @-@ Marcq considered the religion as one of the " parasitic stems came on the healthy and strong tree of Spiritism " . From a philosophical standpoint , Antoinism was criticized by René Guénon in an entire chapter of his 1923 book The Spiritist Fallacy ( L 'Erreur spirite ) , noting , to his point of view , " the nullity of [ Antoine 's ] " teachings " which are only a vague mixture of spiritualist theories and Protestant " moralism " " . As for Theosophists , they displayed a strong fellow feeling to Antoinism in their journals .
The religion received little opposition from the Catholic Church , which has sometimes criticized it but only on doctrinal issues , considering it heretic . For example , in 1918 , priest of Liège Hubert Bourguet published a 50 @-@ page brochure in which he expressed concerns on the doctrines , qualified the sacred texts of Antoinism as " gibberish " and concluded that Antoine would have suffered from paraphrenia . In 1925 , Father Lucien Roure considered Antoinism " a doctrine of anarchy and amorality " , with " negative teachings " , confused and incoherent writings , and " credulous and docile " followers . In 1949 , author Jacques Michel blamed Antoine for having substituted himself for Jesus Christ and deemed Antoinism a " demonic " faith . Later , in 1953 , Maurice Colinon , then in 1954 , the Father Henri @-@ Charles Chéry , published books which analyzed non @-@ conformist groups , including Antoinism . According to Debouxhtay , Protestants were concerned about the Antoinist expansion in the 1930s , and several pastors published writings on this subject ( Giron @-@ Galzin , 1910 ; Rumpf , 1917 ; Wyss , c.1924 ) . More recently , the religion was studied from a Protestant perspective by pastor Gérard Dagon .
= = = Classification = = =
In France , the Antoinist worship was classified as a cult in the 1995 parliamentary reports which considered it one of the oldest healer groups . Books published by Belgian and French anti @-@ cult associations and activists sometimes included Antoinism in their lists of cults , such as Cults , State of Emergency — Better know them , better defend oneself in France and worldwide ( Les Sectes , État d 'urgence — Mieux les connaître , mieux s 'en défendre en France et dans le monde ) , published by the Centre Roger Ikor , and others . However , on 27 May 2005 , the 1995 annex of the French report and cult classifications in which the Antoinist worship was listed , were officially cancelled and invalidated by Jean @-@ Pierre Raffarin 's circulaire . In addition , in a 1984 letter , the French Minister of the Interior wrote that the movement was considered , from an administrative point of view , as having for exclusive purpose the exercise of a religion , thus complying with the 18th and 19th Articles of the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State . He added that antoinism had always been allowed to receive bequests or donations , which meant that its religious nature was never challenged . In the early 2000s , membership of an Antoinist mother in Valenciennes was used by her former husband to remove from her the custody of their son ; the decision received attention from media and was criticized by the French sociologist Régis Dericquebourg as being unjustified .
When heard by the Belgian commission on cults , philosopher Luc Nefontaine said that " the establishment of a directory of cult movements ( ... ) seems to him dangerous , because it would also give a bad image of quite honourable organizations such as ( ... ) Antoinism " . Eric Brasseur , director of Centre for information and advice on harmful cultish organizations ( Centre d 'information et d 'avis sur les organisations sectaires nuisibles , or CIAOSN ) said : " This is a Belgian worship for which we have never had a complaint in 12 years , a rare case to report " . Similarly , in 2013 , the Interministerial Mission for Monitoring and Combatting Cultic Deviances ( Mission interministérielle de vigilance et de lutte contre les dérives sectaires , or MIVILUDES ) made this comment : " We have never received reporting from Antoinists . They heal through prayer , but as long as they do not prevent people from getting proper treatment by legal means ... " In addition , the Renseignements généraux stopped monitoring the religion given the absence of any problem . In 2002 , the national service " Pastoral , sects and new beliefs " ( " Pastorale , sectes et nouvelles croyances " ) , which analyses new religious movements from a catholic point of view , wrote about Antoinism : " Although listed among the cults in the 1995 Parliamentary Report , it has no cultish feature . " Similarly , Dericquebourg , who deeply studied the religious group , concluded that Antoinism is not a cult : it " has no totalitarian influence on its members , and do not dictate their behaviour to get in the world ; it is not exclusive [ and ] shows no hostility towards social systems " . According to Bégot , the group is a " cult " in the sociological language ( not to be confused with the pejorative word " cult " ) , characterized by a mystical experience , a break with the dominant religious tradition , and primacy of the individual on social issues ; it has both magical and ethical dimensions .
Although it does not refer directly to the Gospel , Antoinism is often considered a Christian based new religious movement . In 1970 , British sociologist Bryan Wilson classified Antoinism in the category of " thaumaturgical sects " . Secretary of the French episcopate for the study of cults and new religious movements Jean Vernette also deemed the group a " healer church " and " a new religion of Spiritism , Theosophy and elements of Christianity " . Le Protestant Liégeois , a Belgian Protestant periodical , said that the group , although listed as a cult in the 1995 parliamentary report , was " rather a philosophical and religious movement " . In an encyclopedia about sects , the journalist Xavier Pasquini qualified Antoinism a " genuine Theosophical religion " , and stated that it " does not ask for money from its followers , and does not practice excessive indoctrination " .
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= The Accounting Review =
The Accounting Review is a bimonthly peer @-@ reviewed academic journal published by the American Accounting Association ( AAA ) that covers accounting with a scope encompassing any accounting @-@ related subject and any research methodology.The Accounting Review is one of the oldest accounting journals , and recent studies considered it to be one of the leading academic journals in accounting .
The Accounting Review was established in 1926 . In its early decades , the journal tended to publish articles that would be of interest to accounting practitioners , but over time it shifted towards a preference for quantitative model building and mathematical rigor . In the 1980s the AAA began to publish two other journals , Issues in Accounting Education and Accounting Horizons , that were more relevant to accounting educators and accounting practitioners respectively , to allow The Accounting Review to focus more heavily on quantitative articles .
= = Overview and history = =
The Accounting Review is a bimonthly peer @-@ reviewed academic journal covering accounting , and is the flagship journal of the American Accounting Association . Its current Senior Editor is Mark L. DeFond ( University of Southern California ) . The journal 's scope encompasses any accounting @-@ related subject and any research methodology : as of 2010 the proportions of papers accepted for publication across subject areas and research methods was very similar to the proportion of papers received for review .
Submissions to The Accounting Review are reviewed by editorial board members and ad hoc reviewers . In 2009 , the journal received over 500 new submissions a year , and about 9 % of the decision letters sent to authors were acceptances or conditional acceptances .
= = = Establishment to 1960s = = =
The Accounting Review , launched in 1926 by William Andrew Paton , is one of the oldest academic journals in accounting . The American Association of University Instructors of Accounting , which later became the American Accounting Association , originally proposed that the association publish a Quarterly Journal of Accountics , but the proposal did not see fruition , and The Accounting Review was subsequently born . Paton served as editor and production manager in the journal 's first three years .
In the first few decades following the journal 's establishment , leading authors in The Accounting Review tended to write articles that would be of interest to accounting practitioners . The journal published articles that focused on accounting education and issues related to particular industries and trade groups , with many articles using anecdotal evidence and hypothetical illustrations . The longest @-@ serving editor during this period was Eric Kohler , an accounting practitioner ; Kohler served as editor from 1928 to 1942 .
From the 1940s to the 1960s , The Accounting Review published articles of greater diversity , and leading authors during this period tended to have less practical accounting experience and more formal education . During this period , the three individuals that accounted for most of the editorial duties of the journal were A. C. Littleton ( 1944 @-@ 1947 ) , Frank Smith ( 1950 @-@ 1959 ) and Robert Mautz ( 1960 @-@ 1962 ) , all of whom either had practical accounting experience , or were leading authors prior to 1945 , when the journal was oriented towards the accounting practice .
= = = 1960s to present = = =
In the 1960s , the journal shifted towards a preference for quantitative model building including econometric models and time series models , and accepted more articles by non @-@ accountants who contributed ideas from other disciplines in solving accounting @-@ related problems . Since the late 1970s , accounting professors have opined that the journal was sacrificing relevance for mathematical rigor , and by 1982 , accounting researchers realized that mathematical analysis and empirical research were a necessary condition for articles to be accepted .
In the 1980s , the AAA began to publish two other journals , Issues in Accounting Education and Accounting Horizons . Issues in Accounting Education , first published in 1983 , was created to better serve accounting educators , while Accounting Horizons , first published in 1987 , focused more on issues facing accounting practitioners . This permitted the journal " to focus more heavily on quantitative papers that became increasingly difficult for practitioners and many teachers of accounting to comprehend " .
Between the 1980s and the 2000s , with the rise of databases such as Compustat and EDGAR and software such as SAS , articles became mathematically more rigorous with increasingly sophisticated statistical analyses , and accounting practitioners comprised a decreasing proportion of authors in the journal .
= = Impact = =
According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2012 impact factor of 2 @.@ 319 , ranking it 6th out of 89 journals in the category " Business , Finance " . Recent studies on accounting research and on doctoral programs in accounting considered The Accounting Review to be one of six leading accounting journals , and it is also one of the journals used by the Financial Times to compile its business school research rank .
= = Abstracting and indexing = =
The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Social Sciences Citation Index , Current Contents / Social & Behavioral Sciences , and Scopus .
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= Homer 's Triple Bypass =
" Homer 's Triple Bypass " is the eleventh episode in the fourth season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 17 , 1992 . In the episode , Homer Simpson suffers a heart attack when Mr. Burns shouts at him at work . Dr. Hibbert tells Homer that he needs a triple bypass , but the Simpson family resorts to a discount surgeon after learning how expensive the operation would be in a regular hospital . The episode was written by Gary Apple and Michael Carrington and directed by David Silverman .
= = Plot = =
After being warned by Marge about his unhealthy eating , Homer starts to feel chest pains . After several more instances of the chest pains , Homer has a heart attack .
Homer is sent to the hospital , where Marge visits him . Dr. Hibbert informs Homer that he needs a triple bypass , which will cost him $ 30 @,@ 000 . Upon hearing this , Homer has another heart attack , which increases the price to $ 40 @,@ 000 . Marge and Homer try to figure out a way to pay for the operation .
Homer goes to The Merry Widow Insurance Company , but is denied when he has a heart attack before signing the policy . Unable to afford surgery at the hospital , Marge and Homer see a commercial for Dr. Nick Riviera , an incompetent surgeon who will perform any operation for $ 129 @.@ 95 . Leaving no other alternative , Homer decides to go for the cheaper service .
During the operation , Dr. Nick realizes that he does not know what to do , mostly due to a video detailing the procedure being taped over with a show called People Who Look Like Things . Lisa , who is watching the operation in the amphitheater , uses her knowledge of cardiology to guide Dr. Nick . The surgery is successful , and Homer makes a full recovery .
= = Production = =
" Homer 's Triple Bypass " was not written by a member of the show 's regular staff , but instead Gary Apple and Michael Carrington . They were brought in as freelance writers because the show was suffering from a depleted writing team after the third season ended and the remaining members did not bother to do the episode .
Carrington would provide voice work for later episodes , such as " I Love Lisa " ( as Sideshow Raheem ) , " Homer and Apu " ( as the head of the Kwik @-@ e @-@ Mart ) , and " Simpson Tide " ( as Homer 's drill instructor ) . The idea for the episode came from James L. Brooks , who pitched the idea of Homer having a heart attack . However , the writers disagreed with such a heavy topic as this .
They decided to have a scene where Lisa and Bart visit Homer before his surgery and were unsure of how to do it , so they approached Brooks . Brooks made up the entire scene on the spot . Originally , the surgery was supposed to be performed by Dr. Hibbert , but it was later changed to Dr. Nick . In the original airing of the episode , Dr. Nick 's phone number was the number of a real legal clinic , whose lawyers made them change it to 1 @-@ 600 @-@ DOCTORB .
The episode 's production staff decided that David Silverman would be able to make the episode funny , so he was selected to direct it . He went " all out " and did his best to make Homer 's grimaces as humorous as possible , to keep the episode at least somewhat lighter in tone . Silverman added some special touches : for example , when Homer has an out of body experience , his foot was still touching his body to signify that he was not dead . A doctor acted as a medical consultant for the episode .
The episode was to have concluded with Homer eating a pizza in his hospital bed following the operation , and with Marge asking a nurse where the pizza had come from . This reflects the earlier flashback scene where Grampa Simpson watches Homer as an infant , chewing on a slice of pizza in the hospital . The scene was replaced with the family cheering Homer on while he is in intensive care .
= = Cultural references = =
The opening sequence of the episode is a parody of American television show COPS ; it was not in the original animatic and added later because the episode was too short to fit in its required 22 @-@ minute length . When Homer is performing a sock @-@ puppet show to Lisa and Bart , he uses Akbar and Jeff , both of whom are characters from Matt Groening 's weekly comic strip Life in Hell . Homer follows behind the house that was the birthplace of Edgar Allan Poe , which was placed in the episode by David Silverman . During this scene Homer starts to hear a heartbeat , a reference to Poe 's " The Telltale Heart " . The scene where Homer sings in a church as a boy is based on the film Empire of the Sun .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer 's Triple Bypass " finished 16th in ratings for the week of December 14 – 20 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 3 , equivalent to approximately 13 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , called it " a cautionary tale that gives Dr Nick his biggest chance to shine . " They also praised the " cloud goes up , cloud goes down " line . IGN noted that the episode " introduced fans to one of the show 's more endearing background players , Dr. Nick . " Krusty 's line " this ain 't make @-@ up " is one of Matt Groening 's favorite lines from the show .
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= John C. Calhoun =
John Caldwell Calhoun ( / kælˈhuːn / ; March 18 , 1782 – March 31 , 1850 ) was an American statesman and political theorist from South Carolina , who is best remembered for his strong defense of slavery and for advancing the concept of minority rights in politics , which he did in the context of defending Southern values from perceived Northern threats . He began his political career as a nationalist , modernizer , and proponent of a strong national government and protective tariffs . By the late 1820s , his views reversed and he became a leading proponent of states ' rights , limited government , nullification , and opposition to high tariffs — he saw Northern acceptance of these policies as the only way to keep the South in the Union . His beliefs and warnings heavily influenced the South 's secession from the Union in 1860 – 61 .
Calhoun began his political career with election to the House of Representatives . As a prominent leader of the war hawk faction , Calhoun strongly supported the War of 1812 to defend American honor against Britain . He then served as Secretary of War under President James Monroe , and in his position reorganized and modernized the War Department . In the 1824 presidential election , he was the overwhelming choice of the electoral college for Vice President of the United States . He served under John Quincy Adams and continued under Andrew Jackson , who defeated Adams in 1828 .
Calhoun had a difficult relationship with Jackson primarily because of the Nullification Crisis and the Petticoat affair . In contrast with his previous nationalism , Calhoun vigorously supported South Carolina 's right to nullify Federal tariff legislation which he believed unfairly favored the North , putting him into conflict with unionists such as Jackson . In 1832 he resigned as vice president , and entered the Senate . He sought the Democratic nomination for the presidency in 1844 , but lost to surprise nominee James K. Polk . He served as Secretary of State under John Tyler from 1844 to 1845 . He then returned to the Senate , where he opposed the Mexican – American War , the Wilmot Proviso , and the Compromise of 1850 before his death in 1850 . Calhoun often served as a virtual party @-@ independent who variously aligned as needed with Democrats and Whigs .
Yet Calhoun was known as the " cast @-@ iron man " for his ideological rigidity . His concept of republicanism emphasized approval of slavery and minority rights , as particularly embodied by the Southern states — he owned " dozens of slaves in Fort Hill , South Carolina " . To protect minority rights against majority rule , he called for a concurrent majority whereby the minority could sometimes block proposals that it felt infringed on their liberties . To this end , Calhoun supported states ' rights and nullification , through which states could declare null and void federal laws that they viewed as unconstitutional . Calhoun was one of the " Great Triumvirate " or the " Immortal Trio " of Congressional leaders , along with his Congressional colleagues Daniel Webster and Henry Clay . In 1957 , a Senate Committee selected Calhoun as one of the five greatest United States Senators of all time .
= = Early life = =
John Caldwell Calhoun was born in Abbeville District , South Carolina on March 18 , 1782 , the fourth child of Patrick Calhoun ( 1727 – 1796 ) and his wife Martha Caldwell . His father had joined the Scotch @-@ Irish immigration from County Donegal to the backcountry of South Carolina . Patrick Calhoun belonged to the Calhoun clan in the tight @-@ knit Scots @-@ Irish community on the Southern frontier . He was known as an Indian fighter and an ambitious surveyor , farmer , planter and politician . As a Presbyterian , he stood opposed to the Anglican elite based in Charleston . He was a Patriot in the American Revolution , and opposed ratification of the federal Constitution on grounds of states ' rights and personal liberties . These opinions helped shape his son 's attitudes regarding these issues .
Young Calhoun showed scholastic talent , and although schools were scarce on the Carolina frontier , he was enrolled briefly in an academy in Georgia , which soon closed . He continued his studies privately . However , when his father died , his brothers were away starting business careers so 14 year old Calhoun took over management of the family farm and five other farms . For four years he simultaneously kept up his reading and his hunting and fishing . The family decided he should continue his education , so he resumed study of Latin , Greek , history , and mathematics under a local tutor .
With financing from his brothers , he went to Yale College in Connecticut in 1802 . For the first time he encountered serious , advanced , well @-@ organized intellectual dialogue that could shape his mind . Yale was dominated by President Timothy Dwight , a Federalist who became his mentor . Dwight 's brilliance entranced ( and sometimes repelled ) Calhoun . Biographer John Niven says :
Calhoun admired Dwight 's extemporaneous sermons , his seemingly encyclopedic knowledge , and his awesome mastery of the classics , of the tenets of Calvinism , and of metaphysics . No one , he thought , could explicate the language of John Locke with such clarity .
Dwight repeatedly denounced Jeffersonian democracy , and Calhoun challenged him in class . Dwight could not shake Calhoun 's commitment to republicanism . " Young man , " retorted Dwight , " your talents are of a high order and might justify you for any station , but I deeply regret that you do not love sound principles better than sophistry – you seem to possess a most unfortunate bias for error . " Dwight also expounded on the strategy of secession from the Union as a legitimate solution for New England 's disagreements with the national government .
Calhoun made friends easily , read widely , and was a noted member of the debating society of Brothers in Unity . He graduated as valedictorian in 1804 . He studied law at the nation 's only real law school , Tapping Reeve Law School in Litchfield , Connecticut , where he worked with Tapping Reeve and James Gould . He was admitted to the South Carolina bar in 1807 . Biographer Margaret Coit argues that :
every principle of secession or states ' rights which Calhoun ever voiced can be traced right back to the thinking of intellectual New England ... Not the South , not slavery , but Yale College and Litchfield Law School made Calhoun a nullifier ... Dwight , Reeve , and Gould could not convince the young patriot from South Carolina as to the desirability of secession , but they left no doubts in his mind as to its legality .
= = Marriage , family , and religion = =
In January 1811 , Calhoun married Floride Bonneau Colhoun , a first cousin once removed . She was the daughter of wealthy United States Senator and lawyer John E. Colhoun , a leader of Charleston high society . The couple had ten children over eighteen years ; three died in infancy : Andrew Pickens Calhoun , Floride Pure Calhoun , Jane Calhoun , Anna Maria Calhoun , Elizabeth Calhoun , Patrick Calhoun , John Caldwell Calhoun , Jr . , Martha Cornelia Calhoun , James Edward Calhoun , and William Lowndes Calhoun . Calhoun 's fourth child , Anna Maria , married Thomas Green Clemson , founder of Clemson University in South Carolina .
While her husband was Vice President in the Jackson administration , Floride Calhoun was a central figure in the Petticoat affair , in which she humiliated key allies of President Andrew Jackson . Mrs. Calhoun was an active Episcopalian and Calhoun sometimes accompanied her to church . However , he was also a founding member of All Souls Unitarian Church in Washington , D.C. He rarely mentioned religion ; a Presbyterian in his early life , historians believe he was closest to the informal Unitarianism typified by Thomas Jefferson . In a letter he wrote to his daughter Anna Maria , Calhoun provided a clue to his religious thought : " Do our best , our duty for our country , and leave the rest to Providence . " In John C. Calhoun : American Portrait , Calhoun biographer Margaret Coit says that he was raised Calvinist , briefly affiliated with Unitarianism , and for most of his life remained somewhere between the two . Before he died , he was touched by the Second Great Awakening , a Protestant revival movement during the late 1700s and early 1800s . Historian Merrill Peterson describes Calhoun , " Intensely serious and severe , he could never write a love poem , though he often tried , because every line began with ' whereas ' ... "
= = House of Representatives = =
= = = War of 1812 = = =
With a base among the Irish ( or Scotch Irish ) , Calhoun won election to the House of Representatives in 1810 . He immediately became a leader of the War Hawks , along with Speaker Henry Clay of Kentucky and South Carolina congressmen William Lowndes and Langdon Cheves . Brushing aside the vehement objections of anti @-@ war New Englanders , they demanded war against Britain to preserve American honor and republican values . In the spring of 1812 , Calhoun became the acting chairman of the Committee on Foreign Affairs . On June 3 , 1812 , Calhoun 's committee called for a declaration of war in ringing phrases , denouncing Britain 's " lust for power " , " unbounded tyranny " , and " mad ambition " . Historian James Roark says , " These were fighting words in a war that was in large measure about insult and honor . " The United States declared war on Britain on June 18 , thus inaugurating the War of 1812 . The opening phase involved multiple disasters for American arms , as well as a financial crisis when the Treasury could barely pay the bills . The conflict caused economic hardship for the Americans , as the Royal Navy blockaded the ports and cut off imports , exports and the coastal trade . Several attempted invasions of Canada were fiascos , but the U.S. in 1813 did seize control of Lake Erie and brake the power of hostile Indians in battles such as the Battle of the Thames in Canada in 1813 and the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in Alabama in 1814 .
Calhoun labored to raise troops , provide funds , speed logistics , rescue the currency , and regulate commerce to aid the war effort . One colleague hailed him as , " the young Hercules who carried the war on his shoulders . " Disasters on the battlefield made him double his legislative efforts to overcome the obstructionism of John Randolph of Roanoke , Daniel Webster , and other opponents of the war . In December 1814 , with the armies of Napoleon Bonaparte apparently defeated , and the British invasions of New York and Baltimore thwarted , British and American diplomats signed the Treaty of Ghent . It called for a return to the borders of 1812 with no gains or losses . Before the treaty reached the Senate for ratification , and even before news of its signing reached New Orleans , a massive British invasion force was utterly defeated in January 1815 at the Battle of New Orleans , making a national hero of General Andrew Jackson . Americans celebrated what they called a " second war of independence " against Britain , and an " Era of Good Feelings " began . Calhoun , however , realized how badly prepared the nation had been in 1812 .
= = = Postwar planning = = =
The mismanagement of the Army during the war distressed Calhoun , and he resolved to strengthen and centralize the War Department . The militia had proven itself quite unreliable during the war and Calhoun saw the need for a permanent and professional military force . Historian Ulrich B. Phillips has traced Calhoun 's complex plans to permanently strengthen the nation 's military capabilities . In 1816 he called for building an effective navy , including steam frigates , as well as a standing army of adequate size . The British blockade of the coast had underscored the necessity of rapid means of internal transportation ; Calhoun proposed a system of " great permanent roads . " The blockade had cut off the import of manufactured items , so he emphasized the need to encourage more domestic manufacture , fully realizing that industry was based in the Northeast . The dependence of the old financial system on import duties was devastated when the blockade cut off imports . Calhoun called for a system of internal taxation which would pay for a future war , without reliance on tariffs . The expiration for the charter of the First Bank of the United States had also distressed the Treasury , so to reinvigorate and modernize the economy Calhoun called for a new national bank . A new bank was chartered as the Second Bank of the United States by President James Madison in 1816 . Throughout his proposals , Calhoun emphasized a national footing and downplayed sectionalism and states rights . Phillips says that at this stage of Calhoun 's career , " The word nation was often on his lips , and his conviction was to enhance national unity which he identified with national power . "
= = = Rhetorical style = = =
Regarding his career in the House of Representatives , an observer commented that Calhoun was " the most elegant speaker that sits in the House ... His gestures are easy and graceful , his manner forcible , and language elegant ; but above all , he confines himself closely to the subject , which he always understands , and enlightens everyone within hearing . "
His talent for public speaking required systematic self @-@ discipline and practice . A later critic noted the sharp contrast between his hesitant conversations and his fluent speaking styles , adding that Calhoun " had so carefully cultivated his naturally poor voice as to make his utterance clear , full , and distinct in speaking and while not at all musical it yet fell pleasantly on the ear " . Calhoun was " a high @-@ strung man of ultra intellectual cast " . As such , Calhoun was not known for charisma . He was often seen as harsh and aggressive with other representatives . But he was a brilliant intellectual orator and strong organizer . Historian Russell Kirk says , " That zeal which flared like Greek fire in Randolph burned in Calhoun , too ; but it was contained in the Cast @-@ iron Man as in a furnace , and Calhoun 's passion glowed out only through his eyes . No man was more stately , more reserved . "
John Quincy Adams concluded in 1821 that " Calhoun is a man of fair and candid mind , of honorable principles , of clear and quick understanding , of cool self @-@ possession , of enlarged philosophical views , and of ardent patriotism . He is above all sectional and factious prejudices more than any other statesman of this Union with whom I have ever acted . " Historian Charles Wiltse noted Calhoun 's evolution , " Though he is known today primarily for his sectionalism , Calhoun was the last of the great political leaders of his time to take a sectional position — later than Daniel Webster , later than Henry Clay , later than Adams himself . "
= = Secretary of War and Postwar Nationalism = =
In 1817 , President James Monroe appointed Calhoun Secretary of War . He took office on December 8 and served until 1825 . Calhoun continued his role as a leading nationalist during the " Era of Good Feelings " . He proposed an elaborate program of national reforms to the infrastructure that would speed economic modernization . His first priority was an effective navy , including steam frigates , and in the second place a standing army of adequate size ; and as further preparation for emergency " great permanent roads " , " a certain encouragement " to manufactures , and a system of internal taxation which would not be subject to collapse by a war @-@ time shrinkage of maritime trade like customs duties . He spoke for a national bank , for internal improvements ( such as harbors , canals and river navigation ) and a protective tariff that would help the industrial Northeast and , especially , pay for the expensive new infrastructure .
After the war ended in 1815 the " Old Republicans " in Congress , with their Jeffersonian ideology for economy in the federal government , sought to reduce the operations and finances of the War Department . In 1817 , the deplorable state of the War Department led four men to decline offers to accept the Secretary of War position before Calhoun finally assumed the role . His political rivalry with William H. Crawford , the Secretary of the Treasury , over the pursuit of the presidency in the 1824 election complicated Calhoun 's tenure as War Secretary . In addition , Calhoun opposed the invasion of Florida launched in 1818 by General Jackson during the First Seminole War , which was done without direct authorization from Calhoun or President Monroe . The United States annexed Florida from Spain in 1819 through the Adams @-@ Onis Treaty . The subsequent peace meant that a large army , such as that preferred by Calhoun , was no longer considered necessary , and in 1821 significant cutbacks were made .
As secretary , Calhoun had responsibility for management of Indian affairs . He promoted a plan , adopted by Monroe in 1825 , to preserve the sovereignty of Eastern Indians by relocating them to western reservations they could control without interference from state governments . In over seven years Calhoun supervised the negotiation and ratification of 40 treaties with Indian tribes . A reform @-@ minded modernizer , he attempted to institute centralization and efficiency in the Indian department , but Congress either failed to respond to his reforms or responded with hostility . Calhoun 's frustration with congressional inaction , political rivalries , and ideological differences spurred him to create the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1824 .
= = Vice Presidency = =
= = = 1824 and 1828 elections = = =
Calhoun was initially a candidate for President of the United States in the election of 1824 . However , he failed to win the endorsement of the South Carolina legislature , and his supporters in Pennsylvania decided to abandon his candidacy in favor of that of Andrew Jackson , and instead supported him for vice president . Other states soon followed , and Calhoun therefore allowed himself to become a candidate for vice president rather than president . The Electoral College elected Calhoun vice president by a landslide . However , no presidential candidate received a majority in the Electoral College and the election was ultimately resolved by the House of Representatives , where John Quincy Adams was declared the winner over Crawford , Clay , and Jackson , who in the election had led Adams in both popular vote and electoral vote . After Clay , the Speaker of the House , was appointed Secretary of State by Adams , Jackson 's supporters denounced what they considered a " corrupt bargain " between Adams and Clay to give Adams the presidency in exchange for Clay receiving the office of Secretary of State . Calhoun also expressed some concerns , which caused friction between him and Adams .
Disillusioned with Adams ' high tariff policies and increased centralization , Calhoun wrote to Jackson on June 4 , 1826 , informing him that he would support Jackson 's second campaign for the presidency in 1828 . The two were never particularly close friends . Calhoun never fully trusted Jackson , a frontiersman and popular war hero , but hoped that his election would bring some reprieve from Adams 's anti @-@ states ' rights policies . Jackson selected Calhoun as his running mate , and together they defeated Adams and his running mate Richard Rush . Calhoun thus became the second of two vice presidents to serve under two different presidents , the other being George Clinton , who served as Vice President from 1805 to 1812 under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison .
However , Calhoun 's service under Jackson also proved contentious due largely to the Nullification Crisis and the Petticoat affair .
= = = Nullification = = =
Calhoun had begun to oppose increases in protective tariffs , as they generally benefitted Northerners more than Southerners . While Vice President in the Adams administration , Jackson 's supporters devised a high tariff legislation that placed duties on imports that were also made in New England . Calhoun had been assured that the northeastern interests would reject the Tariff of 1828 , exposing pro @-@ Adams New England congressmen to charges that they selfishly opposed legislation popular among Jacksonian Democrats in the west and Mid @-@ Atlantic States . The southern legislators miscalculated and the so @-@ called " Tariff of Abominations " passed . Frustrated , Calhoun returned to his South Carolina plantation to write " South Carolina Exposition and Protest , " an essay rejecting the centralization philosophy . The dispute led to the Nullification Crisis .
Calhoun supported the idea of nullification through a concurrent majority . Nullification is a legal theory that a state has the right to nullify , or invalidate , any federal law which that state has deemed unconstitutional . In Calhoun 's words , it is " the right of a State to interpose , in the last resort , in order to arrest an unconstitutional act of the General Government , within its limits . " Nullification can be traced back to arguments by Jefferson and Madison in writing the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798 against the Alien and Sedition Acts . Madison expressed the hope that the states would declare the acts unconstitutional , while Jefferson explicitly endorsed nullification . Calhoun openly argued for a state 's right to secede from the Union , as a last resort , in order to protect its liberty and sovereignty . Madison rebuked supporters of nullification , stating that no state had the right to nullify federal law .
In his 1828 essay " South Carolina Exposition and Protest " , Calhoun argued that a state could veto any federal law that went beyond the enumerated powers and encroached upon the residual powers of the State . President Jackson , meanwhile , generally supported states ' rights , but was strongly against nullification and secession . At the 1830 Jefferson Day dinner at Jesse Brown 's Indian Queen Hotel , Jackson proposed a toast and proclaimed , " Our federal Union , it must be preserved . " Calhoun replied , " the Union , next to our liberty , the most dear . "
In May 1830 , Jackson discovered that Calhoun had asked President Monroe to censure then @-@ General Jackson for his invasion of Spanish Florida in 1818 while Calhoun was serving as Secretary of War . Jackson had invaded Florida during the First Seminole War without explicit public authorization from Calhoun or Monroe . Calhoun 's and Jackson 's relationship deteriorated further . By February 1831 , the break between Calhoun and Jackson was final . Responding to inaccurate press reports about the feud , Calhoun had published letters between him and Jackson detailing the conflict in the United States Telegraph . Jackson and Calhoun began an angry correspondence which lasted until Jackson stopped it in July .
Jackson sent U.S. Navy warships to Charleston harbor , and threatened to hang Calhoun or any man who worked to support nullification or secession . Tensions eased after both sides agreed to the Compromise Tariff of 1833 on March 2 , which was proposed by Henry Clay , now a Whig senator , to change the tariff law in a manner which satisfied Calhoun , who by then was in the Senate . On the same day , Congress passed the Force Bill , which empowered the President of the United States to use military force to ensure state compliance with Federal law . South Carolina then nullified the Force Bill . In Calhoun 's speech on the Force Bill , delivered on February 5 , 1833 , no longer as vice president , he strongly endorsed nullification , at one point saying :
Why , then , confer on the President the extensive and unlimited powers provided in this bill ? Why authorize him to use military force to arrest the civil process of the State ? But one answer can be given : That , in a contest between the State and the General Government , if the resistance be limited on both sides to the civil process , the State , by its inherent sovereignty , standing upon its reserved powers , will prove too powerful in such a controversy , and must triumph over the Federal Government , sustained by its delegated and limited authority ; and in this answer we have an acknowledgment of the truth of those great principles for which the State has so firmly and nobly contended .
= = = Petticoat affair = = =
The Petticoat affair ended friendly relations between Calhoun and Jackson . Floride Calhoun organized Cabinet wives ( hence the term " petticoats " ) against Peggy Eaton , wife of Secretary of War John Eaton , and refused to associate with her . They alleged that John and Peggy Eaton had engaged in an adulterous affair while she was still legally married to her first husband , and that her recent behavior was unladylike . The allegations of scandal created an intolerable situation for Jackson .
Jackson sided with the Eatons . He and his wife Rachel Donelson had undergone similar political attacks stemming from their marriage in 1791 , which occurred despite the fact that , unknown to them , Rachel 's previous husband had failed to finalize their divorce . He saw attacks on Eaton stemming ultimately from the political opposition of Calhoun , who had failed to silence his wife 's criticisms . At the suggestion of Secretary of State Martin Van Buren , who had sided with the Eatons , Jackson replaced all but one of his Cabinet members , thereby limiting Calhoun 's influence . Van Buren began the process by resigning as Secretary of State , facilitating Jackson 's removal of others . Van Buren thereby grew in favor with Jackson , while the rift between the President and Calhoun was widened . Later , in 1832 , Calhoun cast a tie @-@ breaking vote against Van Buren 's confirmation as Minister to Great Britain in a failed attempt to end his political career .
= = = Resignation = = =
As tensions over nullification escalated , South Carolina Senator Robert Hayne was considered less capable than Calhoun to lead the Senate debates . So in late 1832 Hayne resigned to become governor . On December 28 , Calhoun resigned as vice president to become a senator , with a voice in the debates . Van Buren had already been elected as Jackson 's new vice president , meaning that Calhoun had less than 3 months left on his term anyway . Calhoun was the first of two vice presidents to resign , the second being Spiro Agnew in 1973 .
= = First term in the U.S. Senate = =
When Calhoun took his seat in the Senate on December 29 , 1832 , his chances of becoming President were considered poor due to his involvement in the Nullification Crisis . After implementation of the Compromise Tariff of 1833 , which helped solve the Nullification Crisis , the Nullifier Party , along with other anti @-@ Jackson politicians , formed a coalition known as the Whig Party . Calhoun sometimes affiliated with the Whigs , but chose to remain a virtual independent due to the Whig promotion of federally subsidized " internal improvements " and a national bank . Many Southern politicians opposed these as benefiting Northern industrial interests . By 1837 Calhoun generally had realigned himself with most of the Democrats ' policies .
To restore his national stature , Calhoun cooperated with Jackson 's chosen successor , Van Buren , who became president in 1837 . Democrats were very hostile to national banks , and the country 's bankers had joined the Whig Party . The Democratic replacement , meant to help combat the Panic of 1837 , was the " Independent Treasury " system , which Calhoun supported and which went into effect . Calhoun , like Jackson and Van Buren , attacked finance capitalism , which he saw as the common enemy of the Northern laborer , the Southern planter , and every small farmer . Despite being opposed to the concept of political parties , he worked to unite these groups in the Democratic Party , and to dedicate that party to states ' rights and agricultural interests as barriers against encroachment by government and big business . Calhoun resigned from the Senate on March 4 , 1843 , four years before the expiration of his term , and returned to Fort Hill to prepare an attempt to win the Democratic nomination for the 1844 presidential election . However , he gained little support , and decided to quit . Former Tennessee Governor and House Speaker James K. Polk , a strong Jacksonian , eventually won the nomination and the general election , in which he defeated Clay .
= = Secretary of State = =
= = = Appointment and Oregon Boundary Dispute = = =
When Whig president William Henry Harrison died in 1841 after a month in office , Vice President John Tyler succeeded him . Tyler was a former Democrat who was expelled from the Whig Party as president after vetoing bills passed by the Whig congressional majority to reestablish a national bank and raise tariffs . He named Calhoun Secretary of State on April 10 , 1844 , following the death of Abel P. Upshur in the USS Princeton disaster . A major crisis emerged from the persistent Oregon boundary dispute between Great Britain and the United States , due to an increasing number of American migrants . The territory included most of present @-@ day British Columbia , Washington , Oregon , and Idaho . American expansionists used the slogan " 54 @-@ 40 or fight " in reference to the Northern boundary coordinates of the Oregon territory . The parties compromised , ending the war threat , by splitting the area down the middle at the 49th parallel , with the British acquiring British Columbia and the Americans accepting Washington and Oregon . Calhoun , along with President Polk and Secretary of State James Buchanan , continued work on the treaty while he was a senator , and it was ratified by a vote of 41 – 14 on June 18 , 1846 .
= = = Texas = = =
Tyler and Calhoun were eager to annex the independent Republic of Texas , which wanted to join the Union . Texas was slave country and anti @-@ slavery elements in the North denounced annexation as a plot to enlarge the " Slave Power " . When the Senate could not muster a two @-@ thirds vote to pass a treaty of annexation with Texas , Calhoun devised a joint resolution of the Houses of Congress , which secured the simple majority required , and Texas joined the Union . Mexico had warned repeatedly that it would go to war if Texas joined the Union . In response to the United States presence in Texas , the Mexican – American War broke out in 1846 .
= = Second term in the Senate = =
Calhoun was reelected to the Senate in 1845 following the resignation of Daniel Elliott Huger , and opposed the Mexican – American War . He believed that it would distort the national character by undermining republicanism in favor of empire and by bringing non @-@ white persons into the country . ( See The Evils of War and Political Parties . ) He ultimately chose to abstain from voting on the war measure . Calhoun also vigorously opposed the Wilmot Proviso , an 1846 proposal by Pennsylvania Representative David Wilmot to ban slavery in all newly acquired territories . The House of Representatives , through its Northern majority , passed the provision several times . However , the Senate , where non @-@ slave and slave states had more equal representation , never passed the measure . Calhoun supported Whig candidate and slaveholder Zachary Taylor for president in 1848 over Democratic candidate Lewis Cass , a Northerner who favored popular sovereignty to determine a new state 's slaveholding status .
= = = Rejection of the Compromise of 1850 = = =
The Compromise of 1850 , devised by Clay and Stephen Douglas , a first @-@ term Democratic senator from Illinois , was designed to solve the controversy over the status of slavery in the vast new territories acquired from Mexico . Calhoun , weeks from death and too feeble to speak , wrote a blistering attack on the compromise that would become most likely his most famous speech . On March 4 , a friend , Senator James Mason of Virginia , read the remarks . Calhoun affirmed the right of the South to leave the Union in response to Northern subjugation . He warned that the day " the balance between the two sections " was destroyed would be a day not far removed from disunion , anarchy , and civil war . Calhoun queried how the Union might be preserved in light of subjugation by the " stronger " party against the " weaker " one . He maintained that the responsibility of solving the question lay entirely on the North — as the stronger section , to allow the Southern minority an equal share in governance and to cease the agitation . He added , " If you who represent the stronger portion , cannot agree to settle them on the broad principle of justice and duty , say so ; and let the States we both represent agree to separate and part in peace . If you are unwilling we should part in peace , tell us so ; and we shall know what to do , when you reduce the question to submission or resistance . "
Calhoun died soon afterwards , and although the compromise measures did eventually pass , Calhoun 's ideas about states ' rights attracted increasing attention across the South . Historian William Barney argues that Calhoun 's ideas proved " appealing to Southerners concerned with preserving slavery ... Southern radicals known as ' fire @-@ eaters ' pushed the doctrine of states rights to its logical extreme by whole upholding the constitutional right of the state to secede . "
= = Death and burial = =
Calhoun died at the Old Brick Capitol boarding house in Washington , D.C. , on March 31 , 1850 , of tuberculosis , at the age of 68 . He was interred at the St. Philip 's Churchyard in Charleston , South Carolina . During the Civil War , a group of Calhoun 's friends were concerned about the possible desecration of his grave by Federal troops and , during the night , removed his coffin to a hiding place under the stairs of the church . The next night , his coffin was buried in an unmarked grave near the church , where it remained until 1871 , when it was again exhumed and returned to its original place .
Calhoun 's widow , Floride , died on July 25 , 1866 , and was buried in St. Paul 's Episcopal Church Cemetery in Pendleton , South Carolina , near their children , but apart from her husband .
= = Political philosophy = =
= = = Agrarian republicanism = = =
Historian Lee H. Cheek , Jr . , distinguishes between two strands of American republicanism :
the puritan tradition , based in New England ; and
the agrarian or South Atlantic tradition , which Cheek argues was espoused by Calhoun .
While the New England tradition stressed a politically centralized enforcement of moral and religious norms to secure civic virtue , the South Atlantic tradition relied on a decentralized moral and religious order based on the idea of subsidiarity ( or localism ) . Cheek maintains the " Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions " ( 1798 ) , written by Jefferson and Madison , were the cornerstone of Calhoun 's republicanism . Calhoun emphasized the primacy of subsidiarity — holding that popular rule is best expressed in local communities that are nearly autonomous while serving as units of a larger society .
= = = Slavery = = =
Calhoun led the pro @-@ slavery faction in the Senate , opposing both abolitionism and attempts such as the Wilmot Proviso to limit the expansion of slavery into the western territories . He was a major advocate of the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law , which required the cooperation of local law enforcement officials in free states to return escaped slaves .
Calhoun 's father , Patrick Calhoun , helped shape his son 's political views . He was a staunch supporter of slavery who taught his son that social standing depended not merely on a commitment to the ideal of popular self @-@ government but also on the ownership of a substantial number of slaves . Flourishing in a world in which slaveholding was a hallmark of civilization , Calhoun saw little reason to question its morality as an adult . He believed that the spread of slavery improved public morals by ridding the countryside of the shiftless poor whites who had once held the region back . He further believed that slavery instilled in the remaining whites a code of honor that blunted the disruptive potential of private gain and fostered the civic @-@ mindedness that lay near the core of the republican creed . From such a standpoint , the expansion of slavery decreased the likelihood for social conflict and postponed the declension when money would become the only measure of self @-@ worth , as had happened in New England . Calhoun was thus firmly convinced that slavery was the key to the success of the American dream .
Whereas other Southern politicians had excused slavery as a " necessary evil " , in a famous speech on the Senate floor on February 6 , 1837 , Calhoun asserted that slavery was a " positive good " . He rooted this claim on two grounds : white supremacy and paternalism . All societies , Calhoun claimed , are ruled by an elite group which enjoys the fruits of the labor of a less @-@ exceptional group . Senator William Rives of Virginia earlier had referred to slavery as an evil that might become a " lesser evil " in some circumstances . Calhoun believed that conceded too much to the abolitionists :
I take higher ground . I hold that in the present state of civilization , where two races of different origin , and distinguished by color , and other physical differences , as well as intellectual , are brought together , the relation now existing in the slaveholding States between the two , is , instead of an evil , a good — a positive good ... I may say with truth , that in few countries so much is left to the share of the laborer , and so little exacted from him , or where there is more kind attention paid to him in sickness or infirmities of age . Compare his condition with the tenants of the poor houses in the more civilized portions of Europe — look at the sick , and the old and infirm slave , on one hand , in the midst of his family and friends , under the kind superintending care of his master and mistress , and compare it with the forlorn and wretched condition of the pauper in the poorhouse ... I hold then , that there never has yet existed a wealthy and civilized society in which one portion of the community did not , in point of fact , live on the labor of the other .
Calhoun rejected the belief of Southern leaders such as Henry Clay that all Americans could agree on the " opinion and feeling " that slavery was wrong , although they might disagree on the most practicable way to respond to that great wrong . Calhoun 's constitutional ideas acted as a viable conservative alternative to Northern appeals to democracy , majority rule , and natural rights .
In addition to providing the intellectual justification of slavery , Calhoun played a central role in devising the South 's overall political strategy . According to Phillips :
Organization and strategy were widely demanded in Southern defense , and Calhoun came to be regarded as the main source of plans , arguments , and inspiration . His devices were manifold : to suppress agitation , to praise the slaveholding system ; to promote Southern prosperity and expansion ; to procure a Western alliance ; to frame a fresh plan of government by concurrent majorities ; to form a Southern bloc ; to warn the North of the dangers of Southern desperation ; to appeal for Northern magnanimity as indispensable for the saving of the Union .
= = = The evils of war and political parties = = =
Calhoun was consistently opposed to the War with Mexico from the outset , arguing that an enlarged military effort would only feed the alarming and growing lust of the public for empire regardless of its constitutional dangers , bloat executive powers and patronage , and saddle the republic with a soaring debt that would disrupt finances and encourage speculation . Calhoun feared , moreover , that Southern slave owners would be shut out of any conquered Mexican territories , as nearly happened with the Wilmot Proviso . He argued that the war would detrimentally lead to the annexation of all of Mexico , which would bring Mexicans into the country , whom he considered deficient in moral and intellectual terms . He said , in a speech on January 4 , 1848 :
We make a great mistake , sir , when we suppose that all people are capable of self @-@ government . We are anxious to force free government on all ; and I see that it has been urged in a very respectable quarter , that it is the mission of this country to spread civil and religious liberty over all the world , and especially over this continent . It is a great mistake . None but people advanced to a very high state of moral and intellectual improvement are capable , in a civilized state , of maintaining free government ; and amongst those who are so purified , very few , indeed , have had the good fortune of forming a constitution capable of endurance .
Anti @-@ slavery Northerners denounced the war as a Southern conspiracy to expand slavery ; Calhoun in turn perceived a connivance of Yankees to destroy the South . By 1847 he decided the Union was threatened by a totally corrupt party system . He believed that in their lust for office , patronage and spoils , politicians in the North pandered to the anti @-@ slavery vote , especially during presidential campaigns , and politicians in the slave states sacrificed Southern rights in an effort to placate the Northern wings of their parties . Thus , the essential first step in any successful assertion of Southern rights had to be the jettisoning of all party ties . In 1848 – 49 , Calhoun tried to give substance to his call for Southern unity . He was the driving force behind the drafting and publication of the " Address of the Southern Delegates in Congress , to Their Constituents . " It alleged Northern violations of the constitutional rights of the South , then warned southern voters to expect forced emancipation of slaves in the near future , followed by their complete subjugation by an unholy alliance of unprincipled Northerners and blacks . Whites would flee and the South would " become the permanent abode of disorder , anarchy , poverty , misery , and wretchedness . " Only the immediate and unflinching unity of Southern whites could prevent such a disaster . Such unity would either bring the North to its senses or lay the foundation for an independent South . But the spirit of union was still strong in the region and fewer than 40 % of the southern congressmen signed the address , and only one Whig .
Many Southerners believed his warnings and read every political news story from the North as further evidence of the planned destruction of the southern way of life . The climax came a decade after Calhoun 's death with the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1860 , which led to the secession of South Carolina , followed by six other Southern states . They formed the new Confederate States , which , in accord with Calhoun 's theory , did not have any political parties .
= = = Concurrent majority = = =
Calhoun 's basic concern for protecting the diversity of minority interests is expressed in his chief contribution to political science — the idea of a concurrent majority across different groups as distinguished from a numerical majority . According to the principle of a numerical majority , the will of the more numerous citizens should always rule , regardless of the burdens on the minority . Such a principle tends toward a consolidation of power in which the interests of the absolute majority always prevail over those of the minority . Calhoun believed that the great achievement of the American constitution was in checking the tyranny of a numerical majority through institutional procedures that required a concurrent majority , such that each important interest in the community must consent to the actions of government . To secure a concurrent majority , those interests that have a numerical majority must compromise with the interests that are in the minority . A concurrent majority requires a unanimous consent of all the major interests in a community , which is the only sure way of preventing tyranny of the majority . This idea supported Calhoun 's doctrine of interposition or nullification , in which the state governments could refuse to enforce or comply with a policy of the Federal government that threatened the vital interests of the states .
Historian Richard Hofstadter ( 1948 ) emphasizes that Calhoun 's conception of minority was very different from the minorities of a century later :
Not in the slightest was [ Calhoun ] concerned with minority rights as they are chiefly of interest to the modern liberal mind – the rights of dissenters to express unorthodox opinions , of the individual conscience against the State , least of all of ethnic minorities . At bottom he was not interested in any minority that was not a propertied minority . The concurrent majority itself was a device without relevance to the protection of dissent , designed to protect a vested interest of considerable power ... it was minority privileges rather than [ minority ] rights that he really proposed to protect .
Unlike Jefferson , Calhoun rejected attempts at economic , social , or political leveling , claiming that true equality could not be achieved if all classes were given equal rights and responsibilities . Rather , to ensure true prosperity , it was necessary for a stronger group to provide protection and care for the weaker one . This meant that the two groups should not be equal before the law . For Calhoun , " protection " ( order ) was more important than freedom . Individual rights were something to be earned , not something bestowed by nature or God . Calhoun was concerned with protecting the interests of the Southern States ( which he identified with the interests of their slaveholding elites ) as a distinct and beleaguered minority among the members of the federal Union . However his idea of a concurrent majority as a protection for minority rights has gained some acceptance in American political thought . Political scientist Malcolm Jewell argues , " The decision @-@ making process in this country resembles John Calhoun 's ' concurrent majority ' : A large number of groups both within and outside the government must , in practice , approve any major policy . "
= = = = Disquisition on Government = = = =
The Disquisition on Government is a 100 @-@ page essay on Calhoun 's definitive and comprehensive ideas on government , which he worked on intermittently for six years until its 1849 completion . It systematically presents his arguments that a numerical majority in any government will typically impose a despotism over a minority unless some way is devised to secure the assent of all classes , sections , and interests and , similarly , that innate human depravity would debase government in a democracy .
Calhoun offered the concurrent majority as the key to achieving consensus , a formula by which a minority interest had the option to nullify objectionable legislation passed by a majority interest . The consensus would be effected by this tactic of nullification , a veto that would suspend the law within the boundaries of the state .
Veto power was linked to the right of secession , which portended anarchy and social chaos . Constituencies would call for compromise to prevent this outcome . With a concurrent majority in place , the U.S. Constitution as interpreted by the Federal Judiciary would no longer exert collective authority over the various states . According to the ( Supremacy Clause ) located in Article 6 , laws made by the federal government are the " supreme law of the land " only when they are made " in pursuance " of the U.S. Constitution .
These ideas are convincing if one shares Calhoun 's conviction that a functioning concurrent majority never leads to stalemate in the legislature ; rather , talented statesmen , practiced in the arts of conciliation and compromise would pursue " the common good " , however explosive the issue . His formula promised to produce laws satisfactory to all interests . The ultimate goal of these mechanisms were to facilitate the authentic will of the white populace . Calhoun explicitly rejected the founding principles of equality in the Declaration of Independence , denying that humanity is born free and equal in shared nature and basic needs . He regarded this precept as " the most false and dangerous of all political errors " . States could constitutionally take action to free themselves from an overweening government , but slaves as individuals or interest groups could not do so . Calhoun 's stance assumed that with the establishment of a concurrent majority , minority groups would influence their own representatives sufficiently to have a voice in public affairs ; the representatives would perform strictly as high @-@ minded public servants . Under this scenario , the political leadership would improve and persist , corruption and demagoguery would subside , and the interests of the people would be honored . This introduces the second theme in the Disquisition , and a counterpoint to his concept of the concurrent majority — political corruption .
Calhoun considered the concurrent majority essential to provide structural restraints to governance , believing that " a vast majority of mankind is entirely biased by motives of self @-@ interest and that by this interest must be governed " . This innate selfishness would inevitably emerge when government revenue became available to political parties for distribution as patronage . Politicians and bureaucrats would succumb to the lure of government lucre accumulated through taxation , tariff duties and public land sales . Even a diminishment of massive revenue effected through nullification by the permanent minority would not eliminate these temptations . Calhoun predicted that electioneering , political conspiracies , and outright fraud would be employed to mislead and distract a gullible public ; inevitably , perfidious demagogues would come to rule the political scene . A decline in authority among the principal statesmen would follow , and , ultimately , the eclipse of the concurrent majority .
Calhoun contended that however confused and misled the masses were by political opportunists , any efforts to impose majority rule upon a minority would be thwarted by a minority veto . What Calhoun fails to explain , according to American historian William W. Freehling , is how a compromise would be achieved in the aftermath of a minority veto , when the ubiquitous demagogues betray their constituencies and abandon the concurrent majority altogether . Calhoun 's two key concepts – the maintenance of the concurrent majority by high @-@ minded statesmen on the one hand ; and the inevitable rise of demagogues who undermine consensus on the other – are never reconciled or resolved in the Disquisition .
South Carolina and other Southern states , in the three decades preceding the Civil War , provided legislatures in which the vested interests of land and slaves dominated in the upper houses , while the popular will of the numerical majority prevailed in the lower houses . There was little opportunity for demagogues to establish themselves in this political milieu – the democratic component among the people was too weak to sustain a plebeian politician . The conservative statesmen – the slaveholding gentry – retained control over the political apparatus . Freehling described the state 's political system of the era thus :
[ T ] he apportionment of [ state ] legislative seats gave the small majority of low country aristocrats control of the senate and a disproportionate influence in the house . Political power in South Carolina was uniquely concentrated in a legislature of large property holders who set state policy and selected the men to administer it . The characteristics of South Carolina politics cemented the control of upper class planters . Elections to the state legislature – the one control the masses could exert over the government – were often uncontested and rarely allowed the " plebeian " a clear choice between two parties or policies ...
The Disquisition was published shortly after his death , as was another book , Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the United States .
John C. Calhoun on the " concurrent majority " from his Disquisition ( 1850 )
If the whole community had the same interests , so that the interests of each and every portion would be so affected by the action of the government , that the laws which oppressed or impoverished one portion , would necessarily oppress and impoverish all others – or the reverse – then the right of suffrage , of itself , would be all @-@ sufficient to counteract the tendency of the government to oppression and abuse of its powers . ... But such is not the case . On the contrary , nothing is more difficult than to equalize the action of the government , in reference to the various and diversified interests of the community ; and nothing more easy than to pervert its powers into instruments to aggrandize and enrich one or more interests by oppressing and impoverishing the others ; and this too , under the operation of laws , couched in general terms – and which , on their face , appear fair and equal . ... Such being the case , it necessarily results , that the right of suffrage , by placing the control of the government in the community must ... lead to conflict among its different interests – each striving to obtain possession of its powers , as the means of protecting itself against the others – or of advancing its respective interests , regardless of the interests of others . For this purpose , a struggle will take place between the various interests to obtain a majority , in order to control the government . If no one interest be strong enough , of itself , to obtain it , a combination will be formed . ... [ and ] the community will be divided into two great parties – a major and minor – between which there will be incessant struggles on the one side to retain , and on the other to obtain the majority – and , thereby , the control of the government and the advantages it confers .
= = = State Sovereignty and the " Calhoun Doctrine " = = =
In the 1840s three interpretations of the Constitutional powers of Congress to deal with slavery in territories emerged : the " free @-@ soil doctrine " , the " Calhoun doctrine " , and " popular sovereignty " . The Free Soilers said Congress had the power to outlaw slavery in the territories . The popular sovereignty position said the voters living there should decide . The Calhoun doctrine said Congress and the citizens the territories could never outlaw slavery in the territories .
In what historian Robert R. Russell calls the " Calhoun Doctrine " , Calhoun argued that the Federal Government 's role in the territories was only that of the trustee or agent of the several sovereign states : it was obliged not to discriminate among the states and hence was incapable of forbidding the bringing into any territory of anything that was legal property in any state . Calhoun argued that citizens from every state had the right to take their property to any territory . Congress and local voters , he asserted , had no authority to place restrictions on slavery in the territories . As Constitutional historian Hermann von Holst noted , " Calhoun 's doctrine made it a solemn constitutional duty of the United States government and of the American people to act as if the existence or non @-@ existence of slavery in the Territories did not concern them in the least . " The Calhoun Doctrine was vehemently opposed by the Free Soil forces , which merged into the new Republican Party around 1854 . Chief Justice Roger B. Taney based his decision in the 1857 Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford , in which he ruled that the federal government could not prohibit slavery in any of the territories , upon Calhoun 's arguments .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Monuments and memorials = = =
Lake Calhoun , a lake of the Chain of Lakes in Minneapolis , was named after Calhoun by surveyors sent by Calhoun during his tenure as Secretary of War to map the area around Fort Snelling in 1817 .
The Confederate government honored Calhoun on a one @-@ cent postage stamp , which was printed in 1862 but was never officially released .
Calhoun is the namesake of John C. Calhoun Community College in Decatur , Alabama . Calhoun was also honored by his alma mater , Yale University , which named one of its undergraduate residential colleges " Calhoun College " . A sculpture of Calhoun appears on the exterior of Harkness Tower , a prominent campus landmark . The Clemson University campus in South Carolina occupies the site of Calhoun 's Fort Hill plantation , which he bequeathed to his wife and daughter . They sold it and its 50 slaves to a relative . They received $ 15 @,@ 000 for the 1 @,@ 100 acres ( 450 ha ) and $ 29 @,@ 000 for the slaves ( they were valued at about $ 600 apiece ) . When that owner died , Thomas Green Clemson foreclosed the mortgage . He later bequeathed the property to the state for use as an agricultural college to be named after him .
Many different places , streets and schools were named after Calhoun , as may be seen on the above list . The " Immortal Trio " were memorialized with streets in Uptown New Orleans . Calhoun Landing , on the Santee @-@ Cooper River in Santee , South Carolina , was named after him . In 1887 , a monument to Calhoun was erected in Marion Square in Charleston . However , it was not well @-@ liked by the residents and was replaced in 1896 by a different monument still in existence . The USS John C. Calhoun , in commission from 1963 to 1994 , was a Fleet Ballistic Missile nuclear submarine .
= = = Historical reputation = = =
Calhoun is often remembered for his defense of minority rights by use of the " concurrent majority " . He is also noted and criticized for his strong defense of slavery . These positions played an enormous role in influencing Southern secessionist leaders . During his lifetime and after , Calhoun was seen as one of the Senate 's most important figures . In 1957 , a Senate committee selected Calhoun as one of the five greatest United States senators in history .
Recently , however , Calhoun 's reputation has suffered due to his defense of slavery .
The racially @-@ motivated Charleston church shooting in South Carolina , in June 2015 , reinvigorated demands for the removal of monuments dedicated to prominent pro @-@ slavery and Confederate States figures . That month , the monument to Calhoun in Charleston was found vandalized , with spray @-@ painted denunciations of Calhoun as a racist and a defender of slavery .
In July 2015 a group of Yale students requested in a petition that Yale rename the Calhoun College , one of the University 's twelve residential colleges . According to an April 2016 article in the New York Times , Yale President Peter Salovey announced that " despite decades of vigorous alumni and student protests , " Calhoun 's name will remain on a Yale residential dormitory . In the article Calhoun was described as the United States ' " most egregious racist " and " an avowed white supremacist . " Salovey explained as he announced the contentious decision — that it is preferable for Yale students to live in Calhoun 's " shadow " so they will be " better prepared to rise to the challenges of the present and the future . " He claimed that if they removed Calhoun 's name , it would " obscure " his " legacy of slavery rather than addressing it . "
In his defense , Wilson ( 2015 ) argues :
Your ordinary run @-@ of @-@ the mill historian will tell you that John C. Calhoun , having defended the bad and lost causes of state rights and slavery , deserves to rest forever in the dustbin of history . Nothing could be further from the truth . No American public figure after the generation of the Founding Fathers has more to say to later times than Calhoun . "
= = = Film and television = = =
Calhoun was portrayed by actor Arliss Howard in the 1997 film Amistad . The film depicts the controversy and legal battle surrounding the status of slaves who in 1839 rebelled against their transporters on La Amistad slave ship .
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= Neal Boortz =
Neal A Boortz , Jr . ( born April 6 , 1945 ) is an American author , attorney , and former radio host . His nationally syndicated talk show , The Neal Boortz Show , which ended in 2013 , was carried throughout the United States . It was ranked seventh in overall listeners , with more than 4 @.@ 25 million per week . The content of the show included politics , current events , social issues , and topics of interest , which Boortz discussed with callers , correspondents and guests . Boortz touched on many controversial topics and referred to himself as an " equal opportunity offender . "
Boortz 's first involvement with radio was in the 1960s , while he was a student at Texas A & M University , working as a local on @-@ air personality at WTAW @-@ AM . After moving to Georgia , he became an avid listener of Atlanta ’ s first talk radio station . Boortz became a regular caller to the morning talk show . When the show 's host died , it created a job opening , which Boortz actively pursued . He was initially hired on a two @-@ week " trial run " , and later offered the permanent position . Boortz attended night law school , earning a law degree in 1977 . For some years he worked as both an attorney and as a talk show host . He eventually closed his law practice in order to concentrate on his work in radio .
Boortz has received many industry accolades . He was named as one of the " 25 Most Important Radio Talk Show Hosts in America " by Talkers magazine , and one of " Georgia 's 100 Most Influential People " by Georgia Trend . In 2009 , Boortz was inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame .
Boortz 's first book was The Commencement Speech You Need To Hear in 1997 , followed by The Terrible Truth About Liberals , in 1998 . In 2005 , he co @-@ wrote The FairTax Book with Congressman John Linder , proposing to implement a variant of a national retail sales tax in lieu of other federal taxes . Boortz 's involvement with the FairTax is covered in the documentary film An Inconvenient Tax .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Boortz was born in Bryn Mawr , Pennsylvania , his mother 's home . His father was a Marine Corps pilot , who served in World War II , the Korean War and Vietnam War . Describing himself as a " military brat " , Boortz lived in many locations throughout the country ( including the small community of Thrall , Texas ) . He spent his first two years of High School at Tustin Union High School in Tustin , California . The family then moved to Florida . Boortz graduated from Pensacola High School , in 1963 . He attended Texas A & M University , but did not graduate . Boortz later attended John Marshall Law School , in Atlanta , Georgia , graduating in 1977 and passing the Georgia bar .
= = = Personal life = = =
Neal Boortz makes his permanent home in Naples , Florida , spending a few months in Atlanta , Georgia . He lives with his wife , Donna . They have one daughter and a granddaughter . Boortz is a pilot and plays golf . He owns two airplanes . He is also a motorcycle enthusiast .
= = Career path = =
Boortz began his radio career in College Station , Texas in the 1960s at WTAW @-@ AM , under the name of Randy Neal , while attending Texas A & M University . In 1967 , after leaving Texas , Boortz moved to Atlanta and landed a sales job . For two years he worked at Rich 's Department Store , where he sold jewelry and carpeting . He later recollected that one of his customers was Martin Luther King , Jr . During that time , Boortz was an avid listener of WRNG @-@ AM , which called itself " Ring Radio " , Atlanta 's first talk radio station . He listened to their morning talk show host , Herb Elfman , and soon became a devotee . " Boortz bombarded Elfman with calls , reading him little scripts he 'd scribbled . " While watching the news one evening , he heard that Elfman had committed suicide . The next morning , Boortz showed up at the front door of WRNG and announced that he was ready to take Elfman 's place . Even though the management told him that " they were going to search for a ' qualified ' host to take his place " , Boortz was offered to be a temporary two @-@ week replacement . In the interim , the evening host was moved to mornings and Boortz hosted the evening . Two weeks later , Boortz was moved to the morning show , embarking on an Atlanta talk radio career that spanned more than forty years . Boortz honed his skills at the tiny 1 @,@ 000 @-@ watt station , and even wrote a few speeches for then Georgia Governor Lester Maddox . He continued working at the station until 1974 , when WRNG " dumped him " . He worked briefly at a radio station in Schenectady , New York , but soon returned to Atlanta .
In 1974 , Boortz enrolled in then @-@ unaccredited John Marshall Law School ( Atlanta ) going to class in his spare time , while he and his wife Donna worked full @-@ time loading mail trucks . Boortz credits his wife with providing " the money to keep me in law school " . After graduating from law school in 1977 , Boortz practiced law in a solo law firm from 1977 through 1993 . During that period , he divided his time between his law practice and work in radio . One of Boortz 's clients was boxer Evander Holyfield . Holyfield later sued Boortz and other members of his management team in the aftermath of a failed Subaru dealership investment . Boortz told Atlanta Magazine " It had nothing to do with representing him as a boxer . It was settled and disappeared . " Some time later , in a heated on @-@ air exchange between Atlanta mayor Bill Campbell and Boortz , Campbell remarked on the Holyfield relationship : Campbell ( sarcastically ) : By the way , Neal , Evander Holyfield sends his regards ... We talked a little about how good he 's doing now and the fact he 's getting ready to open up his 57 @,@ 000 square @-@ foot , $ 20 million home . How he 's fighting for $ 35 million a fight . I was sorta thinking about when you were representing him . He was living in an apartment over on Lenox Road . He was fighting for about $ 20 @,@ 000 a fight . It 's sort of interesting how your great legal skills have transferred into financial well @-@ being for Evander .... Boortz responded by calling mayor Campbell an " unethical son of a bitch " . Boortz later remarked " It 's the only time I 've ever been on the air that I lost control . " In 1993 , Boortz closed his law practice and devoted his full @-@ time to his radio career .
= = = Radio career = = =
While in law school , Boortz returned to work at WRNG . In 1983 he moved to the larger news and talk radio station WGST . He later recounted how he would often go into work at his law office at 5 : 00am , work there for several hours , then go to WGST , and finally back to the law office until 11 : 00pm . In 1992 , Boortz asked WGST for a raise ; a salary equal to his combined income as an attorney and a radio host . When WGST refused , Boortz left . He got his raise when he signed an exclusive contract with WSB to host a daily radio show . Shortly after that , he closed his law office . In 1995 , Talkers Magazine named Boortz one of the " 25 Most Important Radio Talk Show Hosts in America " . That same year , Georgia Trend magazine added Boortz to its list of the " 100 Most Powerful & Influential People in Georgia " .
In 1999 , his show became nationally syndicated through WSB 's owner Cox Radio . The show originated in Atlanta . The Neal Boortz Show featured Boortz , producers Belinda Skelton and Royal Marshall , interviewees , and callers . On the air and on his website Boortz admonished his listeners to take no heed nor place any credence in anything he said , presenting himself as merely an " entertainer . " As an entertainer , Boortz was a 2002 NAB Marconi Radio Awards finalist and Radio & Records NewsTalk Personality of the Year for 2002 . NewsMax.com Magazine 's " Top 25 Talk Radio Host " list selected Boortz as the ninth most influential host in the nation .
In 2007 , Boortz and his radio show were awarded " Best Radio On @-@ Air Personality " and " Best Radio Program , Any Type " by The Georgia Association of Broadcasters . He was also a recipient of the Georgia Radio Hall of Fame 2007 Career Achievement Award . The Neal Boortz Show originated from the nation 's ninth ( 9th ) largest radio market and was ranked the sixth overall most listened to radio program in the country . In 2008 , Boortz was a finalist for the National Association of Broadcaster 's " Marconi Award " as the nation 's best syndicated radio personality ( the award went to Glenn Beck ) .
Boortz was inducted in the National Radio Hall of Fame in 2009 .
= = = Author = = =
Boortz 's first foray into authorship was in 1997 with The Commencement Speech You Need To Hear , in which he delivers his opinions on various topics in the form of a commencement speech he would give to new college graduates , if ever invited to do so . His second book , entitled The Terrible Truth About Liberals , was published in 1998 , and contains reprinted material from his first book , along with a significant amount of new material .
His third book ( co @-@ authored by Georgia Congressman John Linder ) entitled The FairTax Book , explains the proposal to implement a national retail sales tax in lieu of the federal income taxes , payroll taxes , estate tax , etc . The hardcover version held the # 1 non @-@ fiction spot on the New York Times bestseller list for the last two weeks of August 2005 and remained in the top ten for seven weeks . The paperback released in May 2006 contains additional information , an afterword and several revisions of misstatements made in the hardcover edition . It also spent several weeks on the New York Times bestseller list . Boortz claims to have donated 100 % of his royalties from the FairTax book to charity and has commented on his radio show that he has not made one cent from the book . As of July 2006 , Boortz claims his charitable donations from book proceeds exceed one hundred thousand US dollars . The book is one of his most frequent topics of discussion .
His fourth book entitled Somebody 's Gotta Say It was released on February 20 , 2007 , and debuted at # 2 spot on the New York Times bestseller list , second only to Barack Obama 's Audacity of Hope . He occasionally writes columns on the Internet news / commentary site Townhall.com and other online magazines .
His latest book is titled FairTax : The Truth . This book attempts to answer the critics of the Fair Tax proposal and claims to correct some of its myths and misrepresentations . It achieved # 4 on the New York Times Best Seller list for the week of March 2 , 2008 for paperback nonfiction .
= = Political beliefs = =
Boortz is a self @-@ described libertarian . He advocates a complete overhaul of the U.S. tax system and the release of all non @-@ violent drug offenders who are currently in prison . He has supported Republican candidates and Republican tax policy , though he occasionally clashes with Republicans on social issues . Others describe his political views as being more in line with " republitarian " philosophy that embraces incrementalism domestically , and a generally interventionist foreign policy based on self @-@ interest , national defense and the expansion of freedom . Boortz disagrees with the Libertarian Party platform on several key issues including his firm support of the war in Iraq , incremental tax reform , and his opposition to the unrestricted immigration policy advocated by the Libertarian Party .
Boortz criticizes the major parties saying " I believe that the principal difference between the Democrats and the Republicans is that the Democrats just want to grow our Imperial Federal Government a bit faster than the Republicans do . " He sides with liberals on some social issues such as abortion , same @-@ sex marriage , and civil liberties . He agrees with fiscal conservatives in advocating less government spending and decreasing corporate regulation . He is an advocate for freedom of speech . In line with the traditional views of the Libertarian Party , Boortz supports eliminating the War on Drugs , and emphasizing personal responsibility . He has repeatedly stated his belief that global climate change is not man @-@ made . His stances on many of these issues make him popular among conservative Republicans , who , due to their larger numbers in comparison to Libertarians , make up the majority of his listeners and callers .
Boortz 's post @-@ 9 / 11 platforms include support for the US @-@ led War on Terror , a more aggressive foreign policy , and the USA Patriot Act . He is also strongly in favor of a crackdown on illegal immigration , including harsh penalties for businesses who employ persons here illegally . These views occasionally put him in conflict with the Libertarian Party . Justin Raimondo of Antiwar.com has called Boortz a " statist , not a libertarian " and a " liberventionist " and has urged the Libertarian Party to " Boot Boortz " .
Prior to the 2006 midterm elections , Boortz opined that perhaps it would be a good thing to have the Republicans lose power in Congress , forcing them to wake up and stop taking their base for granted . Boortz told one disgruntled caller :
I am happy about it [ the defeat ] . It 's the only way to get these Republicans to wake themselves up and say , ' You have abandoned what you were put in office for.'
Boortz creates controversy among conservatives for his support of abortion rights ( on which Boortz does not allow calls ) , for his refusal to condemn homosexuality or gay marriage , and for his negative comments regarding Baptists and the biblical story of creation . Although he calls himself a Christian , he keeps his religious views private . He has also caused a stir among some Southerners , by coining the term " Flaggots " during his frequent jabs at them and at Confederate issues ( such as governmental support of the Confederate flag ) .
= = The Neal Boortz Show = =
The Neal Boortz Show was a nationally syndicated talk show , which ended in January 2013 . It aired live from 8 : 30am to noon , weekdays . Boortz routinely criticized politicians , Muslim extremism , the homeless , public schools ( which he called ' government schools ' ) , liberals , opponents of the Iraq war , teachers , smokers , the obese , Chevrolet Camaro drivers , cats , and welfare recipients . On air , Boortz referred to himself as an " equal opportunity offender " .
Boortz marketed his talk radio show as " insensitivity training " , creating controversy which increased ratings . His stated " beliefs " included a claim that ADD and ADHD are " medical frauds " and a scam that teachers , parents , and drug companies use . His attempts at controversy included referring to homeless people as " urban outdoorsmen " on air , and called public education " taxpayer @-@ funded child abuse " . Specific targets of criticism included Christian conservatives , Hillary Clinton , Ted Kennedy , Max Cleland , and Cynthia McKinney He also expressed a negative opinion about the lack of Muslim outrage for the actions of Muslim terrorists and the riots that erupted in response to the Jyllands @-@ Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy . Islamic extremism was a favorite topic .
Some of his remarks caused controversy . After the Virginia Tech shootings , Boortz criticized the media , saying , " When the history of this event is written , we will have 25 students standing meekly waiting for this guy to execute them . " When public outrage resulted from his comments , members of the Virginia Legislature tried to have Boortz 's show removed from local radio stations . In March 2008 , Boortz attracted controversy by playing an audiotape of a nine @-@ year @-@ old where he repeatedly ridiculed the child ’ s speech , leading to an unsuccessful FCC petition to deny Boortz ’ s employer the right to purchase five local radio stations .
Boortz announced his retirement from radio on June 4 , 2012 . His last live show aired on January 18 , 2013 . Boortz 's regular fill @-@ in host , Herman Cain , replaced him on January 21 , 2013 , in what accounted to a swap of seats , as Boortz now is Cain 's fill @-@ in host . Boortz stated he would host commentaries for WSB and national syndication , and also substitute for Sean Hannity , whose show airs on WSB in Atlanta , when needed in addition to being Cain 's fill @-@ in .
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= Marek Sobieski ( 1628 – 1652 ) =
Marek Sobieski ( 24 May 1628 – 3 June 1652 ) was a Polish noble ( szlachcic ) , starosta ( tenant of the Crown lands ) of Krasnystaw and Jaworów , older brother of King Jan III Sobieski of Poland . He graduated from Nowodworski College in Kraków and Kraków Academy , then traveled and studied in Western Europe . After returning to Poland in 1648 he fought against the Cossacks and Tatars at Zbaraż and Beresteczko . He was taken captive by Tatars in 1652 and then killed by Cossacks .
= = Childhood and studies = =
Sobieski was the oldest child of Jakub Sobieski and his second wife Teofila Zofia Daniłłowiczówna . He was born on 24 May 1628 in Złoczów and spent his childhood in Żółkiew . He grew up in a patriotic family , and his mother often took him and his brother to the grave of her grandfather Stanisław Żółkiewski , Grand Hetman of the Crown , who was killed in the battle of Cecora in 1620 . Zofia Teofila Daniłłowicz taught her sons the inscription upon their great @-@ grandfather 's grave : " O quam dulce et decorum est pro patria mori ! " ( How sweet and glorious it is to die for one 's homeland ! ) . On 29 October 1639 Sobieski became Starosta of Jaworów .
Along with his brother Jan , beginning in 1640 , Sobieski studied at the Nowodworski College in Kraków . On 29 April 1642 Sobieski made a speech on funeral of Jakub Zadzik , bishop of Kraków . The next year , on 2 June 1643 , Sobieski made a speech where he thanked absent Władysław IV for everything he had done for Nodworski College . Two months earlier , in April 1643 , Marek and Jan Sobieski began studies at Kraków Academy . In 1644 Sobieski became Starosta of Krasnystaw .
In 1645 Jakub Sobieski , father of Marek and Jan , prepared special instructions and a guidebook for his sons , who were about to go abroad . Jakub Sobieski , who was inspired by Roman authors , emphasized learning foreign languages and physical exercises . He wanted to prepare his sons to be politics and diplomats .
After completing their studies in 1646 , the brothers started to travel around Europe under the tutelage of Sebastian Gawrecki . They departed Żółkiew on 21 February or 25 March 1646 . They visited Berlin , Wittenberg , Leipzig , Halle , Amsterdam and Paris , where they arrived on 9 June 1646 . They spent the next 16 months in France . In October 1647 Marek and Jan Sobieski went to England and subsequently studied mathematics in the Netherlands . The brothers had planned to go to Turkey , but after hearing of the Khmelnytsky Uprising they decided to return to Poland . Marek and John Sobieski left Brussels on 24 July 1648 .
= = Adulthood = =
After returning to Poland Sobieski and his brother came to Zamość , which at the time was being besieged by Cossacks . In 1648 , 1649 and 1650 Sobieski was elected a member of the parliament ( sejm walny ) of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1649 he was among the electors who voted for Jan II Kazimierz as King of Poland . Then , as a head of a chorągiew husarska ( military unit formed by Hussars ) of 100 horse , the young starosta joined the army of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki .
Sobieski was a member of the Polish defense crew besieged by Cossacks at Zbaraż from 10 July to 22 August 1649 . In 1650 he fought against the Cossacks at Kamieniec Podolski . Marek Sobieski also took part in the Battle of Beresteczko on 28 – 30 June 1651 . After the Polish victory , due his bravery , he received a saber of Tugay Bey , who had been killed during the battle . In September 1651 he fought at the Battle of Biała Cerkiew . When the Poles , Cossacks and Tatars began negotiations , Marek Sobieski was sent to the Cossack camp as a guarantor of safety for the Cossack leader , Bohdan Khmelnytsky , who was in the Polish camp .
In 1652 Sobieski fought against the Cossacks near Bracław and during Biała Cerkiew campaign . Marching with Jan Odrzywolski , but without his own hussar banner , Sobieski and his retinue came to the field hetman Kalinowski 's camp at Batoh on May 31 . Marek Sobieski and Odrzywolski were assigned to command cavalry banners during the subsequent battle , and in that capacity they fought on June 1 and 2 . On June 2 , during the second day of the Battle of Batoh after the defeat of Polish cavalry in the field before the Polish camp , Sobieski commanded a cavalry group , perhaps containing wounded filed hetman Kalinowski , that withdrew to the eastern redoubt in Polish camp , where Cossacks destroyed them after bringing artillery . Following Polish soldier Wespazjan Kochowski 's writings Sobieski might have been the last Polish commander defending the Polish camp against the Cossack @-@ Tatar army . Young commander was taken prisoner or surrendered , to be ransomed in a future as it was practice of the day , by the Tatars or Cossacks . After the battle , the Cossacks paid the Tatars for possession of the prisoners , and killed the Polish captives in retaliation for Chmielnicki ’ s defeat at Berestechko . Among the 8 @,@ 000 massacred Polish soldiers was Marek Sobieski. or the number could have been much higher , up to 15 @,@ 000 killed in action and massacred .
Sobieski 's mother returned his body to his home , and to commemorate him she founded the Church of the Assumption of Mary in Żółkiew , which was built between 1653 and 1655 . Sobieski was buried there in 1655 on the day the church was consecrated . His brother , King Jan III Sobieski , commissioned a gravestone by Andreas Schlüter made from black marble , which was destroyed after 1945 . In 1946 Sobieski 's body was taken to the Dominican 's Church in Kraków .
= = Legacy = =
Sobieski was portrayed by Henryk Sienkiewicz in With Fire and Sword ( 1884 ) , Antoni Euzebiusz Balicki in Z żaka król ( 1936 ) and Jacek Komuda in novel Bohun ( 2006 ) .
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= Gangtok =
Gangtok ( / ˈɡæŋtɒk / ) is a municipality , the capital and the largest town of the Indian state of Sikkim . It also is the headquarters of the East Sikkim district . Gangtok is located in the eastern Himalayan range , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 650 m ( 5 @,@ 410 ft ) . The town 's population of 100 @,@ 000 belongs to different ethnicities such as Nepali , Lepchas and Bhutia . Nestled within higher peaks of the Himalaya and enjoying a year @-@ round mild temperate climate , Gangtok is at the centre of Sikkim 's tourism industry .
Gangtok rose to prominence as a popular Buddhist pilgrimage site after the construction of the Enchey Monastery in 1840 . In 1894 , the ruling Sikkimese Chogyal , Thutob Namgyal , transferred the capital to Gangtok . In the early 20th century , Gangtok became a major stopover on the trade route between Lhasa in Tibet and cities such as Kolkata ( then Calcutta ) in British India . After India won its independence from Britain in 1947 , Sikkim chose to remain an independent monarchy , with Gangtok as its capital . In 1975 , after the integration with the union of India , Gangtok was made India 's 22nd state capital .
The precise meaning of the name " Gangtok " is unclear , though the most popular meaning is " hill top " . Today , Gangtok is a centre of Tibetan Buddhist culture and learning , with the presence of several monasteries , religious educational institutions , and centres for Tibetology .
= = History = =
Like the rest of Sikkim , not much is known about the early history of Gangtok . The earliest records date from the construction of the hermitic Gangtok monastery in 1716 . Gangtok remained a small hamlet until the construction of the Enchey Monastery in 1840 made it a pilgrimage center . It became the capital of what was left of Sikkim after an English conquest in the mid @-@ 19th century in response to a hostage crisis . After the defeat of the Tibetans by the British , Gangtok became a major stopover in the trade between Tibet and British India at the end of the 19th century . Most of the roads and the telegraph in the area were built during this time .
In 1894 , Thutob Namgyal , the Sikkimese monarch under British rule , shifted the capital from Tumlong to Gangtok , increasing the city 's importance . A new grand palace along with other state buildings was built in the new capital . Following India 's independence in 1947 , Sikkim became a nation @-@ state with Gangtok as its capital . Sikkim came under the suzerainty of India , with the condition that it would retain its independence , by the treaty signed between the Chogyal and the then Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru . This pact gave the Indians control of external affairs on behalf of Sikkimese . Trade between India and Tibet continued to flourish through the Nathula and Jelepla passes , offshoots of the ancient Silk Road near Gangtok . These border passes were sealed after the Sino @-@ Indian War in 1962 , which deprived Gangtok of its trading business . The Nathula pass was finally opened for limited trade in 2006 , fuelling hopes of economic boom .
In 1975 , after years of political uncertainty and struggle , including riots , the monarchy was abrogated and Sikkim became India 's twenty @-@ second state , with Gangtok as its capital after a referendum . Gangtok has witnessed annual landslides , resulting in loss of life and damage to property . The largest disaster occurred in June 1997 , when 38 were killed and hundreds of buildings were destroyed .
= = Geography = =
Gangtok is located at 27 @.@ 3325 ° N 88 @.@ 6140 ° E / 27 @.@ 3325 ; 88 @.@ 6140 ( coordinates of Gangtok head post office ) . It is situated in the lower Himalayas at an elevation of 1 @,@ 650 m ( 5 @,@ 410 ft ) . The town lies on one side of a hill , with " The Ridge " , a promenade housing the Raj Bhawan , the governor 's residence , at one end and the palace , situated at an altitude of about 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) , at the other . The city is flanked on east and west by two streams , namely Roro Chu and Ranikhola , respectively . These two rivers divide the natural drainage into two parts , the eastern and western parts . Both the streams meet the Ranipul and flow south as the main Ranikhola before it joins the Teesta at Singtam . Most of the roads are steep , with the buildings built on compacted ground alongside them .
Most of Sikkim , including Gangtok , is underlain by Precambrian rocks which contains foliated phyllites and schists ; slopes are therefore prone to frequent landslides . Surface runoff of water by natural streams ( jhora ) and man @-@ made drains has contributed to the risk of landslides . According to the Bureau of Indian Standards , the town falls under seismic zone @-@ IV ( on a scale of I to V , in order of increasing seismic activity ) , near the convergent boundary of the Indian and the Eurasian tectonic plates and is subject to frequent earthquakes . The hills are nestled within higher peaks and the snow @-@ clad Himalayan ranges tower over the town from the distance . Mount Kanchenjunga ( 8 @,@ 598 m or 28 @,@ 208 ft ) — the world 's third @-@ highest peak — is visible to the west of the city . The existence of steep slopes , vulnerability to landslides , large forest cover and inadequate access to most areas have been a major impediment to the natural and balanced growth of the city .
There are densely forested regions around Gangtok , consisting of temperate , deciduous forests of poplar , birch , oak , and elm , as well as evergreen , coniferous trees of the wet alpine zone . Orchids are common , and rare varieties of orchids are featured in flower shows in the city . Bamboos are also abundant . In the lower reaches of the town , the vegetation gradually changes from alpine to temperate deciduous and subtropical . Flowers such as sunflower , marigold , poinsettia , and others bloom , especially in November and December .
= = = Climate = = =
Gangtok features a monsoon @-@ influenced subtropical highland climate ( Köppen : Cwb ) . Because of its elevation and sheltered environment , Gangtok enjoys a mild , temperate climate all year round . Like most Himalayan towns , Gangtok has five seasons : summer , monsoons , autumn , winter and spring . Temperatures range from an average maximum of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) in summer to an average minimum of 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) in winter . Summers ( lasting from late April to June ) are mild , with maximum temperatures rarely crossing 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . The monsoon season from June to September is characterised by intense torrential rains often causing landslides that block Gangtok 's land access to the rest of the country . Rainfall starts to rise from pre @-@ monsoon in May , and peaks during the monsoon , with July recording the highest monthly average of 649 @.@ 6 mm ( 25 @.@ 6 in ) . In winter temperature averages between 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) and 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) . Snowfall is rare , and in recent times Gangtok has received snow only in 1990 , 2004 , 2005 and January 2011 . Temperatures below freezing are also rare . During this season the weather can be unstable , and change abruptly from bright sunshine and clear skies to heavy rain within a couple of hours . During spring and autumn the weather is generally sunny and mild . Owing to its elevation , Gangtok is often enveloped in fog during the monsoon and winter months .
= = Economy = =
The hospitality industry is the largest industry in Gangtok as the city is the main base for Sikkim tourism . Summer and spring seasons are the most popular tourist seasons . Many of Gangtok 's residents are employed directly and indirectly in the tourism industry , with many residents owning and working in hotels and restaurants .
Ecotourism has emerged as an important economic activity in the region which includes trekking , mountaineering , river rafting and other nature oriented activities . An estimated 351 @,@ 000 tourists visited Sikkim in 2007 , generating revenue of about Rs 50 crores ( Rs 500 millions ) .
The Nathula Pass , located about 50 km ( 31 mi ) from Gangtok , used to be the primary route of the wool , fur and spice trade with Tibet and spurred economic growth for Gangtok till the mid @-@ 20th century . In 1962 , after the border was closed during the Sino @-@ Indian War , Gangtok fell into recession . The pass was reopened in 2006 and trade through the pass is expected to boost the economy of Gangtok . The Sikkim government is keen to open a Lhasa – Gangtok bus service via Nathula pass . Sikkim 's mountainous terrain results in the lack of train or air links , limiting the area 's potential for rapid industrial development . The government is the largest employer in the city , both directly and as contractors . Gangtok 's economy does not have a large manufacturing base , but has a thriving Cottage industry in watch @-@ making , country @-@ made alcohol and handicrafts . Among the handicrafts are the handmade paper industry made from various vegetable fibres or cotton rags . The main market in Gangtok provides many of the state 's rural residents a place to offer their produce during the harvest seasons . The majority of the private business community is made up of Marwaris and Biharis . As part of Sikkim , Gangtok enjoys the status of being an income @-@ tax free region as per the state 's 1948 Income tax law . As Sikkim is a frontier state , the Indian army maintains a large presence in the vicinity of Gangtok . This leads to a population of semi @-@ permanent residents who bring money into the local economy . The Sikkim government started India 's first online lottery Playwin to boost government income , but this was later closed by a ruling from the Sikkim High Court .
In 2013 premier Indian publishing company Thomson Digital opened its production unit in Gangtok . Thus becoming first MNC to venture there and paving path for future private companies to explore potential of young workforce of Gangtok .
= = Civic administration = =
Gangtok is administered by Gangtok Municipal Corporation along with the various departments of Government of Sikkim , particularly the Urban Development and Housing Department ( UDHD ) and Public Health Engineering Department ( PHED ) . These departments looked after the civic functions such as garbage disposal , water supply , tax collection , license allotments , and civic infrastructure . An administrator appointed by the state government headed the UDHD .
As the headquarters of East Sikkim district , Gangtok houses the offices of the district collector , an administrator appointed by the Union Government of India . Gangtok is also the seat of the Sikkim High Court , which is India 's smallest High Court in terms of area and population of jurisdiction . Gangtok does not have its own police commissionerate like other major cities in India . Instead , it comes under the jurisdiction of the state police , which is headed by a Director General of Police , although an Inspector General of Police oversees the town . Sikkim is known for its very low crime rate . Rongyek jail in Gangtok is Sikkim 's only central jail .
Gangtok is within the Sikkim Lok Sabha constituency that elects a member to the Lok Sabha ( Lower House ) of the Indian Parliament . The city elects one member in the Sikkim state legislative assembly , the Vidhan Sabha . The Sikkim Democratic Front ( SDF ) won both the parliamentary election in 2009 and the state assembly seat in the 2009 state assembly polls .
= = Utility services = =
Electricity is supplied by the power department of the Government of Sikkim . Gangtok has a nearly uninterrupted electricity supply due to Sikkim 's numerous hydroelectric power stations . The rural roads around Gangtok are maintained by the Border Roads Organisation , a division of the Indian army . Several roads in Gangtok are reported to be in a poor condition , whereas building construction activities continue almost unrestrained in this city lacking proper land infrastructure . Most households are supplied by the central water system maintained and operated by the PHED . The main source of PHED water supply is the Rateychu River , located about 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) from the city , at an altitude of 2 @,@ 621 m ( 8 @,@ 599 ft ) . Its water treatment plant is located at Selep . The river Rateychu is snow @-@ fed and has perennial streams . Since there is no habitation in the catchment area except for a small army settlement , there is little environmental degradation and the water is of very good quality . 40 seasonal local springs are used by the Rural Management and Development Department of Sikkim Government to supply water to outlying rural areas .
Around 40 % of the population has access to sewers . However , only the toilet waste is connected to the sewer while sullage is discharged into the drains . Without a proper sanitation system , the practice of disposing sewage through septic tanks and directly discharging into Jhoras and open drains is prevalent . The entire city drains into the two rivers , Ranikhola and Roro Chu , through numerous small streams and Jhoras . Ranikhola and Roro Chu rivers confluence with Teesta River , the major source of drinking water to the population downstream . The densely populated urban area of Gangtok does not have a combined drainage system to drain out the storm water and waste water from the buildings . The estimated solid waste generated in Gangtok city is approximately 45 tonnes . Only around 40 % of this is collected by UDHD , while the remainder is indiscriminately thrown into Jhora , streets and valleys . The collected waste is disposed in a dump located about 20 km ( 12 mi ) from the city . There is no waste collection from inaccessible areas where vehicles cannot reach , nor does any system of collection of waste exist in the adjoining rural areas . The city is under a statewide ban on the use of polythene bags .
= = Transport = =
= = = Road = = =
Taxis are the most widely available public transport within Gangtok . Most of the residents stay within a few kilometres of the town centre and many have their own vehicles such as two @-@ wheelers and cars . The share of personal vehicles and taxis combined is 98 % of Gangtok 's total vehicles , a high percentage when compared to other Indian cities . City buses comprise less than one percent of vehicles . Those travelling longer distances generally make use of share @-@ jeeps , a kind of public taxis . Four wheel drives are used to easily navigate the steep slopes of the roads . The 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) long cable car with three stops connects lower Gangtok suburbs with Sikkim Legislative assembly in central Gangtok and the upper suburbs .
Gangtok is connected to the rest of India by an all @-@ weather metalled highway , National Highway 10 ， earlier known as National Highway 31A , which links Gangtok to Siliguri , located 114 km ( 71 mi ) away in the neighbouring state of West Bengal . The highway also provides a link to the neighbouring hill station towns of Darjeeling and Kalimpong , which are the nearest urban areas . Regular jeep , van , and bus services link these towns to Gangtok . Gangtok is a linear city that has developed along the arterial roads , especially National Highway 31A . Most of the road length in Gangtok , is of two lane undivided carriageway with footpath on one side of the road and drain on the other . The steep gradient of the different road stretches coupled with a spiral road configuration constrain the smooth flow of vehicular as well as pedestrian traffic .
= = = Rail = = =
The nearest railhead connected to the rest of India is the station of New Jalpaiguri in Siliguri , situated 124 km ( 77 mi ) away from Gangtok . Work has commenced for a broad gauge railway link from Sevoke in West Bengal to Rangpo in Sikkim that is planned for extension to Gangtok .
= = = Air = = =
The closest airport is Bagdogra Airport , ( IATA airport code IXB ) in Siliguri , 16 km ( 10 mi ) from Siliguri Town . Gangtok is linked to Bagdogra airport by a daily helicopter service that operates only once a day and carries four passengers . Pakyong Airport , a greenfield airport , southeast of Gangtok .
= = Demographics = =
According to the Provisional Population Totals 2011 census of India , the population of Gangtok Municipal Corporation has been estimated to be 98 @,@ 658 . Males constituted 53 % of the population and females 47 % . The Gangtok subdivision of the East Sikkim district had a population of 281 @,@ 293 , Gangtok has an average literacy rate of 82 @.@ 17 % , higher than the national average of 74 % : male literacy is 85 @.@ 33 % , and female literacy is 78 @.@ 68 . About 8 % of Gangtok 's population live in the nine notified slums and squatter settlements , all on Government land . More people live in areas that depict slum @-@ like characteristics but have not been notified as slums yet because they have developed on private land . Of the total urban population of Sikkim , Gangtok Municipal Corporation has a share of 55 @.@ 5 % . Including Gangtok , East District has a share of 88 % of the total urban population . The quality of life , the pace of development and availability of basic infrastructure and employment prospects has been the major cause for rapid migration to the city . With this migration , the urban services are under pressure , intensified by the lack of availability of suitable land for infrastructure development .
Ethnic Nepalis , who settled in the region during British rule , comprise the majority of Gangtok 's residents . Lepchas , native to the land , and Bhutias also constitute a sizeable portion of the populace . Additionally , a large number of Tibetans have immigrated to the town . Immigrant resident communities not native to the region include the Marwaris , who own most of the shops ; the Biharis , who are employed in mostly blue collar jobs and the Bengalis .
Hinduism and Buddhism are the most significant religions in Gangtok . Gangtok also has a sizeable Christian population and a small Muslim minority . The North East Presbyterian Church , Roman Catholic Church and Anjuman Mosque in Gangtok are places of worship for the religious minorities . The town has not been communist , having never witnessed any sort of inter @-@ religious strife in its history . Nepali is the most widely spoken language in Sikkim as well as Gangtok . English and Hindi being the official language of Sikkim and India respectively , are also widely spoken and understood in most of Sikkim , particularly in Gangtok . Other languages spoken in Gangtok include Bhutia ( Sikkimese ) , Tibetan and Lepcha .
= = Culture = =
Apart from the major religious festivals of Dashain , Tihar , Christmas , Holi etc . , the diverse ethnic populace of the town celebrates several local festivals . The Lepchas and Bhutias celebrate new year in January , while Tibetans celebrate the new year ( Losar ) with " Devil Dance " in January – February . The Maghe sankranti , Ram Navami are some of the important Nepalese festivals . Chotrul Duchen , Buddha Jayanti , the birthday of the Dalai Lama , Loosong , Bhumchu , Saga Dawa , Lhabab Duechen and Drupka Teshi are some other festivals , some distinct to local culture and others shared with the rest of India , Nepal , Bhutan and Tibet .
A popular food in Gangtok is the momo , a steamed dumpling containing pork , beef and vegetables cooked in a doughy wrapping and served with watery soup . Wai @-@ Wai is a packaged snack consisting of noodles which are eaten either dry or in soup form . A form of noodle called thukpa , served in soup form is also popular in Gangtok . Other noodle @-@ based foods such as the chowmein , thenthuk , fakthu , gyathuk and wonton are available . Other traditional Sikkimese cuisine include shah @-@ phaley ( Sikkimese patties with spiced minced meat in a crisp samosa @-@ like case ) and Gack @-@ ko soup . Restaurants offer a wide variety of traditional Indian , continental and Chinese cuisines to cater to the tourists . Churpee , a kind of hard cheese made from cow 's or yak 's milk is sometimes chewed . Chhang is a local frothy millet beer traditionally served in bamboo tankards and drunk through bamboo or cane straws . Alcohol is cheap due to low excise duty in Sikkim . Beer , whiskey , rum and brandy are frequently consumed by both locals and non @-@ locals .
Residents of Sikkim are music lovers and it is common to hear Western rock music being played in homes and restaurants . Hindi pop songs are also common . Indigenous Nepali rock , music suffused with a western rock beat and Nepali lyrics , is particularly popular .
Football ( soccer ) , cricket and archery are the most popular sports in Gangtok . The Paljor Stadium , which hosts football matches , is the sole sporting ground in the city . Thangka — a notable handicraft — is an elaborately hand painted religious scroll in brilliant colours drawn on fabric hung in a monastery or a family altar and occasionally carried by monks in ceremonial processions . Chhaams are vividly costumed monastic dances performed on ceremonial and festive occasions , especially in the monasteries during the Tibetan new year .
= = = City institutions = = =
A centre of Buddhist learning and culture , Gangtok 's most notable Buddhist institutions are the Enchey monastery , the Do @-@ drul Chorten stupa complex and the Rumtek Monastery . The Enchey monastery is the city 's oldest monastery and is the seat of the Nyingma order . The two @-@ hundred @-@ year @-@ old baroque monastery houses images of gods , goddesses , and other religious artifacts . In the month of January , the Chaam , or masked dance , is performed with great fanfare . The Dro @-@ dul Chorten is a stupa which was constructed in 1945 by Trulshik Rimpoché , head of the Nyingma order of Tibetan Buddhism . Inside this stupa are complete set of relics , holy books , and mantras . Surrounding the edifice are 108 Mani Lhakor , or prayer wheels . The complex also houses a religious school .
The Rumtek Monastery on the outskirts of the town is one of Buddhism 's most sacred monasteries . The monastery is the seat of the Kagyu order , one of the major Tibetan sects , and houses some of the world 's most sacred and rare Tibetan Buddhist scriptures and religious objects in its reliquary . Constructed in the 1960s , the building is modeled after a similar monastery in Lhasa , Tibet . Rumtek was the focus of international media attention in 2000 after the seventeenth Karmapa , one of the four holiest lamas , fled Lhasa and sought refuge in the monastery .
The Namgyal Institute of Tibetology , better known as the Tibetology Museum , houses a huge collection of masks , Buddhist scriptures , statues , and tapestries . It has over two hundred Buddhist icons , and is a centre of study of Buddhist philosophy .
The Thakurbari Temple , located in the heart of the city , established in 1935 on a prime piece of land donated by the then Maharaja of Sikkim is one of the oldest and best known Hindu temple in the city . The Ganesh Tok and the Hanuman Tok , dedicated to the Hindu gods Ganpati and Hanuman and housing important Hindu deities , are located in the upper reaches of the city .
The Himalayan Zoological Park exhibits the fauna of the Himalayas in their natural habitats . The zoo features the Himalayan black bear , the barking deer , the snow leopard , the leopard cat , Tibetan wolf , masked palm civet , red pandas and the spotted deer amongst the others . Jawaharlal Nehru Botanical Gardens , near Rumtek , houses many species of orchid and as many as fifty different species of tree , including many oaks .
= = Education = =
Gangtok 's schools are either run by the state government or by private and religious organizations . Schools mainly use English and Nepali as their medium of instruction . The schools are either affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education , Central Board of Secondary Education or the National Institute of Open Schooling . Notable schools include the Tashi Namgyal Academy , Paljor Namgyal Girls School , Taktse International School and Kendriya Vidyalaya .
Colleges conferring graduate degrees include Sikkim Government College , Sikkim Government Law College and Damber Singh College . Sikkim University established in 2007 is functioning in Gangtok ; the university has been allotted land in neighbouring Yang Yang town for establishment of its own campus . The university offers a diverse range of courses and has a number of institutes affiliated to it . 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from here is the headquarters of the Sikkim Manipal University , which houses Sikkim Manipal Institute of Medical Sciences and Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology . The Indira Gandhi National Open University also has a regional center in the city . There are other institutions offering diplomas in Buddhist literature , catering and other non @-@ mainstream fields . District Institute of Education and Training and State Institute of Education conduct teacher training programs . Students usually go to large cities in the vicinity such as Siliguri or Kolkata in pursuit of higher education . Naropa University also oversees a semester abroad program located in Gangtok . Do not confuse with Sikkim University and Sikkim Manipal University . Both are different .
= = Media = =
More than 50 newspapers are published in Sikkim . Multiple local Nepali and English newspapers are published , whereas regional and national Hindi and English newspapers , printed elsewhere in India , are also circulated . The English newspapers include The Statesman and The Telegraph , which are printed in Siliguri ; The Hindu and The Times of India , which are printed in Kolkata . Sikkim Herald , the newsweekly of the Government of Sikkim is published in thirteen languages of the state .
Gangtok has two cinema halls featuring Nepali , Hindi and English @-@ language films . The town also has a public library .
There are Internet cafés in and around the city , but broadband connectivity is limited . Satellite dishes exist in most homes in the region and the channels available throughout India are also available here , along with a few Nepali @-@ language channels . The main service providers are Sikkim Cable , Nayuma , Dish TV and Doordarshan . All India Radio has a local station in Gangtok , which transmits various programs of mass interest . Along that , other three fm stations Nine fm , Radio Misty and Red fm are the four radio stations in the city . BSNL , Reliance and Airtel have the three largest cellular networks in the town . There is a Doordarshan TV station in Gangtok .
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= 1926 FA Cup Final =
The 1926 FA Cup Final was a football match between Bolton Wanderers and Manchester City on 24 April 1926 at Wembley Stadium in London . The showpiece match of English football 's primary cup competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup ( better known as the FA Cup ) , it was the 55th final , and the fourth at Wembley .
Each team progressed through five rounds to reach the final . Both teams were members of the Football League First Division , Bolton Wanderers occupying a position in upper @-@ mid @-@ table and Manchester City next to bottom . Consequently , Bolton entered the match as favourites and , as expected , went on to win , their single goal being scored by David Jack .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Bolton Wanderers = = =
Both teams entered the competition in the third round , the entry point for First Division clubs . Bolton Wanderers were drawn away at Accrington Stanley but , following a request to the FA , the match was switched to Bolton for crowd safety reasons . Bolton 's David Jack scored the only goal of the game in an unexpectedly close contest . To the resentment of the Bolton crowd , Ted Vizard was sent off for the first time in his career , leading the referee to require a police escort to the railway station . In the fourth round Bolton were held to a surprise draw at Third Division Bournemouth . The Wanderers lost Bill Cope to injury after fifteen minutes . A 1 – 0 half @-@ time lead quickly turned into a 2 – 1 deficit early in the second half but , with five minutes remaining , Jack scored an equaliser .
Bolton 's fifth round home tie against South Shields produced a straightforward 3 – 0 victory . The goals were scored by Joe Smith , Jack Smith and David Jack , the latter maintaining his record of scoring in every round . The quarter @-@ final against Nottingham Forest required two replays to produce a winner . Following a 2 – 2 draw in Nottingham and a goalless game in Bolton , the Wanderers prevailed 1 – 0 in another close game held at Old Trafford . Bolton drew Swansea Town , the last remaining Second Division club , in the semi @-@ final . This meant Bolton did not meet a single First Division club in their path to the final . Three early goals gave Bolton a comfortable 3 – 0 win at White Hart Lane .
= = = Manchester City = = =
Manchester City 's third round tie was against the amateur club Corinthians at Crystal Palace . The third round was the furthest Corinithians had ever progressed , though until 1923 the club never entered the cup due to club rules preventing them from entering any competition with a prize . Manchester City went behind and only equalised three minutes from time . The Corinthians goalkeeper , Benjamin Howard Baker collided with a team @-@ mate , causing him to take more than four steps with the ball . From the resulting free kick , Frank Roberts scored in a goalmouth melee to take the tie to a replay , held the following Wednesday . The rematch proved less even . Manchester City won 4 – 0 courtesy of goals by Austin ( twice ) , Hicks and Johnson . After his goal , Hicks had to leave the field as he had sustained an injury while performing a celebratory somersault . In the fourth round , City faced league champions Huddersfield Town and again won 4 – 0 . The crowd of 74 @,@ 799 was by far the highest of the round , and only 1 @,@ 200 short of the club record . Manchester City were drawn at home to Crystal Palace in the fifth round . A final score of 11 – 4 set a club record for the number of goals in a game and was City 's biggest margin of victory since 1903 . Frank Roberts scored five and Tommy Browell also scored a hat @-@ trick . Yet another high scoring win was achieved in the quarter @-@ final , when Clapton Orient were beaten 6 – 1 . Johnson scored a hat @-@ trick and Hicks scored for the fifth successive cup match .
In the semi @-@ final , Manchester City faced local rivals Manchester United in a derby match at Bramall Lane . Browell scored the opener from a Hicks corner amid vehement protests for handball from the United players . Later in the half , United 's Frank Barson flattened Sam Cowan with an " ugly challenge " for which he later received a suspension . In the second half , Browell and Roberts each scored to make the final score 3 – 0 .
= = Build @-@ up = =
Both teams had won the FA Cup on one previous occasion and had met in the 1904 FA Cup Final . In that match , Manchester City won 1 – 0 thanks to a Billy Meredith goal . The 1904 meeting was Manchester City 's only previous final , whereas the 1926 tie was the fourth time Bolton had reached the final . They lost in 1894 and 1904 , but won the competition for the first time in the " White Horse Final " of 1923 , the first to be held at Wembley . The 1926 final was the first to be held since the change to the offside rule in 1925 . It now required two defenders behind an attacker receiving the ball instead of three , a change which increased the average number of goals per match .
Of the two teams , Bolton Wanderers had the better league form . After rising as high as fourth early in the league season , Bolton spent the majority of the year in mid @-@ table and finally finished 8th of the 22 First Division clubs with 44 points from their 42 league fixtures . Manchester City remained in the lower reaches of the league table throughout the season and were relegated after finishing 21st with 35 points . Their matches were frequently high scoring . City scored more league goals than second @-@ placed Arsenal , but also had the second @-@ worst defensive record in the division . The two league matches between the teams in the 1925 – 26 season ended in a 5 – 1 home win for Bolton in November and a 1 – 1 draw at Maine Road in March .
In accordance with changes made for the 1924 final onwards , all tickets were sold in advance to prevent a repeat of the overcrowding at the 1923 final . Approximately 91 @,@ 000 tickets were available . 53 @,@ 000 were standing tickets , 15 @,@ 000 were uncovered seats and 23 @,@ 000 were covered seats . Standing tickets cost two shillings , seat prices ranged from five shillings to one guinea . The majority of tickets were sold before the finalists were known . As a result , few supporters of the participating teams attended ; most were unable to afford the remaining tickets available to the general public , which were typically in the more expensive areas of the stadium . 1 @,@ 750 tickets were allocated directly to each club . Bolton fielded 6 @,@ 000 enquiries and lodged a formal protest about the inadequacy of their allocation . The London , Midland and Scottish Railway laid on a total of seven special trains from Manchester to London on the eve and morning of the match . A number of supporters travelled to London without tickets in the hope of securing one outside the stadium . 5s tickets changed hands for up to 15s , provoking the ire of ticketless supporters who accused the sellers of profiteering . In one such instance , a man selling twenty 2s tic | kets at 10s each required the assistance of five police officers to escape the wrath of the crowd . The total gate receipts for the match were £ 23 @,@ 157 , a new record .
Manchester City prepared for the match by training in the spa town of Buxton . Bolton Wanderers followed their usual training schedule for most of the week , then travelled to Harrow on the Thursday . All eleven men who played for Bolton in their 1923 triumph were still at the club . Of those , only the injured Alex Finney was absent as they travelled to London . Jack Smith had been injured for several weeks in the run @-@ up to the final , but recovered in time and participated in Bolton 's last league match before the tie .
= = Match = =
In the hour before kick @-@ off , the crowd was entertained by the bands of the Royal Engineers and the Chatham Naval Dockyard . Following the National Anthem , the players , match officials and club chairmen were introduced to King George V. The toss was then won by the Bolton captain Joe Smith . In contrast to the lengthy delays which marred Bolton 's previous visit to Wembley , the match kicked off three minutes earlier than scheduled .
As anticipated , Bolton fielded ten of the eleven who played the 1923 final . Left @-@ back Harry Greenhalgh was the only change from the 1923 line @-@ up . Each team played the formation typical of the era : two full @-@ backs , three half @-@ backs and five forwards . Bolton had the better of the opening exchanges ; the Times correspondent wrote : " In the first five minutes Bolton Wanderers were so superior to their opponents that they might have been giving an exhibition for the cinema against schoolboys " . Manchester City then gradually asserted themselves and had the first clear chance . Frank Roberts took a right @-@ footed shot , but hit the ball straight at Bolton goalkeeper Dick Pym . Overall , the defences enjoyed the better of the play in the first half . Bolton 's Joe Smith was instrumental in much of his team 's attacking play , both he and left @-@ winger Ted Vizard receiving praise for their play .
Hicks , who was generally described as the most effective of the Manchester City forwards , had a chance which he hit high over the crossbar . In a rare spell of sustained Manchester City pressure , a free kick by captain Jimmy McMullan forced a save from Pym , and the resulting near @-@ post corner prompted a goalmouth scramble which ended with a foul on Bolton 's Greenhalgh . Pym made further saves from Browell and Hicks , the latter resulting in a corner . From the corner Bolton won the ball and headed upfield on the counter @-@ attack . Billy Butler 's cross from the right went beyond the goal and was retrieved by Vizard on the left wing . The outside @-@ forward then cut inside and played the ball across goal in a manner described by some correspondents as a shot and others as a pass . David Jack received the ball in the six @-@ yard box and put the ball between Goodchild and McCloy into the City goal , giving Bolton the lead with 14 minutes remaining . In the few minutes after the goal , Manchester City came forward in numbers but lacked clear chances and were hindered by over @-@ eager forwards going offside . Following a goal kick by Pym , the referee blew the final whistle . Bolton won the cup for a second time , becoming the first club to win twice at Wembley .
= = Post @-@ match = =
The Bolton team were greeted by crowds at Bolton Town Hall . In a playful exchange , Joe Smith gave the Cup to the mayor , saying that it had been won for Bolton and was given to Bolton , which the mayor refused . Bolton went on to win a third FA Cup in 1929 , beating Portsmouth 2 – 0 . The 1929 team contained five of the 1926 cup winners . Goalscorer David Jack was transferred to Arsenal in 1928 . The transfer set a world record as the first to exceed £ 10 @,@ 000 . Jack won one more FA Cup with Arsenal .
Upon arrival back in Manchester , the Manchester City team were given a civic reception at Manchester Town Hall , then immediately travelled to their Maine Road ground to play a league fixture against Leeds . Manchester City won that match 2 – 1 , but failed to win the following Saturday and were relegated to the Second Division . In doing so they became the first cup finalists ever to be relegated in the same season , a fate since shared by 1969 finalist Leicester City , 1983 finalist Brighton & Hove Albion , 2010 finalist Portsmouth and 2013 winners Wigan Athletic . The final was the last time Albert Alexander 's committee selected the team . Peter Hodge had agreed to join the club as manager well in advance of the final , but was unable to take up the position until his previous club Leicester City completed their league fixtures . Several seasons later , City half @-@ back Sam Cowan went on to captain the club in the 1933 and 1934 finals .
= = Match details = =
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= Ann Eliza Bleecker =
Ann Eliza Bleecker ( October 1752 – November 23 , 1783 ) was an American poet and correspondent . Following a New York upbringing , Bleecker married John James Bleecker , a New Rochelle lawyer , in 1769 . He encouraged her writings , and helped her publish a periodical containing her works .
The American Revolution saw John join the New York Militia , while Ann fled with their two daughters . She continued to write , and what remained of the family returned to Tomhannock following Burgoyne 's surrender . She was saddened and affected by the deaths of numerous family members over the years , and died in 1783 .
Bleecker 's pastoral poetry is studied by historians to gain perspective of life on the front lines of the revolution , and her novel Maria Kittle , the first known Captivity novel , set the form for subsequent Indian Capture novels which saw great popularity after her death .
= = Childhood = =
Ann Eliza Schuyler was born in October 1752 , in New York City in the Province of New York . She was the sixth child born to Margareta Van Wyck ( 1722 – 1777 ) and Brandt Schuyler ( abt 1716 – 1752 ) , successful merchants and members of the American Dutch aristocracy . After a long illness , Ann Schuyler 's father died just before she was born in 1752 . As a child , Ann Schuyler was known for her precocious writing ability , and was often asked to recite her poems , which ranged from sentimental or humorous to sophisticated or satirical . She would often compose impromptu poems at the request of friends . Ann 's mother remarried in 1760 ; she and her new husband Anthony TenEyck ( 1712 – 1775 ) had one daughter , Susanna TenEyck ( 1776- ? ) . The TenEycks were also part of the Dutch elite , so Ann Schuyler 's childhood seemed to be filled with security , abundance and happiness .
= = Marriage to John James Bleecker = =
On March 29 , 1769 , Ann Schuyler married a lawyer from New Rochelle , John James Bleecker ( 1745 – 95 ) . The couple moved to Poughkeepsie shortly after their marriage . John gave up the practice of law and took up agriculture in 1771 , when they moved to his pastoral country estate in Tomhannock , eighteen miles ( 29 km ) north of Albany , in the Schaghticoke region which was settled by Dutch families . " The Bleecker home reflected their wealth by its furnishings and its setting . " " From the beautiful gardens flourishing with beauty , to the young orchard bounded by a thick forest ... to the west , vast cultivated fields and the roaring river of Tomhhanock . " Bleecker considered her home a " retreat " and most of her pastoral poetry was written in the first five years of her life in Tomhhanock . She corresponded with friends and relatives , writing about her isolation and the beauty of her surroundings . An example excerpt from her poem An Evening Prospect :
" Cast your eyes beyond this meadow ,
Painted by a hand divine ,
And observe the ample shadow
of that solemn ridge of pine . "
During this time she also had two daughters — Margaretta , born October 11 , 1771 , and Abeltje ( Abella ) , born June 5 , 1776 .
On November 11 , 1775 , her husband was one of several appointed Deputies ( or delegates ) from Albany County to the Provincial Congress . Her husband encouraged her writing , he called it " her genius " . In the winter of 1779 , Bleecker published a periodical called the " Albany Gazette " . The Gazette was composed entirely of her political essays , poems , and short stories , produced for the sole purpose of sharing entertainment and news with friends and relatives .
= = Impact of the American Revolution = =
In 1777 , the Bleeckers ' pastoral lives were interrupted by the American Revolutionary War . British troops , under the command of General John Burgoyne , invaded Tomhannock from Canada ( as part of Burgoyne 's Saratoga campaign to capture the Hudson River ) . In response , John Bleecker joined the New York Militia , and Ann Bleecker fled southward .
Ann Bleecker was forced to flee to Albany on foot with her two daughters , infant Abella and 6 @-@ year @-@ old Margaretta . Along the way , Abella died of dysentery . Joined by her mother and sister Caty Swits , Ann Bleecker continued on to Red Hook , but her mother died en route there . An excerpt of a poem she wrote , Written in the retreat from Burgoyne , describing how she felt about her daughters death :
At length her languid eyes clos 'd from the day ,
The idol of my soul was torn away ;
Her spirit fled and left me ghastly clay !
Then — then my soul rejected all relief ,
Comfort I wish 'd not for , I lov 'd my grief :
'Hear , my Abella ! ' cried I , ' hear me mourn , '
After Burgoyne 's surrender on October 17 , 1777 ( part of the aftermath of the Saratoga Campaign ) , Ann Bleecker , her daughter and sister ( all that remained of the family ) , and possibly a slave child returned to Tomhannock . Unfortunately , Caty Swits ( 1743 – 77 ) died during the return journey . Ann Bleecker was devastated by the loss of three generations of women in her family .
Her husband continued to serve in the militia . In 1779 , Ann Bleecker was forced ( it is unclear whether due to British troop activity , Native American activity , or some other reason ) to flee with her surviving daughter to Albany again . But further trauma was yet to come . On hearing in 1781 that her husband had been captured by Loyalist forces or possibly " a band of wandering British soldiers " , she suffered a miscarriage and nervous breakdown . Ann Bleecker never fully recovered from all these traumatic events . Her daughter , Margaretta Faugeres , later described how Bleecker developed a tendency toward depression and there was a melancholy reflection in her writings :
" … she was frequently very lively , and would then give way to the flights of her fertile fancy , and write songs , satires , and burlesque : but . . . the heaviest dejection would succeed , and then all the pieces which were not as melancholy as herself , she destroyed . "
Ann Eliza Bleecker died November 23 , 1783 . She is buried in the cemetery of the Reformed Dutch church in Albany ( though all bodies buried there were moved to Albany Rural Cemetery in the early twentieth @-@ century ) .
= = Literary impact = =
Bleecker did not write for posterity ; she wrote letters to her friends and relatives which contained poems and short stories , which were later collected and published by her daughter .
= = = Posthumous publication = = =
In 1793 , a significant part of Bleecker 's work , after first appearing in The New @-@ York Magazine in 1790 and 1791 , was published by her daughter , Margaretta V. Bleecker Faugères , who was also a poet . She edited her mother 's writings and added some of her own poems and essays to a collection entitled The Posthumous Works of Ann Eliza Bleecker ; she included thirty @-@ six poems , twenty @-@ three letters , an unfinished short historical novel , The History of Henry and Ann , and The History of Maria Kittle , a captivity narrative set during the French and Indian War . Due to its popularity , The History of Maria Kittle was republished separately in 1797 .
= = = Maria Kittle = = =
Bleecker 's epistolary novel The History of Maria Kittle took the Indian Captivity story genre in new directions , as it was possibly the first American fictional account focusing on Native Americans . In the late 18th century , Indian Captivity stories subsequently became very popular . Maria Kittle has many features typical of the Indian Captivity story ; there are many graphic scenes of violence , and it describes Native Americans as terrible savages who cruelly kill babies and women , and tells the story of Maria 's journey as a captive . But by the end of the story , Maria gets rescued , and the real emotion comes out as three women in the story tearfully recount their stories of maternal loss to others . This story has many similarities to Bleecker 's own experience with the death of her own daughter as a result of fleeing from the British Army . In telling her tale of loss , Bleecker hoped to help women overcome their tragedies . Yet these stories also helped foster racism toward Native Americans .
Bleecker 's writing was exciting for the time , and her sense of style added dimension to a new type of novel , the didactic novel . Her expression was influenced by the " eighteenth @-@ century British cult of sensibility " . She wrote in a mannered , and often exaggerated way , to express her moral lesson . In addition , she used the epistolic literary device , structuring the story as a series of letters to her half @-@ sister , Susan Ten Eyck , in which she interrupted the narrative to comment on the action and address Susan directly .
= = = Poems = = =
Ann Eliza Bleecker 's pastoral poems exemplified a new style of American poetry , and , due to her experience of the American Revolutionary tumult , a new sense of national identity . These poems , written in the pastoral tradition , conveyed both the beauty of the colonial New York countryside and the horrific impact of war , suffering , death , and destruction . Because Bleecker was writing from the interesting perspective of a terrified young mother , her articulate depictions of the Revolutionary War are still read by historians today .
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= True North ( Once Upon a Time ) =
" True North " is the ninth episode of the first season of the American fairy tale / drama television series Once Upon a Time . The series takes place in the fictional seaside town of Storybrooke , Maine , in which the residents are actually characters from various fairy tales that were transported to the " real world " town by a powerful curse . In the episode , Sheriff Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) helps two children ( Karley Scott Collins and Quinn Lord ) track down their father before they are placed in a foster care system , in a parallel with the story of Hansel and Gretel . Along the way , they encounter the Evil Queen ( Lana Parrilla ) , and the Blind Witch ( Emma Caulfield ) .
" True North " was co @-@ written by Liz Tigelaar and David H. Goodman , while being directed by Dean White . Co @-@ creators Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz chose the story of Hansel and Gretel to help reveal Emma 's difficult backstory , as the character lacked a fairytale counterpart . They cast Caulfield because they were fans of her work on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . The Blind Witch 's gingerbread house had a computer @-@ generated exterior , while its interior set was based on concept art designed by production designer Michael Joy .
The episode first aired in the United States on ABC on January 15 , 2012 . An estimated 9 @.@ 84 million viewers watched the episode on its original broadcast . It earned a Nielsen ratings share of 3 @.@ 3 / 8 among adults , meaning that it was seen by 3 @.@ 3 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . This was a decrease of 11 percent from the previous episode . Critical reception was largely mixed to negative , with critics praising Caulfield 's performance but critiquing other elements .
= = Plot = =
= = = Opening Sequence = = =
A gingerbread house is shown in the forest .
= = = In Storybrooke = = =
In a Storybrooke drugstore , Henry ( Jared S. Gilmore ) meets a young girl named Ava ( Karley Scott Collins ) . Henry is stopped by the store owner for shoplifting , which reveals Ava and her brother Nicholas ( Quinn Lord ) were using Henry to smuggle stolen merchandise . Regina ( Lana Parrilla ) and Sheriff Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) arrive to handle the juveniles . Emma discovers the siblings are living without parents and almost no food . In need of help , Emma resolves to find Ava and Nicholas 's father ( Nicholas Lea ) out of a desire to keep them out of the foster system she herself was raised in . Regina calls social services , but the system would have to place the kids in two different homes in Boston . Determined to keep her promise not to separate them , Emma asks them for something that had belonged to their father . Ava provides her with a compass .
Emma asks Mr. Gold ( Robert Carlyle ) about the compass and he searches his records . He finds a card that supposedly says Michael Tillman purchased the compass , and gives Emma this name . The card is revealed to be blank . Michael is the garage mechanic , and tells Emma he can barely handle the garage let alone twins . Emma has no choice but to take Ava and Nicholas to Boston on Regina 's orders , despite Henry 's warnings that no one can leave Storybrooke . That evening as the three are leaving , the vehicle breaks down as they reach the city limits , prompting Emma to call for help . Moments later , Ava notices her compass working . Michael arrives in his tow truck , and Emma explains that he at least has to see his children , as she could not leave Henry after seeing the life he had . Seeing Ava and Nicholas face to face changes his mind , and Michael accepts them into his life . Later , Emma shares Henry 's theory with Mary Margaret ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) , that she is Snow White 's daughter and Mary Margaret is Snow White . Mary finds this laughable , but seeing Emma 's blanket triggers some sort of reaction from her . After a minute , however , she is quick to dismiss it as nothing .
In the meantime , Henry asks Emma about his father . Emma tells Henry that his dad was a trainee fireman who used to frequent the diner where she worked . The two of them " hung out " a few times , resulting in Emma being pregnant with Henry before she went to jail . Once there , she tried to tell him about Henry , only to discover that he had died while saving a family from a burning building . However , she later admits to Mary the story she gave Henry was a lie and he should never know the truth about his father . After Emma 's reunion of the children with Michael that evening , Henry arrived with pumpkin pie to give Emma in order to thank her for explaining about his birth father . They are interrupted by a stranger ( Eion Bailey ) on a motorcycle with a unique box . Without giving his name , he asks Emma about finding a place to stay . After referring him to Granny 's Bed & Breakfast , she reminds Henry that he said no one else ever comes to or leaves Storybrooke and Henry replies that they don 't .
= = = In the Characters ' Past = = =
In the Enchanted Forest , Hansel ( Lord ) and Gretel ( Collins ) , are searching for kindling while their father ( Lea ) chops firewood . He gives Gretel a compass so they won 't be separated , but when they return , he is nowhere to be found . As they search they run into The Evil Queen ( Parrilla ) and are captured . She tells the two that she can help find their father , on the condition that they retrieve an item belonging to her from The Blind Witch ( Emma Caulfield ) . They must enter her gingerbread house when The Blind Witch is asleep and fetch The Evil Queen 's leather satchel , but they must not eat a thing . They break in safely , but Hansel gives in to the temptation of taking a bite of a cupcake , causing The Blind Witch to wake up . While she cannot see the children , she can smell their scent . The Blind Witch locks them up and prepares the oven to roast them . The two , working together , are able to push the witch into her own oven as The Evil Queen gleefully watches from her mirror .
When the two return to The Evil Queen 's palace , she opens the satchel to reveal a poisoned apple . The Evil Queen offers Hansel and Gretel a home at the palace , but they are adamant about returning to their father . She sends them back into the forest and summons her newest prisoner , Hansel and Gretel 's father . The Evil Queen asks why the children turned down the luxurious life of the palace and he answers that they are family , and family finds each other . Frustrated , she sends him away to see if they indeed find each other .
= = Production = =
" True North " was co @-@ written by co @-@ executive producers David H. Goodman and Liz Tigelaar , while being directed by The Shield veteran Dean White . In an interview with Comic Book Resources , co @-@ creator Edward Kitsis noted that it was difficult to pick iconic stories such as Cinderella and Hansel and Gretel because " the challenge becomes revealing a piece you never knew before or putting a fun twist on it . " According to actress Jennifer Morrison , they chose this particular story as a way to further reveal Emma 's history , as she lacked a fairytale counterpart . Morrison explained , " They ’ re using Hansel and Gretel as they did Cinderella to reveal some of Emma ’ s backstory . So what Emma goes through to try to help these children ends up becoming very personal for her , as her own life [ as a foster kid ] is in a sense revealed . "
For the Blind Witch , Kitsis and co @-@ creator Adam Horowitz cast actress Emma Caulfield , as they had been " huge fans " of hers since she had co @-@ starred on Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Kitsis commented , " We couldn ’ t think of anyone better to trap two children in a house and try to eat them . " Caulfield had previously worked with series writer Jane Espenson and producer Liz Tigelaar on Buffy and Life Unexpected . Morrison remarked that while viewers do not see the Blind Witch in Maine , " Everyone who is in fairytale land definitely has a Storybrooke counterpart . Whether or not we see them immediately doesn ’ t mean they don ’ t exist . "
The exterior of the gingerbread house was based on concept art created by production designer Michael Joy . While this ended up being computer @-@ generated , Joy and set decorator Mark Lane created a physical set for the interior using an " inside @-@ out cake " as inspiration . The two always enjoyed adding in small details for careful viewers to notice , so in " True North " they used the cookies Hansel and Gretel baked in Storybrooke as part of the house 's interior design . Joy explained , " We 're always trying to find ways to link the two worlds . The audience loves that kind of stuff . "
In October 2011 , TV Guide reported that Eion Bailey would be joining the series in a multi @-@ episode arc ; " True North " featured his first appearance as the Stranger . Other guest stars included Quinn Lord as Nicholas / Hansel , Karley Scott Collins as Ava / Gretel , Nicholas Lea as Michael Tillman / Woodcutter , Gabe Khouth as Mr. Clark / Sneezy , and David Bloom as Mr. " K " Krzyszkowski . Lord and Collins had previously guest starred in two Fringe episodes , as younger versions of Peter Bishop and Olivia Dunham . Collins appeared in " Subject 13 " alongside another actor who played Peter .
= = Cultural references = =
Besides the main storyline being a retelling of the Hansel and Gretel fairytale , the episode contained a number of other cultural references . A rack full of Marvel Comics , including Ultimate Wolverine vs. Hulk , are shown in the opening scene , a double reference to both Marvel 's parent company , Disney and the comic book 's writer , Damon Lindelof , co @-@ creator of Lost . An Apollo Bar was among the stolen items , and the Stranger 's motorcycle license plate reads 23 , both also references to Lost . Other comic books seen on the convenience store rack include various issues of Dazzler , Power Pack , West Coast Avengers , and Ka @-@ Zar .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" True North " first aired on January 15 , 2012 in the United States . It earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 3 / 8 among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , meaning that it was seen by 3 @.@ 3 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . It was viewed by an estimated 9 @.@ 84 million people , down 11 percent from the previous episode . Once Upon a Time finished fourth in its timeslot among total viewers and third among adults . It aired at the same time as the 69th Golden Globe Awards , which earned 16 @.@ 8 million viewers . In Canada , the episode finished in thirteenth place for the week with an estimated 1 @.@ 5 million viewers , an increase from the 1 @.@ 297 million of the previous episode .
= = = Reviews = = =
" True North " received mixed to negative reviews from television critics .
Entertainment Weekly writer Hilary Busis wished the episode " had done more to move the show 's master plot forward , especially since watching it meant missing the first hour of the Golden Globes . " Busis also wished that Caulfield had received more screen time , calling her performance " superbly creepy . " IGN columnist Amy Ratcliffe rated the episode 6 @.@ 5 / 10 , explaining that the tone was " over @-@ the @-@ top " and Emma 's actions to hide the children , rather than report them , " out of character . " Ratcliffe added on a more positive note that the Hansel and Gretel storyline was a " safe choice , but they made it work . " Cassandra Scrimgeour of The Huffington Post found " Parrilla 's emotional reaction to the children 's rejection [ to be ] so effective that despite her evil ways , I actually felt sorry for her . " Scrimgeour concluded that " the most intriguing thing to happen " in the episode was the arrival of the Stranger .
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club was more critical of the episode , and gave it a D. He called the visual effects " hilariously bad , " likening the CGI to " a ' 90s computer game . " Sava added , " As mediocre as the series has been , it was on a bit of an upswing with the last few episodes , but ' True North ' is a big step backwards ... The problem isn ’ t that these kids can ’ t act ( although that might be the problem ) , it ’ s that the writing for their characters is horrible ... This week ’ s episode is straight @-@ up children ’ s television , and not in the way that it can be enjoyed by all ages . You need to be a child to suspend your disbelief long enough to watch ' True North . ' " Despite the critique , Sava did enjoy Caulfield 's scenes , as well as Emma and Mary Margaret 's conversation concerning motherhood . Writing for The Wall Street Journal , Gwen Orel opined that the Hansel and Gretel " parallel is clear and rather sweet , with touches of the ongoing story of Emma and Snow White , too . " Orel felt the episode seemed " like a demented episode of Chopped , " and called the gingerbread house " just like it should [ be ] , colorful and candylike . "
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= Glik v. Cunniffe =
Glik v. Cunniffe , 655 F.3d 78 ( 1st Cir . 2011 ) is a case in which the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit held that a private citizen has the right to record video and audio of public officials in a public place , and that the arrest of the citizen for a wiretapping violation violated his First and Fourth Amendment rights . The case arose when Simon Glik , a private citizen , filmed Boston , Massachusetts , police officers making an arrest in a public park . When the officers observed that Glik was recording the arrest , they arrested him and he was subsequently charged with wiretapping , disturbing the peace , and aiding in the escape of a prisoner . Glik then sued the City of Boston and the arresting officers , claiming that they violated his constitutional rights .
In a unanimous decision , the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit held that the officers violated Glik 's constitutional rights and that the officers were not entitled to qualified immunity . The Court ruled that the right to film public officials in public places was " clearly established , " and that Glik 's actions did not violate state law . However , the court also ruled that the right to film public officials was subject to reasonable limitations with respect to the time , place and manner in which the recording was conducted . After losing the appeal , Boston reached a settlement with Glik in which they agreed to pay him $ 170 @,@ 000 in damages and attorney 's fees . This was the first case in which a United States Circuit Court of Appeals explicitly ruled that private citizens have a right to film police officers in public spaces . The case drew media attention across the United States , and was also cited favorably by other United States Circuit Courts of Appeals that reached similar conclusions in other cases .
= = Background = =
On October 1 , 2007 while walking in Boston Common , Simon Glik observed an arrest by Boston police officers John Cunniffe , Peter Savalis , and Jerome Hall @-@ Brewster . Glik began recording the arrest after he heard a bystander say " [ y ] ou are hurting him , stop " . Because Glik was concerned that the officers were using excessive force , he filmed the encounter with his cell phone . Although Glik was 10 feet away and was not interfering with the arrest , one of the officers turned to him after placing handcuffs on the suspect and said " I think you have taken enough pictures " . Glik replied that he was recording the incident ; he said , " I am recording this . I saw you punch him " . When the officer determined that this included audio , he placed Glik under arrest for violating the Massachusetts wiretapping law .
Glik was charged with wiretapping , disturbing the peace , and aiding in the escape of a prisoner . He was taken to the South Boston police station and his cell phone and a computer flash drive were held as evidence . The Commonwealth dropped the charge of aiding in escape prior to trial . The Boston Municipal Court dismissed the other two counts in February 2008 , noting that there was no probable cause for the wiretapping arrest and that the officers were unhappy about being recorded .
Glik then filed a complaint with the Internal Affairs section of the Boston Police Department . After the department failed to investigate the complaint , Glik , represented by the American Civil Liberties Union , along with attorneys David Milton and Howard Friedman , filed a civil rights lawsuit against the officers and the city , alleging violations of his First and Fourth Amendment rights . The officers moved for dismissal , based in part on qualified immunity . The United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts denied the motion , noting that " this First Amendment right publicly to record the activities of police officers on public business is established . "
The officers then made an interlocutory appeal of the denial to the First Circuit Court of Appeals .
= = Opinion of the court = =
In a unanimous decision written by Judge Kermit Lipez , the First Circuit Court of Appeals held that the officers violated Glik 's constitutional rights . The court noted the principle of qualified immunity balanced the need to hold public officials accountable with the need to shield such officials from harassment on account of their public duties . The court therefore applied a two @-@ part test : first , did the facts alleged by the plaintiff show a violation of a constitutional right , and second , was the right clearly established at the time of the violation .
The court first addressed the question of whether Glik 's First Amendment rights had been violated . It noted that " we have previously recognized that the videotaping of public officials is an exercise of First Amendment liberties " and held that Glik had a constitutional right to videotape a public official in a public place . The court noted that this was not limited to reporters and journalists , but a right of all citizens , subject to reasonable limitations of time , place and manner . The First Circuit concluded that in the current case , none of those limitations applied .
Second , the court looked at whether the right to videotape was clearly established at the time of the arrest . The court had " no trouble concluding that ' the state of the law at the time of the alleged violation gave the defendant [ s ] fair warning that [ their ] particular conduct was unconstitutional . ' " The court noted that some constitution violations are " self @-@ evident " and the right to film public officials in a public place was clearly established a decade prior to Glik 's arrest .
Next , the court determined if Glik 's Fourth Amendment rights had been violated . The court noted that an arrest must be based upon probable cause . Glik argued that the officers lacked probable cause when they made the arrest , while the officers argued that the allegations in the complaint established that they had probable cause to arrest Glik for violating the wiretap statute . The court looked to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court for the determination of state law . The Massachusetts court required that the recording be made secretly to be a violation , and that when a camera was in plain sight , a recording from that camera cannot be considered " secret " under state law . In Glik 's case , the criminal complaint stated that he had " openly record [ ed ] the police officers " , the recording was not made in secret , and that therefore the officers had no probable cause to arrest Glik . Since there was no probable cause , Glik 's Fourth Amendment rights were violated .
Finally , the court determined that the absence of probable cause as a constitutional violation was clearly established in law . The court therefore held that the district court 's denial of the officers of qualified immunity was proper , affirming the decision .
= = Subsequent developments = =
Despite his victory in court , the case had negative repercussions for Glik , an attorney , who had difficulty obtaining employment as a prosecutor while criminal charges were pending against him . He is now a criminal defense lawyer . After losing the appeal , Boston settled the lawsuit for $ 170 @,@ 000 , paying Glik for damages and legal fees . Additionally , the city reversed its earlier opinion that the officers had done nothing wrong , stating that the officers had shown " unreasonable judgement " by arresting Glik . In 2012 , a Boston Police Department spokesperson stated that the officers involved in the case stood to face " discipline ranging from an oral reprimand to suspension " . The Boston Police Department now trains its officers not to arrest people for openly recording them in public .
= = Similar cases in other courts of appeals = =
Some scholars have identified Glik as the first case in which a United States Circuit Court of Appeals explicitly held that a citizen had the same rights as a journalist to record public officials in a public place , while other scholars have identified earlier rulings by circuit courts that have upheld a right of " publicly gathering information " while filming the police . Nevertheless , scholars generally consider Glik to be the first case to " to tackle the issue of police recording in the smartphone era " . Following the First Circuit 's ruling , the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals granted an injunction prohibiting the State of Illinois from enforcing its wiretapping law against citizens openly recording public officials in public places . Citing Glik , the Seventh Circuit stated that " applying the statute in the circumstances alleged here is likely unconstitutional . "
In addition to the First and the Seventh Circuits , both the Ninth and Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals have held that the public has a First Amendment right to record public officials . In 2000 , in Smith v. City of Cumming , the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit held that the First Amendment protects the right of citizens to film the police . Likewise , in 1995 , in Fordyce v. City of Seattle , the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held that a private citizen could film police conduct at a protest because the First Amendment protects the " right to film matters of public interest " . However , both the Third Circuit in Kelly v. Borough of Carlisle ( 2010 ) and the Fourth Circuit in Szymecki v. Houck ( 2009 ) have held that even if the constitution protects the right to film the police , such a right was " not clearly established for the purposes of qualified immunity in those cases ’ factual contexts " . Some scholars suggest these various rulings present the potential for a circuit split in cases that involve the filming of police conduct , while others have described the different rulings among circuit courts as " an artificial split — not on the merits of the First Amendment right violated , but on technical qualified immunity ground " .
= = = District court opinions = = =
In February 2016 , the Judge Mark A. Kearney of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania ruled in Fields v. City of Philadelphia that " observing and recording " police is not expressive conduct under the First Amendment and is therefore not protected by the constitution . Commentators have noted that this opinion " breaks with consensus among federal courts " , and that the case marked " the first time a federal court has not found that recording cops while on duty and in a public setting is protected by the First Amendment " . Eugene Volokh also stated that the case is inconsistent with precedent from other federal circuit courts . Following the publication of the court 's opinion , the American Civil Liberties Union announced that it would appeal the case to the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit .
= = Commentary and analysis = =
The case drew national media attention , prompting editorials from the Los Angeles Times and The New York Times , among others . The case has also drawn notice in the legal community , with articles in the American Bar Association Journal and the Volokh Conspiracy . In addition , the United States Department of Justice cited the Glik case extensively in a letter to the Baltimore Police Department expressing concerns over policies dealing with officer interactions with citizen photographers and videographers . Commentary from law journals also discussed the lasting impact of the case . In an article for the Case Western Reserve Law Review , Gregory T. Frohman wrote that the court 's ruling " seemingly laid down a nearly unfettered right for nonthreatening third @-@ party recorders in public places " . In an article for the Northern Illinois University Law Review , Jesse Harlan Alderman wrote that " [ t ] hough Glik and Alvarez hold sway only within their respective jurisdictions , it seems likely that the right to record public police activity will be treated as universal " . Matt Giffin , writing for the Harvard Civil Rights @-@ Civil Liberties Law Review , observed that the case " could play a significant role in solidifying the emerging consensus that citizens have a constitutional interest in monitoring the activities of police officers " . Likewise , in an article for the Cardozo Law Review , Travis S. Triano noted that the Court 's ruling emphasized that " Glik ’ s filming was found to fall well within the bounds of constitutional protections " .
However , other analysts have questioned whether the First Circuit 's ruling would , in fact , have a widespread impact in the future . For example , an article in the Harvard Law Review noted that the First Circuit 's ruling in Glik was evidence of the court 's willingness to protect a " vital First Amendment right " , but that " the proliferation of body cameras may make civilians feel as if they no longer need to record officers in the field " . Writing for the Florida Law Review , Caycee Hampton criticized the First Circuit for providing " no guidance for determining what situations constitute a ' public space ' in which a citizen ’ s right to film government officials is safeguarded by the First Amendment " , and absent such guidance , " citizens who choose to record law enforcement officials risk inviting the same Fourth Amendment violation confirmed in Glik " . Additionally , in an article in the St. Louis University Law Journal , Justin Welply argued that the right to film the police is not absolute , and that " an individual has a First Amendment right to openly record police conduct in a public park , but does not have an established First Amendment right to openly record officers in the discharge of their duties during a traffic stop " because filming the police during a traffic stop may interfere with their ability to work effectively .
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= Australian Voluntary Hospital =
The Australian Voluntary Hospital was a military hospital staffed by Australian expatriates in England that served on the Western Front between 1914 and 1916 . For much of this time it was the only Australian presence on the Western Front .
= = Origin = =
When the First World War broke out in August 1914 , Lady ( Rachel ) Dudley , the wife of the former Governor @-@ General of Australia , the Lord Dudley , decided to create a hospital from Australian doctors and nurses who were in the United Kingdom . There were relatively large numbers of these ; while doctors and nurses could be trained in Australia , advanced qualifications still required a trip overseas .
Lady Dudley discussed her proposal with King George V , and then with the Secretary of State for War , Lord Kitchener , and the British Army 's Director General Army Medical Services , Sir Arthur Sloggett , who authorised the hospital . The hospital was formally offered to the British government by the Australian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom , Sir George Reid on 15 August 1914 . Volunteers responded to advertisements that Lady Dudley placed in English newspapers on 17 August 1914 . Women doctors were not accepted , but women nurses were welcomed .
The Australian Voluntary Hospital was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel William L 'Estrange Eames CB VD , an officer in the Australian Army Medical Corps who had served in the South African War , and was holidaying in England with his family at the time . He was unable to join the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , which was not accepting enlistments outside Australia . He was granted the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel in the Royal Army Medical Corps . Ida Greaves RRC , from Royal Newcastle Hospital was appointed matron . The hospital soon reached a strength of 120 staff , of whom 36 were nurses .
= = Operations = =
The Australian Voluntary Hospital assembled its personnel and equipment at a camp established on the grounds of the Ranelagh Club , which had been loaned for the purpose . It departed for France on 29 August 1914 on Lord Dunraven 's yacht " Greta " , which had been accepted by the Admiralty as a transport for medical units , and moved to Le Havre . Owing to the German advance , the hospital was evacuated to St Nazaire on 2 September , and reopened there 5 September . The 100 @-@ bed hospital was set up in a park under canvas , with a school and house close by rented for various facilities . It began receiving casualties from the Retreat from Mons the next day .
On 26 October 1914 , the Australian Voluntary Hospital moved to Wimereux , where it established a 200 @-@ bed hospital . The hospital was well equipped , with motor ambulances donated by organisations in Australia , a pathology laboratory and the only X @-@ ray unit in the area . A day after it opened on 29 October , it began receiving patients from the First Battle of Ypres . Much of the unit 's tents which accommodated the male personnel of the hospital were lost in a blizzard on 11 November 1914 , and the men moved to the Golf club house of the Hôtel du Golf et Cosmopolite in Wimereux , which was eventually leased by the hospital , and became its officers ' mess .
For a time , the Australian Voluntary Hospital was the only Australian presence on the Western Front , but in April 1916 , Australian Army units began arriving from the Middle East in large numbers . The Australian Voluntary Hospital 's site in Wimereux was taken over by No. 3 Australian General Hospital , AIF in June 1916 . The Australian Voluntary Hospital was then absorbed into the British Army as No. 32 Stationary Hospital , with Eames remaining in command . By 1 May 1919 , the hospital had treated 73 @,@ 868 patients .
= = Gallery = =
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= Clifford Scott Green =
Clifford Scott Green ( April 2 , 1923 – May 31 , 2007 ) was a judge on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania . Green was the eighteenth African @-@ American Article III judge appointed in the United States , and the second African @-@ American judge on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania .
During his 36 years on the federal bench Judge Green presided over a number of notable cases , and was regarded as one of the most popular judges in the district .
= = Personal life = =
Judge Green was born on April 2 , 1923 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . His father , Robert Lewis Green , had come to the United States from St. Thomas island in the U.S. Virgin Islands . Green attended West Philadelphia High School , graduating in 1941 . He initially had " no thought of going to college , " intending instead to go immediately to work . From 1941 to 1942 he worked in a Philadelphia restaurant and at a drug manufacturing company . In 1942 he took a job with the United States Army Signal Corps .
In 1943 Judge Green enlisted in the United States Army Air Corps , the predecessor to the United States Air Force . At the time , the armed forces were still segregated . Green was initially " optimistic that the military was going to be a good life , " until his unit was shipped from Fort Lee , Virginia to Keesler Field ( now Keesler Air Force Base ) , in Mississippi . When the unit arrived at Keesler they were driven past the barracks to what Green would later describe as " a tent city . " It was then that Green " realized for real that I was really in a segregated army , and there was always , as long as I was in the service , two standards , one quite unacceptable and the other as acceptable as could be considering the fact that the country was at war . "
Green served from 1943 to 1946 , rising to the rank of Sergeant . He returned to Philadelphia in March 1946 , intending to use the benefits of the G.I. Bill to attend Drexel University . He planned to major in electrical engineering , which was the field he had worked in during his time in the Army . Drexel did not have classes starting until September , so Green began to look to work . While seeking employment at Temple University Green learned that Temple had classes beginning in two weeks , so he decided to enroll there .
Green entered the School of Business as an economics major , and planned to become a certified public accountant , until an adviser told him that there were no jobs available for African @-@ American accountants in Philadelphia . Green decided to pursue a career in law , something his father had dreamed of doing himself .
Green received a B.S. in economics in 1948 , finishing his undergraduate degree in just over two years and graduating with honors . He enrolled at Temple Law School as one of ten black students , of whom two would ultimately graduate ( the other graduate , Larry Perkins , would also go on to become a judge ) . While in law school Green was a member of the moot court team and the law review . He competed on a moot court team which won the Philadelphia regional of the American Bar Association competition . At the national competition , Green 's team faced the Yale moot court team , which included his future law partner and judicial colleague A. Leon Higginbotham , Jr .. In 1951 Green received his LL.B. with honors , graduating in the top three of his class . He was also awarded graduation prizes for receiving the highest grades in constitutional law and conflicts of law .
= = Legal career = =
Green passed the Pennsylvania bar exam in 1951 , achieving the highest score in the state . Green 's early mentors included Robert N.C. Nix , Sr. , who lived across the street from Green 's family . In January 1952 , after being admitted to the bar , Green took over the practice of Thomas Reed , a black Philadelphia lawyer who was joining the Philadelphia District Attorney 's Office under Richardson Dilworth ( Green had also interviewed at the DA 's office , but decided that he " couldn 't fit in as a prosecutor " ) .
Green worked as a solo practitioner until March 1952 , when he entered into a partnership with Harvey Schmidt . The firm was known as Schmidt and Green until 1954 , when Doris M. Harris and A. Leon Higginbotham joined as partners . In 1955 J. Austin Norris , a prominent African @-@ American political figure , joined the firm , which was then known as Norris , Schmidt , Green , Harris , & Higginbotham . The firm was the first African @-@ American law firm in Philadelphia . The firm , which never numbered more than a dozen lawyers at a given time , produced four federal judges ; Higginbotham , Green , and Herbert Hutton all served on the District Court ( Higginbotham was later elevated to the Third Circuit ) , and William Hall was the first African American appointed as a federal magistrate judge . In addition , two members of the firm , Dorris Harris and Harvey Schmidt , were elected judges of the Philadelphia Court of Common Pleas , and William Brown was appointed by President Nixon to be chair of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission .
Green 's practice while at the firm was diverse . Initially , the firm 's practice was primarily criminal defense . As new partners were added , the firm expanded to include civil work , which eventually became the overwhelming majority of the work . Green eventually developed a specialized practice representing churches , including the National Baptist Convention , the African Methodist Episcopal Church , the Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith , and Father Divine . Additionally , Green represented parties both before and after the Supreme Court 's decision in Brown v. Board of Education in an attempt to integrate both the student and teacher populations in area school districts . He remained with the firm until his appointment to the bench .
Green first entered public service as a special deputy commonwealth attorney general from 1954 to 1955 . He was assigned as counsel for the Director of the Bureau of Workman 's Compensation . In addition to representing the Director , Green was also responsible for approving all claims for compensation under the occupational disease statute whenever the Commonwealth was involved . In 1954 Green unsuccessfully ran for the Republican nomination for Philadelphia City Council .
= = Judicial career = =
Green was initially hesitant about seeking a position on the bench because he enjoyed the practice of law . Nevertheless , he began to seek an appointment to the state court in the late 1950s .
Green was a lifelong member of the Republican party , serving as a ward leader from the 1952 to 1964 . Green 's first attempt to gain a seat on the bench was in 1959 , when he was unanimously endorsed by the Republican party for a seat on the Municipal Court , but lost in the general election .
In 1962 Green joined with a group of Republican ward leaders who broke off from the main party , which was led by Sheriff Austin Meehan , to support Governor William Scranton . All of the other ward leaders were voted out of office , and although Green retained his position Sheriff Meehan told him that he would no longer support his appointment to the bench .
Green , however , had the support of Bernard G. Segal , who was then Chancellor of the Philadelphia Bar Association , his former law partner Austin Norris , and the Chancellor of Temple University Robert Johnson . Segal was appointed by Governor Scranton to head a merit commission to select nominees for the state court positions . In addition , Green was endorsed by newspapers across the state .
Scranton ultimately did appoint Green as a judge on the Court of Common Pleas of Philadelphia in 1964 . He was elected to a full term in the next general election . Green served primarily as a juvenile court judge while in state court .
In 1971 a vacancy was created on the District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania when Judge Harold K. Wood assumed senior status . Senator Hugh Scott supported Green to fill the position . Green also had the support of Billy Meehan , the son of Sheriff Austin Meehan , and at the time the head of the Philadelphia Republican Committee . President Nixon nominated Green on December 1 , 1971 , and he was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 4 , receiving his commission on December 9 . In 1984 Green declined a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit , citing " the joy his district court job provided him and [ the ] numerous friendships he enjoyed there . " He assumed senior status on April 2 , 1988 , and continued serving in that capacity until his death .
Throughout his time on the bench , Green remained a popular judge ; a 1994 survey of Philadelphia lawyers concluded " Green is the most well @-@ liked judge on the bench , and attorneys could not praise him enough for his wonderful demeanor . "
= = = Notable cases = = =
Judge Green presided over a number of notable cases during his 35 @-@ year tenure on the Eastern District . In Bolden v. Pennsylvania State Police Judge Green ordered the Pennsylvania State Police to reinstate William Bolden , a minority trooper who had been dismissed . The case , which began in 1973 , resulted in a consent decree that required the State Police to hire one minority for every non @-@ minority hired , and set additional goals for promotion and retention of minority troopers . Judge Green presided over the consent decree for 25 years , dissolving it in 1999 . The case was credited with helping to abolish racism in the hiring of troopers , and integrate the State Police .
In 1981 Judge Green threw out the fraud conviction of Pennsylvania State Senator Vincent Fumo , concluding that the government had failed to prove that Fumo and two others were involved in a single scheme to pad state payrolls with ghost workers as alleged in their indictment . The decision was upheld on appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit .
= = Awards and honors = =
Judge Green was the first recipient of the NAACP 's William H. Hastie award in 1985 . He was awarded the Spirit of Excellence award by the American Bar Association in 2002 . The Philadelphia chapter of the Judicial Council of the National Bar Association is named in Judge Green 's honor . The Criminal Law Committee of the Federal Bar Association 's Philadelphia Chapter gives a Clifford Scott Green Bill of Rights Award at its biennial dinner event . Judge Green was a lifetime trustee of Temple University , and a former member of the Board of Trustees of Philadelphia State Hospital , and Children 's Hospital of Philadelphia .
= = Death = =
Judge Green suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and died of pneumonia in Philadelphia on May 31 , 2007 . He was survived by his wife and daughter .
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= Mongolian language =
The Mongolian language ( in Mongolian script : , Mongɣol kele ; in Mongolian Cyrillic : Монгол хэл , Mongol khel ) is the official language of Mongolia and largest @-@ known member of the Mongolic language family . The number of speakers across all its dialects may be 10 million , including the vast majority of the residents of Mongolia and many of the Mongolian residents of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region . In Mongolia , the Khalkha dialect , written in Cyrillic ( and at times in Latin for social networking ) , is predominant , while in Inner Mongolia , the language is dialectally more diverse and is written in the traditional Mongolian script . In the discussion of grammar to follow , the variety of Mongolian treated is Standard Khalkha Mongolian ( i.e. , the standard written language as formalized in the writing conventions and in the school grammar ) , but much of what is to be said is also valid for vernacular ( spoken ) Khalkha and other Mongolian dialects , especially Chakhar .
Some classify several other Mongolic languages like Buryat and Oirat as dialects of Mongolian , but this classification is not in line with the current international standard .
Mongolian has vowel harmony and a complex syllabic structure for a Mongolic language that allows clusters of up to three consonants syllable @-@ finally . It is a typical agglutinative language that relies on suffix chains in the verbal and nominal domains . While there is a basic word order , subject – object – predicate , ordering among noun phrases is relatively free , so grammatical roles are indicated by a system of about eight grammatical cases . There are five voices . Verbs are marked for voice , aspect , tense , and epistemic modality / evidentiality . In sentence linking , a special role is played by converbs .
Modern Mongolian evolved from Middle Mongol , the language spoken in the Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries . In the transition , a major shift in the vowel harmony paradigm occurred , long vowels developed , the case system was slightly reformed , and the verbal system was restructured . Mongolian is distantly related to the Khitan language . It belongs to the Northern Asian linguistic area including the Turkic , Mongolic , Tungusic , Korean and Japonic languages . These languages have been grouped under the still @-@ debated Altaic language family and contrasted with the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area . Mongolian literature is well attested in written form from the 13th century but has earlier Mongolic precursors in the literature of the Khitan and other Xianbei peoples .
= = Geographic distribution = =
Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia , where it is spoken by nearly 2 @.@ 8 million people ( 2010 estimate ) , and the official provincial language of China 's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region , where there are at least 4 @.@ 1 million ethnic Mongols . Across the whole of China , the language is spoken by roughly half of the country 's 5 @.@ 8 million ethnic Mongols ( 2005 estimate ) However , the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown , as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country 's citizens . The use of Mongolian in China , specifically in Inner Mongolia , has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years . The language experienced a decline during the late Qing period , a revival between 1947 and 1965 , a second decline between 1966 and 1976 , a second revival between 1977 and 1992 , and a third decline between 1995 and 2012 . However , in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia 's urban areas and educational spheres , the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese @-@ speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to the presence of urban ethnic communities . The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language . Although an unknown number of Mongols in China , such as the Tumets , may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language , they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols . The children of inter @-@ ethnic Mongol @-@ Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols .
= = Classification and dialects = =
Mongolian belongs to the Mongolic languages . The delimitation of the Mongolian language within Mongolic is a much disputed theoretical problem , one whose resolution is impeded by the fact that existing data for the major varieties is not easily arrangeable according to a common set of linguistic criteria . Such data might account for the historical development of the Mongolian dialect continuum , as well as for its sociolinguistic qualities . Though phonological and lexical studies are comparatively well developed , the basis has yet to be laid for a comparative morphosyntactic study , for example between such highly diverse varieties as Khalkha and Khorchin .
The status of certain varieties in the Mongolic group — whether they are languages distinct from Mongolian or just dialects of it — is disputed . There are at least three such varieties : Oirat ( including the Kalmyk variety ) and Buryat , both of which are spoken in Russia , Mongolia , and China ; and Ordos , spoken around Inner Mongolia 's Ordos City .
There is no disagreement that the Khalkha dialect of the Mongolian state is Mongolian . Beyond this one point , however , agreement ends . For example , the influential classification of Sanžeev ( 1953 ) proposed a " Mongolian language " consisting of just the three dialects Khalkha , Chakhar , and Ordos , with Buryat and Oirat judged to be independent languages . On the other hand , Luvsanvandan ( 1959 ) proposed a much broader " Mongolian language " consisting of a Central dialect ( Khalkha , Chakhar , Ordos ) , an Eastern dialect ( Kharchin , Khorchin ) , a Western dialect ( Oirat , Kalmyk ) , and a Northern dialect ( consisting of two Buryat varieties ) . Some Western scholars propose that the relatively well researched Ordos variety is an independent language due to its conservative syllable structure and phoneme inventory . While the placement of a variety like Alasha , which is under the cultural influence of Inner Mongolia but historically tied to Oirat , and of other border varieties like Darkhad would very likely remain problematic in any classification , the central problem remains the question of how to classify Chakhar , Khalkha , and Khorchin in relation to each other and in relation to Buryat and Oirat . The split of [ tʃ ] into [ tʃ ] before * i and [ ts ] before all other reconstructed vowels , which is found in Mongolia but not in Inner Mongolia , is often cited as a fundamental distinction , for example Proto @-@ Mongolic * tʃil , Khalkha / tʃiɮ / , Chakhar / tʃil / ' year ' versus Proto @-@ Mongolic * tʃøhelen , Khalkha / tsooɮəŋ / , Chakhar / tʃooləŋ / ' few ' . On the other hand , the split between the past tense verbal suffixes -sŋ in the Central varieties vs. -dʒɛː in the Eastern varieties is usually seen as a merely stochastic difference .
In Inner Mongolia , official language policy divides the Mongolian language into three dialects : Southern Mongolian , Oirat , and Barghu @-@ Buryat . Southern Mongolian is said to consist of Chakhar , Ordos , Baarin , Khorchin , Kharchin , and Alasha . The authorities have synthesized a literary standard for Mongolian in whose grammar is said to be based on Southern Mongolian and whose pronunciation is based on the Chakhar dialect as spoken in the Plain Blue Banner . Dialectologically , however , western Southern Mongolian dialects are closer to Khalkha than they are to eastern Southern Mongolian dialects : for example , Chakhar is closer to Khalkha than to Khorchin .
Besides Mongolian , or " Central Mongolic " , other languages in the Mongolic grouping include Dagur , spoken in eastern Inner Mongolia , Heilongjiang , and in the vicinity of Tacheng in Xinjiang ; the Shirongolic subgroup Shira Yugur , Bonan , Dongxiang , Monguor , and Kangjia , spoken Qinghai and Gansu regions ; and the possibly extinct Moghol of Afghanistan .
As for the classification of the Mongolic family relative to other languages , the Altaic theory ( which is increasingly less well received among linguists ) proposes that the Mongolic family is a member of a larger Altaic family that would also include the Turkic and Tungusic , and usually Koreanic languages and Japonic languages as well .
= = Grammar = =
The following description is based primarily on Khalkha Mongolian . In particular , the phonology section describes the Khalkha dialect as spoken in Ulaanbaatar , Mongolia 's capital . The phonologies of other varieties such as Ordos , Khorchin , and even Chakhar , differ considerably . In contrast , most of what is said about morphology and syntax also holds true for Chakhar , while Khorchin is somewhat more diverse .
= = = Phonology = = =
This section discusses the phonology of Khalkha Mongolian with subsections on Vowels , Consonants , Phonotactics and Stress .
= = = = Vowels = = = =
The standard language has seven monophthong vowel phonemes . They are aligned into three vowel harmony groups by a parameter called ATR ( advanced tongue root ) ; the groups are − ATR , + ATR , and neutral . This alignment seems to have superseded an alignment according to oral backness . However , some scholars still describe Mongolian as being characterized by a distinction between front vowels and back vowels , and the front vowel spellings ' ö ' and ' ü ' are still often used in the West to indicate two vowels which were historically front . The Mongolian vowel system also has rounding harmony .
Length is phonemic for vowels , and each of the seven phonemes occurs short or long . Phonetically , short / o / is highly divergent from long / o / , being the central vowel [ ɵ ] .
In the following table , the seven vowel phonemes , with their length variants , are arranged and described phonetically .
Khalkha also has four diphthongs : / ui , ʊi , ɔi , ai / .
ATR harmony . Mongolian divides vowels into three groups in a system of vowel harmony :
As mentioned , for historical reasons these have traditionally been labeled as " front " vowels and " back " vowels . Indeed , in Romanized transcription of Mongolian , the vowels / o / and / u / are often conventionally rendered as 〈 ö 〉 and 〈 ü 〉 , while the vowels / ɔ / and / ʊ / are expressed as 〈 o 〉 and 〈 u 〉 ( this is also the case in the nonphonological sections of this article ) . However , for modern Mongolian phonology , it seems more appropriate to instead characterize the two vowel @-@ harmony groups by the dimension of tongue root position . There is also one neutral vowel , / i / , not belonging to either group .
All the vowels in a noncompound word , including all its suffixes , must belong to the same group . If the first vowel is − ATR , then every vowel of the word must be either / i / or a − ATR vowel . Likewise , if the first vowel is a + ATR vowel , then every vowel of the word must be either / i / or a + ATR vowel . In the case of suffixes , which must change their vowels to conform to different words , two patterns predominate . Some suffixes contain an archiphoneme / A / that can be realized as / a , ɔ , e , o / . For example :
orx household + -Ar ( instrumental ) → orxor by a household
xarʊɮ sentry + -Ar ( instrumental ) → xarʊɮar by a sentry
Other suffixes can occur in / U / being realized as / ʊ , u / , in which case all − ATR vowels lead to / ʊ / and all + ATR vowels lead to / u / . For example :
aw to take + -Uɮ ( causative ) → awʊɮ
If the only vowel in the word stem is / i / , the suffixes will use the + ATR suffix forms .
Rounding harmony . Mongolian also has rounding harmony , which does not apply to close vowels . If a stem contains / o / ( or / ɔ / ) , a suffix that is specified for an open vowel will have [ o ] ( or [ ɔ ] , respectively ) as well . However , this process is blocked by the presence of / u / ( or / ʊ / ) and / ei / . E.g. ɔr @-@ ɮɔ came in , but ɔr @-@ ʊɮ @-@ ɮa inserted .
Vowel length . The pronunciation of long and short vowels depends on the syllable 's position in the word . In word @-@ initial syllables there is a phonemic contrast in length . A long vowel has about 208 % the length of a short vowel . In word @-@ medial and word @-@ final syllables , formerly long vowels are now only 127 % as long as short vowels in initial syllables , but they are still distinct from initial @-@ syllable short vowels . Short vowels in noninitial syllables differ from short vowels in initial syllables by being only 71 % as long and by being centralized in articulation . As they are nonphonemic , their position is determined according to phonotactic requirements .
= = = = Consonants = = = =
The following table lists the consonants of Khalkha Mongolian . The consonants enclosed in parentheses occur only in loanwords .
Mongolian lacks the voiced lateral approximant , [ l ] ; instead , it has a voiced alveolar lateral fricative , / ɮ / , which is often realized as voiceless [ ɬ ] . In word @-@ final position , / n / ( if not followed by a vowel in historical forms ) is realized as [ ŋ ] . The occurrence of palatalized consonant phonemes seems to be restricted to words that contain [ − ATR ] vowels . Aspirated consonants are preaspirated in medial and word @-@ final contexts , devoicing preceding consonants and vowels . Devoiced short vowels are often deleted .
= = = = Syllable structure and phonotactics = = = =
The maximal syllable is CVVCCC , where the last C is a word @-@ final suffix . A single short vowel rarely appears in syllable @-@ final position . If a word was monosyllabic historically , * CV has become CVV . [ ŋ ] is restricted to codas ( else it becomes [ n ] ) , and / p / and / pʲ / do not occur in codas for historical reasons . For two @-@ consonant clusters , the following restrictions obtain :
a palatalized consonant can be preceded only by another palatalized consonant or sometimes by / ɢ / and / ʃ /
/ ŋ / may precede only / ʃ , x , ɡ , ɡʲ / and / ɢ /
/ j / does not seem to appear in second position
/ p / and / pʲ / do not occur as first consonant and as second consonant only if preceded by / m / or / ɮ / or their palatalized counterparts .
Clusters that do not conform to these restrictions will be broken up by an epenthetic nonphonemic vowel in a syllabification that takes place from right to left . For example , hojor ' two ' , ažil ' work ' , and saarmag ' neutral ' are , phonemically , / xɔjr / , / atʃɮ / , and / saːrmɡ / respectively . In such cases , an epenthetic vowel is inserted so as to prevent disallowed consonant clusters . Thus , in the examples given above , the words are phonetically [ xɔjɔ ̆ r ] , [ atʃĭɮ ] , and [ saːrmăɢ ] . The phonetic form of the epenthetic vowel follows from vowel harmony triggered by the vowel in the preceding syllable . Usually it is a centralized version of the same sound , with the following exceptions : preceding / u / produces [ e ] ; / i / will be ignored if there is a nonneutral vowel earlier in the word ; and a postalveolar or palatalized consonant will be followed by an epenthetic [ i ] , as in [ atʃĭɮ ] .
= = = = Stress = = = =
Stress in Mongolian is nonphonemic ( does not distinguish different meanings ) and thus is considered to depend entirely on syllable structure . But scholarly opinions on stress placement diverge sharply . Most native linguists , regardless of which dialect they speak , claim that stress falls on the first syllable . Between 1941 and 1975 , several Western scholars proposed that the leftmost heavy syllable gets the stress . Yet other positions were taken in works published between 1835 and 1915 .
Walker ( 1997 ) proposes that stress falls on the rightmost heavy syllable unless this syllable is word @-@ final :
A " heavy syllable " is here defined as one that is at least the length of a full vowel ; short word @-@ initial syllables are thereby excluded . If a word is bisyllabic and the only heavy syllable is word @-@ final , it gets stressed anyway . In cases where there is only one phonemic short word @-@ initial syllable , even this syllable can get the stress :
More recently , the most extensive collection of phonetic data so far in Mongolian studies has been applied to a partial account of stress placement in the closely related Chakhar dialect . The conclusion is drawn that di- and trisyllabic words with a short first syllable are stressed on the second syllable . But if their first syllable is long , then the data for different acoustic parameters seems to support conflicting conclusions : intensity data often seems to indicate that the first syllable is stressed , while F0 seems to indicate that it is the second syllable that is stressed .
= = = Morphology = = =
Modern Mongolian is an agglutinative , almost exclusively suffixing language , the only exception being reduplication . Most of the suffixes consist of a single morpheme . There are many derivational morphemes . For example , the word bajguullagynh consists of the root baj- ' to be ' , an epenthetic -g- , the causative -uul- ( hence ' to found ' ) , the derivative suffix -laga that forms nouns created by the action ( like -ation in ' organisation ' ) and the complex suffix – ynh denoting something that belongs to the modified word ( -yn would be genitive ) .
Nominal compounds are quite frequent . Some derivational verbal suffixes are rather productive , e.g. jar ' - ' to speak ' , jarilts- ' to speak with each other ' . Formally , the independent words derived using verbal suffixes can roughly be divided into three classes : final verbs , which can only be used sentence @-@ finally , i.e. -na ( mainly future or generic statements ) or – ø ( second person imperative ) ; participles ( often called " verbal nouns " ) , which can be used clause @-@ finally or attributively , i.e. -san ( perfect @-@ past ) or -maar ( ' want to ' ) ; and converbs , which can link clauses or function adverbially , i.e. -ž ( qualifies for any adverbial function or neutrally connects two sentences ) or -tal ( the action of the main clause takes place until the action expressed by the suffixed verb begins ) .
Roughly speaking , Mongolian has eight cases : nominative ( unmarked ) , genitive , dative , accusative , ablative , instrumental , comitative and directional . If a direct object is definite , it must take the accusative , while it must take the nominative if it is unspecific . In addition to case , a number of postpositions exist that usually govern genitive , ablative , or comitative case or a form of the nominative that has sometimes -Vn either for lexical historical reasons or analogy ( thus maybe becoming an attributive case suffix ) . Nouns can take reflexive @-@ possessive clitics indicating that the marked noun is possessed by the subject of the sentence : bi najz ( - ) aa avarsan I friend @-@ reflexive @-@ possessive save @-@ perfect ' I saved my friend ' . However , there are also somewhat noun @-@ like adjectives to which case suffixes seemingly cannot be attached directly unless there is ellipsis . Plurality may be left unmarked , but there are overt plurality markers , some of which are restricted to humans . A noun that is modified by a numeral usually does not take any plural affix .
Personal pronouns exist for the first and second person , while the old demonstrative pronouns have come to form third person ( proximal and distal ) pronouns . Other word ( sub- ) classes include interrogative pronouns , conjunctions ( which take participles ) , spatials , and particles , the last being rather numerous .
Negation is mostly expressed by -güj after participles and by the negation particle biš after nouns and adjectives ; negation particles preceding the verb ( for example in converbal constructions ) exist , but tend to be replaced by analytical constructions .
= = = Syntax = = =
= = = = Phrase structure = = = =
The noun phrase has the order : demonstrative pronoun / numeral , adjective , noun . Attributive sentences precede the whole NP . Titles or occupations of people , low numerals indicating groups , and focus clitics are put behind the head noun . Possessive pronouns ( in different forms ) may either precede or follow the NP . Examples :
The verbal phrase consists of the predicate in the center , preceded by its complements and by the adverbials modifying it and followed ( mainly if the predicate is sentence @-@ final ) by modal particles , as in the following example with predicate bičsen :
In this clause the adverbial , helehgüjgeer ' without saying [ so ] ' must precede the predicate 's complement , üünijg ' it @-@ accusative ' in order to avoid syntactic ambiguity , since helehgüjgeer is itself derived from a verb and hence an üünijg preceding it could be construed as its complement . If the adverbial was an adjective such as hurdan ' fast ' , it could optionally immediately precede the predicate . There are also cases in which the adverb must immediately precede the predicate .
For Khalkha , the most complete treatment of the verbal forms is Luvsanvandan ( ed . ) 1987 . However , the analysis of predication presented here , while valid for Khalkha , is adapted from the description of Khorchin by Matsuoka 2007 .
Most often , of course , the predicate consists of a verb . However , there are several types of nominal predicative constructions , with or without a copula . Auxiliaries that express direction and aktionsart ( among other meanings ) can with the assistance of a linking converb occupy the immediate postverbal position , e.g. uuž orhison drink @-@ converb leave @-@ perfect ' drank up ' . The next position is filled by converb suffixes in connection with the auxiliary , baj- ' to be ' , e.g. ter güjž bajna s / he run @-@ converb be @-@ nonpast ' she is running ' . Suffixes occupying this position express grammatical aspect , e.g. , progressive and resultative . In the next position , participles followed by baj- may follow , e.g. , ter irsen bajna s / he come @-@ perfect be @-@ nonpast ' he has come ' . Here , an explicit perfect and habituality can be marked , which is aspectual in meaning as well . This position may be occupied by multiple suffixes in a single predication , and it can still be followed by a converbal Progressive . The last position is occupied by suffixes that express tense , evidentiality , modality , and aspect .
= = = = Clauses = = = =
Unmarked phrase order is subject – object – predicate . While the predicate generally has to remain in clause @-@ final position , the other phrases are free to change order or to wholly disappear . The topic tends to be placed clause @-@ initially , new information rather at the end of the clause . Topic can be overtly marked with bol , which can also mark contrastive focus , overt additive focus ( ' even , also ' ) can be marked with the clitic č , and overt restrictive focus with the clitic l ( ' only ' ) .
The inventory of voices in Mongolian consists of passive , causative , reciprocal , plurative , and cooperative . In a passive sentence , the verb takes the suffix -gd- and the agent takes either dative or instrumental case , the first of which is more common . In the causative , the verb takes the suffix -uul- , the causee ( the person caused to do something ) in a transitive action ( e.g. , ' raise ' ) takes dative or instrumental case , and the causee in an intransitive action ( e.g. , ' rise ' ) takes accusative case . Causative morphology is also used in some passive contexts :
The semantic attribute of animacy is syntactically important : thus the sentence , ' the bread was eaten by me ' , which is acceptable in English , would not be acceptable in Mongolian . The reciprocal voice is marked by -ld- , the plurative by -tsgaa- , and the cooperative by -lts- .
Mongolian allows for adjectival depictives that relate to either the subject or the direct object , e.g. Ljena nücgen untdag ' Lena sleeps naked ' , while adjectival resultatives are marginal .
= = = = Complex sentences = = = =
One way to conjoin clauses is to have the first clause end in a converb , as in the following example using the converb -bol :
Some verbal nouns in the dative ( or less often in the instrumental ) function very similar to converbs : e.g. , replacing olbol in the preceding sentence with olohod find @-@ imperfective @-@ dative yields ' when we find it we 'll give it to you ' . Quite often , postpositions govern complete clauses . In contrast , conjunctions take verbal nouns without case :
Finally , there is a class of particles , usually clause @-@ initial , that are distinct from conjunctions but that also relate clauses : bi olson , harin čamd ögöhgüj I find @-@ perfect but you @-@ dative give @-@ imperfective @-@ negation ' I 've found it , but I won 't give it to you ' .
Mongolian has a complementizer auxiliary verb ge- very similar to Japanese to iu. ge- literally means ' to say ' and in converbal form gež precedes either a psych verb or a verb of saying . As a verbal noun like gedeg ( with n ' or case ) it can form a subset of complement clauses . As gene it may function as an evidentialis marker .
Mongolian clauses tend to be combined paratactically , which sometimes gives rise to sentence structures which are subordinative despite resembling coordinative structures in European languages :
In the subordinate clause the subject , if different from the subject of main clause , sometimes has to take accusative or genitive case . There is marginal occurrence of subjects taking ablative case as well . Subjects of attributive clauses in which the head has a function ( as is the case for all English relative clauses ) usually require that if the subject is not the head , then it take the genitive , e.g. tüünij idsen hool that.one @-@ genitive eat @-@ perfect meal ' the meal that s / he had eaten ' .
= = Loanwords and coined words = =
In distant times Mongolian adopted loanwords from Old Turkic , Sanskrit ( these often through Uighur ) , Persian , Arabic , Tibetan , Tungusic , and Chinese . Recent loanwords come from Russian , English , and Chinese ( mainly in Inner Mongolia ) . Language commissions of the Mongolian state have been busy translating new terminology into Mongolian , so that the Mongolian vocabulary now has jerönhijlögč ' president ' ( " generalizer " ) and šar ajrag ' beer ' ( " yellow kumys " ) . There are quite a few loan translations , e.g. , galt tereg ' train ' ( ' fire @-@ having cart ' ) from Chinese huǒchē ( 火车 , fire cart ) ' train ' . Other loan translations include mun chanar ( essence ) from Chinese shízhì ( 实质 , true quality ) , khün am ( population ) from Chinese rénkǒu ( 人口 , person mouth ) , erdene shish ( corn , maize ) from Chinese yùmǐ ( 玉米 , jade rice ) and bügd nairamdakh uls ( republic ) from Chinese gònghéguó ( 共和国 , public collaboration nation ) .
Examples of Sanskrit loanwords used in contemporary Khalkha Mongolian include shashin ( शशन sasana , religion ) , sansar ( सँसार sansāra , space ) , avyas ( अभ ् यास abhyasa , talent ) , buyan ( पुण ् य punya , good deeds ) , agshin ( क ् षण kšana , instant ) , tiv ( द ् वीप dvipa , continent ) , garig ( ग ् रह graha , planet ) , tsadig ( जातक jātaka , tales , stories ) , shuleg ( श ् लोक šloka , poems , verses ) , badag ( पदक padaka , strophe ) , arshan ( रसायन rašayana , mineral water , nectar ) , shastir ( शास ् त ् र shastra , chronicle ) , bud ( बुध budh , Mercury ) , sugar ( शुक ् र shukra , Venus ) , barhasvadi ( वृहस ् पति vrihaspati , Jupiter ) and sanchir ( शनि shani , Saturn ) .
Examples of Persian loanwords used in contemporary Khalkha Mongolian include anar ( anar , amethyst ) , baishin ( pishiwan , building ) , bars ( fars , tiger ) , bers ( farzin , chess queen / female tiger ) , bold ( pulad , steel ) , bolor ( bulur , crystal ) , gunjid ( kunjut , sesame ) , gindan ( zindan , prison ) , dari ( daru , powder / gunpowder ) , duran ( dur , telescope ) , duranbai ( durbin , telescope / microscope ) , devter ( daftar , notebook ) , nom ( nameh , book ) and hurmast ( ahuramazda , high god ) .
Examples of Chinese loanwords used in contemporary Khalkha Mongolian include banz ( 板子 bǎnzi , board ) , laa ( 蜡 là , candle ) , luuvan ( 萝卜 lúobo , radish ) , khuluu ( 葫芦 húlu , gourd ) , denluu ( 灯路 dēnglù , lamp ) , chiiden ( 汽灯 qìdēng , electric lamp ) , biir ( 笔儿 bǐ 'r , paintbrush ) , gambanz ( 斩板子 zhǎnbǎnzi , cutting board ) , chinjuu ( 青椒 qīngjiāo , pepper ) , juutsai ( 韭菜 jiǔcài , leek ) , moog ( 蘑菇 mógu , mushroom ) , tsuu ( 醋 cù , vinegar , soy sauce ) , baitsaa ( 白菜 báicài , cabbage ) , mantuu ( 馒头 mántou , steamed bun ) , shiigua ( 西瓜 xīguā , watermelon ) , naimaa / maimaa ( 买卖 mǎimài , trade ) , goimon ( 挂面 gùamiàn , noodles ) , dan ( 单 dān , single ) , gan ( 钢 gāng , steel ) , lantuu ( 榔头 lángtou , sledgehammer ) , tsonkh ( 窗户 chūanghu , window ) , buuz ( 包子 bāozi , dumplings ) , khuushuur ( 火烧儿 hǔoshāo 'r , fried dumpling ) , zutan ( 乳脂汤 rǔzhītāng , cream soup ) , bantan ( 粉汤 fěntāng , flour soup ) , jan ( 酱 jiàng , soy ) , van ( 王 wáng , king ) , gunj ( 公主 gōngzhǔ , princess ) , gun ( 公 gōng , duke ) , janjin ( 将军 jiāngjūn , general ) , taigan ( 太监 tàijiàn , eunuch ) , pyanz ( 片子 piànzi , recorded disk ) , guanz ( 馆子 guǎnzi , restaurant ) , lianhua ( 莲花 liánhuā , lotus ) , khuar ( 花儿 huā 'r , flower , used in names ) , toor ( 桃儿 táo 'r , peach ) , intoor ( 樱桃儿 yīngtáo 'r , cherry ) , zeel ( 借 jie , borrow , lend , with Mongolian denominal verb suffix -l- ) , vandui ( 豌豆 wāndòu , pea ) , yanz ( 样子 yàngzi , manner , appearance ) , shinj ( 性质 xìngzhì , characteristic ) , sampin ( 算盘 suànpán , abacus ) , liir ( 梨儿 lí 'r , pear ) , bai ( 牌 páizi , target ) , jin ( 斤 jīn , weight ) , bin ( 饼 bǐng , pancake ) , khuanli ( 皇历 huángli , calendar ) , shaazan ( 烧瓷 shāocí , porcelain ) , khantaaz ( 砍兜肚 kǎndōudu , sleeveless vest ) , puntuuz ( 粉条子 fěntiáozi , potato noodles ) and tsai ( 茶 chá , tea ) .
In the 20th century there are numerous daily life words loaned from Russia : doktor ( doctor ) , ostol ( table ) , shokolad ( chocolate ) , vagon ( train wagon ) , kalendar ( calendar ) , sistem , podvoolk ( from futbolka T @-@ shirt ) , yavlaga ( apple ) , galavsaa ( sausage ) , galstuk ( red scarf ) and mashin ( car ) . In recent times due to fast @-@ phased social and cultural transformations , the Mongolian language loaned numerous words from English ; some have gradually evolved as official terms : menejment , computer , fail ( file ) , marketing , kredit , onlain ( online ) , mesej ( message ) . Most of these are confined to the Mongolian state .
Despite having a diverse pool of loanwords Mongolian uses more native vocabulary than languages like Japanese or Korean where words of Chinese origin take up to 60 % of vocabulary . Volker Rybatzki points out the relative lexical purity of Mongolian in The Mongolic Languages ( 2003 )
On the basis of a tentative survey of 452 lexical items it seems that the Mongolic languages can be divided into six categories , depending on how large the proportion of Common Mongolic items in their vocabulary is .
( 1 ) Below 50 per cent : The only language belonging to this category is Mangghuer , in which the proportion of Common Mongolic vocabulary would seem to be as low as 39 per cent . It is obvious that Mangghuer has suffered a massive loss of native vocabulary , making it , at least lexically , a good candidate for a ‘ mixed language ’ .
( 2 ) 50 @-@ 64 per cent : This category comprises , not surprisingly , two other languages of the Gansu @-@ Qinghai complex , Bonan ( 50 per cent ) and Santa ( 56 per cent ) , as well as Moghol ( 52 per cent ) .
( 3 ) 65 @-@ 84 per cent : This category comprises the two remaining languages of the Gansu @-@ Qinghai complex , Mongghul ( 72 per cent ) and Shira Yughur ( 77 per cent ) , as well as Dagur ( 81 per cent ) .
( 6 ) Above 95 percent : This category comprises the rest of the dialects of Mongol proper , notably Khalkha and Khorchin ( as well as , apparently , Modern Written Mongol ) , in which the proportion of native vocabulary in the sample is as high as 98 per cent . Lexically , at least , these are the ‘ most Mongolic ’ of all Mongolic idioms .
= = Writing systems = =
Mongolian has been written in a variety of alphabets , making it a language with one of the largest number of scripts used historically . The earliest stages of Mongolian ( Xianbei , Wuhuan languages ) may have used an indigenous runic script as indicated by Chinese sources . The Khitan large script adopted in 920 CE is an early Mongol ( or according to some , para @-@ Mongolic ) script .
The traditional Mongolian script was adapted from Uyghur script probably at the very beginning of the 13th century and from that time underwent some minor disambiguations and supplementations . Between 1930 and 1932 , a short @-@ lived attempt was made to introduce the Latin script in the Mongolian state , and after a preparatory phase , the Mongolian Cyrillic script was declared mandatory by government decree . It has been argued that the 1941 introduction of the Cyrillic script , with its smaller discrepancy between written and spoken form , contributed to the success of the large @-@ scale government literacy campaign , which increased the literacy rate from 17 @.@ 3 % to 73 @.@ 5 % between 1941 and 1950 . Earlier government campaigns to eradicate illiteracy , employing the traditional script , had only managed to raise literacy from 3 @.@ 0 % to 17 @.@ 3 % between 1921 and 1940 . From 1991 to 1994 , an attempt at reintroducing the traditional alphabet failed in the face of popular resistance . In informal contexts of electronic text production , the use of the Latin alphabet is common .
In the People 's Republic of China , Mongolian is a co @-@ official language with Mandarin Chinese in some regions , notably the entire Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region . The traditional alphabet has always been used there , although Cyrillic was considered briefly before the Sino @-@ Soviet split . There are two types of written Mongolian used in China : the traditional Mongolian script , which is official among Mongols nationwide , and the Clear script , used predominantly among Oirats in Xinjiang .
= = Linguistic history = =
The earliest surviving Mongolian text may be the Stele of Yisüngge , a report on sports composed in Mongolian script on stone , which is most often dated at 1224 or 1225 . The Mongolian @-@ Armenian wordlist of 55 words compiled by Kirakos of Gandzak ( 13th century ) is the first written record of Mongolian words . From the 13th to the 15th centuries , Mongolian language texts were written in four scripts ( not counting some vocabulary written in Western scripts ) : Uyghur Mongolian ( UM ) script ( an adaptation of the Uyghur alphabet ) , ' Phags @-@ pa script ( Ph ) ( used in decrees ) , Chinese ( SM ) ( The Secret History of the Mongols ) , and Arabic ( AM ) ( used in dictionaries ) . While they are the earliest texts available , these texts have come to be called " Middle Mongol " in scholarly practice . The documents in UM script show some distinct linguistic characteristics and are therefore often distinguished by terming their language " Preclassical Mongolian " .
The Yuan dynasty referred to the Mongolian language in Chinese as " Guoyu " ( Chinese : 國語 ) , which means " National language " , a term also used by other non @-@ Han dynasties to refer to their languages such as the Manchu language during the Qing dynasty , the Jurchen language during the Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) , the Khitan language during the Liao dynasty , and the Xianbei language during the Northern Wei .
The next distinct period is Classical Mongolian , which is dated from the 17th to the 19th century . This is a written language with a high degree of standardization in orthography and syntax that sets it quite apart from the subsequent Modern Mongolian . The most notable documents in this language are the Mongolian Kangyur and Tengyur as well as several chronicles . In 1686 , the Soyombo alphabet ( Buddhist texts ) was created , giving distinctive evidence on early classical Mongolian phonological peculiarities .
= = = Changes in phonology = = =
= = = = Consonants = = = =
The research into the reconstruction of the consonants of Middle Mongol has engendered several controversies . Middle Mongol had two series of plosives , but there is disagreement as to which phonological dimension they lie on , whether aspiration or voicing . The early scripts have distinct letters for velar plosives and uvular plosives , but as these are in complementary distribution according to vowel harmony class , only two back plosive phonemes , * / k / , * / kʰ / ( ~ * [ k ] , * [ qʰ ] ) are to be reconstructed . One prominent long running disagreement concerns certain correspondences of word medial consonants among the four major scripts ( UM , SM , AM , and Ph , which were discussed in the preceding section ) . Word medial / k / of Uyghur Mongolian ( UM ) has , not one , but two correspondences with the three other scripts : either / k / or zero . Traditional scholarship has reconstructed * / k / for both correspondences , arguing that * / k / got lost in some instances , which raises the question of what the conditioning factors of those instances were . More recently , the other obvious possibility has been assumed , namely that the correspondence between UM / k / and zero in the other scripts points to a distinct phoneme , / h / , which would correspond to the word @-@ initial phoneme / h / that is present in those other scripts . / h / ( sometimes also called / x / ) is sometimes assumed to derive from * / pʰ / , which would also explain zero in SM , AM , Ph in some instances where UM indicates / p / , e.g. debel > Khalkha deel .
The palatal affricates * č , * čʰ were fronted in Northern Modern Mongolian dialects such as Khalkha . * kʰ was spirantized to / x / in Ulaanbaatar Khalkha and the Mongolian dialects south of it , e.g. Preclassical Mongolian kündü , reconstructed as * kʰynty ' heavy ' , became Modern Mongolian / xunt / ( but in the vicinity of Bayankhongor and Baruun @-@ Urt , many speakers will say [ kʰunt ] ) . Originally word @-@ final * n turned into / ŋ / ; if * n was originally followed by a vowel that later dropped , it remained unchanged , e.g. * kʰen became / xiŋ / , but * kʰoina became / xɔin / . After i @-@ breaking , * [ ʃ ] became phonemic . Consonants in words containing back vowels that were followed by * i in Proto @-@ Mongolian became palatalized in Modern Mongolian . In some words , word @-@ final * n was dropped with most case forms , but still appears with the ablative , dative and genitive .
= = = = Vowels = = = =
The standard view is that Proto @-@ Mongolic had * i , * e , * y , * ø , * u , * o , * a . According to this view , * o and * u were pharyngealized to / ɔ / and / ʊ / , then * y and * ø were velarized to / u / and / o / . Thus , the vowel harmony shifted from a velar to a pharyngeal paradigm . * i in the first syllable of back @-@ vocalic words was assimilated to the following vowel ; in word @-@ initial position it became / ja / . * e was rounded to * ø when followed by * y . VhV and VjV sequences where the second vowel was any vowel but * i were monophthongized . In noninitial syllables , short vowels were deleted from the phonetic representation of the word and long vowels became short .
E.g. * imahan ( * i becomes / ja / , * h disappears ) > * jamaːn ( unstable n drops ; vowel reduction ) > / jama ( n ) / ' goat'
and * emys- ( regressive rounding assimilation ) > * ømys- ( vowel velarization ) > * omus- ( vowel reduction ) > / oms- / ' to wear'
This reconstruction has recently been opposed , arguing that vowel developments across the Mongolic languages can be more economically explained starting from basically the same vowel system as Khalkha , only with * [ ə ] instead of * [ e ] . Moreover , the sound changes involved in this alternative scenario are more likely from an articulatory point of view and early Middle Mongol loans into Korean .
= = = Changes in morphology = = =
= = = = Nominal system = = = =
In the following discussion , in accordance with a preceding observation , the term " Middle Mongol " is used merely as a cover term for texts written in any of three scripts , Uighur Mongolian script ( UM ) , Chinese ( SM ) , or Arabic ( AM ) .
The case system of Middle Mongol has remained mostly intact down to the present , although important changes occurred with the comitative and the dative and most other case suffixes did undergo slight changes in form , i.e. , were shortened . The Middle Mongol comitative -luγ @-@ a could not be used attributively , but it was replaced by the suffix -taj that originally derived adjectives denoting possession from nouns , e.g. mori @-@ tai ' having a horse ' became mor 'toj ' having a horse / with a horse ' . As this adjective functioned parallel to ügej ' not having ' , it has been suggested that a " privative case " ( ' without ' ) has been introduced into Mongolian . There have been three different case suffixes in the dative @-@ locative @-@ directive domain that are grouped in different ways : -a as locative and -dur , -da as dative or -da and -a as dative and -dur as locative , in both cases with some functional overlapping . As -dur seems to be grammaticalized from dotur @-@ a ' within ' , thus indicating a span of time , the second account seems to be more likely . Of these , -da was lost , -dur was first reduced to -du and then to -d and -a only survived in a few frozen environments . Finally , the directive of modern Mongolian , -ruu , has been innovated from uruγu ' downwards ' . Social gender agreement was abandoned .
= = = = Verbal system = = = =
Middle Mongol had a slightly larger set of declarative finite verb suffix forms and a smaller number of participles , which were less likely to be used as finite predicates . The linking converb -n became confined to stable verb combinations , while the number of converbs increased . The distinction between male , female and plural subjects exhibited by some finite verbal suffixes was lost .
= = = Changes in syntax = = =
Neutral word order in clauses with pronominal subject changed from object – predicate – subject to subject – object – predicate , e.g. ,
" Kökseü sabraq spoke saying , ' Alas ! You speak a great boast .... ' "
The syntax of verb negation shifted from negation particles preceding final verbs to a negation particle following participles ; thus , as final verbs could no longer be negated , their paradigm of negation was filled by particles . For example , Preclassical Mongolian ese irebe ' did not come ' vs. modern spoken Khalkha Mongolian ireegüj or irsengüj .
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= History of rugby union matches between France and New Zealand =
The national rugby union teams of France and New Zealand ( the All Blacks ) have been playing each other for over a century ; as of 19 October 2015 , they have played 56 Test matches against each other . The first encounter , which was also France 's first Test , took place in Paris in January 1906 and was won by New Zealand 38 – 8 . It was not until 1954 that France secured their first win over New Zealand ( 3 – 0 ) .
France first toured New Zealand in 1961 – before any of the Home Nations – and the All Blacks won all three Tests . The All Blacks ' first full tour of France was in 1977 , when they won one of the two Tests . France first defeated the All Blacks in New Zealand on Bastille Day 1979 . France achieved a first series win in New Zealand in 1994 , when they won both Tests . Since 2000 , the two teams have contested the Dave Gallaher Trophy .
The teams ' World Cup history includes seven matches - the most for any pair of teams . They have played two tournament finals , in 1987 and 2011 ( both at Eden Park and both won by New Zealand ) .
Overall , the All Blacks have won 42 Tests against France 's 12 , with one match drawn . The largest winning margin in a Test between the countries was a 61 – 10 victory to the All Blacks at Westpac Stadium in Wellington in 2007 . The most career points scored by members of either team is 92 by Andrew Mehrtens ; he also holds the record for points in one match with 29 .
Despite the vastly superior win record of New Zealand in this encounter , France has the greatest number of wins against the All Blacks of any Northern Hemisphere opponent to date . France are sometimes called the " bogey " team of New Zealand , known for having inconsistent results in regular test matches , but have proven to be fierce opponents in the knockout stage of the Rugby World Cup . All Black campaigns in The Rugby World Cup were halted by defeats to France in 1999 and 2007 , and were nearly upset again in 2011 with a very narrow 8 @-@ 7 victory in the final .
= = History = =
= = = Early meetings ( 1905 – 25 ) = = =
The first @-@ ever New Zealand tour to the Northern Hemisphere was in 1905 – 06 . It was also the first time they wore a black strip and the first time they performed the haka . The team – known today as " The Original All Blacks " – played various club and national sides throughout the British Isles before taking on France on 1 January 1906 . This was France 's first Test and was held at Parc des Princes , Paris . The All Blacks scored ten tries , including six in the second half , to France 's two , and won 38 – 8 . Despite the scoreline , France 's two tries were more than any previous team had scored against the All Blacks on tour . Commenting on the state of French rugby in their book The Complete Rugby Footballer , Original All Blacks Dave Gallaher and Billy Stead wrote : " We are strongly of the opinion that the game will spread in their country and that in the course of time they will put a team in the field which will command the utmost respect of any other . "
The 1924 – 25 All Blacks ' Invincibles tour included a Test against France . The teams met at the Stade des Ponts Jumeaux in Toulouse on 18 January 1925 . Although French rugby had improved since 1906 , the All Blacks still won 30 – 6 , with France scoring two tries . All Blacks ' captain Cliff Porter said of France " Your forwards gave us a lot of bother . Your three @-@ quarters were not so good . "
In 1926 , France lost to the New Zealand Maori . Perhaps the " most celebrated Maori side in history " , they undertook a seven @-@ month 1926 – 27 tour of Australia , Ceylon , France , Wales and Canada , playing 38 matches , winning 29 and losing seven , with two draws . In total , the Maori scored 712 points while conceding 215 . This was the last match between a New Zealand representative team and France for nearly three decades . In 1932 the International Rugby Football Board ( IRB ) expelled France from the Five Nations Championship for breaching the professionalism rules in its domestic club competition . Consequently , the All Blacks did not face France during their 1935 British Isles ' tour . Although France was readmitted in 1939 , the Second World War intervened , suspending international competition .
In 1946 , France played two matches against a team selected from the New Zealand Expeditionary Force , nicknamed the " Khaki All Blacks " . Despite the team not being a representative New Zealand side , they included many future All Blacks . The games took place on 10 March at Stade Colombes , Paris , and on 24 March at Wallon Stadium , Toulouse . The Khaki All Blacks won both ( 14 – 9 and 13 – 10 ) .
= = = Post war ( 1954 – 68 ) = = =
The 1954 match at Stade Colombes , Paris , was dominated by the All Blacks who had the majority of possession and territory . Despite this , France scored in the 35th minute after the ball was lost by All Blacks ' half @-@ back Keith Davis 40 metres ( 130 ft ) from France 's line . The ball was picked up by French number eight Robert Baulon who passed to Paul Labadie . Labadie then passed to French captain Jean Prat who scored a try , giving France a 3 – 0 lead that the All Blacks failed to close . Although New Zealand relentlessly attacked the French line – and made several drop goal and penalty attempts – the French defence held , earning France their first win ( 3 – 0 ) over the All Blacks .
France first toured New Zealand in 1961 – before any of the Home Nations . The first Test at Eden Park was won 13 – 6 by the All Blacks after they scored two converted tries and a penalty . France 's first five @-@ eighth Pierre Albaladejo kicked all of France 's points with two drop goals , prompting the New Zealanders to nickname him " Monsieur Drop " . The second Test of the tour was played at Athletic Park in Wellington . The wind was very strong and neither team scored during the first half . In the second , playing into the wind , France scored a try to lead 3 – 0 . The All Blacks ' Kel Tremain responded with a try . In one of the best conversions of his career , Don Clarke kicked almost parallel to the goal @-@ line , relying on the strong wind to gust the ball over the posts . The Blacks won 5 – 3 . Although the All Blacks won the final Test in Christchurch 32 – 3 to take the series , the tour had a positive influence in France where it was broadcast on national television via satellite , popularising the sport beyond its traditional heartland of the southwest .
The next two matches between the teams were both in Paris . The All Blacks won the first 12 – 3 in 1964 after tries from Ralph Caulton and Ken Gray . In the next match , in 1967 , the All Blacks were coached by Fred Allen and captained by Brian Lochore ; they won 21 – 15 .
In 1968 , following their first Five Nations Grand Slam , France toured Australia and New Zealand . They were defeated in their Test against Australia and in all three against the All Blacks . The All Blacks ' side was particularly strong and won all its Tests between 1965 and 1970 . France 's touring losses presaged a string of defeats that did not end until they drew against Wales in the 1969 Five Nations ( in which France finished last ) .
= = = Full amateur tours ( 1970 – 1994 ) = = =
France achieved only their second Test victory over the All Blacks in 1973 at Parc des Princes , Paris . The All Blacks had defeated England , Scotland and Wales , and drawn with Ireland on their 1973 tour and France was their last Test . France won 13 – 6 , and scored two tries to nil , with two penalties the only points from the All Blacks . In 1977 the All Blacks made their first @-@ ever full tour of France . France won the first Test in Toulouse and the All Blacks the second in Paris . France then reciprocated and toured New Zealand in 1979 . This time , neutral referees were appointed for the first time . The All Blacks won the first Test 23 – 9 at Lancaster Park . However , in the second Test , France upset the All Blacks by winning 24 – 19 on Bastille Day at Eden Park . The victory was France 's first win in New Zealand over the All Blacks .
The 1980s saw many France – New Zealand Tests . The first two were in 1981 when the All Blacks toured France , visiting in Toulouse and Paris ; the All Blacks won both Tests , 13 – 9 and 18 – 6 respectively . In 1984 , France visited New Zealand for two Tests . They lost the first , at Lancaster Park , 10 – 9 ( despite repeated French drop goal attempts ) and the second , at Eden Park , 31 – 18 .
In 1986 , France played a one @-@ off Test in New Zealand , at Lancaster Park . Many top All Blacks were serving a two @-@ month suspension for participating in the rebel Cavaliers tour to South Africa . The team that faced France became known as the " Baby Blacks " as all bar two of them were either making their Test début or were very inexperienced . The Baby Blacks upset France 18 – 9 in front of 24 @,@ 000 spectators ; the only try coming from number eight Mike Brewer .
Later in 1986 , the bans served , the full All Blacks toured France . They won the first Test , in Toulouse , 19 – 7 . Their next match , at Nantes , became known as " the battle of Nantes " . France played aggressively and tried to intimidate the All Blacks . All Black Buck Shelford had his scrotum rucked in the twentieth minute that required stitches while he was still on the field . He was later knocked out , losing several teeth in the process , and did not finish the match . The aggressive display by France paid off and they won 16 – 3 .
The following year France and the All Blacks met in the final of the inaugural Rugby World Cup . The tournament was co @-@ hosted by New Zealand and Australia and the final was held at Eden Park . The All Blacks were captained by David Kirk and went on to win their first World Cup 29 – 9 . According to the All Blacks ' coach at the time , Brian Lochore , the previous year 's loss in Nantes was the catalyst for their World Cup victory . Shelford said of the match " We wanted to play them in the final because we wanted revenge " . The match also helped improve the diplomatic and political rift between France and New Zealand caused by the 1985 bombing of the Rainbow Warrior by French Secret Service agents .
France toured New Zealand in 1989 and played a two Test series . They lost both Tests ; the first 25 – 17 at Lancaster Park , and the second 34 – 20 at Eden Park . In both Tests the All Blacks led at the half time break , with France responding by scoring most of their points during the first 15 minutes of the second half before the All Blacks counter @-@ attacked to win in the last quarter . The All Blacks ' reciprocal tour of France came in 1990 . Again two Tests were played and again they were won by the All Blacks ; 24 – 3 at Nantes , and 30 – 12 at the Parc de Princes . The All Blacks first @-@ five eighth Grant Fox , dominated both matches , scoring 16 points in the first Test , and 22 points in the second .
The next tour was of New Zealand by France in 1994 . In a major upset for New Zealand rugby , France took the first Test 22 – 8 at Lancaster Park , coinciding with Frenchman Philippe Sella 's hundredth match for his country . Sella said of the game " But this historic victory for my 100th cap , with a score I never imagined — that 's one of my really great , great memories " . The second and final Test on tour was at Eden Park on 3 July 1994 . The All Blacks were winning 20 – 16 with three minutes remaining after Matthew Cooper had kicked a penalty . The French counter @-@ attacked and ran the ball the length of the field from their own in @-@ goal area to win . The ball was handled by nine French players before the try was scored by Jean @-@ Luc Sadourny . French captain Philippe Saint @-@ Andre called it " a counter @-@ attack from the end of the world " , and it was then labelled the try from the end of the world . The try gave France a 23 – 20 win and a 2 – 0 series win over the All Blacks . In 2003 , Daily Telegraph readers voted the try the fourth best of all time in either rugby union or rugby league .
= = = Professional era ( from 1995 ) = = =
On 11 November 1995 , France set a record when they defeated the All Blacks 22 – 15 at Toulouse — their third consecutive victory over the New Zealanders . A week later , on 18 November , at the Parc des Princes in Paris , the All Blacks took their revenge , inflicting a resounding 37 – 12 defeat . It was not until 1999 that the two teams met again , in a one @-@ off Test at Athletic Park in Wellington . The All Blacks won 54 – 7 ; at the time France 's largest ever loss . Tana Umaga scored three tries and Andrew Mehrtens kicked 19 points in the match .
After their Athletic Park victory , the All Blacks were heavy favourites to win when they met France in the semi @-@ finals of the 1999 Rugby World Cup . The game was played at the neutral venue of Twickenham Stadium on 31 October 1999 . The All Blacks led 24 – 10 seven minutes into the second half after two tries ( both from Jonah Lomu ) . France then scored two penalties and two drop goals to first five @-@ eighth Christophe Lamaison to reduce the All Blacks ' lead to 24 – 22 with 25 minutes remaining . Scrum @-@ half Fabien Galthié chip kicked the ball to Christophe Dominici who then scored . Another Lamaison kick set up a try for centre Richard Dourthe , which Lamaison converted , to take France into the lead , 36 – 24 . France scored another try in the remaining five minutes , and although the All Blacks scored a last @-@ minute try France won 43 – 31 . Lamaison had scored 28 points , and a full house – a try , conversion , penalty and drop goal all in one match . Many have called this match " the greatest game in World Cup history " .
The Dave Gallaher Trophy was introduced in 2000 to be contested between the two teams . It was named in memory of All Blacks captain Dave Gallaher who captained the All Blacks against France in 1906 and who died at the Battle of Passchendaele . The Cup was first contested on Armistice Day ( 11 November ) 2000 . The All Blacks won 39 – 26 and scored two tries while Andrew Mehrtens scored nine penalties . The two met again the following week and this time France won 42 – 33 , but as only the first Test counted towards the trophy the All Blacks retained it .
The countries met in one @-@ off Tests in 2001 , 2002 and 2003 . The 2001 Test was won 37 – 12 by the All Blacks , the 2002 Test was a 20 all draw and in 2003 the All Blacks won 31 – 23 at Jade Stadium . They met again in 2003 at the Rugby World Cup in Sydney . The match was a third @-@ fourth play @-@ off game and was won 40 – 13 by the All Blacks . In 2004 they met in a one @-@ off Test in Paris . The 2004 Test was the first between the two teams with Graham Henry as All Blacks coach . France were 2004 Six Nations Champions , but were defeated by five tries to nil . The final score was a 45 – 6 win to the All Blacks ; a record at the time . They met in France in 2006 – this time for a two @-@ Test series . The first Test was played in Lyon on Armistice Day . The All Blacks defeated France 46 – 3 which was a record defeat for them at home . This was despite the All Blacks ' team not being their strongest available . Following the defeat France 's manager Jo Maso said that the All Blacks played the match , " for all the New Zealanders who died during the two World Wars in Europe " . The following week the two teams met in Paris , this time to commemorate the centennial of the first ever All Blacks versus France Test . Despite fielding what coach Graham Henry described as his best team , the All Blacks achieved a less notable 23 – 11 victory .
The next year France visited New Zealand for a two @-@ Test series . The final rounds of the 2006 – 07 Top 14 season conflicted with the tour , so France sent a Test team short of 30 of their top players . With their weakened squad , the team was labelled " France C " by the New Zealand media . Featuring six new caps , France were defeated 42 – 11 in the first Test at Eden Park . The second Test was played the following week in Wellington , and the All Blacks achieved their largest ever victory over France with a 61 – 10 win . The defeat was France 's heaviest in their history .
France hosted the 2007 World Cup , and the two teams met in the tournament quarter @-@ finals . Despite France 's hosting of the tournament , the match was held at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff , Wales . The match was won by France 20 – 18 , and involved several controversial decisions by referee Wayne Barnes , who subsequently received death threats from some fans . France scored one try after the sin binning of All Blacks second five @-@ eighth Luke McAlister , and another from a forward pass unseen by the referee . The All Blacks were strongly criticised for not attempting a drop goal in the game 's final minutes . Their performance was analysed by Palmerston North based company Verusco who had analysed 1 @,@ 500 games since 2000 . They discovered that the All Blacks made 57 tackles to France 's 269 , and they had 66 percent possession and 60 percent territory . The playing time , that is time the ball is in play , was the longest of any game Verusco had ever recorded . An ' Independent Review of the 2007 Rugby World Cup Campaign ' , conducted by Russel McVeagh lawyers and SPARC ( Sport and Recreation New Zealand ) , found that Barnes and the touch judges had a significant impact on the result of the match . The report states that " The penalty count was 10 @-@ 2 against the All Blacks , with none awarded in the second half , despite dominance in territory and possession ( which statistically should result in penalties awarded to the dominant side ) . On anyone 's account the referees and touch judges made mistakes which worked against the All Blacks . " Outside New Zealand and France , the focus was on the fact that , as in 1999 , France had pulled off what The Guardian described as another " incredible triumph against the odds . "
In 2011 , New Zealand hosted the Rugby World Cup . Unusually , France and New Zealand played twice at the tournament - both times at Eden Park . Both teams were in Pool A , and on September 24 New Zealand won their first encounter 37 @-@ 17 . New Zealand were pool winners , with France second . On either side of the draw for the knockout stage , both teams made the Final on October 23 . New Zealand won 8 @-@ 7 and for the second time won a home World Cup with France runners up .
= = Summary = =
As of the end of the 2015 Rugby World Cup , New Zealand and France have played 56 Tests . The All Blacks have won 43 , France 12 , and one has been drawn . Only four matches have been played at neutral venues ; the 1999 World Cup semi @-@ final at Twickenham , London , the 2003 World Cup third / fourth play @-@ off match at Stadium Australia in Sydney , and the 2007 and 2015 World Cup quarter @-@ finals at Millennium Stadium in Cardiff . New Zealand have scored considerably more points than France both in France and New Zealand , and at neutral venues - although at neutral venues France have won two of the four matches . A summary of the Test match statistics can be found below .
= = = Overview = = =
= = = Rugby World Cup matches = = =
New Zealand and France have played seven Rugby World Cup games , more than any other pair of teams , including six play @-@ off matches . Five have been won by New Zealand and two by France . France 's wins knocked New Zealand out of the 1999 and 2007 tournaments at the semi @-@ final and quarter @-@ final stage respectively . New Zealand 's first two successful campaigns ( 1987 and 2011 ) ended with wins over France , both at Eden Park . New Zealand 's other victories have come in a quarter @-@ final ( 2015 ) , a pool match ( 2011 , again at Eden Park ) and the 2003 third @-@ place playoff .
= = = Records = = =
Note : Date shown in brackets indicates when the record was or last set .
= = Results = =
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= Oliver Kuhn =
Oliver Wall Kuhn ( August 14 , 1898 – October 8 , 1968 ) , nicknamed " Doc Kuhn " , was an American football , baseball and basketball player for the Vanderbilt University Commodores and later a prominent businessman of Tampa , Florida . As a college football quarterback , Kuhn led Vanderbilt to three consecutive Southern titles in 1921 , 1922 , and 1923 – the most @-@ recent conference titles for Vanderbilt football . In 1922 , Vanderbilt tied Michigan at the dedication of Dudley Field , and Kuhn was picked for Walter Camp 's list of names worthy of mention and Billy Evans ' All @-@ America " National Honor Roll . "
During his senior year , Kuhn was the captain of Vanderbilt 's football and basketball teams and received the Porter Cup , awarded to Vanderbilt 's best all @-@ around athlete . Kuhn played guard on the basketball team and was a shortstop on the baseball team which won a 1921 conference championship . He was known as a streaky hitter but a star defensive player and was selected All @-@ Southern in 1921 and 1922 .
Kuhn moved to Tampa after graduation , where he helped start the athletics program at the University of Tampa , and later notably led an effort to plant podocarpus trees in downtown Tampa .
= = Early years and background = =
Oliver Wall Kuhn was born on August 14 , 1898 , in Nashville , Tennessee , the seventh child of Katherine Wall of Springfield , Kentucky and Ferdinand E. Kuhn , a secretary for the local board of public works . " Doc " , who played old cat as a child , attended preparatory school at Cathedral High School and Montgomery Bell Academy ( MBA ) . At MBA , he won two state football titles , first in 1915 as a sub and then in 1917 as a starter . Kuhn lost just a single game as MBA 's starting quarterback . According to Kuhn 's draft registration , he worked for DuPont as a civil engineer in Jacksonville , Tennessee . He also spent time at Camp Taylor .
= = Vanderbilt University = =
= = = Football = = =
During World War I Kuhn played briefly with George Gipp under coach Knute Rockne at Notre Dame , and he quarterbacked Dan McGugin 's Vanderbilt football teams from 1920 to 1923 , after a year on the scrub team in 1919 . His Commodores compiled an overall win – loss – tie record of 24 – 5 – 4 ( .788 ) during his four years on the team , and a 15 – 2 – 3 ( .825 ) record while he was a starter , including three consecutive conference titles , the most recent to date for Vanderbilt . He was also a member of Phi Kappa Psi , and chaired the Vanderbilt University dances .
= = = = 1920 = = = =
During Kuhn 's first year playing varsity football for Vanderbilt , the Commodores scored 47 points in the first half of an opening @-@ game win against Birmingham @-@ Southern due to the backfield of " Berryhill , Kuhn , Latham and Company " . After two crushing defeats to Georgia Tech and Auburn , Vanderbilt played Kentucky State and won 20 – 0 ; Kuhn subbed for Latham so the starter could rest up for the next week 's game against the Alabama Crimson Tide .
In a close game , and Alabama 's first victory over the Commodores , Kuhn substituted for now @-@ injured quarterback Latham and threw the one Vanderbilt touchdown pass to Jess Neely in the 14 – 7 loss . He also had a 60 @-@ yard kick return , and accumulated 94 yards in all . According to The Atlanta Constitution , " Doc Kuhn , subbing for the injured Latham , was the brilliant star of the day . Kuhn was practically unstoppable by the Alabamians and , time after time , threatened to lead the team to victory . " In a 7 – 7 tie game against Virginia the following week , starting quarterback Kuhn was cited as an offensive standout .
= = = = 1921 = = = =
The Commodores tied for the 1921 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) football championship with an overall record of 7 – 0 – 1 ; Kuhn and Frank Godchaux took turns starting at quarterback . The season opened with a 34 – 0 victory against the Middle Tennessee State Normal School of Murfreesboro . The Commodore , Vanderbilt 's yearbook , described the lopsided win : " Practically the only thing of note was the aerial efficiency — Kuhn to Ryan and Kuhn to McCullough " .
The team defeated the Longhorns 20 – 0 at the Texas State Fair in Dallas , although Texas was undefeated in the Southwest Conference the previous year and Vanderbilt was expected to lose by two touchdowns . The 1921 Texas team was considered possibly the best in Longhorns history , and Vanderbilt football seemed to be declining when Georgia Tech defeated it 44 – 0 the year before . Dan McGugin invoked the late former Vanderbilt quarterback Irby Curry , who was killed in the war , before the game . According to Edwin Pope 's book , Football 's Greatest Coaches , " The Texas game , sparked by McGugin 's unforgettable oratory , was the big one ; and Vandy got out of the year without a loss " . In the last scoring drive , Kuhn completed a pass to the end Tot McCullough at the 8 @-@ yard ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) line to put the ball in scoring position for Godchaux after an offside penalty .
The next week Vanderbilt played the Tennessee Volunteers on a wet Old Dudley Field . Team captain Pink Wade did not play because of low back pain , and Kuhn substituted as captain . Kuhn rushed for two touchdowns in a 14 – 0 victory . The Tennessee coaches " never saw , in all the spying trips , such interference as the Commodores made yesterday for Doc Kuhn , " remarked Blinkey Horn . In the first quarter , Kuhn 's end run of 19 yards ( 17 m ) made the score 7 – 0 ; in the second , he had a 30 yards ( 27 m ) touchdown run with Lynn Bomar as lead blocker . As Horn recalled , Kuhn " made possible the touchdown by miraculous sidestepping , " evading two tacklers — " miraculous because of the treacherous footing . "
In the 14 – 0 victory over Alabama , Kuhn did not start due to injuries . Entering the game in the fourth quarter , with the Commodores leading 7 – 0 , Kuhn completed a 25 @-@ yard ( 23 m ) pass to McCullough after Jess Neely 's 21 @-@ yard ( 19 m ) run .
= = = = 1922 = = = =
Kuhn was the starting quarterback for a second consecutive undefeated season in 1922 , when Vanderbilt had an 8 – 0 – 1 record . He started all but one game at quarterback , including a scoreless tie with Michigan in the inaugural game at Dudley Field . Vanderbilt held the tie with a goal @-@ line stand , and the result was called " a great surprise to the sporting world " ; Commodore fans celebrated by throwing seat cushions onto the field .
After the next game , a 20 – 10 Commodore victory against Texas at the Texas State Fair , Kuhn 's running game and leadership were praised . In a 14 – 6 win against Tennessee , Kuhn caught a 31 @-@ yard ( 28 m ) pass from Jess Neely for a touchdown . He returned a kick for 44 yards ( 40 m ) against Kentucky , tackled by the last man before the end zone , but the half ended before the Commodores could score . The Athens Banner described the team 's arrival for a game with Georgia : " The Commodores arrived here at one o 'clock Friday afternoon , and were whisked directly to the Georgian Hotel . Curious hundreds of Bulldog supporters shuddered at the procession of Vandy giants as they strolled down the sidewalks , led by Huge Tot McCullough , with spry Froggy Miers and clever Doc Kuhn bringing up the rear . " Kuhn dropped back , throwing Lynn Bomar a 40 @-@ plus @-@ yard pass for Vanderbilt 's second touchdown in its 12 – 0 victory over Georgia at Sanford Field .
He finished the season against Sewanee on Thanksgiving Day . In the first quarter , a trick play caught Sewanee off guard . On the previous play , Kuhn ran six yards out of bounds . Then , on a fake run , he threw a pass to Bomar , who was alone behind the defense and ran the rest of the way for a touchdown . Kuhn featured in a second @-@ quarter scoring drive , completing a 10 @-@ yard pass to Scotty Neill inside the five @-@ yard line and faking his way through the line for a touchdown . The Commodores won , 26 – 0 ; Kuhn was selected as an All @-@ American by Billy Evans and received an honorable mention on Walter Camp 's team . Kuhn and Centre 's Flash Covington were the two quarterbacks from Evans ' All @-@ Southern team to receive Camp 's mention . At the December 5 , 1922 Vanderbilt football banquet , he was elected Commodore captain for the following season .
= = = = 1923 = = = =
In late May 1923 , Kuhn received the Porter Cup as Vanderbilt 's best all @-@ around athlete . According to the Atlanta Constitution , " Doc Kuhn , in winning the Porter Cup , has taken the last leaf in the laurel . Offered each year by the Porter Clothing company , the trophy has risen in distinction from a mere silver emblem to a symbol more highly prized than which there is none to offer to a Vanderbilt athlete " . Kuhn was also captain of the basketball team , president of the student council , president of Phi Kappa Psi and Hellenic president . The Atlanta Journal said , " Doc Kuhn is captain and president of everything at Vanderbilt but the co @-@ eds " . The only two football games he lost at Vanderbilt were in 1923 , to undefeated teams : national champion Michigan and the Texas Longhorns . The Commodores were Southern Conference ( SoCon ) co @-@ champion in 1923 , with two All @-@ Southern ends – Lynn Bomar and Hek Wakefield , and All @-@ Southern halfback Gil Reese .
Kuhn returned a kickoff 80 yards ( 73 m ) in the season 's first game , against the Howard Bulldogs . A rematch with Michigan at Ferry Field was a 3 – 0 loss , with consensus All @-@ American center Jack Blott kicking the winning field goal for the Wolverines . Although Kuhn and Reese were said to raise fans to their feet with their speed , they were hampered by Michigan 's defense . According to a diagram of the game 's plays , the only completed Vanderbilt pass was from Bomar to Kuhn .
After a lackluster 2 – 2 – 1 season start , Vanderbilt beat Tennessee and Georgia by a combined 86 – 14 score with Kuhn scoring the first of the seven touchdowns against Tennessee . He completed a 45 @-@ yard ( 41 m ) pass to Wakefield against Georgia , getting Vanderbilt to the four @-@ yard line . The longest of Gil Reese 's four touchdowns against Georgia was an 81 @-@ yard ( 74 m ) run " behind great interference furnished by the entire Vandy team , and especially Bomar and Kuhn . " According to former Vanderbilt assistant and Alabama head coach Wallace Wade , who was scouting Georgia at the game , the Commodores that day were " the smartest I ever saw " . The season 's final game , against Sewanee in the rain , was a 7 – 0 Vanderbilt win on a touchdown pass from Kuhn to Reese .
The Florida Gators defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide 16 – 6 that day , ensuring a share of the Southern title for Vanderbilt . A postseason charity game against former and contemporary Princeton Tigers all @-@ stars ended in a 7 – 7 tie , with the Vanderbilt touchdown scored on an 18 @-@ yard ( 16 m ) pass from Kuhn to Bomar . Vanderbilt and Washington and Lee finished the season as SoCon co @-@ champion . A sportswriters ' poll gave the Commodores the Champ Pickens Trophy as the best team in the South , and it was presented to Kuhn at the annual football banquet on December 4 .
= = = Basketball = = =
Kuhn lettered at guard for Vanderbilt 's basketball team in 1922 and 1923 . The 1921 – 22 team had an 8 – 8 record . In the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) tournament , the Commodores defeated the Citadel Bulldogs 37 – 22 before losing to the Georgia Bulldogs 27 – 26 . Kuhn scored 10 points against the Citadel and four against Georgia .
The 1922 – 23 team , captained by Kuhn , went 16 – 8 , defeating the LSU Tigers before losing to the Virginia Tech Hokies in the SIAA tournament . According to Ed Danforth , " Either Vanderbilt was in rare form or L.S.U. has a good fighting team with no shooting ability . Fans were treated to the most one @-@ sided contest of opening day when these two clubs met , the Commodores scoring 13 points before the Louisianans had counted once , winning 36 to 10 . " Kuhn scored two points . Sportswriter Morgan Blake called Kuhn " the best basketball player on the Vandy team . "
= = = Baseball = = =
Kuhn was a shortstop for the Vanderbilt Commodores baseball team , including a claim to the 1921 SIAA championship . The 1921 team had a 20 – 5 record ( 14 – 4 SIAA ) . According to Vanderbilt 's yearbook , The Commodore , in a 1921 game against Southwestern Presbyterian University the team scored a world @-@ record 13 runs in one inning with two outs . The Tennessean said :
[ Jess ] Neely singled , as did Kuhn ; Neil fanned , but Thomas got his third straight hit and both tallied . Big Tot was hit by a pitched ball and Smith was safe on a fielder 's choice with one out . Woodruf flied out to right . Tyner slammed one to center which Jetty juggled and everybody advanced a pair of sacks . Ryan was safe on another error and two runs came over . Neely beat out his second hit of the inning and Kuhn walked . Neil walked . Thomas was safe on an error and Big Tot McCullough picked one over the right field fence , clearing the sacks – but oh , what 's the use ? Why continue ?
Kuhn and Dot Fulghum of Auburn University were considered the South 's best shortstops . According to a 1922 newspaper report :
Doc Kuhn is possibly the greatest ball player on the squad , due to his miraculous fielding around short this season . Starting with the opening college games he went for six straight games without an error , finally putting Tot McCullough off the bag with a wide heave that broke the run . The Michigan and Ohio coaches were loud in their praises for Kuhn as one of the greatest fielding shortstops they had seen in some time . His hitting this season has been hard and timely , including a homer , four triples , and three doubles . He hits in streaks , however , and this alone will keep the phenomenal Vandy star out of a major berth in the near future . Kuhn , Embry and McCullough stand out head and shoulders above anybody in their respective lines that has visited here in recent years .
Kuhn was the only Vanderbilt baseball player named All @-@ Southern by either Cliff Wheatley or Morgan Blake in 1922 . Wheatley 's choice read , " Vanderbilt 's sole representative is " Doc " Kuhn , who came in several lengths ahead of the other shortstops . Kuhn is a wonderful batter and fields well enough in comparison with other Dixie infielders " . For Blake , " the best shortstop in the S. I. A. A. was Doc Kuhn of Vanderbilt , a great all @-@ around athlete ... He looks like a big leaguer in action . "
= = Later life = =
After graduating from Vanderbilt in 1923 with a Bachelor of Science degree in commerce , Kuhn worked for the Cheek @-@ Neal Coffee Company in Chicago . He married Nancy Lee Pierce at Lylehurst in Nashville , the home of Mr. and Mrs. R. J. Lyles , on October 27 , 1924 . By 1926 he and his wife moved to Tampa , Florida , where Kuhn was an investment broker and spent the rest of his life as one . He was a member of Sacred Heart Catholic Church , Ye Mystic Krewe of Gasparilla and the University Club . Kuhn was a charter member of the Merrymaker 's Club , the Sword and Shield Club and the Tampa Quarterback Club , and was once president of the State and Tampa Exchange Club and the Tampa Junior Chamber of Commerce . He also aided the start of the athletics program at the University of Tampa .
Kuhn led an initiative to plant podocarpus trees in downtown Tampa , for which he was named Man of the Year a year before his death . A tree was planted on Bayshore Boulevard in his honor . He died at his home in Tampa on October 8 , 1968 .
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= The Woman 's Bible =
The Woman 's Bible is a two @-@ part non @-@ fiction book , written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and a committee of 26 women , published in 1895 and 1898 to challenge the traditional position of religious orthodoxy that woman should be subservient to man . By producing the book , Stanton wished to promote a radical liberating theology , one that stressed self @-@ development . The book attracted a great deal of controversy and antagonism at its introduction .
Many women 's rights activists who worked with Stanton were opposed to the publication of The Woman 's Bible ; they felt it would harm the drive for women 's suffrage . Although it was never accepted by Bible scholars as a major work , it became a popular best @-@ seller , much to the dismay of suffragists who worked alongside Stanton within the National American Woman Suffrage Association ( NAWSA ) . Susan B. Anthony tried to calm the younger suffragists , but they issued a formal denunciation of the book , and worked to distance the suffrage movement from Stanton 's broader scope which included attacks on traditional religion . Because of the widespread negative reaction , including suffragists who had been close to her , publication of the book effectively ended Stanton 's influence in the suffrage movement .
= = Background = =
In the early 19th century advocates of women 's rights began to accumulate rebuttals to arguments used against them founded on traditional interpretations of Bible scriptures . Lucretia Mott countered those who would put her in her place by quoting other Bible passages , or by challenging the original interpretation of the scripture . In 1849 , Mott wrote Discourse on Woman which discussed Adam and Eve , the activities of various women who appear in the Bible , and argued that the Bible supported woman 's right to speak aloud her spiritual beliefs . Independently from Mott , Lucy Stone determined for herself that the male @-@ dominant interpretations of the Bible must be faulty — she worked to learn Greek and Hebrew and thereby gain insight into the earlier Bible translations which she believed would contain wording more favorable to women 's equality . In New York , aided by Mott , Elizabeth Cady Stanton helped draft the Declaration of Sentiments in 1848 and included two Resolutions which protested against man 's usurpation of rights relating to her position in church and to her role under God . By the 1850s , Mott had become expert at disarming men who used Scripture against her . At the National Women 's Rights Convention in 1852 , and again in 1854 , she stood up to debate men who came prepared with Scripture in hand . Reverend Henry Grew told the 1854 convention audience that the Bible proved men were naturally superior to women . He was countered point @-@ by @-@ point by Hannah Tracy Cutler , then in broad societal and political terms by Mott who began by saying : " It is not Christianity , but priestcraft that has subjected woman as we find her . The Church and State have been united , and it is well for us to see it so . "
= = Revising Committee = =
In 1881 , 1885 and 1894 , the Church of England published a Revised Version of the Bible , the first new English version in over two centuries . Stanton was dissatisfied with the Revised Version 's failure to include recent scholarship from Bible expert Julia Smith . She wrote :
Whatever the Bible may be made to do in Hebrew or Greek , in plain English it does not exalt and dignify woman . My standpoint for criticism is the revised edition of 1888 . I will so far honor the revising committee of wise men who have given us the best exegesis they can according to their ability , although Disraeli said the last one before he died , contained 150 @,@ 000 blunders in the Hebrew , and 7 @,@ 000 in the Greek .
Stanton assembled a " Revising Committee " to draft commentary on the new Bible version . Many of those she approached in person and by letter refused to take part , especially scholars who would be risking their professional reputations . Some 26 people agreed to help . Sharing Stanton 's determination , the committee wished to correct biblical interpretation which they viewed as being biased against women , and to bring attention to the small fraction of the Bible which discussed women . They intended to demonstrate that it was not divine will that humiliated women , but human desire for domination . The committee was made up of women who were not Bible scholars , but who were interested in biblical interpretation and were active in women 's rights . Among the notable members of the international committee were Augusta Jane Chapin , Lillie Devereux Blake , Matilda Joslyn Gage , Olympia Brown , Alexandra Gripenberg , Ursula Mellor Bright , Phebe Ann Coffin Hanaford , Clara Bewick Colby , and Irma von Troll @-@ Borostyáni .
In 1890 at the formation of the National American Woman Suffrage Association ( NAWSA ) , Stanton was elected president . She left such duties to Susan B. Anthony and instead traveled to Europe for two years . While there she met with women who shared her views , and she gathered critical observations about the place of woman in the Bible . In Greenbank , Bristol , Stanton met with English suffragist Helen Bright Clark , and spoke to a group about the Bible position of woman . Clark questioned whether Stanton 's liberal views had shocked some in attendance , and Stanton replied : " Well , if we who do see the absurdities of the old superstitions never unveil them to others , how is the world to make any progress in the theologies ? I am in the sunset of life , and I feel it to be my special mission to tell people what they are not prepared to hear ... "
In 1893 , Matilda Joslyn Gage took time out from her participation in the Revising Committee to write Woman , Church and State , a book which challenged traditional Judeo @-@ Christian teaching that women were the source of sin , and that sex was sinful . Gage wrote that the double standard for morality hurt both sexes . Gage differed from most of the women on the Revising Committee in that she did not feel that the Bible , once interpreted in a more true , original form , would support women 's rights . Gage determined that the Church had acted against women 's interests in important ways : from Roman Catholic canon law , to Scripture , to its advocacy of celibacy and more . Especially troubling to Gage was the story of Adam and Eve .
On August 1 , 1895 , the first part of The Woman 's Bible was published , covering the Pentateuch ( the first five books of the Bible ) : Genesis , Exodus , Leviticus , Numbers , and Deuteronomy . The text went through seven printings in six months ; it was a best @-@ seller . In January 1898 , the second part was published , covering the rest of the Old Testament as well as all of the New Testament . It included a Preface written by Stanton in which she acknowledged that " Both friend and foe object to the title . " Nevertheless , she praised the Revising Committee for showing " a more worshipful reverence for the great Spirit of All Good than does the Church . " Stanton wrote : " We have made a fetich [ sic ] of the Bible long enough . The time has come to read it as we do all other books , accepting the good and rejecting the evil it teaches . "
= = Reaction = =
At its introduction , The Woman 's Bible was widely criticized in editorials and from the pulpit . Stanton wrote that " the clergy denounced it as the work of Satan ... " Some were put off just by its prejudicial , sacrilegious title , especially those who did not take the time to read the book . Others countered the book 's more extreme conclusions one by one in public fora such as letters to the editor . One female reader of The New York Times wrote to decry The Woman 's Bible for its radical statements that the Trinity was composed of " a Heavenly Mother , Father , and Son " , and that prayers should be addressed to an " ideal Heavenly Mother " . Mary Seymour Howell , a member of the Revising Committee , wrote to The New York Times in defense of the book , saying that its title could be better understood as " The Woman 's Commentary on the Women of the Bible " . Stanton countered attacks by women readers , writing " the only difference between us is , we say that these degrading ideas of woman emanated from the brain of man , while the church says that they came from God . "
Susan B. Anthony , Stanton 's best and most faithful collaborator , concluded after years of working for women 's rights that the concentration on one issue — votes for women — was the key to bringing success to the movement . The women 's organizations had too varied a membership to agree on anything more complex . Stanton insisted , however , that the women 's rights conventions were too narrowly focused ; she brought forward a variety of challenging concepts in the form of essays for Anthony to read to the audiences . When Stanton made known her interest in completing The Woman 's Bible , Anthony was unhappy at the futility of the effort , a harmful digression from the focused path which led to woman suffrage . Anthony wrote to Clara Bewick Colby to say of Stanton " of all her great speeches , I am always proud — but of her Bible commentaries , I am not proud — either of their spirit or letter ... But I shall love and honor her to the end — whether her Bible please me or not . So I hope she will do for me . "
At the NAWSA convention January 23 – 28 , 1896 , Corresponding Secretary Rachel Foster Avery led the battle to distance the organization from The Woman 's Bible . After Susan B. Anthony opened the convention on January 23 , Avery surprised Anthony by stating to the more than 100 members of the audience :
During the latter part of the year the work has been in several directions much hindered by the general misconception of the relation of the so @-@ called " Woman 's Bible " to our association . As an organization we have been held responsible for the action of an individual ... in issuing a volume with a pretentious title , covering a jumble of comment ... without either scholarship or literary value , set forth in a spirit which is neither reverent nor inquiring .
Avery called for a resolution : " That this Association is non @-@ sectarian , being composed of persons of all shades of religious opinion , and that it has no connection with the so @-@ called ' Woman 's Bible ' , or any theological publication . " The motion was tabled until later , and motions were made to strike Avery 's comments from the official record . A complete account of Avery 's remarks were reported the next day in The New York Times .
The opinion of NAWSA delegate Laura Clay , expressed in her Southern Committee report on January 27 that " the South is ready for woman suffrage , but it must be woman suffrage and nothing else , " was typical of responses to The Woman 's Bible conflict . Most suffragists wanted only to work on the right to vote , " without attaching it to dress reform , or bicycling , or anything else ... "
On the afternoon of January 28 , a list of Resolutions was put to a vote . The first seven were passed without comment . The eighth was Avery 's proposed dissociation with The Woman 's Bible , and its presence caused an active debate . Anna Howard Shaw , Alice Stone Blackwell , Henry Browne Blackwell , Carrie Chapman Catt and others spoke in favor , while Colby , Lillie Devereux Blake , and more spoke against it . Anthony left her chair to join the debate against the resolution , and spoke at length , saying " Lucretia Mott at first thought Mrs. Stanton had injured the cause of woman 's rights by insisting on the demand for woman suffrage , but she had sense enough not to pass a resolution about it ... " A majority of 53 to 41 delegates approved the resolution , an action which was seen as a censure of Stanton , and one which was never repealed . Avery 's opening report of January 23 was adopted with the part about The Woman 's Bible expunged .
Stanton did not attend the 1896 convention ; she was 80 years old , obese , and bedridden . She acknowledged the controversy stirred by the publication of the first part , but continued writing the second part of the book , and she worked on her autobiography Eighty Years & More : Reminiscences 1815 – 1897 . She wrote to her longtime friend Reverend Antoinette Brown Blackwell in April , 1896 to observe : " Our politicians are calm and complacent under our fire but the clergy jump round the moment you aim a pop gun at them ' like parched peas on a hot skillet ' " .
= = Legacy = =
Stanton wished for a greater degree of scholarship in The Woman 's Bible , but was unable to convince Bible scholars of her day to take part in what was expected to be a controversial project . Scholars continued to avoid addressing the subject of sexism in the Bible until 1964 when Margaret Brackenbury Crook published Women and Religion , a study of the status of women in Judaism and Christianity . In her 1973 book Beyond God the Father , Mary Daly discussed The Woman 's Bible , and subsequent works by Letty Russell and Phyllis Trible furthered the connection between feminism and the Bible . Today , biblical scholarship by women has come into maturity , with women posing new questions about the Bible , and challenging the very basis of biblical studies .
Stanton herself was marginalized in the women 's suffrage movement after publication of The Woman 's Bible . From that time forward , Susan B. Anthony took the place of honor among the majority of suffragettes . Stanton was never again invited to sit in a place of honor on stage at the NAWSA convention .
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= Battle of Bita Paka =
The Battle of Bita Paka ( 11 September 1914 ) was fought south of Kabakaul , on the island of New Britain , and was a part of the invasion and subsequent occupation of German New Guinea by the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) shortly after the outbreak of the First World War . Similar to New Zealand 's operation against German Samoa in August , the main target of the operation was a strategically important wireless station — one of several used by the German East Asiatic Squadron — which the Australians believed to be located in the area . The powerful German naval fleet threatened British interests and its elimination was an early priority of the British and Australian governments during the war .
After an unopposed landing , a mixed force of German reservists and half @-@ trained Melanesian police mounted a stout resistance and forced the Australians to fight their way to the objective . After a day of fighting during which both sides suffered casualties , Australian forces captured the wireless station at Bita Paka . The battle was Australia 's first major military engagement of the war and the only significant action of the campaign ; in its aftermath the remaining German forces on New Britain fled inland to Toma . Following a brief siege there the German garrison capitulated , ending resistance to the Australian occupation of the island .
= = Background = =
= = = Terrain = = =
German New Guinea consisted of north @-@ eastern New Guinea and several nearby island groups that are now part of Papua New Guinea . First established in 1884 , the main part of the colony was Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland , in north @-@ eastern New Guinea . The islands to the east were known as the Bismarck Archipelago and consisted of Neu @-@ Pommern ( now New Britain ) and Neu @-@ Mecklenburg ( now New Ireland ) . With the exception of German Samoa , all German islands in the Pacific were administratively part of German New Guinea : the German Solomon Islands ( Buka , Bougainville and several smaller islands ) , the Carolines , Palau , the Marianas ( except for Guam ) , the Marshall Islands and Nauru . Although a relatively minor colony , it covered an extensive land area , totalling around 249 @,@ 500 square kilometres ( 96 @,@ 300 sq mi ) .
While the western half of New Guinea had been administered by the Netherlands since 1828 , the eastern half was not annexed by any European power until the 1880s . In 1883 , fearful of growing foreign influence — particularly the influence of Germany — the British colony of Queensland annexed the south @-@ eastern part of New Guinea , against the wishes of the British government . This initiated German interest in the remaining third of the island and on 3 November 1884 , the German flag was raised over Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland , the Bismarck Archipelago ( formerly New Britain ) and the German Solomon Islands . On 17 May 1885 , the German Emperor granted an Imperial charter to the newly founded Neuguinea @-@ Kompanie ( New Guinea Company ) for this annexation , which was further extended to the Solomon Islands on 13 November 1886 .
On 1 April 1899 , the German government took formal control , establishing a protectorate . A treaty with Spain , signed on 30 July , ensured German control over several other island groups in the Pacific , and these were added to the protectorate of German New Guinea . The economic life of German New Guinea 's small population of European and Asian settlers , as well as that of its Melanesian population , relied heavily on the export of copra and the import of goods and services . It remained a modest outpost , and by August 1914 only 1 @,@ 273 Europeans lived in the colony , while there was also a small but significant number of Japanese , Chinese and Malays .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Planning and preliminary operations = = =
Following Britain 's declaration of war on Imperial Germany on 4 August 1914 at the outbreak of the First World War , Australia and the other members of the British Empire were automatically involved , with Prime Minister Joseph Cook stating on 5 August that " ... when the Empire is at war , so also is Australia . " Within days , Brigadier General William Bridges and his staff officer , Major Cyril Brudenell White , had completed plans for the creation of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . White proposed an expeditionary force of 18 @,@ 000 men , including 12 @,@ 000 Australians and 6 @,@ 000 New Zealanders . Cook subsequently approved the proposal , although he increased the offer to 20 @,@ 000 men to serve in any destination desired by the British government . On 6 August 1914 , London cabled its acceptance of the force and asked that it be sent as soon as possible . Recruiting offices opened on 10 August and by the end of 1914 , 52 @,@ 561 volunteers had been accepted , despite strict physical fitness guidelines .
Meanwhile , after an additional British request for assistance on 6 August 1914 , the Australian government hurriedly prepared another expeditionary force to destroy the German wireless stations at Yap in the Caroline Islands , Nauru , and Rabaul in New Britain . As with the New Zealand military operation against German Samoa , which was completed in late August , the targets were strategically important wireless stations used by the German East Asiatic Squadron , under the command of Count Maximilian von Spee . The existence of the powerful German fleet — including the modern cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau — in the Pacific at the outbreak of the war worried the British Admiralty and the Australian government , and the elimination of its radio network was a key priority . Although the location of the German fleet was unknown , it was suspected they may have been hiding in the excellent natural harbour at Rabaul .
While the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) was being raised for this task , as a prelude to an amphibious landing on the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain , ships of the Australian Squadron conducted a reconnaissance of the area , subsequently entering Blanche Bay on 12 August , while several destroyers also entered Simpson Harbour . Landing parties went ashore to demolish the telephones in the post offices in Rabaul and at the German gubernatorial capital of Herbertshöhe ( present @-@ day Kokopo ) , located 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the south @-@ east . Enquiries were also made about the location of the radio station , although no information was forthcoming . After threatening to bombard the nearby settlements if the radio station continued to transmit , the Australian warships withdrew .
= = = Opposing forces = = =
The AN & MEF comprised one battalion of infantry of 1 @,@ 000 men hurriedly enlisted in Sydney , plus 500 naval reservists and ex @-@ sailors who would serve as infantry . The 1st Battalion , AN & MEF was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Russell Watson , while the naval reservists were formed into six companies under Commander Joseph Beresford . Also included were two machine gun sections , a signals section and a medical detachment . Another battalion of militia from the Queensland @-@ based Kennedy Regiment — which had been dispatched to garrison Thursday Island — also contributed 500 volunteers . Recruitment began on 11 August , with the very few of the infantry having had previous military experience . Under the overall command of Colonel William Holmes , the force departed Sydney on 19 August aboard HMAS Berrima and halted at Palm Island off Townsville until a New Zealand force , escorted by the battlecruiser HMAS Australia , cruiser HMAS Melbourne and the French cruiser Montcalm , occupied Samoa on 30 August . The AN & MEF then moved to Port Moresby , where it met the Queensland contingent already aboard the transport Kanowna . The force sailed for German New Guinea on 7 September , although Kanowna was left behind when her stokers refused to work . The militia were also left in Port Moresby after Holmes decided they were not sufficiently trained or equipped to be committed to the anticipated fighting .
At the outbreak of war , German New Guinea was only lightly defended ; even after all available reservists had reported for duty and the Melanesian police had been armed , the total strength was only 61 German officers and non @-@ commissioned officers , and about 240 Melanesian police . To compound the defenders ' problems , most of the Germans were reservists with either limited experience or who had served in the military many years earlier . The Bita Paka radio station itself was occupied by eight Germans and 60 Melanesians , under the command of Hauptmann ( Captain ) Hans Wuchert . Wuchert 's force was assigned to defend against any hostile landing at a point near the coast , and was authorised to withdraw halfway between Toma and Bita Paka to Tobera if necessary , but only after demolishing the radio station . A company of 10 Germans and 140 Melanesians was also stationed at Herbertshöhe , commanded by Leutnant ( Lieutenant ) Mayer , while a squad of Melanesians at Toma under Leutnant Robert von Blumenthal ( " Lord Bob " ) was charged with digging in and improving defences . Section outposts were established at various locations and monitored the coast from St. George 's Channel to Rabaul . Despite the limits of manpower , such arrangements proved effective and the reconnaissance of the Australian Squadron on 12 August had been quickly detected , with German forces subsequently directed towards the coast to repel any invasion .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial landings = = =
Off the eastern tip of New Guinea , Berrima rendezvoused with Australia and the light cruiser HMAS Sydney plus a number of destroyers , while Melbourne was detached to destroy the wireless station on Nauru . Melbourne arrived there on 9 September only to find that the radio station had already been disabled by its staff , with Nauru surrendering without opposition . The task force reached Rabaul on 11 September , where they found the port to be free of German forces . Sydney and the destroyer HMAS Warrego landed small parties of naval reservists at the settlements of Kabakaul and at Herbertshöhe . These parties were reinforced firstly by sailors from Warrego and later by infantry from Berrima . Two parties were subsequently landed , one under Sub @-@ Lieutenant C. Webber and the other commanded by Lieutenant Commander J.F. Finlayson . In accordance with German plans , the Australians encountered no opposition at Herbertshöhe , with the German company stationed there having withdrawn to Takubar — between Herbertshöhe and Kabakaul — in the early morning . At 07 : 00 , the Australians raised the Union Jack over the settlement .
The Australians believed there were probably two radio stations , one under construction 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) directly inland from Herbertshöhe and the other directly inland from Kabakaul , at Bita Paka . Finlayson remained at Herbertshöhe to guard the stores being landed from Sydney , while Webber 's party began an advance from Herbertshöhe inland along the Toma road . Another party under Lieutenant Rowland Bowen would advance towards Bita Paka , 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) to the south . Bowen 's force , consisting of two officers and 25 naval reservists was subsequently landed at Kabakaul . Also included were about 15 other personnel to provide medical support and maintain communications .
= = = Advance inland = = =
The advance inland began along the fringe of the dense jungle @-@ edged road to the radio station , with the Australians attempting to avoid the road wherever possible . By 09 : 00 they had penetrated about 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) and with the scrub becoming denser , the scouts pushed away from the road to work their way around the obstacle . They suddenly surprised a group of about 20 Melanesian soldiers led by three German reservists , who were apparently laying an ambush on the road for the advancing Australians . They opened fire , wounding one German in the hand and capturing him , and scattering the Melanesians . By means of a ruse Wuchert and Mayer were also captured , depriving the defenders of two important commanders , while several significant maps also fell into Australian hands at this time .
Realising that his advance was going to be contested , Bowen requested reinforcements . Consequently , as an interim measure , 59 men from Warrego and Yarra were landed under Lieutenant G.A. Hill , until infantry could arrive from Berrima , which was still steaming towards Kabakaul from Karavia Bay . Meanwhile , Bowen pushed on and the Australians were again fired upon by the well concealed Germans and their Melanesian troops , as well as by snipers in the treetops . By 09 : 30 the situation had become grave , and the Australians suffered their first casualty of the war , with Able Seaman Billy Williams mortally wounded . Also among the casualties was the medical officer , Captain Brian Pockley , who died of his wounds in the afternoon after being evacuated to Berrima .
The reinforcements landed earlier from the destroyers reached Bowen by 10 : 00 however , and the situation was stabilised . The advance was subsequently resumed , but the Australians had not gone more than 500 yards ( 460 m ) when they encountered a strongly held German trench dug across the road . Working together , Hill and Bowen attempted to outflank the Germans , during which Bowen was shot and badly wounded by a sniper , leaving Hill in command . Berrima subsequently landed reinforcements , including a half @-@ battalion commanded by Lieutenant Commander Charles Elwell , as well as a machine @-@ gun section and medical detachment . Among the reinforcements was the battalion commander , Beresford , and the intelligence officer .
= = = Fighting for the wireless station = = =
Elwell advanced inland rapidly and was soon also engaged , losing one killed and two wounded in a brief skirmish . During the advance the Australians had also uncovered and defused a large pipe mine the Germans had buried under a narrow track and set to detonate using a command wire . These mines had been laid beneath the road with wires leading to an electric battery and a firing key at the bottom of a lookout tree . By 13 : 00 however , Hill 's position was reached and the Australians — now under Elwell 's overall command — launched another flanking attack on the main trench blocking the road . Despite suffering heavy casualties they pressed their attack , forcing the defenders to surrender after charging the trench with fixed bayonets . A German officer and 20 Melanesians were captured . Four Australians were killed , including Elwell who died leading the charge with his sword drawn , and another five were wounded .
Now under the command of Hill , and accompanied by two German prisoners acting as interpreters , the Australians proceeded down the road under a flag of truce and persuaded the garrisons of two more trenches to surrender , but not before another skirmish in which the Germans counter @-@ attacked , wounding three more Australians , one fatally . During the firefight one of the unarmed German interpreters was killed by the Australians , as were several of the Melanesians . The advance continued and another group of defenders was encountered and disarmed by nightfall . By 19 : 00 the Australians reached the radio station which was found abandoned ; the mast had been dismantled , although the instruments and machinery remained intact . The surviving defenders had abandoned the defences and withdrawn .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
During the fighting at Bita Paka , seven Australians were killed and five wounded , while casualties among the defenders included one German and about 30 Melanesians killed , and one German and 10 Melanesians wounded ; 19 Germans and 56 Melanesians were captured . Later it was alleged that the heavy losses among the Melanesian troops were the result of the Australians bayoneting a number that they had captured . While the casualties suffered by the Australians were light in the context of later operations , they were disproportionately heavy given the modest territorial and strategic gains and were further compounded by the disappearance of the submarine AE1 during a patrol off Rabaul on 14 September , with all 35 men aboard . After their defeat , the remaining German forces and the civil administration withdrew 19 miles ( 31 km ) inland to Toma , believing they would have time to regroup before the Australians arrived .
The German governor — Eduard Haber — continued to hold out for several days , hoping that the German East Asiatic Squadron would arrive to relieve them . Unknown to the Germans , however , an Australian advanced party consisting of a half @-@ battalion of 200 men and a 12 @-@ pounder naval field @-@ gun had followed them , moving along the Toma road . The Australians surrounded the town and proceeded to bombard it ; meanwhile HMAS Encounter arrived on station and fired several shells at a ridge nearby . This show of firepower scattered the Melanesian police and was sufficient to start negotiations , with Toma subsequently occupied . Haber visited Holmes in Herbertshöhe on 15 September , signing terms two days later . All military resistance subsequently ceased and the remaining 40 German soldiers and 110 Melanesians surrendered on 21 September , leaving no effective opposition to the Australian occupation of the territory .
= = = Capture of German New Guinea = = =
The German colony at Madang on Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland ( the New Guinea mainland ) was occupied on 24 September , although the German armed merchant raider SMS Cormoran — which was lurking nearby — escaped undetected . Over the next two months the remaining outposts were also occupied . Meanwhile , the German East Asiatic Squadron steamed across the Pacific before surprising and sinking a British force off Coronel on 1 November . After rounding Cape Horn into the Atlantic and attempting a raid on the Stanley naval station , the squadron was itself destroyed by a more powerful British force during the Battle of the Falkland Islands on 8 December 1914 . Later it was alleged that widespread looting and destruction of civilian property by Australian troops occurred during this period . Indeed , ill @-@ discipline among the Australian force appears to have been an issue — perhaps due to the haste with which the AN & MEF had been raised and the poor character of some of those that were enlisted . Claims in the Australian media of criminal behaviour caused considerable controversy at the time , and later led to a parliamentary enquiry . In the end a number of soldiers were court martialled and imprisoned for looting and theft , although more serious allegations , including rape , also arose .
Following the capture of the remaining German possessions in the region , the AN & MEF provided occupation forces for the duration of the war . Holmes subsequently established a military government which continued until 1921 , after which Australia received a mandate from the League of Nations to govern the territory . The Australian military administration continued the exploitative economic policies of the previous German colonial administration , and official policy was to continue the status quo , including the use of indentured Melanesian labour on plantations , the levy of the " native head tax " and official floggings , or corporal punishment . Equally , despite previously being protected by the German colonial administration in 1914 , the hunting of the native bird @-@ of @-@ paradise , crowned pigeon and white heron for the lucrative trade in their feathers and skin , was officially condoned and a custom tax levied on their export . Under the terms of the German surrender , Haber was allowed to return to Germany , while German civilians could remain as long as they swore an oath of neutrality . Those who refused were later transported to Australia , where they could freely travel back to Germany .
On 9 January 1915 , Holmes handed over command of the AN & MEF to Brigadier General Sir Samuel Pethebridge , the former Secretary of the Department of Defence . Holmes returned to Australia and re @-@ enlisted in the AIF , as did most of his men . They were replaced by the 3rd Battalion , AN & MEF which was known as the " Tropical Force " because it had been specially enlisted for service in the tropics . Pethebridge established the administrative structures that remained through the period of military occupation . Although required by international law to follow the German forms of government , the territory gradually acquired the appearance of a British colony . As a result of the peace settlement under the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 , Germany lost all of its colonial possessions , including German New Guinea . The colony became the Territory of New Guinea , a League of Nations Mandate Territory under Australian administration in 1921 . It remained as such until 1949 , when it was merged with the Australian territory of Papua to become the Territory of Papua and New Guinea , which eventually became modern Papua New Guinea . Although interrupted by Japanese occupation during the New Guinea campaign ( 1942 – 45 ) in the Second World War , Australian administration over the territory lasted until 1975 , when Papua New Guinea gained its independence .
= = = Assessment = = =
Ultimately the Australian operation on New Britain achieved its objectives , with the AN & MEF destroying the wireless station before seizing the colony , reducing a strategic German possession in the Pacific and thereby denying its use to support their naval forces in the region . Yet although successful , it had not been well @-@ managed , and the Australians had been effectively delayed by a few reserve officers and a half @-@ trained Melanesian police force . They finally prevailed because of their unexpected ability to fight in close terrain , while their outflanking of the German positions had unnerved their opponents . The Battle of Bita Paka was Australia 's first major military engagement of the war , yet it soon became little more than a sideshow in a conflict which grew to assume much greater proportions . Later , many men of the AN & MEF volunteered for the AIF and served in Egypt , Gallipoli , Sinai and Palestine and on the Western Front . A large number became casualties , including Holmes , who was killed in action in 1917 .
Apart from the very real human suffering of the Melanesian troops killed or wounded at Bita Paka , the reduction in German prestige due to the capture of German New Guinea , and the economic and property losses experienced by some German colonists during the occupation , the battle ultimately held little significance for Germany either . The fighting yielded few tactical lessons given the very different nature of the fighting there to that of the mass industrialised warfare which both the Germans and Australians experienced in Europe . Meanwhile , just as many Australians felt that " the real war was in Europe " , so would have most Germans as the campaign became subsumed by the global conflict of the First World War . It is largely forgotten today as a result .
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= Clock Tower 3 =
Clock Tower 3 is a survival horror video game co @-@ developed by Capcom and Sunsoft for the PlayStation 2 . Released in 2002 , it is the fourth installment in the Clock Tower series , and the first and only video game directed by Japanese film director Kinji Fukasaku . The plot and characters have very little relation with the previous Clock Tower games . The story follows 14 @-@ year @-@ old Alyssa Hamilton who is part of a family lineage of female warriors who travel through time to defeat evil spirits . Alyssa travels from her time in 2003 London to the 1940s and 1960s in order to defeat these " Entities " and bring peace to troubled souls .
As opposed to the point @-@ and @-@ click gameplay used in the previous games , Clock Tower 3 is the first game in the series to incorporate direct control over the protagonist . Alyssa is given no weapon for the majority of the game , and must evade and hide from her pursuers . These enemies , known as " Subordinates " , are fought at the end of each level , during which Alyssa is armed with a longbow . The game received mixed reviews and was a commercial failure , selling considerably less than anticipated . The presentation , writing , and graphics were positively received , with many critics praising the cutscenes and Fukasaku 's direction . However , the gameplay was criticized for its repetitive mechanics , and the game itself was felt to be too short .
= = Gameplay = =
Clock Tower 3 is a survival horror game played from a fixed third @-@ person camera perspective in which players control 14 @-@ year @-@ old school girl Alyssa Hamilton . Clock Tower 3 is the first game in the series to incorporate direct control over the protagonist , as opposed to the point @-@ and @-@ click gameplay used in the previous games . To progress through the game , the player must find items to unlock new areas , solve puzzles , and flee and hide from enemies ( " Subordinates " ) . Eventually , each Subordinate must be defeated in battle . Throughout each level , the player also encounters the spirits of innocent people slain by the Subordinates . These spirits will attack Alyssa if she approaches them . In order to pacify them , an item of sentimental value must be found and returned to the spirit 's corpse .
Alyssa is given no weaponry during the majority of the game , other than a limited supply of holy water , which can be used to temporarily stun pursuing Subordinates . Within each level , the Subordinate can appear in any location after a set period of time , but also randomly or if Alyssa makes noise . They also appear in certain set locations . When one appears , it immediately begins to chase Alyssa , attempting to kill her . The player must either hide from or evade it . Evasion can only be accomplished in certain places , and each evasion point can only be used once . Using an evasion point does not kill the Subordinate , but instead renders them unconscious for a set time . The primary means of eluding one , however , is by hiding . There are multiple hiding points throughout each level , and each one can be used multiple times . However , hiding places are ineffective if the Subordinate sees Alyssa enter them .
Throughout most of the game , Alyssa has a " Panic Meter " visible on screen . If she is scared by a Subordinate , attacked by a spirit or simply frightened by her surroundings , the meter will begin to rise . If it fills , she enters " Panic mode " . In this state , the screen starts flashing and Alyssa becomes difficult to control and begins stumbling and falling over . She is also unable to use holy water and cannot enter hiding spots . After a few seconds , she will momentarily freeze , covering her ears . Panic mode only lasts for a certain amount of time , and its duration can be reduced by using " Lavender water " . However , if she is hit by a Subordinate while in Panic Mode , she will die instantly .
After the majority of each level has played out , Alyssa must confront the Subordinate who has been chasing her . At this point , her holy water bottle transforms into a longbow , allowing her to fight back . Each battle is confined to a single area , and both Alyssa and the Subordinate have onscreen life bars . During the fight , Alyssa must dodge attacks while firing arrows . In order to inflict any real damage , she must power @-@ up her attacks . However , while powering @-@ up , Alyssa cannot move or re @-@ adjust her aim . This leaves her vulnerable to attacks , and makes it possible for her enemy to move out of her line of sight . A fully powered @-@ up shot will tether the Subordinate to the ground . If it is transfixed with multiple powered @-@ up shots , Alyssa can perform a highly damaging " Super attack " , killing or severely wounding it .
= = Plot = =
The story of Clock Tower 3 is set in London in 2003 . Alyssa Hamilton is a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl who has been living at a boarding school for three years . Her mother , Nancy , sent her there after her grandfather , Dick , disappeared . The game begins with Alyssa receiving a letter from her mother telling her to go into hiding until after her fifteenth birthday . Alarmed , Alyssa decides to go against her mother 's wishes and return home . However , when she arrives at the boarding house in which they live , her mother is absent , and the only person there is a man called " The Dark Gentleman " . Determined to find her mother , Alyssa explores her mother 's room . Suddenly , Frédéric Chopin 's Fantaisie @-@ Impromptu begins to play with no apparent source , and Alyssa is transported back in time to the streets of London during World War II .
She enters a tailor shop where she witnesses the murder of a young girl by a man wielding a sledgehammer . Eventually , Alyssa is able to piece together what happened : May Norton was killed on Christmas Eve 1942 by Sledgehammer , a stonecutter who went on a killing spree before being caught and executed . Alyssa comes to realise that she must free May 's spirit , which is trapped on Earth , by giving her her father 's pocket watch . On her way to do so , she is confronted by Sledgehammer , whom she destroys . She then gives the watch to May 's spirit , reuniting her with her father . At that moment , Alyssa faints and wakes up back in the boarding house . She explores the house further with her friend , Dennis Owen , and learns more about her past : the girls in her family are known as " Rooders " , young women with supernatural powers . Rooders are the sworn enemies of " Entities " , beings which can infect innocent humans and drive them to acts of murder , at which point the human becomes a " Subordinate " . Rooder powers peak at the age of fifteen , and wane afterward , disappearing completely by the age of twenty .
Alyssa then travels to the 1960s , where she enters the house of Dorothy Rand , a blind elderly woman and her son , Albert , and sees them murdered by a man known as Corroder , who throws them into a vat of acid . Alyssa destroys Corroder , and returns a lost shawl to Dorothy 's spirit , freeing both herself and Albert . She then returns to the present , where The Dark Gentleman congratulates her on killing two Subordinates . He sends her to the top of a massive clock tower where he tells her that when her fifteenth birthday arrives they will be united for eternity . He also tells her that her mother is dead . When she refuses to believe him , he flings her from the tower . Regaining consciousness in a sewer system , she is forced to confront another Subordinate , Chopper . She defeats him , but fails to kill him and is sent to a graveyard . She then learns of the " Ritual of Engagement " ; if a human wishes to become an Entity , they must remove the heart of a Rooder to whom they are related on her fifteenth birthday and drink her blood . Eventually , Alyssa fights Chopper again and is able to destroy him .
Dennis arrives , and he and Alyssa find their way to an abandoned hospital where they encounter Scissorman and Scissorwoman , who kidnap Dennis . Alyssa is then transported to a castle , where she sees Dick reciting a strange incantation . She learns Dick knew of the Ritual of Engagement , and had discovered that Lord Burroughs , the owner of the castle and from whom he is descended , also knew of the ritual . She then sees an incident from the past of Dick asking for Burroughs ' help to become an Entity , inviting Burroughs to enter his body and for them to complete the Ritual together . Burroughs ' spirit takes possession of Dick , turning into The Dark Gentleman . Meanwhile , Alyssa is able to rescue Dennis from the twins , killing them in the process . The Dark Gentleman then tells Alyssa if she wants to save Nancy 's soul , she must come to the top of the tower . There , The Dark Gentlemen turns into Lord Burroughs and begins the Ritual . However , Dennis distracts Burroughs , allowing Alyssa to fight back . Nancy 's spirit transfers what is left of her own Rooder power into Alyssa , giving her the strength to destroy Burroughs . After she defeats him , she reunites with her mother 's spirit . The tower then collapses . Alyssa awakens in a field , where she sees Dennis . She runs to him and hugs him as she says " Mum ... we did it . We did it , Mum . "
= = Development = =
Clock Tower 3 was officially announced on April 11 , 2001 , with Capcom revealing they had taken over the Clock Tower series from Human Entertainment , and would be co @-@ developing the new game with Sunsoft . They also revealed that acclaimed Japanese film director Kinji Fukasaku would be directing the cutscenes , Keita Amemiya was in charge of character design , Noboru Sugimura was writing the scenario , and Kouji ' Cozy ' Kubo was composing the music . At the time of the announcement , the game was still in the casting phase ; over two hundred actresses had auditioned for the motion capture of Alyssa . The game was first shown at E3 in May 2002 , where a non @-@ playable demo was on show at the Capcom booth . In November , Capcom announced the game would be released in Japan on December 12 .
= = Reception = =
Clock Tower 3 received " mixed or average reviews , " with an aggregate score of 69 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on 28 reviews . Commercially , the game was a failure . Capcom had projected sales of at least 450 @,@ 000 , but the game fell considerably short of that number . By the end of 2002 , it had sold 78 @,@ 961 units , making it the 151st highest selling game in Japan across all systems . In 2003 , it sold a further 43 @,@ 061 units , bringing its total to only 122 @,@ 022 units sold .
The game 's presentation was strongly praised , with many pointing out the excellent cinematic style brought together by a strong script and well @-@ directed cutscenes . GameSpy 's Alan Pavlacka felt the script was the game 's strongest point , and wrote that the " excellent cinema scenes " and " distinct visual style " also contributed to the high quality presentation . The graphics and atmosphere were also well received . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham noted that " Clock Tower 3 successfully captur [ es ] the dirty , musty look of England 's serial killer underworld ... [ it ] is straight out of a Mary Shelley novel . " The cutscene direction from Kinji Fukasaku was positively noted , with Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed calling the cutscenes " exceptionally well @-@ realised . " The camerawork and scariness of the game were both lauded and criticized .
While the presentation was received positively , the gameplay received criticism from multiple reviews . More specifically , the boss fights and repetitive hiding and chasing gameplay mechanics were cited as weak . GameSpot 's Brad Shoemaker argued the cinematic portions were underpinned by the gameplay , believing that players would more likely want to finish the game for its storyline than the fun they 'll have playing it . Game Revolution 's AA White stated " Clock Tower 3 is ultimately one of those games whose cinemas are more interesting than the actual gameplay and from a gamer 's standpoint , that 's never a good thing . " Critics also agreed that the game felt too short .
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= German – Yugoslav Partisan negotiations =
The German – Yugoslav Partisan negotiations were held between German commanders in the Independent State of Croatia and the Supreme Headquarters of the Yugoslav Partisans in March 1943 during World War II . The negotiations – focused on obtaining a ceasefire and establishing a prisoner exchange – were conducted during the Axis Case White offensive . They were used by the Partisans to delay the Axis forces while the Partisans crossed the Neretva river , and to allow the Partisans to focus on attacking their Chetnik rivals led by Draža Mihailović . The negotiations were accompanied by an informal ceasefire that lasted about six weeks before being called off on orders from Adolf Hitler . The short @-@ term advantage gained by the Partisans through the negotiations was lost when the Axis Case Black offensive was launched in mid @-@ May 1943 . Prisoner exchanges , which had been occurring between the Germans and Partisans for some months prior , re @-@ commenced in late 1943 and continued until the end of the war .
Details of the negotiations were little known by historians until the 1970s , despite being mentioned by several authors from 1949 on . The key Partisan negotiator , Milovan Đilas , was first named in Walter Roberts ' Tito , Mihailović , and the Allies , 1941 – 1945 in 1973 . Roberts ' book was met with protests from the Yugoslav government of Josip Broz Tito . The objections centred on claims that Roberts was effectively equating the German – Partisan negotiations with the collaboration agreements concluded by various Chetnik leaders with the Italians and Germans during the war . Roberts denied this , but added that the book did not accept the mythology of the Partisans as a " liberation movement " or the Chetniks as " traitorous collaborators " . Subsequently , accounts of the negotiations were published by Yugoslav historians and the main Yugoslav protagonists .
= = Background = =
In August 1942 , during the Partisan Long March west through the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) , Josip Broz Tito 's Yugoslav Partisans captured a group of eight Germans from the civil and military engineering group Organisation Todt near Livno . The leader of the captured group was a mining engineer , Hans Ott , who was also an officer of the Abwehr , the Wehrmacht 's intelligence organisation . The captured group had been identifying new sources of metal and timber for the Germans , but Ott had also been tasked by the Abwehr with making contact with the Partisans . Following their capture , Ott told his captors that he had an important message to deliver to Partisan headquarters , and after he had been taken there he suggested to the Partisans that his group be exchanged for Partisans held by the Germans in jails in Zagreb . On that basis , Ott was sent to Zagreb on parole , where he met with the German Plenipotentiary General in Croatia , General der Infanterie ( Lieutenant General ) Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau . He advised Glaise @-@ Horstenau that Tito was willing to exchange the eight Germans for ten Partisans that were held by the Germans , Italians and NDH authorities . Glaise @-@ Horstenau contacted the commander of the Italian 2nd Army , Generale designato d ’ Armata ( acting General ) Mario Roatta , who had most of the identified Partisan prisoners in his custody . On 14 August , the German ambassador to the NDH , SA @-@ Obergruppenführer ( Lieutenant General ) Siegfried Kasche sent a telegram to the Reich Foreign Ministry advising of the proposed exchange and asked the Ministry to intercede with the Italians . In his book Tito , Mihailović , and the Allies , 1941 – 1945 , published in 1973 , the former US diplomat Walter Roberts argued that the Abwehr considered some sort of modus vivendi with the Partisans might be possible , and were thinking of more than prisoner exchanges when they gave Ott the task of making contact with the Partisans . The number of Germans in Partisan custody had been increasing , and this made some sort of prisoner swap agreement more likely . These agreements were initially led by Marijan Stilinović on behalf of the Partisan Supreme Headquarters . On 5 September , a prisoner swap was completed in an area between Duvno and Livno , where 38 Partisans and family members were exchanged for one senior German officer who had been captured during the Battle of Livno in December 1942 .
Continuing negotiations between the Germans and Partisan headquarters resulted in a further prisoner exchange on 17 November 1942 . The second of these was negotiated by Stilinović and Vladimir Velebit , also a member of the Partisan Supreme Headquarters , and Ott was involved on the German side . On the day of the second prisoner exchange , the Partisans delivered a letter addressed to Glaise @-@ Horstenau which apparently explained that the Partisans were " an independent armed force with military discipline and not an agglomeration of bands " , and " proposed mutual application of the rules of international law , especially in regard to prisoners and wounded , a regular exchange of prisoners , and a sort of armistice between the two sides " . Glaise @-@ Horstenau , Kasche and others wanted to continue exchanging prisoners as a means of obtaining intelligence , and also wanted a modus vivendi with Partisans to allow the Germans to exploit the mineral resources of the NDH without disruption . In particular , they wanted to minimise disruption in the NDH south of the Sava river and on the Zagreb – Belgrade railway line . However , Adolf Hitler and Reich Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop were opposed to a modus vivendi , as they were afraid it would give the Partisans the status of a regular belligerent . As a result of Hitler 's opposition , this Partisan proposal was not answered .
= = March negotiations = =
From 20 January 1943 , the Partisans had been hard @-@ pressed by the Axis Case White offensive . Throughout that offensive , Partisan Supreme Headquarters engaged the Germans in negotiations to gain time to cross the Neretva river . In late February or early March 1943 , the Partisans captured a German officer and about 25 soldiers , who joined about 100 Croatian Home Guards , and 15 Italian officers and 600 soldiers already being held as prisoners of war by the Partisans . Due to their desperate situation at this stage of Case White , and their need to delay the Axis in order to cross the Neretva river before the Germans struck , they decided to use the recently captured German officer to initiate negotiations . The German historians Ladislaus Hory and Martin Broszat concluded that at this critical period , Tito was also concerned that by the end of the war the attrition to his Partisan forces would be such that Mihailović 's Chetniks would be more powerful . They suggest that Tito may have been willing to agree to a truce with the Germans in order to destroy the Chetniks .
The negotiations commenced on 11 March 1943 in Gornji Vakuf . According to the historian Jozo Tomasevich , the three Partisans tasked with the negotiations show the importance that the Partisans placed on the outcome . They were : Koča Popović , Spanish Civil War veteran and commander of the 1st Proletarian Division ; Milovan Đilas , a member of the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia ( using the alias of Miloš Marković ) ; and Velebit ( using the alias of Dr. Vladimir Petrović ) . The German negotiators were led by the commander of the 717th Infantry Division Generalleutnant ( Major General ) Benignus Dippold , one of his staff officers and a Hitler Youth representative . In their written statement , the Partisans :
identified their prisoners and indicated who they wanted in exchange , emphasising that they wanted to complete the exchange as soon as possible ;
said that if the Germans accepted the Partisan proposal , especially in regard to the wounded and captured , the Partisans would reciprocate ;
stated that Partisan Supreme Headquarters believed that , in the circumstances , there was no reason for the Germans to attack the Partisans , and it would be in the interests of both if hostilities stopped and areas of responsibilities were agreed ;
stated that they considered the Chetniks their main enemies ;
proposed that an armistice should apply during the negotiations ; and
required a signature from their higher headquarters on any final agreement .
Popović returned to report to Tito , and the Wehrmacht Commander South @-@ East Generaloberst ( Senior General ) Alexander Löhr approved an informal ceasefire while the talks continued . On 17 March , Kasche reported on the negotiations to the Reich Foreign Ministry , requesting approval to continue discussions , and asking for instructions . The following is an extract from Kasche 's telegram :
Under circumstances possibility exists that Tito will demonstratively turn his back on Moscow and London who left him in the lurch . The wishes of the Partisans are : Fight against the Chetniks in the Sandžak , thereafter return to their villages and pacification in Croatian and Serbian areas ; return of camp @-@ followers to their villages after they are disarmed ; no executions of leading Partisans on our part ... It is my opinion that this possibility should be pursued since secession from the enemy of this fighting force highly regarded in world opinion would be very important . In fact , the Tito Partisans are , in their masses , not Communists and in general have not committed extraordinary excesses in their battles and in the treatment of prisoners and the population . I refer to previous written reports and also to my conversation with State Secretary von Weinzsäcker . Request instructions . In talks with Casertano [ Italian Minister in Zagreb ] and Lorković [ Croatian Foreign Minister ] I found that the above development would be treated positively .
According to Roberts , it is clear that the next phase of negotiations was intended to go beyond prisoner exchanges , as the prisoner of war negotiator Stilinović was not involved . Đilas and Velebit were passed through the German lines to Sarajevo and were then flown to Zagreb on 25 March in a military aircraft . These negotiations were with German representatives supervised by Ott , apparently on all the points discussed at Gornji Vakuf , and the Partisans made it clear to the Germans that their proposals did not amount to an offer of surrender . Velebit met personally with Glaise @-@ Horstenau , as the Austrian had known Velebit 's father , a Yugoslav general . After this first visit to Zagreb , Velebit visited Partisan commanders in Slavonia and eastern Bosnia passing on orders for the suspension of attacks on the Germans and their rail communications , and the release of prisoners .
Kasche had not received a reply to his telegram of 17 March , so he sent a further telegram to von Ribbentrop on 26 March . In it he advised that two Partisan representatives had arrived in Zagreb for negotiations , and named them using their aliases . He pointed out that the Partisan interest in an armistice had increased , and emphasised that he considered this a significant development . By this time , Đilas and Velebit had returned to Zagreb , where they reiterated that the Partisans wanted recognition as a regular belligerent , and emphasised the futility of continued fighting . They effectively asked to be left alone to fight the Chetniks . According to Pavlowitch , it is not clear which side posed the question of what the Partisans would do if the British were to land in Yugoslavia without Partisan authorisation , but Đilas and Velebit said they would fight them as well as the Germans . They stated that their propaganda had been slanted towards the Soviet Union because they did not want to communicate with London . Their determination to fight the British if they landed was because they believed that the British would try to thwart their objective of seizing power in Yugoslavia . They further stated that the Chetniks would not fight the British because such a landing was exactly what they were waiting for .
Von Ribbentrop responded on 29 March , prohibiting all further contact with the Partisans and inquiring about what evidence Kasche had gathered to support his optimistic conclusions . When told of the talks with the Partisans , Hitler apparently responded , " One does not negotiate with rebels — rebels must be shot " . On 31 March , Kasche responded with a further telegram , saying that there had been no direct contact with Tito , and contradicted his earlier telegram by stating that the contacts had been strictly about prisoner exchanges . Kasche stated that Tito had abided by his promises thus far , and :
I think the Partisan question is misjudged by us . Our fight therefore has been practically without success anywhere . It should be based more on political and less on military means . Complete victory over the Partisans is unattainable militarily or through police measures . Military measures can destroy clearly defined areas of revolt , security measures can discover communications and serve to finish off Partisans and their helpers . The extent of success depends on troops and time available . If both are scarce the possibility of political solutions should not be rejected out of hand .
Kasche further stated that it would be useful from a military perspective if the Partisans were allowed to fight the Chetniks without German interference , and counselled against trying to fight the Partisans and the Chetniks at the same time . On 30 March , Đilas had returned to Partisan headquarters with 12 more Partisans that had been held in the Ustaše @-@ run concentration camp of Jasenovac . Velebit remained in Zagreb to complete a further task : he successfully arranged the release of a detained Slovenian communist , Herta Haas , who was Tito 's wife and the mother of his two @-@ year @-@ old son , Aleksandar .
= = Reaction and aftermath = =
Mihailović was the first to receive reports of contact between the Germans and Partisans , and passed them on to his British Special Operations Executive liaison officer , Colonel Bill Bailey . When Bailey 's report arrived in London on 22 March , it was not taken seriously . Italian military intelligence also became aware of the talks . Tito himself mentioned the prisoner exchanges to the Comintern in Moscow , but when they realised more was being discussed and demanded an explanation , Tito was taken aback . He responded that he was not getting any external support , and needed to look after the interests of captured Partisans and refugees .
German – Partisan prisoner exchanges re @-@ commenced in late 1943 , but became the responsibility of the Partisan Chief Headquarters for Croatia rather than Partisan Supreme Headquarters . Initially these were organised by Stilinović , then by Dr. Josip Brnčić , before Boris Bakrač took over the role . Between March 1944 and May 1945 , Bakrač attended about 40 meetings with German representatives , 25 of which were in Zagreb under agreements for safe conduct . On the German side , Ott continued to play a leading role . These negotiations resulted in the exchange of between 600 to 800 Partisans in total .
= = Historiography = =
The negotiations were first mentioned publicly in 1949 when Stephen Clissold published his Whirlwind : An Account of Marshal Tito 's Rise to Power . This was closely followed by Wilhelm Höttl 's Die Geheime Front , Organisation , Personen und Aktionen des deutschen Geheimdienstes ( The Secret Front , the Organisation , People and Activities of the German Secret Service ) in 1950 . There was another mention in a book published in German in 1956 , General Rudolf Kiszling 's Die Kroaten . Der Schickalsweg eines Südslawenvolkes ( The Croats : The Fateful Path of the South Slav People ) . Ilija Jukić obtained evidence from German Foreign Ministry sources , which he included in his 1965 book Pogledi na prošlost , sadašnjost i budućnost hrvatskog narodna ( Views on the Past , Present and Future of the Croatian Nation ) , published in London . In 1967 , the Yugoslav historian Mišo Leković was officially commissioned to produce a full report on the talks . In 1969 , Ivan Avakumović published his Mihailović prema nemačkim dokumentima ( Mihailović according to German documents ) , which used captured German military documents .
In 1973 , Roberts published Tito , Mihailović , and the Allies , 1941 – 1945 which included information about the German – Partisan negotiations of March 1943 . The publishing of the book disturbed the Yugoslav government , which lodged a complaint with the US Department of State . The thrust of the Yugoslav complaint was that the book equated the Partisans with the Chetniks . Roberts denied this , stating that his book did not equate the two or accept the Partisan mythology of the Partisans as a " liberation movement " or the Chetniks as " traitorous collaborators " . The book also identified Đilas as the main negotiator . In 1977 , Đilas confirmed his involvement in his book Wartime , but stated that he would not have disclosed the details of the negotiations if it had not already been known through Roberts ' book . In 1978 , Tito admitted that the negotiations occurred , but characterised their purpose as " solely to obtain German recognition of belligerent status for the Partisans " . In 1985 , after Tito 's death , Leković was able to publish the results of his investigation that had started in 1967 , in Martovski pregovori 1943 ( The March Negotiations 1943 ) . In 1989 , Popović gave his version of events in Aleksandar Nenadović 's Razgovori s Kočom ( Conversations with Koča ) , followed by Velebit in Mira Šuvar 's Vladimir Velebit : svjedok historije ( Vladimir Velebit : Witness to History ) in 2001 , and in his own Tajne i zamke Drugog svjetskog rata ( Secrets and Traps of the Second World War ) the following year .
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= Amino acid =
Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds containing amine ( -NH2 ) and carboxylic acid ( -COOH ) functional groups , usually along with a side @-@ chain ( R group ) specific to each amino acid . The key elements of an amino acid are carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and nitrogen , though other elements are found in the side @-@ chains of certain amino acids . About 500 amino acids are known ( though only 20 appear in the genetic code ) and can be classified in many ways . They can be classified according to the core structural functional groups ' locations as alpha- ( α- ) , beta- ( β- ) , gamma- ( γ- ) or delta- ( δ- ) amino acids ; other categories relate to polarity , pH level , and side @-@ chain group type ( aliphatic , acyclic , aromatic , containing hydroxyl or sulfur , etc . ) . In the form of proteins , amino acids comprise the second @-@ largest component ( water is the largest ) of human muscles , cells and other tissues . Outside proteins , amino acids perform critical roles in processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis .
In biochemistry , amino acids having both the amine and the carboxylic acid groups attached to the first ( alpha- ) carbon atom have particular importance . They are known as 2- , alpha- , or α @-@ amino acids ( generic formula H2NCHRCOOH in most cases , where R is an organic substituent known as a " side @-@ chain " ) ; often the term " amino acid " is used to refer specifically to these . They include the 23 proteinogenic ( " protein @-@ building " ) amino acids , which combine into peptide chains ( " polypeptides " ) to form the building @-@ blocks of a vast array of proteins . These are all L @-@ stereoisomers ( " left @-@ handed " isomers ) , although a few D @-@ amino acids ( " right @-@ handed " ) occur in bacterial envelopes , as a neuromodulator ( D @-@ serine ) , and in some antibiotics . Twenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic code and are known as " standard " amino acids . The other three ( " non @-@ standard " or " non @-@ canonical " ) are selenocysteine ( present in many noneukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes , but not coded directly by DNA ) , pyrrolysine ( found only in some archea and one bacterium ) and N @-@ formylmethionine ( which is often the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria , mitochondria , and chloroplasts ) . Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons ; for example , selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element . Codon – tRNA combinations not found in nature can also be used to " expand " the genetic code and create novel proteins known as alloproteins incorporating non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids .
Many important proteinogenic and non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids also play critical non @-@ protein roles within the body . For example , in the human brain , glutamate ( standard glutamic acid ) and gamma @-@ amino @-@ butyric acid ( " GABA " , non @-@ standard gamma @-@ amino acid ) are , respectively , the main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters ; hydroxyproline ( a major component of the connective tissue collagen ) is synthesised from proline ; the standard amino acid glycine is used to synthesise porphyrins used in red blood cells ; and the non @-@ standard carnitine is used in lipid transport .
Nine proteinogenic amino acids are called " essential " for humans because they cannot be created from other compounds by the human body and so must be taken in as food . Others may be conditionally essential for certain ages or medical conditions . Essential amino acids may also differ between species .
Because of their biological significance , amino acids are important in nutrition and are commonly used in nutritional supplements , fertilizers , and food technology . Industrial uses include the production of drugs , biodegradable plastics , and chiral catalysts .
= = History = =
The first few amino acids were discovered in the early 19th century . In 1806 , French chemists Louis @-@ Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Jean Robiquet isolated a compound in asparagus that was subsequently named asparagine , the first amino acid to be discovered . Cystine was discovered in 1810 , although its monomer , cysteine , remained undiscovered until 1884 . Glycine and leucine were discovered in 1820 . The last of the 20 common amino acids to be discovered was threonine in 1935 by William Cumming Rose , who also determined the essential amino acids and established the minimum daily requirements of all amino acids for optimal growth .
Usage of the term amino acid in the English language is from 1898 . Proteins were found to yield amino acids after enzymatic digestion or acid hydrolysis . In 1902 , Emil Fischer and Franz Hofmeister proposed that proteins are the result of the formation of bonds between the amino group of one amino acid with the carboxyl group of another , in a linear structure that Fischer termed " peptide " .
= = General structure = =
In the structure shown at the top of the page , R represents a side @-@ chain specific to each amino acid . The carbon atom next to the carboxyl group ( which is therefore numbered 2 in the carbon chain starting from that functional group ) is called the α – carbon . Amino acids containing an amino group bonded directly to the alpha carbon are referred to as alpha amino acids . These include amino acids such as proline which contain secondary amines , which used to be often referred to as " imino acids " .
= = = Isomerism = = =
The alpha amino acids are the most common form found in nature , but only when occurring in the L @-@ isomer . The alpha carbon is a chiral carbon atom , with the exception of glycine which has two indistinguishable hydrogen atoms on the alpha carbon . Therefore , all alpha amino acids but glycine can exist in either of two enantiomers , called L or D amino acids , which are mirror images of each other ( see also Chirality ) . While L @-@ amino acids represent all of the amino acids found in proteins during translation in the ribosome , D @-@ amino acids are found in some proteins produced by enzyme posttranslational modifications after translation and translocation to the endoplasmic reticulum , as in exotic sea @-@ dwelling organisms such as cone snails . They are also abundant components of the peptidoglycan cell walls of bacteria , and D @-@ serine may act as a neurotransmitter in the brain . D @-@ amino acids are used in racemic crystallography to create centrosymmetric crystals , which ( depending on the protein ) may allow for easier and more robust protein structure determination . The L and D convention for amino acid configuration refers not to the optical activity of the amino acid itself but rather to the optical activity of the isomer of glyceraldehyde from which that amino acid can , in theory , be synthesized ( D @-@ glyceraldehyde is dextrorotatory ; L @-@ glyceraldehyde is levorotatory ) . In alternative fashion , the ( S ) and ( R ) designators are used to indicate the absolute stereochemistry . Almost all of the amino acids in proteins are ( S ) at the α carbon , with cysteine being ( R ) and glycine non @-@ chiral . Cysteine has its side @-@ chain in the same geometric position as the other amino acids , but the R / S terminology is reversed because of the higher atomic number of sulfur compared to the carboxyl oxygen gives the side @-@ chain a higher priority , whereas the atoms in most other side @-@ chains give them lower priority .
= = = Side chains = = =
In amino acids that have a carbon chain attached to the α – carbon ( such as lysine , shown to the right ) the carbons are labeled in order as α , β , γ , δ , and so on . In some amino acids , the amine group is attached to the β or γ @-@ carbon , and these are therefore referred to as beta or gamma amino acids .
Amino acids are usually classified by the properties of their side @-@ chain into four groups . The side @-@ chain can make an amino acid a weak acid or a weak base , and a hydrophile if the side @-@ chain is polar or a hydrophobe if it is nonpolar . The chemical structures of the 22 standard amino acids , along with their chemical properties , are described more fully in the article on these proteinogenic amino acids .
The phrase " branched @-@ chain amino acids " or BCAA refers to the amino acids having aliphatic side @-@ chains that are non @-@ linear ; these are leucine , isoleucine , and valine . Proline is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side @-@ group links to the α @-@ amino group and , thus , is also the only proteinogenic amino acid containing a secondary amine at this position . In chemical terms , proline is , therefore , an imino acid , since it lacks a primary amino group , although it is still classed as an amino acid in the current biochemical nomenclature , and may also be called an " N @-@ alkylated alpha @-@ amino acid " .
= = = Zwitterions = = =
The α @-@ carboxylic acid group of amino acids is a weak acid , meaning that it releases a hydron ( such as a proton ) at moderate pH values . In other words , carboxylic acid groups ( − CO2H ) can be deprotonated to become negative carboxylates ( − CO2 − ) . The negatively charged carboxylate ion predominates at pH values greater than the pKa of the carboxylic acid group ( mean for the 20 common amino acids is about 2 @.@ 2 , see the table of amino acid structures above ) . In a complementary fashion , the α @-@ amine of amino acids is a weak base , meaning that it accepts a proton at moderate pH values . In other words , α @-@ amino groups ( NH2 − ) can be protonated to become positive α @-@ ammonium groups ( + NH3 − ) . The positively charged α @-@ ammonium group predominates at pH values less than the pKa of the α @-@ ammonium group ( mean for the 20 common α @-@ amino acids is about 9 @.@ 4 ) .
Because all amino acids contain amine and carboxylic acid functional groups , they share amphiprotic properties . Below pH 2 @.@ 2 , the predominant form will have a neutral carboxylic acid group and a positive α @-@ ammonium ion ( net charge + 1 ) , and above pH 9 @.@ 4 , a negative carboxylate and neutral α @-@ amino group ( net charge − 1 ) . But at pH between 2 @.@ 2 and 9 @.@ 4 , an amino acid usually contains both a negative carboxylate and a positive α @-@ ammonium group , as shown in structure ( 2 ) on the right , so has net zero charge . This molecular state is known as a zwitterion , from the German Zwitter meaning hermaphrodite or hybrid . The fully neutral form ( structure ( 1 ) on the right ) is a very minor species in aqueous solution throughout the pH range ( less than 1 part in 107 ) . Amino acids exist as zwitterions also in the solid phase , and crystallize with salt @-@ like properties unlike typical organic acids or amines .
= = = Isoelectric point = = =
The variation in titration curves when the amino acids are grouped by category can be seen here . With the exception of tyrosine , using titration to differentiate between hydrophobic amino acids is problematic .
At pH values between the two pKa values , the zwitterion predominates , but coexists in dynamic equilibrium with small amounts of net negative and net positive ions . At the exact midpoint between the two pKa values , the trace amount of net negative and trace of net positive ions exactly balance , so that average net charge of all forms present is zero . This pH is known as the isoelectric point pI , so pI |
= ½ ( pKa1 + pKa2 ) . The individual amino acids all have slightly different pKa values , so have different isoelectric points . For amino acids with charged side @-@ chains , the pKa of the side @-@ chain is involved . Thus for Asp , Glu with negative side @-@ chains , pI =
½ ( pKa1 + pKaR ) , where pKaR is the side @-@ chain pKa . Cysteine also has potentially negative side @-@ chain with pKaR |
= 8 @.@ 14 , so pI should be calculated as for Asp and Glu , even though the side @-@ chain is not significantly charged at neutral pH . For His , Lys , and Arg with positive side @-@ chains , pI =
½ ( pKaR + pKa2 ) . Amino acids have zero mobility in electrophoresis at their isoelectric point , although this behaviour is more usually exploited for peptides and proteins than single amino acids . Zwitterions have minimum solubility at their isoelectric point and some amino acids ( in particular , with non @-@ polar side @-@ chains ) can be isolated by precipitation from water by adjusting the pH to the required isoelectric point .
= = Occurrence and functions in biochemistry = =
= = = Proteinogenic amino acids = = =
Amino acids are the structural units ( monomers ) that make up proteins . They join together to form short polymer chains called peptides or longer chains called either polypeptides or proteins . These polymers are linear and unbranched , with each amino acid within the chain attached to two neighboring amino acids . The process of making proteins is called translation and involves the step @-@ by @-@ step addition of amino acids to a growing protein chain by a ribozyme that is called a ribosome . The order in which the amino acids are added is read through the genetic code from an mRNA template , which is a RNA copy of one of the organism 's genes .
Twenty @-@ two amino acids are naturally incorporated into polypeptides and are called proteinogenic or natural amino acids . Of these , 20 are encoded by the universal genetic code . The remaining 2 , selenocysteine and pyrrolysine , are incorporated into proteins by unique synthetic mechanisms . Selenocysteine is incorporated when the mRNA being translated includes a SECIS element , which causes the UGA codon to encode selenocysteine instead of a stop codon . Pyrrolysine is used by some methanogenic archaea in enzymes that they use to produce methane . It is coded for with the codon UAG , which is normally a stop codon in other organisms . This UAG codon is followed by a PYLIS downstream sequence .
= = = Non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids = = =
Aside from the 22 proteinogenic amino acids , there are many other amino acids that are called non @-@ proteinogenic . Those either are not found in proteins ( for example carnitine , GABA ) or are not produced directly and in isolation by standard cellular machinery ( for example , hydroxyproline and selenomethionine ) .
Non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids that are found in proteins are formed by post @-@ translational modification , which is modification after translation during protein synthesis . These modifications are often essential for the function or regulation of a protein ; for example , the carboxylation of glutamate allows for better binding of calcium cations , and the hydroxylation of proline is critical for maintaining connective tissues . Another example is the formation of hypusine in the translation initiation factor EIF5A , through modification of a lysine residue . Such modifications can also determine the localization of the protein , e.g. , the addition of long hydrophobic groups can cause a protein to bind to a phospholipid membrane .
Some non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids are not found in proteins . Examples include lanthionine , 2 @-@ aminoisobutyric acid , dehydroalanine , and the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid . Non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids – for example , ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle , part of amino acid catabolism ( see below ) . A rare exception to the dominance of α @-@ amino acids in biology is the β @-@ amino acid beta alanine ( 3 @-@ aminopropanoic acid ) , which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid ( vitamin B5 ) , a component of coenzyme A.
= = = D @-@ amino acid natural abundance = = =
D @-@ isomers are uncommon in live organisms . For instance , gramicidin is a polypeptide made up from mixture of D- and L @-@ amino acids . Other compounds containing D @-@ amino acids are tyrocidine and valinomycin . These compounds disrupt bacterial cell walls , particularly in Gram @-@ positive bacteria . Only 837 D @-@ amino acids were found in Swiss @-@ Prot database ( 187 million amino acids analysed ) .
= = = Non @-@ standard amino acids = = =
The 20 amino acids that are encoded directly by the codons of the universal genetic code are called standard or canonical amino acids . The others are called non @-@ standard or non @-@ canonical . Most of the non @-@ standard amino acids are also non @-@ proteinogenic ( i.e. they cannot be used to build proteins ) , but three of them are proteinogenic , as they can be used to build proteins by exploiting information not encoded in the universal genetic code .
The three non @-@ standard proteinogenic amino acids are selenocysteine ( present in many non @-@ eukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes , but not coded directly by DNA ) , pyrrolysine ( found only in some archaea and one bacterium ) , and N @-@ formylmethionine ( which is often the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria , mitochondria , and chloroplasts ) . For example , 25 human proteins include selenocysteine ( Sec ) in their primary structure , and the structurally characterized enzymes ( selenoenzymes ) employ Sec as the catalytic moiety in their active sites . Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons . For example , selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element .
= = = In human nutrition = = =
When taken up into the human body from the diet , the 20 standard amino acids either are used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules or are oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy . The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase ; the amino group is then fed into the urea cycle . The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle . Glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose , through gluconeogenesis . Of the 20 standard amino acids , nine ( His , Ile , Leu , Lys , Met , Phe , Thr , Trp and Val ) , are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth , so they must be obtained from food . In addition , cysteine , taurine , tyrosine , and arginine are considered semiessential amino @-@ acids in children ( though taurine is not technically an amino acid ) , because the metabolic pathways that synthesize these amino acids are not fully developed . The amounts required also depend on the age and health of the individual , so it is hard to make general statements about the dietary requirement for some amino acids . Dietary exposure to the non @-@ standard amino acid BMAA has been linked to human neurodegenerative diseases , including ALS .
= = = Non @-@ protein functions = = =
In humans , non @-@ protein amino acids also have important roles as metabolic intermediates , such as in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ amino @-@ butyric acid ( GABA ) . Many amino acids are used to synthesize other molecules , for example :
Tryptophan is a precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin .
Tyrosine ( and its precursor phenylalanine ) are precursors of the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine , epinephrine and norepinephrine and various trace amines .
Phenylalanine is a precursor of phenethylamine and tyrosine in humans . In plants , it is a precursor of various phenylpropanoids , which are important in plant metabolism .
Glycine is a precursor of porphyrins such as heme .
Arginine is a precursor of nitric oxide .
Ornithine and S @-@ adenosylmethionine are precursors of polyamines .
Aspartate , glycine , and glutamine are precursors of nucleotides .
However , not all of the functions of other abundant non @-@ standard amino acids are known .
Some non @-@ standard amino acids are used as defenses against herbivores in plants . For example , canavanine is an analogue of arginine that is found in many legumes , and in particularly large amounts in Canavalia gladiata ( sword bean ) . This amino acid protects the plants from predators such as insects and can cause illness in people if some types of legumes are eaten without processing . The non @-@ protein amino acid mimosine is found in other species of legume , in particular Leucaena leucocephala . This compound is an analogue of tyrosine and can poison animals that graze on these plants .
= = Uses in industry = =
Amino acids are used for a variety of applications in industry , but their main use is as additives to animal feed . This is necessary , since many of the bulk components of these feeds , such as soybeans , either have low levels or lack some of the essential amino acids : lysine , methionine , threonine , and tryptophan are most important in the production of these feeds . In this industry , amino acids are also used to chelate metal cations in order to improve the absorption of minerals from supplements , which may be required to improve the health or production of these animals .
The food industry is also a major consumer of amino acids , in particular , glutamic acid , which is used as a flavor enhancer , and aspartame ( aspartyl @-@ phenylalanine @-@ 1 @-@ methyl ester ) as a low @-@ calorie artificial sweetener . Similar technology to that used for animal nutrition is employed in the human nutrition industry to alleviate symptoms of mineral deficiencies , such as anemia , by improving mineral absorption and reducing negative side effects from inorganic mineral supplementation .
The chelating ability of amino acids has been used in fertilizers for agriculture to facilitate the delivery of minerals to plants in order to correct mineral deficiencies , such as iron chlorosis . These fertilizers are also used to prevent deficiencies from occurring and improving the overall health of the plants . The remaining production of amino acids is used in the synthesis of drugs and cosmetics .
Similarly , some amino acids derivatives are used in pharmaceutical industry . They include 5 @-@ HTP ( 5 @-@ hydroxytryptophan ) used for experimental treatment of depression , L @-@ DOPA ( L @-@ dihydroxyphenylalanine ) for Parkinson 's treatment , and eflornithine drug that inhibits ornithine decarboxylase and used in the treatment of sleeping sickness .
= = = Expanded genetic code = = =
Since 2001 , 40 non @-@ natural amino acids have been added into protein by creating a unique codon ( recoding ) and a corresponding transfer @-@ RNA : aminoacyl – tRNA @-@ synthetase pair to encode it with diverse physicochemical and biological properties in order to be used as a tool to exploring protein structure and function or to create novel or enhanced proteins .
= = = Nullomers = = =
Nullomers are codons that in theory code for an amino acid , however in nature there is a selective bias against using this codon in favor of another , for example bacteria prefer to use CGA instead of AGA to code for arginine . This creates some sequences that do not appear in the genome . This characteristic can be taken advantage of and used to create new selective cancer @-@ fighting drugs and to prevent cross @-@ contamination of DNA samples from crime @-@ scene investigations .
= = = Chemical building blocks = = =
Amino acids are important as low @-@ cost feedstocks . These compounds are used in chiral pool synthesis as enantiomerically pure building @-@ blocks .
Amino acids have been investigated as precursors chiral catalysts , e.g. , for asymmetric hydrogenation reactions , although no commercial applications exist .
= = = Biodegradable plastics = = =
Amino acids are under development as components of a range of biodegradable polymers . These materials have applications as environmentally friendly packaging and in medicine in drug delivery and the construction of prosthetic implants . These polymers include polypeptides , polyamides , polyesters , polysulfides , and polyurethanes with amino acids either forming part of their main chains or bonded as side @-@ chains . These modifications alter the physical properties and reactivities of the polymers . An interesting example of such materials is polyaspartate , a water @-@ soluble biodegradable polymer that may have applications in disposable diapers and agriculture . Due to its solubility and ability to chelate metal ions , polyaspartate is also being used as a biodegradeable anti @-@ scaling agent and a corrosion inhibitor . In addition , the aromatic amino acid tyrosine is being developed as a possible replacement for toxic phenols such as bisphenol A in the manufacture of polycarbonates .
= = Reactions = =
As amino acids have both a primary amine group and a primary carboxyl group , these chemicals can undergo most of the reactions associated with these functional groups . These include nucleophilic addition , amide bond formation , and imine formation for the amine group , and esterification , amide bond formation , and decarboxylation for the carboxylic acid group . The combination of these functional groups allow amino acids to be effective polydentate ligands for metal @-@ amino acid chelates . The multiple side @-@ chains of amino acids can also undergo chemical reactions . The types of these reactions are determined by the groups on these side @-@ chains and are , therefore , different between the various types of amino acid .
= = = Chemical synthesis = = =
Several methods exist to synthesize amino acids . One of the oldest methods begins with the bromination at the α @-@ carbon of a carboxylic acid . Nucleophilic substitution with ammonia then converts the alkyl bromide to the amino acid . In alternative fashion , the Strecker amino acid synthesis involves the treatment of an aldehyde with potassium cyanide and ammonia , this produces an α @-@ amino nitrile as an intermediate . Hydrolysis of the nitrile in acid then yields a α @-@ amino acid . Using ammonia or ammonium salts in this reaction gives unsubstituted amino acids , whereas substituting primary and secondary amines will yield substituted amino acids . Likewise , using ketones , instead of aldehydes , gives α , α @-@ disubstituted amino acids . The classical synthesis gives racemic mixtures of α @-@ amino acids as products , but several alternative procedures using asymmetric auxiliaries or asymmetric catalysts have been developed .
At the current time , the most @-@ adopted method is an automated synthesis on a solid support ( e.g. , polystyrene beads ) , using protecting groups ( e.g. , Fmoc and t @-@ Boc ) and activating groups ( e.g. , DCC and DIC ) .
= = = Peptide bond formation = = =
As both the amine and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids can react to form amide bonds , one amino acid molecule can react with another and become joined through an amide linkage . This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins . This condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water . In cells , this reaction does not occur directly ; instead , the amino acid is first activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA is produced in an ATP @-@ dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome , which catalyzes the attack of the amino group of the elongating protein chain on the ester bond . As a result of this mechanism , all proteins made by ribosomes are synthesized starting at their N @-@ terminus and moving toward their C @-@ terminus .
However , not all peptide bonds are formed in this way . In a few cases , peptides are synthesized by specific enzymes . For example , the tripeptide glutathione is an essential part of the defenses of cells against oxidative stress . This peptide is synthesized in two steps from free amino acids . In the first step , gamma @-@ glutamylcysteine synthetase condenses cysteine and glutamic acid through a peptide bond formed between the side @-@ chain carboxyl of the glutamate ( the gamma carbon of this side @-@ chain ) and the amino group of the cysteine . This dipeptide is then condensed with glycine by glutathione synthetase to form glutathione .
In chemistry , peptides are synthesized by a variety of reactions . One of the most @-@ used in solid @-@ phase peptide synthesis uses the aromatic oxime derivatives of amino acids as activated units . These are added in sequence onto the growing peptide chain , which is attached to a solid resin support . The ability to easily synthesize vast numbers of different peptides by varying the types and order of amino acids ( using combinatorial chemistry ) has made peptide synthesis particularly important in creating libraries of peptides for use in drug discovery through high @-@ throughput screening .
= = = Biosynthesis = = =
In plants , nitrogen is first assimilated into organic compounds in the form of glutamate , formed from alpha @-@ ketoglutarate and ammonia in the mitochondrion . In order to form other amino acids , the plant uses transaminases to move the amino group to another alpha @-@ keto carboxylic acid . For example , aspartate aminotransferase converts glutamate and oxaloacetate to alpha @-@ ketoglutarate and aspartate . Other organisms use transaminases for amino acid synthesis , too .
Nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids . For example , homocysteine is formed through the transsulfuration pathway or by the demethylation of methionine via the intermediate metabolite S @-@ adenosyl methionine , while hydroxyproline is made by a posttranslational modification of proline .
Microorganisms and plants can synthesize many uncommon amino acids . For example , some microbes make 2 @-@ aminoisobutyric acid and lanthionine , which is a sulfide @-@ bridged derivative of alanine . Both of these amino acids are found in peptidic lantibiotics such as alamethicin . However , in plants , 1 @-@ aminocyclopropane @-@ 1 @-@ carboxylic acid is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid that is a key intermediate in the production of the plant hormone ethylene .
= = = Catabolism = = =
Amino acids must first pass out of organelles and cells into blood circulation via amino acid transporters , since the amine and carboxylic acid groups are typically ionized . Degradation of an amino acid , occurring in the liver and kidneys , often involves deamination by moving its amino group to alpha @-@ ketoglutarate , forming glutamate . This process involves transaminases , often the same as those used in amination during synthesis . In many vertebrates , the amino group is then removed through the urea cycle and is excreted in the form of urea . However , amino acid degradation can produce uric acid or ammonia instead . For example , serine dehydratase converts serine to pyruvate and ammonia . After removal of one or more amino groups , the remainder of the molecule can sometimes be used to synthesize new amino acids , or it can be used for energy by entering glycolysis or the citric acid cycle , as detailed in image at right .
= = Physicochemical properties of amino acids = =
The 20 amino acids encoded directly by the genetic code can be divided into several groups based on their properties . Important factors are charge , hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity , size , and functional groups . These properties are important for protein structure and protein – protein interactions . The water @-@ soluble proteins tend to have their hydrophobic residues ( Leu , Ile , Val , Phe , and Trp ) buried in the middle of the protein , whereas hydrophilic side @-@ chains are exposed to the aqueous solvent . ( Note that in biochemistry , a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide , protein or nucleic acid . ) The integral membrane proteins tend to have outer rings of exposed hydrophobic amino acids that anchor them into the lipid bilayer . In the case part @-@ way between these two extremes , some peripheral membrane proteins have a patch of hydrophobic amino acids on their surface that locks onto the membrane . In similar fashion , proteins that have to bind to positively charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged amino acids like glutamate and aspartate , while proteins binding to negatively charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine . There are different hydrophobicity scales of amino acid residues .
Some amino acids have special properties such as cysteine , that can form covalent disulfide bonds to other cysteine residues , proline that forms a cycle to the polypeptide backbone , and glycine that is more flexible than other amino acids .
Many proteins undergo a range of posttranslational modifications , when additional chemical groups are attached to the amino acids in proteins . Some modifications can produce hydrophobic lipoproteins , or hydrophilic glycoproteins . These type of modification allow the reversible targeting of a protein to a membrane . For example , the addition and removal of the fatty acid palmitic acid to cysteine residues in some signaling proteins causes the proteins to attach and then detach from cell membranes .
= = = Table of standard amino acid abbreviations and properties = = =
Two additional amino acids are in some species coded for by codons that are usually interpreted as stop codons :
In addition to the specific amino acid codes , placeholders are used in cases where chemical or crystallographic analysis of a peptide or protein cannot conclusively determine the identity of a residue . They are also used to summarise conserved protein sequence motifs . The use of single letters to indicate sets of similar residues is similar to the use of abbreviation codes for degenerate bases .
Unk is sometimes used instead of Xaa , but is less standard .
In addition , many non @-@ standard amino acids have a specific code . For example , several peptide drugs , such as Bortezomib and MG132 , are artificially synthesized and retain their protecting groups , which have specific codes . Bortezomib is Pyz @-@ Phe @-@ boroLeu , and MG132 is Z @-@ Leu @-@ Leu @-@ Leu @-@ al . To aid in the analysis of protein structure , photo @-@ reactive amino acid analogs are available . These include photoleucine ( pLeu ) and photomethionine ( pMet ) .
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= Layer Pyramid =
The Layer Pyramid ( known locally in Arabic as il @-@ haram il @-@ midawwar , Arabic : الهرم المدور , meaning ' rubble @-@ hill pyramid ' ) is a ruined step pyramid dating to the 3rd Dynasty of Egypt ( 2686 BC to 2613 BC ) and located in the necropolis of Zawyet el 'Aryan . Its ownership is uncertain and may be attributable to pharaoh Khaba . The pyramid architecture , however , is very similar to that of the Buried Pyramid of king Sekhemkhet and for this reason is firmly datable to the 3rd Dynasty .
The pyramid was excavated at the beginning of the 20th century by two different teams who reported conflicting estimates regarding its size and number of subterranean chambers . No artefacts were found over the course of the excavations , and no trace of a burial could be found . For this reason , it is unclear whether the pyramid was used to bury a pharaoh or was abandoned following the premature death of the king .
At the time of its construction the pyramid was surrounded by a necropolis housing large mastabas belonging to the high officials of the 3rd Dynasty state . A mortuary temple was built on the eastern side of the pyramid and a valley temple was possibly located several hundred metres from it . Nowadays , the pyramid is located within the confines of a restricted military area , barring modern excavations of the site .
= = Research history = =
The layer pyramid was first examined and its surroundings explored in 1839 by John Shae Perring . Soon after , in 1848 , the pyramid was identified as such by Karl Richard Lepsius , who listed it as number XIV in his pioneering list of pyramids . Around 40 years later , in 1886 , Gaston Maspero unsuccessfully searched for the entrance of the subterranean passages of the pyramid , which was discovered in 1896 by Jacques de Morgan . The latter undertook excavations of the pyramid but stopped after clearing the first few steps of the descending stairway .
Further investigations were then performed in 1900 by Alessandro Barsanti , who uncovered the vertical access shaft leading to the burial chamber . Barsanti , seeing that several corridors and chambers were seemingly unfinished and that all were completely devoid of artefacts , deemed that the pyramid had never been used . Shortly after , in 1910 – 1911 , George Reisner and Clarence S. Fisher worked on the site , excavating the north and east exteriors of the pyramid as well as the cemeteries surrounding it . The dimensions of the pyramid as estimated by Barsanti , Reisner and Fisher differ greatly and even the numbers of subterranean galleries they report are in disagreement . Unfortunately , the pyramid lies within a restricted military area since 1970 and consequently no excavation has been undertaken there since Reisner and Fisher 's superficial work , leaving the structures beneath the pyramid in doubt . Furthermore , the pyramid is now sanded up , hampering modern estimations of its dimensions .
= = Description = =
= = = Location = = =
The Layer Pyramid lies close to the necropolis of Zawyet el 'Aryan , 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) south @-@ west of Giza and 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) north of Saqqara . The main structure is located on a rock ridge just above the floodplain .
= = = Superstructure = = =
The Layer Pyramid has a square base whose side is about 84 m ( 276 ft ) long , slightly smaller than the step pyramids of Djoser and Sekhemket . Based on the dimensions of the pyramid of Djoser , the egyptologist Jean @-@ Philippe Lauer estimated that the layer pyramid was originally planned to comprise five steps and would have reached c . 42 – 45 m ( 138 – 148 ft ) in height . Today , only two of these steps remain , reaching a height of about 17 m ( 56 ft ) . The current ruined state of the pyramid allows a view of its core , which is a 11 m2 ( 120 sq ft ) pyramidal mound made of poor quality rough stone blocks taken from the local bedrock . This core is surrounded by a 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) thick casing of the same masonry . This is in turn surrounded by 14 layers of mud bricks bonded with clay mortar and disposed almost vertically , with an inward inclination angle of 68 ° . Just as the inner @-@ most stone casing of the pyramid core , each mud brick layer is 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) thick .
Whether the pyramid was finished or left unfinished is disputed among experts . The egyptologist Rainer Stadelmann believes that the pyramid was indeed finished , but others , such as Miroslav Verner , think that the building was left unfinished because of the pharaoh 's premature death . In particular , no traces of outer cladding were found , which could hint that there never was one because the pyramid was not completed .
Mud bricks were found at the base of the pyramid , which are not associated with the pyramid itself , but are interpreted as remnants of a construction ramp .
= = = Substructure = = =
The disposition of the substructures of the layer pyramid is extremely similar to that found in the Buried Pyramid of Sekhemket . Consequently , Mark Lehner and others suggest that the two pyramids must have been constructed very close in time .
The entrance to the subterranean structures lies on the east , a disposition which would be unparalleled until the construction of the pyramid of Senusret II , almost 1000 years later . The egyptologists Vito Maraglioglio and Celeste Rinaldi proposed that this unique feature was chosen by the Egyptian architects in order to free the north side of the pyramid for the construction of a temple . Aidan Dodson showed however that in this situation , the pyramid construction ramp would have " impinged on any northern temple construction even more damagingly " . Rather , he explains this unique eastern entrance as resulting from a desire by the architects to allow for easy access to the pyramid store rooms , located immediately beneath the eastern entrance .
The entrance immediately leads to a 36 m ( 118 ft ) long steep stairway and then down on to a corridor which heads west . The corridor ends in a straight vertical shaft , at the top of which is the so @-@ called upper corridor , an unfinished passage which goes south toward the center of the pyramid . At the bottom of the shaft is a T @-@ shaped crossway . To the left , this crossway leads south to the lower corridor , half @-@ way of which is a narrow stairway , so narrow that a sarcophagus could hardly have been passed through it . The lower corridor then finishes in the king 's burial chamber . In this area of the stairway , Barsanti drew another gallery leading above the burial chamber , but this gallery is absent in Reisner 's and Fisher 's notes . To the right of the T @-@ shaped crossway is a U @-@ shaped gallery system . The ground plan of the gallery system resembles that of a comb , comprising rows of chambers , totalling 32 , which were possibly destined to be storage rooms for the gravegoods . The gallery proved to be " clean and empty , as if the workmen had only left " .
The king 's burial chamber is located 26 m ( 85 ft ) below ground , is nearly square in shape , with a base of 3 @.@ 63 m × 2 @.@ 65 m ( 11 @.@ 9 ft × 8 @.@ 7 ft ) , and a ceiling height of 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . The burial chamber contained no traces of a sarcophagus , which together with the absence of artefacts in the gallery , hints to the premature death of the king .
= = Funerary Complex and Necropolis = =
= = = Funerary Complex = = =
Interestingly , the funerary complex of the layer pyramid shows no trace of an enclosure wall , which is present in both earlier and later pyramid complexes . This could be because the stones constituting the wall were robbed over time , or simply because the wall was never started , being usually the last element of the pyramid complex to be built . At the eastern side of the pyramid , the remnants of brick walls could indicate the presence of a mortuary temple , but the archaeological traces are so tenuous that any closer examination and more precise reconstruction is impossible today . The same goes for the ruins of a building several hundred metres away from the pyramid , and which might have been the valley temple . If this was indeed a valley temple , its east @-@ west orientation would be unique in all pyramid complexes .
= = = Necropolis = = =
The layer pyramid is surrounded by a total of five cemeteries dating to the 1st Dynasty , 2nd Dynasty , late 3rd Dynasty , 18th Dynasty and Roman Period . Of these cemeteries , only the one dating to the late 3rd Dynasty contains large tombs , of which are four mud brick mastabas . Reisner and Fisher observe that this is to be expected of the necropolis surrounding the pyramid of a pharaoh , the large tombs being those of the royal family and court officials . In particular , around 200 metres ( 660 ft ) north of the layer pyramid is a huge mastaba , today known as Mastaba Z500 , which yielded eight marble bowls inscribed with the serekh of king Khaba . Reisner and Fisher therefore conclude that " if the mastabas belong to people connected with the king who built the pyramid , it is probable that the king ’ s name was Khaba " . This opinion is shared by most egyptologists who attribute the layer pyramid to Khaba .
= = Date and attribution = =
The architecture of the layer pyramid allows it to be securely dated to the time span between the reigns of king Sekhemkhet and that of king Snofru , the founder of the 4th Dynasty . Rainer Stadelmann , Miroslav Verner and Jean @-@ Philippe Lauer compare the architecture of the layer pyramid with that of the step pyramids of Djoser and Sekhemkhet , expecting the layer pyramid to have originally consisted of five steps , just as its near @-@ contemporary predecessors . The layer pyramid exhibits at one site both complex developments concerning its substructures and simplifications concerning the building methods employed for the superstructure . According to these egyptologists , the layer pyramid is a clearly advanced version of the buried pyramid of Sekhemkhet .
The remaining problem about the layer pyramid is the question of who had it built . Most scholars today believe that it was likely king Khaba of the late 3rd Dynasty . This conclusion is based on stone bowls and vases bearing the serekh of Khaba discovered in Mastaba Z500 , located just north of the pyramid . Rainer Stadelmann goes further and identifies Khaba with king Huni , the last ruler of the 3rd Dynasty . His hypothesis is based on his reading of the Turin canon , a kinglist compiled in the early Ramesside period c . 1300 BC , some 1400 years after Huni 's lifetime . The Turin canon credits Huni with a relatively long reign of 24 years . According to Stadelmann , this time would be sufficient to cover the time span needed to complete the building of the layer pyramid . He also argues that royal monuments of the first three Egyptian dynasties only present a king 's horus name in a serekh and only later do they record the throne or birth name . Thus , the serekh of Khaba could correspond to the throne name Huni . In this case , the layer pyramid would be Huni 's tomb . This conclusion is contested by most Egyptologists who think that Huni instead built the Meidum Pyramid , point to the apparent unfinished state of the layer pyramid and identify Khaba with king Hudjefa II mentioned on the Turin canon .
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= Infinity on High =
Infinity on High is the third studio album by American rock band Fall Out Boy , released on February 6 , 2007 by Island Records as the follow @-@ up to the band 's commercially successful 2005 album From Under the Cork Tree . Pre @-@ production began in the group 's hometown of Chicago , where writing and rehearsal sessions took place . It was recorded from July to October 2006 at the Pass Studios in Los Angeles , California and mixed at the Paramount Recording Studios in Hollywood . The music was composed by lead singer and guitarist Patrick Stump and the lyrics were penned by bassist Pete Wentz .
The album features collaborations with new producers and guest artists such as Babyface and Jay @-@ Z , and sees the band experimenting with musical genres other than pop punk including R & B , soul , and flamenco . The group also utilized instruments such as horns , violins and pianos , which had not been used on previous releases . As reported by Billboard , Fall Out Boy " drifts further from its pop punk roots to write increasingly accessible pop tunes , " a slight departure from the group 's previous sound . Critics felt that the lyrics served as a response to the band 's rise to fame . The group embarked on several tours to promote the album , including the Friends or Enemies Tour , the Honda Civic Tour , and the Young Wild Things Tour . In the wake of the album 's leak on the internet , the band included a download code for Leaked in London , a live extended play , with each purchase made during the first week of its initial release .
Infinity on High debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 , selling 260 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , making it Fall Out Boy 's first number one album and second top ten effort . It also reached number one in New Zealand and opened inside the top five worldwide in countries including Canada , the United Kingdom and Australia . Infinity on High has sold over two million units worldwide , with 1 @.@ 4 million sales in the US as of February 2013 . Four of the album 's fourteen songs were released as singles , of which three charted on the Billboard Hot 100 , led by the lead single " This Ain 't a Scene , It 's an Arms Race " at number two . The album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on March 12 , one month after its release , for shipments of one million copies . It received generally positive reviews from music critics , with many praising Stump 's vocals and the album 's new musical direction .
= = Background = =
After taking a two @-@ month break following the band 's Black Clouds and Underdogs tour in promotion of their 2005 album From Under the Cork Tree , Fall Out Boy returned to the studio to begin work on their follow @-@ up effort . The band began writing songs for the new album while touring , and intended to quickly make a new album in order to keep momentum in the wake of their breakthrough success . Vocalist Patrick Stump stated that he wished to begin working on the record earlier , but the group 's management urged the members to take time off to recuperate from their constant touring schedule .
The band 's label , Island Records , underwent changes while the group prepared to record , which postponed the studio schedule for three weeks . Bassist / lyricist Pete Wentz asserted that " We 're definitely writing all the time , so we 're not going to try to squeeze every last drop out of the stone . That 's part of what 's been wrong with the rock industry : they keep fans waiting far too long , and bands go away and disappear off the face of the planet . That 's not the way it 's going to be for Fall Out Boy . " During this time off , Fall Out Boy contributed a cover of the song " What 's This ? " for the 2006 rerelease of The Nightmare Before Christmas soundtrack , as well as a remix of their song " Of All the Gin Joints in All the World " for the Snakes on a Plane soundtrack . Wentz also purchased a house in Los Angeles , where he spent much time writing lyrics to new songs .
= = Recording and production = =
While writing the album , Fall Out Boy began searching for potential producers . The band sought out R & B singer / producer Babyface , as they admired his work on the soundtrack to the 2001 film version of Josie and the Pussycats . Babyface saw one of the interviews in which the band discussed its desire to work with him and contacted the group . Babyface produced two of the songs , " I 'm Like a Lawyer with the Way I 'm Always Trying to Get You Off ( Me & You ) " and " Thnks fr th Mmrs " . Neal Avron , who also produced the band 's previous album , handled production for eleven of Infinity on High 's fourteen tracks . Before recording , the band began with six weeks of pre @-@ production , which was encouraged by Avron . This period included both rehearsals and writing , as well as working out all the sounds and arrangements . It began in Chicago before the group relocated to the Swing House studios in Los Angeles . Additionally , some rough recordings of songs were created to be used in the studio as a future reference .
Infinity on High was recorded from July to October 2006 at the Pass Studios in Los Angeles . Much of the writing process was done individually by the band members . Generally , Wentz would write his lyrics first and send them to Stump , who would create a melody by playing guitar along to the words to " find a groove " . Stump 's goal with his songs was to create his music while changing Wentz ’ s original lyrics as little as possible . After a melody was written , Stump would create a general rhythm for the song . Although Fall Out Boy has no specific rhythm or lead guitar roles , Stump viewed himself as more of a rhythm guitarist on the album due to his experience as a drummer in previous bands . Guitarist Joe Trohman often wrote his guitar parts after hearing Stump ’ s work , filling in the " empty spaces " in the songs with " tons of guitars and Johnny Marr @-@ type atmospheric parts " . The group felt that this writing process helped create a more full sound .
Upon listening to the finished tracks , the members selected guest appearances they felt would work with the songs . The group " aim [ ed ] for the stars " on its choices of collaborators , with Wentz stating , " I want to bring in people who no one would expect ... This year it 's like , we made some new friends , like Lil Wayne . Or let 's get Jay @-@ Z on there . " Wentz commented on working with Jay @-@ Z , saying " It was insane . We called him up and thought we were gonna talk to his assistant . Then he answers the phone , like , ' Yo , this is Hov , ' and we were like , ' Um ... ' It just happened like that . And it was pretty crazy . " Jay @-@ Z recorded his introduction to the album 's opening song " Thriller " while on tour in Australia and sent it to the band , who later put the vocal on the album . At a fashion show in Los Angeles , Wentz met rapper Kanye West , who invited Wentz and Stump to his home to share new music . West then agreed to create a remix of " This Ain 't a Scene , It 's an Arms Race " three weeks before the scheduled release of the album . The band was unable to include the remix on the album due to time constraints , but a remix of West 's version featuring Lil Wayne , Lupe Fiasco , Travis McCoy , Paul Wall and Tyga was released in July 2007 .
During the recording of the album , the band members pursued other various activities . Stump , who co @-@ produced " Don 't You Know Who I Think I Am ? " from Infinity on High , was also working on fellow Fueled By Ramen act The Hush Sound 's album Like Vines . Wentz was conceiving a social networking website called FriendsOrEnemies.com as well as designing for his clothing line , Clandestine Industries . Wentz was often interviewed about the album at Clandestine fashion shows .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
The album marked a departure in Fall Out Boy 's sound in which the band implemented a diverse array of musical styles . As reported by Billboard , Fall Out Boy " drifts further from its hardcore punk roots to write increasingly accessible pop tunes , " a slight departure from the group 's previous more pop punk sound . Infinity on High has been compared to the work of pop punk bands such as Green Day , with Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times commenting , " Whatever snot and feedback courses through these songs , sweetness always triumphs , carried forth by bubblegum bass lines , snappy drums and tunes as comforting as lullabies . " Stump explained that the album contains a variety of different moods : " It ’ s one of those things where you get older as a band and you do your own thing ... The older Fall Out Boy elements , from the early records , are definitely there , and this album is an extension of that . "
Stump called " This Ain 't a Scene , It 's an Arms Race " the " funkiest thing we ’ ve ever done " , and attributes the change in musical style to his love of soul music , which he acquired by listening to oldies stations as a child . Wentz describes the song " a bit of ' 70s funk mixed with [ the band ’ s 2003 album ] Take This to Your Grave with tight verses and big , fat choruses " . The song closing sing @-@ along was influenced by Justin Timberlake 's " Señorita " . Cory Apar of Allmusic compared the Babyface @-@ produced track " I 'm Like a Lawyer with the Way I 'm Always Trying to Get You Off ( Me & You ) " to Maroon 5 . Wentz characterized Stump ’ s vocal performance on the song as " straight @-@ up Motown " , continuing to say " If there wasn 't a rock band playing , it 'd be straight R & B , and he 'd go on tour with just an upright bass and a drum and open up for R. Kelly . " " The Carpal Tunnel of Love " has been referred to as " a prime slab of what the boys have become famous for : highly caffeinated pop @-@ punk mixed with a little white @-@ boy soul and some hard @-@ core yelping . " The song features Stump singing in a falsetto in the chorus over Trohman ’ s " crunchy " guitars , as well as a breakdown in which Wentz employs death growl @-@ style vocals .
The band also used instruments that did not appear on previous albums , such as horns and violins . The members became more open to experimentation , but attempted to not over @-@ produce the album ; Stump stated that he " had to resist the temptation to use a lot of strings . " " Golden " consists exclusively of vocals and piano , and Stump dubbed the song " much softer than anything we ’ ve ever done " . The group utilizes a full horn section on " I 've Got All This Ringing in My Ears and None on My Fingers " , a track which has been likened to Queen . Violins are used on both " Thnks fr th Mmrs " , in addition to an acoustic guitar strummed flamenco @-@ style , and " The ( After ) Life of the Party " , which also features electronic @-@ influenced sounds . Commenting on the instruments used on " Thnks fr th Mmrs " , Stump stated " I never thought I 'd get a euphonium onto a Fall Out Boy record " . " You 're Crashing , But You 're No Wave " features a gospel choir , while " Thriller " contains a spoken @-@ word intro from Jay @-@ Z. Barry Nicolson of NME referred to the song as a " towering , Foo Fighters @-@ esque slice of thunderous rhythm and radio @-@ friendly melody . "
= = = Lyrics = = =
While writing the album , Wentz drew lyrical inspiration from rapper Lil Wayne , whom he called " the best lyricist of [ 2006 ] . " Speaking of Infinity on High 's lyrical themes , Wentz stated , " On the last record , the lyrics were about ' This is where we 're going to be a year from now , and this is what you 're going to be saying about us . ' But this time , we realized that a lot of bands should spend less time running their mouths and more time writing their songs . " In 2013 , Wentz reflected , " on a record like Infinity on High , I feel like I tried really hard to explain my perspective – and when I look back on it in hindsight I think it ’ s an extremely unrelatable record . Critics felt that much of the lyrics address the band 's rise to fame and the pressure of maintaining a loyal fanbase . Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker commented that " The only top @-@ ten acts that talk about fame as much as Fall Out Boy does are rappers , although their take on selling records is less conflicted . " Cory Apar of Allmusic opined that " Wentz ' lyrics are oftentimes resentful , full of fame @-@ induced angst , and really emphasize his need to drive home his position that stardom has not changed the band . "
" Thriller " serves as an autobiographical recap of the two years following From Under the Cork Tree 's release , referencing the band 's mediocre CD reviews and breakout success , as well as thanking their " diehard " fans . The song discusses the band 's Best New Artist Grammy loss , and Wentz calls it the " most narcissistic song on the album " . The line " Fix me in forty @-@ five " is a reference to the length of a therapy session . On " This Ain 't a Scene , It 's an Arms Race " , Wentz uses wartime @-@ inspired metaphors to discuss their newfound popularity ; he called the song " kind of a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek look at the way we are so addicted and obsessed with new arts , cultures and loves – to the point where it just becomes oversaturated . " " I 'm Like a Lawyer ... " has been described as " about as close to a love song as you 'll get from this band , a rare moment of tenderness among songs about blog entries , guest lists , and therapy sessions . " In a tribute to the politicized Chicago hardcore scene , Wentz describes the story of a rigged court case of African @-@ American civil rights activist Fred Hampton , Jr. in " You 're Crashing , But You 're No Wave " . The song has been described as a " very well @-@ written track , a welcome respite from the one @-@ liners which permeate the majority of the record . "
= = Packaging and title = =
The album 's title is taken from a letter written by Vincent van Gogh to his brother Theo in 1888 , in which he describes his renewed health and the positive effect it has had on his painting . Originally written in Dutch , Van Gogh 's phrasing has been translated as " Be clearly aware of the stars and infinity on high . Then life seems almost enchanted after all " . Speaking of the title shortly after its announcement in November 2006 , Wentz stated " As for what that means in relation to the record , we 'll just let it unfold when people hear it . " While Wentz declined to reveal the relationship between the title and the album 's songs , MTV reporter James Montgomery opined that " It 's not difficult to see it as a statement about the band rising above detractors and finding strength within themselves . "
The photography for the album was done by Pamela Littky , and the sets on the album artwork were designed by Todd Fjelsted . Chuck Anderson of NoPattern designed the artwork for the album . A winged sheep is depicted on the cover of the album in a bedroom with the moon and stars in the background , while the inside of the CD booklet features " tarot card " designs with photos of each of the band members .
= = Promotion = =
Promotion for the album began in November 2006 with the band performing " This Ain 't a Scene , It 's an Arms Race " for the first time at the American Music Awards on November 21 . The song was shipped to radio the same night as the performance . In the week following the performance , the single was the top added track at Pop and Alternative radio . While the song was the first song revealed from the album , it would not receive an official single release until January 2007 . " The Carpal Tunnel of Love " was released as a digital promotional single in December 2006 . It was a minor hit in the United States , peaking at 81 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The band then began the Friends or Enemies Tour in January 2007 to build interest in the album . The tour consisted of intimate club shows in fifteen cities throughout the United States , with New Found Glory , The Early November , Permanent Me and Lifetime . Two weeks before Infinity on High was released , the album was leaked online , which led to rumors on the band 's message boards that the album would be released a week early . Although these rumors were incorrect , Fall Out Boy responded to the leak by including an exclusive live EP , Leaked in London , recorded in London 's Hammersmith Palais at their sold @-@ out show on January 29 , 2006 , with each purchase to encourage fans to buy the album . The EP could be downloaded from the band 's website between Tuesday , February 6 , 2007 and Tuesday , February 13 , 2007 using CDPass software along with inserting a physical copy of Infinity on High into the CD @-@ ROM drive of one 's computer . Infinity on High was the final release from Rabid Neurosis , a warez organization responsible for leaking 20 @,@ 000 albums before their release .
On February 6 , 2007 , the day of the album 's release , Fall Out Boy played three free shows , each in a different city in the United States . The day started with a morning performance in Times Square in New York City , followed by a gig in the band 's hometown of Chicago , and then a late @-@ night show in Los Angeles . In March 2008 , Fall Out Boy attempted to enter the The Guinness Book of World Records for being the only band to perform in all seven continents in nine months , planning to perform in Antarctica for an audience of scientists while working with Greenpeace to raise awareness about global warming . However , the group was unable to make the flight from Punta Arenas , Chile to Antarctica due to poor weather . Instead , Wentz and Stump went on to break the world record for the most interviews conducted by a duo in a 24 @-@ hour period , setting the mark at seventy @-@ four .
To promote the album after its release , Fall Out Boy embarked on an extensive tour schedule , with concerts across the United States , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , Europe and Asia . It began with the 2007 Honda Civic Tour with Paul Wall , + 44 , The Academy Is ... , and Cobra Starship . The tour was originally planned to begin on April 18 , 2007 but the band decided to postpone the date until May 11 , citing health issues and exhaustion . Wentz stated " It 's a health issue , but not a health issue that anyone needs to worry about . It 's not life @-@ threatening , it 's more about being overworked and worn down . " In honor of the tour , the group designed a custom Honda Civic Hybrid which was given away to a fan in a contest . Wentz described the tour as " our biggest show ever " , with Stump adding that " We 've been working really hard to make this show look and sound the best it 's ever been for Fall Out Boy . " For a Kiss @-@ inspired fan contest , Wentz 's brother created prints of images based on the record , created with ink mixed with the band members ' blood . The band gave away prints to winners at every stop on the Honda Civic Tour . Wentz hoped that the contest would serve to " [ shed ] some light on the much @-@ needed support for blood drives . " A live concert CD and DVD recorded at a show in Phoenix was later released in 2008 , entitled Live in Phoenix .
The band also headlined the Young Wild Things Tour , an international arena tour featuring Gym Class Heroes , Plain White T 's and Cute Is What We Aim For . Of the thirty one dates , twenty nine were in the US with two in Canada . The tour was inspired by Maurice Sendak 's 1963 children 's book Where the Wild Things Are , and included sets designed by artist Rob Dobi containing images from the book . Commenting on the decision to incorporate elements from the book , Wentz explained " Where the Wild Things Are is a great narrative . It encapsulates pretty much every FOB song ever written : You know , tantrums and monster islands and all . "
= = Singles = =
Four songs were released as singles from the album 's fourteen tracks , of which three charted on the US Billboard Hot 100 and all reaching international charts . Infinity on High was spurred on by the lead single " This Ain 't a Scene , It 's an Arms Race " , which became the highest charting song for band and their first to chart worldwide . Wentz commented on the band 's decision to pick " This Ain 't a Scene ... " as the first single , saying " There may be other songs on the record that would be bigger radio hits , but this one had the right message . " It was sent to radio weeks before its digital release in January 2007 ; upon digital release the track debuted and peaked at number two on the Hot 100 where it stayed at that position for two consecutive weeks , spending nine weeks in the top ten . The single sold 162 @,@ 000 digital downloads in its opening week , breaking various music industry records and becoming the highest debut of 2007 . With this total it was the largest opening @-@ week tally for a group since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking digital sales in 2003 and set a new record for the highest bow for a band since radio only titles joined the chart in 1998 . It also reached number one on the defunct @-@ Pop 100 , number one on Billboard Digital Songs and came at number eight on Alternative Songs . Internationally , " This Ain 't a Scene ... " debuted and peaked inside the top ten of many charts . It reached number one in New Zealand , number two in the UK , number four and Platinum status in Australia , number four on the Canadian Hot 100 and in Ireland , and placed at number nine on the European Hot 100 .
" Thnks fr th Mmrs " was released as the second single in the US in March 2007 . It peaked at number eleven on the Hot 100 with twenty @-@ eight chart weeks before it was retired . It came at number five on Digital Songs , but performed weaker on the Radio Songs chart at number forty . It reached the two @-@ million sales mark week ending December 27 , 2009 in the US . Its highest charting was in Australia where it peaked at number three on the Australian ARIA chart and achieved Platinum status in the region . In New Zealand , the UK , Canada and Ireland " Thnks fr th Mmrs " reached the top twenty .
" " The Take Over , the Breaks Over " " was released in August 2007 in the US as the third single and failed to chart on the Hot 100 , although it did reach number 48 on the UK Singles Chart , with its highest position at number seventeen in Australia , becoming the third consecutive top twenty hit from Infinity on High in that region . The fourth and last single , " I 'm Like a Lawyer with the Way I 'm Always Trying to Get You Off ( Me & You ) " managed to reach number 68 in the US and made the top 30 in Australia . " The Carpal Tunnel of Love " was not an official single but it was leaked online by the band before Infinity 's release and was later given as an exclusive download to iTunes ; it managed to reach number eighty @-@ one on the Hot 100 .
= = Critical reception = =
Infinity on High received generally positive reviews from music critics , with many praising Stump 's vocals and the album 's new musical direction . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 75 , based on 23 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Jody Rosen of Entertainment Weekly gave the album an A- , commending the band 's " new sense of swing " on its R & B @-@ influenced songs and noting that Stump " has evolved into a superb frontman . " Dave de Silva of Sputnikmusic agreed about Stump 's new vocal style , saying that " his tone is smoother and more well @-@ rounded , he ’ s cut out the borderline screechy high @-@ end which made parts of the previous album unlistenable and , though occasionally still nasally , his tones are far more varied and adaptable to different styles " as well as calling Wentz ' lyrics " as sharp as ever " . Andrew Blackie of PopMatters called the album " wildly exciting and experimental " and felt it greatly improved upon From Under the Cork Tree . Aaron Burgess of The A.V. Club enjoyed the disc 's new pop direction and felt that the songs that were more typical of Fall Out Boy 's original sound , such as " The Carpal Tunnel of Love " undermined the album 's potential . Sven Philipp of Billboard called Infinity on High a " shamelessly melodic , wild and powerful pop record " and referred to Stump as the album 's " true surprise " . The album was ranked No. 38 on Q 's 50 Best Albums of 2007 .
However , some critics felt that the album was overly ambitious and that the band 's musical departure may alienate listeners . Chad Grischow of IGN felt that the album 's dramatic hooks seem " bloated " at times : " The band does a great of focusing on what they do best , but the album does drown itself a bit with all the overwhelming enormity of it all . " Scott Shetler of Slant disliked the " melodramatic " undertones of " I 've Got All This Ringing in My Ears and None on My Fingers " and " Golden " , writing " they don 't handle that style quite as well as Panic ! at the Disco " . Cory Apar of AllMusic opined that the album 's pop direction contradicts the band 's lyrical claims of wishing to stick to their roots . He called the album 's various styles " hit and miss " , yet commented that " Once Infinity on High sinks in , it 's indeed a fun record . But for a band that was once so self @-@ assured and able to utilize its talents so compellingly , the album is regrettably haphazard . " Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian believed that the album was overly sullen , but noted that " They may not be happy , but they haven 't forgotten to be catchy . " Barry Nicholson of NME found the amount of guest producers to be unnecessary and disliked some of the songs , but admired the album 's " infectious " nature .
= = Chart performance = =
Infinity on High was a major commercial success , debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first week sales of 260 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Infinity has sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies in the US to date February 2013 . It was the band 's first US number one album and second consecutive top ten effort , as its previous release , From Under the Cork Tree , peaked at number nine . The album spent its first six weeks in the top ten , out of a total of fifty two chart weeks . Infinity on High also opened at number one on Billboard 's Rock Albums , Tastemaker Albums , and Digital Albums charts , with over 27 @,@ 000 digital sales making up the total first week tally . In its second week , it fell to number five on the Billboard 200 , selling 119 @,@ 000 copies with a 54 % decline during a post @-@ Grammy week . The album rose to number three in its third week with 79 @,@ 000 units sold . In its fourth week , the disc slipped to number four and sold 67 @,@ 000 copies . Infinity on High 's sales again fell in its fifth week , moving 58 @,@ 000 copies and descending to number eight on the chart . In its sixth and last week in the top ten it fell to number nine and sold 43 @,@ 000 copies . In April 2007 , the album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting the shipment of one million copies . It finished the year at number twenty @-@ one on IFPI 's list of the " Top 50 Global Best Selling Albums of 2007 " . Infinity on High has shipped over two million copies worldwide .
The album also charted inside the top five worldwide , making it the band 's most successful and breakthrough album internationally . Infinity on High charted all over Europe , debuting at number eight on Billboard 's European Albums chart . In Australia , it debuted at its peak of number four on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart . It remained on the Australian chart for a total of fifty weeks , spending its first seven weeks in the top ten . In its 31st chart week it broke into the top ten again where it remained for another six weeks in a row , accumulating a total of thirteen weeks in the top ten . The CD was certified Double Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 140 @,@ 000 copies . Infinity on High debuted at number one in New Zealand , and remained at the top position for six consecutive weeks , logging a total of thirty @-@ seven chart weeks , making it the fifth longest chart sitter on the New Zealand charts in 2007 . After marking its first twelve weeks in the top ten , it went on to spend a combined total of twenty @-@ six weeks inside the top twenty and received a Platinum accreditation from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for 15 @,@ 000 shipments . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number three with 64 @,@ 054 first week sales and made nine weeks in the top twenty , being certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for 300 @,@ 000 units shipped . It went on to sell 446 @,@ 807 in the UK to date January 2015 . The album debuted at number two in Canada with 21 @,@ 000 first week sales . Infinity was certified Platinum by Music Canada for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . In Ireland , the record peaked at number six according to the Irish Recorded Music Association with fourteen weeks within the top twenty , and also went Platinum there . After entering the French albums chart at number 64 , Infinity on High reached its peak of number 17 and held on for 64 weeks in the top 150 .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Pete Wentz , all music composed by Fall Out Boy .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
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= Church of St George , Kyustendil =
The Church of St George ( Bulgarian : църква „ Свети Георги “ , tsarkva „ Sveti Georgi “ ) is a medieval Eastern Orthodox church in the city of Kyustendil , which lies in southwestern Bulgaria and is the administrative capital of Kyustendil Province . The church is located in the Kolusha neighbourhood , which was historically separate from the city . The church was constructed in the 10th – 11th century and its frescoes are somewhat later , as the earliest layers were painted in the 11th – 12th century .
= = History = =
The Church of St George is dated to the late 10th or early 11th century based on its architectural appearance and mural paintings , which makes it the oldest preserved church in the city . It is located in Kyustendil 's southwestern part , in the former village of Kolusha , which in 1939 was merged into the city .
There is a theory that Bulgarian emperor Michael Shishman was buried in the Church of St George after he perished in the Battle of Velbazhd in 1330 . The battle was a Serbian victory over the Second Bulgarian Empire which paved the way for the short @-@ lived Serbian dominance over the Balkans in the mid @-@ 14th century . However , scholar Bistra Nikolova entirely dismisses this theory as an " erroneous reference in [ Bulgarian history ] literature " .
Despite being located outside Kyustendil at the time , up until the construction of the city 's main Bulgarian National Revival @-@ style church in 1816 , the Church of St George served as Kyustendil 's cathedral . The church suffered some severe damage during the 19th century , the time of the Ottoman rule of Bulgaria ; it was mostly destroyed , leaving only the foundations of the arches . It was reconstructed in 1878 – 1880 , just after the establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria , with further restoration in the 2000s .
= = Architecture and decoration = =
The church follows the Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square design and measures 10 by 8 @.@ 70 metres ( 32 @.@ 8 ft × 28 @.@ 5 ft ) . The dome is octagonal and features eight bays , four of which contain windows . There is no narthex and the cella appears square . A total of six pillars support the church from the inside . Two frame the entrance of the altar , while the remaining four stand below the dome . The church has three apses , all of a semicircular design . Materials used for the church 's construction were bricks and mortar , resulting in interchanging rows of red and white .
The church 's interior has preserved a number of medieval frescoes , particularly in the lower reaches of the walls and pillars . The paintings in the altar were done in the 11th – 12th century , while the decoration of the pillars dates to the 12th century . All inscriptions that accompany the murals are in Medieval Greek . The altar features the images of four deacons bearing a censer and monstrances as well as two bishops who could possibly be identified as Basil of Caesarea and John Chrysostom . A number of saints are also depicted inside the church , including Saint Elijah , Saints Cosmas and Damian , Saint Hermolaus , Saint Pantaleon , and four unidentified female saints . There are also later works of art in the church . It boasts icons or murals by painter Ivan Dospevski from 1881 as well as works by Mihail Belstoynev .
Due to its architectural and artistic value , the Church of St George has been part of the list of Bulgaria 's monuments of cultural of national importance since 1927 . With the reorganization of the list in the 1960s , it was included on it both as an architectural and as an artistic monument , in 1968 and 1969 respectively . Together with the native house of Dimitar Peshev and the city art gallery , since 2010 it has been listed as number 26 among the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria .
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= Chloë Sevigny =
Chloë Stevens Sevigny ( / ˈkloʊ.iː ˈsɛvəni / ; born November 18 , 1974 ) is an American actress , fashion designer , director and former model . Sevigny was discovered on the street in New York City in 1992 by a magazine editor , who offered her jobs both modeling and interning at Sassy Magazine , a teen magazine aimed at girls with alternative tastes . In 1994 , she attracted the attention of journalist Jay McInerney , who wrote a 7 @-@ page article about her for The New Yorker , in which he called a then 19 @-@ year @-@ old Sevigny the " coolest girl in the world . "
Sevigny made her film debut with a lead role in the controversial film Kids ( 1995 ) , written by her then boyfriend Harmony Korine and received an Independent Spirit Award nomination for her performance . A long line of roles in generally well @-@ received independent and often experimental films throughout the decade established Sevigny 's reputation as " Queen of the Indies . " In 1999 , Sevigny gained recognition outside of the independent film world for her role as Lana Tisdel in the true story Boys Don 't Cry , earning her Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress . Despite her brush with mainstream success , Sevigny continued acting in mostly independent art house films , such as American Psycho ( 2000 ) , Party Monster ( 2003 ) , and Dogville ( 2003 ) . Her role in the art house film The Brown Bunny ( 2003 ) caused significant controversy because of a scene in which she performs unsimulated fellatio . Her films since then have included Melinda and Melinda ( 2004 ) , Manderlay ( 2005 ) , and Zodiac ( 2007 ) , the latter of which marked Sevigny 's transition into a more big budget studio picture .
From 2006 to 2011 , Sevigny played the polygamist Nicolette Grant in the HBO television series Big Love , for which she won a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actress in 2010 . She then appeared in several television projects , including lead roles in Hit & Miss ( 2012 ) and American Horror Story : Hotel ( 2015 – 2016 ) , and recurring roles on American Horror Story : Asylum ( 2012 – 2013 ) , Bloodline ( 2014 ) , and Portlandia . Sevigny has two Off @-@ Broadway theatre credits , and has starred in several music videos . She has also designed several wardrobe collections , most recently with Manhattan 's Opening Ceremony boutique . The short film Kitty , which Sevigny directed , closed the 2016 Cannes Film Festival .
= = Early life = =
Sevigny was born in Springfield , Massachusetts , the second child of Janine ( née Malinowski ) and H. David Sevigny . She has one older brother , Paul . Her mother is Polish American , and her father was of French Canadian heritage . Sevigny was raised in Darien , Connecticut , where her father worked as an accountant turned local art teacher . Sevigny 's father died of cancer in 1996 . Despite Darien 's affluence , Sevigny 's parents had a " frugal " household , and were considered " the poor bohemians in [ an ] extremely prosperous neighborhood . " Sevigny expressed interest in acting as a child , and spent summers attending theatre camp , with leading roles in plays run by the YMCA . She was raised Roman Catholic , and attended Darien High School , where she was a member of the Alternative Learning Program . While in high school , she often babysat actor Topher Grace and his younger sister . As a teenager , she worked sweeping the tennis courts of a country club her family could not afford to join .
During her teenage years , Sevigny became rebellious : " I was very well @-@ mannered , and my mother was very strict . But I did hang out at the Mobil station and smoke cigarettes . " Between her junior and senior year of high school , she shaved her head and sold her hair to a Broadway wigmaker . She openly admitted to using drugs as a teenager , especially hallucinogens . She has commented that her father was aware of her experimentation with hallucinogens and marijuana , and even told her that it was okay , but that she had " to stop if she had bad trips " . Despite her father 's leniency , her mother later chose to send her to Alcoholics Anonymous meetings . In 2007 , she told The Times that " I had a great family life – I would never want it to look as if it reflected on them . I think I was very bored , and I did just love taking hallucinogens ... but I often feel it 's because I experimented when I was younger that I have no interest as an adult . I know a lot of adults who didn 't , and it 's much more dangerous when you start experimenting with drugs as an adult . " She often described herself as a " loner " and a " depressed teenager " . Her only extracurricular activity was occasionally skateboarding with her older brother , and she spent most of her free time in her bedroom : " Mostly I sewed . I had nothing better to do , so I made my own clothes . "
= = Career = =
= = = 1992 – 94 : Beginnings = = =
As a teenager , Sevigny would occasionally ditch school in Darien and catch the train into Manhattan . In 1992 , at age 17 , she was spotted on an East Village street by Andrea Linett , a fashion editor of Sassy magazine , who was so impressed by her style that she asked her to model for the magazine ; she was later made an intern . When recounting the event , Sevigny was ambivalent about it , stating that " the woman at Sassy just liked the hat I was wearing " . She later modeled in the magazine as well as for X @-@ girl , the subsidiary fashion label of the Beastie Boys ' " X @-@ Large " , designed by Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth , which then led to an appearance in the music video for Sonic Youth 's " Sugar Kane " .
In 1993 , at age 19 , Sevigny relocated from her Connecticut hometown to an apartment in Brooklyn , and worked as a seamstress . During that time , author Jay McInerney spotted her around New York City and wrote a seven @-@ page article about her for The New Yorker in which he dubbed her the new " it girl " and referred to her as one of the " coolest girls in the world " . She subsequently appeared on the album cover of Gigolo Aunts ' 1994 recording Flippin ' Out and the EP Full @-@ On Bloom , as well as a Lemonheads music video which further increased her reputation in New York 's early 1990s underground scene .
= = = 1995 – 98 : Early work = = =
Sevigny encountered young screenwriter and aspiring director Harmony Korine in Washington Square Park in New York City during her senior year of high school in 1993 . The two became close friends , which resulted in her being cast in the low @-@ budget independent film Kids ( 1995 ) . Directed by Larry Clark and written by Korine , Sevigny plays a New York teenager who discovers she is HIV positive . According to Sevigny , she was originally cast in a much smaller role in the film , but ended up replacing Canadian actress Mia Kirshner . Just two days before production began , the leading role went to the then @-@ 19 @-@ year @-@ old Sevigny , who had no professional acting experience ; she said of her casting in the role , " Harmony [ Korine ] just thought I was this sweet , cute girl and he liked my blonde hair . " Nonetheless , Kids was highly controversial ; the film was given an NC @-@ 17 rating by the Motion Picture Association of America for its graphic depiction of sexuality and recreational substance and drug use involving teenagers . Despite its controversy , Kids was taken note of critically and commercially : respected film critic Janet Maslin considered the film a " wake @-@ up call to the modern world " about the nature of the American youth in contemporary urban settings . Sevigny 's performance was praised , with critics noting that she brought a tenderness to the chaotic , immoral nature of the film : " Sevigny provided the warm , reflective center in this feral film " . She ended up receiving an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Supporting Female .
Sevigny followed Kids with actor / director Steve Buscemi 's independent film Trees Lounge ( 1996 ) , starring in a relatively small role as Buscemi 's object of affection . During this time , director Mary Harron ( after having seen Kids ) offered Sevigny a minor part in her film , I Shot Andy Warhol ( 1996 ) . Harron tracked Sevigny down to the SoHo clothing store Liquid Sky , where she was working at the time . Sevigny then gave her first audition ever , but ultimately decided to turn down the part ; she would later work with Harron on American Psycho ( 2000 ) . Instead of taking the part in I Shot Andy Warhol , Sevigny starred in and worked as a fashion designer on Gummo ( 1997 ) , directed and written by Harmony Korine , who was romantically involved with Sevigny during filming . Gummo was as controversial as Sevigny 's debut ; set in Xenia , Ohio , the film depicts an array of nihilistic characters in a poverty @-@ stricken small @-@ town America , and presents issues such as drug and sexual abuse as well as anti @-@ social alienated youth in Midwestern America . In retrospection to the confronting nature of the film , Sevigny cited it as one of her favorite projects : " Young people love that movie . It 's been stolen from every Blockbuster in America . It 's become a cult film " . The film was dedicated to Sevigny 's father , who died prior to the film 's release .
After Gummo , Sevigny starred in the neo @-@ noir thriller Palmetto ( 1998 ) , playing a young Florida kidnapee alongside Woody Harrelson . She then had a leading role as a Hampshire College graduate in the sardonic period piece The Last Days of Disco ( 1998 ) , alongside Kate Beckinsale . The film was written and directed by cult director Whit Stillman and details the rise and fall of the Manhattan club scene in the " very early 1980s " . Stillman said of Sevigny : " Chloë is a natural phenomenon . You 're not directing , she 's not performing — it 's just real . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that Sevigny " is seductively demure " in her performance as Alice . The film was generally well received , but was not a box @-@ office success in the United States , only grossing $ 3 million — it has since become somewhat of a success as a cult film .
Aside from film work , Sevigny starred in a 1998 Off @-@ Broadway production of Hazelwood Jr . High , which tells the true story of the 1992 murder of Shanda Sharer ; Sevigny played 17 @-@ year @-@ old Laurie Tackett , one of four girls responsible for torturing and murdering 12 @-@ year @-@ old Sharer . Sevigny was reportedly so emotionally disturbed after playing the role that she began attending Catholic Mass again .
= = = 1999 – 2003 : Boys Don 't Cry , breakthrough = = =
Sevigny was cast in the independent drama Boys Don 't Cry ( 1999 ) after director Kimberly Peirce saw her performance in The Last Days of Disco . Sevigny 's role in Boys Don 't Cry — a biographical film of trans man Brandon Teena , who was raped and murdered in Humboldt , Nebraska in 1993 — was responsible for her rise to prominence and her mainstream success . Sevigny played Lana Tisdel , a young woman who fell in love with Teena , initially unaware of the fact that he was designated female at birth and continued the relationship despite learning about his birth gender . Boys Don 't Cry received high praise from critics , and was a moderate box @-@ office success . Sevigny 's performance was singled out as one of the film 's strong points and was widely embraced as one of the best acted films of that year : The Los Angeles Times noted that Sevigny " plays the role with haunting immediacy , " Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun Times stated that " it is Sevigny who provides our entrance into the story " and Rolling Stone wrote that Sevigny gives a " performance that burns into the memory " . Director Kimberly Peirce echoed the same feelings of the critics : " Chloë just surrendered to the part . She watched videos of Lana . She just became her very naturally . She 's not one of those Hollywood actresses who diets and gets plastic surgery . You never catch her acting . " The role earned Sevigny Best Supporting Actress nominations for both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award . Sevigny won an Independent Spirit Award , a Satellite Award , and a Sierra Award for her performance .
Following Boys Don 't Cry , Sevigny had a supporting role in American Psycho , based on the controversial 1991 novel by Bret Easton Ellis . Sevigny plays the office assistant of Patrick Bateman , played by Christian Bale , a 1980s Manhattan yuppie @-@ turned @-@ serial killer . The film , as was its source novel , was controversial because of its depiction of graphic violence and sexuality in an upper @-@ class Manhattan society . In addition , she reunited with Kids writer and Gummo director Harmony Korine for the experimental Julien Donkey @-@ Boy ( 1999 ) , playing the pregnant sister of a schizophrenic man . Though it never saw a major theatrical release , it garnered some critical praise ; Roger Ebert gave the film his signature thumbs up , referring to it as " Freaks shot by the Blair Witch crew " , and continuing to say , " The odds are good that most people will dislike this film and be offended by it . For others , it will provoke sympathy rather than scorn " . Sevigny followed Julien with a small part in the drama film A Map of the World ( 1999 ) , opposite Sigourney Weaver .
Between 1998 and 2000 , Sevigny moved back to Connecticut to live with her mother , and appeared as a lesbian in the Emmy Award @-@ winning television movie If These Walls Could Talk 2 ( 2000 ) , the sequel to the HBO television drama @-@ film If These Walls Could Talk ( 1996 ) . Sevigny reportedly took the role in the film in order to help pay her mother 's mortgage payment , and has credited it as the only film she ever made for financial benefit . Following this appearance , Sevigny was approached for a supporting role in the 2001 comedy Legally Blonde alongside Reese Witherspoon and offered $ 500 @,@ 000 ; she declined and the role was given to Selma Blair . Instead , she starred in Olivier Assayas ' French techno thriller Demonlover ( 2002 ) alongside Connie Nielsen , for which she was required to learn her lines in French . Sevigny described shooting the film as " strange " , in the sense that director Assayas hardly spoke to her during the filming , which she said was difficult because of the lack of " input " . After spending nearly three months in France to complete Demonlover , Sevigny returned to New York to film the club kid biopic , Party Monster ( 2003 ) ; coincidentally , Sevigny in fact knew several of the people depicted in the film ( Michael Alig and James St. James included ) , whom she met during her frequent trips to New York City 's club scene as a teenager .
Sevigny then obtained a role in Lars von Trier 's parable film Dogville ( 2003 ) , playing one of the various residents of a small mountain town , alongside Nicole Kidman , Lauren Bacall , and Paul Bettany ; the film received mixed reactions , and was criticized by critics Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper as being " anti @-@ American " . Sevigny re @-@ united with former Boys Don 't Cry star Peter Sarsgaard for the biographical film Shattered Glass ( 2003 ) , also alongside Hayden Christensen , about the career of Stephen Glass , a journalist whose reputation is destroyed when his widespread journalistic fraud was exposed . Sevigny played a co @-@ editor of Glass 's .
= = = 2004 – 06 : The Brown Bunny controversy = = =
In 2003 , Sevigny took on the lead female role in the art house film The Brown Bunny ( 2003 ) , which details a lonely traveling motorcycle racer reminiscing about his former lover . The film achieved notoriety for its final scene , which involves Sevigny performing unsimulated fellatio on star and director Vincent Gallo . The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival , and opened to significant controversy and criticism from audiences and critics . She went on to defend the movie , " It 's a shame people write so many things when they haven 't seen it . When you see the film , it makes more sense . It 's an art film . It should be playing in museums . It 's like an Andy Warhol movie . " After the film 's release at the 2003 Cannes Film Festival , the William Morris Agency terminated Sevigny as a client . The agency believed the scene was " one step above pornography " , and claimed that Sevigny 's career " may never recover " . In an interview with The Telegraph in 2003 , when asked if she regretted the film , she responded : " No , I was always committed to the project on the strength of Vincent alone . I have faith in his aesthetic [ ... ] I try to forgive and forget , otherwise I 'd just become a bitter old lady . "
Despite the backlash toward the film , some critics praised Sevigny 's performance ; Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said , " Actresses have been asked and even bullied into performing similar acts for filmmakers since the movies began , usually behind closed doors . Ms. Sevigny isn 't hiding behind anyone 's desk . She says her lines with feeling and puts her iconoclasm right out there where everyone can see it ; she may be nuts , but she 's also unforgettable . " Roger Ebert , although critical of The Brown Bunny , nevertheless noted that Sevigny brought " a truth and vulnerability " to the film .
Despite her agency 's disapproval of the film ( and fear that the actress might have forever tarnished her career ) , she continued on with various projects . Sevigny had a major supporting role as a Manhattanite in Woody Allen 's two @-@ sided tragicomedy , Melinda and Melinda ( 2004 ) , which Sevigny referred to as being a " pleasing " experience . She subsequently guest @-@ starred on the popular television show Will & Grace , and a string of film roles followed , including a small role in Lars von Trier 's sequel to Dogville , titled Manderlay ( 2005 ) , as well as a bit part alongside Bill Murray in Broken Flowers ( 2005 ) . Sevigny also played one of several lovers of New York doctor Herman Tarnower in the HBO television film Mrs. Harris ( 2005 ) alongside Annette Bening and Ben Kingsley . Sevigny then had a major role as a Catholic nun visiting Africa in one of three stories in 3 Needles ( 2005 ) , an anthology dealing with the prevalence of AIDS in various parts of the world . Sevigny 's performance in the film was praised ; Dennis Harvey of Variety called her performance in the film " convincing " , while Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times also referred to Sevigny as " ever @-@ daring and shrewd " . Shortly after 3 Needles , Sevigny played the lead character in the experimental indie @-@ film Lying ( 2006 ) with Jena Malone and Leelee Sobieski , playing a pathological liar who gathers three female acquaintances for a weekend at her upstate New York country house ; the film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in 2006 . She also had a leading part in Douglas Buck 's 2006 remake of the Brian De Palma horror film Sisters ( 1973 ) .
= = = 2007 – 11 : Big Love = = =
In 2006 , Sevigny began her five @-@ season run in the HBO television series Big Love , about a family of fundamentalist Mormon polygamists . She played Nicolette Grant , the conniving , shopaholic daughter of a cult leader and second wife to a polygamist husband , played by Bill Paxton . Sevigny found even more mainstream success with a role in her first big @-@ budget production as Robert Graysmith 's wife Melanie in David Fincher 's Zodiac ( 2007 ) , telling the true story of San Francisco 's infamous Zodiac killer . In 2009 , Sevigny starred in the independent psychological thriller film The Killing Room , and Werner Herzog 's My Son , My Son , What Have Ye Done , a crime horror film based on murderer Mark Yavorsky , produced by David Lynch . Sevigny also had a voice part in the independent documentary film , Beautiful Darling ( 2010 ) , narrating the life of trans woman Warhol superstar Candy Darling through Darling 's diaries and personal letters . Throughout 2009 , Sevigny continued working on Big Love 's fourth season ; when filming the series , she spent six months of the year living outside of Los Angeles near Santa Clarita , away from her home in New York City .
In January 2010 , Sevigny won a Golden Globe award for Best Supporting Actress – Series , Miniseries or Television Film for her performance in the third season of Big Love . The series itself also received nominations in two other categories . During a press conference following the award win , Sevigny addressed the repressed women living in the fundamentalist Mormon compounds : " These women are kept extremely repressed . They should be helped . They don 't even know who the president of the United States is . " In addition , she had various screening credits that year : Sevigny landed major roles in two independent comedy films : Barry Munday and Mr. Nice in Munday , Sevigny plays the sister of a homely woman who is expecting a child by a recently castrated womanizer ( opposite Patrick Wilson and Judy Greer ) ; in Mr. Nice , she had a leading role as British marijuana @-@ trafficker Howard Marks ' wife , alongside Rhys Ifans ; the film was based on Marks ' autobiography of the same name . In a later interview with The A.V. Club , Sevigny was asked if she felt that the show 's message was that polygamy was " wrong " . In response , Sevigny stated : " No , absolutely not . I think there are more parallels to gay rights and alternative lifestyles within Big Love — more so than " Polygamy is wrong . " I think they actually condone people who decide to live this lifestyle outside of fundamentalist sects . " During the same interview , Sevigny stated her disappointment with the series ' fourth season , calling it " awful " and " very telenovela " — though she stated that she loves her character and the writing , she felt the show " got away from itself . " Sevigny later regretted making the statements , saying she was very " exhausted " and " wasn 't thinking about what [ she ] was saying " ; she also apologized to the show 's producers . " [ I didn 't want them to think ] that I was biting the hand that feeds me , because I obviously love the show and have always been nothing but positive about it . And I didn 't want anybody to misunderstand me or think that I wasn 't , you know , appreciative . "
In March 2010 , Sevigny attended the South by Southwest Film Festival in Austin for the premiere of both Barry Munday and Mr. Nice ; Barry Munday was picked up for distribution by Magnolia Pictures several months later . In June 2010 , it was announced that Sevigny would be starring in a leading role in M. Blash 's second film The Wait , alongside Jena Malone and Luke Grimes ; it is a psychological thriller about two sisters who decide to keep their recently deceased mother in their house after receiving a phone call that she will be resurrected . The film marks Sevigny 's second time working with both Blash and Malone , following 2006 's Lying . Filming began on June 20 , 2010 , in Sisters , Oregon .
= = = 2012 – present : Television roles , directing = = =
In 2011 , Sevigny traveled to Manchester , England to film the British six @-@ part drama Hit & Miss where she starred as Mia , a pre @-@ op transsexual contract killer . Upon returning to the United States , she guest @-@ starred on Law & Order : SVU on April 18 , 2012 , and also landed a guest starring role in the second season of American Horror Story , which premiered in October 2012 .
Sevigny also starred as a journalist in Lovelace , a biopic about pornographic film actress Linda Lovelace . In 2011 , it was reported that Sevigny expressed interest in developing and starring in a mini @-@ series about the infamous accused axe @-@ murderer Lizzie Borden . With Tom Hanks reportedly backing the production of the series , it was reportedly due to begin filming in late 2012 . In 2013 , Chloe Sevigny was featured as a satellite character , Alexandra , in the TV show Portlandia during its third season on IFC . Also in 2013 , Sevigny had a 5 @-@ episode guest role on The Mindy Project . In 2014 , She starred as Catherine Jensen in the crime drama Those Who Kill , which aired on the A & E Network . It was then re @-@ launched on A & E 's sister network , Lifetime Movie Network , on March 30 , 2014 , after being pulled from A & E after two episodes due to low ratings . The series was subsequently cancelled by the network after its 10 episode first season run .
In March 2015 , it was announced Sevigny would be returning to American Horror Story , for its fifth season Hotel , as a main cast member . Sevigny portrayed the role of Alex Lowe , a doctor . That same year , she also starred in the Netflix original series Bloodline . Sevigny also appeared in Tara Subkoff 's directorial debut # Horror .
In 2016 , Sevigny appeared in the Canadian horror film Antibirth opposite Natasha Lyonne . Sevigny will reunite with The Last Days of Disco director Whit Stillman on Love and Friendship , an adaptation of the Jane Austen novel Lady Susan . Both films premiered at the Sundance Film Festival In January 2016 . She also has a supporting role in The Snowman ( 2017 ) , a crime thriller starring Michael Fassbender , which she filmed in Norway in the winter 2016 . Sevigny will also make her directorial debut on the short film Kitty which she adapted from Paul Bowle 's 1980 short story .
On July 19 , 2016 , it was announced that Sevigny had joined the cast of Lean on Pete , based on the novel by Willy Vlautin . The film is set to shoot in Portland , Oregon , and the eastern Oregon region .
= = Fashion career = =
Sevigny has long been considered a fashion icon and regularly appears on best dressed lists . Throughout her career , she has modelled for several high profile designers , including Miu Miu , H & M , Louis Vuitton and Chloé . Prior to her career as an actress , she had achieved fame for her unique style . While her sense of style in the early 1990s only reflected small downtown scenes and trends , it still made a significant impression on high class fashion chains which began to emulate Sevigny 's look . Her interest in fashion and clothing , as well as her career as a fashion model in her late teenage years and early twenties , have led to a career as a prominent and well @-@ respected fashion designer . She has expressed interest in fashion design throughout the entirety of her career , even dating back to her childhood : " Little House on the Prairie was my favorite show . I would only wear calico print dresses , and I actually slept in one of those little nightcaps ! " , she told People in 2007 . Her unorthodox style ( which garnered her initial notoriety in the early ' 90s ) has often been referred to as very eclectic . Sevigny has since released several clothing lines designed by herself , both solo and in collaboration , and has earned a title as a modern fashion icon .
In 2002 , she collaborated with Tara Subkoff for the 2003 Imitation of Christ collection in New York City , serving as creative director for the series , which was referred to as being " more about performance art and cultural theory than clothes " . Actress Scarlett Johansson also collaborated for the collection . In November 2003 , during the time of the event 's release , Sevigny lost four of her teeth after tripping and falling in a pair of high @-@ heeled boots ; she was said to have been " play wrestling " with co @-@ collaborator Matt Damhave . Sevigny has also done various modeling jobs and magazine spreads ; in October 2007 , the French fashion house Chloé announced that she would be one of the spokesmodels for their new fragrance . In addition , she appeared in the January 2007 issue of House and Garden titled " Subversive Spirit " , which featured a spread on Sevigny 's Manhattan apartment . Sevigny 's most recent collection was released in fall 2009 for the Manhattan boutique , Opening Ceremony ; the collection included both men 's , women 's , and unisex pieces . The pieces were sold exclusively at Opening Ceremony boutiques ( Manhattan and Los Angeles ) , Barneys ( United States ) , Colette ( Paris ) , and London 's Dover Street Market . The series received decidedly mixed reactions . Sevigny 's designs for the collection have been seen on Rihanna and Victoria Beckham .
Critical reception of her fashion and style has been extensively written about by both designers and fashion stylists and has generally proved favorable . American designer Marc Jacobs wrote of Sevigny in 2001 : " The fashion world is fascinated by her . Because not only is she talented , young and attractive , she stands out in a sea of often clichéd looking actresses . " In terms of her own personal style , Sevigny cited the Australian film Picnic at Hanging Rock ( 1975 ) , which features schoolgirls dressed in elaborate Victorian clothing , as a major inspiration ; she has also cited it as one of her favorite films . She has also been outspoken in her favoritism of vintage clothing over designer pieces : " I still prefer to buy vintage over spending it all on one designer " , she told The Times . " I 'll go to Resurrection or Decades and be like , ' Oh , I 'm going to buy everything , ' but a lot of it is extremely expensive , so I 'll go to Wasteland and satisfy that urge and it 's not too hard on the pocketbook . Then there 's this place called Studio Wardrobe Department where everything is like three dollars " .
During the 29th International Festival of Fashion and Photography , which runs from April 25 to 28 , 2014 , Sevigny is a judge of the fashion jury , along with Humberto Leon and Carol Lim . In April 2015 , Rizzoli released a picture book celebrating the actress 's style legacy , featuring photos of Sevigny through the years , with shots of her as a high school student , on @-@ set photos , scripts and other personal ephemera .
Sevigny 's distinct fashion is also part of the inspiration for a fictionalized version of herself satirically impersonated by Drew Droege on his YouTube channel .
= = Personal life = =
Sevigny owned an apartment in Manhattan 's East Village , which she purchased for $ 1 @.@ 2 million in 2006 and sold in March 2013 for $ 1 @.@ 85 million . In October 2013 , after selling her East Village apartment , she purchased a " classic six " apartment residence , overlooking Prospect Park in Park Slope , Brooklyn for $ 2 million .
Sevigny 's father died when she was in her early 20s , and she stated in a 2006 interview that she came from a " close @-@ knit " family , that she speaks to her mother every day , and that her brother lives three blocks away from her apartment . She suffers from scoliosis , diagnosed when she was a child , though she never received any surgical treatment . She has stated that she practices yoga for relief from the pain caused by the spinal deformity . She is a practicing Roman Catholic , although she admits that she rebelled against religion as a teenager . She said she began attending church services again after playing a Satan @-@ worshipping teenage murderer in a 1998 Off @-@ Broadway production of Hazelwood Junior High , claiming that she became " really disturbed " and " started having nightmares and thinking horrible things " .
Sevigny has had various relationships with men , though in 2006 she stated to the New York Post Gossip column : " I 've questioned issues of gender and sexuality since I was a teenager , and I did some experimenting . " In a later interview , she stated that she " wouldn 't call herself bisexual " , and that she could never see herself in a relationship with a woman . Nonetheless , she has been popular with the gay community throughout her career . Following her relationship with Harmony Korine , which ended in the late 1990s , Sevigny dated British musician Jarvis Cocker , and later Matt McAuley , a member of the noise @-@ rock band A.R.E. Weapons . Sevigny and McAuley ended their relationship in early 2008 , after being together for nearly eight years .
In a 2009 interview , Sevigny reflected on her career , and said she was content with the level of stardom she had maintained : " When I was in my early 20s , I went out with a British pop star , Jarvis Cocker ; of course , pop stars have much more celebrity , I think , than actors even . They 're really hunted by their fans much more . I remember driving around these remote towns in Wales and kids running after us in the street . I was like , ' This is horrible ! ' And I saw the effect it had on him , and that 's when I decided I never wanted to be a celebrity at that level , and I think that 's why I 've chosen to do the work that I do and just kind of work with directors that I love and try and do work that means something to me . "
= = In popular culture = =
Actor Drew Droege has a web series titled Chloë , which features him in drag , doing impersonations of Sevigny .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Breakdown ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Breakdown " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey from her sixth studio album , Butterfly ( 1997 ) . It was released as the fourth single from the album on March 22 , 1998 by Columbia Records . Similar to the treatments of " Butterfly and The Roof ( Back in Time ) " , " Breakdown " received a limited worldwide release due to Carey 's conflict at the time with Sony . The song was written and produced by Carey , Stevie J and Puff Daddy , and features rap verses by Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony . The song 's lyrics describe the emotions someone feels when their lover suddenly stops loving and leaves them , and the pain , or breakdown , it causes the person . The song was well received by contemporary music critics .
In the music video , Carey goes through a variety of different colorful outfits , with matching make @-@ up . Of the many changes , two scenes predominantly occupy the video . The first in Carey dressed in flamenco style clothing , while dancing on a chair with two other female dancers . The other features Carey and Bone Thugs @-@ N @-@ Harmony gambling in a casino . Carey performed the song live during select dates of her Butterfly World Tour in 1998 and Adventures of Mimi Tour in 2006 . Due to the song 's limited release , " Breakdown " did not chart in most major music markets , with the exception of Australia and New Zealand , where it peaked at numbers 38 and four , respectively . In the US , due to Billboard rules at the time , the song was unable to chart on the Hot 100 , but charted at number 53 on the Hot 100 Airplay Chart .
= = Background = =
Carey recorded the song at the Hit Factory in New York City , throughout 1997 . " Breakdown " was one of the first of Carey 's album tracks to veer in a hip hop direction , and many were surprised when she contacted Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony to record the song because she was considered more of a R & B / adult contemporary artist . According to author Chris Nickson , " Breakdown " was an important component of Butterfly : " ' Breakdown ' showed Mariah treading forcefully into territory that was new for her and making it her own ; it had a melody that simmered under her vocal , and a groove that was irresistible . " When Carey began recording the album , she had slow and sultry ballads such as " Whenever You Call " and " Butterfly , " but also had big R & B and hip @-@ hop like " Honey " . For this reason , Carey recorded " Breakdown " in order to fill in the midsection of the album , and serve as the album 's " backbone . "
= = Controversy = =
" Breakdown " was the source of controversy when it came to its release . Carey was having a conflict with Columbia over the singles choices , as they were already not happy with the album 's hip @-@ hop transition . Later , in 1998 when Carey was composing the songs for her first compilation album , # 1 's , the song was again one of the reasons for continued conflict within the label . They disagreed on what content should compose the album . Sony wanted to release an album that featured her US number one singles , void of any new material . Carey on the other hand , felt that a greatest hits album should reflect on her most personal and favorite songs , not her most commercial . To accompany her thirteen number ones , Carey recorded four new songs . She felt that not including any new material would result in cheating her fans , therefore including some new material as well . While compromised , Carey often expressed distaste towards the album 's song selection , expressing her disappointment in the omission of her " favorite songs . "
For this reason , Sony titled the album # 1 's , as Carey felt the need to express the album 's true content , a collection of her number one hits . Carey has frequently cited " Underneath the Stars " ( 1996 ) and " Breakdown " ( 1998 ) as examples of songs she was unsuccessful in releasing .
= = Composition and remixes = =
" Breakdown " is a slow and sultry song , which blends hip @-@ hop and contemporary R & B genres . It incorporates drum notes , including heavy beats and grooves . The song features rap verses from two of the five members of Bone Thugs @-@ N @-@ Harmony , Krayzie Bone and Wish Bone . As part of " layering the song , " background vocals are featured throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge . It is set in the signature common time , and is written in the key of E major . It features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -F ♭ -1 . Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of B2 to the high note of F ♯ 5 ; the piano and guitar pieces range from F ♭ 3 to G ♭ 5 as well . The song contains choral lyrics written by Carey , who produced the song 's melody and chorus as well . Aside from assisting with its writing and chord progression , Combs and Stevie co @-@ arranged and produced the track as well . A different edit of the song , titled The Mo ' Thugs remix , features longer raps from Krayzie and Wish Bone and an intro and verse from Layzie Bone , who was absent from the original mix . This version can be found on Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony 's compilation The Collection Volume One .
= = Critical reception = =
" Breakdown " garnered positive reviews from local critics . David Browne from Entertainment Weekly praised the song , writing " for most of the album she keeps her notorious octave @-@ climbing chops at bay . Showing some admirable restraint , she nestles herself into downy @-@ soft beats . In ' Breakdown ' , she demonstrates she can match the staccato , lite @-@ reggae phrasing of her guests , two members of Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony . " Rich Juzwiak from Slant called " Breakdown " " the song of Carey 's career , " noting its " lyrical strokes as broad and obvious as they are naked . Mariah the chanter flawlessly adapts to their singsong style , largely boxing her multi @-@ octave range into a sly , hypnotic melody so that when she really wails at the end , you really feel it . As with ' The Roof ' , Carey lunges toward musical maturity by embracing , not shunning hip @-@ hop . This is the height of her elegance and maybe hip @-@ hop @-@ soul 's , too . "
= = Chart performance = =
It was released as the album 's third single in 1998 in the United States , Canada , New Zealand and Australia only ( in Europe , " The Roof " was chosen as the third single instead ) . Because of conflict between Carey and her record label at the time , Sony Music Entertainment , it was only given a commercial release in Australia , where it performed modestly and remained in the top 40 for three weeks . A remix of the song was promoted to U.S. radio stations and debuted on Billboard magazine 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart in September @-@ October 1997 . However , it wasn 't released commercially in the U.S. until April 1998 , as a double A @-@ side with " My All . " It reached the top five on the Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart as " My All / Breakdown . " However , the song itself independently appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart and reached the top twenty on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay and Rhythmic Airplay Chart charts . In New Zealand , the song performed well , peaking at number four and being certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting shipments of over 7 @,@ 500 units .
= = Music video = =
The single 's video ( released in March 1998 ) was directed by Carey with the assistance of Diane Martel . It sees her take on the role of various " casino girl " roles , including a cabaret girl , showgirl , cowgirl and lucky charm . The members of Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony make appearances as well . In the video , Carey plays her part a cabaret girl , by dancing on a chair , accompanied by two other females. other scenes include Carey in a main casino hall , where Wish and Krayzie Bone make appearances . While they gamble with a large crowd surrounding them , Carey lounges on the table and cheers for them .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed the song live during her 1998 Butterfly World Tour . Throughout the performances , Carey wore a short beige outfit and long semi @-@ teased up hair , accompanied by male and female dancers . During the song 's act , Carey would slowly sway hand @-@ in @-@ hand with other male dancers , giving the illusion of sultry compassion . Carey performed the song A Capella in Chicago during her 2000 Rainbow World Tour . During her Adventures of Mimi Tour in 2006 , Carey performed the song during select dates on the tour . The performance included many exotic female dancers , performing seductive pole dances and other similar routines . Carey , while singing , danced light routines on a chair , while wearing a red one piece suit . The song was also performed on select dates of Carey 's 2014 The Elusive Chanteuse Show tour .
= = Track listing and formats = =
U.S. CD Single
" My All " – 3 : 51
" Breakdown " – 4 : 58
CD Maxi @-@ Single
" Breakdown " ( Radio Edit ) – 4 : 15
" Breakdown " ( The Mo ' Thugs Remix ) – 4 : 58
" Breakdown " – 4 : 58
" Honey " ( Morales Dub Club ) – 10 : 58
" Honey " ( Mo ' Honey Club ) – 7 : 23
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Butterfly liner notes .
Mariah Carey – vocals , songwriting , co @-@ producing
Stevie J. – songwriting , co @-@ producing
Anthony Henderson – songwriting
Charles Scruggs – songwriting
Puff Daddy – co @-@ producing
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Gliese 581 =
Gliese 581 ( / ˈɡliːzə / ) is a star of spectral type M3V ( a red dwarf ) about 20 light years away from Earth in the constellation Libra . Its estimated mass is about a third of that of the Sun , and it is the 89th closest known star to the Sun . Observations suggest that the star has a planetary system consisting of three known planets , designated Gliese 581 b , c , and e and a possibly confirmed planet , d , in order of discovery . Additional outer planets , which received the designations Gliese 581 f , and g have been proposed , but the evidence that led to the discovery claims has been shown to be the result of stellar activity mimicking the radial velocity variations due to orbiting planets .
Gliese 581 has been the subject of a " huge amount of attention " in the quest to discover the first habitable extrasolar planet ; first for c , and then d and g . Gliese 581 c , the first low @-@ mass extrasolar planet found near a habitable zone , was discovered in April 2007 . It has since been shown that under known terrestrial planet climate models , Gliese 581 c is likely to have a runaway greenhouse effect , and hence is probably too hot to be habitable , analogous to Venus . The proposed planets Gliese 581 d and Gliese 581 g also received attention as being located within the habitable zone , but their existence has subsequently been put into doubt by some authors .
On 27 November 2012 , the European Space Agency announced a debris disk , with at least ten times as many comets as the Solar System . This put constraints on possible planets beyond 0 @.@ 75 AU .
= = History of observations = =
Gliese 581 is known at least from 1886 , when it was included in Eduard Schönfeld 's Southern Durchmusterung ( SD ) — the fourth part of the Bonner Durchmusterung . The corresponding designation is BD -7 4003 .
= = Characteristics = =
The name Gliese 581 refers to the catalog number from the 1957 survey Gliese Catalogue of Nearby Stars of 965 stars located within 20 parsecs of the Earth . Other names of this star include BD @-@ 07 ° 4003 ( BD catalogue , first known publication ) and HO Librae ( variable star designation ) . It does not have an individual name such as Sirius or Procyon . The star is a red dwarf with spectral type M3V , located 20 @.@ 4 light @-@ years away from Earth . It is located about two degrees north of Beta Librae , the brightest star in the constellation Libra . Its mass is estimated to be approximately a third that of the Sun , and it is the 89th closest known star system to the Sun .
An M @-@ class dwarf star such as Gliese 581 has a much lower mass than the Sun , causing the core region of the star to fuse hydrogen at a significantly lower rate . From the apparent magnitude and distance , we can estimate an effective temperature of 3200 K and a visual luminosity of 0 @.@ 2 % of that of the Sun . However , a red dwarf such as Gliese 581 radiates primarily in the near infrared , with peak emission at a wavelength of roughly 830 nm ( estimated using Wien 's displacement law , which assumes the star radiates as a black body ) , so such an estimate will underestimate the star 's total luminosity . ( For comparison , the peak emission of the Sun is roughly 530 nm , in the middle of the visible part of the spectrum ) . When radiation over the entire spectrum is taken into account ( not just the part that humans are able to see ) , something known as the bolometric correction , this star has a bolometric luminosity 1 @.@ 3 % of the Sun 's total luminosity . A planet would need to be situated much closer to this star in order to receive a comparable amount of energy as the Earth . The region of space around a star where a planet would receive roughly the same energy as the Earth is sometimes termed the " Goldilocks Zone " , or , more prosaically , the habitable zone . The extent of such a zone is not fixed and is highly specific for each planetary system .
Gliese 581 is classified as a variable star of the BY Draconis type , and has been given the variable star designation HO Librae . This is a star that exhibits variability because of the presence of star spots combined with the rotation of the star . However , the measured variability is close to the margin of error , and , if real , is most likely a long term variability . Its brightness is stable to 1 % . Gliese 581 emits X @-@ rays .
= = Planetary system = =
Three confirmed planets and two possible planets are possibly known to orbit Gliese 581 , together with a debris disc . Most of the planets are located close to the star and have near @-@ circular orbits . In order of distance from the star , the planets are designated Gliese 581 e , Gliese 581 b and Gliese 581 c and possibly Gliese 581 g and Gliese 581 d . The letters represent the discovery order , with b being the first planet to be discovered around the star ( the letter d was used for a planet that was once no longer thought to be real and was an artifact caused by stellar activity , but reanalysis led to the conclusion that d might exist ) . The planets were all discovered with the radial velocity method which gives only lower limits on the planetary masses and no information about their radii . The minimum mass of the middle planet b is comparable to the solar system ice giants Uranus and Neptune , while the inner and outer planets have minimum masses a few times that of the Earth . The first three planets orbit closer to the star than the inner edge of the habitable zone , with the possibly reconfirmed planets Gliese 581 g and Gliese 581 d orbiting within the habitable zone .
The debris disc has an inclination between 30 ° and 70 ° . If the planetary orbits lie in the same plane , their masses would be between 1 @.@ 1 and 2 times the minimum mass values .
= = = Gliese 581 e = = =
Gliese 581 e is the innermost planet and with a minimum mass of 1 @.@ 7 Earth masses is the least massive of the three . Discovered in 2009 , it is also the most recent confirmed planet to have been discovered in this system . It takes 3 @.@ 15 days to complete an orbit . Initial analyses suggested that the planet 's orbit is quite elliptical but after correcting the radial velocity measurements for stellar activity , the data now indicate a circular orbit .
= = = Gliese 581 b = = =
Gliese 581 b is the most massive planet known to be orbiting Gliese 581 and was the first to be discovered .
= = = Gliese 581 c = = =
Gliese 581 c is the third planet orbiting Gliese 581 . It was discovered in April 2007 . In their 2007 paper , Udry et al. asserted that if Gliese 581 c has an Earth @-@ type composition , it would have a radius of 1.5R ⊕ , which would have made it at the time " the most Earth @-@ like of all known exoplanets " . A direct measurement of the radius cannot be taken because , viewed from Earth , the planet does not transit its star . The minimum mass of the planet is 5 @.@ 5 times that of Earth . The planet initially attracted attention as being potentially habitable , though this has since been discounted . The mean blackbody surface temperature has been estimated to lie between − 3 ° C ( for a Venus @-@ like albedo ) and 40 ° C ( for an Earth @-@ like albedo ) , however , the temperatures could be much higher ( about 500 degrees Celsius ) due to a runaway greenhouse effect akin to that of Venus . Some astronomers believe the system may have undergone planetary migration and Gliese 581 c may have formed beyond the frost line , with a composition similar to icy bodies like Ganymede . Gliese 581 c completes a full orbit in just under 13 days .
= = = Gliese 581 g = = =
Gliese 581 g is an exoplanet that was once considered disputed due to its existence depending on the eccentricity assumed for Gliese 581 d . But reanalysis suggests that Gliese 581 d could exist meaning that Gliese 581 g could exist too . Gliese 581 g is thought to be in the middle of the habitable zone . Its mass is thought to be 2 @.@ 2 Earth and has an orbital period of 32 days , with a semi @-@ major axis of 0 @.@ 13 with an eccentricity of 0 .
= = = Gliese 581 d = = =
Gliese 581 d is an exoplanet that was once considered disputed due to inaccurate analysis caused by noise and stellar activity , but reanalysis suggests that it does in fact exist , despite stellar variability . Its mass is thought to be 6 @.@ 98 Earths and its radius is thought to be 2.2R ⊕ . It is considered to be a super @-@ Earth , but remarkable in that its orbit is inside the habitable zone and has a solid surface allowing for any water present on its surface to form liquid oceans and even landmasses characteristic of Earth ’ s surface , although with a much higher surface gravity . Its orbital period is thought to be 66 @.@ 87 days long , with a semi @-@ major axis of 0 @.@ 21847 with an unconfirmed eccentricity , Analysis suggests that it orbits within the star 's habitable zone , where the temperatures are just right to support life .
= = = Debris disk = = =
On 27 November 2012 , the European Space Agency announced that the Herschel space observatory had discovered a comet belt " at 25 ± 12 AU to more than 60 AU " . It must have " at least 10 times " as many comets as does the Solar system . This likely rules out Saturn @-@ mass planets beyond 0 @.@ 75 AU . However another ( undiscovered ) planet further out , say a Neptune @-@ mass planet at 5 AU , might be required to keep the comet belt replenished .
= = = History of detections = = =
The first announcement of a planet around the star was Gliese 581 b discovered by astronomers at the Observatory of Geneva in Switzerland and Grenoble University in France . Detected in August 2005 and using extensive data from the ESO HARPS spectrometer it was the fifth planet to be discovered around a red dwarf . Further observations by the same group resulted in the detection of two more planets , Gliese 581 c and Gliese 581 d . The orbital period of Gliese 581 d was originally thought to be 83 days but was later revised to a lower value of 67 days . The revised orbital distance would place it at the outer limits of the habitable zone , the distance at which it is believed possible for liquid water to exist on the surface of a planetary body , given favourable atmospheric conditions . Gliese 581 d was estimated to receive about 30 % of the intensity of light the Earth receives from the Sun . By comparison , sunlight on Mars has about 40 % of the intensity of that on Earth , though if high levels of carbon dioxide are present in the planetary atmosphere , the greenhouse effect could keep temperatures above freezing .
The next discovery was the inner planet Gliese 581 e also by the Observatory of Geneva and using data from the HARPS instrument was announced on 21 April 2009 . This planet , at a minimum mass of 1 @.@ 9 Earths , was at the time the least massive confirmed exoplanet identified around a main @-@ sequence star .
On 29 September 2010 , astronomers using the Keck Observatory proposed two additional planets , Gliese 581 f and Gliese 581 g , both in nearly circular orbits based on analysis of a combination of data sets from the HARPS and HIRES instruments . The proposed planet Gliese 581 f was thought to be a 7 Earth @-@ mass planet in a 433 @-@ day orbit and too cold to support liquid water . The candidate planet Gliese 581 g attracted more attention : nicknamed Zarmina by one of its discoverers , the predicted mass of Gliese 581 g was between 3 and 4 Earth @-@ masses , with an orbital period of 37 days . The orbital distance was calculated to be well within the star 's habitable zone , though the planet was expected to be tidally locked with one side of the planet always facing the star . In an interview with Lisa @-@ Joy Zgorski of the National Science Foundation , Steven Vogt was asked what he thought about the chances of life existing on Gliese 581 g . Vogt was optimistic : " I 'm not a biologist , nor do I want to play one on TV . Personally , given the ubiquity and propensity of life to flourish wherever it can , I would say that ... the chances of life on this planet are 100 % . I have almost no doubt about it . "
Two weeks after the announcement of the discovery of Gliese 581 f and Gliese 581 g , astronomer Francesco Pepe of the Geneva Observatory reported that in a new analysis of 179 measurements taken by the HARPS spectrograph over 6 @.@ 5 years , neither planet g nor planet f was detectable , and the relevant measurements were included in a paper uploaded to the arXiv preprint server , though still unpublished in a refereed journal . The non @-@ existence of Gliese 581 f was accepted relatively quickly : it was shown that the radial velocity variations that led to the claimed discovery of Gliese 581 f were instead associated with the stellar activity cycle rather than an orbiting planet . Nevertheless , the existence of planet g remained controversial : Vogt responded in the media that he stood by the discovery and questions arose as to whether the effect was due to the assumption of circular rather than eccentric orbits or the statistical methods used .
Bayesian analysis found no clear evidence for a fifth planetary signal in the combined HIRES / HARPS data set , though other studies led to the conclusion that the data did support the existence of planet g , albeit with strong degeneracies in the parameters as a result of the first eccentric harmonic with the outer planet Gliese 581 d .
Using the assumption that the noise present in the data was correlated ( red noise rather than white noise ) , Roman Baluev called into question not only the existence of planet g , but Gliese 581 d as well , suggesting there were only three planets ( Gliese 581 b , c and e ) present . A different objection against the existence of Gliese 581 d was offered in a 2014 study whose authors argued that Gliese 581 d is " an artifact of stellar activity which , when incompletely corrected , causes the false detection of the planet g . " This remains controversial .
= = Radio signal sent from Earth = =
A Message from Earth ( AMFE ) is a high @-@ powered digital radio signal that was sent on 9 October 2008 toward Gliese 581 c . The signal is a digital time capsule containing 501 messages that were selected through a competition on the social networking site Bebo . The message was sent using the RT @-@ 70 radar telescope of Ukraine 's National Space Agency . The signal will reach Gliese 581 in early 2029 .
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= She Wolf =
She Wolf ( Spanish : Loba ) is the eighth studio album by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira . It was released on 9 October 2009 , by Epic Records and Sony Music Latin . As executive producers , Shakira and Amanda Ghost enlisted collaborators including The Neptunes , John Hill , Wyclef Jean , Lukas Burton , Future Cut , Jerry Duplessis and Timbaland . Musically , the record shifts from her traditional Latin pop and pop rock musical styles , instead exploring electropop , with influences of folk and world music . The lyrical themes of the album mostly focus on love and relationships and were based on the conversations Shakira had with her friends .
She Wolf reached number one on the charts of Argentina , Ireland , Italy , Mexico and Switzerland . It also charted inside the top five in Spain , Germany and the United Kingdom . It debuted at number fifteen on the Billboard 200 . She Wolf was certified double @-@ platinum in Colombia and Mexico , platinum in Italy and Spain , and gold in numerous countries including France and the United Kingdom .
The album was supported by four singles . Its lead single , " She Wolf " , along with its Spanish @-@ language version " Loba " , which reached the top ten in several countries . " Did It Again " ( along with its Spanish @-@ language version " Lo Hecho Está Hecho " ) was released worldwide as the second single , except in the United States , where its release was substituted by " Give It Up to Me " . The fourth single was " Gypsy " , along with its Spanish @-@ language version " Gitana " . Shakira embarked on The Sun Comes Out World Tour in late @-@ 2010 to promote She Wolf .
= = Background and production = =
In 2005 , Shakira attained international success with the release of her fourth and fifth studio albums Fijación Oral Vol . 1 and Oral Fixation Vol . 2 , which spawned the highly successful singles " La Tortura " and " Hips Don 't Lie " , respectively . To promote both the albums , she embarked on the Oral Fixation Tour , which reportedly grossed more than US $ 100 million worldwide . In 2008 , Shakira signed a 10 @-@ year deal with international touring company Live Nation , which prompted Forbes to deem her the fourth highest earning female musician in history .
Soon , Shakira began work on her next studio album , titled She Wolf , which was , among other places , recorded at the Compass Point Studios in the Bahamas . In an interview with Rolling Stone , Shakira said that specifically chose the studio after she learned that it had previously been used for recording sessions by artists like Bob Marley , The Cure , and AC / DC , of whom she is a fan . Unlike most of her previous projects , which are predominantly composed of Latin and pop rock styles , She Wolf is an electropop album with world music influences . When asked why the album had electronic influences , Shakira responded , " I felt very curious and intrigued about the electro @-@ pop world and everything it has to offer . I wanted to make sure that this album was very bassy and that the kicks hit really hard , and I wanted to concentrate on the beat . But my music , to a certain extent , is very complex – because I always try to experiment with sounds from other parts of the world . " Explaining the meaning behind the title , Shakira said that " ' She Wolf ' is the woman of our time . The woman who knows what she wants and is free of prejudice and preconceived notions . She defends her deepest desires with teeth and claws like a wild animal " .
Shakira and Amanda Ghost , the executive producers of the album , enlisted a diverse group of producers to collaborate on the tracks , such as Pharrell Williams , one half of the record production duo The Neptunes , who co @-@ wrote four of the tracks on the album with Shakira . Other collaborators included John Hill , Sam Endicott , and Timbaland . Shakira later said that her collaboration with Williams helped her learn a lot , noting " When collaborating you always try and capture something from the other person and I learnt a lot from his method " . The singer revealed that the two readied four tracks in five days , and commented that " What was interesting is that he 's very fast and immediate in the studio and I 'm a little slower " . Endicott , musician and lead singer of American post @-@ punk band The Bravery , was personally called by Shakira to co @-@ compose the title track of the album along with Hill . He explained how they both began working with the single , saying she " contacted him [ Hill ] , asking if he had any stuff . We never had her in mind . We just made the thing independently of her , and then she liked it a lot , and she sang over it . She used some of the melodies we put in there and then wrote these crazy lyrics about being a werewolf . And that 's how it happened " . Haitian @-@ American rapper Wyclef Jean , who previously appeared as a featured artist on " Hips Don 't Lie " with Shakira , talked about his chemistry with her , saying " I have a natural chemistry with Shakira . I love the Latin vibe . The Lebanese vibe . I love the multicultural aspect of the CD . These days it 's hard for you to pick up a CD and love it from beginning to end . Shakira represents that 360 degrees of : You put it in , and the whole CD rocks " . In She Wolf , Jean appears as a featured artist on the track " Spy " .
= = Musical styles and lyrics = =
She Wolf is primarily an electropop album that combines influences from the musical styles of various countries and regions , like Africa , Colombia , India , and the Middle East . Shakira termed the album a " sonic experimental trip " , and said that she researched folk music from different countries in order to " combine electronics with world sounds , tambourines , clarinets , oriental and Hindu music , dancehall , etc . " The title track is an example of the electronic music styled production of the album , and is composed of 70s disco guitars and " heaps of robot effects " . " Did It Again " is a midtempo electropop song that contains elements of samba . World music influences surface on songs like " Why Wait " and " Gypsy " , the former is a heavy synth based electro @-@ funk song with Led Zeppelin @-@ inspired Middle Eastern strings , while the latter is included as the " closest thing to an acoustic song on the album " and features instrumentation from mandolin , banjo , sitar and tabla . Tracks like " Long Time " and " Good Stuff " display dancehall , electronica and Latin elements . Critics found the 1980s @-@ stylised electropop track " Men in This Town " similar to the work of American band No Doubt . The Wyclef Jean collaboration " Spy " is a bouncy disco and R & B song that is described as sultry and playful . Elements of rock music are also present on the album , mostly evident on the " noisy " stadium rock song " Mon Amour " . The US bonus track " Give It Up to Me " mixes pop and hip hop music with a playful rap by Lil Wayne . As Shakira wanted to make sure the " kicks hit really hard " , the tracks on She Wolf were made " very bass @-@ driven " . She revealed that she had no idea how the album would sound like at the end , describing it to be like " standing in front of a white canvas " , but admitted that she knew she wanted to make an electronica influenced album from the beginning .
The lyrics of the tracks on She Wolf , according to Shakira , have been written from a " very feminine perspective " . She attributed this to her growing maturity , noting " I think maybe because I feel more like a woman today " . Many of the songs focus on " emotions that a woman experiments when you 're in love or out of love — jealousy , fantasies , daydreams " , which the singer said were based on her conversations with girlfriends who are " struggling with their own romantic lives " . This issue is prominently covered in the track " Men in This Town " , in which Shakira sings about the lack of eligible bachelors in Los Angeles . The song contains references to American actors Angelina Jolie and Matt Damon , the latter of whom Shakira knows personally , and popular destinations like the SkyBar . Jocelyn Vena from MTV commented that " Shakira wasn 't afraid to get a little wacky when it came to the lyrics on She Wolf " . In an interview with Jim Cantiello , the singer was asked for the reason behind lyrics like " I 'm so happy I should get sued " ( in the track " Long Time " ) , to which Shakira replied " Maybe it rhymed . It 's hard to explain your own lyrics , you know " . In " Mon Amour " , she wishes that her ex @-@ boyfriend and his new girlfriend have a terrible vacation in Paris and are eaten alive by " French fleas " . Other themes the album touches upon include night @-@ life , sex , and seduction , in songs like " Did It Again " and " Spy " . Rolling Stone critic Jody Rosen labelled the latter " a meditation on masturbation " .
= = Release and promotion = =
She Wolf was released on 9 October 2009 , in Germany , Austria , Belgium , Italy , Ireland , the Netherlands and Switzerland . In the rest of Europe and Latin America , the album was released on 12 October , with subsequent releases in Spain , Japan , and Australia . It was scheduled to be released on 13 October in the United States , but was delayed and instead was released on 23 November . The reason for this delay was because Ghost decided to include the last @-@ minute Timbaland production " Give It Up to Me " on the tracklist of the US version of the album . In 2010 , She Wolf was reissued as Loba in Hispanic countries , which features additional remixes of the Spanish @-@ language songs on the original album .
= = = Singles = = =
The title track " She Wolf " was released as the lead single from the album on 10 July 2009 . It was well received by music critics , who praised its disco influences and unusual lyrics . Commercially , the song was a success and charted in the top 10 of countries like Belgium , Italy , Germany , Spain and the United Kingdom . In the United States , it peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " Loba " , the Spanish @-@ language version of the song , peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Tropical Songs charts . An accompanying music video was directed for the song by Jake Nava , and features Shakira dancing in various surroundings like a red cave and a golden cage .
" Did It Again " was released as the second single off the album worldwide on 16 October 2009 , excluding the United States , where it was substituted by " Give It Up to Me " . The song was met with positive reviews from music critics and was complimented for its expressive songwriting . Commercially , the song was moderately successful and charted within the top 20 of various countries . In the United States , " Did It Again " peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs . The Spanish @-@ language version of the song " Lo Hecho Está Hecho " peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and at number 11 on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Sophie Muller , and features Shakira fighting a man in a bedroom .
" Give It Up to Me " , which features vocals from American rapper Lil Wayne , was commissioned as the third single off the album . It was officially released only in the United States , on 26 October 2009 . The song received generally favourable reviews from music critics and was appreciated for its production . It peaked at number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number 23 on the Pop Songs charts . An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Sophie Muller and features scenes of Shakira and Lil Wayne interspersed between scenes of Shakira dancing .
" Gypsy " was released as the fourth and final single off the album on 26 March 2010 . The song generated a positive response from music critics , many of whom praised its acoustic @-@ styled production . Commercially , the single was a success and charted inside the top 10 in countries like Germany , Mexico and Spain . " Gypsy " peaked at number 65 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , while the Spanish @-@ language version of the song " Gitana " peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . An accompanying music video for the song , directed by Jaume de Laiguana , stars Spanish professional tennis player Rafael Nadal as Shakira 's love interest .
= = = Tour = = =
Shakira embarked on The Sun Comes Out World Tour in late @-@ 2010 , to promote She Wolf along with her ninth studio album Sale el Sol . Shakira 's official website first announced the three initial venues of the North American leg of the tour , on 3 May 2010 , and subsequently 22 more venues were listed . After a special tour preview show held in Montreal , Canada , on 15 September 2010 , the North American leg of the tour commenced at Uncasville , Connecticut , on 17 September , and closed at Rosemont , Illinois , on 29 October 2010 . The initial dates for the European leg of the tour were announced on 28 June 2010 , and subsequently 22 more shows were listed . The European leg of the tour was planned to commence at Lyon , France , on 16 November , and end in London , England , on 20 December 2010 . The tickets for the initial dates of the European leg were soon sold out , and Shakira extended the tour into 2011 , beginning by announcing a show at Paris , France ; venues at countries such as Croatia , Russia , Spain and Switzerland were soon added . The Latin American leg of the tour was a part of the Pop Festival , which was heralded as an initiative to bring international music stars to Latin America . Initial tour dates for the leg were announced on 3 December 2010 , and soon venues at countries like Argentina , Brazil , Colombia and Mexico were added to the tour dates .
The title track , " Why Wait " , and " Gypsy " were the only songs from She Wolf to be included on the setlist for the tour . The stage was shaped like the letter " T " to enable maximum amount of viewers to see Shakira easily . A large screen was set behind the stage , on which various visuals , designed by entertainment branding agency Loyalkaspar , were projected . For the performances , Shakira mainly wore a mesh gold crop top coupled with skin @-@ tight leather pants . Other attires Shakira wore during the concert shows included a hooded pink gown , a flamenco @-@ skirt , and a feathery blue dress .
The concert shows were well received by critics , many of whom praised the charisma Shakira displayed during the performances . Commercially , the tour was a success . It ranked at number 40 on Pollstar 's 2010 year @-@ end " Top 50 North American Tours " list as it grossed a total of $ 16 @.@ 9 million in the continent , with total ticket sales amounting up to 524 @,@ 723 . In North America , the tour sold an average of 9 @,@ 335 tickets , and a total of 205 @,@ 271 tickets . The tour was a bigger success worldwide , ranking at number 20 on Pollstar 's 2011 " Top 25 Worldwide Tours " with a total gross of $ 53 @.@ 2 million and ticket sales amounting up to 692 @,@ 064 . A live album of the show held at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy in Paris , France , was released as Shakira : Live from Paris , on 5 December 2011 .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , She Wolf received an average score of 72 based on 15 reviews , indicating " generally favourable reviews " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave the album a very positive review and concluded that She Wolf is a " celebration of all the strange sensuality that comes out at night " . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson from Entertainment Weekly praised the production and music of the album , calling the album " some of the most unusually effective dance @-@ floor dynamite you 're likely to encounter all year " . David Balls from Digital Spy complimented Shakira 's ability to " mix this album 's eclectic range of influences into a listenable , cohesive collection of songs " , but also noted that some fans may be disappointed over the fact that " She Wolf downplays Shakira 's Latin @-@ pop routes in favour of a sound that will appeal to radio playlisters the world over " . Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph praised Shakira 's inventiveness on the album and summed up the review by saying " incongruous elements only add to the perfection of Shakira 's She Wolf " . Michael Cragg from MusicOMH singled out the tracks produced by The Neptunes as the best on the album , and also noted that they are " very much Shakira songs , not merely songs produced by The Neptunes " . Johnny Davis from The Observer labelled the album " preposterously brilliant " , while Mike Diver from BBC Music thought it was " perhaps the most enjoyably varied pop album of 2009 " . Jody Rosen from Rolling Stone was also positive towards the album and called Shakira a " charmer — a globe @-@ straddling star you can cuddle up to " . Joey Guerra from Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer gave the album a very positive review , praising Shakira 's exploration of world music and her experimentation , saying " every song goes to completely unexpected places , veering from a perfectly commercial shine to avant @-@ garde pop . " Guerra also commended the Neptunes ' production , calling She Wolf " Shakira 's most compelling , consistently entertaining disc since 1998 's Dónde Están los Ladrones ? , " and concluded that " Shakira has created some of the most weirdly wonderful pop of the past year . " Moreover , the critic felt that Shakira had not completely abandoned her musical roots and commented : " the rumors of Shakira 's vanishing Latina identity have been grossly exaggerated . "
Ayala Ben @-@ Yehuda from Billboard positively noted that the album was " certainly more adventurous than anything from her peers " , but felt that its execution seemed a " little forced " . She singled out the tracks " Gypsy " and " Why Wait " as album highlights . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine thought that " she ( Shakira ) takes quite well to the ( electro @-@ pop ) sound " , but felt that the album had a " bit of an identity problem " . Ben Ratliff from The New York Times gave the album a negative review and criticized The Neptunes ' productions . He concluded the review by saying that " there should be no American edition of Shakira : you just take her , in all her daffiness , or leave her " .
= = = Recognition = = =
She Wolf was included in AllMusic 's year @-@ end " Favorite Albums , " " Favorite Latin Albums , " and " Favorite Pop Albums " lists . At the 2010 Premios Oye ! awards ceremony , the album received a nomination in the category " Spanish Album of the Year " . At the 2010 Premios Shock awards ceremony , it was nominated " Album of the Year " . Shakira was nominated for " Best International Female Solo Artist " at the 2010 Brit Awards ; it was her second nomination for the award .
= = Commercial performance = =
She Wolf attained international commercial success . In Austria , the album entered and peaked at number four on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart , staying on the chart for a total of 15 weeks . After debuting at number seven on the French Albums Chart , She Wolf went on to chart for a total of 79 weeks . The Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) certified the album gold for shipment of 50 @,@ 000 copies . She Wolf debuted atop the Irish Albums Chart , displacing American recording artist Madonna 's album Celebration from the top position . It was consequently certified gold by the Irish Recorded Music Association ( IRMA ) . In Italy , the album entered the top 20 of the FIMI Albums Chart at number seven and later peaked at number one for two consecutive weeks . It became Shakira 's first studio album to reach number one in the country . She Wolf stayed on the chart for a total of 20 weeks and was certified platinum for selling more than 60 @,@ 000 copies in the country . In Portugal , the album debuted outside of the top 10 of albums chart , but later re @-@ entered the chart at its peak position of number five . Its total stay on the chart , however , was short and lasted for five weeks . She Wolf became Shakira 's first studio album since Laundry Service ( 2001 ) to reach number one on the Swiss Albums Chart after it debuted at the top spot . The album appeared on the chart for 46 weeks in total . The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) certified it gold for selling in excess of 15 @,@ 000 units in Switzerland . In the United Kingdom , the album entered and peaked at number four on the UK Albums Chart , and charted for seven weeks inside the top 40 . She Wolf was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipping 100 @,@ 000 units in the region .
The Spanish @-@ titled version of the album , Loba , was a success in Latin America . It peaked at number one on the albums chart in Argentina and was certified gold for selling 20 @,@ 000 units in the country . In Mexico , it debuted at number one on the Mexican Albums Chart . The success of the album in the country was such that it had shipped 90 @,@ 000 units within a week and was certified platinum and gold by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) . It stayed atop the chart for four consecutive weeks , while its total stay lasted for 43 weeks . AMPROFON eventually certified the album double @-@ platinum for shipments of 120 @,@ 000 units . In Spain , the album entered and peaked at number two on the Spanish Albums Chart , staying on the chart for a total of 54 weeks . Loba was certified platinum by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for shipments of 60 @,@ 000 units . Two months after its release , She Wolf had sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies in Europe and Latin America . In the United States , She Wolf debuted and peaked at number 15 on the Billboard 200 , with sales of 89 @,@ 000 units . The album spent a total of 14 weeks on the chart . Its chart performance in the US was said to be Shakira 's weakest in 10 years , and it became her first studio album since Dónde Están los Ladrones ? ( 1998 ) to miss peaking inside the top 10 . According to Nielson SoundScan , the album has sold 303 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of May 2010 . On the Digital Albums chart , the album peaked at number eight , spending a total of one week on the chart . Media outlets credited the poor performance of the album in the country to Ghost 's involvement , particularly her last @-@ minute decision to delay its release in order to add " Give It Up to Me " to the track list " after it already had been mastered and ready to ship . " 20 months after her run as the president of Epic , Ghost was fired from the record label . She Wolf was the 47th best @-@ selling album in the world in 2009 , according to the IFPI .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
|
= Caesium =
Caesium or cesium is a chemical element with symbol Cs and atomic number 55 . It is a soft , silvery @-@ gold alkali metal with a melting point of 28 @.@ 5 ° C ( 83 @.@ 3 ° F ) , which makes it one of only five elemental metals that are liquid at or near room temperature . Caesium is an alkali metal and has physical and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium . The metal is extremely reactive and pyrophoric , reacting with water even at − 116 ° C ( − 177 ° F ) . It is the least electronegative element . It has only one stable isotope , caesium @-@ 133 . Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite , while the radioisotopes , especially caesium @-@ 137 , a fission product , are extracted from waste produced by nuclear reactors .
The German chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in 1860 by the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy . The first small @-@ scale applications for caesium were as a " getter " in vacuum tubes and in photoelectric cells . In 1967 , based on Einstein defining the speed of light as the most constant dimension in the universe , the International System of Units isolated two specific wave counts from an emission spectrum of caesium @-@ 133 to co @-@ define the second and the meter . Since then , caesium has been widely used in highly accurate atomic clocks .
Since the 1990s , the largest application of the element has been as caesium formate for drilling fluids . It has a range of applications in the production of electricity , in electronics , and in chemistry . The radioactive isotope caesium @-@ 137 has a half @-@ life of about 30 years and is used in medical applications , industrial gauges , and hydrology . Although the element is only mildly toxic , it is a hazardous material as a metal and its radioisotopes present a high health risk if released into the environment .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Caesium is a very soft ( it has the lowest hardness of all elements , 0 @.@ 2 Mohs ) , very ductile , pale metal , which darkens in the presence of trace amounts of oxygen . It has a melting point of 28 @.@ 4 ° C ( 83 @.@ 1 ° F ) , making it one of the few elemental metals that are liquid near room temperature . Mercury is the only elemental metal with a known melting point lower than caesium . In addition , the metal has a rather low boiling point , 641 ° C ( 1 @,@ 186 ° F ) , the lowest of all metals other than mercury . Its compounds burn with a blue or violet colour .
Caesium forms alloys with the other alkali metals , as well as with gold , and amalgams with mercury . At temperatures below 650 ° C ( 1 @,@ 202 ° F ) , it does not alloy with cobalt , iron , molybdenum , nickel , platinum , tantalum or tungsten . It forms well @-@ defined intermetallic compounds with antimony , gallium , indium and thorium , which are photosensitive . It mixes with all the other alkali metals ( except lithium ) ; the alloy with a molar distribution of 41 % caesium , 47 % potassium , and 12 % sodium has the lowest melting point of any known metal alloy , at − 78 ° C ( − 108 ° F ) . A few amalgams have been studied : CsHg
2 is black with a purple metallic lustre , while CsHg is golden @-@ coloured , also with a metallic lustre .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Caesium metal is highly reactive and very pyrophoric . In addition to igniting spontaneously in air , it reacts explosively with water even at low temperatures , more so than other members of the first group of the periodic table . The reaction with solid water occurs at temperatures as low as − 116 ° C ( − 177 ° F ) . Because of its high reactivity , the metal is classified as a hazardous material . It is stored and shipped in dry saturated hydrocarbons , such as mineral oil . Similarly , it must be handled under inert gas , such as argon . However , a caesium @-@ water explosion is often less powerful than a sodium @-@ water explosion with a similar amount of sodium . This is because caesium explodes instantly upon contact with water , leaving little time for hydrogen to accumulate . Caesium can be stored in vacuum @-@ sealed borosilicate glass ampoules . In quantities of more than about 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) , caesium is shipped in hermetically sealed , stainless steel containers .
The chemistry of caesium is similar to that of other alkali metals , but is more closely similar to that of rubidium , the element above caesium in the periodic table . As expected for an alkali metal , its only common oxidation state is + 1 . Some small differences arise from the fact that it has a higher atomic mass and is more electropositive than other ( nonradioactive ) alkali metals . Caesium is the most electropositive chemical element . The caesium ion is also larger and less " hard " than those of the lighter alkali metals .
= = = Compounds = = =
The vast majority of caesium compounds contain the element as the cation Cs + , which binds ionically to a wide variety of anions . One noteworthy exception is provided by the caeside anion ( Cs − ) . Other exceptions include the several suboxides ( see section on oxides below ) .
Returning to more normal compounds , salts of Cs + are almost invariably colourless unless the anion itself is coloured . Many of the simple salts are hygroscopic , but less so than the corresponding salts of the lighter alkali metals . The phosphate , acetate , carbonate , halides , oxide , nitrate , and sulfate salts are water @-@ soluble . Double salts are often less soluble , and the low solubility of caesium aluminium sulfate is exploited in the purification of Cs from its ores . The double salt with antimony ( such as CsSbCl
4 ) , bismuth , cadmium , copper , iron , and lead are also poorly soluble .
Caesium hydroxide ( CsOH ) is hygroscopic and a very strong base . It rapidly etches the surface of semiconductors such as silicon . CsOH has been previously regarded by chemists as the " strongest base " , reflecting the relatively weak attraction between the large Cs + ion and OH − ; it is indeed the strongest Arrhenius base , but a number of compounds that cannot exist in aqueous solution , such as n @-@ butyllithium and sodium amide , are more basic .
A stoichiometric mixture of caesium and gold will react to form yellow caesium auride ( Cs + Au − ) upon heating . The auride anion here behaves as a pseudohalogen . The compound reacts violently with water , yielding caesium hydroxide , metallic gold , and hydrogen gas ; in liquid ammonia it can be reacted with a caesium @-@ specific ion exchange resin to produce tetramethylammonium auride . The analogous platinum compound , the red caesium platinide ( Cs2Pt ) , contains the platinide ion that behaves as a pseudochalcogen .
= = = = Complexes = = = =
Like all metal cations , Cs + forms complexes with Lewis bases in solution . Because of its large size , Cs + usually adopts coordination numbers greater than six @-@ coordination , which is typical for the lighter alkali metal cations . This trend is already apparent by the 8 @-@ coordination in CsCl , vs. the halite motif adopted by the other alkali metal chlorides . Its high coordination number and softness ( tendency to form covalent bonds ) are the basis of the separation of Cs + from other cations , as is practiced in the remediation of nuclear wastes , where 137Cs + is separated from large amounts of nonradioactive K + .
= = = = Halides = = = =
Caesium fluoride ( CsF ) is a hygroscopic white solid that is widely used in organofluorine chemistry as a source of the fluoride anion . Caesium fluoride has the halite structure , which means that the Cs + and F − pack in a cubic closest packed array as do Na + and Cl − in sodium chloride . It is noteworthy as caesium and fluorine have the lowest and highest electronegativities respectively among all the known elements .
Caesium chloride ( CsCl ) crystallizes in the simple cubic crystal system . Also called the " caesium chloride structure " , this structural motif is composed of a primitive cubic lattice with a two @-@ atom basis , each with an eightfold coordination ; the chloride atoms lie upon the lattice points at the edges of the cube , while the caesium atoms lie in the holes in the center of the cubes . This structure is shared with CsBr and CsI , and many other compounds that do not contain Cs . In contrast , most other alkaline halides adopt the sodium chloride ( NaCl ) structure . The CsCl structure is preferred because Cs + has an ionic radius of 174 pm and Cl − 181 pm .
= = = = Oxides = = = =
More so than the other alkali metals , caesium forms numerous binary compounds with oxygen . When caesium burns in air , the superoxide CsO
2 is the main product . The " normal " caesium oxide ( Cs
2O ) forms yellow @-@ orange hexagonal crystals , and is the only oxide of the anti @-@ CdCl
2 type . It vaporizes at 250 ° C ( 482 ° F ) , and decomposes to caesium metal and the peroxide Cs
2O
2 at temperatures above 400 ° C ( 752 ° F ) . Aside from the superoxide and the ozonide CsO
3 , several brightly coloured suboxides have also been studied . These include Cs
7O , Cs
4O , Cs
11O
3 , Cs
3O ( dark @-@ green ) , CsO , Cs
3O
2 , as well as Cs
7O
2 . The latter may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs
2O . Binary compounds with sulfur , selenium , and tellurium also exist .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Caesium has a total of 39 known isotopes that range in their mass number ( i.e. number of nucleons in its nucleus ) from 112 to 151 . Several of these are synthesized from lighter elements by the slow neutron capture process ( S @-@ process ) inside old stars , as well as inside supernova explosions ( R @-@ process ) . However , the only stable caesium isotope is 133Cs , which has 78 neutrons . Although it has a large nuclear spin ( 7 / 2 + ) , nuclear magnetic resonance studies can be done with this isotope at a resonating frequency of 11 @.@ 7 MHz .
The radioactive 135Cs has a very long half @-@ life of about 2 @.@ 3 million years , longest of all radioactive isotopes of caesium . 137Cs and 134Cs have half @-@ lives of 30 and two years , respectively . 137Cs decomposes to a short @-@ lived 137mBa by beta decay , and then to nonradioactive barium , while 134Cs transforms into 134Ba directly . The isotopes with mass numbers of 129 , 131 , 132 and 136 , have half @-@ lives between a day and two weeks , while most of the other isotopes have half @-@ lives from a few seconds to fractions of a second . There are at least 21 metastable nuclear isomers . Other than 134mCs ( with a half @-@ life of just under 3 hours ) , all are very unstable and decay with half @-@ lives of a few minutes or less .
The isotope 135Cs is one of the long @-@ lived fission products of uranium which form in nuclear reactors . However , its fission product yield is reduced in most reactors because its predecessor , 135Xe , is an extremely potent neutron poison and transmutes frequently to stable 136Xe before it can decay to 135Cs .
Because of its beta decay ( to 137mBa ) , 137Cs is a strong emitter of gamma radiation . Its half @-@ life makes it the principal medium @-@ lived fission product along with 90Sr — both are responsible for radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling up to several hundred years after use . For example , 137Cs together with 90Sr currently generate the largest source of radioactivity generated in the area around the Chernobyl disaster . It is not feasible to dispose of 137Cs through neutron capture ( due to the low capture rate ) and as a result it must be allowed to decay .
Almost all caesium produced from nuclear fission comes from beta decay of originally more neutron @-@ rich fission products , passing through various isotopes of iodine and of xenon . Because iodine and xenon are volatile and can diffuse through nuclear fuel or air , radioactive caesium is often created far from the original site of fission . With the commencement of nuclear weapons testing around 1945 , 137Cs was released into the atmosphere and then returned to the surface of the earth as a component of radioactive fallout .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Caesium is a relatively rare element as it is estimated to average approximately 3 parts per million in the Earth 's crust . This makes it the 45th most abundant of all elements and the 36th of all the metals . Nevertheless , it is more abundant than such elements as antimony , cadmium , tin and tungsten , and two orders of magnitude more abundant than mercury or silver , but 3 @.@ 3 % as abundant as rubidium — with which it is so closely associated , chemically .
Due to its large ionic radius , caesium is one of the " incompatible elements " . During magma crystallization , caesium is concentrated in the liquid phase and crystallizes last . Therefore , the largest deposits of caesium are zone pegmatite ore bodies formed by this enrichment process . Because caesium does not substitute for potassium as readily as does rubidium , the alkali evaporite minerals sylvite ( KCl ) and carnallite ( KMgCl
3 · 6H
2O ) may contain only 0 @.@ 002 % caesium . Consequently , Cs is found in few minerals . Percentage amounts of caesium may be found in beryl ( Be
3Al
2 ( SiO
3 )
6 ) and avogadrite ( ( K , Cs ) BF
4 ) , up to 15 wt % Cs2O in the closely related mineral pezzottaite ( Cs ( Be2Li ) Al2Si6O18 ) , up to 8 @.@ 4 wt % Cs2O in the rare mineral londonite ( ( Cs , K ) Al
4Be
4 ( B , Be )
12O
28 ) , and less in the more widespread rhodizite . The only economically important source mineral for caesium is pollucite Cs ( AlSi
2O
6 ) , which is found in a few places around the world in zoned pegmatites , and is associated with the more commercially important lithium minerals lepidolite and petalite . Within the pegmatites , the large grain size and the strong separation of the minerals create high @-@ grade ore for mining .
One of the world 's most significant and richest sources of the metal is the Tanco Mine at Bernic Lake in Manitoba , Canada . The deposits there are estimated to contain 350 @,@ 000 metric tons of pollucite ore , which represent more than two @-@ thirds of the world 's reserve base . Although the stoichiometric content of caesium in pollucite is 42 @.@ 6 % , pure pollucite samples from this deposit contain only about 34 % caesium , while the average content is 24 wt % . Commercial pollucite contains over 19 % caesium . The Bikita pegmatite deposit in Zimbabwe is mined for its petalite , but it also contains a significant amount of pollucite . Notable amounts of pollucite are also mined in the Karibib Desert , Namibia . At the present rate of world mine production of 5 to 10 metric tons per year , reserves will last for thousands of years .
= = Production = =
The mining of pollucite ore is a selective process and is conducted on a small scale in comparison with most metal mining operations . The ore is crushed , hand @-@ sorted , but not usually concentrated , and then ground . Caesium is then extracted from pollucite mainly by three methods : acid digestion , alkaline decomposition , and direct reduction .
In the acid digestion , the silicate pollucite rock is dissolved with strong acids , such as hydrochloric ( HCl ) , sulfuric ( H
2SO
4 ) , hydrobromic ( HBr ) , or hydrofluoric ( HF ) acids . With hydrochloric acid , a mixture of soluble chlorides is produced , and the insoluble chloride double salts of caesium are precipitated as caesium antimony chloride ( Cs
4SbCl
7 ) , caesium iodine chloride ( Cs
2ICl ) , or caesium hexachlorocerate ( Cs
2 ( CeCl
6 ) ) . After separation , the pure precipitated double salt is decomposed , and pure CsCl is obtained after evaporating the water . The method using sulfuric acid yields the insoluble double salt directly as caesium alum ( CsAl ( SO
4 )
2 · 12H
2O ) . The aluminium sulfate in it is converted to the insoluble aluminium oxide by roasting the alum with carbon , and the resulting product is leached with water to yield a Cs
2SO
4 solution .
The roasting of pollucite with calcium carbonate and calcium chloride yields insoluble calcium silicates and soluble caesium chloride . Leaching with water or dilute ammonia ( NH
4OH ) yields then a dilute chloride ( CsCl ) solution . This solution can be evaporated to produce caesium chloride or transformed into caesium alum or caesium carbonate . Albeit not commercially feasible , direct reduction of the ore with potassium , sodium or calcium in vacuum can produce caesium metal directly .
Most of the mined caesium ( as salts ) is directly converted into caesium formate ( HCOO − Cs + ) for applications such as oil drilling . To supply the developing market , Cabot Corporation built a production plant in 1997 at the Tanco mine near Bernic Lake in Manitoba , with a capacity of 12 @,@ 000 barrels ( 1 @,@ 900 m3 ) per year of caesium formate solution . The primary smaller @-@ scale commercial compounds of caesium are caesium chloride and its nitrate .
Alternatively , caesium metal may be obtained from the purified compounds derived from the ore . Caesium chloride , and the other caesium halides , as well , can be reduced at 700 to 800 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 to 1 @,@ 472 ° F ) with calcium or barium , followed by distillation of the caesium metal . In the same way , the aluminate , carbonate , or hydroxide may be reduced by magnesium . The metal can also be isolated by electrolysis of fused caesium cyanide ( CsCN ) . Exceptionally pure and gas @-@ free caesium can be made by the thermal decomposition at 390 ° C ( 734 ° F ) of caesium azide CsN
3 , which is produced from aqueous caesium sulfate and barium azide . In vacuum applications , caesium dichromate can be reacted with zirconium forming pure caesium metal without other gaseous products .
Cs
2Cr
2O
7 + 2 Zr → 2 Cs + 2 ZrO
2 + Cr
2O
3
The price of 99 @.@ 8 % pure caesium ( metal basis ) in 2009 was about US $ 10 per gram ( $ 280 per ounce ) , but its compounds are significantly cheaper .
= = History = =
In 1860 , Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in the mineral water from Dürkheim , Germany . Due to the bright blue lines in its emission spectrum , they chose a name derived from the Latin word caesius , meaning sky @-@ blue . Caesium was the first element to be discovered spectroscopically , only one year after the invention of the spectroscope by Bunsen and Kirchhoff .
To obtain a pure sample of caesium , 44 @,@ 000 litres ( 9 @,@ 700 imp gal ; 12 @,@ 000 US gal ) of mineral water had to be evaporated to yield 240 kilograms ( 530 lb ) of concentrated salt solution . The alkaline earth metals were precipitated either as sulfates or oxalates , leaving the alkali metal in the solution . After conversion to the nitrates and extraction with ethanol , a sodium @-@ free mixture was obtained . From this mixture , the lithium was precipitated by ammonium carbonate . Potassium , rubidium and caesium form insoluble salts with chloroplatinic acid , but these salts show a slight difference in solubility in hot water . Therefore , the less @-@ soluble caesium and rubidium hexachloroplatinate ( ( Cs , Rb ) 2PtCl6 ) could be obtained by fractional crystallization . After reduction of the hexachloroplatinate with hydrogen , caesium and rubidium could be separated by the difference in solubility of their carbonates in alcohol . The process yielded 9 @.@ 2 grams ( 0 @.@ 32 oz ) of rubidium chloride and 7 @.@ 3 grams ( 0 @.@ 26 oz ) of caesium chloride from the initial 44 @,@ 000 liters of mineral water .
The two scientists used the caesium chloride thus obtained to estimate the atomic weight of the new element at 123 @.@ 35 ( compared to the currently accepted one of 132 @.@ 9 ) . They tried to generate elemental caesium by electrolysis of molten caesium chloride , but instead of a metal , they obtained a blue homogeneous substance which " neither under the naked eye nor under the microscope " showed the slightest trace of metallic substance " ; as a result , they assigned it as a subchloride ( Cs
2Cl ) . In reality , the product was probably a colloidal mixture of the metal and caesium chloride . The electrolysis of the aqueous solution of chloride with a mercury anode produced a caesium amalgam which readily decomposed under the aqueous conditions . The pure metal was eventually isolated by the German chemist Carl Setterberg while working on his doctorate with Kekulé and Bunsen . In 1882 , he produced caesium metal by electrolysing caesium cyanide , and thus avoiding the problems with the chloride .
Historically , the most important use for caesium has been in research and development , primarily in chemical and electrical fields . Very few applications existed for caesium until the 1920s , when it came to be used in radio vacuum tubes . It had two functions ; as a getter , it removed excess oxygen after manufacture , and as a coating on the heated cathode , it increased its electrical conductivity . Caesium did not become recognized as a high @-@ performance industrial metal until the 1950s . Applications of nonradioactive caesium included photoelectric cells , photomultiplier tubes , optical components of infrared spectrophotometers , catalysts for several organic reactions , crystals for scintillation counters , and in magnetohydrodynamic power generators . Caesium also was , and still is , used as a source of positive ions in secondary ion mass spectrometry ( SIMS ) .
Since 1967 , the International System of Measurements has based its unit of time , the second , on the properties of caesium . The International System of Units ( SI ) defines the second as the duration of 9 @,@ 192 @,@ 631 @,@ 770 cycles at the microwave frequency of the spectral line corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine energy levels of the ground state of caesium @-@ 133 . The 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures of 1967 defined a second as : " the duration of 9 @,@ 192 @,@ 631 @,@ 770 cycles of microwave light absorbed or emitted by the hyperfine transition of caesium @-@ 133 atoms in their ground state undisturbed by external fields " .
= = Applications = =
= = = Petroleum exploration = = =
The largest current end @-@ use of nonradioactive caesium is in caesium formate @-@ based drilling fluids for the extractive oil industry . Aqueous solutions of caesium formate ( HCOO − Cs + ) — made by reacting caesium hydroxide with formic acid — were developed in the mid @-@ 1990s for use as oil well drilling and completion fluids . The function of a drilling fluid is to lubricate drill bits , to bring rock cuttings to the surface , and to maintain pressure on the formation during drilling of the well . Completion fluids assist the emplacement of control hardware after drilling but prior to production by maintaining the pressure .
The high density of the caesium formate brine ( up to 2 @.@ 3 g · cm − 3 , or 19 @.@ 2 pounds per gallon ) , coupled with the relatively benign nature of most caesium compounds , reduces the requirement for toxic high @-@ density suspended solids in the drilling fluid — a significant technological , engineering and environmental advantage . Unlike the components of many other heavy liquids , caesium formate is relatively environment @-@ friendly . The caesium formate brine can be blended with potassium and sodium formates to decrease the density of the fluids down to that of water ( 1 @.@ 0 g · cm − 3 , or 8 @.@ 3 pounds per gallon ) . Furthermore , it is biodegradable and reclaimable , and may be recycled , which is important in view of its high cost ( about $ 4 @,@ 000 per barrel in 2001 ) . Alkali formates are safe to handle and do not damage the producing formation or downhole metals as corrosive alternative , high @-@ density brines ( such as zinc bromide ZnBr
2 solutions ) sometimes do ; they also require less cleanup and reduce disposal costs .
= = = Atomic clocks = = =
Caesium @-@ based atomic clocks observe electromagnetic transitions in the hyperfine structure of caesium @-@ 133 atoms and use it as a reference point . The first accurate caesium clock was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK . They have been improved repeatedly over the past half @-@ century , and form the basis for standards @-@ compliant time and frequency measurements , and have been regarded as " the most accurate realization of a unit that mankind has yet achieved . " These clocks measure frequency with an error of 2 to 3 parts in 1014 , which would correspond to a time measurement accuracy of 2 nanoseconds per day , or one second in 1 @.@ 4 million years . The latest versions are accurate to better than 1 part in 1015 , which means they would be off by about 1 second in 20 million years , . Caesium clocks are also used in networks that oversee the timing of cell phone transmissions and the information flow on the Internet .
= = = Electric power and electronics = = =
Caesium vapour thermionic generators are low @-@ power devices that convert heat energy to electrical energy . In the two @-@ electrode vacuum tube converter , it neutralizes the space charge that builds up near the cathode , and in doing so , it enhances the current flow .
Caesium is also important for its photoemissive properties by which light energy is converted to electron flow . It is used in photoelectric cells because caesium @-@ based cathodes , such as the intermetallic compound K
2CsSb , have low threshold voltage for emission of electrons . The range of photoemissive devices using caesium include optical character recognition devices , photomultiplier tubes , and video camera tubes . Nevertheless , germanium , rubidium , selenium , silicon , tellurium , and several other elements can substitute caesium in photosensitive materials .
Caesium iodide ( CsI ) , bromide ( CsBr ) and caesium fluoride ( CsF ) crystals are employed for scintillators in scintillation counters widely used in mineral exploration and particle physics research , as they are well @-@ suited for the detection of gamma and X @-@ ray radiation . Caesium , being a heavy element , provides good stopping power , contributing to better detectivity . Caesium compounds may also provide a faster response ( CsF ) and be less hygroscopic ( CsI ) .
Caesium vapor is used in many common magnetometers . The element is also used as an internal standard in spectrophotometry . Like other alkali metals , caesium has a great affinity for oxygen and is used as a " getter " in vacuum tubes . Other uses of the metal include high @-@ energy lasers , vapour glow lamps , and vapor rectifiers .
= = = Centrifugation fluids = = =
Because of their high density , solutions of caesium chloride , caesium sulfate , and caesium trifluoroacetate ( Cs ( O
2CCF
3 ) ) are commonly used in molecular biology for density gradient ultracentrifugation . This technology is primarily applied to the isolation of viral particles , subcellular organelles and fractions , and nucleic acids from biological samples .
= = = Chemical and medical use = = =
There are relatively few chemical applications for caesium . Doping with caesium compounds is used to enhance the effectiveness of several metal @-@ ion catalysts used in the production of chemicals , such as acrylic acid , anthraquinone , ethylene oxide , methanol , phthalic anhydride , styrene , methyl methacrylate monomers , and various olefins . It is also used in the catalytic conversion of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide in the production of sulfuric acid .
Caesium fluoride enjoys niche use in organic chemistry as a base , or as an anhydrous source of fluoride ion . Caesium salts sometimes replace potassium or sodium salts in organic synthesis , such as cyclization , esterification , and polymerization . It has also been used in thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry ( TLD ) : When exposed to radiation , it acquires crystal defects that , when heated , revert with emission of light proportionate to the received dose . Thus , measuring the light pulse with a photomultiplier tube can allow the accumulated radiation dose to be quantified .
= = = Nuclear and isotope applications = = =
Caesium @-@ 137 is a very common radioisotope used as a gamma @-@ emitter in industrial applications . Its advantages include a half @-@ life of roughly 30 years , its availability from the nuclear fuel cycle , and having 137Ba as a stable end product . The high water solubility is a disadvantage which makes it incompatible with large pool irradiators for food and medical supplies . It has been used in agriculture , cancer treatment , and the sterilization of food , sewage sludge , and surgical equipment . Radioactive isotopes of caesium in radiation devices were used in the medical field to treat certain types of cancer , but emergence of better alternatives and the use of water @-@ soluble caesium chloride in the sources , which could create wide @-@ ranging contamination , gradually put some of these caesium sources out of use . Caesium @-@ 137 has been employed in a variety of industrial measurement gauges , including moisture , density , leveling , and thickness gauges . It has also been used in well logging devices for measuring the electron density of the rock formations , which is analogous to the bulk density of the formations .
Isotope 137 has also been used in hydrologic studies analogous to those using tritium . It is a daughter product of nuclear fission reactions . With the commencement of nuclear testing around 1945 , and continuing through the mid @-@ 1980s , caesium @-@ 137 was released into the atmosphere , where it is absorbed readily into solution . Known year @-@ to @-@ year variation within that period allows correlation with soil and sediment layers . Caesium @-@ 134 , and to a lesser extent caesium @-@ 135 , have also been used in hydrology as a measure of caesium output by the nuclear power industry . While they are less prevalent than either caesium @-@ 133 or caesium @-@ 137 , these isotopes have the advantage of being produced solely from anthropogenic sources .
= = = Other uses = = =
Caesium and mercury were used as a propellant in early ion engines designed for spacecraft propulsion on very long interplanetary or extraplanetary missions . The ionization method was to strip the outer electron from the propellant upon contact with a tungsten electrode that had voltage applied . Concerns about the corrosive action of caesium on spacecraft components have pushed development in the direction of the use of inert gas propellants , such as xenon ; this is easier to handle in ground @-@ based tests and has less potential to interfere with the spacecraft . Eventually , xenon was used in the experimental spacecraft Deep Space 1 launched in 1998 . Nevertheless , Field Emission Electric Propulsion thrusters which use a simple system of accelerating liquid metal ions such as of caesium to create thrust have been built .
Caesium nitrate is used as an oxidizer and pyrotechnic colorant to burn silicon in infrared flares , such as the LUU @-@ 19 flare , because it emits much of its light in the near infrared spectrum . Caesium has been used to reduce the radar signature of exhaust plumes in the SR @-@ 71 Blackbird military aircraft . Caesium , along with rubidium , has been added as a carbonate to glass because it reduces electrical conductivity and improves stability and durability of fibre optics and night vision devices . Caesium fluoride or caesium aluminium fluoride are used in fluxes formulated for the brazing of aluminium alloys that contain magnesium .
Magnetohydrodynamic ( MHD ) power @-@ generating systems were researched , but failed to gain widespread acceptance . Caesium metal has also been considered as the working fluid in high @-@ temperature Rankine cycle turboelectric generators . Caesium salts have been evaluated as antishock reagents to be used following the administration of arsenical drugs . Because of their effect on heart rhythms , however , they are less likely to be used than potassium or rubidium salts . They have also been used to treat epilepsy .
= = Health and safety hazards = =
Nonradioactive caesium compounds are only mildly toxic . Exposure to large amounts can cause hyperirritability and spasms , due to the chemical similarity of caesium to potassium , but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources and nonradioactive caesium is not a significant environmental hazard . The median lethal dose ( LD50 ) value for caesium chloride in mice is 2 @.@ 3 g per kilogram , which is comparable to the LD50 values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride . However , in large quantities caesium competes with potassium in various biological processes . Accordingly , excess caesum intake can lead to hypokalemia , arrythmia , and acute cardiac arrest . The principal use of nonradioactive caesium , as caesium formate in petroleum drilling fluids , takes advantage of its low toxicity compared to less costly alternatives .
Caesium metal is one of the most reactive elements and is highly explosive when it comes in contact with water . The hydrogen gas produced by the reaction is heated by the thermal energy released at the same time , causing ignition and a violent explosion . This can occur with other alkali metals , but caesium is so potent that this explosive reaction can even be triggered by cold water . The autoignition temperature of caesium is also − 116 ° C , so it is highly pyrophoric , and ignites explosively in air to form caesium hydroxide and various oxides . Caesium hydroxide is a very strong base , and will rapidly corrode glass .
The isotopes 134 and 137 are present in the biosphere in small amounts from human activities and which differs between locations . Radiocaesium does not accumulate in the body as effectively as many other fission products ( such as radioiodine and radiostrontium ) . About 10 % of absorbed radiocaesium washes out of the body relatively quickly in sweat and urine . The remaining 90 % has a biological half @-@ life between 50 and 150 days . Radiocaesium follows potassium and tends to accumulate in plant tissues , including fruits and vegetables . Plants absorb caesium differently , some do not absorb it much , and some take it large amounts , sometimes displaying great resistance to it . It is also well @-@ documented that mushrooms from contaminated forests accumulate radiocaesium ( caesium @-@ 137 ) in their fungal sporocarps . Accumulation of caesium @-@ 137 in lakes has been a high concern after the Chernobyl disaster . Experiments with dogs showed that a single dose of 3 @.@ 8 millicuries ( 140 MBq , 4 @.@ 1 μg of caesium @-@ 137 ) per kilogram is lethal within three weeks ; smaller amounts may cause infertility and cancer . The International Atomic Energy Agency and other sources have warned that radioactive materials , such as caesium @-@ 137 , could be used in radiological dispersion devices , or " dirty bombs " .
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= K @-@ 143 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 143 is a state highway in Saline County , Kansas . The route runs 4 @.@ 658 miles ( 7 @.@ 496 km ) in a general north @-@ south direction through lands mostly used for agriculture from an interchange at Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) in northern Salina , Kansas to a junction with U.S. Route 81 ( US @-@ 81 ) . The southern part of the route is a four @-@ lane divided highway while the rest is a two @-@ lane highway . It has an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) between 1 @,@ 580 and 4 @,@ 133 vehicles . The route is paved with three different pavement types , and is not a part of the National Highway System . It was first designated as US @-@ 81 Alternate in the early 1970s with the designation being changed to K @-@ 143 in the early 1980s .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 143 begins at an interchange with Interstate 70 in the northernmost parts of Salina , Kansas . For the first 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) of the route , the highway travels due north through commercial and agricultural land within the Salina city limits . A short distance after this , K @-@ 143 transitions from a divided four @-@ lane highway into a two @-@ lane highway . It then crosses the Saline River and continues north through primarily agricultural land north of Salina . At 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) , K @-@ 143 turns northwest and follows a gently curving path in that direction for the remainder of the route , ending at an interchange with US @-@ 81 . The total length of the route is 4 @.@ 658 miles ( 7 @.@ 496 km ) . K @-@ 143 has an AADT of 4 @,@ 133 vehicles in the southernmost 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) of the route , with an AADT of 1 @,@ 580 – 1 @,@ 595 vehicles in the remainder of the route . The route is paved with a combination of full @-@ design bituminous pavement , composite pavement , and partial @-@ design bituminous pavement . K @-@ 143 is not a part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
K @-@ 143 's route was established between 1970 and 1971 as US @-@ 81 Alternate . The numbering was changed to K @-@ 143 between 1981 and 1983 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Saline County .
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= Manchester computers =
The Manchester computers were an innovative series of stored @-@ program electronic computers developed during the 30 @-@ year period between 1947 and 1977 by a small team at the University of Manchester , under the leadership of Tom Kilburn . They included the world 's first stored @-@ program computer , the world 's first transistorised computer , and what was the world 's fastest computer at the time of its inauguration in 1962 .
The project began with two aims : to prove the practicality of the Williams tube , an early form of computer memory based on standard cathode ray tubes ( CRTs ) ; and to construct a machine that could be used to investigate how computers might be able to assist in the solution of mathematical problems . The first of the series , the Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine ( SSEM ) , ran its first program on 21 June 1948 . As the world 's first stored @-@ program computer , the SSEM , and the Manchester Mark 1 developed from it , quickly attracted the attention of the United Kingdom government , who contracted the electrical engineering firm of Ferranti to produce a commercial version . The resulting machine , the Ferranti Mark 1 , was the world 's first commercially available general @-@ purpose computer .
The collaboration with Ferranti eventually led to an industrial partnership with the computer company ICL , who made use of many of the ideas developed at the university , particularly in the design of their 2900 series of computers during the 1970s .
= = Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine ( SSEM ) = =
The Manchester Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine ( SSEM ) , also known as the Baby , was designed as a test @-@ bed for the Williams tube , an early form of computer memory , rather than as a practical computer . Work on the machine began in 1947 , and on 21 June 1948 the computer successfully ran its first program , consisting of 17 instructions written to find the highest proper factor of 218 ( 262 @,@ 144 ) by trying every integer from 218 − 1 downwards . The program ran for 52 minutes before producing the correct answer of 131 @,@ 072 .
The SSEM was 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) in length , 7 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 24 m ) tall , and weighed almost 1 long ton . It contained 550 thermionic valves – 300 diodes and 250 pentodes – and had a power consumption of 3 @.@ 5 kilowatts . Its successful operation was reported in a letter to the journal Nature published in September 1948 , establishing it as the world 's first stored @-@ program computer . It quickly evolved into a more practical machine , the Manchester Mark 1 .
= = Manchester Mark 1 = =
Development of the Manchester Mark 1 began in August 1948 , with the initial aim of providing the university with a more realistic computing facility . In October 1948 UK Government Chief Scientist Ben Lockspeiser was given a demonstration of the prototype , and was so impressed that he immediately initiated a government contract with the local firm of Ferranti to make a commercial version of the machine , the Ferranti Mark 1 .
Two versions of the Manchester Mark 1 were produced , the first of which , the Intermediary Version , was operational by April 1949 . The Final Specification machine , which was fully working by October 1949 , contained 4 @,@ 050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts . Perhaps the Manchester Mark 1 's most significant innovation was its incorporation of index registers , commonplace on modern computers .
= = Meg and Mercury = =
As a result of experience gained from the Mark 1 , the developers concluded that computers would be used more in scientific roles than pure maths . They therefore embarked on the design of a new machine which would include a floating point unit ; work began in 1951 . The resulting machine , which ran its first program in May 1954 , was known as Meg , or the megacycle machine . It was smaller and simpler than the Mark 1 , as well as quicker at solving maths problems . Ferranti produced a commercial version marketed as the Ferranti Mercury , in which the Williams tubes were replaced by the more reliable core memory .
= = Transistor Computer = =
Work on building a smaller and cheaper computer began in 1952 , in parallel with Meg 's ongoing development . Two of Kilburn 's team , R. L. Grimsdale and D. C. Webb , were assigned to the task of designing and building a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves . Initially the only devices available were germanium point @-@ contact transistors , less reliable than the valves they replaced but which consumed far less power .
Two versions of the machine were produced . The first was the world 's first transistorised computer , and became operational in November 1953 . The second version was completed in April 1955 . The 1955 version used 200 transistors , 1 @,@ 300 solid @-@ state diodes , and had a power consumption of 150 watts . The machine did however make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory , so it was not the first completely transistorised computer , a distinction that went to the Harwell CADET of 1955 .
Problems with the reliability of early batches of transistors meant that the machine 's mean time between failures was about 90 minutes , which improved once the more reliable junction transistors became available . The Transistor Computer 's design was adopted by the local engineering firm of Metropolitan @-@ Vickers in their Metrovick 950 , in which all the circuitry was modified to make use of junction transistors . Six Metrovick 950s were built , the first completed in 1956 . They were successfully deployed within various departments of the company and were in use for about five years .
= = Muse and Atlas = =
Development of MUSE – a name derived from " microsecond engine " – began at the university in 1956 . The aim was to build a computer that could operate at processing speeds approaching one microsecond per instruction , one million instructions per second . Mu ( or µ ) is a prefix in the SI and other systems of units denoting a factor of 10 − 6 ( one millionth ) .
At the end of 1958 Ferranti agreed to collaborate with Manchester University on the project , and the computer was shortly afterwards renamed Atlas , with the joint venture under the control of Tom Kilburn . The first Atlas was officially commissioned on 7 December 1962 , and was considered at that time to be the most powerful computer in the world , equivalent to four IBM 7094s . It was said that whenever Atlas went offline half of the UK 's computer capacity was lost . Its fastest instructions took 1 @.@ 59 microseconds to execute , and the machine 's use of virtual storage and paging allowed each concurrent user to have up to one million words of storage space available . Atlas pioneered many hardware and software concepts still in common use today including the Atlas Supervisor , " considered by many to be the first recognisable modern operating system " .
Two other machines were built : one for a joint British Petroleum / University of London consortium , and the other for the Atlas Computer Laboratory at Chilton near Oxford . A derivative system was built by Ferranti for Cambridge University , called the Titan or Atlas 2 , which had a different memory organisation , and ran a time @-@ sharing operating system developed by Cambridge Computer Laboratory .
The University of Manchester 's Atlas was decommissioned in 1971 , but the last was in service until 1974 . Parts of the Chilton Atlas are preserved by the National Museums of Scotland in Edinburgh .
= = MU5 = =
MU5 was designed to be about 20 times faster than Atlas , and was optimised for running compiled programs rather than hand @-@ written machine code , something that contemporary computers were unable to do efficiently . A major factor in the MU5 's much @-@ improved performance over its predecessors was its incorporation of associative memory , which greatly speeded up access to its main store . .
Work on MU5 started in 1966 . The Science Research Council ( SRC ) awarded Manchester University a five @-@ year grant of £ 630 @,@ 466 in 1968 ( equivalent to about £ 9 @.@ 9 million as of 2016 ) to develop the MU5 , and ICL made its production facilities available to the university . Development began in 1969 , and by 1971 the design team had grown from its initial nucleus of six members of the university 's computer science department to 16 , supported by 25 research students and 19 ICL engineers .
MU5 was fully operational by October 1974 , coinciding with ICL 's announcement that it was working on the development of a new range of computers , the 2900 series . ICL 's 2980 in particular , first delivered in June 1975 , owed a great deal to the design of MU5 , which was in operation at the university until 1982 .
= = MU6 = =
MU5 was the last large @-@ scale machine to be designed and built at Manchester University . The development of its successor , MU6 , was funded by a grant of £ 219 @,@ 300 awarded by the SRC in 1979 ( equivalent to about £ 1 @,@ 001 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . MU6 was intended to be a range of processors with MU6 @-@ V at the top end and a personal processor , MU6 @-@ P , at the bottom . Only MU6 @-@ P and a mid @-@ range processor , MU6 @-@ G , were ever produced , and ran between 1982 and 1987 . The university did not have the resources to build the remaining machines in @-@ house , and the system was never commercially developed .
= = Summary = =
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= Roseanne Barr =
Roseanne Cherrie Barr ( born November 3 , 1952 ) is an American actress , comedian , writer , television producer , director , and 2012 presidential nominee of the California @-@ based Peace and Freedom Party . Barr began her career in stand @-@ up comedy at clubs before gaining fame for her role in the classic sitcom Roseanne . The show was a hit and lasted nine seasons , from 1988 to 1997 . She won both an Emmy and a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress for her work on the show . Barr had crafted a " fierce working @-@ class domestic goddess " persona in the eight years preceding her sitcom and wanted to do a realistic show about a strong mother who was not a victim of patriarchal consumerism .
The granddaughter of immigrants from Europe and Russia , Barr was the oldest of four children in a working @-@ class Jewish Salt Lake City family ; she was also active in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) . In 1974 , she married Bill Pentland , with whom she had three children , before divorcing in 1990 and marrying comedian Tom Arnold for four years . Controversy arose when she sang " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " off @-@ key at a 1990 nationally aired baseball game , followed by grabbing her crotch and spitting .
After her sitcom ended , she launched her own talk show , The Roseanne Show , which aired from 1998 to 2000 . In 2005 , she returned to stand @-@ up comedy with a world tour . In 2011 , she starred in an unscripted TV show , Roseanne 's Nuts , that lasted from July to September of that year , about her life on a Hawaiian farm .
In early 2012 , Barr announced her candidacy for the presidential nomination of the Green Party . Barr lost the nomination to Jill Stein . She then sought the presidential nomination of the Peace and Freedom Party , which she won on August 4 , 2012 . Barr received 61 @,@ 971 votes in the general election , placing sixth overall .
= = Early life = =
Barr was born in Salt Lake City , to a working @-@ class Jewish family . She is the oldest of four children born to Helen ( née Davis ) , a bookkeeper and cashier , and Jerome Hershel " Jerry " Barr , who worked as a salesman . Her father 's family were Jewish immigrants from Russia , and her maternal grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Austria @-@ Hungary and Lithuania , respectively . Her paternal grandfather changed his surname from " Borisofsky " to " Barr " upon entering the United States .
Her Jewish upbringing was influenced by her devoutly Orthodox Jewish maternal grandmother . Barr 's parents kept their Jewish heritage secret from their neighbors and were partially involved in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints . Barr has stated , " Friday , Saturday , and Sunday morning I was a Jew ; Sunday afternoon , Tuesday afternoon , and Wednesday afternoon we were Mormons " . When Barr was three years old , she got Bell 's palsy on the left side of her face . Barr said , " [ so ] my mother called in a rabbi to pray for me , but nothing happened . Then my mother got a Mormon preacher , he prayed , and I was miraculously cured " . Years later Barr learned that Bell 's palsy was usually temporary and that the Mormon preacher came " exactly at the right time " . At six years old , Barr discovered her first public stage by lecturing at LDS churches around Utah and even was elected president of a Mormon youth group .
At 16 , Barr was hit by a car that left her with a traumatic brain injury . Her behavior changed so radically that she was institutionalized for eight months at Utah State Hospital . In 1970 , when Barr was 18 years old , she moved out by informing her parents she was going to visit a friend in Colorado for two weeks , but never returned .
= = Career = =
= = = Stand @-@ up comedian : 1980 – 1986 = = =
While in Colorado , Barr did stand @-@ up gigs in clubs in Denver and other Colorado towns . She later tried out at The Comedy Store in Los Angeles and went on to appear on The Tonight Show in 1985 . In 1986 , she performed on Late Night with David Letterman and the following year had her own HBO special called The Roseanne Barr Show , which earned her an American Comedy Award for the funniest female performer in a television special . Barr was offered the role of Peg Bundy in Married ... with Children but turned it down . In her routine she popularized the phrase , " domestic goddess , " to refer to a homemaker or housewife . The success of her act led to her own series on ABC , called Roseanne .
= = = Roseanne sitcom , film , books , and talk show : 1987 – 2004 = = =
In 1987 , The Cosby Show executive producers Marcy Carsey and Tom Werner wanted to bring a " no @-@ perks family comedy " to television . They hired Cosby writer Matt Williams to write a script about factory workers and signed Barr to play Roseanne Conner . The show premiered on October 18 , 1988 and was watched by 21 @.@ 4 million households , making it the highest @-@ rated debut of that season .
Barr became outraged when she watched the first episode of Roseanne and noticed that in the credits , Williams was listed as creator . She told Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly , " We built the show around my actual life and my kids . The ' domestic goddess ' , the whole thing " . In the same interview , Werner said , " I don 't think Roseanne , to this day , understands that this is something legislated by the Writers Guild , and it 's part of what every show has to deal with . They 're the final arbiters . " During the first season , Barr sought more creative control over the show , opposing Williams ' authority . Barr refused to say certain lines and eventually walked off set . She threatened to quit the show if Williams did not leave . ABC let Williams go after the thirteenth episode .
Roseanne ran for nine seasons from 1988 to 1997 . Barr won an Emmy , a Golden Globe , a Kids Choice Award , and three American Comedy Awards for her part in the show . For the final two seasons , Barr earned $ 40 million , making her the second @-@ highest @-@ paid woman in show business at the time , after Oprah Winfrey .
Barbara Ehrenreich called Barr a working @-@ class spokesperson representing " the hopeless underclass of the female sex : polyester @-@ clad , overweight occupants of the slow track ; fast @-@ food waitresses , factory workers , housewives , members of the invisible pink @-@ collar army ; the despised , the jilted , the underpaid , " but a master of " the kind of class @-@ militant populism that the Democrats , most of them anyway , never seem to get right . " Barr refuses to use the term " blue collar " because it masks the issue of class .
During Roseanne 's final season , Barr was in negotiations between Carsey @-@ Werner Productions and ABC executives to continue playing Roseanne Conner in a spin @-@ off . However , after failed discussions with ABC , and later CBS and Fox , Carsey @-@ Werner and Barr agreed not to go on with the negotiations .
Barr gave Amy Sherman @-@ Palladino and Joss Whedon their first writing jobs on Roseanne . She released her autobiography in 1989 , titled Roseanne — My Life As a Woman . That same year , she made her film debut in She @-@ Devil , playing Ruth . Film critic Roger Ebert gave her a positive review saying , " Barr could have made an easy , predictable and dumb comedy at any point in the last couple of years . Instead , she took her chances with an ambitious project – a real movie . It pays off , in that Barr demonstrates that there is a core of reality inside her TV persona , a core of identifiable human feelings like jealousy and pride , and they provide a sound foundation for her comic acting " .
In 1991 , she voiced the baby , Julie , in Look Who 's Talking Too . She was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress . She appeared three times on Saturday Night Live from 1991 to 1994 , co @-@ hosting with then @-@ husband Tom Arnold in 1992 . In 1994 , she released a second book , My Lives . That same year , Barr became the first female comedian to host the MTV Video Music Awards on her own . She remained the only to have done so until comedian Chelsea Handler hosted in 2010 . In 1997 , she made guest appearances on 3rd Rock from the Sun and The Nanny .
In 1998 , she portrayed the Wicked Witch of the West in a production of The Wizard of Oz at Madison Square Garden . That same year , Barr hosted her own talk show , The Roseanne Show , which ran for two years before it was canceled in 2000 . In the summer of 2003 , she took on the dual role of hosting a cooking show called Domestic Goddess and starring in a reality show called The Real Roseanne Show about hosting a cooking show . Although 13 episodes were in production , a hysterectomy brought a premature end to both projects . In 2004 , she voiced Maggie , one of the main characters in the animated film Home on the Range .
= = = Return to stand @-@ up , television guest appearances , and radio : 2005 – 2010 = = =
In 2005 , she returned to stand @-@ up comedy with a world tour . In February 2006 , Barr performed her first @-@ ever live dates in Europe as part of the Leicester Comedy Festival in Leicester , England . The shows took place at De Montfort Hall . She released her first children 's DVD , Rockin ' with Roseanne : Calling All Kids , that month . Roseanne 's return to the stage culminated in an HBO Comedy Special Roseanne Barr : Blonde N Bitchin ' , which aired November 4 , 2006 , on HBO . Two nights earlier , Roseanne had returned to primetime network TV with a guest spot on NBC 's My Name Is Earl , playing a crazy trailer park manager . In April 2007 , Barr hosted season three of The Search for the Funniest Mom in America on Nick at Nite .
In March 2008 , she headlined an act at the Sahara Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip . From 2009 to 2010 , she hosted a politically themed radio show on KPFK . Since 2008 , she and partner Johnny Argent have hosted a weekly radio show on Sundays , on KCAA in the Los Angeles area , called " The Roseanne and Johnny Show " . On March 23 , 2009 it was announced that Barr would be returning to primetime with a new sitcom , wherein she would once again play the matriarch . Jim Vallely of Arrested Development had been tapped to pen the series . She later stated on her website that the project had been canceled .
On April 15 , 2009 , Barr made an appearance on Bravo 's 2nd Annual A @-@ List Awards in the opening scenes . She played Kathy Griffin 's fairy godmother , granting her wish to be on the A @-@ List for one night only . Barr headlined the inaugural Traverse City Comedy Arts Festival in February 2010 , a project of the Traverse City Film Festival , founded by filmmaker Michael Moore . Moore developed the comedy fest with comedian Jeff Garlin . In 2010 , Barr appeared in Jordan Brady 's documentary about stand @-@ up comedy , I Am Comic .
= = = Reality television , third book , sitcom pilot , politics and Comedy Central Roast : 2011 – present = = =
Barr released her third book , Roseannearchy : Dispatches from the Nut Farm , in January 2011 . She appeared in 2011 on a Super Bowl XLV commercial for Snickers along with comedian Richard Lewis . It was the most popular ad based on the number of TiVo users rewinding and watching it over . Roseanne 's Nuts , a reality show featuring Barr , boyfriend Johnny Argent , and son Jake as they run a macadamia nut and livestock farm in Big Island , Hawaii was broadcast by Lifetime Television in July 2011 , and cancelled in September of that year .
In August 2011 , it was reported that Barr was working on a new sitcom with 20th Century Fox Television tentatively titled Downwardly Mobile . Steven Greener , who also executive produced her reality show Roseanne 's Nuts , will also executive produce the sitcom . Eric Gilliland is attached as co @-@ creator , writer and executive producer ; Gilliland was also a writer on Barr 's previous sitcom Roseanne . The show will be set in a mobile home community and use a multiple @-@ camera setup . In October 2011 , NBC picked up the show . A pilot was filmed but initially ended up being shelved by the network . Barr blames her " Progressive politics " as being the sole reason behind the pilot 's rejection . Barr states that she was notified that the show would not be picked up due to its being labeled " too polarizing " by network executives . In an interview with Politicker , Barr revealed that the show had been axed only to announce three hours later that she had just received a phone call saying that NBC had not given up on the project completely . The show could end up as an NBC midseason replacement . Barr hopes she 's given the opportunity to retool the show .
Barr was " roasted " by Comedy Central in August 2012 . Barr 's former spouse , Tom Arnold , had claimed that he would not be appearing , but he ended up doing so .
In the summer of 2014 Barr joined Keenen Ivory Wayans and Russell Peters as a judge on Last Comic Standing on NBC .
On November 28 , 2014 , Barr 's series , Momsters : When Moms Go Bad debuted on the Investigation Discovery cable network , a network that she says she 's a ' little obsessed with . ' Barr hosts the show as herself .
= = Controversy = =
= = = National Anthem = = =
On July 25 , 1990 , Barr performed " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " before a baseball game between the San Diego Padres and Cincinnati Reds at Jack Murphy Stadium . As she later claimed , she was initially having trouble hearing herself over the public @-@ address system , so she was singing as loudly as possible , and her rendition of the song sounded " screechy " . Following her rendition , she mimicked the often @-@ seen actions of players by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup . Barr claimed she had been encouraged by baseball officials to " bring humor to the song " . The song and the closing routine received heavy media attention and offended many , including President George H. W. Bush , who called her rendition " disgraceful . " Barr would revisit this incident during her Comedy Central Roast in 2012 , wherein she once again belted out the last few bars of the national anthem , without screeching .
= = = Zimmerman tweet = = =
In 2014 , the parents of George Zimmerman , a neighborhood watch coordinator who is known for fatally shooting Trayvon Martin but was later acquitted of second degree murder and manslaughter , filed a lawsuit against Barr for tweeting their home address and phone number on March 29 , 2012 . Barr allegedly tweeted " At first I thought it was good to let ppl know that no one can hide anymore ... If Zimmerman isn 't arrested I 'll rt his address again- maybe go 2 his house myself . " Zimmerman 's parents allege that Barr sought to " cause a lynch mob to descend " on their home . The Seminole County Circuit Court complaint sought more than $ 15 @,@ 000 for emotional distress and invasion of privacy . In August 2015 , summary judgment was granted in favor of Barr .
= = 2012 Presidential campaign = =
On August 5 , 2011 , Barr appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and announced her candidacy for president in the 2012 presidential election , running on the " Green Tea Party " ticket . Her candidacy mixed attention to economics , personal health and meditation . She also said that she is running for Prime Minister of Israel . In an interview with The Jewish Daily Forward she invoked tikkun olam in her support of bringing women into politics and religion . On September 19 , 2011 , she appeared at the Occupy Wall Street protests and spoke in support of the protestors . She further stated that any " guilty " Wall Street bankers should be forced to give up any income over $ 100 million , be sent to re @-@ education camps , or be executed by beheading if they resisted . Barr filed with the Federal Election Commission as a Green Party presidential candidate in January 2012 . She formally announced her candidacy for the party 's 2012 presidential nomination on February 2 , 2012 .
On July 14 , 2012 , Barr came in second , losing the nomination to Jill Stein . Stein chose Cheri Honkala as her running @-@ mate despite suggestions that she could choose Barr . Barr was given a prime speaking role at the Green Party National Convention in Baltimore , Maryland , but decided to instead send a surrogate ( Farheen Hakeem ) to speak on her behalf . Barr 's surrogate reportedly chided the Party for not respecting Barr 's candidacy . A shouting match in a hallway reportedly ensued . Barr repeatedly criticized Jill Stein after losing the Green Party nomination , and caused controversy by using alleged transphobic words in statements about Stein on Twitter .
Shortly after losing the Green Party nomination , Barr announced she would run on the Peace and Freedom Party ticket with activist Cindy Sheehan as a running mate . On August 4 , 2012 , Barr won the 2012 presidential nomination of the Peace and Freedom Party . Barr 's running mate , Cindy Sheehan , immediately had disagreements with Barr , from Barr 's views on policy , to Barr 's desire to only campaign online , and Barr 's treatment of Green Party nominee Jill Stein , leading Sheehan to request her name taken off the Peace and Freedom Party ticket . Sheehan was told it was too late to have her name removed , so she instead announced that she was simply leaving the campaign .
Barr finished her campaign with nearly 50 @,@ 000 votes nationwide , placing sixth overall with considerably less than 0 @.@ 1 % of the popular vote ; Stein placed far ahead of her in fourth place with roughly 0 @.@ 3 % of the popular vote and 469 @,@ 501 votes . Barr was followed by a film crew throughout her entire campaign , with documentarian Eric Weinrib directing , leading to questions about the sincerity of her campaign . Over 300 hours were filmed and were released as a film called Roseanne for President ! . Despite questions of her sincerity regarding her campaign , Barr and her family have insisted her desire to run for President was " very real . "
= = = Endorsements = = =
Green Party Black Caucus
National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws
Cynthia McKinney , 2008 Green Party nominee
= = Personal life = =
In 1970 , when she was 17 , Barr had a child whom she placed for adoption ; they were later reunited . On February 4 , 1974 , Barr married Bill Pentland , a motel clerk she met while in Colorado . They had three children : Jessica , Jennifer , and Jake . Pentland and Barr divorced on January 16 , 1990 . Four days later , on January 20 , 1990 , Barr married fellow comedian Tom Arnold and became known as Roseanne Arnold during the marriage . Barr had met Arnold in 1983 in Minneapolis , where he opened for her stand @-@ up comedy act . In 1988 , Barr brought Arnold onto her sitcom , Roseanne , as a writer .
Barr has a lesbian sister , Geraldine Barr , and a gay brother , Ben Barr , both of whom inspired her to introduce gay characters into her sitcom . Barr has stated that she supports gay marriage . Geraldine was also Barr 's manager while performing in comedy clubs and at the start of her sitcom . Geraldine claimed that Arnold tried to dominate Barr " for his own reasons " . After being fired by Roseanne , Geraldine filed a $ 70 @.@ 3 million breach of contract lawsuit in Superior Court of Los Angeles County on December 18 , 1991 . She said Barr promised her half the earnings from the Roseanne show for helping invent the " domestic goddess " character in 1981 , serving as " writer , organizer , accountant , bookkeeper and confidante " . Since it was six months past the statute of limitations , the suit was thrown out .
In a 1991 interview with People , Barr described herself as an " incest survivor " , accusing both of her parents of physical and sexual abuse , claims which they and Geraldine publicly denied . Melvin Belli , her parents ' lawyer , said that they had passed a lie detector test " with flying colors " . Barr was even part of an incest recovery group , something she said her parents knew about but for which they were " in denial " . On February 14 , 2011 , Barr and Geraldine appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show where Barr admitted that the word " incest " could have been the wrong word to use and should have waited until her therapy was over before revealing the " darkest time " in her life . She told Oprah , " I was in a very unhappy relationship and I was prescribed numerous psychiatric drugs ... to deal with the fact that I had some mental illness ... I totally lost touch with reality ... ( and ) I didn ’ t know what the truth was ... I just wanted to drop a bomb on my family " . She added that not everything was " made up " , saying , " Nobody accuses their parents of abusing them without justification " . Geraldine said they did not speak for 12 years , but had recently reconciled .
Barr filed for divorce from Tom Arnold on April 18 , 1994 in the Superior Court of Los Angeles County , citing irreconcilable differences . Their efforts to have children were unsuccessful . On February 14 , 1995 , Barr married Ben Thomas , her one @-@ time personal security guard , at Caesars Tahoe with a reception at Planet Hollywood . In November 1994 , she became pregnant through in @-@ vitro fertilization and they had a son named Buck . The couple stayed together until 2002 .
In the mid @-@ 1990s , Barr had multiple cosmetic surgeries performed , such as a breast reduction , tummy tuck , and a nose job . During the late 1990s she had gastric bypass surgery .
In 2002 , Barr met Johnny Argent online after running a writing competition on her blog and began dating him in 2003 , after a year of phone conversations . They live on a 46 @-@ acre macadamia nut farm located on the Big Island of Hawaii . Barr purchased the property in 2007 for $ 1 @.@ 78 million . Barr has studied Kabbalah at the Kabbalah Centre and frequently comments on the discipline .
In 2015 , Barr revealed she has been diagnosed with both macular degeneration and glaucoma , and thus is gradually losing her eyesight and expects to eventually go blind ; she is consuming medical marijuana to fight the raised intraocular pressure that is a feature of these diseases .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television ( Acting ) = = =
= = = Television ( Hosting / Reality ) = = =
= = Awards = =
Roseanne Barr has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on the north side of the 6700 block of Hollywood Blvd .
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= River Arun =
The Arun ( / ˈærən / ) is a river in the English county of West Sussex . Its source is a series of small streams in the St Leonard 's Forest area , to the east of Horsham . After flowing through Horsham to the west , it is joined by the North River at Nowhurst . Turning to the south , it is joined by its main tributary , the western River Rother , and continues through Arundel and past Arundel Castle , to join the English Channel at Littlehampton . The Arun local government district in West Sussex is named after it . It is one of the faster flowing rivers in England , and is tidal as far inland as Pallingham Quay , 25 @.@ 5 miles ( 41 @.@ 0 km ) upstream from the sea at Littlehampton .
The first major improvements to the river were made between the 1540s and the 1570s , when Arundel became a port , and navigation up to Pallingham was improved , but barges had difficulty negotiating the flash locks that were installed . The work was carried out by Henry FitzAlan , 19th Earl of Arundel , who made the upper section toll @-@ free . Harbour commissioners managed the lower river from Arundel to the sea from 1732 , and major improvements to keep the estuary free from silt were sanctioned by an Act of Parliament obtained in 1793 . With the coming of the railways and changes in coastal shipping , Littlehampton superseded Arundel as the port of the Arun , and the Littlehampton harbour commissioners are still responsible for the river up to Arundel , collecting tolls for its use .
The river above Arundel was improved after 1785 . As the main channel was toll @-@ free , the proprietors of the scheme built two major cuts . One , which included three locks and passed through Hardham Tunnel , was built to avoid a large bend near Pulborough . The other was near the upper terminus , where a cut with three locks crossed the original channel by an aqueduct to reach wharves at Newbridge . Further improvements were made when the Wey and Arun Canal opened in 1816 , joining the Arun at Newbridge , and after the completion of the Portsmouth and Arundel Canal , which opened soon afterwards . These two canals were an attempt to provide an inland route between London and Portsmouth , but were not as successful as the proprietors hoped . Traffic declined rapidly when the railways offered competition , and the navigation ceased to be maintained from 1888 , though some traffic continued on the lower sections . The Wey and Arun Canal is currently being restored , and restoration will eventually include the cut and locks below Newbridge .
= = History = =
When Ptolemy wrote his Geography around 150 AD , the Arun was called the Trisantonis , with later accounts using the same name . Trisantonis is thought to be a Brythonic word for ' the trespasser ' , indicating the river 's tendency to flood land near to the river . Trisanto translates directly as ' one who goes across ' . There is also a theory that the Arun may have been known as the Trisantonis in its lower reaches close to the sea , but known as the Arnus ( from the Brythonic ' Arno ' meaning run , go , or flow ) in its upper reaches . It is possible that the town of Arundel may mean Arno @-@ dell , or dell of the flowing river . By the Middle Ages the river was known as the river of Arundel , the Arundel river , or the high stream of Arundel . An alternative name , the Tarrant ( derived from Trisantona ) , is , however , attested in 725 and 1270 , and is reflected in the road name Tarrant Street , one of the main roads running through the town roughly parallel to the river . The first use of the modern name was recorded in 1577 , but the alternative names of Arundel river or great river continued to be used for many years .
The mouth of the river has not always been at Littlehampton . Until the later fifteenth century it joined the River Adur at Lancing some ten miles to the east before entering the sea . This estuary became blocked with shingle by the eastward drift of the tides , pushing the Adur towards Shoreham @-@ by @-@ Sea , while the Arun broke out at Worthing , Goring and Ferring at various times , until it formed its present estuary at Littlehampton between 1500 and 1530 .
= = = Improvements = = =
The lower portion of the river , from the sea to Ford , was navigable in the eleventh century at the time of the Norman conquest . In the sixteenth century , Henry FitzAlan , 19th Earl of Arundel built wharves at Ford , and improved the river channel below there , so that the town became a port . Over the 30 years from 1544 , he also improved the river as far upstream as Pallingham Quay . Although the work involved a number of flash locks , which were not very successful , no tolls were charged for its use , and vessels of around 15 tons were used to carry timber . Attempts to make the river navigable up to Newbridge in the early sixteenth century were not successful .
An Act of Parliament was obtained in 1732 , the main emphasis of which was the improvement of " the harbour of Littlehampton , called Arundel Port " , but improvements to the first 5 @.@ 75 miles ( 9 @.@ 25 km ) of the river , from the sea to Arundel , were also authorised . Commissioners were appointed , with powers to erect piers and to cut a new channel to the sea through a sand bar . The Act allowed them to charge tolls for use of the facilities , and once the initial costs had been repaid , one half of the tolls were to be used to maintain the harbour and the river channel up to Arundel . Although most ships were of 30 or 40 tons , ships of up to 100 tons could reach Arundel as a result of the work , and trade improved .
The next Act to affect the river was obtained by a group of local men in 1785 . Under the Act , the proprietors were empowered to make the river navigable for 30 @-@ ton barges up to Newbridge . They had no jurisdiction over the river from Arundel to Houghton bridge , and could not charge tolls for use of the river up to Pallingham . There were 31 members of the proprietors , who could raise £ 10 @,@ 000 by issuing 100 shares worth £ 100 each . Day @-@ to @-@ day oversight of the affairs of the navigation were managed by three proprietors , with a half @-@ yearly meeting of the larger group . The purpose of the navigation was to carry coal , chalk and lime upstream , and agricultural produce in the other direction . Rather than improve the river channel , the navigation upstream of Pallingham consisted of a separate channel , containing three locks , and an aqueduct which carried the navigation over the river at Orfold . The journey below Pallingham was made 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) shorter by cutting a new channel between Coldwaltham and Hardham . This involved the construction of three more locks and a 375 @-@ yard ( 343 m ) tunnel . The Pallingham to Newbridge section opened on 1 August 1787 , while the Hardham cut was completed in mid @-@ 1790 . The cost of the work was around £ 16 @,@ 000 .
There were two proposals to extend the navigation at this time . The first was for a canal to North Chapel , to the north of Petworth , in 1791 , and the second was for a canal to Horsham in the following year . The route was surveyed by John Rennie , who estimated that it would cost £ 18 @,@ 133 to build , but negotiations with the existing proprietors failed , and the scheme was dropped in 1794 . Meanwhile , a second Act of Parliament was obtained by the harbour commissioners in 1793 , as there was serious silting of the estuary . Groynes were constructed and the existing piers were made longer . In addition , a towpath was built from the mouth of the river up to Arundel . The Act stated that the capital borrowed to finance the harbour under the previous act had been repaid , and that tolls would all be used for maintenance of the harbour and river up to Arundel , once further borrowings had been repaid . Because the inhabitants of Arundel had spent £ 28 @,@ 300 on the harbour , boats which belonged to the port of Arundel did not have to pay any tolls . As a result of the works , the port of Arundel enjoyed its most prosperous period for the next thirty years , with ships of 200 and 300 tons able to reach the town on spring tides . Facilities improved , and there were four docks by 1840 .
= = = Operation = = =
Payment of dividends to shareholders began in 1792 , and over the next five years , tolls raised an average of £ 893 per year and the dividend was 3 @.@ 1 per cent . At this time , George Wyndham , 3rd Earl of Egremont was buying shares and having obtained one third of them , he became chairman of the company . He then stopped the payment of dividends so that the borrowed capital could be paid off more quickly . Apart from an interim payment in 1821 , dividends were not reinstated until 1830 . In the 1790s Wyndham was responsible for the canalisation of the River Rother which joins the Arun at Stopham , and he also promoted the Wey and Arun Canal , which was seen as part of a larger scheme to link London to Portsmouth , an idea which had been contemplated several times since 1641 . He chaired a meeting held at Guildford on 1 June 1811 , at which it was decided to press ahead with the canal , and put up £ 20 @,@ 000 of the initial £ 90 @,@ 500 estimated cost . The canal opened in September 1816 , but the estimated 100 @,@ 000 tons of traffic passing between London and the dockyards at Portsmouth , and the 30 @,@ 000 tons of local traffic , were far too optimistic , with actual traffic averaging around 15 @,@ 000 tons per year throughout its life .
The London to Portsmouth route was to be completed by the Portsmouth and Arundel Canal , in which Wyndham and the Cutfields , who also held many shares in the Arun Navigation , were both significant subscribers . This was authorised by Act of Parliament in 1817 , and an agreement was reached that the Arun would be improved to aid through traffic . Nevertheless , no work commenced on the Arun until the proprietors were sure that the Ford section of the new canal would actually be built . Once they were convinced , they obtained an Act of Parliament in May 1821 , and the engineer James Hollingworth oversaw the improvements , which were completed in mid @-@ 1823 . The work involved improving the depth and width of the channel , and some alterations to bridges and locks to make their size more uniform . The company borrowed £ 3000 to finance the work , which cost around £ 5000 in total . The loans had been repaid by 1831 , and the work allowed barge sizes to be increased from 30 tons to 40 tons , with the result that business improved .
Traffic increased , as shown by the number of boats belonging to residents of Arundel . There were 13 in 1801 , which had increased to 15 by 1803 , with a total tonnage of 266 . A timber merchant called John Boxold owned barges in 1815 and 1832 , while in 1820 , a company began running regular freight services to London , using three barges based near the town quay . By 1823 they had ten barges , which had reduced to seven by 1830 , and barges ran twice @-@ weekly to Chichester , London , Midhurst , and Petworth . The company was variously called Seward and Co . , The Arundel Barge Co . , and several other names .
= = = Decline = = =
From the 1840s , use of the river declined , as a result of competition from the railways , and changes in coastal shipping . Littlehampton grew in importance as a port and after years of resistance by the people of Arundel , the customs house was moved there in 1864 . The Mid @-@ Sussex Railway opened their line from Horsham to Pulborough and Petworth in 1859 , which was extended to Ford and Littlehampton in 1863 . Receipts from tolls had peaked at £ 2044 for the five years from 1835 to 1840 , when a dividend of 11 @.@ 8 percent was paid , but dropped quickly , raising just £ 389 for years between 1870 and 1875 , when the dividend was 1 percent .
By 1852 , the barge service to London only ran once a week , and it had ceased altogether three years later . Most vessels reaching Arundel were coasters rather than barges by 1886 , and just 20 ships used the facilities that year . The Wey and Arun Canal closed in 1871 . The proprietors of the upper river ceased to maintain the navigation from 1 January 1888 , and the last barge passed through Hardham Tunnel on 29 January 1889 . The river was abandoned as a navigation by a warrant issued as part of the Railway and Canal Traffic Act of 1888 . The River Lark in Suffolk was the only other river navigation abandoned at that time . The Board of Trade issued a closing order in 1896 , and after that , there was no navigation authority responsible for the upper river . However , traffic did not cease entirely .
Fifteen or twenty barges were still using the river in the 1880s , although the upper reaches were no longer accessible . Arundel docks silted up between 1875 and 1896 . In 1898 , the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway , who by this time were the owners of the railway from Horsham to Littlehampton , drilled down into the tunnel where the main line and the branch to Midhurst crossed its course , and poured tons of chalk into the tunnel to stabilise it . A trade in chalk and lime extracted from Amberley chalk pits continued into the early twentieth century . Some ships were towed to Arundel by paddle tugs , and imports of salt , timber and coal for the gasworks continued . Arundel was visited by its last steamer in 1914 , and the last sailing vessel to reach the port did so three years later . Passage of larger craft upstream was hindered by the construction of a swing bridge at Littlehampton in 1908 , and prevented by a fixed railway bridge at Ford built in 1938 . As freight traffic disappeared from the river , Edward Slaughter , who later became part of the company of Buller and Slaughter , was hiring pleasure craft by 1903 , and the company was still doing so in the 1990s .
= = = Present = = =
Authority for the river remains much as it was after 1896 , with the Littlehampton Harbour Board responsible for the section from the mouth up to Arundel Bridge , and no navigation authority for the river above that , although the Environment Agency have responsibility for its drainage functions . There are nine bridges with a minimum navigable headroom of between 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) and 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) at high water . The river is tidal to Pallingham Quay , 25 @.@ 5 miles ( 41 @.@ 0 km ) upstream from the sea at Littlehampton , and flows at 4 to 6 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 to 11 @.@ 1 km / h ) , making it one of the fastest flowing rivers in the country . The tidal range at Littlehampton is 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) at spring tides and 8 @.@ 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) at neap tides . High tide occurs 15 minutes later than high water at Dover , and high water at Pulborough is four hours later than at Littlehampton .
= = = Charitable organisations = = =
The Arun & Rother Rivers Trust ( ARRT ) is a charity set up in 2011 with objectives around education , fisheries , biodiversity , access and pollution amongst other issues .
The Wey and Arun Canal is being restored by the Wey and Arun Canal Trust , which was set up in the 1970s . The Wey and Arun Canal technically ended at Newbridge , but the restoration will include the Arun Navigation section down to Pallingham to reach the River Arun . For many years , the Solent and Arun Branch of the Inland Waterways Association organised an annual cruise on the river to ensure that the navigation rights were maintained . Responsibility for its organisation has now been passed to the Wey and Arun Canal Trust .
= = Route = =
At 37 miles ( 60 km ) from its source to the sea , the Arun is the longest of the rivers in Sussex . It rises as a series of streams , known locally as ghylls or gills , to the east of Horsham , in St Leonard 's Forest . It flows westwards , along the southern boundary of Horsham and turns briefly to the north to skirt Broadbridge Heath . Continuing westwards , it is joined by the North River , which is also known as the River Oke , whose headstreams are the heights of Leith Hill and Holmbury Hill in Surrey . After the junction , it passes under the A29 road , which follows the route of the Roman Stane Street at this point , and timber piles of a Roman bridge have been found in the riverbed . The earthworks from a Roman station are close by . To the south of Rudgwick it is crossed by a disused railway line , and at this point it crosses the 66 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) contour . Its course is marked by winding meanders as it turns towards the south , and the county boundary briefly follows its course , before it is joined by the partially restored Wey and Arun Canal . Its former course to the west of the canal can be clearly seen , and is followed by the boundary , but the main flow of the river follows a new straight cut just to the east of the canal . Once the boundary crosses back over the canal , the river resumes its meandering course on the eastern side of the canal .
A little further to the south is another straight cut , with the old course still visible on the other side of the canal . Soon it reaches Newbridge on the A272 road near Wisborough Green . The location of the wharf which was the northern terminus of the Arun Navigation was just to the south of the bridge . Wharf Farm was nearby , and the modern 1 : 2500 Ordnance Survey map shows buildings named " The Old Wharf " . Brockhurst Brook joins from the east before the river turns briefly westwards . Soon it is crossed by Orfold Aqueduct , which carried the Arun Navigation over the river channel . The River Kird joins it , flowing from the north , and it turns southwards again . At Pallingham the remains of Pallingham Manor are on the north bank , next to Pallingham Manor Farm , a 17th @-@ century timber @-@ framed farmhouse , which is Grade II listed . Pallingham Quay Farmhouse , another Grade II listed building dating from the 18th century , is on the west bank of the river just before its junction with the Arun Navigation cut . Below the junction , the river is tidal .
Continuing southwards , the river passes the gallops which are part of Coombelands Racing Stables , situated on the eastern bank , and Park Mount , a motte and bailey dating from the time of the Norman conquest . It is one of the best @-@ preserved monuments of this type in south east England . The river is crossed by Stopham Bridge , a fine medieval stone bridge built in 1422 @-@ 23 . The centre arch was raised as part of the improvements made to the navigation in 1822 . It is a Grade I listed structure , and also a Scheduled Ancient Monument . It was damaged by army lorries in the Second World War , but has been repaired , and the heavy traffic on the A283 road was diverted onto a new bridge just upstream of it in the 1980s .
Below the bridge is a small island , after which an artificial cut built to avoid the circuitous route of the River Rother Navigation heads westwards . The river now discharges over a weir at the site of the former Hardham corn mill to join the Arun a little further downstream , and the junction is followed by another small island . Hardham lock was necessary because of the drop in levels caused by the mill , and the branch through Hardham tunnel headed due south a little further up the Rother . Exploration of the tunnel was described by an article in Sussex County Magazine in 1953 , when both ends were accessible , and again in 2012 , when only the southern end was explored . A waterworks has been built over the bed of the canal at the northern end , and the tunnel mouth is within the site . The river continues in a large loop to the east . The Arun Valley railway line crosses it to reach Pulborough railway station . There is another island , with the A29 road crossing both channels . Pulborough Brooks nature reserve is to the east of the loop , and the course then meanders westwards to Greatham Bridge . The bridge consists of eight low elliptical arches , two taller arches , a cast iron span over the navigable channel , and a solid ramp to the east . Although its construction suggests that it is medieval , most of the arches were erected in 1827 .
On the west bank of the river below the bridge is Waltham Brooks nature reserve . Coldwaltham lock , on the branch through the Hardham Tunnel , is still marked on modern maps , and the section from the lock to the river still holds water . Just to the north of Amberley , the river is crossed by the Arun Valley line again at Timberley Bridge . At the village of Bury , the West Sussex Literary Trail joins the western bank and another footpath joins the eastern bank . The next bridge is Houghton Bridge , close to Amberley railway station . The river splits into two channels here , and the bridge spans both . Similar to Greatham Bridge , it looks medieval , but was built in 1875 . There is a solid section on the island between the channels , with a single arch over the eastern channel and four arches over the main river . The chalk pits which provided trade to the navigation are now the location of Amberley Museum & Heritage Centre , a 36 @-@ acre ( 15 ha ) site with many items of industrial heritage on display .
The river follows an " S " -shaped course , the northern loop encircling the village of North Stoke and the south one encircling South Stoke . Immediately to the south , the old course passes under the railway line , but a new channel was cut to the west of the railway . On the west bank is the hamlet of Offham and Arundel Wetland Centre , a 65 @-@ acre ( 26 ha ) haven for birds which is run by the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust . The market town of Arundel is to the west of the river . It has a castle build on a motte , the construction of which was started in 1068 . It is owned by the Duke and Duchess of Norfolk . The present building consists of many different components , dating from the late eleventh century through to the nineteenth , and is Grade I listed . Two bridges span the river here , the first on the original road through the town , while the second carries the A284 Arundel Bypass . The final section is crossed by a railway bridge , built in 1908 , and the A259 road bridge , which carries the road into Littlehampton on the east bank . It discharges into the English Channel between the East and West Piers .
Littlehampton and its harbour were guarded from naval attack by Littlehampton Redoubt on the western bank at the mouth of the river , completed in 1854 , which is now screened from the open sea by Climping sand dunes . This fort replaced a seven @-@ gun battery on the east bank , which was built in 1764 .
= = Points of interest = =
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= Paul Cornell ( lawyer ) =
Paul Cornell ( August 5 , 1822 – March 3 , 1904 ) was an American lawyer and Chicago real estate speculator who founded the Hyde Park Township that included most of what are now known as the south and far southeast sides of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . He turned the south side Lake Michigan lakefront area , especially the Hyde Park community area and neighboring Kenwood and Woodlawn neighborhoods , into a resort community that had its heyday from the 1850s through the early 20th century . He was also an urban planner who paved the way for and preserved many of the parks that are now in the Chicago Park District . Additionally , he was a successful entrepreneur with interests in manufacturing , cemeteries , and hotels .
His modern legacy includes several large parks now in the Chicago Park District : Jackson Park , Washington Park , Midway Plaisance and Harold Washington Park . Most of the South and Southeast Sides of Chicago were developed and eventually annexed into the City of Chicago as a result of his foresight .
= = Background = =
Born in Upstate New York , Cornell was from a distinguished New England family , was descendant from Thomas Cornell , the progenitor of the Cornell family in North America , and a cousin to Ezra Cornell , founder of Cornell University . When his father died ( he was 9 at that time ) the family moved to the Adams County , IL / Schuyler County , IL area , where he worked as a farmhand to pay for schooling . He passed the Illinois bar examination and moved to Chicago in 1847 . Unfortunately , his entire savings was stolen from his hotel room on his first night in town . A sympathetic lawyer provided him with both a loan and a job at the law office of Skinner and Hoyne , where he met Senator Stephen Douglas .
He was married to the sister @-@ in @-@ law of John Evans , after whom Evanston , IL was named . He had many strong local connections , being related to founders of Northwestern University ( Evans and Orrington Lunt ) and to George Kimbark of Riverside Improvement Company . His brother @-@ in @-@ law Kimbark purchased the area between 51st and 55th and Dorchester and Woodlawn to the west of Cornell 's purchase . Cornell later purchased this as well as other lands purchased by his Uncle , Hassan A. Hopkins , to add to Hyde Park .
= = Hyde Park = =
Douglas advised him to consider investing in land south of the city limits . After some horseback travels through the area , he began to envision a viable community there . In 1853 , following the advice of Douglas , he bought 300 acres ( 1 @.@ 21 km2 ) of property between 51st Street and 55th Street as a speculative investment . This area was 7 miles ( 11 @.@ 27 km ) south of the mouth of the Chicago River and 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) south of downtown Chicago . In the 1850s , Chicago was still a walkable urban area well contained within a 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 22 km ) radius of the center . It was common for development companies to locate hotels near rail depots to introduce visitors to new suburbs . In 1856 , Paul Cornell invented the Chicago railroad suburb . In an effort to improve his land value , he deeded 60 acres ( 0 @.@ 24 km2 ) to the Illinois Central Railroad in exchange for a 53rd Street train station and a commitment of 6 daily connections to Chicago ’ s Central Depot in each direction . He then marketed the neighborhood to wealthy Chicagoans as a resort area . He selected the name Hyde Park to associate the area with the elite high class neighborhoods of New York and London .
At about the same time , he built the Hyde Park House a 4 story hotel at 53rd Street and Lake Michigan . The hotel became the focal point of the community and drew affluent guests with leisure time and discretionary income . This site is now occupied by the Hampton House . The hotel also helped others to envision a thriving affluent community in the area . By 1861 , the residents petitioned the Illinois General Assembly to create the Hyde Park Township .
Paul Cornell specifically forbade heavy industry development in Hyde Park . This philosophy later became a part of the Burnham Plan . He maintained the character of Hyde Park , which was intended to be an elite suburb bordering Chicago , by selling only large lots that the affluent could afford . The neighborhood flourished for the next two generations .
In 1889 , the entire Hyde Park township ( the area south of 39th Street , north of 138th Street , and east of State Street ) , which had quintupled in population from an 1880 population of 15 @,@ 716 to an 1889 population of 85 @,@ 000 , voted for annexation to the City of Chicago . Paul Cornell planned and advocated a town with a lakefront park , a plaisance , an adjoining park and boulevards shaped the town . His plan for a cornerstone institution to rival Evanston 's Northwestern University was at first thwarted by the decision to establish a theological seminary on the north side , but would come to fruition with the foundation of the University of Chicago through the philanthropy of John D. Rockefeller and Marshall Field in 1890 .
Hyde Park maintained racially restrictive covenants excluding African Americans from purchasing , leasing , or occupying homes in Hyde Park for nearly one hundred years until this segregative tool was struck down by the United States Supreme Court in a 1940 case , Lee v. Hansberry , concerning the nearby Washington Park Subdivision . At his death , Cornell bequeathed East End Park ( Now renamed Harold Washington Park ) to the city . The stone pictured above commemorates this gift .
= = Civic Leadership = =
Cornell is considered the " father of the South Parks System " for his extensive efforts after the American Civil War to create a parks system south of Chicago . Cornell , as a real estate developer , presented a convincing case to city developers that a parks system would increase the value of land surrounding it . Cornell based his arguments on New York City 's Central Park , which had substantially raised surrounding real estate values . Repeated attempts eventually got a plan through the Illinois General Assembly . As a civic leader he along with his peer William Le Baron Jenney , the West Parks commissioner , commissioned urban landscape designers such as Frederick Law Olmsted , Calvert Vaux , Ossian Simonds , H. W. S. Cleveland , and Jens Jensen to create landscaped cemeteries , to implement a coordinated parks and boulevard system and to design the railroad @-@ served suburbs to complement urban civilization .
In 1869 , the state passed the " Parks Law " , which created the north , south and west parks district . The parks districts were established as municipal corporations with funding based on the taxable real estate within its service area . The legislation provided for orderly growth and evolution of the city by outlining not only the powers and duties of the parks districts , but also the geography of the parks and connecting boulevards . Cornell was able to both benefit financially from the $ 46 million spent on the parks during the remainder of the century and to assume a position of influence over the parks . Cornell served for over 13 years on the South Parks Commission , which regulated parks south of the city . This position enabled him to pursue his vision which was to have a park system that would give " lungs to the great city and its future generations . " He also served as the Hyde Park Township 's first Town Supervisor . Today , Jackson Park , Washington Park and Harold Washington Park stand as a testament to his efforts . These parks became major selling points that contributed to the growth of Hyde Park .
= = Other ventures = =
In 1887 , Cornell built the Hyde Park Hotel ( left , 1887 – 1963 ) on the former site of his home at Lake Park and East Hyde Park Boulevard . The hotel was expanded in 1891 . In 1914 , the hotel expanded ( for a second time ) , which doubled its capacity to 300 rooms ( see right ) .
Paul Cornell also purchased the swampland and prairie 8 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) south of the Loop at the intersection of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway and the Illinois Central Railroad at a location that now is 75th Street and South Chicago Avenue in 1855 . He subdivided parcels for sale through the 1870s . The area , which was first named Cornell , became Grand Crossing . He had accumulated a total of 960 acres ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ; 3 @.@ 9 km2 ) land at one point . The reason that the name was changed was the pre @-@ existence of Cornell , Illinois .
Paul Cornell established the Cornell Watch Factory at 76th Street and the Illinois Central tracks in 1876 in Grand Crossing . Among his other ventures , Cornell founded Republic Life Insurance Company and the American Bronze Company . He served as secretary for a group of Chicagoans who purchased 167 acres ( 0 @.@ 68 km2 ) in 1853 to create Oak Woods Cemetery . He has a 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) tall zinc monument at the cemetery .
= = Memorials = =
Cornell Avenue running at along the 1600 east block from 4818 south to 9326 south and Cornell Drive running along the 1632 east block in Jackson Park . Although these streets have different names they are the same street .
The Hyde Park Historical Society gives out annual Paul Cornell Awards .
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= M @-@ 80 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 80 is a state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It runs from Kinross to M @-@ 129 near Donaldson . The highway serves the site of the former Kincheloe Air Force Base and the current Chippewa County International Airport . The designation has been used twice before on roads in the Lower Peninsula in the 1910s through 1930s while the current usage dates back to the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 80 starts at exit 378 along Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) near Kinross . A short section of it runs concurrently with H @-@ 63 ( Mackinac Trail ) to connect to ramps in the interchange . This section runs northeast – southwest across the freeway from Mud Lake before the M @-@ 80 designation turns southeasterly along Tone Road running past Kinross Lake in a forested area . Tone Road curves sharply northeasterly and then southeasterly to run around the north end of the runway complex at the Chippewa County International Airport . The highway runs due east past the airport terminal area to the south and a prison and the residential area of the former Kincheloe Air Force Base to the north . Near Dukes Lake , M @-@ 80 crosses Gaines Highway and leaves the former base and runs through forest to the intersection with M @-@ 129 where M @-@ 80 terminates . The roadway continues eastward as 17 Mile Road in Pickford Township .
M @-@ 80 has not been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . The NHS is a network of highways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . MDOT 's annual surveys of the traffic counts are used to compute a value called the annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measurement of the number of vehicles on a road for any given day of the year . The survey from 2009 showed that 2 @,@ 803 vehicles used the western section between I @-@ 75 and Gaines Highway , with 61 trucks included in the count . The eastern section was used by 1 @,@ 657 vehicles and 61 trucks .
= = History = =
On July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 80 existed as a highway in the Lower Peninsula connecting Adrian with Somerset . The highway was included in the route of US Highway 127 in 1926 . The M @-@ 80 designation was then shifted to a section of highway that was previously part of M @-@ 18 near Beaverton The M @-@ 80 designation was decommissioned in 1939 when the roadway was transferred back to local control .
The current designation of M @-@ 80 was created in 1994 – 95 when Tone Road through Kinross and the former Kincheloe Air Force Base were transferred to MDOT . The department assigned the roadway its designation and included it on the 1995 map .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Chippewa County .
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= Poland in the Early Middle Ages =
The main event that took place within the lands of Poland in the Early Middle Ages , as well as other parts of central @-@ eastern Europe , was the arrival , and subsequent permanent settlement , of the Slavic peoples . The Slavic migrations in the area of contemporary Poland started in the second half of the 5th century CE , some half century after these territories were vacated by Germanic tribes , their previous inhabitants . The first waves of the incoming Slavs settled the vicinity of the upper Vistula River and elsewhere in the lands of present southeastern Poland and southern Masovia . Coming from the east , from the upper and middle regions of the Dnieper River , the immigrants would have had come primarily from the western branch of the early Slavs known as Sclaveni , and since their arrival are classified as West Slavs . Their early archeological traces belong to the Prague @-@ Korchak culture , which is similar to the earlier Kiev culture .
From there the new population dispersed north and west over the course of the 6th century . The Slavs lived from cultivation of crops and were generally farmers , but also engaged in hunting and gathering . The migrations took place when the destabilizing invasions of eastern and central Europe by waves of people and armies from the east , such as the Huns , Avars and Magyars , were occurring . This westward movement of Slavic people was facilitated in part by the previous emigration of Germanic peoples toward the safer and more developed areas of western and southern Europe . The immigrating Slavs formed various small tribal organizations beginning in the 8th century , some of which coalesced later into larger , state @-@ like ones . Beginning in the 7th century , these tribal units built many fortified structures with earth and wood walls and embankments , called gords . Some of them were developed and inhabited , others had a very large empty area inside the walls .
By the 9th century , the Slavs had settled the Baltic coast in Pomerania , which subsequently developed into a commercial and military power . Along the coastline , remnants of Scandinavian settlements and emporia were to be found . The most important of them was probably the trade settlement and seaport of Truso , located in Prussia . Prussia itself was relatively unaffected by Slavic migration and remained inhabited by Baltic Old Prussians . During the same time , the tribe of the Vistulans ( Wiślanie ) , based in Kraków and the surrounding region , controlled a large area in the south , which they developed and fortified with many strongholds .
During the 10th century , the Polans ( Polanie , lit . " people of the fields " ) turned out to be of decisive historic importance . Initially based in the central Polish lowlands around Giecz , Poznań and Gniezno , the Polans went through a period of accelerated building of fortified settlements and territorial expansion beginning in the first half of the 10th century . Under Mieszko I of the Piast dynasty , the expanded Polan territory was converted to Christianity in 966 , which is generally regarded the birth of the Polish state . The contemporary names of the realm , " Mieszko 's " or " Gniezno state " , were dropped soon afterwards in favour of " Poland " , a rendering of the Polans ' tribal name . The Piast dynasty would continue to rule Poland until the late 14th century .
= = Origin of the Slavic peoples = =
= = = Slavic beginnings in Poland = = =
The origins of the Slavic peoples , who arrived on Polish lands at the outset of the Middle Ages , archeologically as the Prague culture , go back to the Kiev culture , which formed beginning early in 3rd century CE , and which is genetically derived from the Post @-@ Zarubintsy cultural horizon ( Rakhny – Ljutez – Pochep material culture sphere ) , and itself was one of the later post @-@ Zarubintsy culture groups . Such ethnogenetic relationship is apparent between the large Kiev culture population and the early ( 6th – 7th centuries ) Slavic settlements in the Oder and Vistula basins , but lacking between these Slavic settlements and the older local cultures within the same region , that ceased to exist beginning in the 400 – 450 CE period .
= = = Zarubintsy culture = = =
The Zarubintsy culture circle , in existence roughly from 200 BCE to 150 CE , extended along the middle and upper Dnieper and its tributary the Pripyat River , but also left traces of settlements in parts of Polesie and the upper Bug River basin . The main distinguished local groups were the Polesie group , the Middle Dnieper group and the Upper Dnieper group . The Zarubintsy culture developed from the Milograd culture in the northern part of its range and from the local Scythian populations in the more southern part . The Polesie group 's origin was also influenced by the Pomeranian and Jastorf cultures . The Zarubintsy culture and its beginnings were moderately affected by La Tène culture and the Black Sea area ( trade with the Greek cities provided imported items ) centers of civilization in the earlier stages , but not much by Roman influence later on , and accordingly its economic development was lagging behind that of other early Roman period cultures . Cremation of bodies was practiced , with the human remains and burial gifts including metal decorations , small in number and limited in variety , placed in pits .
= = = Kiev culture = = =
Originating from the Post @-@ Zarubintsy cultures and often considered the oldest Slavic culture , the Kiev culture functioned during the later Roman periods ( end of 2nd through mid @-@ 5th century ) north of the vast Chernyakhov culture territories , within the basins of the upper and middle Dnieper , Desna and Seym rivers . The archeological cultural features of the Kiev sites show this culture to be identical or highly compatible ( representing the same cultural model ) with that of the 6th @-@ century Slavic societies , including the settlements on the lands of today 's Poland . The Kiev culture is known mostly from settlement sites ; the burial sites , involving pit graves , are few and poorly equipped . Not many metal objects have been found , despite the known native production of iron and processing of other metals , including enamel coating technology . Clay vessels were made without the potter 's wheel . The Kiev culture represented an intermediate level of development , between that of the cultures of the Central European Barbaricum , and the forest zone societies of the eastern part of the continent . The Kiev culture consisted of four local formations : The Middle Dnieper group , the Desna group , the Upper Dnieper group and the Dnieper @-@ Don group . The general model of the Kiev culture is like that of the early Slavic cultures that were to follow and must have originated mainly from the Kiev groups , but evolved probably over a larger territory , stretching west to the base of the Eastern Carpathian Mountains , and from a broader Post @-@ Zarubintsy foundation . The Kiev culture and related groups expanded considerably after 375 CE , when the Ostrogothic state , and more broadly speaking the Chernyakhov culture , were destroyed by the Huns . This process was facilitated further and gained pace , involving at that time the Kiev 's descendant cultures , when the Hun confederation itself broke down in the mid @-@ 5th century .
= = = Written sources = = =
The eastern cradle of the Slavs is also directly confirmed by a written source . The anonymous author known as the Cosmographer of Ravenna ( c . 700 ) names Scythia , a geographic region encompassing vast areas of eastern Europe , as the place " where the generations of the Sclaveni had their beginnings " . Scythia , " stretching far and spreading wide " in the eastern and southern directions , had at the west end , as seen at the time of Jordanes ' writing ( first half to mid @-@ 6th century ) or earlier , " the Germans and the river Vistula " . Jordanes places the Slavs in Scythia as well .
= = = Alternative point of view = = =
According to an alternative theory , popular in the earlier 20th century and still represented today , the medieval cultures in the area of modern Poland are not a result of massive immigration , but emerged from a cultural transition of earlier indigenous populations , who then would need to be regarded as early Slavs . This view has mostly been discarded , primarily due to a period of archaeological discontinuity , during which settlements were absent or rare , and because of cultural incompatibility of the late ancient and early medieval sites .
A 2011 article on the early Western Slavs states that the transitional period ( of relative depopulation ) is difficult to evaluate archeologically . Some believe that the Late Antique " Germanic " populations ( in Poland late Przeworsk culture and others ) abandoned East Central Europe and were replaced by the Slavs coming from the east , others see the " Germanic " groups as staying and becoming , or already being , Slavs . Current archeology , says the author , " is unable to give a satisfying answer and probably both aspects played a role " . In terms of their origin , territorial and linguistic , " Germanic " groups should not be played off against " Slavs " , as our current understanding of the terms may have limited relevance to the complex realities of the Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages . Local languages in the region cannot be identified by archeological studies , and genetic evaluation of cremation burial remains has not been possible .
= = Slavic differentiation and expansion ; Prague culture = =
= = = Kolochin culture , Penkovka culture and Prague – Korchak culture = = =
The final process of the differentiation of the cultures recognized as early Slavic , the Kolochin culture ( over the Kiev culture 's territory ) , the Penkovka culture and the Prague @-@ Korchak culture took place during the end of the 4th and in the 5th century CE . Beyond the Post @-@ Zarubintsy horizon the expanding early Slavs took over much of the territories of the Chernyakhov culture and the Dacian Carpathian Tumuli culture . As not all of the previous inhabitants ( from those cultures ) had left the area and some groups were assimilated , they probably contributed some elements to the Slavic cultures .
The Prague culture developed over the western part of the Slavic expansion , within the basins of the middle Dnieper , Pripyat , upper Dniester , up to the Carpathian Mountains and in southeastern Poland , that is the upper and middle Vistula basin . This culture was responsible for most of the growth in 6th and 7th centuries , by which time it also encompassed the middle Danube and middle Elbe basins . The Prague culture very likely corresponds to Jordanes ' Sclaveni , whose area he described as extending west to the Vistula sources . The Penkovka culture people inhabited the southeastern part , from Seversky Donets to the lower Danube ( including the region where the Antes would be ) , and the Kolochin culture was located north of the more eastern area of the Penkovka culture ( the upper Dnieper and Desna basins ) . The Korchak type designates the eastern part of the Prague @-@ Korchak culture , which because of its western expansion is somewhat less directly dependent on the mother Kiev culture than its two sister cultures . The early 6th @-@ century Slavic settlements covered an area three times the size of the Kiev culture region some hundred years earlier .
= = = Early settlements , economy and burials in Poland = = =
In Poland the earliest archeological sites considered Slavic include a limited number of 6th @-@ century settlements and a few isolated burial sites . The material obtained there consists mostly of simple , manually formed ceramics , typical of the entire early Slavic area . It is because of the different varieties of these basic clay pots and infrequent decorations that the three cultures are distinguished . The largest of the earliest Slavic ( Prague culture ) settlement sites in Poland that have been subjected to systematic research is located in Bachórz , Rzeszów County and dated the second half of 5th through 7th centuries . It consisted of 12 nearly square , partially dug out houses , each covering the area of 6 @.@ 2 to 19 @.@ 8 ( 14 @.@ 0 on the average ) square meters . A stone furnace was usually placed in a corner , which is typical for Slavic homesteads of that period , but clay ovens and centrally located hearths are also found . 45 younger , different type dwellings ( 7th / 8th to 9th / 10th centuries ) have also been discovered in the vicinity .
Characteristic of all early Slavic cultures are poorly developed handicraft and limited resources of their communities . There were no major iron production centers , but metal founding techniques were known ; among metal objects occasionally found are iron knives and hooks , as well as bronze decorative items ( 7th @-@ century finds in Haćki , Bielsk Podlaski County , a site of one of the earliest fortified settlements ) . The inventories of the typical , rather small , open settlements include normally also various clay ( including weights used for weaving ) , stone and horn utensils . The developments arranged as clusters of cabins along river or stream valleys , but above their flood levels , were usually irregular , and typically faced south . The wooden frame or pillar supported square houses covered with a straw roof had each side 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 meters long . Fertile lowlands were sought , but also forested areas with diversified plant and animal environment to provide additional sustenance . The settlements were self @-@ sufficient — the early Slavs functioned without significant long @-@ distance trade . The potter 's wheel was being used from the turn of 7th century on . Some villages larger than a few homes have been investigated in the Kraków @-@ Nowa Huta region ( 6th to 9th century , for example cottages from about 625 CE ) , where , on the left bank of the Vistula , in the direction of Igołomia a complex of 11 settlements has been located . The original furnishings of Slavic huts are difficult to determine , because equipment was often made of perishable materials such as wood , leather or fabrics . Free standing clay dome stoves for bread baking were found on some locations . Another large 6th – to 9th @-@ century settlement complex existed in the vicinity of Głogów in Silesia .
Like others for many centuries in this part of the world , the Slavic people cremated their dead . The burials were usually single , the graves grouped in small cemeteries , with the ashes placed in simple urns more often than in ground indentations . The number of burial sites found is small in relation to the known settlement density . The food production economy was based on millet and wheat cultivation , cattle breeding ( swine , sheep and goats to a lesser extent ) , hunting , fishing and gathering .
= = = Geographic expansion in Poland and central Europe = = =
As the Slavs were arriving from the east beginning in the second half of 5th century , the earliest settlers reached southeastern Poland , that is the San River basin , then the upper Vistula regions including the Kraków area and Nowy Sącz Valley . Single early sites are also known around Sandomierz , Lublin , in Masovia and Upper Silesia . Somewhat younger settlement concentrations were discovered in Lower Silesia . In the 6th century the above areas were settled . At the end of this century , or in early 7th century the Slavic newcomers reached Western Pomerania . According to Theophylact Simocatta , the Slavs captured in 592 at Constantinople named the Baltic Sea coastal area as the place they came from .
As of that time and in the following decades this region , plus some of the Greater Poland , Lower Silesia and some areas west of the middle and lower Oder River make up the Sukow @-@ Dziedzice group . Its origin is the subject of debate among archeologists . First settlements appear in the early 6th century and cannot be directly derived from any other Slavic archeological culture . They reveal certain similarities to the findings of Dobrodzień group of the Przeworsk culture . According to some scholars like Siedow , Kurnatowska and Brzostowicz , it might be a direct continuation of the Przeworsk tradition . According to allochthonists , it represents a variant of the Prague culture and is considered its younger stage . Sukow @-@ Dziedzice group shows significant idiosyncrasies , as no graves or ( typical for the rest of the Slavic world ) rectangular dwellings set partially below the ground level were found within its span .
This particular pattern of expansion into the lands of Poland and then Germany ( another , more southern 6th @-@ century route took the Prague culture Slavs through Slovakia , Moravia and Bohemia ) was a part of the great Slavic migration , which took many of them during this 5th – to 7th @-@ century period from the lands of their origin to the various countries of central and southeastern Europe . In particular the Slavs reached the eastern Alps , populated the Elbe basin , and the Danube basin , from where they moved south to occupy the Balkans as far as Peloponnese .
= = = Slavic related Ancient and early Medieval written accounts = = =
Besides the Baltic Veneti ( see Poland in Antiquity article ) , ancient and medieval authors speak of the East European , or Slavic Venethi . It can be inferred from Tacitus ' description in Germania that his " Venethi " lived possibly around the middle Dnieper basin , which in his times would correspond to the Proto @-@ Slavic Zarubintsy cultural sphere . Jordanes , to whom the Venethi meant his contemporary Slavs , wrote of past fighting between the Ostrogoths and the Venethi , which took place during the third quarter of 4th century in today 's Ukraine . At that time the Venethi would therefore mean the Kiev culture people . The Venethi says Jordanes , who " now rage in war far and wide , in punishment for our sins " , were at that time made obedient to the Gothic king Hermanaric 's command . Jordanes ' 6th @-@ century description of the " populous race of the Venethi " range includes the regions near the left ( northern ) ridge of the Carpathian Mountains and stretching from there " almost endlessly " east , while in the western direction reaching the sources of the Vistula . More specifically he designates the area between the Vistula and the lower Danube as the country of the Sclaveni . " They have swamps and forests for their cities " ( hi paludes silvasque pro civitatibus habent ) , he adds sarcastically . The " bravest of these peoples " , the Antes , settled the lands between the Dniester and the Dnieper rivers . The Venethi were the third Slavic branch of an unspecified location ( the more distant from Jordanes ' vantage and more ancestral in relation to the other two , the Kolochin culture is the likely possibility ) , as well as the overall designation for the totality of the Slavic peoples , who " though off @-@ shoots from one stock , have now three names " . Procopius in De Bello Gothico located the " countless Antes tribes " even further east , beyond the Dnieper . Together with the Sclaveni they spoke the same language , of an " unheard of barbarity " . According to him the Heruli nation traveled in 512 across all of the Sclaveni peoples territories , and then west of there through a large expanse of unpopulated lands , as the Slavs were about to settle the western and northern parts of Poland in the decades to follow . All of the above is in good accordance with the findings of today 's archeology .
Byzantine writers held the Slavs in low regard for the simple life they lived and also for their supposedly limited combat abilities , but in fact they were already in the early 6th century a threat to the Danubian boundaries of the Empire , where they waged plundering expeditions . Procopius , the anonymous author of Strategicon known as Pseudo @-@ Maurice and Theophylact Simocatta wrote at some length on how to deal with the Slavs militarily , which suggests that they had become a formidable adversary . John of Ephesus actually goes as far as saying ( the last quarter of 6th century ) , that the Slavs had learned to conduct war better than the Byzantine army . The Balkan Peninsula was indeed soon overrun by the Slavic invaders , during the first half of 7th century , under Emperor Heraclius .
The above @-@ mentioned authors provide various details on the character , lifestyle and living conditions , social structure and economic activities of the early Slavic people , some of which are confirmed by the archeological discoveries as far as in Poland , as the Slavic communities were quite similar all over their range . Their uniform Old Slavic language remained in use until , depending on the region , the 9th to 12th centuries . For example , the Greek missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius from Thessaloniki , where " everybody fluently spoke Slavic " , when sent in 863 by the Byzantine ruler to distant Moravia , were expected to be able to communicate there without any difficulty .
= = = Avar invasions in Europe and their presence in Poland = = =
In the 6th century , the Turkic speaking nomadic Avars moved into the middle Danube area . Twice ( 562 and 566 – 567 ) the Avars had undertaken military expeditions against the Franks and their routes went through the Polish lands . The Avar envoys bribed Slavic chiefs from the lands they did not control , including Pomerania , to secure their participation in Avar raids , but other than that the exact nature of their relations with the Slavs in Poland is not known . The Avars had some presence or contacts there also in the 7th and 8th centuries , when they left artifacts in the Kraków @-@ Nowa Huta region and elsewhere , including a bronze belt decoration found in the Krakus Mound . This last item , from the turn of 8th century , is used to date the mound itself .
= = Tribal differentiation = =
= = = 8th @-@ century settlements = = =
With the major population shifts completed , the 8th century brought a measure of stability to the Slavic people settled in Poland . About one million people actively developed and utilized no more than 20 – 25 % of the land , the rest being forest . Normal settlements , with the exception of a few fortified and cult places , were limited to lowland areas , below 350 meters above the sea level . Most villages built without artificial defensive structures were located within valley areas of natural bodies of water . The Slavs were very familiar with the water environment and used it as natural defense .
The living and economic activity structures were either distributed randomly , or arranged in rows or around a central empty lot . The larger settlements could have had over a dozen homesteads and be occupied by 50 to 80 residents , but more typically there were just several homes with no more than 30 inhabitants . From the 7th century on the previously common semi @-@ subterranean dwellings were being replaced by buildings located over most of their areas or wholly above the surface ( pits were dug for storage and other uses ) , but still consisted of just one room . As the Germanic people before , the Slavs were leaving no man 's land regions between developed areas , and especially along the limits of their tribal territories , for separation from strangers and to avoid conflicts .
= = = Gord construction = = =
The Polish tribes did however leave remnants of more imposing structures — fortified settlements and other reinforced enclosures of the gord ( Polish " gród " ) type . Those were being established on naturally suitable , defense enhancing sites beginning in late 6th or 7th century ( Szeligi near Płock and Haćki are the early examples ) , with a large scale building effort taking place in the 8th century . The gords were differently designed and of various sizes , from small to impressively massive . Ditches , walls , palisades and embankments were used to strengthen the perimeter , which involved an often complicated earthwork , wood and stone construction . Gords of the tribal period were irregularly distributed across the country ( fewer larger ones in Lesser Poland , more smaller ones in central and northern Poland ) , could cover an area from 0 @.@ 1 to 25 hectares , have a simple or multi @-@ segment architecture , and be protected by fortifications of different types . Some were permanently occupied by a substantial number of people or by a chief and his cohort of armed men , while others were utilized as refuges to protect the local population in case of external danger . The gords eventually ( beginning in the 9th century ) became the nuclei of future urban developments , attracting , especially in strategic locations , tradesmen of all kinds . Gords erected in the 8th century have been investigated for instance in Międzyświeć ( Cieszyn County , Gołęszyce tribe ) and Naszacowice ( Nowy Sącz County ) . The last one was destroyed and rebuilt four times , with the final reconstruction after 989 .
A monumental ( over 3 hectares ) and technically complex border protection area gord was built around 770 – 780 in Trzcinica near Jasło , on the site of an old Bronze Age era stronghold , probably the seat of a local ruler and his garrison . Thousands of relics were found there including a 600 pieces silver treasure . The gord was set afire several times and ultimately destroyed during the first half of the 11th century .
This larger scale gord building activity , from the mid @-@ 8th century on , was a manifestation of the emergence of tribal organisms , a new civilizational quality , representing rather efficient proto @-@ political organizations and social structures on a new level . They were based on these fortifications , defensive objects , of which the mid @-@ 8th century and later Vistulan gords in Lesser Poland are a good example . The threat coming from the Avar state in Pannonia could have had provided the original motivation for the organizing and the construction projects .
= = = Society organized into larger tribal units = = =
The Slavs in Poland , from the 8th century on , increasingly organized in larger structures , known as great tribes , either through voluntary or forced association , were primarily agricultural people . Fields were cultivated , as well as , within settlements , nearby gardens . Plowing was done using oxen and wooden , iron reinforced plows . Forest burning was used to increase the arable area , but also provided fertilizer , as the ashes lasted in that capacity for several seasons . Rotation of crops was practiced as well as the winter / spring crop system . After several seasons of exploitation the land was being left idle to regain fertility . Wheat , millet and rye were most important ; other cultivated plant species included oat , barley , pea , broad bean , lentil , flax , hemp , as well as apple , pear , plum , peach and cherry trees in fruit orchards . Beginning in the 8th century , swine gradually became economically more important than cattle ; sheep , goats , horses , dogs , cats , chickens , geese and ducks were also kept . The Slavic agricultural practices are known from archeological research , which shows progressive over time increases in arable area and resulting deforestation , and from written reports provided by Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , a 10th @-@ century Jewish traveler . Ibrahim described also other features of Slavic life , for example the use of steam baths . The existence of bath structures has been confirmed by archeology . An anonymous Arab writer from the turn of the 10th century mentions that the Slavic people made an alcoholic beverage out of honey and their celebrations were accompanied by music played on the lute , tambourines and wind instruments .
Gathering , hunting and fishing were still essential as sources of food and materials , such as hide or fur . The forest was also exploited as a source of building materials such as wood , wild forest bees were kept there , and as a place of refuge . The population was , until the 9th century , separated from the main centers of civilization , self @-@ sufficient with primitive , local community and household based manufacturing . Specialized craftsmen ( of rather mediocre qualifications ) existed only in the fields of iron extraction from ore and processing , and pottery ; the few luxury type items used were imports . From the 7th century on , modestly decorated ceramics was made with the potter 's wheel . 7th – to 9th @-@ century collections of objects have been found in Bonikowo and Bruszczewo , Kościan County ( iron spurs , knives , clay containers with some ornamentation ) and in Kraków @-@ Nowa Huta region ( weapons and utensils in Pleszów and Mogiła , where the most substantial of iron treasures was located ) , among other places . Slavic warriors were traditionally armed with spears , bows and wooden shields ; occasionally seen later axes and still later swords are of the types popular throughout 7th – to 9th @-@ century Europe . Independent of distant powers the Slavic tribes in Poland lived a relatively undisturbed life , but at the cost of some civilizational backwardness .
A qualitative change took place in the 9th century , when the Polish lands were crossed again by long @-@ distance trade routes , with Pomerania becoming a part of the Baltic trade zone , while Lesser Poland participated in exchange centered in the Danubian countries . Oriental silver jewelry and Arab coins , often cut into pieces , " grzywna " iron coin equivalents ( of the type used in Great Moravia ) in the Upper Vistula basin and even linen cloths served as currency .
The basic social unit was the nuclear family , consisting of parents and their children , which had to fit in a dwelling area of several to 25 square meters . The big family , a patriarchal , multi @-@ generational group of related families , a kin or clan , was of declining importance during the discussed period . A larger group was needed in the past ( 5th – 7th centuries ) for forest clearing and burning undertakings , when farming communities had to shift from location to location ; in the 8th @-@ century mature — settled phase of agriculture , a family was sufficient to take care of their arable land . A concept of agricultural land ownership was gradually developing , being at this point a matter of family , not individual prerogative . Several or more clan territories were grouped into a neighborhood association , or " opole " , which established a rudimentary self @-@ government . Such community was the owner of forested land , pastures , bodies of water and within it the first organizing around common projects and related development of political power took place . A big and resourceful opole could become , by extending its possessions , a proto @-@ state entity vaguely referred to as the tribe . The tribe was the top level of this structure , containing several opoles and controlling a region of several hundred up to about 1500 square kilometers , where internal relationships were arbitrated and external defense organized .
A general assembly of all tribesmen present took care of the most pressing of issues ( Thietmar of Merseburg wrote in the early 11th century of the Veleti , Polabian Slavs , that their assembly kept deliberating till everybody agreed ) , but this " war democracy " was gradually being replaced by a government system in which the tribal elders and rulers had the upper hand . This development facilitated the coalescing of tribes into great tribes , some of which under favorable conditions would later become tribal states . The communal and tribal democracy , with self @-@ imposed contributions by the community members , survived in small entities and local territorial subunits the longest ; on a larger scale it was being replaced by the rule of able leaders and then dominant families , ultimately leading inevitably to hereditary transition of supreme power , mandatory taxation , service etc . When social and economic evolution reached this level , the concentration of power was facilitated and made possible to sustain by parallel development of a professional military force ( called at this stage " drużyna " ) at the ruler 's or chief 's disposal .
= = = Burials and religion = = =
The burial customs , at least in southern Poland , included raising kurgans . The urn with the ashes was placed on the mound or on a post thrust into the ground . In that position few such urns survived , which may be why Slavic burial sites in Poland are rare . All dead , regardless of social status , were cremated and afforded a burial , according to Arab testimonies ( one from the end of 9th century and another one from about 930 ) . A Slavic funeral feast practice was also mentioned earlier by Theophylact Simocatta .
According to Procopius the Slavs believed in one god , creator of lightning and master of the entire universe , to whom all sacrificial animals ( sometimes people ) were offered . The highest god was called Svarog throughout the Slavic area , as other gods were worshiped too in different regions at different times , often with local names . Natural objects such as rivers , groves or mountains were also celebrated , as well as nymphs , demons , ancestral and other spirits , who were all venerated and bought off with offering rituals , which also involved augury . Such beliefs and practices were later continued , developed further and individualized by the many Slavic tribes .
The Slavs erected sanctuaries , created statues and other sculptures including the four @-@ faced Svetovid , whose carvings symbolize various aspects of the Slavic cosmology model . One 9th @-@ century specimen from the Zbruch River in today 's Ukraine , found in 1848 , is on display at the Archeological Museum in Kraków . Many of the sacred locations and objects were identified outside Poland , in northeastern Germany or Ukraine . In Poland religious activity sites have been investigated in northwestern Pomerania , including Szczecin , where a three @-@ headed deity once stood and the Wolin island , where 9th – to 11th @-@ century cult figurines were found . Archeologically confirmed cult places and figures have also been researched at several other locations .
= = Early Slavic states and other 9th @-@ century developments = =
= = = Samo 's realm = = =
The first Slavic state @-@ like entity , the Samo 's Realm of King Samo , originally a Frankish trader , was close to Poland ( in Bohemia and Moravia , parts of Pannonia and more southern regions between the Oder and Elbe rivers ) and existed during the 623 – 658 period . Samo became a Slavic leader by successfully helping the Slavs defend themselves against the Avar assailants . What Samo led was probably a loose alliance of tribes and it fell apart after his death . Slavic Carantania , centered on Krnski Grad ( now Karnburg in Austria ) , was more of a real state , developed possibly from one part of the disintegrating Samo 's kingdom , but lasted under a native dynasty throughout the 8th century and became Christianized .
= = = Great Moravia = = =
Larger scale state @-@ generating processes and in more remote ( in relation to Byzantium ) Slavic areas took place in the 9th century . Great Moravia became established in the early 9th century south of today 's Poland , but eventually encroached on and also included the Silesia and very likely southern Lesser Poland regions . The glory of the Great Moravian empire became fully apparent in light of archeological discoveries , of which lavishly equipped burials are especially spectacular . Such finds however do not extend to the peripheral areas of Great Moravia , the lands that now constitute southern Poland . The great territorial expansion of Great Moravia took place during the reign of Svatopluk I , at the end of 9th century . Beyond the original Moravia and western Slovakia the Great Moravian state incorporated then also , to various degrees , Bohemia , Pannonia and the above @-@ mentioned regions of Poland . In 906 Great Moravia , weakened by an internal crisis and Magyar invasions , ceased to exist .
In 831 Mojmir I was baptized and his Moravian state became a part of the Bavarian Passau diocese . Aiming to achieve ecclesiastical as well as political independence from East Frankish influence , his successor Rastislav asked the Byzantine emperor Michael III for missionaries . As a result , Cyril and Methodius arrived in Moravia in 863 and commenced missionary activities among the Slavic people there . To further their goals the brothers developed a written Slavic liturgical language — the Old Church Slavonic , using the Glagolitic alphabet created by them . Into this language they translated the Bible and other church texts , thus establishing a foundation for the later Slavic Eastern Orthodox churches .
= = = Czech state = = =
The fall of Great Moravia made room for the expansion of the Czech or Bohemian state , which likewise incorporated some of the Polish lands . The founder of the Přemyslid dynasty , Prince Bořivoj was baptized by Methodius in the Slavic rite during the later part of the 9th century and settled in Prague . His son and successor Spytihněv was baptized in Regensburg in the Latin rite , which marks the early stage of East Frankish / German influence , destined to be decisive in Bohemian affairs . Borivoj 's grandson Prince Wenceslaus , the future Czech martyr and patron saint , was killed , probably in 935 , by his brother Boleslaus . Boleslaus I solidified the power of the Prague princes and most likely dominated the Lesser Poland 's Vistulans and Lendians tribes and at least parts of Silesia .
= = = 9th @-@ century Polish lands = = =
In the 9th century the Polish lands were still on the peripheries in relation to the major powers and events of medieval Europe , but a measure of civilizational progress did take place , as evidenced by the number of gords built , kurgans raised and movable equipment used . The tribal elites must have been influenced by the relative closeness of the Carolingian Empire ; objects crafted there have occasionally been found . Poland was populated by many tribes of various sizes . The names of some of them , mostly from western part of the country , are known from written sources , especially the Latin @-@ language document written in the mid @-@ 9th century by the anonymous Bavarian Geographer . During this period typically smaller tribal structures were disintegrating , larger ones were being established in their place .
Characteristic of the turn of the 10th century in most Polish tribal settlement areas was a particular intensification of gord building activity . The gords were the centers of social and political life . Tribal leaders and elders had their headquarters in their protected environment and some of the tribal general assemblies took place inside them . Religious cult locations were commonly located in the vicinity , while the gords themselves were frequently visited by traders and artisans .
= = = Vistulan state = = =
A major development of this period concerns the somewhat enigmatic Wiślanie , or Vistulans ( Bavarian Geographer 's Vuislane ) tribe . The Vistulans of western Lesser Poland , mentioned in several contemporary written sources , already a large tribal union in the first half of the 9th century , were evolving in the second half of that century toward a super @-@ tribal state , until their efforts were terminated by the more powerful neighbors from the south . Kraków , the main town of the Vistulans , with its Wawel gord , was located along a major " international " trade route . The main Vistulan @-@ related archeological find ( in addition to the 8th @-@ century Krakus , Wanda and other large burial mounds and the remnants of several gords ) is the late 9th @-@ century treasure of iron @-@ ax shaped grzywnas , well known as currency units in Great Moravia . They were discovered in 1979 in a wooden chest , below the basement of a medieval house on Kanonicza Street , near the Vistula and the Wawel Hill . The total weight of the iron material is 3630 kilograms and the individual bars of various sizes ( 4212 of them ) were bound in bundles , which suggests that the package was being readied for transportation .
According to Constantine VII , in the 7th century Croats were dwelling beyond Bavaria , where White Croats lived in the 10th century . That was probably around the Upper Vistula region and in northern Bohemia . In the 7th century a Croat family of five brothers and two sisters left the area with their folk , and came to Dalmatia , with permission of Emperor Heraclius , to help defend the imperial borders .
Vistulan gords , built from the mid @-@ 8th century on , had typically very large area , often over 10 hectares . About 30 big ones are known . The 9th @-@ century gords in Lesser Poland and in Silesia had likely been built as a defense against Great Moravian military expansion . The largest one , in Stradów , Kazimierza Wielka County , had an area of 25 hectares and walls or embankments up 18 meters high , but parts of this giant structure were probably built later . The gords were often located along the northern slope of the western Carpathian Mountains , on hills or hillsides . The buildings inside the walls were sparsely located or altogether absent , so for the most part the gords ' role was other than that of settlements or administrative centers .
A large ( 2 @.@ 5 hectares ) gord was built at the turn of the 9th century in Zawada Lanckorońska , Tarnów County , and rebuilt after 868 . A treasure found there contains various Great Moravian type decorations dated from the late 9th century through mid @-@ 10th century . The treasure was hidden and the gord destroyed by fire during the second half of that century .
The large mounds , up to 50 meters in diameter , are found not only in Kraków , but also in Przemyśl and Sandomierz among other places ( about 20 total ) . They were probably funeral locations of rulers or chiefs , with the actual burial site , on the top of the mound , long lost . Besides the mounds @-@ kurgans , the degree of the Wawel gord development ( built in the 8th century ) and the grzywna treasure point to Kraków as the main center of Vistulan power ( in the past Wiślica was also suspected of that role ) .
The most important Vistulans related written reference comes from The Life of Saint Methodius , also known as The Pannonian Legend , written by Methodius ' disciples most likely right after his death ( 885 ) . The fragment speaks of a very powerful pagan prince , residing in the Vistulan country , who reviled the Christians and caused them great harm . He was warned by St. Methodius ' emissaries speaking on the missionary 's behalf ( St. Methodius himself may have been acting as Svatopluk 's agent here ) , advised to reform and voluntarily accept baptism in his own homeland . Otherwise , it was predicted , he would be forced to do so in a foreign land , and , according to the Pannonian Legend story , that is what eventually happened . This passage is widely interpreted as the indication that the Vistulans were invaded and overrun by the army of Great Moravia and their pagan prince captured . It would have to happen during Methodius ' second stay in Moravia , between 873 and 885 , and during Svatopluk 's reign .
A further elaboration on this story is possibly found in the chronicle of Wincenty Kadłubek , written some three centuries later . The chronicler , inadvertently or intentionally mixing different historic eras , talks of a past Polish war with the army of Alexander the Great . The countless enemy soldiers thrust their way into Poland , and the King himself , having previously subjugated the Pannonians , entered through Moravia like through the back door . He victoriously unfolded the wings of his forces and conquered the Kraków area lands and Silesia , leveling in process Kraków 's ancient city walls . It appears that at some point during the intervening period , or by the chronicler himself , the glitter of the Svatopluk 's army became confused with that of the emperor @-@ warrior of another place and time . A dozen or more southern Lesser Poland gords attacked and destroyed at the end of 9th century lends some archeological credence to this version of events .
East of the Vistulans , eastern Lesser Poland was the territory of the Lendians ( Lędzianie , Bavarian Geographer 's Lendizi ) tribe . In the mid @-@ 10th century Constantine VII wrote their name as Lendzaneoi . The Lendians had to be a very substantial tribe , since the names for Poland in the Lithuanian and Hungarian languages and for the Poles in medieval Ruthenian all begin with the letter " L " , being derived from their tribe 's name . The Poles historically have also referred to themselves as " Lechici " . After the fall of Great Moravia the Magyars controlled at least partially the territory of the Lendians . The Lendians were conquered by Kievan Rus ' during 930 – 940 ; at the end of the 10th century the Lendian lands became divided , with the western part taken by Poland , the eastern portion retained by Kievan Rus ' .
The Vistulans were probably also subjected to Magyar raids , as an additional layer of embankments was often added to the gord fortifications in the early part of the 10th century . In the early or mid @-@ 10th century the Vistulan entity , like Silesia , was incorporated by Boleslaus I of Bohemia into the Czech state . This association turned out to be beneficial in terms of economic development , because Kraków was an important station on the Prague — Kiev trade route . The first known Christian church structures were erected on the Wawel Hill . Later in the 10th century , under uncertain circumstances but in a peaceful way ( the gord network suffered no damage on this occasion ) , the Vistulans became a part of the Piast Polish state .
= = = Baltic coast = = =
In terms of economic and general civilizational achievement the most advanced region in the 9th century was Pomerania , characterized also by most extensive contacts with the external world , and accordingly , cultural richness and diversity . Pomerania was a favorite destination for traders and other entrepreneurs from distant lands , some of whom were establishing local manufacturing and trade centers ; those were usually accompanied by nearby gords inhabited by the local elite . Some of such industrial area / gord complexes gave rise to early towns — urban centers , such as Wolin , Pyrzyce or Szczecin . The Bavarian Geographer mentioned two tribes , the Velunzani ( Uelunzani ) and Pyritzans ( Prissani ) in the area , each with 70 towns . Despite the high civilizational advancement , no social structures indicative of statehood developed in Farther Pomeranian societies , except for the Wolin city @-@ state .
The Wolin settlement was established on the island of the same name in the late 8th century . Located at the mouth of the Oder River , Wolin from the beginning was involved with long distance Baltic Sea trade . The settlement , thought to be identical with both Vineta and Jomsborg , was pagan , multiethnic , and readily kept accepting newcomers , especially craftsmen and other professionals , from all over the world . Being located on a major intercontinental sea route , it soon became a big European industrial and trade power . Writing in the 11th century Adam of Bremen saw Wolin as one of the largest European cities , inhabited by honest , good @-@ natured and hospitable Slavic people , together with other nationalities , from the Greeks to barbarians , including the Saxons , as long as they did not demonstrate their Christianity too openly .
Wolin was the major stronghold of the Volinian tribal territory , comprising the island and a broad stretch of the adjacent mainland , with its frontier guarded by a string of gords . The city 's peak of prosperity occurred around and after year 900 , when a new seaport was built ( the municipal complex had now four of them ) and the metropolitan area was secured by walls and embankments . The archeological findings there include a great variety of imported ( even from the Far East ) and locally manufactured products and raw materials ; amber and precious metals figure prominently , as jewelry was one of the mainstay economic activities of the Wolinian elite .
Truso in Prussia was another Baltic seaport and trade emporium known from the reworking of the Orosius ' universal history by Alfred the Great . King Alfred included a description of the voyage undertaken around 890 by Wulfstan from the Danish port of Hedeby to Truso located near the mouth of the Vistula . Wulfstan gave a rather detailed description of the location of Truso , within the land of the Aesti , yet right close to the Slavic areas across ( west of ) the Vistula . Truso 's actual site was discovered in 1982 at Janów Pomorski , near Elbląg .
Established as a seaport by the Vikings and Danish traders at the end of the 8th century in the Prussian border area previously already explored by the Scandinavians , Truso lasted as a major city and commercial center until the early 11th century , when it was destroyed and by which time it was replaced in that capacity by Gdańsk . The settlement covered an area of 20 hectares and consisted of a two dock seaport , the craft @-@ trade portion , and the peripheral residential development , all protected by a wood and earth bulwark separating it from the mainland . The port @-@ trade and craftsmen zones were themselves separated by a fire control ditch with water flowing through it . There were several rows of houses including long Viking hall structures , waterside warehouses , market areas and wooden beam covered streets . Numerous relics were found , including weights used also as currency units , coins from English to Arab and workshops processing metal , jewelry or large quantities of amber . Remnants of long Viking boats were also found , the whole complex being a testimony to Viking preoccupation with commerce , the mainstay of their activities around the Baltic Sea region . The multi @-@ ethnic Truso had extensive trade contacts not only with distant lands and Scandinavia , but also the Slavic areas located to the south and west of it , from where ceramics and other products were transported along the Vistula in river crafts . Ironically , Truso 's sudden destruction by fire and subsequent disappearance was apparently a result of a Viking raid .
This connection to the Baltic trade zone led to an establishment of inner @-@ Slavic long @-@ distance trade routes . Lesser Poland participated in exchange centered in the Danubian countries . Oriental silver jewelry and Arab coins , often cut into pieces , " grzywna " iron coin equivalents ( of the type used in Great Moravia ) in the Upper Vistula basin and even linen cloths served as currency .
= = = Magyar intrusion = = =
The Magyars were at first still another wave of nomadic invaders . Of the Uralic languages family , coming from northwestern Siberia , they migrated south and west , occupying from the end of 9th century the Pannonian Basin . From there , until the second half of the 10th century , when they were forced to settle , they raided and pillaged vast areas of Europe , including Poland . A saber and ornamental elements were found in a Hungarian warrior 's grave ( from the first half of the 10th century ) in the Przemyśl area .
Geographically the Magyar invasions interfered with the previously highly influential contacts between Central Europe and Byzantine Christianity centers . It may have been the decisive factor that steered Poland toward the Western ( Latin ) branch of Christianity by the time of its adoption in 966 .
= = 10th @-@ century developments in Greater Poland ; Mieszko 's state = =
= = = Tribal Greater Poland = = =
This period brought a notable development in settlement stability on Polish lands . Short @-@ lived prehistoric settlements gradually gave way to villages on fixed sites . The number of villages grew with time , but their sites rarely shifted . The population distribution patterns established from that century on are evident on today 's landscape .
Sources from the 9th and 10th centuries make no mention of the Polans ( Polanie ) tribe . The closest thing would be the huge ( 400 gords ) Glopeani tribe of the Bavarian Geographer , whose name seems to be derived from that of Lake Gopło , but archeological investigations cannot confirm any such scale of settlement activity in Lake Gopło area . What the research does indicate is the presence of several distinct tribes in 9th @-@ century Greater Poland , one around the upper and middle Obra River basin , one in the lower Obra basin , and another one west of the Warta River . There was the Gniezno area tribe , whose settlements were concentrated around the regional cult center — the Lech Hill of today 's Gniezno . Throughout the 9th century the Greater Poland tribes did not constitute a uniform entity or whole in the cultural , or settlement pattern sense . The centrally located Gniezno Land was at that time rather isolated from external influences , such as from the highly developed Moravian @-@ Czech or Baltic Sea centers . Such separation ( also from the more expansive powers ) was probably a positive factor , facilitating at this stage the efforts of a lineage of leaders from an elder clan of a tribe there , known as the Piast House , which resulted in the early part of the 10th century in the establishment of an embryonic state .
= = = Mieszko 's state and its origins = = =
What was later to be called Gniezno state , also known as Mieszko 's state , was expanded at the expense of the subdued tribes in Mieszko 's grandfather and father times , and in particular by Mieszko himself . Writing around 965 or 966 Ibrahim ibn Yaqub described the country of Mieszko , " the king of the North " , as the most wide @-@ ranging of the Slavic lands . Mieszko , the ruler of the Slavs , was also mentioned as such at that time by Widukind of Corvey in his Res gestae saxonicae . In its mature form this state included the West Slavic lands between the Oder and Bug rivers and between the Baltic Sea and the Carpathian Mountains , including the economically crucial mouth areas of the Vistula and Oder rivers , as well as Lesser Poland and Silesia .
The name of Poles ( Polanians , Polyans , Polans ) appears in writing for the first time around year 1000 , like the country 's name Poland ( Latinized as Polonia ) . " Polanie " was possibly the name given by later historians to the inhabitants of Greater Poland ( a presumed tribe not mentioned in earlier sources ) . 10th @-@ century inhabitants of Greater Poland would originate from unknown ( by name ) tribes , which were instrumental in bringing about the establishment of the Polish state ; one such tribe had to constitute the immediate power base of Mieszko 's predecessors , if not Mieszko himself .
= = = Gallus Anonymus ' account vs. archeology = = =
In the early 12th century chronicler Gallus Anonymus wrote down or invented a dynastic legend of the House of Piasts . The story gives , amid miraculous details , the names of the supposed ancestors of the royal family , beginning with a man named Chościsko , the father of the central figure Piast , who was a humble farmer living in Gniezno , married to Rzepka . The male heads of the Piast clan following after him were , according to Gallus , Siemowit , Lestek , Siemomysł and Mieszko I , the first " Piast " known with historic certainty . Gallus expressed his own misgivings concerning the trustworthiness of the royal story he passed on ( he qualified it with words like " oblivion " , " error " and " idolatry " ) , but the sequence of the last three names of Mieszko 's predecessors he considered reliable .
The results of archeological studies of the Greater Poland 's 9th- and 10th @-@ century gords are at odds with the timing of this story . There was no Gniezno settlement in the 9th century ; there was a pagan cult site there beginning with the turn of the 10th century . The Gniezno gord was built around year 940 , possibly because the location , being of great spiritual importance to the tribal community , would rally the local population around the building and defense effort .
= = = Early Piast state and its expansion = = =
Under the old tribal system , the tribal assembly elected a chief in case of an external threat , to lead the defense effort , and it was a temporarily granted authority . The Piast clan was able to replace it in Gniezno area with its own hereditary rule over the tribe that inhabited it , which was in line with the trends of the times , and allowed them to create the state that they controlled . Greater Poland during the first half of the 10th century was not particularly densely populated or economically developed , lagging behind such regions as Pomerania , Silesia and Lesser Poland . It was favored by the above @-@ mentioned geographic isolation , central location among the culturally similar tribes and extensive network of suitable for transportation rivers . What made the ultimate difference however could be that some Piast family members were exceptional individuals , able to take advantage of the arising opportunities .
The development of the Piast state can be traced to some degree by following the disappearance of the old tribal gords ( many of them were built in Greater Poland during the later part of the 9th century and soon thereafter ) , destroyed by the advancing Gniezno tribe people . For example , the gords in Spławie , Września County and in Daleszyn , Gostyń County , both built soon after 899 , were attacked and taken over by the Piast state forces , the first one burned during the initial period of the armed expansion . The old gords were often rebuilt and enlarged or replaced , beginning in the first decades of the 10th century , by new , large and massively reinforced Piast gords . Gords of this type were erected or reconstructed from earlier ones initially in the tribe 's native Gniezno Land and then elsewhere in central Greater Poland , in Grzybowo near Września ( 920 – 930 ) , Ostrów Lednicki , Giecz , Gniezno , Bnin in Poznań County , Ląd in Słupca County and in Poznań ( Ostrów Tumski ) . Connected by water communication lines , in the mid @-@ 10th century the powerful gords served as the main concentrations of forces of the emerging state .
In parallel with the gord building activity ( 920 – 950 ) the Piasts undertook military expansion , crossing the Warta and moving towards the end of this period south and west within the Oder River basin . The entire network of tribal gords between the Obra and Barycz rivers , among other places , was eliminated . The conquered population was often resettled to central Greater Poland , which resulted in partial depopulation of previously well @-@ developed regions . At the end of this stage of the Piast state formation new Piast gords were built in the ( north ) Noteć River area and other outlying areas of the annexed lands , for example in Santok and Śrem around 970 . During the following decade the job of unifying the core of the early Piast state was finished — besides Greater Poland with Kujawy it included also much of central Poland . Masovia and parts of Pomerania found themselves increasingly under the Piast influence , while the southbound expansion was for the time being stalled , because large portions of Lesser Poland and Silesia were controlled by the Czech state .
The expanding Piast state developed a professional military force . According to Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , Mieszko collected taxes in the form of weights used for trading and spent those taxes as monthly pay for his warriors . He had three thousands of heavily armored mounted soldiers alone , whose quality according to Ibrahim was very impressive . Mieszko provided for all their equipment and needs , even military pay for their children regardless of their gender , from the moment they were born . This force was supported by a much greater number of foot fighters . Numerous armaments were found in the Piast gords , many of them of foreign , e.g. Frankish or Scandinavian origin . Mercenaries from these regions , as well as German and Norman knights , constituted a significant element of Mieszko 's elite fighting guard .
= = = Revenue generating measures and conquests = = =
To sustain this military machine and to meet other state expenses large amounts of revenue were necessary . Greater Poland had some natural resources used for trade such as fur , hide , honey and wax , but those surely did not provide enough income . According to Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , Prague in Bohemia , a city built of stone , was the main center for the exchange of trading commodities in this part of Europe . The Slavic traders brought here from Kraków tin , salt , amber and other products they had and most importantly slaves ; Muslim , Jewish , Hungarian and other traders were the buyers . The Life of St. Adalbert , written at the end of the 10th century by John Canaparius , lists the fate of many Christian slaves , sold in Prague " for the wretched gold " , as the main curse of the time . Dragging of shackled slaves is shown as a scene in the bronze 12th @-@ century Gniezno Doors . It may well be that the territorial expansion financed itself , and partially the expanding state , by being the source of loot , of which the captured local people were the most valuable part . The scale of the human trade practice is however arguable , because much of the population from the defeated tribes was resettled for agricultural work or in the near @-@ gord settlements , where they could serve the victors in various capacities and thus contribute to the economic and demographic potential of the state . Considerable increase of population density was characteristic of the newly established states in eastern and central Europe . The slave trade not being enough , the Piast state had to look for other options for generating revenue .
Thus , Mieszko throve to subdue Pomerania at the Baltic coast . The area was the site of wealthy trade emporia , frequently visited by traders , especially from the east , west and north . Mieszko had every reason to believe that great profits would have resulted from his ability to control the rich seaports situated on long distance trade routes , such as Wolin , Szczecin and Kołobrzeg .
The Piast state reached the mouth of the Vistula first . Based on the investigations of the gords erected along the middle and lower Vistula , it appears that the lower Vistula waterway was under Piast control from about the mid @-@ 10th century . A powerful gord built in Gdańsk , under Mieszko at the latest , solidified the Piast rule over Pomerelia . However , the mouth of the Oder River was firmly controlled by the Jomsvikings and the Volinians , who were allied with the Veleti . " The Veleti are fighting Mieszko " , reported Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , " and their military might is great " . Widukind wrote about the events of 963 , involving the person of the Saxon count Wichmann the Younger , an adventurer exiled from his country . According to Widukind , " Wichmann went to the barbarians ( probably the Veleti or the Wolinians ) and leading them ( ... ) defeated Mieszko twice , killed his brother , and acquired a great deal of spoils " . Thietmar of Merseburg also reports that Mieszko with his people became in 963 , together with other Slavic entities such as the Lusatians , subjects of the Holy Roman Emperor , forced into that role by the powerful Margrave Gero of the Saxon Eastern March .
= = = Mieszko 's relationship with Emperor Otto I = = =
Such series of military reverses and detrimental relationships , which also involved the Czech Přemyslids allied with the Veleti , compelled Mieszko to seek the support of the German Emperor Otto I. After the contacts were made , Widukind described Mieszko as " a friend of the Emperor " . A pact was negotiated and finalized no later than in 965 . The price Mieszko had to pay for the imperial protection was becoming the Emperor 's vassal , paying him tribute from the lands up to the Warta River , and , very likely , making a promise of accepting Christianity .
= = = Mieszko 's acceptance of Christianity = = =
In response to the immediate practical concerns , the Christian Church was installed in Poland in its Western Latin Rite . The act brought Mieszko 's country into the realm of the ancient Mediterranean culture . Of the issues requiring urgent attention the preeminent was the increasing pressure of the eastbound expansion ( between the Elbe and the Oder rivers ) of the German state , and its plans to control the parallel expansion of the Church through the archdiocese in Magdeburg , the establishment of which was finalized in 968 .
The baptism and the attendant processes did not take place through Mieszko 's German connections . At that time Mieszko was in process of fixing the uneasy relationship with the Bohemian state of Boleslaus I. The difficulties were caused mainly by the Czech cooperation with the Veleti . Already in 964 the two parties arrived at an agreement on that and other issues . In 965 Mieszko married Boleslaus ' daughter Doubravka . Mieszko 's chosen Christian princess , a woman possibly in her twenties , was a devout Christian and Mieszko 's own conversion had to be a part of the deal . This act in fact followed in 966 and initiated the Christianization of Greater Poland , a region up to that point , unlike Lesser Poland and Silesia , not exposed to Christian influence . In 968 an independent missionary bishopric , reporting directly to the Pope , was established , with Jordan installed as the first bishop .
The scope of the Christianization mission in its early phase was quite limited geographically and the few relics that have survived come from Gniezno Land . Stone churches and baptisteries were discovered within the Ostrów Lednicki and Poznań gords , a chapel in Gniezno . Poznań was also the site of the first cathedral , the bishopric seat of Jordan and Bishop Unger , who followed him .
= = = Piast early expansion , Great Moravian and Norman contributions = = =
Newer research points out some other intriguing possibilities regarding the early origins of the Polish state in Greater Poland . There are indications that the processes that led to the establishment of the Piast state began during the 890 – 910 period . During these years a tremendous civilizational advancement took place in central Greater Poland , as the unearthed products of all kinds are better made and more elaborate . The timing coincides with the breakdown of the Great Moravian state caused by the Magyar invasions . Before and after its 905 – 907 fall , fearing for their lives many Great Moravian people had to escape . According to the notes made by Constantine VII , they found refuge in the neighboring countries . Decorations found in Sołacz graves in Poznań have their counterparts in burial sites around Nitra in Slovakia . In Nitra area also there was in medieval times a well @-@ known clan named Poznan . The above indicates that the Poznań town was established by Nitran refugees , and more generally , the immigrants from Great Moravia contributed to the sudden awakening of the otherwise remote and isolated Piast lands .
Early expansion of the Gniezno Land tribe began very likely under Mieszko 's grandfather Lestek , the probable real founder of the Piast state . Widukind 's chronicle speaks of Mieszko ruling the Slavic nation called " Licicaviki " , which was what Widukind made out of " Lestkowicy " , the people of Lestko , or Lestek . Lestek was also reflected in the sagas of the Normans , who may have played a role in Poland 's origins ( an accumulation of 930 – 1000 period treasures is attributed to them ) . Siemomysł and then Mieszko continued after Lestek , whose tradition was alive within the Piast court when Bolesław III Wrymouth gave this name to one of his sons and Gallus Anonymous wrote his chronicle . The " Lechici " term popular later , synonymous with " Poles " , like the legend of Lech , written in a chronicle at the turn of the 14th century , may also have been inspired by Mieszko 's grandfather .
= = = Early capitals , large scale gord construction = = =
There is some disagreement as to the early seat of the ruling clan . Modern archeology has shown that the gord in Gniezno had not even existed before about 940 . This fact eliminates the possibility of Gniezno 's early central role , which is what had long been believed , based on the account given by Gallus Anonymus . The relics ( including a great concentration of silver treasures ) found in Giecz , where the original gord was built some 80 years earlier , later turned into a powerful Piast stronghold , point to that location . Other likely early capitals include the old gords of Grzybowo , Kalisz ( located away from Gniezno Land ) or Poznań . Poznań , which is older than Gniezno , was probably the original Mieszko 's court site in the earlier years of his reign . The first cathedral church , a monumental structure , was erected there . The events of 974 – 978 , when Mieszko , like his brother @-@ in @-@ law Boleslaus II of Bohemia , supported Henry II in his rebellion against Otto II , created a threat of the Emperor 's retribution . The situation probably motivated Mieszko to move the government to the safer , because of its more eastern location , Gniezno . The Emperor 's response turned out to be ineffective , but this geographical advantage continued in the years to come . The growing importance of Gniezno was reflected in the addition around 980 of the new southern part to the original two segments of the gord . In the existing summary of the Dagome iudex document written 991 / 992 before Mieszko 's death , Mieszko 's state is called Civitas Gnesnensis , or Gniezno State .
The enormous effort of the estimated population of 100 to 150 thousands of residents of the Gniezno region , who were involved in building or modernizing Gniezno and several other main Piast gords ( all of the local supply of oak timber was exhausted ) , was made in response to a perceived deadly threat , not just to help them pursue regional conquests . After 935 , when the Gniezno people were probably already led by Mieszko 's father Siemomysł , the Czechs conquered Silesia and soon moved also against Germany . The fear of desecration of their tribal cult center by the advancing Czechs could have mobilized the community . Also a Polabian Slavs uprising was suppressed around 940 by Germany under Otto I , and the eastbound moving Saxons must have added to the sense of danger at that time ( unless the Piast state was already allied with Otto , helping restrain the Polabians ) . When the situation stabilized , the Piast state consolidated and the huge gords turned out to be handy for facilitating the Piast 's own expansion , led at this stage by Siemomysł .
= = = Alliance with Germany and conquest of Pomerania = = =
Fighting the Veleti from the beginning of Mieszko 's rule led to an alliance of his state with Germany . The alliance was natural at this point , because , as the Polish state was expanding westbound , the German state was expanding eastbound , with the Veleti in between being the common target . A victory was achieved in September of 967 , when Wichmann , leading this time ( according to Widukind ) forces of the Volinians , was killed , and Mieszko , helped by additional mounted units provided by his father @-@ in @-@ law Boleslaus , had his revenge . Mieszko 's victory was recognized by the Emperor as the turning point in the struggle to contain the Polabian Slavs , which distracted him from pursuing his Italian policies . This new status allowed Mieszko to successfully pursue the efforts leading to obtaining by his country an independent bishopric . The Poles thus had their bishopric even before the Czechs , whose tradition of Christianity was much older . The 967 victory , as well as the successful fighting with Margrave Hodo that followed in the Battle of Cedynia of 972 , allowed Mieszko to conquer further parts of Pomerania . Wolin however remained autonomous and pagan . Kołobrzeg , where a strong gord was built around 985 , was probably the actual center of Piast power in Pomerania . Before , a Scandinavian colony in Bardy @-@ Świelubie near Kołobrzeg functioned as the center of this area . The western part of Mieszko controlled Pomerania ( the region referred to by Polish historians as Western Pomerania , roughly within the current Polish borders , as opposed to Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia ) , became independent of Poland during the Pomeranian uprising of 1005 ; that was after Mieszko 's death , when Poland was ruled by his son Bolesław .
= = = Completion of Poland 's territorial expansion under Mieszko = = =
Around 980 in the west Lubusz Land was also under Mieszko 's control and another important gord was built in Włocławek much further east . Masovia was still more loosely associated with the Piast state , while the Sandomierz region was for a while their southern outpost .
The construction of powerful Piast gords in western Silesia region along the Oder River ( Głogów , Wrocław and Opole ) took place in 985 at the latest . The alliance with the Czechs was by that time over ( Doubravka died in 977 , leaving two children Bolesław and Świętosława ) , Mieszko allied with Germany fought the Přemyslids and took over that part of Silesia and then also eastern Lesser Poland , the Lendian lands . In 989 Kraków with the rest of Lesser Poland was taken over . The region , autonomous under the Czech rule , also enjoyed a special status within the Piast state . In 990 eastern Silesia was added , which completed the Piast takeover of southern Poland . By the end of Mieszko 's life , his state included the West Slavic lands in geographic proximity and connected by natural features , such as an absence of mountain ranges , to the Piast territorial nucleus of Greater Poland . Those lands have sometimes been regarded by historians as " Lechitic " , or ethnically Polish , even though linguistically in the 10th century all the western Slavic tribes , including the Czechs , were quite similar .
Silver treasures , common in the Scandinavian countries , are found also in Slavic areas including Poland , especially northern Poland . Silver objects , coins and decorations , often cut into pieces , are believed to have served as currency units , brought in by Jewish and Arab traders , but locally more as accumulations of wealth and symbols of prestige . The process of hiding or depositing them , besides protecting them from danger , is believed by the researchers to represent a cult ritual .
A treasure located in Góra Strękowa , Białystok County , hidden after 901 , includes dirhem coins minted between 764 and 901 and Slavic decorations made in southern Ruthenia , showing Byzantine influence . This find is a manifestation of a 10th @-@ century trade route running all the way from Central Asia , through Byzantium , Kiev , the Dnieper and Pripyat rivers basins and Masovia , to the Baltic Sea shores . Such treasures most likely belonged to members of the emerging elites .
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= The Good Huswifes Jewell =
The Good Huswifes Jewell is an English cookery book by the cookery and housekeeping writer Thomas Dawson , first published in 1585 . It includes recipes for medicines as well as food . To the spices found in Medieval English cooking , the book adds herbs , especially parsley and thyme . Sugar is used in many of the dishes , along with now @-@ unfamiliar ingredients like violets and rosewater .
The book includes recipes still current , such as pancakes , haggis , and salad of leaves and flowers with vinaigrette sauce , as well as some not often made , such as mortis , a sweet chicken pâté . Some dishes have familiar names , such as trifle , but different ingredients from those used today .
The Jewell is the first English cookery book to give a recipe for sweet potatoes .
= = Context = =
The Elizabethan age represented the period of transition from Medieval to modern . Cookery was changing as trade brought new ingredients , and fashion favoured new styles of cooking , with , for example , locally @-@ grown herbs as well as imported spices . Cooking came to be seen as a subject in its own right , rather than being part of medicine or books of " secrets " . Little is known of the book 's author , Thomas Dawson , beyond the bare fact that he published several books on cooking including also his 1620 Booke of cookerie . Such books were becoming available to a wider audience than the aristocratic households of the Middle Ages , hence the " huswife " of Dawson 's title .
= = Book = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Good Huswifes Jewell gives recipes for making fruit tarts using fruits as varied as apple , peach , cherry , damson , pear , and mulberry . For stuffing for meat and poultry , or as Dawson says " to farse all things " , he recommends using the herbs thyme , hyssop , and parsley , mixed with egg yolk , white bread , raisins or barberries , and spices including cloves , mace , cinnamon and ginger , all in the same dish . A sauce for pork was made with white wine , broth , nutmeg , and the herbs rosemary , bay , thyme , and marjoram .
Familiar recipes include pancakes , which were made with cream , egg yolks , flour , and a little ale ; the cook was directed " let the fire be verie soft , and when the one side is baked , then turn the other , and bake them as dry as ye can without burning . " Blancmange appears as " Blewmanger " , made of cream , eggs , sugar and rosewater .
= = = Approach = = =
The recipes are written as goals , like " To make a Tarte of Spinadge " , with instructions to achieve the goal . Quantities are given , if at all , only in passing , either with vague phrases like " a good handful of persely and a few sweet hearbs " , or as " the yolks of 4 hard egges " . Cooking times are given only occasionally , as " let them seeth a quantitye of an houre " . Directions as to the fire are given where necessary , as " boyle it in a chafing dish of coales " or " with a fyre of Wood beate it the space of two houres " .
The recipe for a salad with a vinaigrette dressing runs as follows ( from the 1596 edition ) :
To Make a Sallet of All Kinde of Hearbes
Take your hearbes and picke them very fine into faire water , and picke your flowers by themselues , and washe them al cleane , and swing them in a strainer , and when you put them into a dish , mingle them with Cowcumbers or Lemmons payred and sliced , and scrape Suger , and put in vineger and Oyle , and throwe the flowers on the toppe of the sallet , and of every sorte of the aforesaide things and garnish the dish about with the foresaide things , and harde Egges boyled and laide about the dish and upon the sallet .
This recipe is taken up by the National Trust , which calls it " Stourhead herb and flower salad . "
= = = Contents = = =
The 1596 edition is structured as follows :
Order of meat how they must be served at the Table , with their sauces for flesh daies at dinner .
A Booke of Cookerie ( 39 double pages )
Approued pointes of Cookerie / Approued pointes of Husbandrie / Approued Medicines for sundry diseases
The table of the book following gathered according to euery folio throughout the whole Booke [ index ]
Part II ( 1597 )
The 1597 edition of Part II is structured as follows :
A Booke of Cookerie ( 72 single pages )
The Booke of Caruing and Sewing ( 38 single pages , not numbered )
Tearmes of a Caruer
( The book of Caruing )
How to make Marchpaine and Ipocras
= = = Illustrations = = =
The book is illustrated only with a frontispiece . In the 1610 edition this has six kitchen scenes , including a three @-@ legged pot over an open fire , cordials being distilled , a bread oven , and pots and roasts on a spit over a fire .
= = = Medicines = = =
Dawson 's recipes included medicines , some of which involved sympathetic magic . The Good Huswife 's Jewell described " a tart to provoke courage in either man or woman " , calling for the brains of male sparrows . Torn sinews are healed by taking " worms while they be nice " , crushing them and laying them on to the sore " and it will knit the sinew that be broken in two " .
= = = Editions = = =
First edition , Edward White , 1585
Second edition , Edward White , 1596
---reprinted 1996 , Southover Press , with introduction by Maggie Black
Third edition , Edward White , 1610
A book called The Second Part of the good Hus @-@ wiues Jewell was published by Edward White in 1597 .
= = Reception = =
The celebrity chef Clarissa Dickson Wright comments on Dawson 's trifle that it differs from the modern recipe , as it consists only of " a pinte of thicke Creame " , seasoned with sugar , ginger and rosewater , and warmed gently for serving . She notes , also from the Good Huswife 's Jewell , that the Elizabethans had a strong liking for sweet things , " richly demonstrated " in Dawson 's " names of all things necessary for a banquet " :
Sugar , cinnamon , liquorice , pepper , nutmegs , all kinds of saffron , sanders , comfits , aniseeds , coriander , oranges , pomegranate seeds , Damask water , turnsole , lemons , prunes , rose water , dates , currants , raisins , cherries conserved , barberries conserved , rye flower , ginger , sweet oranges , pepper white and brown , mace , wafers .
The culinary historian Alison Sim notes that " the closest the Tudors came to sponge were sponge @-@ like biscuits " , which could be raised with eggs or with yeast ; the " cracknels " in the Jewell were boiled before baking , being put into boiling water where they would sink and then rise to the top . Sim notes that Dawson 's " fine bisket bread " had to be beaten for two hours .
The culinary historian Ken Albala describes the Jewell as an " important cookbook " , and observes that it is the first English cookery book to give a recipe for sweet potatoes , while also listing " old medieval standbys " . He comments that there are several pudding recipes , both savoury and sweet , including haggis . He notes , too , that it gives instructions for the marzipan figures " so beloved on the Elizabethan banquetting table . "
The culinary historian Stephen Mennell calls the Jewell " more distinctively English " than the Boke of Kervynge and the Boke of Cokery from earlier in the century . It , like Gervase Markham 's The English Hus @-@ Wife of 1615 , was aimed at a more general audience , not only aristocrats but " housewives " , which Mennell glosses as " gentlewomen concerned with the practical tasks of running households " . Hence the book could treat not only food but medicines , dairy @-@ work , brewing , and preserving .
The historian Joanna Opaskar notes that the Elizabethans used what " may seem odd ingredients today " , such as rosewater and violets , and that Dawson provides a recipe for salmon with violets , the recipe calling for slices of onion with violets , oil , and vinegar . She also notes that sugar was included " in almost every kind of dish " , as well as spices that we would use in " sweet rather than savory dishes . "
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= Terra ( Kingdom Hearts ) =
Terra ( Japanese : テラ , Hepburn : Tera ) is a fictional character from Square Enix 's video game franchise Kingdom Hearts . He was introduced in Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep as one of the three protagonists . He had a cameo appearance in a secret ending of Kingdom Hearts II and its re @-@ release Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix ; the later game included an optional boss fight against the Lingering Will ( 留まりし思念 , Todomarishi Shinen ) , a hollow armor containing Terra 's mind . In Birth by Sleep , Terra appears as one of the apprentices from Master Eraqus who trains him alongside his friends Aqua and Ventus to become masters of the Keyblade weapon . When Master Xehanort disappears , Terra is sent to find him and also tame the growing darkness within himself .
Terra 's character was designed by the director series Tetsuya Nomura when preparing the secret endings of Kingdom Hearts II and Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix . He was developed to be reminiscent to the Xehanort featured in previous titles as well as having a connection with Riku , one of the series ' main characters . Ryōtarō Okiayu has done the voice of Terra in Japanese and Jason Dohring in the English version . Video game publications gave mixed responses to Terra 's character , with many noting his similarity to the Final Fantasy VII character Zack Fair and later commenting on his naive portrayal in Birth by Sleep .
= = Appearances = =
Terra first made cameos in the secret endings of Kingdom Hearts II and Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix which depicted events from Birth by Sleep . Additionally , the Lingering Will , an armor containing Terra 's will , appears in Kingdom Hearts II : Final Mix as an optional boss in the world Keyblade Graveyard . The Lingering Will fights the game 's protagonist Sora upon sensing Sora 's Keyblade and mistaking Sora for Xehanort and acknowledges Sora as a Keyblade Master afterward .
In the prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , Terra is a trainee from Master Eraqus alongside Aqua and Ventus , developing a strong sibling @-@ like bond with both of them . One day , Terra participates with Aqua in an exam to become Keyblade Masters . Terra fails to pass the test as Eraqus detects darkness in his heart , which he disapproves . Eraqus later informs Terra and Aqua about the appearance of creatures known as the Unversed and the disappearance of Master Xehanort . He orders both of them to eliminate the Unversed and find Xehanort . During his search for the missing Xehanort , he interacts with several Disney characters for information on his whereabouts as he faces his inner darkness . When finding Xehanort , Terra is requested by him to kill Vanitas , a figure made from Ventus 's darkness and source of all the Unversed . Xehanort later makes Terra return to the Land of Departure to stop Eraqus from killing Ventus . Unwilling to let Ventus die , Terra rescues him and confronts Eraqus . As the battle finishes , both Terra and Eraqus apologize to each other for their actions , but Eraqus is then killed by Xehanort . Realizing Xehanort 's true nature , Terra goes to the Keyblade Graveyard where he reunites with Ventus and Aqua , and prepares to face Xehanort . There , Ventus tells Aqua and him that Xehanort plans to use him and Vanitas to create the legendary χ @-@ blade to help him in his plans which caused Eraqus to try to kill him . The three are then confronted by Xehanort and Vanitas and proceed to fight . When Ventus and Aqua are wounded in battle , Terra attacks Xehanort alone and unleashes the darkness in his heart , allowing Xehanort to take over his body . However , Terra 's mind persists in his discarded armor , becoming the Lingering Will , and continues to fight Xehanort , knocking him out . The Lingering Will remains in the Keyblade Graveyard , while Terra 's heart has an internal struggle with Xehanort 's in his original body when Xehanort battles Aqua . This results in Xehanort stabbing himself to stop Terra , but Terra 's presence remains within Xehanort , swearing to stop him .
While Terra does not appear in Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , aside from the Lingering Will making a cameo in the opening , he is mentioned by King Mickey , who is searching for the Birth by Sleep protagonists . Terra briefly appears in Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance during Sora 's dream , where Sora 's friends , Riku and Kairi , are transformed into Terra and Aqua . Terra also appears when Sora declares his pride in being connected to many Keyblade wielders .
A vision of Terra makes an appearance in Kingdom Hearts 0 @.@ 2 Birth by Sleep : A fragmentary passage , a part of Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue . He appears to Aqua as she laments not being able to reverse time to spend one more night with her friends . While she is shocked at his appearance , thinking that he did not make it out of the Realm of Darkness , she resolves to continue her journey .
Terra 's role from Birth by Sleep is reprised in Tomoko Tanemaki 's light novels of the game . Additionally , the final chapter shows the Lingering Will fighting Sora from Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix .
= = Creation and development = =
Although Terra , Ventus and Aqua first appeared in the ending of Kingdom Hearts II wearing armor , director Tetsuya Nomura still had not designed their real look , having only thought about their story . Despite not revealing their identities , Nomura still said that they are characters from the past from the Kingdom Hearts series . Following the release of the Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , Nomura revealed a connection between them and the game 's villain Xemnas but wanted to leave it up to people 's imaginations as he still could not reveal his identity . Terra 's face was first shown in the 2006 Tokyo Game Show in which he was described as an avenger of Xehanort . Nomura also confirmed that Lingering Will was connected with Terra . He also stated that his name means " earth " from Latin , following the " land " theme Riku represents as well as connecting him with the other main characters ' names from the series . In October 2007 , Nomura was asked if the Lingering Will was actually Terra due to their similarities , but he responded it was still uncertain . When asked about what was the Will 's true nature after being revealed to contain Terra 's memories , Nomura stated it was not a Heartless . Nomura expressed that the fans liked the inclusion of the Will 's battle due to his challenging difficulty , which led the staff to design another hard boss character for Birth by Sleep .
From the three protagonists from Birth by Sleep , Terra 's design was the only which was decided how should it be from the start , with Nomura stating he would be designed younger than shown in previous games . Japanese @-@ inspired designs were incorporated into Terra 's outfit based on the " master and apprentice " relationship featured in the game . Nomura had troubles designing Terra 's , Ventus 's and Aqua 's armors due how they would be able to summon them . Therefore , an " X " was added to their clothes as a mean to activate the armors as well as due to the fact it was one of the game 's keywords . Ever since development of Birth by Sleep started , the staff already decided that the three stories would be told in separate scenarios with Terra 's story being the first one written . Terra 's conversation with Riku was written by Nomura early on development wishing to explain the reason for Riku 's ability to use the Keyblade , and he requested the staff in charge to make it into the game . The staff also wanted emphasize the lack of coincidences in the series , leading to the interaction between the three scenarios . Nomura recommended players to first play as Terra in Birth by Sleep in order to understand the story better . His gameplay was also described by Nomura as " heavy " in comparison to Ventus 's and Aqua 's .
To expand the connection between Terra and Riku , scenes foreshadowing future events involving Riku from Terra 's perspective were added to the game , though Nomura has stated that these foreshadows are not of a precognitive nature . Nomura expects that in future games , the connection between both of them would be expanded . Ryōtarō Okiayu was chosen as Terra 's Japanese voice actor as the staff wanted one actor similar to Chikao Ōtsuka , Xehanort 's voice actor , and Akio Ōtsuka , Xehanort 's voice actor while using Terra 's body . The staff found Chikao 's was a dry sort of voice , Akio 's a deep resonating sort of voice , and liked how Okiayu bore elements from both actors .
= = Reception = =
When Terra 's character was first revealed , 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish found him to be very similar to Zack Fair from Final Fantasy VII to the point where he wondered whether he would actually be Zack . However , when considering Terra 's weapon being a Keyblade in contrast to all the other Final Fantasy characters shown in previous Kingdom Hearts games , he thought he may not be Zack . Amanda L. Kondolojy from Cheat Code Central found there have been various speculations regarding the similarities between Terra and Zack , but thought it would not be strange considering the existence of Nobodies in the series . Selecting Terra for a demo of Birth by Sleep IGN 's Ryan Clements agreed with Parish , finding only minor differences between their outfits .
Terra 's role in Birth by Sleep has received mixed critics with Adam Ghigiino from PALGN criticizing his naive personality when finding the three protagonists unappealing . VideoGamer.com writer Emily Gera stated that players may know little about them due to their role in Kingdom Hearts II , but with Birth by Sleep , players will able to know about them . Writing for GamesRadar , Crhis Antista commented that he did not understand the importance of him and the other characters being briefly featured in Kingdom Hearts II , although it could be explained once the player finishes Birth by Sleep . PlayStation LifeStyle 's Thomas Williams found the trio as welcome additions to the franchise , finding their stories enjoyable even though the three travel to the same worlds . X @-@ Play found Terra to be very similar to Riku due to his personality and vulnerability to evil 's allure . Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot criticized Jason Dohring 's work as Terra 's English voice actor , saying he " can 't express angst , excitement , sincerity , or any other emotion " , affecting the storyline . VanOrd also pointed this out when Terra interacts with Disney characters , finding the latters ' voice actors to be " uniformly excellent and absolutely comparable to the original source . " Bob Miur from Destructoid compared Terra 's storyline with the film Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith due to the struggles he faces , and found that gamers familiar to the series may realize that his fate in the game " won 't turn out to be very pretty . " Miur also commented on Dohring 's work , praising how he makes Terra " tortured and conflicted " , but still criticizing the result . UGO Networks listed Terra 's Helmet nineteenth on their list of " The Coolest Helmets and Headgear in Video Games " , stating " For a minute , but only a minute , the two @-@ horned helmet will get you feeling like the Keyblade is a viable weapon . " In a Famitsu poll , Terra was voted as the fifth most popular Kingdom Hearts character .
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= Underground City ( Beijing ) =
The Underground City ( Chinese : 地下城 ; pinyin : Dìxià Chéng ) is a Cold War era bomb shelter consisting of a network of tunnels located beneath Beijing , China . It has also been referred to as the Underground Great Wall since it was built for the purpose of military defense . The complex was constructed from 1969 to 1979 in anticipation of a nuclear war with the Soviet Union , as Sino @-@ Soviet relations worsened and was officially reopened in 2000 . Visitors were allowed to tour portions of the complex , which has been described as " dark , damp , and genuinely eerie " . Dixia Cheng has been closed for renovation since at least February 2008 .
= = Location = =
The tunnels of the Underground City run beneath Beijing 's city center , covering an area of 85 square kilometres ( 33 sq mi ) 8 to 18 metres ( 26 – 59 ft ) under the surface . At one time there were about 90 entrances to the complex , all of which were hidden in shops along the main streets of Qianmen . Many of the entrances have since been demolished or blocked off for reconstruction . Known remaining entrances include 62 West Damochang Street in Qianmen , Beijing Qianmen Carpet Factory at 44 Xingfu Dajie in Chongwen District , and 18 Dazhalan Jie in Qianmen .
= = History = =
At the height of Soviet @-@ Chinese tensions in 1969 , Chinese chairman Mao Zedong ordered the construction of the Underground City during the border conflict over Zhenbao Island in the Heilongjiang River . The Underground City was designed to withstand nuclear , biochemical and conventional attacks . The complex would protect Beijing 's population , and allow government officials to evacuate in the event of an attack on the city . The government claimed that the tunnels could accommodate all of Beijing 's six million inhabitants upon its completion .
The complex was equipped with facilities such as restaurants , clinics , schools , theaters , factories , a roller skating rink , grain and oil warehouses , and a mushroom cultivation farm . There were also almost 70 potential sites where water wells could easily be dug if needed . Elaborate ventilation systems were installed , with 2300 shafts that can be sealed off to protect the tunnels ' inhabitants from poison gases , Gas- and water @-@ proof hatches , as well as thick concrete main gates , were constructed to protect the tunnels from biochemical attacks and nuclear fallouts .
There is no official disclosure about the actual extent of the complex , but it is speculated that the tunnels may link together Beijing 's various landmarks , as well as important governmental buildings such as the Zhongnanhai , the Great Hall of the People , and even military bases in the outskirts of the city . The China Internet Information Center asserts that " they supposedly link all areas of central Beijing , from Xidan and Xuanwumen to Qianmen and [ the ] Chongwen district " , in addition to the Western Hills . It is also rumoured that every residence once had a secret trapdoor nearby leading to the tunnels . In the event of a nuclear attack , the plan was to move half of Beijing 's population underground and the other half to the Western Hills .
The tunnels were built by more than 300 @,@ 000 local citizens , including school students , on volunteer duties . Some portions were even dug without the help of any heavy machinery . Centuries @-@ old city walls , towers and gates , including the old city gates of Xizhimen , Fuchengmen , and Chongwenmen were destroyed to supply construction materials for the complex .
Since the complex 's completion , it has been utilized by locals for in various ways as the tunnels remain cool in summer and warm in winter . On busy streets , some portions of the complex were refurbished as cheap hotels , while others were transformed into shopping and business centers , or even theaters .
While the complex has never been used for its intended purpose , it has never been fully abandoned either . Local authorities still perform water leakage checks and pest control in the tunnels on a regular basis .
= = As a tourist attraction = =
The complex was officially opened in 2000 , but has been closed for renovation since at least February 2008 . While it was open , visitors were allowed to tour portions of the complex ; the Underground City was popular with foreign tourists but remained virtually forgotten by local citizens . Though there are many other entrances , foreign visitors entered approved sections accessed via a small shop front in Qianmen , south of Tiananmen Square , at 62 West Damochang Street . Tour groups could enter free of charge and without prior permission while individual tourists not part of a group were charged 20 yuan ( US $ 2 @.@ 40 ) each .
The official tour took visitors only on a small circular stretch of the Underground City . Inside the complex , visitors could see signposts to major landmarks accessible by the tunnels , such as Tiananmen Square and the Forbidden City , and could see chambers labeled with their original functions , such as cinemas , hospitals , or arsenals . A portrait of Mao Zedong could be seen amidst murals of locals volunteering to dig the tunnels and fading slogans such as " Accumulate Grain " , and " For the People : Prepare for War , Prepare for Famine " . Rooms with bunk beds and decayed cardboard boxes of water purifiers could be seen in areas not open to tourists . Visitors on the official tour would also pass by a functioning silk factory in one of the underground staff meeting rooms of the complex , and be given a demonstration of the process of obtaining silk from silkworm cocoons . They had a chance to buy souvenirs at a tourists ' shop operated by the state @-@ owned Qianmen Arts and Crafts Center and the China Kai Tian Silk Company .
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= Bangladesh at the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games =
Bangladesh competed in the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games ( officially known as the IV Commonwealth Youth Games ) held in the Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011 . This was their second appearance in the Commonwealth Youth Games . The nation was represented by the Bangladesh Olympic Association , which is responsible for the Commonwealth Games and Commonwealth Youth Games in Bangladesh .
The Bangladeshi delegation consisted of four officials and four competitors : two men and two women , who took part in three different sports — athletics , boxing and swimming . ( At the previous Commonwealth Youth Games , Bangladesh had a delegation of ten athletes . ) None of the athletes won any medals . Papia Rani Sarkar finished sixth in the semifinal round of the 100 metres for women ; bantamweight boxer Riyad Hossen received a bye into the quarterfinal , but then lost to Obedy Mutapa of Zambia . In the swimming heats , Sonia Akter finished 22nd in the 50 m backstroke and 19th in the 50 m butterfly , and Anik Islam finished 12th in the 50 m butterfly and 14th in the 100 m butterfly .
= = Background = =
Bangladesh became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 and made its Commonwealth Games debut in the 1990 Commonwealth Games in Auckland , New Zealand . The Bangladesh Olympic Association , the country 's National Olympic Committee , is responsible for the Commonwealth and Commonwealth Youth Games in Bangladesh . Bangladesh did not participate in the first two Commonwealth Youth Games in Edinburgh ( 2000 ) and Bendigo ( 2004 ) . For the 2008 Commonwealth Youth Games in Pune , India , it entered ten athletes , all men , who competed in athletics , boxing and shooting , winning one bronze medal in Weightlifting . Bangladesh was one of the 63 nations and territories taking part in the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games held in the Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011 , making its second appearance in the games . This time Bangladesh , like 31 other countries , won no medals .
= = Delegation = =
The age of every participant at the Commonwealth Youth Games is between fourteen and eighteen years in the year of event . Each Commonwealth Games Association can send a maximum of one thousand competitors . The Bangladesh Olympic Association selected a delegation consisting of four officials and four competitors for the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games . Riyad Hossen , the only one to have taken part in the previous games , boxed in the bantamweight class . Papia Rani Sarkar was the only Bangladeshi competing in athletics . Sonia Akter and Anik Islam , the delegation 's only two swimmers , each participated in two events . The head of delegation was A K Sarker .
= = Athletics = =
Athletics events were held in the National Sports Center Athletics Stadium . Papia Rani Sarkar represented Bangladesh in the women 's 100 m on 9 September 2011 . She ran it in 12 @.@ 66 seconds in the heats to qualify for the semifinals , and in 12 @.@ 63 seconds to place sixth in the first semifinal . The gold medal in this event was won by Sophie Papps of England , with a time of 11 @.@ 53 seconds in the final .
Q = Qualified for the next round
= = Boxing = =
Bangladesh 's boxing squad consisted of one contestant , Riyad Hossen , who boxed in the bantamweight class . He was eliminated in the quarterfinals , losing to Obedy Mutapa of Zambia with a points difference of 15 – 5 after receiving a bye in the previous round .
Bye = received a bye .
= = Swimming = =
Sonia Akter and Anik Islam were the two Bangladeshi swimmers . Akter entered three events , the 50 m butterfly , 50 m backstroke and 50 m breaststroke . She completed her preliminary heat of the 50 m butterfly in 32 @.@ 78 seconds , finishing in 19th place , not high enough to secure a place in the final . She was also eliminated in the preliminary heat of the 50 m backstroke , ranking 22nd with a time of 36 @.@ 00 seconds in the heats . She did not start in the preliminary heat of the 50 m breaststroke . Anik Islam swam in the 50 m and 100 m butterfly . He finished the 50 m butterfly in a time of 26 @.@ 97 seconds , ranking 14th , and the 100 m butterfly in 58 @.@ 41 seconds , ranking 12th .
DNS = Did not start .
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= Saegusa – Ito oxidation =
The Saegusa – Ito oxidation is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry . It was discovered in 1978 by Takeo Saegusa and Yoshihiko Ito as a method to introduce α @-@ β unsaturation in carbonyl compounds . The reaction as originally reported involved formation of a silyl enol ether followed by treatment with palladium ( II ) acetate and benzoquinone to yield the corresponding enone . The original publication noted its utility for regeneration of unsaturation following 1 @,@ 4 @-@ addition with nucleophiles such as organocuprates .
For acyclic substrates the reaction yields the thermodynamic E @-@ olefin product exclusively .
This discovery was preceded nearly eight years earlier by a report that treatment of unactivated ketones with palladium acetate yielded the same products in low yields . The major improvement provided by Saegusa and Ito was the recognition that the enol form was the reactive species , developing a method based on silyl enol ethers .
Benzoquinone is actually not a necessary component for this reaction ; its role is to regenerate palladium ( II ) from its reduced form palladium ( 0 ) , so that a smaller amount of expensive palladium ( II ) acetate is required at the beginning . The reaction conditions and purifications could be easily simplified by just using excess of palladium ( II ) acetate without benzoquinone , while at a much higher cost . Since the reaction typically employs near @-@ stoichiometric amounts of palladium and is therefore often considered too expensive for industrial usage , some progress has been made in the development of catalytic variants . Despite this shortcoming , the Saegusa oxidation has been used in a number of syntheses as a mild , late @-@ stage method for introduction of functionality in complex molecules .
= = Mechanism = =
The mechanism of the Saegusa – Ito oxidation involves coordination of palladium to the enol olefin followed by loss of the silyl group and formation of an oxoallyl @-@ palladium complex. β @-@ hydride elimination yields the palladium hydride enone complex which upon reductive elimination yields the product along with acetic acid and Pd0 . The reversibility of the elimination step allows equilibration , leading to the thermodynamic E @-@ selectivity in acyclic substrates . It has been shown that the product can form a stable Pd0 @-@ olefin complex , which may be responsible for the difficulty with re @-@ oxidation seen in catalytic variants of the reaction .
= = Scope = =
The wide applicability of the Saegusa – Ito oxidation is exemplified by its use in several classic syntheses of complex molecules . The synthesis of morphine by Tohru Fukuyama in 2006 is one such example , in which the transformation tolerates the presence of carbamate and ether substituents .
Samuel J. Danishefsky 's synthesis of both ( + ) and ( - ) peribysin began with a Saegusa – Ito oxidation of the Diels @-@ Alder adduct of carvone and 3 @-@ trimethylsilyloxy @-@ 1 @,@ 3 @-@ butadiene to yield the enone below . In this case the oxidation tolerated the presence of alkene and carbonyl moieties .
Yong Qiang Tu 's synthesis of the Alzheimer 's disease medication galanthamine likewise used this reaction in the presence of an acid @-@ sensitive acetal group .
Larry E. Overman 's synthesis of laurenyne utilizes a one @-@ pot oxidation with pyridinium chlorochromate followed by a Saegusa oxidation , tolerating the presence of a halogen and a sulfonate .
The synthesis of sambutoxin reported by David Williams uses a novel Saegusa – Ito oxidation involving an unprotected enol moiety . The enone product cyclized in situ to regenerate the enol and form the tetrahydropyran ring . Subsequent deprotection of the methoxymethyl group furnished the natural product .
= = Variations = =
The vast majority of improvements to this reaction have focused on rendering the transformation catalytic with respect to the palladium salt , primarily due to its high cost . The original conditions , though technically catalytic , still require 50 mol % of palladium ( II ) actetate , raising the cost to prohibitively high levels for large scale syntheses .
The major advances in catalytic versions of this reaction have steered towards co @-@ oxidants that regenerate the palladium ( II ) species effectively . Specifically , conditions using atmospheric oxygen as well as stoichiometric allylcarbonate have been developed .
With respect to the former , the method developed by Larock in 1995 represents an environmentally and cost @-@ attractive method as a catalytic substitute for the Saegusa – Ito oxidation .
This method suffers from long reaction times and often produces significantly lower yields than the stoichiometric equivalent as showcased in the synthesis of platyphillide by Nishida . The contrast of the two methods highlights the catalytic method 's shortcomings .
Catalytic variants employing stoichiometric diallylcarbonate and other allylic carbonates have also been developed , primarily by Jiro Tsuji . For these the choice of solvent is essential : nitrile solvents produce the desired enones while ethereal solvents produce α @-@ allyl ketones instead .
This latter method has enjoyed greater success as a synthetic tool , most notably in the Shibasaki total synthesis of the famous poison Strychnine .
Despite these methods , much work remains to be done with regard to catalytic installation of α @-@ β unsaturation .
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= Wilco =
Wilco is an American alternative rock band based in Chicago , Illinois . The band was formed in 1994 by the remaining members of alternative country group Uncle Tupelo following singer Jay Farrar 's departure . Wilco 's lineup changed frequently during its first decade , with only singer Jeff Tweedy and bassist John Stirratt remaining from the original incarnation . Since early 2004 , the lineup has been unchanged , consisting of Tweedy , Stirratt , guitarist Nels Cline , multi @-@ instrumentalist Pat Sansone , keyboard player Mikael Jorgensen , and drummer Glenn Kotche . Wilco has released nine studio albums , a live double album , and four collaborations : three with Billy Bragg and one with The Minus 5 .
Wilco 's music has been inspired by a wide variety of artists and styles , including Bill Fay , The Beatles and Television , and has in turn influenced music by a number of modern alternative rock acts . The band continued in the alternative country of Uncle Tupelo on its debut album A.M. ( 1995 ) , but has since introduced more experimental aspects to their music , including elements of alternative rock and classic pop . Wilco 's musical style has evolved from a 1990s country rock sound to a current " eclectic indie rock collective that touches on many eras and genres . "
Wilco garnered media attention for their fourth album , Yankee Hotel Foxtrot ( 2002 ) , and the controversy surrounding it . After the recording sessions were complete , Reprise Records rejected the album and dismissed Wilco from the label . As part of a buy @-@ out deal , Reprise gave Wilco the rights to the album for free . After streaming Foxtrot on its website , Wilco sold the album to Nonesuch Records in 2002 . Both record labels are subsidiaries of Warner Music Group , leading one critic to say the album showed " how screwed up the music business is in the early twenty @-@ first century . " Yankee Hotel Foxtrot is Wilco 's most successful release to date , selling over 670 @,@ 000 copies . Wilco won two Grammy Awards for their fifth studio album , 2004 's A Ghost Is Born , including Best Alternative Music Album . Wilco 's released their ninth studio album , Star Wars , on July 16 , 2015 . On July 19 , 2016 Wilco set the release date for their tenth studio album , Schmilco , for September 9 , 2016 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Wilco was formed following the breakup of the influential alternative country music group Uncle Tupelo . Singer Jay Farrar quit the band in 1994 because of a soured relationship with co @-@ singer Jeff Tweedy . Both Tweedy and Farrar sought to form bands immediately after the breakup . Tweedy was able to keep the entire Uncle Tupelo lineup sans Farrar , including bassist John Stirratt , drummer Ken Coomer , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Max Johnston . He even enlisted Uncle Tupelo guest guitarist Brian Henneman of the Bottle Rockets , who performed on many of the tracks for Wilco 's debut album , A.M .. The band was tempted to keep the Uncle Tupelo name , but ultimately decided to rename the band . The group named itself " Wilco " after the military and commercial aviation radio voice abbreviation for " will comply " , a choice which Tweedy has called " fairly ironic for a rock band to name themselves . "
= = = A.M. and Being There = = =
After collaborating with Syd Straw on a cover version of the Ernest Tubb song " The T.B. is Whipping Me " ( released in September 1994 on the Red Hot + Country compilation produced by the Red Hot Organization ) , Wilco began recording tracks for A.M. , their first studio album , at Easley studio in June 1994 . A demo tape from these recordings was sent to executives at Reprise Records , a subsidiary of Warner Brothers , and the label signed Tweedy to a contract . Although Tweedy stated that he wanted a more collaborative project than Uncle Tupelo , only his name appeared on the Reprise contract . Tweedy requested songwriting submissions from other members , but only one submission — John Stirratt 's " It 's Just That Simple " — appeared on A.M .. It was the last song Wilco ever released that was lyrically solely written by a member besides Tweedy .
Stylistically similar to Uncle Tupelo , the music on A.M. was considered to be straightforward alternative country rock in what Tweedy later described as " trying to tread some water with a perceived audience . " A.M. peaked at number twenty @-@ seven on the Billboard Heatseekers chart , considerably lower than the debut album of Jay Farrar 's new band , Son Volt . The album was met with modest reviews though it would rank thirty @-@ fourth in the Village Voice 's 1995 Pazz & Jop critics poll . Critically and commercially paling in comparison to the reception of Son Volt 's album , the Wilco members perceived A.M. to be a failure . Shortly after the release of the album , multi @-@ instrumentalist Jay Bennett joined the band , providing the band with a keyboardist and another guitarist .
Wilco made its live debut on November 17 , 1994 to a capacity crowd at Cicero 's Basement Bar in St. Louis , Missouri ( the band was billed for the occasion as " Black Shampoo " ) .
During the two hundred @-@ date tour supporting A.M. , Tweedy began to write songs for a second album . The lyrical theme of the songs reflected a relationship between musical artist and a listener ; Tweedy chose this topic because he sought to eschew the alternative country fan base . Ken Coomer elaborated :
The whole No Depression thing was funny to us because people seemed to forget that Jeff was a bigger punk @-@ rock fan than a country fan . It led to things like us all switching instruments on " Misunderstood , " where I 'm playing guitar .
A number of songs were recorded with this theme , including " Sunken Treasure " and " Hotel Arizona " , however , Wilco also recorded a number of songs in the style of A.M. Wilco named the album Being There after a Peter Sellers film of the same name . The band went through some personnel changes during the recording sessions . Max Johnston left the band because he felt that his role in the band had diminished in favor of Bennett ; he had also been replaced by violinist Jesse Greene on one track because the band felt that Johnston was unable to play the part . Bob Egan of Freakwater briefly joined the band in the studio , playing pedal steel guitar on " Far , Far Away " and " Dreamer in My Dreams " , and then became an official member in September 1996 .
Unlike the A.M. recording sessions , the band had no vocation for producing a hit song from their second effort . The recording sessions produced nineteen songs , too many for a single album release . Tweedy was concerned about the high retail price that a double album would be sold for ( at least $ 30 ) , so he asked Reprise Records to release it as a double album at a single album price ( $ 17 @.@ 98 or less ) . Reprise agreed to this on the terms that they received Wilco 's share of the album royalties . It was estimated in 2003 that the band lost almost $ 600 @,@ 000 on the deal , but Tweedy was satisfied . Being There was well received by critics from several major media outlets , including Rolling Stone . The album reached No. 73 on the Billboard album charts , a significant improvement from A.M. , and placed fourteenth on the Pazz & Jop Critics Poll for 1996 . The album 's single " Outtasite ( Outta Mind ) " became the group 's first song to enter the Billboard charts , reaching No. 39 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart and No. 22 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart .
= = = Summerteeth and the Mermaid Avenue sessions = = =
In November 1997 , Wilco entered Willie Nelson 's recording studio in Spicewood , Texas to record a third studio album . The album was lyrically inspired by the marital problems of Tweedy and his wife , as well as by twentieth @-@ century literature . Tweedy relied heavily on Bennett to provide music for the singer 's " bold , but depressing " lyrics . Wilco recorded several songs , including " Via Chicago " and " She 's a Jar , " but began working on another project before assembling the tracks into an album .
Nora Guthrie contacted singer @-@ songwriter Billy Bragg in spring 1995 about recording some unreleased songs by her father , folk singer Woody Guthrie . Most of the songs were written late in Guthrie 's life when he was unable to record due to the motor impairments of Huntington 's disease . By the 1990s , Woody Guthrie had become a " relic " to the MTV generation , and Nora sought to establish a different legacy for the musician . To Nora , Bragg was " the only singer I knew taking on the same issues as Woody . " Bragg was concerned , however , that his fans would not realize that the songs were written by Guthrie when he performed them on tour , so he decided to record the album with another band .
Bragg contacted Tweedy and Bennett about co @-@ recording the album while Wilco was on the European segment of their Being There tour . Bragg was particularly fond of Being There because their influences extended farther back than the 1950s . Although Tweedy was indifferent to the offer , Bennett was enthused about recording songs of one of his idols — Bennett 's previous band Titanic Love Affair was named after a Billy Bragg lyric . A recording contract between Bragg and Wilco was signed after a show at Shepherd 's Bush Empire . Bragg mostly recorded the politically charged lyrics , while Tweedy preferred to record lyrics that showcased Guthrie as a " freak weirdo " . The recording of Mermaid Avenue began on December 12 , 1997 , and was the topic of BBC 's Man in the Sand documentary film .
Tempers flared between Bragg and Wilco after the album was completed . Bennett believed that Bragg was overproducing his songs , a sharp contrast to Wilco 's sparser contributions . Bennett called Bragg about the possibility of remixing Bragg 's songs , to which Bragg responded " you make your record , and I 'll make mine , fucker . " Eventually Bragg sent copies of his recordings to Chicago for Bennett to remix , but Bragg refused to use the new mixes on the album . The two parties were unable to establish a promotional tour and quarreled over royalties and guest musician fees .
Despite these conflicts , the album was released on June 23 , 1998 , and sold over 277 @,@ 000 copies . The album received rave reviews from Robert Christgau and Rolling Stone , and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album . It also placed fourth on the Pazz & Jop critics poll for 1998 . After the album was released , Bob Egan was replaced by multi @-@ instrumentalist Leroy Bach .
After the completion of the Mermaid Avenue sessions , Wilco returned to Spicewood to complete their third studio album , Summerteeth . Unlike previous Wilco and Uncle Tupelo recordings , the album featured a lot of overdubbing with Pro Tools . Stirratt and Coomer were concerned with the production , since it reduced their involvement in the music . According to Stirratt :
The story of Summerteeth is Jay bought a Mellotron and he was going to use it , no matter what . It was lovely , but it was overdone . Once they got going on the overdubs , they didn 't stop . And nobody in the band stepped up to stop the madness ... It reminds me of Heart of Darkness , where you knowingly extend the creative process for the purpose of exploration or redemption , or whatever it is you 're looking for .
During 1999 , Warner Brothers was looking to help repay a $ 16 billion debt acquired during the recent merger of parent company Warner Communications with Time Inc .. As a result , Warner 's imprints were under pressure to produce musical acts that would yield hit records . The head of Reprise , Howie Klein , who had previously authorized the release of Being There as a double album , was willing to let Wilco produce Summerteeth without label input . When Klein played the album for Reprise 's A & R department , however , they demanded a radio single for the album . Wilco agreed to do this " once and once only " and recorded a radio @-@ friendly version of " Can 't Stand It " at the request of David Kahne , the head of the A & R department . The single version of " Can 't Stand It " failed to cross over from Triple @-@ A radio to alternative rock stations . Consequently , the album sold only 200 @,@ 000 copies , significantly less than Being There . This was despite critical acclaim ; the album placed eighth on the Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 1999 .
After the release of Summerteeth , the band resumed the Mermaid Avenue sessions . Although they had recorded enough material for a second release in 1998 , Wilco recorded a few new songs for Mermaid Avenue Vol . II . " Someday Some Morning Sometime , " featuring a vibraphone filtered through a space echo , was identified by Tweedy as being the " piece to the puzzle " towards the creation of their fourth studio album . The album was released on May 30 , 2000 , and was the last release from the sessions . The remainder of the sessions were released in 2012 as Mermaid Avenue Vol . III , also part of Mermaid Avenue : The Complete Sessions .
= = = Yankee Hotel Foxtrot = = =
Shortly after the recording sessions for Mermaid Avenue Vol . II , Wilco purchased a studio on Irving Park Road in Chicago , which they named the Wilco Loft . The band recorded some tracks in the studio in early 2000 for a fourth studio album . In May 2000 , Jeff Tweedy requested to perform with Jim O 'Rourke at a festival in Chicago ; Tweedy was a fan of O 'Rourke 's Bad Timing . O 'Rourke introduced Tweedy to drummer Glenn Kotche , and the trio enjoyed working together so much that they decided to record an album as a side project named Loose Fur . Wilco had recorded an entire album of music at this point , but Tweedy was unhappy with the drum parts . He enjoyed Kotche 's contributions to Loose Fur so much that Tweedy brought him into the studio to re @-@ record some demos . Some believe that Tweedy sought to make Wilco sound like Loose Fur after officially replacing Ken Coomer with Kotche in January 2001 .
Although Bennett sought to act as both mixer and engineer for Yankee Hotel Foxtrot , Tweedy was unsure of Bennett 's abilities against those of O 'Rourke . Tweedy and Bennett frequently argued over whether the album should be accessible to a general listener , or attempt to cover new musical ground . Unbeknownst to Bennett , Tweedy invited O 'Rourke to remix " I Am Trying to Break Your Heart " , and the results impressed the other band members — even Bennett . Tensions grew between Bennett and O 'Rourke because Bennett wanted to mix every song on the album . O 'Rourke cut the contributions of other members on several of the songs ; some songs , such as " Poor Places " , only featured the Loose Fur trio . The album was completed in 2001 , and Bennett was dismissed from the band immediately afterwards . The recording of the album was documented by Sam Jones and released in 2002 as the film I Am Trying to Break Your Heart : A Film About Wilco .
Time Warner , which owned Warner Bros. Records , merged with America Online in 2001 , leading to more pressure on Warner 's record labels to cut costs . Over 600 employees of Warner Music Group were fired , including Howie Klein , the president of Reprise Records . In absence of Klein , David Kahne became the interim head of Reprise . Kahne assigned Mio Vukovic to monitor the progress of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot and to offer suggestions . Music journalist Greg Kot claims that Vukovic disdained the album and was unhappy that Wilco ignored his suggestions . He brought the album to Kahne , who felt that there was no single on the album . In June 2001 , the album was rejected by Reprise and Wilco was asked to leave the label .
Wilco managed to negotiate terms to a buy @-@ out from Reprise . Music journalist Greg Kot claims that instead of financial compensation , the band agreed to leave the label with the master tapes of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . The label was already receiving bad publicity for its treatment of the band and were willing to accommodate Wilco 's request . However , Allmusic claims that Wilco " bought the finished studio tapes from Warner / Reprise for a reported $ 50 @,@ 000 and left the label altogether " after Wilco was " [ u ] nwilling to change the album to make it more ' commercially viable ' " To curb the negative publicity , Reprise began to invest more in bands such as The Flaming Lips . Lead singer Wayne Coyne once remarked :
We are benefiting from the label 's regret over Wilco . We are living in the golden age of that being such a public mistake . The people on Warners said , " we 'll never have a band like Wilco feel we don 't believe in them again . " They 'd tell me that it would never happen to us . And what a great day for me !
As the band searched for a new label to release the album , they decided to stream it at their official website to discourage illegal trading of low @-@ quality MP3s . The band signed with Nonesuch Records , another Time Warner subsidiary , and the album was released in the spring of 2002 . When it was released , Yankee Hotel Foxtrot reached number thirteen on the Billboard 200 , Wilco 's highest chart position to that date . Yankee Hotel Foxtrot sold over 590 @,@ 000 copies , and to date remains Wilco 's best selling album . Yankee Hotel Foxtrot was met with wide critical acclaim : it topped 2002 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll , was named one of the 100 greatest albums of all time by Q Magazine .
Rolling Stone rated it one of the top 500 albums of all time in May 2012 .
= = = Down with Wilco , A Ghost Is Born , and Kicking Television : Live in Chicago = = =
While waiting for the commercial release of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot , Wilco agreed to support R.E.M. collaborator Scott McCaughey for an album release by The Minus 5 . They scheduled a recording session for September 11 , 2001 , but were distraught about the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks that day . Later that day , Wilco and McCaughey agreed to " create something good in the world right now " and record some material . Influenced by Bill Fay 's Time of the Last Persecution , The Minus 5 's Down with Wilco was released in 2003 . Keyboardist Mikael Jorgensen , who had engineered Down with Wilco , joined Wilco in 2002 as they toured in support of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot .
In November 2003 , Wilco traveled to New York City to record their fifth album . The album was produced by Jim O 'Rourke , who mixed Foxtrot and was a member of Wilco side project Loose Fur . Unlike Summerteeth and Yankee Hotel Foxtrot , A Ghost Is Born featured songs that were created with Pro Tools before ever performing them live . The album featured the song " Less Than You Think " , which included a fifteen @-@ minute track of electronic noises and synthesizers , which Tweedy called " the track that everyone will hate " . Tweedy justified the inclusion of the song :
I know ninety @-@ nine percent of our fans won 't like that song , they 'll say it 's a ridiculous indulgence . Even I don 't want to listen to it every time I play through the album . But the times I do calm myself down and pay attention to it , I think it 's valuable and moving and cathartic . I wouldn 't have put it on the record if I didn 't think it was great ... I wanted to make an album about identity , and within that is the idea of a higher power , the idea of randomness , and that anything can happen , and that we can 't control it .
Leroy Bach left the band immediately after the album 's completion to join a music theatre operation in Chicago . Like Yankee Hotel Foxtrot , Wilco streamed the album online before its commercial release . Instead of using their own web page , the band streamed it in MPEG @-@ 4 form on Apple 's website . Wilco sought to substantially change their lineup after Bach 's departure , and added Pat Sansone of The Autumn Defense , and avant @-@ garde guitarist Nels Cline to the lineup . Just as the band was about to tour to promote the album , Tweedy checked himself into a rehabilitation clinic in Chicago for an addiction to opioids . As a result , tour plans for Europe were canceled , and the release date for the album was set back several weeks . A Ghost Is Born was released on June 22 , 2004 , and became Wilco 's first top ten album in the U.S. The album earned Wilco Grammy Awards for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Recording Package in 2005 . It also placed thirteenth on 2004 's Pazz & Jop Critics Poll .
In 2004 , the band released The Wilco Book , a picture book detailing the creation of A Ghost Is Born . The book also contains writings and drawings from band members , as well as a CD with demos from the A Ghost Is Born recording sessions . Also that year , Chicago Tribune music critic Greg Kot released a biography of the band entitled Wilco : Learning How to Die . The new six @-@ piece Wilco lineup debuted on Kicking Television : Live in Chicago , a two disc live album recorded at The Vic Theater in Chicago . Released on November 15 , 2005 , the album received high accolades from Spin , Billboard , and Entertainment Weekly . As of 2007 , it has sold over 114 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Sky Blue Sky = = =
Wilco returned to their loft in Chicago to record a sixth studio album in 2006 . Influenced by The Byrds and Fairport Convention , the band considered Sky Blue Sky to be less experimental than previous releases . Also unlike previous albums , the songs were created as collaborations .
Wilco streamed the album online on March 3 , 2007 , and offered the song " What Light " as a free MP3 download . To further publicize the album , Wilco licensed several songs from the Sky Blue Sky recording sessions for use in a Volkswagen advertising campaign . The move was criticized by both critics and fans ; Wilco responded by noting that they had previously done advertising campaigns with Apple Inc. and Telefónica Móviles ( Movistar ) . The album was released on May 15 , 2007 , and was a commercial success : it sold over 87 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and peaked in the top five in the U.S. album charts . It also was a top forty hit in seven other countries .
Reviewer James Brubaker states that Wilco " shine [ s ] on a handful of the songs " on Sky Blue Sky , such as the " light , and straightforward " songs . While he calls the album " great traditional rock and folk album at times " , he states that " once you get past the handful of masterful and lovely performances ... the rest of the record comes off at times as dull , and forced . " The allaboutjazz review also had mixed comments . While praising the album as " deceptively insinuating , almost intoxicating to listen to " and noting its " impeccable sound quality , " the reviewer claimed that " Sky Blue Sky becomes the first Wilco album that sounds too careful for its own good . "
Pabs Hernandez , a reviewer for Lost at Sea praised the album 's " breezy atmosphere and pacing , " and noted that it is not " easily judged upon first listen . " Overall , Hernandez stated that it " may be no masterpiece , but at worst it 's a more than worthy entry into Wilco 's laudable catalogue . " Reviewer Greg Locke praised the record as " one of the best albums of the year , " calling it a " timeless record , full of sweet , hopeful sophistication and class " and " a lean , mean , soulful album . " Like Hernandez , Locke acknowledged that the album could not be properly judged just on the first listening . The NPR review also had a positive take on the record . While the NPR reviewer stated that the recording " isn 't groundbreaking , " they praised its " coherent musical expression " and emphasis on " solid songcraft without pretense " which created a " satisfying and melodically sound album . "
In anticipation of the 2008 US presidential election , Wilco released a downloadable version of Bob Dylan 's " I Shall Be Released " that they performed with Fleet Foxes . The MP3 was available as a free download from the band 's website in exchange for a promise to vote in the election . The band also made an appearance on The Colbert Report to support presidential candidate Barack Obama . Wilco released a live performance DVD , Ashes of American Flags , on April 18 , 2009 , to celebrate Record Store Day .
In December 2008 , Jeff Tweedy , Pat Sansone , Glenn Kotche and John Stirratt traveled to Auckland , New Zealand to participate in Neil Finn 's 7 Worlds Collide sequel project , The Sun Came Out , joined by Ed O 'Brien , Phil Selway , Johnny Marr , KT Tunstall , Liam Finn , and Lisa Germano . They wrote and recorded several new tracks for the Oxfam @-@ benefiting album including " You Never Know " , " What Could Have Been " , " Over and Done " and " Don 't Forget Me " . Jeff Tweedy co @-@ wrote " Too Blue " with Johnny Marr , and Glenn , John and Pat play on most tracks on the album .
Having enjoyed their time in New Zealand and the vibe of Finn 's own Roundhead Studios , the four members stayed in Auckland through January to record the foundation tracks for their next album . Jim Scott , who acted as engineer and mixer for the Neil Finn project , stayed on in the same capacity for the Wilco sessions . Nels Cline and Mikael Jorgensen would later add overdubs to these tracks at the band 's Chicago Loft .
= = = Wilco ( The Album ) = = =
Wilco released their seventh album , Wilco ( The Album ) , on June 30 , 2009 . In March 2009 , it was announced that singer @-@ songwriter Feist would make a guest appearance on the new album , on the track " You and I " . Like their previous three albums , Wilco streamed the entirety of the album on its website prior to release . The album hit the charts at a career @-@ high No. 4 with sales of 99 @,@ 000 on the Billboard Top 200 Album chart as well as the No. 2 spot on Billboard 's Top Rock Albums chart . It marked Wilco 's third top 10 album on the U.S. pop chart . The album 's first single " You Never Know " reached the No. 1 spot on the AAA Chart , their first No. 1 in twelve years .
Beginning in April 2009 , the band freely distributed a cover of Woody Guthrie 's " The Jolly Banker " , downloadable from their website . It was recorded at the Wilco loft in February of that year , at the suggestion of Guthrie 's daughter , Nora . Downloaders were encouraged to donate to the Woody Guthrie Foundation . Feist returned to accompany on the track , playing the Garden Weasel . The track eventually became unavailable for download . In October 2011 , the website began streaming the track via a plugin .
On May 25 , 2009 , former band member Jay Bennett died in his home in Urbana , Illinois . In a prepared statement , Jeff Tweedy remarked that he was " deeply saddened " by Bennett 's death .
Feist and Wilco performed " You and I " on Late Show with David Letterman on July 14 , 2009 . In June during their West Coast tour , Wilco joined Beck , Feist , Jamie Lidell and James Gadson in the studio to take part in Beck 's Record Club project , covering Skip Spence 's Oar album . The first song " Little Hands " was posted on Beck 's website on November 12 , 2009 .
On April 6 , 2010 , Wilco announced during their Boston performance that they would be headlining and curating a festival in North Adams , Massachusetts , dubbed Solid Sound Festival . The event ran at the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art from August 13 – 15 , and featured various Wilco side projects , including The Autumn Defense , Pronto , The Nels Cline Singers , and Jeff Tweedy solo . Other bands who appeared included Mavis Staples , Avi Buffalo , Outrageous Cherry , Richard Bishop , The Books , and Vetiver . It also featured non @-@ musical media , such as the Bread and Puppet Theater and comedians Todd Barry , Kristen Schaal , John Mulaney , and Hannibal Buress as well as interactive musical installations by Cline and Kotche .
Wilco 's contract with Nonesuch ended in 2010 and they formed their own label . Wilco announced via their web site and Twitter page on January 27 , 2011 that the new label will be called dBpm Records ( Decibels per Minute ) and will be run out of the offices of their manager , Tony Margherita , in Easthampton , Massachusetts .
= = = The Whole Love = = =
Wilco 's eighth studio album , The Whole Love , was released on September 27 , 2011 . The first single of the album is titled " Art of Almost " . The B @-@ Side to " I Might " is a cover of Nick Lowe 's 1977 song " I Love My Label " . The single was shown at the Wilco 's 2011 Solid Sound Festival at MassMoca and was met by positive reviews . The entire album was streamed live on Wilco 's official website for 24 hours between September 3 and 4 , 2011 .
= = = Star Wars and Schmilco = = =
Wilco 's ninth studio album , Star Wars , was released on July 16 , 2015 , as a surprise free download . In October 2015 , Wilco announced that they would embark on a US tour beginning in early 2016 in support of the album . In December 2015 , Star Wars was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album .
On July 14 , 2016 , the band released a new single , titled " Locator " , as a free download . Four days later , the band released another new single , titled " If I Ever Was a Child " , and announced that their tenth album , Schmilco , would be released on September 9 .
= = Musical style and influence = =
Wilco 's music is typically categorized as alternative rock and alternative country . Despite their career @-@ long association with a major record label , they are generally associated with indie rock . Wilco draws influence from bands from a variety of musical genres , but primarily from music created between 1966 and 1974 . John Cale 's Paris 1919 was credited by the band as providing a musical parallel . According to Tweedy , " It was eye @-@ opening that I wasn 't the only person that felt like these worlds had a lot more in common than they 'd been given credit for — that experimentation and avant @-@ garde theory was not directly opposed to beauty , y 'know ? "
Other recording artists from that timespan appreciated by the band include John Lennon , Neil Young , and Brian Wilson . For his thirty @-@ fourth birthday , Tweedy received a private guitar lesson from Richard Lloyd of Television ; Tweedy was a fan of the group and was particularly fond of the guitar work , which he wanted to incorporate into his music . Uncle Tupelo was inspired by bands such as Jason & the Scorchers and The Minutemen , influencing the recording of Wilco 's A.M .. Tweedy and O 'Rourke enjoyed free jazz artists such as Ornette Coleman , Albert Ayler , and Derek Bailey ; they also listen to mainstream jazz by artists such as Miles Davis and John Coltrane . The lyrical structure of Wilco 's songs was dictated by classic literature and cadavre exquis — an exercise where band members take turns writing lines on a typewriter , but are only allowed to see the previously written line . Among the books that the band has cited as being stylistically influential include William H. Gass 's In the Heart of the Heart of the Country , Henry Miller 's Tropic of Cancer , and Harold Bloom 's The Anxiety of Influence : A Theory of Poetry .
Some critics have dubbed Wilco the " American Radiohead " , due to their stylistically diverse catalog . A critic from the New York Times argues that Wilco has a " roots @-@ rock ... [ sound which ] reached back to proven materials : the twang of country , the steady chug of 1960s rock , the undulating sheen of the Beach Boys , the honky @-@ tonk hymns of the Band and the melodic symmetries of pop . "
Rolling Stone described Wilco as " one of America 's most consistently interesting bands " and " America 's foremost rock impressionists . " Bands that have been influenced by Wilco include Derek Webb ( of Caedmon 's Call ) , The National , and Grace Potter and the Nocturnals . English indie rock band Cherry Ghost took its name from a lyric from the Wilco song " Theologians " ( from A Ghost Is Born ) — lead singer Simon Aldred is a self @-@ proclaimed " massive Wilco fan " . Other notable artists who have covered Wilco live include Norah Jones performing " Jesus , Etc . " which took place at the 2008 Bridge School Benefit where they both performed , a version of which was released as a bonus track on her 2009 release The Fall , Widespread Panic , and Counting Crows and the Wallflowers performing " California Stars . "
= = Band members = =
Current members
Jeff Tweedy - lead vocals , rhythm , acoustic and lead guitars , bass , harmonica ( 1994 – present )
John Stirratt - bass , backing vocals ( 1994 – present )
Glenn Kotche - drums , percussion ( 2000 – present )
Mikael Jorgensen - Samples and Sound Manipulation ( 2002 – 2004 ) , keyboards , synthesizers , effects , piano , organ ( 2004 – present )
Nels Cline - lead guitar , loops , lap steel ( 2004 – present )
Pat Sansone - keyboards , rhythm and lead guitars , backing vocals , synthesizers , maracas , tambourine ( 2004 – present )
Former members
Ken Coomer - drums , percussion ( 1994 – 2000 )
Max Johnston - dobro , fiddle , banjo , mandolin , backing vocals ( 1994 – 1996 )
Brian Henneman - lead guitar ( 1994 – 1995 )
Jay Bennett - rhythm and lead guitars , keyboards , backing vocals ( 1995 – 2001 )
Bob Egan - pedal steel , slide guitar ( 1995 – 1998 )
Leroy Bach - rhythm guitar , keyboards , backing vocals ( 1998 – 2004 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
A.M. ( 1995 )
Being There ( 1996 )
Summerteeth ( 1999 )
Yankee Hotel Foxtrot ( 2001 )
A Ghost Is Born ( 2004 )
Sky Blue Sky ( 2007 )
Wilco ( The Album ) ( 2009 )
The Whole Love ( 2011 )
Star Wars ( 2015 )
Schmilco ( 2016 )
= = = Collaborations with Billy Bragg = = =
Mermaid Avenue ( 1998 )
Mermaid Avenue Vol . II ( 2000 )
Mermaid Avenue : The Complete Sessions ( 2012 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = = Shortlist Music Prizes = = =
= = = Wired Rave Awards = = =
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= 1899 New Richmond tornado =
The 1899 New Richmond Tornado was an estimated F5 tornado that nearly destroyed the town of New Richmond , Wisconsin , on June 12 , 1899 , killing 117 and injuring 125 people . More than $ 300 @,@ 000 ( USD ) ( $ 8 @,@ 533 @,@ 000 in today 's dollars ) in damage was reported .
= = History = =
June 12 , 1899 , was the day of the Gollmar Brothers Circus , which drew hundreds of visitors in addition to the town 's 2 @,@ 500 inhabitants . Around 3 : 00 p.m. , clouds began to build , and the sky became quite dark . As the circus ended for the day around 4 : 30 PM , a heavy rain , with some hail , began to fall . The rain let up around 5 : 00 PM , and people began to head home for the day . By 6 : 00 PM , the streets of New Richmond were full of tourists , travelers and residents .
Meanwhile , the tornado had already touched down to the southwest . It began as a waterspout on the east bank of Lake St. Croix , about 15 miles ( 24 @.@ 1 km ) from New Richmond , at around 5 : 30 PM . The tornado was described as a " boiling cloud " , which seemed to skirt the hills to the east of Lake St. Croix , and then head straight for New Richmond . Passing over mostly open country , it destroyed several farm buildings near the rural communities of Burkhardt and Boardman as it traveled northeast . Three people were killed there .
There was little warning in New Richmond . The tornado was completely illuminated by lightning , but it was visible for only a few minutes before it reached the town . Homes and businesses were demolished and torn from their foundations , flying debris filled the air , and people were swept away . The brick , three @-@ story Nicolett Hotel was completely leveled by the tornado . Some barely had time to scramble for shelter in storm cellars , but many were caught in the streets . Even some who did take refuge were killed anyway , such as those who ran into the O.J. Williams dry goods store . The store was swept away , and the people taking shelter in the basement were pelted to death by flying bricks and timbers . Most people who could not find shelter were killed . Debris of all sorts flew through the air at tremendous speeds . A 3 @,@ 000 pound safe was flung a block from its original location . Trees and timbers were hurled " like javelins " through the air , and the intense winds swept people up and threw them against walls or the ground . The northern residential section of town was completely obliterated by the tornado , with nothing left but small pieces of debris scattered about . Every home in that area was leveled or swept away . The tornado dissipated shortly after exiting the town .
Shortly thereafter , another storm with strong winds swept through , sending people back into their shelters . It is likely that some died in fires while potential help was hiding from the possibility of another tornado .
= = Aftermath = =
All but the extreme western end of the town was obliterated by the tornado and subsequent fires . More than 300 buildings were destroyed , and the only significant surviving structures were the Catholic and Baptist churches . The town 's electrical plant and water facilities were destroyed , so fires ran rampant through the scattered debris . Many bodies found in the aftermath were burnt beyond recognition — it was impossible to tell if they died from the tornado or from being trapped and burned alive .
Twenty @-@ six families experienced multiple deaths , and six reported four or more deaths in the family . After order was restored , authorities determined that a total of 117 people had been killed ( 64 in the town itself ) and more than 150 injured . This is the ninth highest death toll for any single tornado in American history . The New Richmond Tornado is generally assumed to have been an F5 tornado , with winds in excess of 261 mph .
The town was so completely damaged that it had to be essentially rebuilt . Damage claims exceeded $ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 7 million in 2006 dollars ) , however , damages may have been as high as $ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 14 million in 2006 dollars ) .
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= Charlotte ( anime ) =
Charlotte ( シャーロット , Shārotto ) is a 13 @-@ episode Japanese anime television series produced by P.A.Works and Aniplex and directed by Yoshiyuki Asai . The anime aired in Japan between July 5 and September 27 , 2015 . An original video animation episode was released in March 2016 . Two manga series are serialized in ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Comic . The story takes place in an alternate reality where a small percentage of children manifest superhuman abilities upon reaching puberty . A focus is placed on Yuu Otosaka , a high school boy who awakens the ability to temporarily possess others , which brings him to the attention of Nao Tomori , the student council president of a school founded as a haven for children with such abilities .
The story was originally conceived by Jun Maeda , who also wrote the screenplay and composed some of the music , with original character design by Na @-@ Ga . Both Maeda and Na @-@ Ga are from the visual novel brand Key , and Charlotte is the second original anime series created by Key following Angel Beats ! in 2010 . Maeda had thought up the concept for Charlotte long before he was approached in early 2012 to work on another anime series after Angel Beats ! . Maeda narrowed down the number of main characters compared to Angel Beats ! and attempted to put more of a focus on their behavior . Instead of employing the same staff that had worked on Angel Beats ! , the aim for Charlotte was to bring together a staff that would add a new variety to the creative process to prevent being influenced by the work done on Angel Beats ! .
Charlotte was praised for its unpredictability and evocative moments , but its pacing and structure have been criticized as inefficient . It has been described as approachable for a wide audience and for defying the " moe anime " stereotype . Although the comedic elements have been called dumb and corny , they have overall been lauded for offering some relief from the serious moments , which one reviewer likened to a palate cleanser . P.A.Works ' production was praised for its beautiful animation sequences and expressive cinematography .
= = Plot = =
Charlotte takes place in an alternate reality where a short @-@ period comet called Charlotte passes near Earth every 75 years . When this happens , it spreads dust onto the Earth , which causes a small percentage of preadolescent children who inhale the dust to manifest superhuman abilities upon reaching puberty . The story follows the protagonist Yuu Otosaka , a boy who awakens the ability to temporarily possess others . Although hoping to use his ability to fraudulently live a carefree high school life , he is exposed by Nao Tomori , a girl who can make herself invisible to a specific target . She forces him to transfer to Hoshinoumi Academy ( 星ノ海学園 , Hoshinoumi Gakuen , " Sea of Stars Academy " ) and join its student council , of which she is the president . Also on the student council is Jōjirō Takajō , a boy who can move at uncontrollably high speeds . The student council 's main objective is to ensure the safety of ability users from organizations who seek to exploit their powers . In doing so , the student council warns ability users of the potential danger of openly using their abilities . This leads the student council to Yusa Nishimori , a girl who has the ability to channel the dead as a medium . Yusa 's dead older sister Misa makes use of this ability to freely possess her at any time , which allows Misa to use her own ability , pyrokinesis . Nao soon arranges for Yusa to transfer to Hoshinoumi Academy and join the student council .
Yuu 's younger sister Ayumi eventually awakens an ability to cause anything around her to suddenly collapse , which results in her death . Yuu falls into a deep depression as a result and isolates himself , but Nao successfully manages to pull him out of his depression and gets him to return to the student council . While attending a concert of the post @-@ rock band Zhiend with Nao , Yuu recollects previously suppressed memories of his brother Shunsuke , who has the ability to time travel . Shunsuke had used this ability to found Hoshinoumi Academy and an affiliated organization attempting to develop a vaccine to prevent children from developing abilities before they manifest , but repeated use leaves him blind . Yuu learns that the true nature of his ability enables him to steal someone 's ability by possessing them . Yuu steals Shunsuke 's ability to go back in time and ultimately prevent Ayumi 's death by stealing her collapse ability before she can use it .
A terrorist group manages to abduct Nao and Kumagami , one of Shunsuke 's closest friends and aides , and holds them hostage in exchange for Yuu , who attempts to rescue them . However , the operation does not go as planned , which results in Kumagami 's death and Yuu being gravely injured . After Yuu recovers , he resolves to protect all of the ability users around the world by stealing their abilities per Nao 's suggestion . As Yuu travels the world stealing abilities , the more powers he takes on soon takes its toll on him as he starts losing his memories and sense of self . However , he still manages to steal everyone 's abilities throughout the world before collapsing , Nao 's parting gift acting as his motivation . Shunsuke rescues Yuu , bringing him back to Japan among friends and family . Yuu is left with no past memories , but Nao tells him she is his girlfriend . Yuu and his friends look forward to the memories they will make from now on as Yuu continues to recover from his ordeal .
= = Characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Yuu Otosaka ( 乙坂 有宇 , Otosaka Yuu )
Voiced by : Kōki Uchiyama ( Japanese ) ; Ray Chase ( English )
Yuu is the protagonist of Charlotte . He develops a rude and narcissistic personality once he discovers he has the ability to take over another person 's body for five seconds , ep 1 but the true nature of his ability enables him to steal someone 's superhuman ability by possessing them.ep 9 Yuu is a first @-@ year student at Hoshinoumi Academy , and he is forced to join its student council . Initially a fake honors student and chronic cheater , Yuu is reluctant to use his ability to aide the student council , ep 2 but as time goes on , he becomes less narcissistic and much more selfless and caring towards others.ep 8 Over the course of the story , he becomes a fan of the post @-@ rock band Zhiend and falls in love with Nao.ep 9 , ep 12 After Yuu travels worldwide to steal every ability user 's power to protect them from being exploited , the strain of it causes him to lose all of his past memories.ep 13 His older brother is Shunsuke and his younger sister is Ayumi.ep 1 , ep 9
Nao Tomori ( 友利 奈緒 , Tomori Nao )
Voiced by : Ayane Sakura ( Japanese ) ; Lauren Landa ( English )
Nao is a first @-@ year student at Hoshinoumi Academy and is also its student council president.ep 1 She is a hardworking , intelligent , and shrewd girl , but is also narcissistic , self @-@ righteous , and short @-@ tempered.ep 2 , ep 3 She has the ability to make herself invisible , but this is limited to one person of her choosing at a time . She uses this ability to her advantage to attack others she believes deserve to be kicked , but this causes her to be shunned and bullied by her peers . Although she initially shows no attraction towards Yuu , ep 1 she eventually falls in love with him and stays by his side even after he loses all of his memories of her.ep 13 She is a fan of Zhiend , influenced by her older brother Kazuki ( 一希 , Voiced by : Kazuyuki Okitsu ) , who once had the ability to control air movements and vibrations , which he used when playing the guitar.ep 2
Jōjirō Takajō ( 高城 丈士朗 , Takajō Jōjirō )
Voiced by : Takahiro Mizushima ( Japanese ) ; Lucien Dodge ( English )
Jōjirō is a first @-@ year student at Hoshinoumi Academy and is a member of its student council . His ability enables him to move at very fast speeds , but he is not able to control where he stops , resulting in frequent injuries.ep 1 To counteract this , he wears protective gear under his clothes . He is a huge fan of Yusa Nishimori and is extremely obsessed with her.ep 3
Yusa Nishimori ( 西森 柚咲 , Nishimori Yusa ) / Yusa Kurobane ( 黒羽 柚咲 , Kurobane Yusa )
Voiced by : Maaya Uchida ( Japanese ) ; Ryan Bartley ( English )
Yusa , also known as " Yusarin " , is a first @-@ year student at Hoshinoumi Academy and is a member of its student council.ep 4 She has a bright and innocent personality that compliments her popularity as a pop idol and singer of the band How @-@ Low @-@ Hello . Although her actual surname is Kurobane , she uses the stage surname Nishimori.ep 3 She has a series of " magic spells " derived from her time as a regular on a variety show.ep 4 She has the ability to channel the dead as a medium . However , she is initially not aware of this and only thinks that she is sleepwalking whenever she is possessed.ep 3
Misa Kurobane ( 黒羽 美砂 , Kurobane Misa )
Voiced by : Maaya Uchida ( Japanese ) ; Ryan Bartley ( English )
Misa is Yusa 's deceased older sister by one year who died in an accident six months prior to the beginning of the story . Misa freely possess her at any time , represented by a change in Yusa 's eye and hair color . While possessing Yusa , Misa is able to use her own ability , pyrokinesis . Misa has a tomboyish and ill @-@ tempered personality , and she is not afraid to be violent against anyone looking to harm her sister.ep 3 She disappears after Yuu takes away Yusa 's power.ep 12
Ayumi Otosaka ( 乙坂 歩未 , Otosaka Ayumi )
Voiced by : Momo Asakura ( Japanese ) ; Kira Buckland ( English )
Ayumi is Yuu 's and Shunsuke 's energetic younger sister in junior high school.ep 1 She has an innocent personality and deeply cares for Yuu , providing moral support to him . Ayumi often cooks for Yuu and has a tendency to add pizza sauce to every food she makes , unaware that Yuu 's modern tastes cannot handle the sweetness.ep 2 , ep 3 She is a fan of the band How @-@ Low @-@ Hello and an avid admirer of Yusa.ep 6 She eventually awakens an ability to cause anything around her to suddenly collapse , but this is stolen by Yuu to prevent her death.ep 10
= = = Other characters = = =
Shunsuke Otosaka ( 乙坂 隼翼 , Otosaka Shunsuke ) is Yuu 's and Ayumi 's older brother , who has the ability to time travel . Using this power , he eventually manages to found Hoshinoumi Academy to protect his fellow ability users . Overuse of his ability leads him to become blind , preventing him from making further use of it.ep 10 He is voiced by Daisuke Ono .
Kumagami ( 熊耳 ) is a mysterious student at Hoshinoumi Academy , who has the ability to locate an ability user and determine their ability . He helps the student council in finding ability users.ep 2 He works for Shunsuke , who nicknames him " Pooh " .ep 10 He is killed after protecting Nao from some falling wreckage.ep 11 He is voiced by Eiji Takemoto .
Medoki ( 目時 ) has the ability of hypnotism , which she uses to make someone fall asleep , but as a result , she falls asleep as well . She works for Shunsuke.ep 10 She is voiced by Asami Seto .
Shichino ( 七野 ) has the ability of permeation , which he uses to pass through solid matter . However , this causes extreme exhaustion . He works for Shunsuke.ep 10 He is voiced by Kengo Kawanishi
Maedomari ( 前泊 ) has the ability to erase one 's memory , which requires physical contact and time to find the wanted memories . He works for Shunsuke.ep 10 He is voiced by Natsuki Hanae .
= = Production = =
= = = Creation and conception = = =
The original creators of Charlotte are Jun Maeda and Na @-@ Ga of Key , and Charlotte is the second original anime series created by Key following Angel Beats ! ( 2010 ) . Hironori Toba of Aniplex approached Maeda in early 2012 with an offer from P.A.Works president Kenji Horikawa to do another anime series with the studio . Maeda was surprised by this , as he never expected to work with P.A.Works again . Horikawa explained that the production staff could now handle things that were not able to be fully materialized during the production of Angel Beats ! . Maeda did not think he would ever be involved in the planning of another anime series , but he said that he had no choice but to accept Horikawa 's offer after discussing it with him . Toba asked Maeda to write a " Key @-@ like story " , and Maeda started out by applying his prior experience of working on Angel Beats ! . He went through a trial @-@ and @-@ error process to work out what kind of setting and story would work well for an anime series .
Long before working on Charlotte , Maeda had thought up a concept for a story with characters who have imperfect superpowers that must cooperate with each other to resolve any incidents that arise . Maeda originally submitted three separate ideas for a story to Toba , and he asked him which one he liked best . However , after Toba pointed out one of the other two , Maeda made it clear that he wanted to do the story that would become Charlotte . When writing the story , Maeda also reconsidered how he had done certain things with Angel Beats ! . In particular , he attempted to put more of a focus on the behavior of the characters . Maeda also narrowed down the number of main characters in Charlotte compared to Angel Beats ! , which could not put a focus on each and every character . Toba felt that Maeda was influenced by his work on Angel Beats ! , which changed his thought process and what he wanted to depict in Charlotte .
Maeda thought issues had arisen with the large cast of characters in Angel Beats ! , such as overlapping personality traits and not being able to remember everyone , and he used those considerations when writing Charlotte . Similarly , when designing the characters in Angel Beats ! , Na @-@ Ga had been concerned about designs being too similar among the characters , and went on to make use of that experience with Charlotte . When developing Jōjirō Takajō , he originally had a different appearance and personality , but over the course of the development process , he eventually became similar to Takamatsu from Angel Beats ! . Maeda decided fairly early on to make Yuu Otosaka a low @-@ life cheater at the start of Charlotte because he had never created a character like that before . When trying to choose a title for Charlotte , Maeda 's friend Taisei Nakagawa proposed a title which could be abbreviated as " AA " based on its similarity to Angel Beats ! ' s abbreviation of " AB " . However , Maeda did not like the title , and devised the title Charlotte as one that would surpass the original " AA " title . The title Charlotte came from the song " Charlotte " ( シャーロット , Shārotto ) by the Japanese band Art @-@ School .
= = = Development = = =
When deciding on Charlotte 's staff , Toba thought it would be better not to have exactly the same team that produced Angel Beats ! . Having already decided to stick with Maeda , Na @-@ Ga and P.A.Works , Toba aimed to bring together a staff that would add a new variety to the creative process , and in doing so would prevent being influenced by the work done on Angel Beats ! . With that in mind , Toba wanted a director who had a good understanding of Angel Beats ! and who would also be suitable as Charlotte 's director , leading him to seek out Yoshiyuki Asai . Toba took into consideration the storyboarding Asai had done for two episodes of Angel Beats ! , and he thought that Charlotte would be a good opportunity to have a first @-@ time series director . Asai was also chosen as someone who could handle both comedic and serious moments . When Horikawa first looked at Charlotte 's incomplete script , he told Maeda that it did not feel like it had the same kind of zeal that Angel Beats ! had . However , once he saw the whole script , his concerns with it were dispelled , much to Maeda 's relief .
While the entire script was still in the draft phase , Maeda revised lines that felt unnatural after asking others for their opinions on it , including Na @-@ Ga . When writing the script , Maeda made a conscious effort to write Charlotte in the framework of an anime series , as opposed to when he wrote the script for Angel Beats ! , which he admits he wrote more akin to the framework of a video game . In this way , Toba felt that Charlotte was Maeda 's effort to write a story in its purest form that could not be made into a video game , unlike Angel Beats ! . Toba also noted that the characters in Charlotte are not written for a video game scenario , especially the protagonist , and went on to echo Horikawa 's sentiment that Charlotte is akin to an I novel for Maeda . Toba explained that this is a result of Maeda 's effort to remove the restrictions that come from writing the scenario for a video game .
Kanami Sekiguchi was chosen as the character designer after Horikawa took notice of her work as the animation director of episode nine of Angel Beats ! , and Toba was eager to see how she would render Na @-@ Ga 's original designs . When it came time to choose an art director , Kazuki Higashiji was chosen for his zeal in the workplace and Horikawa 's confidence in his artistic talent ; Higashiji had also been the art director for Angel Beats ! . Similarly , Satoki Iida was brought back to work on Charlotte again as the sound and music director , and he also helped with the proofreading of the script as he had done for Angel Beats ! . Iida was largely chosen for his good communication with Maeda , and so that he could make the best use of his experience working on Angel Beats ! . When writing the music for How @-@ Low @-@ Hello , Maeda reused some older songs he had composed as a student in the 1990s that he felt were selective of his best songs from that period . At the time , his concept when composing the songs was " early B 'z " , but Maeda notes that this is no longer the case with the completed songs .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
A four @-@ panel comic strip manga , illustrated by Haruka Komowata and titled Charlotte The 4 @-@ koma : Seishun o Kakenukero ! ( Charlotte The ４コマ せーしゅんを駆け抜けろ ! ) , began serialization in the May 2015 issue of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Comic sold on March 30 , 2015 . The first tankōbon volume for Charlotte The 4 @-@ koma was released on September 26 , 2015 . A second manga , illustrated by Makoto Ikezawa and Yū Tsurusaki , is titled Charlotte and began serialization in the September 2015 issue of Dengeki G 's Comic sold on July 30 , 2015 . Charlotte is also available on Kadokawa Corporation 's ComicWalker website . The first tankōbon volume for Charlotte , which contains chapters published before the serialization , was released on August 27 , 2015 . The second volume was released on May 26 , 2016 .
= = = Anime = = =
The Charlotte anime television series is directed by Yoshiyuki Asai and produced by P.A.Works and Aniplex . The series aired in Japan between July 5 and September 27 , 2015 . The screenplay is written by Jun Maeda , who originally conceived the series . The chief animators are Noboru Sugimitsu and Kanami Sekiguchi , and Sekiguchi based the character design used in the anime on Na @-@ Ga 's original designs . Sound and music direction is headed by Satoki Iida . The series is being released on seven Blu @-@ ray / DVD compilation volumes between September 23 , 2015 and March 30 , 2016 in limited and regular editions . The seventh volume featured an original video animation episode . Three drama CDs , written by Maeda and performed by the anime 's cast , were released with the first , third and fifth volumes . In North America , the series is licensed by Aniplex of America , who simulcasted the series on Aniplex Channel , Crunchyroll , Hulu , Daisuki , Viewster , and Animax Asia . The series was obtained by Madman Entertainment for digital distribution in Australia and New Zealand who simulcasted the series on AnimeLab .
The anime 's music is composed by Maeda , Hikarishuyo , and the group Anant @-@ Garde Eyes , who also provided the musical arrangement . The music is released on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label . The single " Bravely You / Yakeochinai Tsubasa " ( 灼け落ちない翼 ) was released on August 26 , 2015 in limited ( CD + DVD ) and regular ( CD ) editions ; the limited edition 's DVD contains the opening and ending videos without the credits . There are two in @-@ story bands : How @-@ Low @-@ Hello featuring vocals by Maaya Uchida , and Zhiend featuring vocals by Marina . One single and one album was released for both bands in 2015 . How @-@ Low @-@ Hello 's single " Rakuen Made / Hatsunetsu Days " ( 楽園まで / 発熱デイズ ) was released on September 2 , and the band 's album Smells Like Tea , Espresso was released on September 30 . Zhiend 's single " Trigger " was released on September 9 , and the band 's album Echo was released on October 14 as a two @-@ CD set for both English and Japanese lyrics . The anime 's original soundtrack was released on November 4 , 2015 as a two @-@ CD set .
An Internet radio show to promote the series titled Charlotte Radio : Tomori Nao no Seitokai Katsudō Nikki ( Charlotteラジオ 〜 友利奈緒の生徒会活動日誌 〜 , Charlotte Radio : Nao Tomori 's Student Council Activity Log ) streamed 13 weekly broadcasts between July 6 and September 28 , 2015 on Niconico . The show was also available via Hibiki Radio Station and Onsen , and was hosted by Ayane Sakura ( the voice of Nao ) . Two CD compilation volumes for the show were released between September 30 , 2015 and January 27 , 2016 .
= = Reception = =
In a review by Anime News Network , reviewer Gabriella Ekens praised the series for " sculpting singular , evocative moments " , but went on to say that a " problem arises when you try to tie them into a bigger picture . " Ekens criticized the pacing and structure of the show , calling it an " inefficient ... collection of sprawling narrative ideas " and comparing it to " Anohana suddenly turn [ ing ] into Darker than Black . " Ekens also notes that its thematic purpose " seems to be Jun Maeda 's opportunity for melodramatic elaboration on the emotional dilemmas posed by Madoka Magica . " Overall , Charlotte was lauded for its entertainment value and unpredictability , but " disappoints as a work of art . " Early on , Ekens described the series as having " sharp comedic timing , " and by episode four , she praised the comedic elements as " already much funnier than Plastic Memories . " She went on to say that " it 's dumb , but I like it for the same reasons I liked the comedy in Seraph of the End : Vampire Reign . " Chris Beveridge of The Fandom Post found Charlotte 's unpredictability " engaging " and its animation " beautiful " . Ekens praised P.A. Works for their dynamic direction and " expressive cinematography " which offers " a distinct , pleasant aesthetic . "
In a column on Mainichi Shimbun 's Mantanweb portal , Charlotte was praised for the balance it strikes to reach a wide audience , from " core fans " of anime to casual viewers , in regards to its creative use of peculiar characters coupled with a scenario focused on resolving problems . Columnist Ryō Koarai commended Charlotte for pulling in the viewer from the first episode due to Yuu 's surprising , unorthodox personality in contrast with how he uses his superhuman ability in his everyday life . Writer Seiji Nakazawa lauded Charlotte for defying the " moe anime " stereotype at first glance and for instead being what he describes as a " human drama " . He notes that Charlotte is written in much the same way as Maeda 's previous works by inserting jokes between serious moments to offer some relief to the viewer . While Nakazawa admits that some may find the jokes in Charlotte corny , he finds them acceptable and likens them to a palate cleanser .
The seven Blu @-@ ray compilation volumes ranked in the top 15 on Japan 's Oricon weekly Blu @-@ ray sales chart for animation : Volume one ranked at No. 1 , volume two ranked at No. 6 , volume three ranked at No. 9 , volume four ranked at No. 4 , volume five ranked at No. 10 , volume six ranked at No. 13 , and volume seven ranked at No. 3 . The opening and ending theme song single " Bravely You / Yakeochinai Tsubasa " debuted at No. 4 on Japan 's Oricon weekly singles chart , selling over 23 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of sales . How @-@ Low @-@ Hello 's single " Rakuen Made / Hatsunetsu Days " debuted at No. 9 on the Oricon singles chart , selling about 9 @,@ 300 copies in its first week of sales . How @-@ Low @-@ Hello 's album Smells Like Tea , Espresso debuted at No. 12 on the Oricon albums chart , selling about 9 @,@ 500 copies in its first week of sales . Zhiend 's single " Trigger " debuted at No. 11 on the Oricon singles chart , selling about 14 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of sales . Zhiend 's album Echo debuted at No. 4 on the Oricon albums chart , selling about 10 @,@ 300 copies in its first week of sales . The Charlotte Original Soundtrack debuted at No. 9 on the Oricon albums chart , selling about 6 @,@ 600 copies in its first week of sales .
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= War of the Worlds ( 2005 film ) =
War of the Worlds is a 2005 American science fiction disaster film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Josh Friedman and David Koepp , loosely based on the novel of the same title by H. G. Wells . It stars Tom Cruise , Dakota Fanning , Justin Chatwin , Miranda Otto and Tim Robbins , with narration by Morgan Freeman . In the film , an American dock worker is forced to look after his children , from whom he lives separately , and struggles to protect them and reunite them with their mother when extraterrestrials invade the Earth and devastate cities with towering war machines .
The film was shot in 73 days , using five different sound stages as well as locations in California , Connecticut , New Jersey , New York , and Virginia . The film was surrounded by a secrecy campaign so few details would be leaked before its release . Tie @-@ in promotions were made with several companies , including Hitachi . The film was released in the United States on June 29 and in United Kingdom on July 1 . War of the Worlds was a box office success , and became 2005 's fourth most successful film both domestically , with $ 234 million in North America , and $ 591 million overall . At the time of release , it was the highest @-@ grossing film starring Tom Cruise .
= = Plot = =
A narrator explains how humans were unaware that a race of intelligent extraterrestrials were making plans to occupy Earth . Ray Ferrier is a divorced crane operator longshoreman who works at a dock in Brooklyn and lives in Bayonne , NJ . Ray is estranged from his children . His former wife , Mary Ann , later drops off the children , ten @-@ year @-@ old daughter Rachel and teenage son Robbie , at Ray 's house in Bayonne on her way to visit her parents in Boston . Unexplained changes in the weather occur , including lightning that strikes multiple times in the middle of an intersection and disrupts all electricity .
Ray joins the crowd at the scene of the lightning strikes , and witnesses a massive " Tripod " war machine emerge from the ground and use alien weaponry to incinerate most of the witnesses . Ray collects his children , steals a car and drives to Mary Ann 's home in suburban New Jersey to take refuge . The next morning , he discovers that a Boeing 747 has crashed in the street . A news team scavenging for food explain that there are multiple Tripods that have attacked major cities including New York City , Washington , D.C. , and London , and have force shields to protect them from human weapons . They also explain that the lightning was how the aliens were able to enter the Tripods . Ray decides to take the kids to Boston to be with their mother . The three are forced to abandon the stolen car after a mob takes it by force . They later survive a Tripod attack which causes a Hudson River ferry to sink . During a desperate battle between the U.S. Marines and the aliens , Ray is forced to choose between being separated from Rachel and preventing Robbie from joining the fight ; he lets Robbie go with the Marines , who are overwhelmed . While escaping , Ray and Rachel are offered shelter by Harlan Ogilvy , who presumes that the aliens had buried their technology on Earth millions of years ago and has delusions that they can fight against the aliens themselves by observing their operations , as they are right next to their camp .
The three remain undetected for two days , even as a probe and a group of the aliens themselves explore the basement . The next morning , Ogilvy suffers a mental breakdown while witnessing a Tripod harvesting human blood and tissue to fertilize an alien vegetation . Concerned that the aliens may hear Ogilvy 's madness , Ray is forced to murder him . The basement hideout is exposed when a second probe catches them sleeping . Rachel is soon abducted by a nearby Tripod and Ray allows himself to be abducted , being placed in the same cage with Rachel and other prisoners . As the aliens select him for harvesting , Ray takes a belt of grenades into the machine , having pulled out the pins . The Tripod is destroyed and releases the cage , with Ray and Rachel making it out alive .
Ray and Rachel arrive in a devastated Boston , where the Tripods are collapsing . Ray notices birds landing on a nearby Tripod , indicating that its shields are down . Ray alerts the soldiers escorting his refugee group and they shoot it down . As soldiers advance on the downed Tripod , a hatch opens releasing a liquid and then an alien struggles halfway out , and then decays immediately . Ray and Rachel reach Mary Ann 's parents ' house , where they are reunited with Mary Ann and , to their surprise , Robbie . The closing narration reveals that the aliens were immune to man 's machines , but were not immune to the microbes present on Earth .
= = Cast = =
Tom Cruise as Ray Ferrier
Dakota Fanning as Rachel Ferrier
Justin Chatwin as Robbie Ferrier
Miranda Otto as Mary Ann Ferrier
Tim Robbins as Harlan Ogilvy
Rick Gonzalez as Vincent
Yul Vázquez as Julio
Lenny Venito as Manny the Mechanic
Lisa Ann Walter as Cheryl
Ann Robinson as Grandmother ( played lead role of Sylvia van Buren in the 1953 film )
Gene Barry as Grandfather ( played lead role of Dr. Clayton Forrester in the 1953 film )
David Alan Basche as Tim
Roz Abrams as Herself
Camillia Sanes as News Producer
Amy Ryan as Neighbor with Toddler
Danny Hoch as Policeman
Morgan Freeman as the Narrator ( voice )
Channing Tatum as Boy in Church Scene ( uncredited )
Dee Bradley Baker as Alien Vocals ( uncredited )
Columbus Short as Soldier ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After collaborating in 2002 's Minority Report , Steven Spielberg and Tom Cruise were interested in working together again . Spielberg stated about Cruise , " He 's such an intelligent , creative partner , and brings such great ideas to the set that we just spark each other . I love working with Tom Cruise . " Cruise met with Spielberg during the filming of Spielberg 's Catch Me If You Can ( 2002 ) and gave three options of films to create together , one of them being an adaptation of The War of the Worlds . Spielberg chose The War of the Worlds and stated , " We looked at each other and the lights went on . As soon as I heard it , I said ' Oh my God ! War of the Worlds – absolutely . ' That was it . "
The film is Spielberg 's third on the subject of alien visitation , along with Close Encounters of the Third Kind and E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial . Producer and longtime collaborator Kathleen Kennedy notes that with War of the Worlds , Spielberg had the opportunity to explore the antithesis of the characters brought to life in E.T. and Close Encounters of the Third Kind . " When we first started developing E.T. , it was a much edgier , darker story and it actually evolved into something that was more benign . I think that the edgier , darker story has always been somewhere inside him . Now , he 's telling that story . " Spielberg stated that he just thought it would be fun to make a " really scary film with really scary aliens " , something which he had never done before . Spielberg was intent on telling a contemporary story , with Kennedy stating the story was created as a fantasy , but depicted in a hyper @-@ realistic way .
J. J. Abrams was asked by Spielberg and Cruise to write the script but had to turn down the film as he was working on the pilot for his television series Lost . Josh Friedman delivered a screenplay , which was then rewritten by David Koepp . After re @-@ reading the novel , Koepp decided to do the script following a single narrator , " a very limited point of view , from someone on the very periphery of events rather than someone involved in events " , and created a list of elements he would not use due to being " cliché " , such as the destruction of landmark buildings . Some aspects of the book were heavily adapted and condensed : Tim Robbins ' character was an amalgalm of two characters in the book , with the name borrowed from a third . While changing the setting from 19th century to present day , Koepp also tried to " take the modern world back to the 1800s " , with the characters being devoid of electricity and modern techniques of communication .
Spielberg accepted the script after finding it had several similarities to his personal life , including the divorce of his parents ( Ray and Mary Ann 's divorce ) , and because the plight of the fictional survivors reflects his own uncertainty after the devastation of the September 11 attacks . For Spielberg , the characters ' stories of survival needed to be the main focus , as they featured the American mindset of never giving up . Spielberg described War of the Worlds as " a polar opposite " to Close Encounters , with that movie featuring a man leaving family to travel with aliens , while War of the Worlds focused on keeping the family together . At the same time , the aliens and their motivations would not be much explored , as " we just experience the results of these nefarious plans to replace us with themselves " .
Although accepting the script , Spielberg asked for several changes . Spielberg had been against the idea of the aliens arriving in spaceships , since every alien invasion movie used such a vehicle . The original Martian cylinders were discarded , where Spielberg replaced the origins of the Tripods with stating they were buried underground in the Earth long ago .
Lawrence Brown wrote : " Spielberg 's decision to present the invaders ' fighting machines as having been there all along , buried deep under the Earth , raises questions which did not exist in the original Wells book . In Spielberg 's version , these invaders had been here before , long ago , in prehistoric times . They had set up their machines deep underground , and departed . Why ? Why not take over the Earth right there and then ? Spielberg does not provide an answer , and the characters are too busy surviving to wonder about this . An answer suggests itself - a very chilling answer . The invaders were interested in humans as food animals . When they came here before , humans were very scarce . The aliens left their hidden machines and departed , patiently observing the Earth until humans would multiply to the requisite numbers - and then they came back , to take over . Under this interpretation , all of us - all humans over the whole of history - have been livestock living in an alien food farm , destined to be ' harvested ' " .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming took place in Virginia , Connecticut , New Jersey , California , and New York . The film shooting lasted an estimated 72 days . Spielberg originally intended to shoot War of the Worlds after Munich , but Tom Cruise liked David Koepp 's script so much that he suggested Spielberg postpone the former while he would do the same with Mission : Impossible III . Most of Munich 's crew was brought in to work on War of the Worlds as well . In 2004 , the production crews quickly were set up on both coasts to prepare for the start date , scouting locations up and down the Eastern Seaboard and preparing stages and sets which would be used when the company returned to Los Angeles after the winter holiday . Pre @-@ production took place in only three months , essentially half the amount of time normally allotted for a film of similar size and scope . Spielberg notes , however , " This wasn 't a cram course for War of the Worlds . This was my longest schedule in about 12 years . We took our time . " Spielberg collaborated with crews at the beginning of pre @-@ production with the use of previsualization , considering the tight schedule .
The scene depicting the first appearance of the Tripods was filmed at the intersection of Ferry Street , Merchart Street , and Wilson Avenue , in Newark , New Jersey . Later , Spielberg filmed several scenes in Virginia . The continuous scene was filmed in California .
The ferry scene was filmed in the New York town of Athens , and Mary Ann 's parents house was located in Brooklyn ( but was featured in the film in Boston ) . For the neighborhood plane crash scene , the production crew bought a retired Boeing 747 , with transportation costs of $ 2 million , destroyed it into pieces , and built houses around them . The destroyed plane was kept for the Universal Studios back @-@ lot tour . Ray 's house was filmed in Bayonne , New Jersey ( with a soundstage doubling the interior ) ; meanwhile , the valley war sequence was filmed in Lexington , Virginia and Mystery Mesa in California . The scene where the tripod is shot down and crashes through a factory was filmed in Naugatuck , Connecticut . The scene of the bodies floating down the river was filmed on the Farmington River in Windsor , Connecticut by a second unit using a stand in for Dakota Fanning ( the back of her character ) with the portion showing the faces of the credited actors cut in later . Some filming was shot on the Korean War Veterans Parkway in Staten Island , NY . The film used six sound stages , spread over three studio lots .
= = = Design and visual effects = = =
Industrial Light & Magic was the main special effects company for the movie . While Spielberg had used computers to help visualize sequences in pre @-@ production before , Spielberg said , " This is the first film I really tackled using the computer to animate all the storyboards . " He decided to employ the technique extensively after a visit to his friend George Lucas . In order to keep the realism , the usage of computer @-@ generated imagery shots and bluescreen was limited , with most of the digital effects being blended with miniature and live @-@ action footage .
The design of the Tripods was described by Spielberg as " graceful , " with artist Doug Chiang replicating aquatic life forms . At the same time , the director wanted a design that would be iconic while still providing a tribute to the original Tripods , as well as intimidating so the audience would not be more interested about the aliens inside than on the vehicle itself . The visual effects crew tried to blend organic and mechanical elements in the Tripods depiction , and made extensive studies for the movements of the vehicle to be believable , considering the " contradiction " of having a large tank @-@ like head being carried by thin and flexible legs . Animator Randal M. Dutra considered the movements themselves to have a " terrestrial buoyance " , in that they were walking on land but had an aquatic flow , and Spielberg described the Tripods as moving like " scary ballet dancers " . Most of the alien elements revolved around the number three – the Tripod had three eyes , and both the vehicle and the aliens had three main limbs with three fingers each . Visual effects supervisor Pablo Helman considered depicting the scale of the Tripod as challenging , considering " Steven wanted to make sure that these creatures were 150 feet tall " , as it was the height described by Wells in the novel . The aliens themselves had designs based on jellyfish , with movements inspired by red @-@ eyed tree frogs , and an amphibian quality particularly on the wet skin . A styrofoam alien was used as a stand @-@ in to guide the actors in the basement scene . Spielberg did not want any blood or gore during the Heat @-@ Ray deaths ; in the words of Helman , " this was going to be a horror movie for kids " . So the effects crew came up with the vaporization of the bodies , and considering it could not be fully digital due to both the complexity of the effect and the schedule , live @-@ action dust was used alongside the CGI ray assimilation and particles . Digital birds followed the Tripods in most scenes to symbolize the presence of death , which Chiang compared to vultures and added that " you don 't know if these birds are going to the danger or away from it , if you should follow them or run away . "
During the scene where Ray 's minivan is attacked by a mob , Janusz Kaminski and Spielberg wanted a lot of interactive lights , so they added different kinds of lights , including Coleman lamps , oil lanterns , flashlights and Maglights . The IL & M crew admitted that the destruction of the Bayonne Bridge was the toughest scene to be made with heavy usage mix of CGI effects and live action elements , and a four @-@ week deadline so the shot could be used in a Super Bowl trailer . The scene originally had only a gas station exploding , but then Spielberg suggested blowing up the bridge as well . The scene involved Tripods shooting a Heat @-@ Ray towards the minivan and minivan escapes from it involved a lot of CGI layers to work out . Over 500 CGI effects were used in the film .
Costume designer Joanna Johnston created 60 different versions of Ray 's leather jacket , to illustrate the degrees to which he is weathered from the beginning of the journey to the end . " He begins with the jacket , a hoodie , and two t @-@ shirts , " explains Johnston . One piece of Dakota Fanning 's costume that takes on a special importance is her lavender horse purse : " I wanted her to have something that made her feel safe , some little thing that she could sleep with and put over her face , " Johnston notes . " That was the lavender horse purse . We tied it up on a ribbon and Dakota hung it on her body , so it was with her at all times . " Johnston dressed Robbie for an unconscious emulation of his father , " They 're more alike than they realize , with great tension on the surface , " Johnston says .
= = = Music = = =
Longtime Spielberg collaborator John Williams composed the music score of War of the Worlds . It was the first time Williams had to compose with an incomplete Spielberg film , as only the first six reels , totalling sixty minutes , were ready for him to use as reference . He considered the score " a very serious piece , " which had to combine " necessary frightening atmosphere " with " propulsively rhythmic drive for the action scenes " – the music would be symbolically " pulling forward " vehicles in chase scenes such as Ray driving out of Bayonne or the Tripod attacking the Hudson ferry . Williams added small nods to classic monster movie scores by having orchestras doing a " grand gesture " in scenes overlooking Tripods . To increase the scariness , Williams added a female chorus with a crescendo resembling a shriek – which would " humanize " the track representing " victims that go out without saying an ' ouch ' – they 're gone before they can say that " – for the Tripod attacks , and a nearly inaudible male choir – which Williams compared to " Tibetan monks , the lowest known pitch our bodies can make " – for the aliens exploring the basement . The only deviation from orchestras were electronic sounds for the opening and closing narrations .
A soundtrack album was released by Decca Records , that featured the film 's music and Morgan Freeman 's opening and closing narration . The songs " Little Deuce Coupe " and " Hushabye Mountain " are also featured in the movie , the former sung by Tom Cruise , and the latter by Dakota Fanning .
= = = Themes = = =
The film was described as an anti @-@ war film , as civilians run and only try to save themselves and their family instead of fighting back against the alien Tripods . Debra J. Saunders of San Francisco Chronicle described the film as " If aliens invade , don 't fight back . Run . " Saunders compared the film to Independence Day , where the civilians do run , but they support the military efforts . Many reviewers considered the film tried to recreate the atmosphere of the September 11 attacks , with bystanders struggling to survive and the usage of missing @-@ persons displays . Spielberg declared to Reader 's Digest that beside the work being a fantasy , the threat represented was real : " They are a wake @-@ up call to face our fears as we confront a force intent on destroying our way of life . " Screenwriter David Koepp stated that he tried not to put explicit references to September 11 or the Iraq War , but said that the inspiration for the scene where Robbie joins the army was teenagers fighting in the Gaza Strip – " I was thinking of teenagers in Gaza throwing bottles and rocks at tanks , and I think that when you 're that age you don 't fully consider the ramifications of what you 're doing and you 're very much caught up in the moment and passion , whether that 's a good idea or not . " Retained from the novel is the aliens being defeated , not by men 's weapons , but the planet 's smallest creatures , bacteria , which Koepp described as " nature , in a way , knowing a whole lot more than we do " .
= = Release = =
War of the Worlds premiered at the Ziegfeld Theatre on June 23 , 2005 . There , Tom Cruise revealed his relationship with Katie Holmes . Six days later , on June 29 , the film was released in approximately 3 @,@ 908 theaters across America . The home video was subsequently released on November 22 , 2005 .
= = = Secrecy = = =
Spielberg kept most of the parts secret in the filmmaking , as the cast and crew were left confused about how the aliens looked . When asked about the secrecy of the screenplay , David Koepp answered , " [ Spielberg ] wouldn 't give [ the screenplay ] to anybody " . Koepp explained he would e @-@ mail it to him , and he would give a section of the script that was relating to whatever somebody was doing . Miranda Otto thought of not even discussing the story with her family and friends . Otto said , " I know some people who always say , ' Oh , everything 's so secret . ' I think it 's good . In the old days people didn 't get to know much about movies before they came out and nowadays there 's just so much information . I think a bit of mystery is always really good . You don 't want to blow all of your cards beforehand . "
Spielberg admitted after keeping things secret for so long , there is in the end the temptation to reveal too much to the detriment of the story at the press conference of War of the Worlds . So , Spielberg only revealed the hill scene , where Ray tries to stop his son from leaving , stating " to say more would reveal too much . " The secrecy caused The Sun to claim the film would surpass Titanic 's US $ 200 million budget , which at the time held the record for the most expensive film ever made . The actual budget of the film was $ 132 million .
According to Vanity Fair , Spielberg 's relations with Cruise were " poor " during the film 's release because Spielberg believed Cruise 's " antics " at the time ( such as an erratic appearance on the Oprah Winfrey show ) had " hurt " the film .
= = = Marketing and home media releases = = =
Paramount Pictures Interactive Marketing debuted a human survival online game on its official website , waroftheworlds.com , on April 14 to promote the film . Hitachi collaborated with Paramount Pictures for a worldwide promotional campaign , under the title of “ The Ultimate Visual Experience ” . The agreement was announced by Kazuhiro Tachibana , general manager of Hitachi ’ s Consumer Business Group . Kazuhiro stated , " Our ‘ The Ultimate Visual Experience ’ campaign is a perfect match between Spielberg and Cruise ’ s pursuit of the world ’ s best in film entertainment and Hitachi ’ s commitment to the highest picture quality through its digital consumer electronic products . "
The film was released on VHS and DVD on November 22 , 2005 , with both a single @-@ disc edition and a two @-@ disc special edition featured production featurettes , documentaries and trailers . The film grossed $ 113 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in DVD sales , bringing its total film gross to $ 704 @,@ 745 @,@ 540 , ranking tenth place in the 2005 DVD sales chart . Paramount released the film on Blu @-@ ray Disc on June 1 , 2010 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
On June 29 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 06 @-@ 29 ) , the film grossed approximately US $ 81 million worldwide , and earned the thirty @-@ eighth biggest opening week gross with grossing $ 98 @,@ 826 @,@ 764 in 3 @,@ 908 theatres , averaging $ 25 @,@ 288 in each theater . Meanwhile , on Independence Day weekend , War of the Worlds grossed $ 64 @,@ 878 @,@ 725 in 3908 theatres also , giving an average of $ 16 @,@ 601 . This is the third @-@ biggest film opening on Independence Day weekend . The film earned $ 200 million in 24 days , ranking thirty @-@ seventh place in the list of fastest films to gross $ 200 million . The film has grossed $ 704 @,@ 745 @,@ 540 including DVD sales , making it the fourth highest grossing film of 2005 , and the 66th highest grossing film worldwide .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
The film received generally positive reviews from critics . Review aggregator website Metacritic gave the film an average score of 73 based on 40 reviews . On another website , Rotten Tomatoes , War of the Worlds currently garners a 74 % " fresh " rating based on 250 reviews and the critical consensus stating [ that ] " Steven Spielberg 's adaptation of War of the Worlds delivers on the thrill and paranoia of H.G. Wells ' classic novel while impressively updating the action and effects for modern audiences . " Many people praised the film 's beginning while criticizing the ending .
James Berardinelli praised the acting and considered that focusing the narrative on the struggle of one character made the film more effective , but described the ending as weak , even though Spielberg " does the best he can to make it cinematically dramatic " . Total Film 's review gave War of the Worlds 4 out of 5 stars , considering that " Spielberg finds fresh juice in a tale already adapted for film , TV , stage , radio and record " , and describing the film as having many " startling images " , comparing the first Tripod attack to the Omaha Beach landing from Saving Private Ryan .
Los Angeles Times ' Kenneth Turan , who felt the special effects were unusual , stated that Spielberg may actually have done his job in War of the Worlds " better than he realizes " , showing how fragile the world is . Turan claimed Spielberg raised a most provocative question : " Is the ultimate fantasy an invasion from outer space , or is it the survival of the human race ? " However , Broomfield Enterprise 's Dan Marcucci and Nancy Serougi did not share Berardinelli and Turan 's opinion . They felt that Morgan Freeman 's narration was unnecessary , and that the first half was " great " but the second half " became filled with clichés , riddled with holes , and tainted by Tim Robbins " .
Michael Wilmington of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three and a half stars ( out of four ) , saying " War of the Worlds definitely wins its battle , but not the war . " Wilmington stated the film brought the viewers on a wild journey through two sides of Spielberg : the dark and the light . He also said the film contained a core sentiment similar to that of Spielberg 's E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial . About.com 's Rebecca Murray gave a positive review , stating , " Spielberg almost succeeds in creating the perfect alien movie " , with criticism only for the ending . Jonathan Rosenbaum of Chicago Reader praised the special effects and Cruise 's performance . Roger Ebert criticized the " retro design " and considered that despite the big budget , the alien invasion was " rudimentary " and " not very interesting " , regarding the best scenes as Ray walking among the airliner wreckage and a train running in flames , declaring that " such scenes seem to come from a kind of reality different from that of the tripods . "
The French film magazine Cahiers du cinéma ranked the film as 8th place in its list of best films of the 2000s . Japanese film director Kiyoshi Kurosawa listed the film as the best film of 2000 @-@ 2009 .
= = = Accolades = = =
War of the Worlds was nominated for three Academy Awards , including Visual Effects , Sound Mixing ( Andy Nelson , Anna Behlmer and Ron Judkins ) , and Sound Editing , losing all to King Kong . The film was nominated for six Saturn Awards , and won Best Performance by a Younger Actor ( Dakota Fanning ) . The film won a Golden Reel Award for Sound Effects & Foley , a World Soundtrack Award for Best Original Soundtrack , and three VES Awards for its special effects , and was nominated for three Empire Awards , three Satellite Awards , and an MTV Movie Award .
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= Neda Agha @-@ Soltan Graduate Scholarship =
The Neda Agha @-@ Soltan Graduate Scholarship is a scholarship for post @-@ graduate philosophy students at The Queen 's College , Oxford , with preference given to students of Iranian citizenship or heritage . It was established in 2009 following the death of Neda Agha @-@ Soltan , an Iranian philosophy student , in the street protests that followed the disputed Iranian presidential election in 2009 . The college received offers from two anonymous donors to establish a scholarship , followed by many individual donations from former students of Queen 's and others to reach its £ 70 @,@ 000 target to establish the scholarship on a permanent basis . The first recipient of the scholarship was Arianne Shahvisi , a philosophy student of Iranian descent , who described the award as " a great honour " .
The establishment of the scholarship led to criticism from the Iranian government : the Iranian embassy in London told the college that the university was involved in a " politically motivated campaign ... in sharp contrast with its academic objectives " . In response , The Times praised the scholarship in an editorial , saying that the establishment of the scholarship was indeed politically motivated , " and admirably so " , given the government 's reaction to her death and continuing problems in Iran . One British – Iranian student , Leyla Ferani , has said that the scholarship could be Agha @-@ Soltan 's " most important legacy " . The college has denied that it took a political decision in establishing the scholarship , stating that it aims to attract and support the best students , and arguing that refusal of the donations would itself have been a political act . Anonymous British diplomatic sources were reported as saying that the creation of the scholarship had put " another nail into the coffin " of relations between Britain and Iran .
= = Neda Agha @-@ Soltan = =
Neda Agha @-@ Soltan , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old philosophy student , was shot and killed on 20 June 2009 during street protests in Iran that followed the disputed presidential election . Video footage of her death was seen around the world . In the words of The Times , she " became an emblem of the Iranian people 's struggle for freedom , and her death a symbol of the government 's brutality " . Another writer has called her a " defining symbol of the protest movement in Iran " .
= = Scholarship = =
After Agha @-@ Soltan 's death , two anonymous British donors offered to donate £ 4 @,@ 000 to establish a scholarship for post @-@ graduate students of philosophy at The Queen 's College , Oxford ( one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford ) ; the college 's governing body accepted the offers . One of the initial donors has pledged a further £ 10 @,@ 000 over five years . The college has said that the main donor was a British citizen and well known to Queen 's . By November 2009 , in the region of an additional £ 15 @,@ 000 had been donated to the scholarship fund , some from former students of the college and some from members of the public without a connection to Queen 's . A fundraising campaign targeting former philosophy students of the college led to further donations , which increased the fund to over £ 20 @,@ 000 by Michaelmas Term of 2009 . The appeal raised £ 70 @,@ 000 to put the scholarship on a permanent financial footing ; donors included people without connections to the college and some who the college said had taken " significant risks in order to donate " .
The decision to name the scholarship after Agha @-@ Soltan was that of the donors rather than the college : Paul Madden , the Provost of the college , said that " within reason " donors decided the name of a scholarship . The scholarship pays college fees of about £ 4 @,@ 000 over a two @-@ year period . It is open to all students at Queen 's studying for post @-@ graduate degrees in philosophy , with preference given to Iranian nationals or those with Iranian heritage . The first holder of the scholarship was Arianne Shahvisi , studying philosophy of physics , who is of Iranian descent . She said that it was " a great honour " to be awarded the scholarship , adding that she hoped she could " do justice " to Agha @-@ Soltan 's name . She was succeeded by an unnamed male student , studying political philosophy and the history of political thought .
= = Iranian government reaction = =
The establishment of the scholarship drew a letter of protest to the college from the Iranian embassy in London . It was written in November 2009 and signed by the deputy ambassador , Safarali Eslamian . The letter disputed the circumstances of her death , and said that there was " supporting evidence indicating a pre @-@ made scenario " . Eslamain wrote , " It seems that the University of Oxford has stepped up involvement in a politically motivated campaign which is not only in sharp contract with its academic objectives , but also is linked with a chain of events in post @-@ Iranian presidential elections blamed for British interference both at home and abroad " . The letter also said that the " decision to abuse Neda 's case to establish a graduate scholarship will highly politicise your academic institution , undermining your scientific credibility – along with British press which made exceptionally a lot of hue and cry on Neda 's death – will make Oxford at odd [ sic ] with the rest of the world 's academic institutions " . Eslamain asked for the university 's governing board to be informed of " the Iranian views " , and finished by saying , " Surely , your steps to achieve your attractions through non @-@ politically supported programmes can better heal the wounds of her family and her nation " .
There was also a report of a demonstration outside the British Embassy in Tehran against the scholarship . A group of female protesters were said by the Iranian news agency Fars to have chanted " Death to Britain " .
In response , Madden emphasised that the scholarship was to help Iranian students without adequate financial resources of their own to study at Oxford . He said that other universities were winning the competition to attract the best graduate students , adding that donations such as these were " absolutely vital " for the college to be able to " attract and retain the best young minds " . A college spokesman said that the scholarship had not been set up as part of a political decision , and if the initial donations had been refused , this would have been interpreted as a political decision too . The university ( which did not receive a letter of complaint from the embassy ) made it clear that the decision to establish the scholarship was one for Queen 's , not for the university , since the colleges are self @-@ governing bodies .
= = Other reaction = =
Arash Hejazi , an Iranian writer who was present at Soltan 's death , praised the college for the scholarship . An unnamed Iranian academic said to The Times that the letter from the Iranian embassy showed that the death had damaged the Iranian government . A British @-@ Iranian student , Leyla Ferani , writing in The Daily Telegraph , said that the establishment of the scholarship was " more than commendable " , and " could prove to be a galvanising tool for the protestors " . She said that " Oxford 's move is as striking as it is heartening " , adding that it " honours the whole student body in Iran which has been repressed and tortured by the Islamic Republic " . She commented that " In one of Britain ’ s top universities , it will foster crucial awareness of the government 's tyrannical attitude towards education " , and said that the scholarship could be Soltan 's " most important legacy " .
A day after publishing the letter from the Iranian embassy , an editorial in The Times praised the college 's actions . It described Soltan 's death as a " brutal example " of a government 's suppressing opposition , and said that the Iranian response to her death was giving the country the status of " international basket case " . While the problems of Iran were no longer front @-@ page news , it said , they still existed . In the circumstances , the editorial concluded , " A scholarship at The Queen ’ s College in memory of Neda Soltan is , indeed , politically motivated , and admirably so " .
UK diplomatic sources , speaking anonymously to The Times , said that if the government had been asked , it would have advised against the creation of the scholarship , because Iran would see it as an act of provocation , and because it would interfere with efforts to free Iranians working for the British Embassy in Tehran who had been detained for participating in the post @-@ election protests . The sources said the scholarship had put " another nail into the coffin " of relations between Britain and Iran .
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= Savaric FitzGeldewin =
Savaric fitzGeldewin ( sometimes Savaric FitzGoldwin or Savaric de Bohun ; died 8 August 1205 ) was an Englishman who became Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury in England . Related to his predecessor as well as to the German Emperor Henry VI , he was elected bishop on the urging of his predecessor , who urged his election on the cathedral chapter of Bath . While bishop , Savaric spent many years attempting to annexe Glastonbury Abbey as part of his bishopric . Savaric also worked to secure the release of King Richard I of England from captivity , when the king was held by Emperor Henry VI .
= = Early life = =
Savaric 's date of birth is unknown . His father was Geldwin , who was a member of the Bohun family and was probably a second cousin of Reginald fitzJocelin , Bishop of Bath . Geldwin 's father was Savaric Fitzcana , who held Midhurst in Sussex . The elder Savaric 's wife was Muriel , who was a granddaughter of Humphrey de Bohun . The younger Savaric 's mother Estrangia was a Burgundian and related to the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI . Savaric 's elder brother was Franco . Thus the younger Savaric was a cousin of Emperor Henry VI and also of Reginald fitzJocelin , his predecessor as Bishop of Bath .
Savaric first appears in the historical record in 1157 when he is named as a canon of Coutances Cathedral in Normandy . He then was archdeacon of Countances from 1162 to 1174 . He was Treasurer of Salisbury in 1174 and archdeacon of Northampton from 1175 to 1187 . The medieval chronicler Ralph Diceto says that a Savaric was appointed as Archdeacon of Canterbury , but whether this was the same Savaric is unclear . He incurred large debts to King Henry II of England , which caused the king to complain to Pope Urban III . During the years 1182 – 1184 , Savaric was deprived of his archdeaconries , which may have been connected to the debt issue with the king .
= = Bishop = =
Savaric went with Henry 's son and successor King Richard I on crusade , and it was while they both were in Sicily that Savaric obtained his bishopric . In December 1191 he was elected Bishop of Bath . Savaric 's election was held under controversial conditions , for Savaric had obtained from Richard I letters allowing Savaric to be elected to the next available bishopric . When Savaric 's cousin Reginald was elected to Canterbury in 1191 , Reginald went to Bath and pressed the clergy there to select Savaric as Reginald 's successor . On the strength of the letters from Richard , the justiciar Walter de Coutances ratified the election of Savaric . The canons of Wells objected because they had not been consulted , but Savaric was ordained a priest on 19 September 1192 at Rome . He was consecrated bishop there on 20 September 1192 by the Bishop of Albano . He went on the Third Crusade with Richard .
When Richard was held for ransom in Germany while returning from crusade , Savaric met with his cousin the Emperor Henry VI in an attempt to secure Richard 's release . He remained in Germany throughout 1193 and continued to be involved in the negotiations , until he returned to England at the end of the year . Once Richard was released , Savaric was one of the hostages left behind in Germany to ensure the payment of the remainder of the ransom . It may have been while he was in Germany negotiating about Richard 's ransom that he was named imperial chancellor of Burgundy , but as he was not named by that title until 1197 , the exact date of his occupation of the office is unclear .
= = Controversy with Glastonbury = =
After his consecration , Savaric traded the city of Bath to the king in return for the monastery of Glastonbury . Savaric secured the support of Pope Celestine III for the takeover the abbey as the seat of his bishopric , replacing Bath . The plan was that Savaric would be bishop of Bath as well as abbot of Glastonbury . In his support , Savaric obtained letters from various ecclesiastics , including the Archbishop of Canterbury , Hubert Walter , that claimed that this arrangement would settle longstanding disputes between the abbey and the bishops . The monks of Glastonbury objected to Savaric 's plan , and sent an appeal to Rome , which was dismissed in 1196 . But King Richard , no longer imprisoned in Germany , sided with the monks , and allowed them to elect an abbot , William Pica , in place of Savaric , who responded by excommunicating the new abbot . With the succession of John as king in place of his brother Richard in 1199 , Savaric managed to force his way into the monastery and set up his episcopal see within the abbey . The monks appealed to Innocent III , the new pope .
At first , Innocent took the side of the monks , and lifted Pica 's excommunication . While the newest appeal was taking place , Pica and a number of his supporters , who had traveled to Rome to appeal in person , died in Rome in 1200 , and some of the monks alleged this was by poison administered on the orders of Savaric . Meanwhile , Innocent had changed his mind , and reinstalled Savaric as abbot , ordering some English clergy to judge the specifics of the case , and allot the revenues of the abbey between Savaric and the monks . Savaric then attempted to secure more control over other monasteries in his diocese , but died before he could set the plans in motion .
= = Death and legacy = =
Savaric died at Civitavecchia or Siena on 8 August 1205 while visiting the papacy in Rome on business for Peter des Roches , Bishop @-@ elect of Winchester . He was there to support Roches election which had been contested . Roches also supported Savaric in his struggles with Glastonbury , loaning the bishop money and being appointed to a papal commission to deal with Savaric 's petitions , which went nowhere because Savaric died before the commission first met . He was buried at Bath .
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= Teeth ( song ) =
" Teeth " is a song recorded by American singer Lady Gaga . The track appears on The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) , her second major release and her third extended play . The song was written by Gaga , Taja Riley , Pete Wyoming Bender , and Teddy Riley , [ a ] and produced by Gaga and Teddy Riley . It has an oral theme and has been called a " perverse " march and an ode to sadomasochism . " Teeth " peaked at number 107 on the UK Singles Chart and received a mixed reception from critics . Gaga performed the song during The Monster Ball Tour . In 2013 , Riley sued Gaga for US $ 500 @,@ 000 and punitive damages over the songwriting credits , saying he was not given 25 percent of royalties as he had been promised .
= = Background and composition = =
" Teeth " was written by Lady Gaga , Taja Riley , Pete Wyoming Bender , and Teddy Riley , [ a ] and was produced by Gaga and Teddy Riley . It has been described as a " perverse march " and a " gospel ode " to sadomasochism . Bradley Stern of MuuMuse said the song is " part musical , part country , and a little bit tribal in spots " . Popjustice described " Teeth " as a " wobbly , stompy , bouncy marching song " that opens with the lyric " don 't want no money , just want your sex " and later chants , " show me your teeth ! " Lyrically , Gaga asks her lover to display his teeth for her . According to MusicOMH , " In the background another voice intones strange messages , which may or may not revolve around dentistry " . Music Times said the " skank @-@ y " horns in the track exhibit Riley 's work . In an interview with MTV , Gaga explained the meaning behind the song and its lyrics : " It is meant to mean two things , the first one kind of juvenile sexual provocative connotation is about oral sex , but also the monster in the song is fear of the truth . ' Show me your teeth ' means ' tell me the truth ' and I think that for a long time in my life that I replaced sex with the truth . "
In 2013 , Teddy Riley sued Gaga for US $ 500 @,@ 000 and punitive damages over the songwriting credits , and said his daughter Taja " committed fraud and copyright abuse by earning a deal with EMI for her role in the song " . Riley said he was not given the 25 percent of royalties he had been promised . He also tried to sue his daughter and said , " her participation in the creation of the composition , authorship , and ownership [ of ' Teeth ' ] are all false and untrue " . Music Times said Teddy Riley 's work on " Teeth " was his only contribution to The Fame Monster and called the track the EP 's " smallest " .
= = Reception = =
" Teeth " received a mixed reception from critics ; some complimented the song and others called it the album 's worst track . Gaga 's vocals was compared to those of Christina Aguilera . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani said the song " sounds like something from Michael Jackson 's last studio album as sung by Christina Aguilera ... that the closest she gets to another human being involves being tied up and bitten is revealing . " Blogcritics ' Clayton Perry said " Teeth " , along with the tracks " Monster " and " Telephone " , " thump harder than anything she 's released thus far " . In his review for Consequence of Sound , Tony Hardy describes the song as a " repetitive chant which gets its point across in the first verse , rendering the rest of it almost redundant " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy said " Teeth " is " the most sonically intriguing thing GaGa 's put her name to , an ode to rough sex conducted over an intense , tribal production that recalls Cher 's ' Half Breed ' and Fleetwood Mac 's ' Tusk ' . "
MusicOMH called " Teeth " the album 's " biggest curveball " and said in its review , " It doesn 't really go anywhere , the chorus getting mixed in with the verses , but it 's still a compellingly dancey listen and may be indicative of where she 's heading next " . MuuMuse 's Stern described the song as a " stomping , hoot @-@ and @-@ holler @-@ worthy chant @-@ along " that invites listeners to " cut loose and ... well , sink their teeth into the music " . He added , " It 's an odd choice to end the album , though a surefire crowd pleaser for live shows if the addictive backing beat is anything to judge by " . Popjustice rated the song six out of eight and said it " foray [ ed ] into Black Betty territory " . PopMatters ' Evan Sawdey called " Teeth " Gaga 's " most sonically adventurous song yet " . Nick Hyman of Under the Rader said the song was the worst on the album . Vulture , an online blog associated with New York , included lyrics from " Teeth " in its " Best Lines " portal .
In 2011 , Discovery Channel used " Teeth " to promote its " Shark Week " programming . Target Corporation sells a " singing " toothbrush that plays two @-@ minute excerpts of " Born This Way " and " Teeth " .
= = Live performances = =
Gaga performed " Teeth " during The Monster Ball Tour . The Riverfront Times said her January 2010 performance of the song in St. Louis was " fantastic " and described it as " a fierce Broadway strut full of vamps , vigor and choreographed dancing which recalled Chicago " . Gaga performed an " angry version " of the song at Radio City Music Hall a few days later ; she " hunched over in an animalistic crouch , surrounded by a predatory @-@ looking pack of dancers " while images of a " ferocious " wolf were displayed . She grabbed her crotch and " snarled " to emphasize the song 's lyrics ; Dan Aquilante of the New York Post said these actions " didn ’ t seem all that inappropriate " . Gaga performed a " concert version " of the song at Lollapalooza in August 2010 , during which a guitar solo was played between each iteration of the line , " Show me your teeth ! " During some performances of the song , she told concert attendees she never lip syncs . In his review of Gaga 's April 2011 performance in Montreal , Mike Lepage said the reminder was " needless " and wrote , " What idiot would actually have charged this canary @-@ haired dynamo with that ? If anything , you can ’ t shut the Gaga up , and she has both the chops and the pride to deliver it all live . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lady Gaga – vocals , songwriter , producer , background vocals
Pete Wyoming Bender – songwriter [ a ]
Teddy Riley – producer , songwriter [ a ]
Taja Riley – songwriter
Dave Russell – recording at Record Plant , Los Angeles , California , audio mixing at Mason Sound , North Hollywood , California
Mike Daley – recording assistant
Credits adapted from The Fame Monster liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= University of the Philippines Los Baños College of Forestry and Natural Resources =
The University of the Philippines Los Baños College of Forestry and Natural Resources ( also referred to as CFNR ) is one of the 11 degree @-@ granting units of the University of the Philippines Los Baños ( UPLB ) . It started as the Forest School under the UP College of Agriculture in 1910 , making it the oldest forestry school in the Philippines . It is one of the five founding units of UPLB upon its establishment in 1972 .
The college has been identified as a " Center of Excellence " in forestry by the Philippine Commission on Higher Education since January 2000 . CFNR offers one undergraduate degree program ( Bachelor of Science in Forestry ) along with four other graduate degree programs and one two @-@ year certificate program . Two of its professors , including its current dean , are members of the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change , the 2007 recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize .
= = History = =
CFNR traces its roots to the Forest School founded in April 14 , 1910 , through an Act 1989 by the Insular Government of the Philippines and efforts by Secretary of the Interior , Dean Conant Worcester . It was originally established as a department in the newly established of the College of Agriculture , and all of its early faculty were from the Bureau of Forestry . The Forest School became independent of the College of Agriculture in February 1916 through Act 2578 . Since then directors of the bureau had acted as ex officio deans of the school . The Forest School changed its name to School of Forestry in 1924 by effect of Act 3095 .
Arthur F. Fischer , the School of Forestry 's first dean , retired as director of the Bureau of Forestry in February 1936 . He was replaced by Florencio Tamesis who became the School of Forestry 's second dean , as well as its first Filipino dean .
The Second World War devastated the campus . All the School of Forestry buildings , including student and faculty houses , were destroyed . Large parts of the Makiling Forest Reserve , which is administered by the school were likewise damaged . Only four faculty including Tamesis and silviculture professor Teodoro C. Delizo , along with five students returned upon the resumption of classes . Classes were held under trees until its buildings could be reconstructed through the help of war reparation funds worth ₱ 59 @,@ 300 ( US $ 1 @,@ 380 ) .
The School of Forestry became the College of Forestry on June 14 , 1949 , by effect of RA 352 , with the College of Forestry finally separated from the Bureau of Forestry in 1957 , effectively putting it under direct administration of the University of the Philippines .
In 1954 the College of Forestry signed an agreement with Cornell University for providing academic and financial assistance . The College of Forestry received visiting professors from Cornell and grants that were used for construction and forestry research , while faculty and students were awarded scholarships for pursuing master 's degrees at US universities .
Domingo M. Lantican became the dean of the College of Forestry in May 1966 . Lantican implemented a 5 @-@ year campus development program which included construction of new buildings and designating areas for dormitories and staff housing .
The College of Forestry was reorganized to become the College of Forestry and Natural Resources on June 25 , 1998 . Since 2004 the event has been celebrated in concurrence with the Philippine Arbor Day , a nationwide event marked by extensive tree planting .
= = Campus = =
The campus of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources , referred to as the " upper campus " , is situated on the northeastern slope of Mount Makiling . The campus contains academic buildings , dormitories , hosted institutions ( such as the ASEAN Center for Biodiversity ) , and the 4 @,@ 347 @-@ hectare Makiling Forest Reserve ( MFR ) , which serves as an outdoor laboratory for forestry students and is believed to contain more tree species than the continental United States .
Aside from being the location of the college , the MFR is also the site of the College of Public Affairs , National Arts Center , Philippine High School for the Arts , the venue of the National Jamboree of the Boy Scouts of the Philippines ( BSP ) , the Center for Philippine Raptors and the Bureau of Plant Industry @-@ Makiling Botanic Gardens , one of the oldest parts of the campus . The gardens occupy the site where the tents were used as classrooms during the first four months of the university .
The MFR serves as an outdoor laboratory to students , primarily of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources . ₱ 5 million ( US $ 156 @,@ 000 ) was designated for its conservation and development in 2011 . The MFR was created in 1910 under the Bureau of Forestry . Jurisdiction over the MFR was transferred to the UP in 1960 . NAPOCOR acquired complete jurisdiction of the MFR , however , in 1987 as part of the Philippines ' energy development program under President Corazon Aquino . The MFR was returned to UPLB three years later by effect of RA 6967 . In 2008 representative Del De Guzman of the 2nd district of Makati filed HB 1143 which , if passed into law , would have transferred jurisdiction of the MFR to the Boy Scouts of the Philippines . The bill was strongly opposed by the UPLB , citing possible mismanagement and deforestation of the site if placed under the BSP among others .
= = Organization and administration = =
The College of Forestry and Natural Resources is managed by a dean , currently Juan M. Pulhin , who is appointed by the UP Board of Regents , and assisted by an associate dean . Prior to the college 's separation from the Bureau of Forestry in 1957 , the deans of the College of Forestry and its predecessors were not appointed by the board but were the directors of the Bureau of Forestry acting as ex officio heads of the college . Due to the distance of the Bureau of Forestry in Manila from the Forest School in Los Baños ( about 64 kilometers ) , directors of the bureau appointed foresters @-@ in @-@ charge to manage the school , a practice which continued until 1957 .
The College of Forestry and Natural Resources is a founding member of the Asia Pacific of Forestry Research Institutions , and the CFNR Institute of Agroforestry is a member of the Philippine Agroforestry Education and Research Network .
= = Academics = =
CFNR offers one undergraduate degree program ( Bachelor of Science in Forestry ) , four graduate degree programs and one certificate program . It started offering master 's and doctor 's degrees in 1966 and 1973 , respectively . The college produces about 100 graduates every year and has been identified as a " Center of Excellence " in forestry by the Philippine Commission on Higher Education since January 2000 .
Admission to the BS Forestry program is done through the University of the Philippines College Admission Test , while a Certificate in Forestry applicants are screened by a test administered by CFNR . Admission to graduate programs are managed by the Graduate School . Of its 394 students in 2008 , 61 and 295 were enrolled in its Certificate in Forestry and BS Forestry programs , respectively , while the rest are in its graduate degree programs . As of 2009 it had 393 students enrolled in all of its programs . 38 of its faculty hold PhDs .
While all of its 20 students when the Forest School opened were male , more than 60 % of the students of the college were female as of 2003 . Women first enrolled in the college in 1951 . Other forestry schools in the Philippines have also experienced a similar increase in female enrollment .
The graduates of the college has maintained substantially good performance in the forestry license exams conducted by the Professional Regulation Commission . For instance , the mean passing rates of its graduates in the exams for the years 2008 – 2010 is 92 @.@ 49 % . This is almost double of the mean national passing rate for the same period . Furthermore , six of its graduates belonged to the top ten best performing students in the 2010 exam , while four belonged to the top ten in both 2008 and 2009 exams . ( see table )
= = = Libraries and collections = = =
The CFNR Library holds about 30 @,@ 000 publications which mostly focus on forestry and related disciplines . The library has a floor area of 974 @.@ 64 sq. m , and is open 40 hours a week .
The Museum of Natural History of the University of the Philippines Los Baños , established in 1976 , is located in the campus . It holds over 200 @,@ 000 biological specimens ; including half of the samplings from the Philippine Water Bug Inventory Project . More than half of the museum 's specimens are in its entomological collection . While most of the museum 's collections are in its main building , some are housed in other UPLB units .
= = = Research = = =
In 2002 the college had 94 researchers working in its eight research units . This includes the Makiling Center for Mountain Ecosystems , believed to be the first institution in the Philippines devoted to the study of mountain ecology . It also manages the Makiling Forest Reserve and has launched programs promoting its conservation .
The Forest Products Research and Development Institute , founded as the Forest Products Laboratory under the Bureau of Forestry in 1954 , is hosted in the campus . Managed by the Department of Science and Technology of the government of the Philippines , it is engaged in paper science and bioenergy research , among others . It has also generated technologies such as those for biomass energy generation and construction . Its facilities , believed to be the " largest and best equipped in the eastern hemisphere " by the time of its construction , were patterned after the University of Wisconsin 's Forest Products Laboratory . It was built using US grants worth US $ 239 @,@ 552 and funding from the Philippine government worth ₱ 518 @,@ 000 ( US $ 12 @,@ 000 ) . It had a total budget of almost ₱ 87 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 01 million ) in 2011 , with about ₱ 51 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 18 million ) of this appropriated for research .
= = Extension = =
The Training Center for Tropical Resources and Ecosystems Sustainability , established in June 1998 by the UP Board of Regents , offers more than 300 training programs in forest and land management , logging , and related disciplines . It has a satellite office in Baguio which offers similar programs . Its programs are designed for professionals in working in the agroforestry @-@ related disciplines and the wood industry .
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= Nebula Science Fiction =
Nebula Science Fiction was the first Scottish science fiction magazine . It was published from 1952 to 1959 , and was edited by Peter Hamilton , a young Scot who was able to take advantage of spare capacity at his parents ' printing company , Crownpoint , to launch the magazine . Because Hamilton could only print Nebula when Crownpoint had no other work , the schedule was initially erratic . In 1955 he moved the printing to a Dublin @-@ based firm , and the schedule became a little more regular , with a steady monthly run beginning in 1958 that lasted into the following year . Nebula 's circulation was international , with only a quarter of the sales in the United Kingdom ( UK ) ; this led to disaster when South Africa and Australia imposed import controls on foreign periodicals at the end of the 1950s . Excise duties imposed in the UK added to Hamilton 's financial burdens , and he was rapidly forced to close the magazine . The last issue was dated June 1959 .
The magazine was popular with writers , partly because Hamilton went to great lengths to encourage new writers , and partly because he paid better rates per word than much of his competition . Initially he could not compete with the American market , but he offered a bonus for the most popular story in the issue , and was eventually able to match the leading American magazines . He published the first stories of several well @-@ known writers , including Robert Silverberg , Brian Aldiss , and Bob Shaw . Nebula was also a fan favourite : author Ken Bulmer recalled that it became " what many fans regard as the best @-@ loved British SF magazine " .
= = Publishing history = =
In 1952 Peter Hamilton was 18 years old and had just left school ; he was looking for a job , but was not healthy enough for hard physical work . His parents ran a printing house in Glasgow , Crownpoint Publications , and occasionally had spare capacity : they were interested in using the idle time on their machinery to enter the publishing business , and Peter persuaded them to publish paperback science fiction ( sf ) novels . Two novels were acquired , but when Crownpoint approached a local wholesaler to handle the distribution , they were told that paperbacks would be a mistake , and that a magazine , with a regular publication schedule , would be more likely to sell well . The result was Nebula Science Fiction . The first issue was dated Autumn 1952 , and sold 4 @,@ 000 copies .
Advertisements stated that Nebula was " Scotland 's first S.F. magazine ! ! " Several British science fiction fans helped Hamilton with the production of the magazine , including Ken Slater , Vin ¢ Clarke , and John Brunner . William F. Temple was involved as an editorial consultant and also assisted with editing the manuscripts . Hamilton provided all the financing , but he had to wait for the money to come in from each issue before he could afford to produce the next . In addition , Crownpoint only intermittently had enough spare capacity to print Nebula , so the first few issues appeared on an erratic schedule . After a dozen issues , the conflicts led to Hamilton moving Nebula to a printing firm based in Dublin , and breaking the connection with Crownpoint . He was then able to publish on a slightly more regular schedule , although the planned bi @-@ monthly issues were still sometimes delayed . Hamilton paid 21 shillings ( £ 1 @.@ 05 ) per thousand words , the equivalent of three tenths of a cent per word ; this was a low rate compared to the American market , but was marginally better than the contemporary British magazine Authentic Science Fiction , which paid £ 1 per thousand words . Hamilton offered a bonus of £ 2 or £ 5 to the story that turned out to be the readers ' favourite in each issue , which helped attract writers ; and he later increased the rates , paying as much as 2d ( 0.8p , or 2 @.@ 3 cents ) per word for well @-@ known authors . This was higher than the best UK markets , such as New Worlds , and was close to the rates paid by the top magazines in the US at that time . Both the high rates of pay and Hamilton 's willingness to work with new authors were designed to encourage writers to submit their work to Nebula before trying the other magazines .
Hamilton 's editorial in the September 1957 issue reported a circulation of 40 @,@ 000 , and starting in January 1958 Nebula went on a regular monthly schedule that was maintained until early 1959 . Although Nebula 's circulation was strong , only about a quarter of its sales were in the UK . A further quarter of the sales were in Australia , another third in the US , and nearly a tenth in South Africa . At the end of the 1950s , first South Africa and then Australia began to limit foreign magazine imports , for economic reasons , and when this was followed by UK excise duties the magazine was quickly in debt . Hamilton was forced to cease publication with issue 41 , dated June 1959 . Hamilton had also had health problems which contributed to his decision to stop publication .
= = Contents and reception = =
The first two issues of Nebula contained the two novels Hamilton had bought before changing his plans from a paperback series to a magazine : Robots Never Weep by E.R. James , and Thou Pasture Us , by F.G. Rayer . These left little room for other material , but Hamilton was able to reprint a short story by A. E. van Vogt in the first issue , and stories by John Brunner and E. C. Tubb in the second issue , along with material by lesser known writers . There was also a column by Walt Willis called " The Electric Fan " , later renamed " Fanorama " , which covered science fiction fandom .
Many of the better @-@ known British writers began to appear in Nebula , including William F. Temple and Eric Frank Russell ; new authors also began to be published . Hamilton was glad to work with beginning writers , and in 1953 several writers who later became very well known , including Brian Aldiss , Barrington Bayley , and Bob Shaw , each sold their first story to Nebula . Not all these stories reached print that year : Aldiss ’ s " T " appeared in the November 1956 issue , by which time other stories of Aldiss ’ s were in print , and the first story by Bayley is not certainly identified – it may have been " Consolidation " , which appeared in November 1959 , but it is also possible that it was never printed . Robert Silverberg had begun submitting stories to Hamilton as soon as he heard of Nebula , realizing that Hamilton was unlikely to be getting many submissions from US writers , and found Hamilton very helpful . Silverberg 's first story , " Gorgon Planet " , was accepted by Hamilton on January 11 , 1954 . Brian Aldiss echoes Silverberg 's assessment of Hamilton , commenting that Hamilton was " a sympathetic editor to a beginner . He was also a patient editor . "
Other authors who appeared in Nebula early in their careers included Harlan Ellison , John Rackham , and James White . Science fiction historian Mike Ashley regards the stories Hamilton selected as demonstrating a " wide range of material by excellent writers " that was " seldom predictable " , but adds that the stories have become dated , with the result that few are now well @-@ known . Among a short list of exceptions Ashley includes Brian Aldiss ’ s " Legends of Smith ’ s Burst " and " Dumb Show " . Because of the erratic schedule , Hamilton only serialised one novel : Wisdom of the Gods , by Ken Bulmer , which appeared in four parts , starting in the July 1958 issue . Hamilton was planning to serialise a novel by Robert Heinlein when the magazine ceased publication .
Cover art came from artists such as Gerard Quinn , and included some of Eddie Jones ' earliest work . According to sf historian Philip Harbottle , the best of the Scottish artists that Hamilton worked with was James Stark , who painted nine covers for Nebula between 1956 and 1958 ; sf artist and art historian David Hardy describes Stark 's work as " severe portrayals of technology against which men were mere ants " . Interior artists included Harry Turner , whose work is described by Harbottle as " visually striking " and " semi @-@ impressionistic " . From the October 1954 issue the back cover was given over to black and white artwork , often drawn by Arthur Thomson . Author Ken Bulmer regards these back covers as having given the magazine a " tremendously individual flavor " .
Nebula became an established part of the British science fiction scene in the 1950s . The magazine was well @-@ liked by writers , and Bulmer recalls that , overall , Nebula " created a special kind of charisma that , in the view of many writers and readers , no other magazine ever had " , and adds that it became " what many fans regard as the best @-@ loved British SF magazine " . Tubb , who sold many popular stories to Hamilton , comments that " Authors wrote for Nebula with financial reward taking secondary place ; the desire of submitting a good story being of primary importance ... the writers and the contributors felt as if Nebula was ' their ' magazine , and all that became a happy , well @-@ integrated family . "
= = Bibliographic details = =
The publisher was Crownpoint Publications for the first twelve issues , though the name was dropped from the indicia starting with the December 1953 issue . From September 1955 the publisher was Peter Hamilton , who was editor throughout . The price was 2 / - ( 10p ) for all but the last two issues , which were priced at 2 / 6 ( 12.5p ) .
Nebula was printed in large digest format , 8 @.@ 5 by 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 220 mm × 140 mm ) . The first three issues were 120 pages ; this increased to 128 pages for the next three issues , to 130 pages for issue 7 , and to 136 pages for issue 8 . Issues 9 through 12 were 128 pages , and the remaining issues were 112 pages . The issues were numbered consecutively throughout ; the first eight issues were given volume numberings as well , with two volumes of four numbers each .
Issues 30 through 39 of Nebula were distributed in the US ; they were stamped at 35 cents and post @-@ dated four months , thus the American copies ran from September 1958 to June 1959 .
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= Malmö FF =
Malmö Fotbollförening , also known simply as Malmö FF , Malmö , or ( especially locally ) MFF , is a Swedish professional football club based in Malmö . The club is the most successful in Sweden in terms of trophies won , and the only Nordic club to have reached the European Cup final . Formed on 24 February 1910 , Malmö FF is affiliated with Skånes Fotbollförbund and the team play their home games at the Swedbank Stadion . The club colours , reflected in their crest and kit , are sky blue and white .
The club have won the most league titles of any Swedish club with twenty @-@ one , a joint record eighteen Swedish championship titles and a record fourteen national cup titles . They were runners @-@ up in the 1979 European Champions Cup final , which they lost 1 – 0 to English club Nottingham Forest . This made them the only Swedish football club , as of 2016 , to have reached the final of the competition , for which the team were awarded the Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal . In more recent history the team qualified for two consecutive group stages of the Champions League in 2014 and 2015 .
Malmö FF is an open member association and the annual general meeting is the highest policy @-@ making body . The meeting approves the accounts and elects the chairman and board . Håkan Jeppsson is the current chairman , elected in 2010 . Daily operations are run by a managing director who liaises with the chairman . With an equity of 450 million SEK ( approximately € 39 @.@ 13 million ) the club is the richest football club in Sweden as of 2016 .
The club is currently playing in Allsvenskan , where the season lasts from April to November . Malmö FF are the leaders of the overall Allsvenskan table maratontabellen as of the end of the 2015 season . The club first won Allsvenskan in 1944 . Malmö FF were most successful during the 1970s , when they won five Swedish championships and four Svenska Cupen titles . The main rivals of the club are Helsingborgs IF , IFK Göteborg and historically IFK Malmö . MFF Support is the official fan club of Malmö FF . The club have also been featured in media , including the football documentaries Blådårar 1 and Blådårar 2 .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The club arose from a municipal initiative in 1905 to encourage young people in Malmö to play organised football . One of the youth teams , Bollklubben Idrott , also known simply as BK Idrott , was a predecessor to Malmö FF . BK Idrott joined the newly created football department of IFK Malmö in 1909 , but soon left because of issues between the two clubs . On 24 February 1910 the 19 members of BK Idrott founded Malmö FF ; the first chairman was Werner Mårtensson .
The club spent their first ten years in local and regional divisions as there was no official national league competition , playing the majority of their matches in the city division called Malmömästerskapen . They also competed in regional competitions in Scania , and played matches against Danish clubs . In 1916 Malmö FF reached the final of the Scanian regional competition ( Distriktsmästerskapen ) for the first time , playing against rival Helsingborgs IF but losing 3 – 4 . The club defeated local rival IFK Malmö three times during the season , and thus earned the unofficial but much desired title of Malmö 's best football club . In 1917 Malmö FF competed in Svenska Mästerskapet for the first time , a cup tournament for the title of Swedish champions , but lost their first match in the second qualifying round 4 – 1 against IFK Malmö . The club continued to play in the cup until 1922 , reaching the quarter @-@ finals in 1920 when they were knocked out by Landskrona BoIS . The cup was eventually discontinued and the title of Swedish champions was given to the winners of Allsvenskan which was first created for the 1924 – 25 season .
In 1920 the Swedish Football Association invited Swedish football clubs to compete in official national competitions . Malmö FF earned a place in Division 2 Sydsvenska Serien . They won this division in the first season , and were promoted to Svenska Serien Västra , the highest level of competition in Sweden at the time . However , they were relegated after a single season , and found themselves back in Sydsvenska Serien for nearly a decade until they again achieved promotion to Allsvenskan , in 1931 .
= = = First years in Allsvenskan and early achievements = = =
The club achieved mid @-@ table league positions for two seasons , but they were relegated in 1934 as a penalty for breaking amateur regulations . The club had paid their players a small sum of money for each game . Although against the rules , this was common at the time ; Malmö FF were the only club to show it in their accounting records . In addition to relegation to Division 2 , the club suffered bans for the entire board of directors and twenty @-@ six players . The version of events told by Malmö FF and local press suggests that local rival IFK Malmö reported the violation to the Swedish Football Association . This belief has contributed to the longstanding competitive tensions between the clubs .
The club made their way back to Allsvenskan in 1937 after two seasons in Division 2 . In the same year Eric Persson was elected as chairman after being secretary since 1929 , and held the position until 1974 . Persson is regarded by club leaders and fans as the most important person in the club 's history , as he turned the club professional in the 1970s . Under his leadership the club went from being titleless in 1937 to holding ten Swedish championships by the end of the 1974 season . In 1939 the club reached their highest position yet , third place in Allsvenskan , nine points behind champions IF Elfsborg . Malmö FF 's first Swedish championship came in 1944 , when the club won the penultimate game of the season against AIK before 36 @,@ 000 spectators at Råsunda . The last game of the season was won 7 – 0 against Halmstad BK .
For the next nine seasons , Malmö FF finished in the top three in the league . The club won the Swedish Championship in 1949 , 1950 , 1951 and 1953 , and were runners @-@ up in 1946 , 1948 and 1952 . The club also won Svenska Cupen in 1944 , 1946 , 1947 , 1951 and 1953 , and finished as runners @-@ up in 1945 . Between 6 May 1949 and 1 June 1951 , the team were unbeaten in 49 matches , of which 23 were an unbroken streak of victories .
The club finished as runners @-@ up in Allsvenskan twice more , in 1956 and 1957 . The following year the club left Malmö IP for Malmö Stadion , which had been built for the 1958 FIFA World Cup , and was to host the club for the next 50 years . In 1964 Malmö FF contracted Spanish manager Antonio Durán ; this was the first of a series of changes that led to the most successful era in the club 's history . Young talents such as Lars Granström and Bo Larsson emerged during the early 1960s and would prove to be crucial ingredients in the success that would come in the 1970s . The club finished second in 1964 but went on to win their sixth Swedish Championship in 1965 , when Bo Larsson scored 28 goals to finish as the league 's top goal scorer . Malmö FF once again won Allsvenskan in 1967 , after a less successful year in 1966 . The club 's young players , as well as talents bought in from neighbouring clubs in Scania in 1967 , became a team that consistently finished in the top three in Allsvenskan .
= = = Successful 1970s , European Cup 1979 , 1980s and 1990s = = =
After finishing as runners @-@ up in Allsvenskan for the final two years of the 1960s , Malmö FF started the most successful decade of their history with a Swedish Championship in 1970 . The club won Allsvenskan in 1970 , 1971 , 1974 , 1975 and 1977 as well as Svenska Cupen in 1976 and 1978 . The 1977 Allsvenskan victory qualified the club for the 1978 – 79 European Cup , and after victories against AS Monaco , Dynamo Kyiv , Wisła Kraków and Austria Wien , they reached the final of the competition , which they played at Olympiastadion in Munich against Nottingham Forest . Trevor Francis , who scored the only goal of the match , won it 1 – 0 for Forest . Nevertheless , the 1979 European Cup run is the biggest success in the history of Malmö FF . The team were given the Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal the same year , awarded for the most significant Swedish sporting achievement of the year , for their achievement in the European Cup .
Much of the success during the 1970s was due to new tactics and training methods brought to the club by Englishman Bob Houghton , who managed the club between 1974 and 1980 . Eric Persson was succeeded as chairman in 1974 by Hans Cavalli @-@ Björkman . After the team performed respectably under managers Keith Blunt and Tord Grip in the early 1980s , Roy Hodgson took over in 1985 . He led the club to two Swedish Championships in 1986 and 1988 , and the club won Allsvenskan five years in a row between 1985 and 1989 . At the time , the championship was decided by play @-@ offs between the best teams after the end of the regular season ; this arrangement was in place from 1982 until 1992 . The club reached the play @-@ off final four times between 1986 and 1989 but only managed to win the final twice . Apart from Allsvenskan and Swedish Championships , the club won Svenska Cupen in 1984 , 1986 and 1989 .
Other than finishing as runners @-@ up in Allsvenskan in 1996 , the team did not excel in the 1990s , as the club failed to win Allsvenskan and Svenska Cupen throughout the entire decade . The 1990s ended with relegation from Allsvenskan in 1999 . Hans Cavalli @-@ Björkman was succeeded as chairman by Bengt Madsen in 1999 , and former player Hasse Borg was contracted as Director of Sport . These operational changes , as well as the emergence of young talent Zlatan Ibrahimović , led to the return to Allsvenskan in 2001 . Ibrahimović rose to fame and became an important player in the club 's campaign to return to the top league . He was later sold to Ajax in 2001 , before playing for several European clubs in Italy 's Serie A , FC Barcelona in Spain 's La Liga and his current club as of 2015 , Paris Saint @-@ Germain in France 's Ligue 1 .
= = = Start of the 2000s to the present = = =
The return to Allsvenskan was the start of the successful early 2000s , under the management of Tom Prahl , when the club finished in the top three three times in a row . In 2004 , it won Allsvenskan , the club 's fifteenth Swedish Championship . In 2005 , the club reached the last qualifying round for the UEFA Champions League but were defeated by FC Thun . Successful sponsor work and player sales also made Malmö FF the richest club in Sweden , a position they still hold as of 2013 . The club moved from Malmö Stadion to Swedbank Stadion in 2009 , a stadium built entirely for football and located next to the old one .
In 2009 , Madsen announced that he would step down as chairman , and was replaced by Håkan Jeppsson early the following year . In 2010 , the club marked their 100th anniversary with many celebratory events at the beginning of the season . On the day of the club 's 100th anniversary in 2010 , the Swedish football magazine Offside declared Malmö FF to be the greatest football club in Swedish history . The season became a great success as the club won Allsvenskan for the nineteenth time and became Swedish champions for the sixteenth time . Unlike in 2004 , these successes were achieved without any major transfers before the season , and with a squad consisting mostly of younger players .
In October 2013 , Malmö FF won their seventeenth Swedish championship and 20th Allsvenskan title in the penultimate round of the league away from home . Similar to 2010 , the title was the result of a young squad . The average age of the squad , 23 @.@ 8 years , was the youngest team to become champions since the beginning of the 21st century . The following year Malmö FF qualified for the group stage of the 2014 – 15 UEFA Champions League by beating Ventspils , Sparta Prague and Red Bull Salzburg in the qualifying rounds . This was the first time the club qualified for the competition proper since the re @-@ branding from the European Cup in the 1992 – 93 season and the first time since the 2000 – 01 season that a Swedish club qualified . In the following months Malmö FF defended their league title , winning their eighteenth Swedish championship and 21st Allsvenskan title . This was the first time a club defended the Allsvenskan title since the 2003 season . The 2015 season saw Malmö FF failing to retaining the title and missing out on the top @-@ four for the first time since 2009 . However , the club managed to qualify once again to the group stages of the UEFA Champions League in the 2015 – 16 UEFA Champions League edition .
The club remains one of the dominant football clubs in Sweden . As of the end of the 2015 Allsvenskan season , the club are the leaders of the overall Allsvenskan table maratontabellen . Malmö FF are also the record holders for total number of Allsvenskan championships and Svenska Cupen championships , and share the record of most Swedish championships with IFK Göteborg .
= = Colours and crest = =
The club is often known by the nicknames Di blåe ( The Blues ) and Himmelsblått ( The Sky Blues ) . This is because of the club colours , sky blue and white . The players wear sky @-@ blue shirts , white shorts , and sky @-@ blue socks . The away colours are red and white striped shirts , black shorts , and red socks . Various alternative kits have been used for European play such as all @-@ white kits introduced in the 1950s , a kit which was re @-@ used for the 2011 and 2012 seasons , and all @-@ black kits with sky @-@ blue and golden edges and text used for European play in 2005 as well as in 2013 .
= = = Kit evolution = = =
The club colours have not always been sky blue . The predecessor club BK Idrott wore blue and white striped shirts and white shorts , and this kit was still used for the first six months of 1910 after Malmö FF was founded . This was later changed to red and white striped shirts and black shorts to symbolise that Malmö FF were a new club , and a very similar kit has been used in modern times as the away kit for historical reasons . The present sky @-@ blue kit was introduced in 1920 . Since 2010 a small Scanian flag is featured on the back of the shirt just below the neck .
= = = Crest evolution = = =
The crest of Malmö FF consists of a shield with two vertical sky @-@ blue fields on the sides , and one vertical white field in the middle . Underneath the shield is " Malmö FF " spelled out in sky @-@ blue letters with a sky @-@ blue star under the text . In the top area of the shield is a white horizontal field over the three vertical fields . The abbreviation of the club name " MFF " is spelled out with sky @-@ blue letters in this field . On top of the shield are five tower @-@ like extensions of the white field . The present shield crest made its debut on the shirt in the 1940s . There were other crests before this but they were never featured on the shirt . While the first crest was black and white , the second crest was red and white in accordance with the club 's main colours between 1910 and 1920 .
In modern times two golden stars has been added over the shield . This is a feature used only on the crests on player shirts . The stars are used to symbolize that the club have won more than twenty domestic titles . In the original shield logo the full club name and sky @-@ blue star beneath the shield were not featured , they were later added when club chairman Eric Persson discovered while abroad that people had trouble identifying what city the club came from just by looking at the club crest . For the 100th anniversary of the club in 2010 , the years 1910 and 2010 were featured on each side of the shield on a sky @-@ blue ribbon behind the shield .
= = = Kit manufacturer and shirt sponsors = = =
The current kit manufacturers are Puma , they also sponsor the club and many of Puma 's products are sold in the official Malmö FF souvenir shop at Swedbank Stadion . Puma has supplied kits for the club since at least 1976 , and has been the kit manufacturer for the majority of the 1990s , 2000s and 2010s . Other partners include Tretorn ( late 1970s ) , Admiral ( late 1970s ) , Adidas ( early 1980s ) and Nike ( 1998 – 2001 ) .
The first sponsor to appear on Malmö FF 's jerseys was local shipyard company Kockums in 1976 , and since 1981 at least one sponsor logo has appeared on the club 's kits . In the mid @-@ 1990s it became commonplace for Swedish clubs to have several shirt sponsors . Malmö FF was no exception , and this was the case until 2010 when the club returned to working with only one partner .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Malmö FF are well known for their large local following . The club has several fan clubs , of which the largest is the official fan club MFF Support . It was founded in 1992 . MFF Support describes itself as " a non @-@ profit and non @-@ political organization working against violence and racism " . The current chairman of MFF Support is Magnus Ericsson .
There are also several smaller independent supporter groups . The most prominent of these is Supras Malmö , which was founded in 2003 by a coalition of smaller ultras groups and devoted fans . The name " Supras " is derived from the words supporters and ultras – the latter indicating that the group is inspired by a fan culture with roots in the Mediterranean . Supras Malmö is the most visible group in the main supporter stand at Swedbank Stadion , marking its presence with banners , flags and choreography . Another group with similar goals is Rex Scania . MFF Tifosi 96 ( MT96 ) is a network of supporters creating tifos for special occasions and important games . The average attendance for the club 's games in the 2015 season was 17 @,@ 332 , the third best attendance in 2015 Allsvenskan after Hammarby and AIK .
Because of geographical proximity , minor rivalries exist with Trelleborgs FF and Landskrona BoIS , which are both also located in Scania . The main rivals of the club are Helsingborgs IF , IFK Göteborg and IFK Malmö . The rivalry between Malmö FF and Helsingborgs IF has existed since Malmö FF were promoted up to Allsvenskan in the 1930s , and is primarily geographic , since both teams are from Scania in southern Sweden . The rivalry with IFK Göteborg relates more to title clashes ; the two are the most successful clubs in Swedish football history and the only two to have appeared in European cup finals , IFK Göteborg in the UEFA Cup in 1982 and 1987 and Malmö FF in the European Cup in 1979 .
The rivalry with IFK Malmö is both geographical and historical . The two clubs come from the same city and used to play at the same stadium in the early 20th century . The supposed actions of board members of IFK Malmö in 1933 , revealing Malmö FF 's breaches of amateur football rules to the Swedish Football Association , further contribute to the competitive tensions between the two clubs . IFK Malmö have not played in Allsvenskan since 1962 ; thus matches between the two sides are rare .
= = Stadiums = =
Malmö FF 's first stadium was Malmö IP , which was shared with arch @-@ rivals IFK Malmö . The team played here from the founding of the club in 1910 , until 1958 . The stadium still exists today , albeit with lower capacity , and is now used by women 's team FC Rosengård , who were previously the women 's section of Malmö FF . Capacity in 2012 is 7 @,@ 600 , but attendances were usually much higher when Malmö FF played there . For the last season in 1957 , the average attendance was 15 @,@ 500 . The club 's record attendance at Malmö IP is 22 @,@ 436 against Helsingborgs IF on 1 June 1956 . The stadium is still considered a key part of the club 's history , as it was here that the club were founded , played their first 47 seasons , and won five Swedish championships .
A new stadium was constructed in Malmö after Sweden was awarded the 1958 FIFA World Cup – this saw the birth of Malmö Stadion . Malmö FF played their first season at the stadium in 1958 . The first time the club won the Swedish championship at the stadium was in 1965 . An upper tier was added to the stadium in 1992 . The club enjoyed the most successful era of their history at this stadium , winning ten out of eighteen Swedish championships while based there . The stadium originally had a capacity of 30 @,@ 000 but this was lowered to 27 @,@ 500 due to changes in safety regulations . The club 's record attendance at the stadium was 29 @,@ 328 against Helsingborgs IF on 24 September 1967 .
Following the 2004 victory in Allsvenskan , plans were made to construct a new stadium . In July 2005 , Malmö FF announced that work was to begin on Swedbank Stadion , designed for 18 @,@ 000 seated spectators and 6 @,@ 000 standing . The stadium can also accommodate 21 @,@ 000 as an all @-@ seater for international and European games in which terracing is not allowed . Construction started in 2007 and was finished in 2009 . The new stadium is located next to Malmö Stadion . Although there was still small @-@ scale construction going on around the stadium at the time , the stadium was inaugurated on 13 April 2009 with the first home game of the 2009 season against Örgryte IS ; Malmö FF 's Labinot Harbuzi scored the inaugural goal in the 61st minute . The first Swedish championship won at the stadium occurred in 2010 , when the club beat Mjällby AIF on 7 November in the final game of the season 2 – 0 . Attendance at this game set the stadium record of 24 @,@ 148 . Swedbank Stadion is a UEFA category 4 rated stadium .
= = Club ranking = =
= = = UEFA coefficient = = =
Correct as of 15 March 2016 . The table shows the position of Malmö FF ( highlighted ) , based on their UEFA coefficient club ranking , and four clubs , which are closest to Malmö FF 's position ( the two clubs with the higher coefficient and the two with the lower coefficient ) .
= = = Euro Club Index = = =
Correct as of 15 March 2016 . The table shows the position of Malmö FF ( highlighted ) , based on their Euro Club Index ranking , and the four clubs which are closest to Malmö FF 's position ( the two clubs with the higher ranking and the two with the lower ranking ) .
In the Euro Club Index Malmö FF 's highest ranking historically is 107 which was achieved on 3 October 2014 , the lowest was 283 which was achieved on 24 August 2009 .
= = Ownership and finances = =
Malmö FF made the transition from an amateur club to fully professional in the late 1970s under the leadership of club chairman Eric Persson . The club is an open member association , and the annual general meeting is the highest policy @-@ making body where each member has one vote , therefore no shares are issued . The meeting approves the accounts , votes to elect the chairman and the board , and decides on incoming motions . The current chairman is Håkan Jeppsson who has been chairman since 2010 after taking over after Bengt Madsen . The club 's legal status means that any interest claims are made to the club and not to the board of directors or club members . Daily operations are run by a managing director who liaises with the chairman .
With an equity of 450 million SEK the club is the richest football club in Sweden as of 2016 . The turnover for 2014 , excluding player transactions , was 358 @.@ 8 million SEK . The highest transfer fee received by Malmö FF for a player was 86 @.@ 2 million SEK ( € 8 @.@ 7 million at that time ) for Zlatan Ibrahimović who was sold to Ajax in 2001 . As of 2015 , this is the highest transfer fee ever paid to a Swedish football club .
The main sponsors of Malmö FF are Volkswagen , Elitfönster AB , Intersport , Imtech , JMS Mediasystem , Mercedes @-@ Benz , SOVA and Svenska Spel . The club also have a naming rights deal with Swedbank regarding the name of Swedbank Stadion .
= = Media coverage = =
Malmö FF have been the subject of several films . Some examples are Swedish football documentaries Blådårar 1 and Blådårar 2 , which portray the club from both supporter and player perspectives during the 1997 and 2000 seasons . Blådårar 1 is set in 1997 , when the club finished third in Allsvenskan . The film focuses on devoted fan Lasse , player Anders Andersson , former chairman Hans Cavalli @-@ Björkman and other individuals . Blådårar 2 is set in 2000 , the year after the club had been relegated to Superettan , and follows the team as they fight for Malmö FF 's return to Allsvenskan . The second film continues to follow Lasse , but also has a significant focus on Zlatan Ibrahimović , his progress and how he was eventually sold to AFC Ajax during the 2001 season .
The club have also been featured in Mitt Hjärtas Malmö , a series of documentaries covering the history of Malmö . Clips used included match footage from the 1940s ( Volume 7 ) , and match footage from the 1979 European Cup Final in Munich from a fan 's perspective ( Volume 8 ) . Volume 9 of the series is devoted entirely to coverage of the club 's 100th anniversary in 2010 .
In the 2005 Swedish drama movie Om Sara , actor Alexander Skarsgård plays the fictional football star Kalle Öberg , who plays for Malmö FF . Finally , a recurring sketch in the second season of the comedy sketch show Hipphipp ! involved a group of Malmö FF fans singing and chanting while performing everyday tasks , such as shopping or operating an ATM .
= = Players = =
= = = First @-@ team squad = = =
As of 25 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
As of 25 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
12 – MFF Support
= = = Notable players = = =
List criteria :
player has made more than 500 appearances overall for the club , or
player has won Guldbollen , an official UEFA or FIFA award , or
player has been picked as one of the 11 best players in the official hall of fame Sydsvenskan team that was selected by the newspapers readers for the club 's 100th anniversary in 2010 .
= = Management = =
= = = Organisation = = =
As of 11 April 2014
= = = Technical staff = = =
As of 26 July 2016
= = = Notable managers = = =
This is a list of managers who have won one or more titles at the club
= = Statistics = =
Malmö FF have played 80 seasons in Allsvenskan . The only clubs to have played more seasons are AIK with 87 and IFK Göteborg with 83 . The club are also the leaders of the all @-@ time Allsvenskan table since the end of the 2012 season . They are the only Swedish club to have played a European Cup final , present day UEFA Champions League , having reached the 1979 European Cup Final .
= = = Club honours = = =
Malmö FF have won domestic , European , and international honours . The club currently holds the records for most Allsvenskan and Svenska Cupen titles , they also share the record of most Swedish championships with IFK Göteborg . The majority of Malmö FF 's honours are from the 1970s . The club 's last major honour was in 2014 when they won Allsvenskan . The club first played in Europe for the 1964 – 65 European season in the European Cup , and most recently in the 2015 – 16 European season in the UEFA Champions League group stage . Including the qualification stages , they have participated in the European Cup and UEFA Champions League fifteen times and in the UEFA Cup and UEFA Europa League fourteen times . The club have also played in other now defunct European competitions such as the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup and the UEFA Intertoto Cup .
= = = = Domestic = = = =
Swedish ChampionsWinners ( 18 ) : 1943 – 44 , 1948 – 49 , 1949 – 50 , 1950 – 51 , 1952 – 53 , 1965 , 1967 , 1970 , 1971 , 1974 , 1975 , 1977 , 1986 , 1988 , 2004 , 2010 , 2013 , 2014
= = = = = League = = = = =
Allsvenskan ( Tier 1 ) Winners ( 21 ) : 1943 – 44 , 1948 – 49 , 1949 – 50 , 1950 – 51 , 1952 – 53 , 1965 , 1967 , 1970 , 1971 , 1974 , 1975 , 1977 , 1985 , 1986 , 1987 , 1988 , 1989 , 2004 , 2010 , 2013 , 2014
Runners @-@ up ( 14 ) : 1945 – 46 , 1947 – 48 , 1951 – 52 , 1955 – 56 , 1956 – 57 , 1964 , 1968 , 1969 , 1976 , 1978 , 1980 , 1983 , 1996 , 2002
Division 2 Sydsvenska Serien ( Tier 2 ) Winners ( 1 ) : 1920 – 21
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1923 – 24
Division 2 Södra ( Tier 2 ) Winners ( 3 ) : 1930 – 31 , 1934 – 35 , 1935 – 36
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1929 – 30
Superettan ( Tier 2 ) Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 2000
= = = = = Cups = = = = =
Svenska CupenWinners ( 14 ) : 1944 , 1946 , 1947 , 1951 , 1953 , 1967 , 1972 – 73 , 1973 – 74 , 1974 – 75 , 1977 – 78 , 1979 – 80 , 1983 – 84 , 1985 – 86 , 1988 – 89
Runners @-@ up ( 4 ) : 1945 , 1970 – 71 , 1995 – 96 , 2015 – 16
Allsvenskan play @-@ offsWinners ( 2 ) : 1986 , 1988
Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1987 , 1989
Svenska SupercupenWinners ( 2 ) : 2013 , 2014
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 2011
= = = = = Doubles = = = = =
Allsvenskan and Svenska CupenWinners ( 8 ) : 1943 – 44 , 1950 – 51 , 1952 – 53 , 1967 , 1974 , 1975 , 1986 , 1989
= = = = European = = = =
European CupRunners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1978 – 79
= = = = Worldwide = = = =
Intercontinental CupRunners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1979
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= United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia =
The United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia , commonly abbreviated UNCRO , was a United Nations ( UN ) peacekeeping mission in Croatia . It was established under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter and approved by the UN Security Council ( UNSC ) Resolution 981 on 31 March 1995 . UNCRO inherited personnel and infrastructure from the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) . Its command was located in Zagreb ; the peacekeeping troops were deployed in four sectors named North , South , East , and West . Twenty different countries contributed troops to the mission .
UNCRO started with more than 15 @,@ 000 troops taken over from UNPROFOR ; the personnel count was gradually reduced to approximately 7 @,@ 000 by the end of the mission in early 1996 . South Korean diplomat Byung Suk Min was the civilian head of the mission , while the military commanders of UNCRO were Generals Raymond Crabbe and Eid Kamal Al @-@ Rodan . UNCRO was linked with UNPROFOR , which remained active in Bosnia and Herzegovina , and with the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force ( UNPREDEP ) , which was deployed in the Republic of Macedonia . The mission was terminated on 15 January 1996 by UNSC Resolution 1025 , passed on 30 November 1995 . Sixteen UNCRO troops were killed , including four during Operation Storm in August 1995 .
UNCRO was tasked with upholding the March 1994 ceasefire in the Croatian War of Independence , supporting an agreement on economic cooperation between Croatia and the self @-@ declared Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , monitoring areas between opposing armies , monitoring the demilitarised Prevlaka peninsula , undertaking liaison functions , delivering humanitarian aid , and occupying 25 checkpoints along Croatia 's international borders between RSK @-@ held territory , the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , and Bosnia and Herzegovina . UNCRO , like the UNPROFOR mission before it , was criticised for lacking sufficient troops and adequate resources to carry out the mission , and fulfilment of the mission 's mandate proved nearly impossible .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the Communist regime in Croatia , ethnic tensions worsened . After the elections , the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija , or JNA ) confiscated the weapons of Croatia 's Territorial Defence Force ( Teritorijalna obrana , or TO ) to minimise any resistance . On 17 August 1990 , the tensions escalated to an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , and parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia regions . The Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , later established in those areas , declared its intention to integrate with Serbia , and was viewed by the Government of Croatia as a breakaway region . The JNA prevented Croatian police from intervening . By March 1991 , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . In June , Croatia declared independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated , but implementation of the decision was postponed until 8 October by a three @-@ month moratorium . A campaign of ethnic cleansing then began in the RSK ; most non @-@ Serbs were expelled by early 1993 .
As the JNA increasingly supported the RSK , the Croatian police could not cope with the situation . In May 1991 , the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde , or ZNG ) was formed as the military of Croatia and was renamed the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska , or HV ) in November . Late 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war , culminating in the Battle of the Barracks , the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar . In January 1992 , a ceasefire agreement to implement the Vance plan was signed by representatives of Croatia , the JNA , and the UN , and fighting paused . The Vance plan was designed to stop hostilities in Croatia and allow negotiations by neutralizing any influence caused by fighting , but offered no political solutions in advance . The plan entailed deployment of the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ person United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) to the major conflict areas known as " UN Protected Areas " ( UNPAs ) . UNPROFOR was tasked with creating a buffer between the belligerents , disarming Croatian Serb elements of the TO , overseeing JNA and HV withdrawal from the UNPAs , and return of refugees to the area . United Nations Security Council Resolution 743 of 21 February 1992 described the legal basis of the UN mission that had been requested and agreed upon in November 1991 , and made no explicit reference to Chapter VI or Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter . Only a reference to Chapter VII would have permitted the peacekeeping force to enforce its mandate regardless of the level of cooperation of the belligerents .
Because of organisational problems and breaches of the ceasefire agreement , UNPROFOR did not start to deploy until 8 March and took two months to fully deploy in the UNPAs . Even though UNPROFOR had placed most heavy weapons of the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina ( ARSK ) in storage controlled jointly by the UN and the RSK by January 1993 , the force was unable to fulfil all of the provisions of the Vance plan , including disarmament of the ARSK , the return of refugees , restoration of civilian authority , and the establishment of an ethnically integrated police . It also failed to remove ARSK forces from areas outside the designated UNPAs which were under ARSK control at the time the ceasefire had been signed . Those areas , later known as the " pink zones " , were supposed to be restored to Croatian control from the outset . Failure to implement this aspect of the Vance plan made the pink zones a major source of contention between Croatia and the RSK . In 1993 , worried that the situation on the ground might become permanent , Croatia launched several small @-@ scale military offensives against the RSK to seize significant local objectives and attract international attention . In response , the ARSK retrieved their weapons from the UN / RSK @-@ controlled storage sites , reversing the only major success of UNPROFOR in Croatia .
= = Transition from UNPROFOR to UNCRO = =
The UNPROFOR mandate was extended several times , in increments of up to six months , with consent of the government of Croatia . That changed in early 1995 , when Croatian President Franjo Tuđman wrote to the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations informing him that Croatia would not accept further extensions of the mission once it expired on 31 March and asking that UNPROFOR leave Croatia by the end of June . At the time , it was established UN practice to seek consent of the country where its peacekeepers were deployed , and the letter effectively required UNPROFOR to withdraw completely from Croatia . Such action would also require abolishment of the UNPAs , which had been identified as integral parts of Croatia by United Nations Security Council Resolution 815 of 30 March 1993 . Two days later , the Secretary @-@ General reported to the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) that UNPROFOR was unable to implement important elements of the Vance plan , enforce a ceasefire , or protect its own vehicles against hijackings in the UNPAs .
On 31 January , US ambassador Peter Galbraith unsuccessfully tried to persuade Tuđman 's aide Hrvoje Šarinić to accept another extension of the UNPROFOR mandate , explaining that the conflict would inevitably escalate once the UN force withdrew . This rebuff was followed by harsh French and UK diplomatic responses calling on the UN to ignore the Croatian decision , which resulted in Tuđman dismissing any extension of the mandate . The US Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs , Richard Holbrooke , met Tuđman and suggested to him that if UNPROFOR was permitted to stay , Croatia could count on integration into the European Union and NATO . As a way out of the diplomatic row , Holbrooke proposed that UNPROFOR be replaced by a new mission using the same personnel and organisational structure . Following Croatian agreement , the UNSC adopted Resolution 981 establishing the United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia ( UNCRO ) , replacing UNPROFOR in the country . The new mission 's name was devised by Under @-@ Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations Shashi Tharoor .
= = Mission = =
= = = Mandate and functions = = =
The UNCRO mission was established under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter . It was initially scheduled to end on 30 November 1995 , and its mandate was to support implementation of a ceasefire agreed to by Croatia and the RSK on 29 March 1994 , as well as an agreement on economic cooperation made on 2 December 1994 . The former entailed monitoring areas between HV and ARSK forward positions , verification that specific types of heavy weapons were at least 10 or 20 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 or 12 @.@ 4 miles ) away from the forward military positions or placed in storage , maintenance of checkpoints , chairing Joint Commissions , and performance of liaison functions . The economic functions were supporting negotiation and implementation of further economic arrangements and facilitating and supporting activities aimed at opening of transport routes and power and water supply networks .
UNCRO was also tasked with delivery of humanitarian aid and control , monitoring , and reporting of any transport of military personnel , supplies , equipment , or weapons across UNCRO @-@ staffed border checkpoints between RSK @-@ held parts of Croatia on one side and Bosnia and Herzegovina or the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on the other . There were 25 border checkpoints manned by UNCRO . The mandate also directed UNCRO to monitor demilitarisation of the Prevlaka Peninsula at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor , according to the UNSC Resolution 779 . Deployment of UNCRO was formally approved by the UNSC on 28 April . The mission was scheduled to be scaled down in June to 8 @,@ 750 troops from the larger UNPROFOR force in the country .
UNCRO was criticised for several reasons . The Secretary @-@ General 's Report to the Council described the failures of UNPROFOR , but the new mission did not address them . There were insufficient troops , having been reduced from UNPROFOR levels by the new mission mandate , and inadequate human and material resources to carry out the mission tasks . As a result , fulfilment of the mission mandate was nearly impossible . While Croatian sources said that the mission name was the only real difference from UNPROFOR , the RSK authorities were not satisfied with the UNCRO mission . Specifically , the RSK objected to the deployment of UNCRO troops along the international borders and to the mission name . Conversely , Croats were pleased that the mission acronym appeared to be an abbreviation of Croatia . In response , Czech UNCRO troops used vehicle licence plates bearing the new mission 's acronym when operating in HV @-@ controlled territory and UNPROFOR plates in areas held by the ARSK due to safety concerns .
= = = Order of battle = = =
UNCRO was commanded from UN Peace Force Headquarters ( UNPF @-@ HQ ) established in Zagreb . UNPF @-@ HQ controlled UNCRO , the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force ( UNPREDEP ) in the Republic of Macedonia , and UNPROFOR — which was confined to Bosnia and Herzegovina from late March . The UNPF @-@ HQ commander was French Lieutenant General Bernard Janvier . In July , South Korean diplomat Byung Suk Min was appointed as head of UNCRO , with Major General Eid Kamal Al @-@ Rodan of the Royal Jordanian Army as the mission 's military commander . Before Al @-@ Rodan , the post was held by Canadian Lieutenant General Raymond Crabbe . UNCRO was initially deployed to the same parts of Croatia as UNPROFOR , however contemporary UNSC documents no longer referred to them as UNPAs — applying the designations of Sector East , West , North , and South , or " areas under the control of the local Serb authorities " instead . One group of sources refers to the areas of UNCRO deployment as UNPAs , another reflects the UNSC practice and omits the acronym , while others refer to the areas as " former UNPAs " .
Troops from Argentina , Belgium , Canada , Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Indonesia , Jordan , Kenya , Nepal , Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovakia , Sweden , Ukraine , and the United States contributed to the mission . When UNCRO replaced UNPROFOR in Croatia in March 1995 , there were 15 @,@ 229 UN troops — including UNPF @-@ HQ personnel — in Croatia . By mid @-@ November , the mission had been scaled down to 7 @,@ 041 personnel , including 164 UN Military Observers and 296 UN Civilian Police ( UNCIVPOL ) personnel .
= = = Response to Croatian offensives = = =
On 1 May , HV launched Operation Flash and overran the ARSK @-@ held part of Sector West in the course of few days . Šarinić warned Crabbe of the attack hours in advance to allow UNCRO troops to seek shelter . The RSK authorities said that some ARSK units were not able to remove antitank weapons from UNCRO depots in Stara Gradiška and near Pakrac until after the offensive began . These weapons had been stored there pursuant to the March 1994 ceasefire agreement . Nonetheless , UNCRO did not stop ARSK troops from retrieving the weapons . During the fighting , ARSK troops took 15 UNCIVPOL members , two interpreters , and 89 Nepalese and Argentinean troops hostage to use as human shields against the HV . HV troops hijacked an UNCRO armoured personnel carrier and a Land Rover to precede HV tanks that were moving west along the A3 motorway . On 3 May , the Argentinean battalion of UNCRO facilitated the surrender of 600 ARSK troops near Pakrac , following an agreement reached between Croatia and the RSK which was mediated by Yasushi Akashi , the personal representative of the UN Secretary @-@ General . During Operation Flash , three Jordanian UNCRO troops were wounded by HV fire . The offensive made clear that the deployment of UNCRO would not deter further Croatian offensives .
On 4 August , the HV initiated Operation Storm , which was aimed at recapturing Sectors North and South , which encompassed the bulk of the RSK . UNCRO was notified three hours in advance of the attack , when Šarinić telephoned Janvier . In addition , each HV corps notified the UNCRO sector in the path of its planned advance , and requested written confirmation that the information had been received . UNCRO relayed the information to the RSK authorities . Two days later , UNCRO was requested to protect 35 @,@ 000 Serb civilians accompanying the ARSK as it retreated towards Bosnia and Herzegovina . They were trapped near Topusko when HV troops captured Glina , closing the last road available to them . The UNCRO Ukrainian battalion base was used as a venue for negotiations for the surrender of the trapped ARSK Kordun Corps ; the negotiations were conducted in the presence of UNCRO officers . The commander of UNCRO Sector North signed the surrender agreement as a witness . This offensive also involved actions against UN peacekeepers ; the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which supported the offensive from the Bihać pocket , attacked UNCRO observation posts manned by Polish troops , while HV troops used several Danish peacekeepers as human shields . During the offensive , ARSK detained five Sector East headquarters staff , several UNCRO vehicles were hijacked , and UN personnel were harassed . Four UN peacekeepers were killed in the offensive — three as a result of HV actions , and one as a result of ARSK fire — and 16 were injured . HV troops also destroyed 98 UN observation posts .
Following the two offensives and negotiations led by Akashi , UNCRO continued to supervise the ceasefire in Sector East . The role of UNCRO in Sectors North and South was limited to post @-@ conflict peace @-@ building following an agreement between Croatian authorities and Akashi . By November 1995 , UNCRO had withdrawn to Sector East . Even though the UN had planned to reduce UNCRO to 4 @,@ 190 troops by the end of September , and to approximately 2 @,@ 500 by October , the mission strength remained at more than 7 @,@ 000 troops until November .
= = Termination and aftermath = =
The UNCRO mission was ended by UNSC Resolution 1025 , passed on 30 November 1995 . The resolution was passed in the wake of the Erdut Agreement between Croatia and representatives of Serbs in Sector East . It defined mechanisms for peaceful restoration of the region to Croatian control and established an interim period ending on 15 January 1996 , when authority was to be transferred from UNCRO to a new transitional force to be deployed to the area . When the interim period expired , the UNSC adopted resolutions 1037 and 1038 , which established the United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Sirmium in the former Sector East and the United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka . Commencement of the two new missions coincided with NATO 's arrival in Bosnia and Herzegovina to enforce the Dayton Accords .
Sixteen UNCRO personnel died during the mission : three Kenyan soldiers were killed ; the Czech , Danish , French , and Russian battalions lost two each ; and the Argentinean , Belgian , Jordanian , Polish , and Ukrainian contingents each lost one . Four of the UNCRO peacekeepers were killed during major combat in the mission area .
The United Nations Medal was awarded to troops who served with UNCRO for at least 90 consecutive days . The medal was issued suspended from a ribbon 35 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 inches ) wide with a 9 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 35 in ) red stripe with a white border on a blue background , flanked by 6 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) stripes — olive green on the left and brown on the right — set 3 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 12 inches ) apart from the white border .
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= Carole Lombard =
Carole Lombard ( born Jane Alice Peters , October 6 , 1908 – January 16 , 1942 ) was an American film actress . She was particularly noted for her energetic , often off @-@ beat roles in the screwball comedies of the 1930s . She was the highest @-@ paid star in Hollywood in the late 1930s .
Lombard was born into a wealthy family in Fort Wayne , Indiana , but was raised in Los Angeles by her single mother . At 12 , she was recruited by the film director Allan Dwan and made her screen debut in A Perfect Crime ( 1921 ) . Eager to become an actress , she signed a contract with the Fox Film Corporation at age 16 , but mainly played bit parts . She was dropped by Fox after a car accident left a scar on her face . Lombard appeared in 15 short comedies for Mack Sennett between 1927 and 1929 , and then began appearing in feature films such as High Voltage and The Racketeer . After a successful appearance in The Arizona Kid ( 1930 ) , she was signed to a contract with Paramount Pictures .
Paramount quickly began casting Lombard as a leading lady , primarily in drama films . Her fame increased when she married William Powell in 1931 , but the pair divorced two years later . A turning point in Lombard 's career came in 1934 , when she starred in Howard Hawks ' pioneering screwball comedy Twentieth Century . The actress found her niche in this genre , and continued to appear in films such as Hands Across the Table ( 1935 ) - forming a popular partnership with Fred MacMurray , My Man Godfrey ( 1936 ) , for which she was Oscar nominated , and Nothing Sacred ( 1937 ) . During this period , Lombard married " the King of Hollywood " , Clark Gable , and the pair was treated in the media as a celebrity supercouple . Keen to win an Oscar , at the end of the decade , Lombard began to move towards more serious roles . Unsuccessful in this aim , she returned to comedy in Alfred Hitchcock 's Mr. & Mrs. Smith ( 1941 ) and Ernst Lubitsch 's To Be or Not to Be ( 1942 ) – her final film role .
Lombard 's career was cut short when she died at the age of 33 in an aircraft crash on Mount Potosi , Nevada , while returning from a War Bond tour . Today , she is remembered as one of the definitive actresses of the screwball comedy genre and American comedy , and ranks among the American Film Institute 's greatest female stars of classic Hollywood cinema .
= = Early years = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Lombard was born in Fort Wayne , Indiana , on October 6 , 1908 . Christened with the name Jane Alice Peters , she was the third child and only daughter of Frederick Christian Peters ( 1875 – 1935 ) and Elizabeth Jayne " Bessie " ( Knight ) Peters ( 1876 – 1942 ) . Her two older brothers , to each of whom she was close , both growing up and in adulthood , were Frederick Charles ( 1902 @-@ 1979 ) and John Stuart ( 1906 @-@ 1956 ) . Lombard 's parents both descended from wealthy families and her early years were lived in comfort , with the biographer Robert Matzen calling it her " silver spoon period " . The marriage between her parents was strained , however , and in October 1914 , her mother took the children and moved to Los Angeles . Although the couple did not divorce , the separation was permanent . Her father 's continued financial support allowed the family to live without worry , if not with the same affluence they had enjoyed in Indiana , and they settled into an apartment near Venice Boulevard in Los Angeles .
Described by her biographer Wes Gehring as " a free @-@ spirited tomboy " , the young Lombard was passionately involved in sports and enjoyed watching movies . At Virgil Junior High School , she participated in tennis , volleyball , and swimming , and won trophies for her achievements in athletics . At the age of 12 , this hobby unexpectedly landed Lombard her first screen role . While playing baseball with friends , she caught the attention of the film director Allan Dwan , who later recalled seeing " a cute @-@ looking little tomboy ... out there knocking the hell out of the other kids , playing better baseball than they were . And I needed someone of her type for this picture . " With the encouragement of her mother , Lombard happily took a small role in the melodrama A Perfect Crime ( 1921 ) . She was on set for two days , playing the sister of Monte Blue . Dwan later commented , " She ate it up " .
= = = Aspiring actress , Fox ( 1921 – 26 ) = = =
A Perfect Crime was not widely distributed , but the brief experience spurred Lombard and her mother to look for more film work . The teenager attended several auditions , but none was successful . While appearing as the queen of Fairfax High School 's May Day Carnival at the age of 15 , she was scouted by an employee of Charlie Chaplin and offered a screen test to appear in his film The Gold Rush ( 1925 ) . Lombard was not given the role , but it raised Hollywood 's awareness of the aspiring actress . Her test was seen by the Vitagraph Film Company , which expressed an interest in signing her to a contract . Although this did not materialize , the condition that she adopt a new first name ( " Jane " was considered too dull ) lasted with Lombard throughout her career . She selected the name " Carol " after a girl with whom she played tennis in middle school .
In October 1924 , shortly after these disappointments , 16 @-@ year @-@ old Lombard was signed to a contract with the Fox Film Corporation . How this came about is uncertain : in her lifetime , it was reported that a director for the studio scouted her at a dinner party , but more recent evidence suggests that Lombard 's mother contacted Louella Parsons , the gossip columnist , who then got her a screen test . According to the biographer Larry Swindell , Lombard 's beauty convinced Winfield Sheehan , head of the studio , to sign her to a $ 75 @-@ per @-@ week contract . The teenager abandoned her schooling to embark on this new career . Fox was happy to use the name Carol , but unlike Vitagraph , disliked her surname . From this point , she became " Carol Lombard " , the new name taken from a family friend .
The majority of Lombard 's appearances with Fox were bit parts in low @-@ budget Westerns and adventure films . She later commented on her dissatisfaction with these roles : " All I had to do was simper prettily at the hero and scream with terror when he battled with the villain . " She fully enjoyed the other aspects of film work , however , such as photo shoots , costume fittings , and socializing with actors on the studio set . Lombard embraced the flapper lifestyle and became a regular at the Coconut Grove nightclub , where she won several Charleston dance competitions .
In March 1925 , Fox gave Lombard a leading role in the drama Marriage in Transit , opposite Edmund Lowe . Her performance was well @-@ received , with a reviewer for Motion Picture News writing that she displayed , " good poise and considerable charm . " Despite this , the studio heads were unconvinced that Lombard was leading lady material , and her one @-@ year contract was not renewed . Gehring has suggested that a facial scar she obtained in an automobile accident was a factor in this decision . Fearing that the scar — which ran across her cheek — would ruin her career , the 17 @-@ year @-@ old had an early plastic surgery procedure to make it less visible . For the remainder of her career , Lombard learned to hide the mark with make @-@ up and careful lighting .
= = Breakthrough = =
= = = Sennett and Pathé ( 1927 – 29 ) = = =
After a year without work , Lombard obtained a screen test for the " King of Comedy " Mack Sennett . She was offered a contract , and although she initially had reservations about performing in slapstick comedies , the actress joined his company as one of the " Sennett Bathing Beauties " . She appeared in 15 short films between September 1927 and March 1929 , and greatly enjoyed her time at the studio . It gave Lombard her first experiences in comedy and provided valuable training for her future work in the genre . In 1940 , she called her Sennett years " the turning point of [ my ] acting career . "
Sennett 's productions were distributed by Pathé Exchange , and in 1928 , the company began casting Lombard in feature films . She had prominent roles in Show Folks and Ned McCobb 's Daughter , where reviewers noted that she made a " good impression " and was " worth watching " . The following year , Pathé elevated Lombard from a supporting player to a leading lady . Her success in Raoul Walsh 's 1928 picture Me , Gangster , opposite June Collyer and Don Terry on his film debut , finally eased the pressure her family had been putting on her to succeed . In Howard Higgin 's High Voltage , her first talking picture , she played a sheriff 's daughter stranded with a group during a snow storm . Her next film , the comedy Big News , cast her opposite Robert Armstrong and was a critical and commercial success . Lombard was reunited with Armstrong for the crime drama The Racketeer , released in late 1929 . The review in Film Daily wrote , " Carol Lombard proves a real surprise , and does her best work to date . In fact , this is the first opportunity she has had to prove that she has the stuff to go over . "
= = = Paramount , Powell marriage ( 1930 – 33 ) = = =
In 1930 , Lombard returned to Fox for a one @-@ off role in the western The Arizona Kid . It was a big release for the studio , starring the popular actor Warner Baxter , in which Lombard received third billing . Following the success of the film , Paramount Pictures recruited Lombard and signed her to a $ 350 @-@ per @-@ week contract ( gradually increasing to $ 3 @,@ 500 @-@ per @-@ week by 1936 ) . They cast her in the Buddy Rogers comedy Safety in Numbers , and one critic observed of her work , " Lombard proves [ to be ] an ace comedienne . " For her second assignment , Fast and Loose with Miriam Hopkins , Paramount mistakenly credited the actress as " Carole Lombard " . She decided she liked this spelling and it became her permanent screen name .
Lombard appeared in five films throughout 1931 , beginning with the Frank Tuttle comedy It Pays to Advertise . Her next two films , Man of the World and Ladies Man , both featured William Powell , Paramount 's top male star . Lombard had been a fan of the actor before they met , attracted to his good looks and debonair screen persona , and they were soon in a relationship . The differences between the pair have been noted by biographers : she was 22 , carefree , and famously foul @-@ mouthed , while he was 38 , intellectual , and sophisticated . Despite their disparate personalities , Lombard married Powell on June 6 , 1931 , at her Beverly Hills home . Talking to the media , she argued for the benefits of " love between two people who are diametrically different " , claiming that their relationship allowed for a " perfect see @-@ saw love " .
The marriage to Powell increased Lombard 's fame , while she continued to please critics with her work in Up Pops the Devil and I Take this Woman ( both 1931 ) . In reviews for the latter film , which co @-@ starred Gary Cooper , several critics predicted that Lombard was set to become a major star . She went on to appear in five films throughout 1932 . No One Man and Sinners in the Sun were not successful , but Edward Buzzell 's romantic picture Virtue was well received . After featuring in the drama No More Orchids , Lombard was cast as the wife of a con artist in No Man of Her Own . Her co @-@ star for the picture was Clark Gable , who was rapidly becoming one of Hollywood 's top celebrities . The film was a critical and commercial success , and Wes Gehring writes that it was " arguably Lombard 's finest film appearance " to that point . It was the only picture that Gable and Lombard , future husband and wife , made together . There was no romantic interest at this time however , as she recounted to Garson Kanin : " [ we ] did all kinds of hot love scenes ... and I never got any kind of tremble out of him at all . "
In August 1933 , Lombard and Powell divorced after 26 months of marriage , although they remained very good friends until Lombard 's death . At the time , she blamed it on their careers , but in a 1936 interview , she admitted that this " had little to do with the divorce . We were just two completely incompatible people . " She appeared in five films that year , beginning with the drama From Hell to Heaven and continuing with Supernatural , her only horror vehicle . After a small role in The Eagle and the Hawk , a war film starring Fredric March and Cary Grant , she starred in two melodramas : Brief Moment , which critics enjoyed , and White Woman , where she was paired with Charles Laughton .
= = Hollywood star = =
= = = Screwball beginnings ( 1934 – 35 ) = = =
The year 1934 marked a high point in Lombard 's career . She began with Wesley Ruggles 's musical drama Bolero , where George Raft and she showcased their dancing skills in an extravagantly staged performance to Maurice Ravel 's " Boléro " . Before filming began , she was offered the lead female role in It Happened One Night , but turned it down because of scheduling conflicts with this production . Bolero was favorably received , while her next film , the musical comedy We 're Not Dressing with Bing Crosby , was a box @-@ office hit .
Lombard was then recruited by the director Howard Hawks , a second cousin , to star in his screwball comedy film Twentieth Century which proved a watershed in her career and made her a major star . Hawks had seen the actress inebriated at a party , where he found her to be " hilarious and uninhibited and just what the part needed " , and she was cast opposite John Barrymore . In Twentieth Century , Lombard played an actress who is pursued by her former mentor , a flamboyant Broadway impresario . Hawks and Barrymore were unimpressed with her work in rehearsals , finding that she was " acting " too hard and giving a stiff performance . The director encouraged Lombard to relax , be herself , and act on her instincts . She responded well to this tutoring , and reviews for the film commented on her unexpectedly " fiery talent " — " a Lombard like no Lombard you 've ever seen " . The Los Angeles Times ' critic felt that she was " entirely different " from her formerly cool , " calculated " persona , adding , " she vibrates with life and passion , abandon and diablerie " .
The next films in which Lombard appeared were Henry Hathaway 's Now and Forever ( 1934 ) , featuring Gary Cooper and the new child star Shirley Temple , and Lady by Choice ( 1934 ) , which was a critical and commercial success . The Gay Bride ( 1934 ) placed her opposite Chester Morris in a gangster comedy , but this outing was panned by critics . After reuniting with George Raft for another dance picture , Rumba ( 1935 ) , Lombard was given the opportunity to repeat the screwball success of Twentieth Century . In Mitchell Leisen 's Hands Across the Table ( 1935 ) , she portrayed a manicurist in search of a rich husband , played by Fred MacMurray . Critics praised the film , and Photoplay 's reviewer stated that Lombard had reaffirmed her talent for the genre . It is remembered as one of her best films , and the pairing of Lombard and MacMurray proved so successful , that they made three more pictures together .
= = = Continued success ( 1936 – 37 ) = = =
Lombard 's first film of 1936 was Love Before Breakfast , described by Gehring as " The Taming of the Shrew , screwball style " . In William K. Howard 's The Princess Comes Across , her second comedy with MacMurray , she played a budding actress who wins a film contract by masquerading as a Swedish princess . The performance was considered a satire of Greta Garbo , and was widely praised by critics . Lombard 's success continued as she was recruited by Universal Studios to star in the screwball comedy My Man Godfrey ( 1936 ) . William Powell , who was playing the titular Godfrey , insisted on her being cast as the female lead ; despite their divorce , the pair remained friendly and Powell felt she would be perfect in the role of Irene , a zany heiress who employs a " forgotten man " as the family butler . The film was directed by Gregory LaCava , who knew Lombard personally and advised that she draw on her " eccentric nature " for the role . She worked hard on the performance , particularly with finding the appropriate facial expressions for Irene . My Man Godfrey was released to great acclaim and was a box office hit . It received six nominations at the 9th Academy Awards , including Lombard for Best Actress . Biographers cite it as her finest performance , and Frederick Ott says it " clearly established [ her ] as a comedienne of the first rank . "
By 1937 , Lombard was one of Hollywood 's most popular actresses , and also the highest @-@ paid star in Hollywood following the deal which Myron Selznick negotiated with Paramount that brought her $ 450 @,@ 000 , more than five times the salary of the U.S. President . As her salary was widely reported in the press , Lombard stated that 80 % of her earnings went in taxes , but that she was happy to help improve her country . The comments earned her much positive publicity , and President Franklin D. Roosevelt sent her a personal letter of thanks .
Her first release of the year was Leisen 's Swing High , Swing Low , a third pairing with MacMurray . The film focused on a romance between two cabaret performers , and was a critical and commercial success . It had been primarily a drama , with occasional moments of comedy , but for her next project , Lombard returned to the screwball genre . Producer David O. Selznick was eager to make a comedy with the actress , impressed by her work in My Man Godfrey , and hired Ben Hecht to write an original screenplay for her . Nothing Sacred , directed by William Wellman and co @-@ starring Fredric March , satirized the journalism industry and " the gullible urban masses " , with Lombard playing a small @-@ town girl who pretends to be dying and finds her story exploited by a New York reporter . Marking her only appearance in Technicolor , the film was highly praised and was one of Lombard 's personal favorites .
Lombard continued with screwball comedies , next starring in what Swindell calls one of her " wackiest " films , True Confession ( 1937 ) . She played a compulsive liar who wrongly confesses to murder . Lombard loved the script and was excited about the project , which reunited her with John Barrymore and was her final appearance with MacMurray . Her prediction that it " smacked of a surefire success " proved accurate , as critics responded positively and it was popular at the box office .
= = = Gable marriage , dramatic efforts ( 1938 – 40 ) = = =
True Confession was the last film Lombard made on her Paramount contract , and she remained an independent performer for the rest of her career . Her next film was made at Warner Bros. , where she played a famous actress in Mervyn LeRoy 's Fools for Scandal ( 1938 ) . The comedy met with scathing reviews and was a commercial failure , with Swindell calling it " one of the most horrendous flops of the thirties " .
Fools for Scandal was the only film Lombard made in 1938 . By this time , she was devoted to a relationship with Clark Gable . Four years after their teaming on No Man of Her Own , the pair had reunited at a Hollywood party and began a romance early in 1936 . The media took great interest in their partnership and frequently questioned if they would wed . Gable was separated from his wife , Rhea Langham , but she did not want to grant him a divorce . As his relationship with Lombard became serious , Langham eventually agreed to a settlement worth half a million dollars . The divorce was finalized in March 1939 , and Gable and Lombard eloped in Kingman , Arizona , on March 29 , honeymooning in the nearby mining town of Oatman . The couple — both lovers of the outdoors — bought a 20 @-@ acre ranch in Encino , California , where they kept barnyard animals and enjoyed hunting trips . Almost immediately , Lombard wanted to start a family , but her attempts failed ; after two miscarriages and numerous trips to fertility specialists , she was unable to have children . In early 1938 , Lombard also joined officially the Bahá 'í Faith , of which her mother was a member since 1922 .
While continuing with a slower work @-@ rate , Lombard decided to move away from comedies and return to dramatic roles . In 1939 , she appeared in a second David O. Selznick production , Made for Each Other , which paired her with James Stewart to play a couple facing domestic difficulties . Reviews for the film were highly positive , and praised Lombard 's dramatic effort ; financially , it was a disappointment . Lombard 's next appearance came opposite Cary Grant in the John Cromwell romance In Name Only ( 1939 ) , a credit she personally negotiated with RKO Radio Pictures upon hearing of the script and Grant 's involvement . The role mirrored her recent experiences , as she played a woman in love with a married man whose wife refuses to divorce . She was paid $ 150 @,@ 000 for the film , continuing her status as one of Hollywood 's highest @-@ paid actresses , and it was a moderate success .
Lombard was eager to win an Academy Award , and selected her next project — from several possible scripts — with the expectation that it would bring her the trophy . Vigil in the Night ( 1940 ) , directed by George Stevens , featured Lombard as a nurse who faces a series of personal difficulties . Although the performance was praised , she did not get her nomination , as the sombre mood of the picture turned audiences away and box @-@ office returns were poor . Despite the realization that she was best suited to comedies , Lombard completed one more drama : They Knew What They Wanted ( 1940 ) , co @-@ starring Charles Laughton , which was mildly successful .
= = = Final roles ( 1941 – 1942 ) = = =
Accepting that " my name doesn 't sell tickets to serious pictures " , Lombard returned to comedy for the first time in three years to film Mr. & Mrs. Smith ( 1941 ) , about a couple who learns that their marriage is invalid , with Robert Montgomery . Lombard was influential in bringing Alfred Hitchcock , whom she knew through David O. Selznick , to direct one of his most atypical films . It was a commercial success , as audiences were happy with what Swindell calls " the belated happy news ... that Carole Lombard was a screwball once more . "
It was nearly a year before Lombard committed to another film , as she focused instead on her home and marriage . Determined that her next film be " an unqualified smash hit " , she was also careful in selecting a new project . Through her agent , Lombard heard of Ernst Lubitsch 's upcoming film : To Be or Not to Be , a dark comedy that satirized the Nazi takeover of Poland . The actress had long wanted to work with Lubitsch , her favorite comedy director , and felt that the material — although controversial — was a worthy subject . Lombard accepted the role of actress Maria Tura , despite it being a smaller part than she was used to , and was given top billing over the film 's lead , Jack Benny . Filming took place in the fall of 1941 , and was reportedly one of the happiest experiences of Lombard 's career .
= = Death = =
When the U.S. entered World War II at the end of 1941 , Lombard traveled to her home state of Indiana for a war bond rally with her mother , Bess Peters , and Clark Gable 's press agent , Otto Winkler . Lombard was able to raise over $ 2 million ( $ 34 @,@ 993 @,@ 987 @.@ 92 in 2016 ) in defense bonds in a single evening . Her party had initially been scheduled to return to Los Angeles by train , but Lombard was anxious to reach home more quickly and wanted to fly by a scheduled airline . Her mother and Winkler were both afraid of flying and insisted they follow their original travel plans . Lombard suggested they flip a coin ; they agreed and Lombard won the toss .
In the early morning hours of January 16 , 1942 , Lombard , her mother , and Winkler boarded a Transcontinental and Western Air Douglas DST ( Douglas Sleeper Transport ) aircraft to return to California . After refueling in Las Vegas , TWA Flight 3 took off at 7 : 07 p.m. and around 13 minutes later , crashed into " Double Up Peak " near the 8 @,@ 300 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 500 m ) level of Potosi Mountain , 32 statute miles ( 51 km ) southwest of Las Vegas . All 22 aboard , Lombard and her mother included , plus 15 army servicemen , were killed instantly .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Gable was flown to Las Vegas after learning of the tragedy to claim the bodies of his wife , mother @-@ in @-@ law , and Winkler , who aside from being his press agent , had been a close friend . Lombard 's funeral was held on January 21 at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale , California . She was interred beside her mother under the name of Carole Lombard Gable . Despite remarrying twice following her death , Gable chose to be interred beside Lombard when he died in 1960 .
Lombard 's final film , To Be or Not to Be ( 1942 ) , directed by Ernst Lubitsch and co @-@ starring Jack Benny , a satire about Nazism and World War II , was in post @-@ production at the time of her death . The film 's producers decided to cut part of the film in which Lombard 's character asks , " What can happen on a plane ? " out of respect for the circumstances surrounding her death . When the film was released , it received mixed reviews , particularly about its controversial content , but Lombard 's performance was hailed as the perfect send @-@ off to one of 1930s Hollywood 's most important stars .
At the time of her death , Lombard had been scheduled to star in the film They All Kissed the Bride ; when production started , she was replaced by Joan Crawford . Crawford donated all of her salary for the film to the Red Cross , which had helped extensively in the recovery of bodies from the air crash . Shortly after Lombard 's death , Gable , who was inconsolable and devastated by his loss , joined the United States Army Air Forces . Lombard had asked him to do that numerous times after the United States had entered World War II . After officer training , Gable headed a six @-@ man motion picture unit attached to a B @-@ 17 bomb group in England to film aerial gunners in combat , flying five missions himself . In December 1943 , the United States Maritime Commission announced that a Liberty ship named after Carole Lombard would be launched . Gable attended the launch of the SS Carole Lombard on January 15 , 1944 , the two @-@ year anniversary of Lombard 's record @-@ breaking war bond drive . The ship was involved in rescuing hundreds of survivors from sunken ships in the Pacific and returning them to safety .
In 1962 , Mrs. Jill Winkler Rath , widow of publicist Otto Winkler , filed an unsuccessful lawsuit for $ 100 @,@ 000 against the $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 estate of Clark Gable in connection with Winkler 's death in the plane crash with Carole Lombard . The suit was dismissed in Los Angeles Superior Court . Mrs. Rath , in her action , claimed Gable promised to provide financial aid for her if she would not bring suit against the airline involved . However , Mrs. Rath stated , she later learned that Gable settled his claim against the airline for $ 10 . He did so because he did not want to repeat his grief in court and subsequently provided her no financial aid in his will .
= = Assessment and legacy = =
Author Robert D. Matzen has cited Lombard as " among the most commercially successful and admired film personalities in Hollywood in the 1930s " , and feminist writer June Sochen believes that Lombard " demonstrated great knowledge of the mechanics of film making " . George Raft , her co @-@ star in Bolero , was extremely fond of the actress , remarking " I truly loved Carole Lombard . She was the greatest girl that ever lived and we were the best of pals . Completely honest and outspoken , she was liked by everyone " .
Lombard was particularly noted for the zaniness of her performances , described as a " natural prankster , a salty tongued straight @-@ shooter , a feminist precursor and one of the few stars who was beloved by the technicians and studio functionaries who worked with her " . Life magazine noted that her film personality transcended to real life , " her conversation , often brilliant , is punctuated by screeches , laughs , growls , gesticulations and the expletives of a sailor 's parrot " . Graham Greene praised the " heartbreaking and nostalgic melodies " of her faster @-@ than @-@ thought delivery . " Platinum blonde , with a heart @-@ shaped face , delicate , impish features and a figure made to be swathed in silver lamé , Lombard wriggled expressively through such classics of hysteria as Twentieth Century and My Man Godfrey . "
In 1999 , the American Film Institute ranked Lombard 23rd on its list of the 25 greatest American female screen legends of classic Hollywood cinema , and she has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , at 6930 Hollywood Blvd . Lombard received one Academy Award for Best Actress nomination , for My Man Godfrey . Actresses who have portrayed her in films include Jill Clayburgh in Gable and Lombard ( 1976 ) , Sharon Gless in Moviola : The Scarlett O 'Hara War ( 1980 ) , Denise Crosby in Malice in Wonderland ( 1985 ) , Anastasia Hille in RKO 281 ( 1999 ) and Vanessa Gray in Lucy ( 2003 ) . Lombard 's Fort Wayne childhood home has been designated a historic landmark . The city named the nearby bridge over the St. Mary 's River the Carole Lombard Memorial Bridge .
= = Filmography = =
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= Musical instrument =
A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds . In principle , any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument — it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument . The history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture . Early musical instruments may have been used for ritual , such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt , or a drum in a religious ceremony . Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment . Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications .
The date and origin of the first device considered a musical instrument is disputed . The oldest object that some scholars refer to as a musical instrument , a simple flute , dates back as far as 67 @,@ 000 years . Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37 @,@ 000 years ago . However , most historians believe that determining a specific time of musical instrument invention is impossible due to the subjectivity of the definition and the relative instability of materials used to make them . Many early musical instruments were made from animal skins , bone , wood , and other non @-@ durable materials .
Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world . However , contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin . By the Middle Ages , instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia , and Europeans played instruments from North Africa . Development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace , but cultures of North , Central , and South America shared musical instruments . By 1400 , musical instrument development slowed in many areas and was dominated by the Occident .
Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right , and many systems of classification have been used over the years . Instruments can be classified by their effective range , their material composition , their size , etc . However , the most common academic method , Hornbostel @-@ Sachs , uses the means by which they produce sound . The academic study of musical instruments is called organology .
= = Definition and basic operation = =
A musical instrument makes sounds . Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies — for example , by clapping — to using objects to create music from sounds , musical instruments were born . Primitive instruments were probably designed to emulate natural sounds , and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment . The concept of melody and the artistic pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments . A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the modern notion of " making music " .
Musical instruments are constructed in a broad array of styles and shapes , using many different materials . Early musical instruments were made from " found objects " such a shells and plant parts . As instruments evolved , so did the selection and quality of materials . Virtually every material in nature has been used by at least one culture to make musical instruments . One plays a musical instrument by interacting with it in some way — for example , by plucking the strings on a string instrument .
= = Archaeology = =
Researchers have discovered archaeological evidence of musical instruments in many parts of the world . Some finds are 67 @,@ 000 years old , however their status as musical instruments is often in dispute . Consensus solidifies about artifacts dated back to around 37 @,@ 000 years old and later . Only artifacts made from durable materials or using durable methods tend to survive . As such , the specimens found cannot be irrefutably placed as the earliest musical instruments .
In July 1995 , Slovenian archaeologist Ivan Turk discovered a bone carving in the northwest region of Slovenia . The carving , named the Divje Babe Flute , features four holes that Canadian musicologist Bob Fink determined could have been used to play four notes of a diatonic scale . Researchers estimate the flute 's age at between 43 @,@ 400 and 67 @,@ 000 years , making it the oldest known musical instrument and the only musical instrument associated with the Neanderthal culture . However , some archaeologists and ethnomusicologists dispute the flute 's status as a musical instrument . German archaeologists have found mammoth bone and swan bone flutes dating back to 30 @,@ 000 to 37 @,@ 000 years old in the Swabian Alps . The flutes were made in the Upper Paleolithic age , and are more commonly accepted as being the oldest known musical instruments .
Archaeological evidence of musical instruments was discovered in excavations at the Royal Cemetery in the Sumerian city of Ur . These instruments , one of the first ensembles of instruments yet discovered , include nine lyres ( the Lyres of Ur ) , two harps , a silver double flute , sistra and cymbals . A set of reed @-@ sounded silver pipes discovered in Ur was the likely predecessor of modern bagpipes . The cylindrical pipes feature three side @-@ holes that allowed players to produce whole tone scales . These excavations , carried out by Leonard Woolley in the 1920s , uncovered non @-@ degradable fragments of instruments and the voids left by the degraded segments that , together , have been used to reconstruct them . The graves these instruments were buried in have been carbon dated to between 2600 and 2500 BC , providing evidence that these instruments were used in Sumeria by this time .
Archaeologists in the Jiahu site of central Henan province of China have found flutes made of bones that date back 7 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 years , representing some of the " earliest complete , playable , tightly @-@ dated , multinote musical instruments " ever found .
= = History = =
Scholars agree that there are no completely reliable methods of determining the exact chronology of musical instruments across cultures . Comparing and organizing instruments based on their complexity is misleading , since advancements in musical instruments have sometimes reduced complexity . For example , construction of early slit drums involved felling and hollowing out large trees ; later slit drums were made by opening bamboo stalks , a much simpler task .
German musicologist Curt Sachs , one of the most prominent musicologists and musical ethnologists in modern times , argues that it is misleading to arrange the development of musical instruments by workmanship , since cultures advance at different rates and have access to different raw materials . He maintains , for example , that contemporary anthropologists comparing musical instruments from two cultures that existed at the same time but differed in organization , culture , and handicraft cannot determine which instruments are more " primitive " . Ordering instruments by geography is also not totally reliable , as it cannot always be determined when and how cultures contacted one another and shared knowledge .
Sachs proposed that a geographical chronology until approximately 1400 is preferable , however , due to its limited subjectivity . Beyond 1400 , one can follow the overall development of musical instruments by time period .
The science of marking the order of musical instrument development relies on archaeological artifacts , artistic depictions , and literary references . Since data in one research path can be inconclusive , all three paths provide a better historical picture .
= = = Primitive and prehistoric = = =
Until the 19th century AD , European @-@ written music histories began with mythological accounts of how musical instruments were invented . Such accounts included Jubal , descendant of Cain and " father of all such as handle the harp and the organ " , Pan , inventor of the pan pipes , and Mercury , who is said to have made a dried tortoise shell into the first lyre . Modern histories have replaced such mythology with anthropological speculation , occasionally informed by archeological evidence . Scholars agree that there was no definitive " invention " of the musical instrument since the definition of the term " musical instrument " is completely subjective to both the scholar and the would @-@ be inventor . For example , a Homo habilis slapping his body could be the makings of a musical instrument regardless of the being 's intent .
Among the first devices external to the human body that are considered instruments are rattles , stampers , and various drums . These earliest instruments evolved due to the human motor impulse to add sound to emotional movements such as dancing . Eventually , some cultures assigned ritual functions to their musical instruments , using them for hunting and various ceremonies . Those cultures developed more complex percussion instruments and other instruments such as ribbon reeds , flutes , and trumpets . Some of these labels carry far different connotations from those used in modern day ; early flutes and trumpets are so @-@ labeled for their basic operation and function rather than any resemblance to modern instruments . Among early cultures for whom drums developed ritual , even sacred importance are the Chukchi people of the Russian Far East , the indigenous people of Melanesia , and many cultures of Africa . In fact , drums were pervasive throughout every African culture . One East African tribe , the Wahinda , believed it was so holy that seeing a drum would be fatal to any person other than the sultan .
Humans eventually developed the concept of using musical instruments for producing a melody . Until this time in the evolutions of musical instruments , melody was common only in singing . Similar to the process of reduplication in language , instrument players first developed repetition and then arrangement . An early form of melody was produced by pounding two stamping tubes of slightly different sizes — one tube would produce a " clear " sound and the other would answer with a " darker " sound . Such instrument pairs also included bullroarers , slit drums , shell trumpets , and skin drums . Cultures who used these instrument pairs associated genders with them ; the " father " was the bigger or more energetic instrument , while the " mother " was the smaller or duller instrument . Musical instruments existed in this form for thousands of years before patterns of three or more tones would evolve in the form of the earliest xylophone . Xylophones originated in the mainland and archipelago of Southeast Asia , eventually spreading to Africa , the Americas , and Europe . Along with xylophones , which ranged from simple sets of three " leg bars " to carefully tuned sets of parallel bars , various cultures developed instruments such as the ground harp , ground zither , musical bow , and jaw harp .
= = = Antiquity = = =
Images of musical instruments begin to appear in Mesopotamian artifacts in 2800 BC or earlier . Beginning around 2000 BC , Sumerian and Babylonian cultures began delineating two distinct classes of musical instruments due to division of labor and the evolving class system . Popular instruments , simple and playable by anyone , evolved differently from professional instruments whose development focused on effectiveness and skill . Despite this development , very few musical instruments have been recovered in Mesopotamia . Scholars must rely on artifacts and cuneiform texts written in Sumerian or Akkadian to reconstruct the early history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia . Even the process of assigning names to these instruments is challenging since there is no clear distinction among various instruments and the words used to describe them .
Although Sumerian and Babylonian artists mainly depicted ceremonial instruments , historians have been able to distinguish six idiophones used in early Mesopotamia : concussion clubs , clappers , sistra , bells , cymbals , and rattles . Sistra are depicted prominently in a great relief of Amenhotep III , and are of particular interest because similar designs have been found in far @-@ reaching places such as Tbilisi , Georgia and among the Native American Yaqui tribe . The people of Mesopotamia preferred stringed instruments to any other , as evidenced by their proliferation in Mesopotamian figurines , plaques , and seals . Innumerable varieties of harps are depicted , as well as lyres and lutes , the forerunner of modern stringed instruments such as the violin .
Musical instruments used by the Egyptian culture before 2700 BC bore striking similarity to those of Mesopotamia , leading historians to conclude that the civilizations must have been in contact with one another . Sachs notes that Egypt did not possess any instruments that the Sumerian culture did not also possess . However , by 2700 BC the cultural contacts seem to have dissipated ; the lyre , a prominent ceremonial instrument in Sumer , did not appear in Egypt for another 800 years . Clappers and concussion sticks appear on Egyptian vases as early as 3000 BC . The civilization also made use of sistra , vertical flutes , double clarinets , arched and angular harps , and various drums .
Little history is available in the period between 2700 BC and 1500 BC , as Egypt ( and indeed , Babylon ) entered a long violent period of war and destruction . This period saw the Kassites destroy the Babylonian empire in Mesopotamia and the Hyksos destroy the Middle Kingdom of Egypt . When the Pharaohs of Egypt conquered Southwest Asia in around 1500 BC , the cultural ties to Mesopotamia were renewed and Egypt 's musical instruments also reflected heavy influence from Asiatic cultures . Under their new cultural influences , the people of the New Kingdom began using oboes , trumpets , lyres , lutes , castanets , and cymbals .
In contrast with Mesopotamia and Egypt , professional musicians did not exist in Israel between 2000 and 1000 BC . While the history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia and Egypt relies on artistic representations , the culture in Israel produced few such representations . Scholars must therefore rely on information gleaned from the Bible and the Talmud . The Hebrew texts mention two prominent instruments associated with Jubal : the ugab ( pipes ) and kinnor ( lyre ) . Other instruments of the period included the tof ( frame drum ) , pa 'amon ( small bells or jingles ) , shofar , and the trumpet @-@ like hasosra .
The introduction of a monarchy in Israel during the 11th century BC produced the first professional musicians and with them a drastic increase in the number and variety of musical instruments . However , identifying and classifying the instruments remains a challenge due to the lack of artistic interpretations . For example , stringed instruments of uncertain design called nevals and asors existed , but neither archaeology nor etymology can clearly define them . In her book A Survey of Musical Instruments , American musicologist Sibyl Marcuse proposes that the nevel must be similar to vertical harp due to its relation to nabla , the Phoenician term for " harp " .
In Greece , Rome , and Etruria , the use and development of musical instruments stood in stark contrast to those cultures ' achievements in architecture and sculpture . The instruments of the time were simple and virtually all of them were imported from other cultures . Lyres were the principal instrument , as musicians used them to honor the gods . Greeks played a variety of wind instruments they classified as aulos ( reeds ) or syrinx ( flutes ) ; Greek writing from that time reflects a serious study of reed production and playing technique . Romans played reed instruments named tibia , featuring side @-@ holes that could be opened or closed , allowing for greater flexibility in playing modes . Other instruments in common use in the region included vertical harps derived from those of the Orient , lutes of Egyptian design , various pipes and organs , and clappers , which were played primarily by women .
Evidence of musical instruments in use by early civilizations of India is almost completely lacking , making it impossible to reliably attribute instruments to the Munda and Dravidian language @-@ speaking cultures that first settled the area . Rather , the history of musical instruments in the area begins with the Indus Valley Civilization that emerged around 3000 BC . Various rattles and whistles found among excavated artifacts are the only physical evidence of musical instruments . A clay statuette indicates the use of drums , and examination of the Indus script has also revealed representations of vertical arched harps identical in design to those depicted in Sumerian artifacts . This discovery is among many indications that the Indus Valley and Sumerian cultures maintained cultural contact . Subsequent developments in musical instruments in India occurred with the Rigveda , or hymns . These songs used various drums , shell trumpets , harps , and flutes . Other prominent instruments in use during the early centuries AD were the snake charmer 's double clarinet , bagpipes , barrel drums , cross flutes , and short lutes . In all , India had no unique musical instruments until the Middle Ages .
Musical instruments such as zithers appeared in Chinese writings around 12th century BC and earlier . Early Chinese philosophers such as Confucius ( 551 – 479 BC ) , Mencius ( 372 – 289 BC ) , and Laozi shaped the development of musical instruments in China , adopting an attitude toward music similar to that of the Greeks . The Chinese believed that music was an essential part of character and community , and developed a unique system of classifying their musical instruments according to their material makeup .
Idiophones were extremely important in Chinese music , hence the majority of early instruments were idiophones . Poetry of the Shang dynasty mentions bells , chimes , drums , and globular flutes carved from bone , the latter of which has been excavated and preserved by archaeologists . The Zhou dynasty saw percussion instruments such as clappers , troughs , wooden fish , and yǔ ( wooden tiger ) . Wind instruments such as flute , pan @-@ pipes , pitch @-@ pipes , and mouth organs also appeared in this time period . The xiao ( an end @-@ blown flute ) and various other instruments that spread through many cultures , came into use in China during and after the Han dynasty .
Although civilizations in Central America attained a relatively high level of sophistication by the eleventh century AD , they lagged behind other civilizations in the development of musical instruments . For example , they had no stringed instruments ; all of their instruments were idiophones , drums , and wind instruments such as flutes and trumpets . Of these , only the flute was capable of producing a melody . In contrast , pre @-@ Columbian South American civilizations in areas such as modern @-@ day Peru , Colombia , Ecuador , Bolivia , and Chile were less advanced culturally but more advanced musically . South American cultures of the time used pan @-@ pipes as well as varieties of flutes , idiophones , drums , and shell or wood trumpets .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
During the period of time loosely referred to as the Middle Ages , China developed a tradition of integrating musical influence from other regions . The first record of this type of influence is in 384 AD , when China established an orchestra in its imperial court after a conquest in Turkestan . Influences from Middle East , Persia , India , Mongolia , and other countries followed . In fact , Chinese tradition attributes many musical instruments from this period to those regions and countries . Cymbals gained popularity , along with more advanced trumpets , clarinets , oboes , flutes , drums , and lutes . Some of the first bowed zithers appeared in China in the 9th or 10th century , influenced by Mongolian culture .
India experienced similar development to China in the Middle Ages ; however , stringed instruments developed differently as they accommodated different styles of music . While stringed instruments of China were designed to produce precise tones capable of matching the tones of chimes , stringed instruments of India were considerably more flexible . This flexibility suited the slides and tremolos of Hindu music . Rhythm was of paramount importance in Indian music of the time , as evidenced by the frequent depiction of drums in reliefs dating to the Middle Ages . The emphasis on rhythm is an aspect native to Indian music . Historians divide the development of musical instruments in medieval India between pre @-@ Islamic and Islamic periods due to the different influence each period provided .
In pre @-@ Islamic times , idiophones such hand bells , cymbals , and peculiar instruments resembling gongs came into wide use in Hindu music . The gong @-@ like instrument was a bronze disk that was struck with a hammer instead of a mallet . Tubular drums , stick zithers ( veena ) , short fiddles , double and triple flutes , coiled trumpets , and curved India horns emerged in this time period . Islamic influences brought new types of drums , perfectly circular or octagonal as opposed to the irregular pre @-@ Islamic drums . Persian influence brought oboes and sitars , although Persian sitars had three strings and Indian version had from four to seven .
Southeast Asian musical innovations include those during a period of Indian influence that ended around 920 AD . Balinese and Javanese music made use of xylophones and metallophones , bronze versions of the former . The most prominent and important musical instrument of Southeast Asia was the gong . While the gong likely originated in the geographical area between Tibet and Burma , it was part of every category of human activity in maritime Southeast Asia including Java .
The areas of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula experiences rapid growth and sharing of musical instruments once they were united by Islamic culture in the seventh century . Frame drums and cylindrical drums of various depths were immensely important in all genres of music . Conical oboes were involved in the music that accompanied wedding and circumcision ceremonies . Persian miniatures provide information on the development of kettle drums in Mesopotamia that spread as far as Java . Various lutes , zithers , dulcimers , and harps spread as far as Madagascar to the south and modern @-@ day Sulawesi to the east .
Despite the influences of Greece and Rome , most musical instruments in Europe during the Middles Ages came from Asia . The lyre is the only musical instrument that may have been invented in Europe until this period . Stringed instruments were prominent in Middle Age Europe . The central and northern regions used mainly lutes , stringed instruments with necks , while the southern region used lyres , which featured a two @-@ armed body and a crossbar . Various harps served Central and Northern Europe as far north as Ireland , where the harp eventually became a national symbol . Lyres propagated through the same areas , as far east as Estonia .
European music between 800 and 1100 became more sophisticated , more frequently requiring instruments capable of polyphony . The 9th @-@ century Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh mentioned in his lexicographical discussion of music instruments that , in the Byzantine Empire , typical instruments included the urghun ( organ ) , shilyani ( probably a type of harp or lyre ) , salandj ( probably a bagpipe ) and the lyra . The Byzantine lyra , a bowed string instrument , is an ancestor of most European bowed instruments , including the violin .
The monochord served as a precise measure of the notes of a musical scale , allowing more accurate musical arrangements . Mechanical hurdy @-@ gurdies allowed single musicians to play more complicated arrangements than a fiddle would ; both were prominent folk instruments in the Middle Ages . Southern Europeans played short and long lutes whose pegs extended to the sides , unlike the rear @-@ facing pegs of Central and Northern European instruments . Idiophones such as bells and clappers served various practical purposes , such as warning of the approach of a leper .
The ninth century revealed the first bagpipes , which spread throughout Europe and had many uses from folk instruments to military instruments . The construction of pneumatic organs evolved in Europe starting in fifth @-@ century Spain , spreading to England in about 700 . The resulting instruments varied in size and use from portable organs worn around the neck to large pipe organs . Literary accounts of organs being played in English Benedictine abbeys toward the end of the tenth century are the first references to organs being connected to churches . Reed players of the Middle Ages were limited to oboes ; no evidence of clarinets exists during this period .
= = = Modern = = =
= = = = Renaissance = = = =
Musical instrument development was dominated by the Occident from 1400 on , indeed , the most profound changes occurred during the Renaissance period . Instruments took on other purposes than accompanying singing or dance , and performers used them as solo instruments . Keyboards and lutes developed as polyphonic instruments , and composers arranged increasingly complex pieces using more advanced tablature . Composers also began designing pieces of music for specific instruments . In the latter half of the sixteenth century , orchestration came into common practice as a method of writing music for a variety of instruments . Composers now specified orchestration where individual performers once applied their own discretion . The polyphonic style dominated popular music , and the instrument makers responded accordingly .
Beginning in about 1400 , the rate of development of musical instruments increased in earnest as compositions demanded more dynamic sounds . People also began writing books about creating , playing , and cataloging musical instruments ; the first such book was Sebastian Virdung 's 1511 treatise Musica getuscht und ausgezogen ( ' Music Germanized and Abstracted ' ) . Virdung 's work is noted as being particularly thorough for including descriptions of " irregular " instruments such as hunters ' horns and cow bells , though Virdung is critical of the same . Other books followed , including Arnolt Schlick 's Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten ( ' Mirror of Organ Makers and Organ Players ' ) the following year , a treatise on organ building and organ playing . Of the instructional books and references published in the Renaissance era , one is noted for its detailed description and depiction of all wind and stringed instruments , including their relative sizes . This book , the Syntagma musicum by Michael Praetorius , is now considered an authoritative reference of sixteenth @-@ century musical instruments .
In the sixteenth century , musical instrument builders gave most instruments – such as the violin – the " classical shapes " they retain today . An emphasis on aesthetic beauty also developed ; listeners were as pleased with the physical appearance of an instrument as they were with its sound . Therefore , builders paid special attention to materials and workmanship , and instruments became collectibles in homes and museums . It was during this period that makers began constructing instruments of the same type in various sizes to meet the demand of consorts , or ensembles playing works written for these groups of instruments .
Instrument builders developed other features that endure today . For example , while organs with multiple keyboards and pedals already existed , the first organs with solo stops emerged in the early fifteenth century . These stops were meant to produce a mixture of timbres , a development needed for the complexity of music of the time . Trumpets evolved into their modern form to improve portability , and players used mutes to properly blend into chamber music .
= = = = Baroque = = = =
Beginning in the seventeenth century , composers began creating works of a more emotional style . They felt that a monophonic style better suited the emotional music and wrote musical parts for instruments that would complement the singing human voice . As a result , many instruments that were incapable of larger ranges and dynamics , and therefore were seen as unemotional , fell out of favor . One such instrument was the shawm . Bowed instruments such as the violin , viola , baryton , and various lutes dominated popular music . Beginning in around 1750 , however , the lute disappeared from musical compositions in favor of the rising popularity of the guitar . As the prevalence of string orchestras rose , wind instruments such as the flute , oboe , and bassoon were readmitted to counteract the monotony of hearing only strings .
In the mid @-@ seventeenth century , what was known as a hunter 's horn underwent transformation into an " art instrument " consisting of a lengthened tube , a narrower bore , a wider bell , and much wider range . The details of this transformation are unclear , but the modern horn or , more colloquially , French horn , had emerged by 1725 . The slide trumpet appeared , a variation that includes a long @-@ throated mouthpiece that slid in and out , allowing the player infinite adjustments in pitch . This variation on the trumpet was unpopular due to the difficulty involved in playing it . Organs underwent tonal changes in the Baroque period , as manufacturers such as Abraham Jordan of London made the stops more expressive and added devices such as expressive pedals . Sachs viewed this trend as a " degeneration " of the general organ sound .
= = = = Classical and Romantic = = = =
During the Classical and Romantic periods of music , lasting from roughly 1750 to 1900 , a great deal of musical instruments capable of producing new timbres and higher volume were developed and introduced into popular music . The design changes that broadened the quality of timbres allowed instruments to produce a wider variety of expression . Large orchestras rose in popularity and , in parallel , the composers determined to produce entire orchestral scores that made use of the expressive abilities of modern instruments . Since instruments were involved in collaborations of a much larger scale , their designs had to evolve to accommodate the demands of the orchestra .
Some instruments also had to become louder to fill larger halls and be heard over sizable orchestras . Flutes and bowed instruments underwent many modifications and design changes — most of them unsuccessful — in efforts to increase volume . Other instruments were changed just so they could play their parts in the scores . Trumpets traditionally had a " defective " range — they were incapable of producing certain notes with precision . New instruments such as the clarinet , saxophone , and tuba became fixtures in orchestras . Instruments such as the clarinet also grew into entire " families " of instruments capable of different ranges : small clarinets , normal clarinets , bass clarinets , and so on .
Accompanying the changes to timbre and volume was a shift in the typical pitch used to tune instruments . Instruments meant to play together , as in an orchestra , must be tuned to the same standard lest they produce audibly different sounds while playing the same notes . Beginning in 1762 , the average concert pitch began rising from a low of 377 vibrations to a high of 457 in 1880 Vienna . Different regions , countries , and even instrument manufacturers preferred different standards , making orchestral collaboration a challenge . Despite even the efforts of two organized international summits attended by noted composers like Hector Berlioz , no standard could be agreed upon .
= = = = Twentieth century to present = = = =
The evolution of traditional musical instruments slowed beginning in the twentieth century . Instruments like the violin , flute , french horn , harp , and so on are largely the same as those manufactured throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries . Gradual iterations do emerge ; for example , the " New Violin Family " began in 1964 to provide differently sized violins to expand the range of available sounds . The slowdown in development was practical response to the concurrent slowdown in orchestra and venue size . Despite this trend in traditional instruments , the development of new musical instruments exploded in the twentieth century . The sheer variety of instruments developed overshadows any prior period .
The proliferation of electricity in the twentieth century lead to the creation of an entirely new category of musical instruments : electronic instruments , or electrophones . The vast majority of electrophones produced in the first half of the twentieth century were what Sachs called " electromechanical instruments " . In other words , they have mechanical parts that produce sound vibrations , and those vibrations are picked up and amplified by electrical components . Examples of electromechanical instruments include Hammond organs and electric guitars . Sachs also defined a subcategory of " radioelectric instruments " such as the theremin , which produces music through the player 's hand movements around two antennas .
The latter half of the twentieth century saw the gradual evolution of synthesizers — instruments that artificially produce sound using analog or digital circuits and microchips . In the late 1960s , Bob Moog and other inventors began an era of development of commercial synthesizers . One of the first of these instruments was the Moog synthesizer . The modern proliferation of computers and microchips has spawned an entire industry around electronic musical instruments .
= = Classification = =
There are many different methods of classifying musical instruments . Various methods examine aspects such as the physical properties of the instrument ( material , color , shape , etc . ) , the use for the instrument , the means by which music is produced with the instrument , the range of the instrument , and the instrument 's place in an orchestra or other ensemble . Most methods are specific to a geographic area or cultural group and were developed to serve the unique classification requirements of the group . The problem with these specialized classification schemes is that they tend to break down once they are applied outside of their original area . For example , a system based on instrument use would fail if a culture invented a new use for the same instrument . Scholars recognize Hornbostel @-@ Sachs as the only system that applies to any culture and , more important , provides only possible classification for each instrument . The most common types of instrument classifications are strings , brass , woodwind , and percussion .
= = = Ancient systems = = =
An ancient system named the Natya Shastra , written by the sage Bharata Muni and dating from between 200 BC and 200 AD , divides instruments into four main classification groups : instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating strings ; percussion instruments with skin heads ; instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating columns of air ; and " solid " , or non @-@ skin , percussion instruments . This system was adapted to some degree in 12th @-@ century Europe by Johannes de Muris , who used the terms tensibilia ( stringed instruments ) , inflatibilia ( wind instruments ) , and percussibilia ( all percussion instruments ) . In 1880 , Victor @-@ Charles Mahillon adapted the Natya Shastra and assigned Greek labels to the four classifications : chordophones ( stringed instruments ) , membranophones ( skin @-@ head percussion instruments ) , aerophones ( wind instruments ) , and autophones ( non @-@ skin percussion instruments ) .
= = = Hornbostel @-@ Sachs = = =
Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs adopted Mahillon 's scheme and published an extensive new scheme for classification in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914 . Hornbostel and Sachs used most of Mahillon 's system , but replaced the term autophone with idiophone .
The original Hornbostel @-@ Sachs system classified instruments into four main groups :
Idiophones , which produce sound by vibrating the primary body of the instrument itself ; they are sorted into concussion , percussion , shaken , scraped , split , and plucked idiophones , such as claves , xylophone , guiro , slit drum , mbira , and rattle .
Membranophones , which produce sound by a vibrating a stretched membrane ; they may be drums ( further sorted by the shape of the shell ) , which are struck by hand , with a stick , or rubbed , but kazoos and other instruments that use a stretched membrane for the primary sound ( not simply to modify sound produced in another way ) are also considered membranophones .
Chordophones , which produce sound by vibrating one or more strings ; they are sorted into according to the relationship between the string ( s ) and the sounding board or chamber . For example , if the strings are laid out parallel to the sounding board and there is no neck , the instrument is a zither whether it is plucked like an autoharp or struck with hammers like a piano . If the instrument has strings parallel to the sounding board or chamber and the strings extend past the board with a neck , then the instrument is a lute , whether the sound chamber is constructed of wood like a guitar or uses a membrane like a banjo .
Aerophones , which produce a sound with a vibrating column of air ; they are sorted into free aerophones such as a bullroarer or whip , which move freely through the air ; flutes , which cause the air to pass over a sharp edge ; reed instruments , which use a vibrating reed ; and lip @-@ vibrated aerophones such as trumpets , for which the lips themselves function as vibrating reeds .
Sachs later added a fifth category , electrophones , such as theremins , which produce sound by electronic means . Within each category are many subgroups . The system has been criticised and revised over the years , but remains widely used by ethnomusicologists and organologists .
= = = Schaeffner = = =
Andre Schaeffner , a curator at the Musée de l 'Homme , disagreed with the Hornbostel @-@ Sachs system and developed his own system in 1932 . Schaeffner believed that the pure physics of a musical instrument , rather than its specific construction or playing method , should always determine its classification . ( Hornbostel @-@ Sachs , for example , divide aerophones on the basis of sound production , but membranophones on the basis of the shape of the instrument ) . His system divided instruments into two categories : instruments with solid , vibrating bodies and instruments containing vibrating air .
= = = Range = = =
Musical instruments are also often classified by their musical range in comparison with other instruments in the same family . This exercise is useful when placing instruments in context of an orchestra or other ensemble .
These terms are named after singing voice classifications :
Soprano instruments : flute , violin , soprano saxophone , trumpet , clarinet , oboe , piccolo
Alto instruments : alto saxophone , french horn , english horn , viola , alto horn
Tenor instruments : trombone , tenor saxophone , guitar , tenor drum
Baritone instruments : bassoon , baritone saxophone , bass clarinet , cello , baritone horn , euphonium
Bass instruments : double bass , bass guitar , bass saxophone , tuba , bass drum
Some instruments fall into more than one category : for example , the cello may be considered tenor , baritone or bass , depending on how its music fits into the ensemble , and the trombone may be alto , tenor , baritone , or bass and the French horn , bass , baritone , tenor , or alto , depending on the range it is played in . Many instruments have their range as part of their name : soprano saxophone , tenor saxophone , baritone horn , alto flute , bass guitar , etc . Additional adjectives describe instruments above the soprano range or below the bass , for example : sopranino saxophone , contrabass clarinet . When used in the name of an instrument , these terms are relative , describing the instrument 's range in comparison to other instruments of its family and not in comparison to the human voice range or instruments of other families . For example , a bass flute 's range is from C3 to F ♯ 6 , while a bass clarinet plays about one octave lower .
= = Construction = =
The materials used in making musical instruments vary greatly by culture and application . Many of the materials have special significance owing to their source or rarity . Some cultures worked substances from the human body into their instruments . In ancient Mexico , for example , the material drums were made from might contain actual human body parts obtained from sacrificial offerings . In New Guinea , drum makers would mix human blood into the adhesive used to attach the membrane . Mulberry trees are held in high regard in China owing to their mythological significance — instrument makers would hence use them to make zithers . The Yakuts believe that making drums from trees struck by lightning gives them a special connection to nature .
Musical instrument construction is a specialized trade that requires years of training , practice , and sometimes an apprenticeship . Most makers of musical instruments specialize in one genre of instruments ; for example , a luthier makes only stringed instruments . Some make only one type of instrument such as a piano . Whatever the instrument constructed , the instrument maker must consider materials , construction technique , and decoration , creating a balanced instrument that is both functional and aesthetically pleasing . Some builders are focused on a more artistic approach and develop experimental musical instruments , often meant for individual playing styles developed by the builder himself .
= = User interfaces = =
Regardless of how the sound in an instrument is produced , many musical instruments have a keyboard as the user @-@ interface . Keyboard instruments are any instruments that are played with a musical keyboard . Every key generates one or more sounds ; most keyboard instruments have extra means ( pedals for a piano , stops and a pedal keyboard for an organ ) to manipulate these sounds . They may produce sound by wind being fanned ( organ ) or pumped ( accordion ) , vibrating strings either hammered ( piano ) or plucked ( harpsichord ) , by electronic means ( synthesizer ) , or in some other way . Sometimes , instruments that do not usually have a keyboard , such as the glockenspiel , are fitted with one . Though they have no moving parts and are struck by mallets held in the player 's hands , they have the same physical arrangement of keys and produce soundwaves in a similar manner .
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= The Idolmaster Shiny Festa =
The Idolmaster Shiny Festa ( Japanese : アイドルマスター シャイニーフェスタ , Hepburn : Aidorumasutā Shainī Fesuta , officially stylized as THE iDOLM @ STER SHINY FESTA ) is a series of three Japanese rhythm video games developed and published by Bandai Namco Games . The games are part of The Idolmaster franchise , and were originally released on October 25 , 2012 as Honey Sound ( ハニー サウンド , Hanī Saundo ) , Funky Note ( ファンキー ノート , Fankī Nōto ) , and Groovy Tune ( グルーヴィー チューン , Gurūvī Chūn ) for the PlayStation Portable in Japan . They were the first games in the series to be localized into English , and were released for iOS on April 22 , 2013 as Harmonic Score , Rhythmic Record , and Melodic Disc , while retaining their original names for the Japanese versions . Service for the iOS version was discontinued on March 15 , 2016 .
The gameplay in Shiny Festa eschews the simulation format of previous Idolmaster games , and instead features a rhythmic gameplay in which the player times the presses of buttons to the rhythm of the songs and a predetermined pattern displayed on the screen . Each game features a different array of characters and songs , and also includes an original video animation episode produced by A @-@ 1 Pictures and directed by Atsushi Nishigori . The games ' story centers on the 765 Production 's participation in a music festival , and is told via the anime episodes and occasional dialogue included in the games .
Development of Shiny Festa began as a result of series producer Yōzō Sakagami 's desire to create a video game that has a lighter feel and makes use of the franchise 's songs that had not been featured in video game form . Shiny Festa 's original releases sold a total of 119 @,@ 132 copies in its first week of release in Japan , and together ranked as the best @-@ selling video game in Japan that week . The games were described by reviewers as accessible to the franchise 's new and existing fans , but the iOS releases were criticized by journalists for their prohibitive pricing . The mechanics of Shiny Festa later reappear in The Idolmaster Shiny TV , a high @-@ definition remastered version for the PlayStation 3 .
= = Gameplay = =
Shiny Festa is a series of three rhythm games that feature various characters and songs from The Idolmaster video game franchise . At the beginning of each game , a twenty @-@ three @-@ minute anime episode is played to introduce the games ' story : 765 Production ( 765 Pro ) , the talent agency where the protagonist works as a producer , is invited to participate in a music festival ; however , only a few of its members may attend . The characters who attend the music festival , as well as the songs and episode that correspond to the characters , are dependent on the version of the game . In Harmonic Score and Honey Sound , the selected members are Haruka Amami , Chihaya Kisaragi , and Azusa Miura , and they are joined by Ritsuko Akizuki , who also performs in the festival , as their producer ; in Rhythmic Record and Funky Note , Yayoi Takatsuki , Iori Minase , Hibiki Ganaha , and Ami and Mami Futami are chosen to attend the festival with the protagonist Producer ; lastly Miki Hoshii , Yukiho Hagiwara , Makoto Kikuchi , and Takane Shijou make up the group of idols chosen to attend in Melodic Disc and Groovy Tune .
Like other games in the genre , the player plays the main portion of Shiny Festa 's gameplay , Stage mode , as he or she listens to a selected song . Each song 's performance is limited to a predetermined idol or group of idols , unlike the franchise 's previous games . During a song , a predetermined sequence of note icons scroll along several lines , called Melody Lines , toward a central target icon . To complete a song , the player must press buttons that correspond to the direction from which the notes originate from — the buttons on the console 's left and right halves for the PlayStation Portable version , and the left and right halves of the screen for the iOS version — as they pass over the target icon . The player is scored by these presses ' accuracy in timing and direction , for which he or she is given one of four ratings : Perfect , Good , Normal , and Bad . The player 's performance is also represented by the Sparkle Meter , which increases or decreases as the player successfully or fails to hit a note . Throughout the song , new target icons and lines may spawn at predetermined times in different locations of the screen to supersede or accompany old ones . The note sequences may also include Long Icons , which are streaks of notes that need to be continuously held down ; Simultaneous Icons , which are pairs of icons that pass over the target icon simultaneously ; and Shooting Stars , which appears once the Sparkle Meter is filled , and causes a Shining Burst that raises the player 's score and changes the song 's accompanying music video when it is hit . The complexity of the song 's sequence varies based on the player 's selected difficulty for the song ; there are four difficulty levels : Debut , Normal , Pro , and Master from the easiest to the hardest .
At the end of each song , a result screen is displayed to player , and his or her performance is rated with a letter grade , a numerical score , and a percentage that represents his or her accuracy . The player is awarded a number of fans and in @-@ game money for his or her performance . The number of fans determine the idols ' ranking , and as the player 's idols increase in ranking , more items become available for purchase . These items can then be used to customize the game 's appearance or adjust gameplay elements , such as straightening the Melody Lines ' shapes or causing the player to gain fans quicker . Finishing a song also earns the player Memories with the idols who perform the song , which can be used in the Star of Festa game mode .
Star of Festa is a gameplay mode in which the player 's idol unit participates in a five @-@ day music festival . On each of the five in @-@ game days , the player is required to consecutively play three songs , and for each song , he or she is given a score that represents votes given by the in @-@ game audience . For the third song every day , the player may choose to compete against a computer @-@ controlled opponent , represented as idols from 876 Production , 961 Production 's Jupiter , and characters from The Idolmaster Cinderella Girls and other Shiny Festa games . By defeating his or her opponent , the player gains additional votes and earns the opponent 's Name Card , which are shared across the three Shiny Festa games and passively grants additional votes . In addition to Name Cards , the player can also earn additional votes by using the Memories an idol has earned toward Memory Boosters . The player may choose to use the Memories of any of the idols who sings in the song , and if it is activated , Memory Booster icons appear throughout the song once the player has received a Shining Burst . To successfully complete Star of Festa , the player must accumulate 100 @,@ 000 votes by the end of the last day .
= = Development and release = =
The Idolmaster series producer Yōzō Sakagami attributed the development of a rhythm game in the series to two reasons . Noting that songs have a strong meaning to the franchise , he had wanted to make the songs that were included in the series ' albums but not in its video games to be accessible in that form . He also wanted to create an Idolmaster video game that , while maintaining a producer 's viewpoint , has a lighter feel and would allow the player to hum along to the idols as he or she plays . He pointed out that the rhythm game genre fell in line with these two desires , and this led to the development of Shiny Festa . The team chose to develop for the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) as he felt it was simple to play on . At the same time , the team also wanted to create scenes where the series ' thirteen idols would be able to appear together , and chose to use pre @-@ rendered videos to make this possible . Sakagami also noted that the development team deliberately chose to use a gameplay system in which the note icons float toward the screen 's center to attract the player to look at the videos in the background .
The games ' anime scenes were directed by Atsushi Nishigori and produced by A @-@ 1 Pictures , who also created The Idolmaster anime adaptation in 2011 . According to Hironori Toba , Aniplex 's producer for the television anime , he was told about the plans of including anime material in Shiny Festa during production of the TV anime 's final episode , and he did not inform Nishigori until later on . Series director Akihiro Ishihara said that each anime episode was initially planned to be about ten minutes long , but Nishigori extended each episode to its current length , feeling that the episodes would not be fun if they were too short . Three teams were formed to create the three episodes , and Nishigori noted that this enticed each team to compete with each other during production .
Shiny Festa was first released in Japan on October 25 , 2012 for the PSP in three versions — Honey Sound , Funky Note , Groovy Tune — in both retail and downloadable forms ; the downloadable versions are also playable on the PlayStation Vita . The PSP games ' first printing also included a " backstage pass " that granted access to an online merchandise store , a product code for the song " The World is All One ! " to be used in the games , and a serial number that granted a special Shiny Festa version of Haruka Amami for use in The Idolmaster Cinderella Girls . In conjunction with the release , peripheral manufacturer Hori released a set of accessories with Shiny Festa designs ; the set includes three cases for the games ' Universal Media Discs , a protective casing , and decorative stickers for the PSP 's 3000 model . The games were later released in English for iOS devices on April 22 , 2013 , and became the first games in the series to be localized and released outside Japan . The titles of the English releases were respectively renamed as Harmonic Score , Rhythmic Record , and Melodic Disc , but the games retained the original titles for the Japanese iOS releases . Support for the iOS releases ended on March 15 , 2016 , and the downloadable content was also be made unavailable on that date . The three anime episodes were released on October 8 , 2014 alongside The Idolmaster Movie : Beyond the Brilliant Future ! as a Blu @-@ ray Disc as part of a limited edition bundle .
The mechanics of Shiny Festa were later ported to the PlayStation 3 as The Idolmaster Shiny TV as a high @-@ definition remastered rhythm game . Shiny TV was released as part of the Imas Channel app on October 2 , 2013 . Unlike the Shiny Festa releases , only one song , " We Have a Dream " , was initially available in Shiny TV , and additional songs are added to the game as downloadable content packs called mini albums . Bandai Namco Games released 12 mini albums for the game between October 2 , 2013 — beginning with the releases of mini albums for Haruka Amami and Yayoi Takatsuki — and February 19 , 2014 .
= = = Music = = =
Across its three versions , Shiny Festa features a total of 48 songs written and composed by a variety of songwriters . Each version is composed of 20 songs , of which six are performed by 765 Pro Allstars and common to all three versions . The majority of the remaining songs in each version are exclusive to that version and performed by its featured idols , although there is also one exclusive song performed by 765 Pro Allstars in each version . An additional song , " The World is All One ! ! " , was available for download to players who purchased a first printing copy of the PSP games . Four songs were originally introduced in Shiny Festa : " Music " appears in all three versions , " Vault That Borderline ! " is featured in Honey Sound and Harmonic Score , " edeN " is featured in Groovy Tune and Melodic Disc , and " Visionary " ( ビジョナリー ) is featured in Funky Note and Rhythmic Record .
Unlike Shiny Festa , only the song " We Have a Dream " is initially playable in Shiny TV , and additional songs must be purchased as downloadable content . In addition to the songs originally contained in the Shiny Festa games , there are 14 extra songs available to download . Out of these , the song " Machiuke Prince " ( 待ち受けプリンス ) was first introduced with the game , and it is made available to the player with the purchase of any mini album , while access to the songs " Arcadia " and " Sora " ( 空 ) are granted to players who purchased respectively the first and last six mini albums .
= = Reception = =
The original PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) versions of the Shiny Festa games sold 119 @,@ 132 units in their first week of sales , and together ranked as the best @-@ selling video game in Japan that week . The PSP versions received a combined review score of 32 out of 40 from the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu . At the third Newtype Anime Awards in 2013 , Shiny Festa 's anime sequences received first place in the Game Animation category . Critics commonly agree that Shiny Festa , while it appeals to the franchise 's existing fans , is accessible and welcoming to new fans whose first exposure to the franchise is its anime adaptation . Japanator 's Jeff Chuang wrote that the game is " twice the fun " to fans of the franchise 's songs , while Elliot Gay , writing for the same website , argued that the games ' inclusion of anime material pointed to the game 's development as " fanservice for fans " . Reviewers also agreed that despite its simple gameplay , Shiny Festa still provides substantial challenge . Famitsu 's reviewers wrote that while the game has a simpler control scheme compared to other rhythm games , it becomes difficult when played on the Master difficulty . Gay and Chuang both agreed that the simple gameplay becomes appropriately difficult with the higher difficulties , while ASCII Media Works ' Lipton Kumada noted that the game becomes harder as variations such as simultaneous and long icons are added .
The iOS version 's improvements over the original PSP version were positively received . The website Famitsu App noted that the iOS version has shorter loading times and greater display resolution compared to the PSP version . Gay wrote that the iPhone 4 's Retina Display made the game look " a whole lot better than it did on the PSP or Vita " , while Kumada said he was stunned to see the iPhone 5 's more vibrant colors and lack of interlacing , despite its smaller screen compared to the PSP . At the same time , reviewers had mixed opinions regarding the iOS ' version 's control scheme . Ryūichi Matsumoto of 4Gamer appreciated the iOS version 's use of touch screen input , feeling that it simplified the controls and Gay felt the touch controls felt natural . In contrast , Famitsu App 's writer felt that it was easier to hold down notes with the PSP 's buttons , and Chuang said that playing on an iPad Mini felt less precise than on the PSP , but noted that the player can theoretically " hit the notes even faster " with a touch screen . Chuang also noted he occasionally opened the iOS version 's pause menu by accident due to the touch controls , and Matsumoto complained that the use of touch screen input meant that his fingers would be blocking his view .
Many journalists , particularly non @-@ Japanese press , reacted negatively toward the iOS version 's pricing in comparison to other games for the platform . Kotaku 's Mike Fahey described the games as " a tough sell " at US $ 54 @.@ 99 each and approximately $ 170 altogether in a market " dominated by free and $ .99 games " . Technology Tell 's Jenni Lada noted that the PSP version would be cheaper when imported , and criticized Bandai Namco Games for " setting [ the release ] up to fail " . Elliot Gay felt the games were expensive , but pointed out that it has " never been cheap to be " a fan of the franchise . Likewise , Kumada felt the iOS games were too expensive as mobile apps , but thought it was a " bit of a bargain " in comparison to the PSP versions ' full retail prices .
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= Gyeongju =
Gyeongju ( Korean pronunciation : [ kjəːŋdʑu ] ) , historically known as " Seorabeol " , is a coastal city in the far southeastern corner of North Gyeongsang Province in South Korea . It is the second largest city by area in the province after Andong , covering 1 @,@ 324 km2 ( 511 sq mi ) with a population of 264 @,@ 091 people ( as of December 2012 . ) Gyeongju is 370 km ( 230 mi ) southeast of Seoul , and 55 km ( 34 mi ) east of the provincial capital , Daegu . The city borders Cheongdo and Yeongcheon to the west , Ulsan to the south and Pohang to the north , while to the east lies the coast of the Sea of Japan ( East Sea ) . Numerous low mountains — outliers of the Taebaek range — are scattered around the city .
Gyeongju was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Silla ( 57 BC – 935 AD ) which ruled about two @-@ thirds of the Korean Peninsula between the 7th and 9th centuries . A vast number of archaeological sites and cultural properties from this period remain in the city . Gyeongju is often referred to as " the museum without walls " . Among such historical treasures , Seokguram grotto , Bulguksa temple , Gyeongju Historic Areas and Yangdong Folk Village are designated as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO . The many major historical sites have helped Gyeongju become one of the most popular tourist destinations in South Korea .
The city of Gyeongju was united with the nearby rural Gyeongju County in 1995 and is now an urban – rural complex . It is similar to 53 other small- and medium @-@ sized cities with a population under 300 @,@ 000 people in South Korea . As well as its rich historical heritage , Gyeongju today is affected by the economic , demographic , and social trends that have shaped modern South Korean culture . Tourism remains the major economic driver , but manufacturing activities have developed due to its proximity to major industrial centers such as Ulsan and Pohang . Gyeongju is connected to the nationwide rail and highway networks , which facilitate industrial and tourist traffic .
= = History = =
The early history of Gyeongju is closely tied to that of the Silla kingdom , of which it was the capital . While being capital of Silla , Gyeongju was called Seorabeol . Gyeongju first enters non @-@ Korean records as Saro @-@ guk , during the Samhan period in the early Common Era . Korean records , probably based on the dynastic chronicles of Silla , record that Saro @-@ guk was established in 57 BCE , when six small villages in the Gyeongju area united under Bak Hyeokgeose . As the kingdom expanded , it changed its name to Silla . During the Silla period , the city was called " Seorabeol " ( lit . Capital ) , " Gyerim " ( lit . Rooster 's forest ) or " Geumseong " ( lit . City of Gold ) .
After the unification of the peninsula up to Taedong River in 668 AD , Gyeongju became the center of Korean political and cultural life . The city was home to the Silla court and the great majority of the kingdom 's elite . Its prosperity became legendary , and was reported as far away as Persia according to the 9th century book , The Book of Roads and Kingdoms . Records of Samguk Yusa give the city 's population in its peak period as 178 @,@ 936 households , suggesting that the total population was almost one million . Many of Gyeongju 's most famous sites date from this Unified Silla period , which ended in the late 9th century by Goryeo ( 918 – 1392 ) .
In 940 , the founder of Goryeo , King Taejo , changed the city 's name to " Gyeongju " , which literally means " Congratulatory district " . In 987 , as Goryeo adopted a system of having three additional capitals in politically important provinces outside Gaegyeong ( nowadays Kaesong ) , Gyeongju was designated as " Donggyeong " ( " East Capital " ) . However , that title was removed in 1012 , the 3rd year of King Hyeongjong , due to political rivalries at that time , though Gyeongju was later made the seat of Yeongnam Province . It had jurisdiction over a wide area , including much of east @-@ central Yeongnam , although this area was greatly reduced in the 13th century . Under the subsequent Joseon ( 1392 – 1910 ) dynasties , Gyeongju was no longer of national importance , but remained a regional center . In 1601 , the city ceased to be the provincial capital .
Over these centuries , the city 's relics suffered numerous assaults . In the 13th century , Mongol forces destroyed a nine @-@ story wooden pagoda at Hwangnyongsa . During the Japanese invasions of Korea , the Gyeongju area became a heated battlefield , and Japanese forces burned the wooden structures at Bulguksa . Not all damage was due to invasions , however . In the early Joseon period , a great deal of damage was done to Buddhist sculptures on Namsan by Neo @-@ Confucian radicals , who hacked arms and heads off statuary .
In the 20th century , the city had remained relatively small , no longer ranking among the major cities of Korea . During the early 20th century , many archaeological excavations were conducted , particularly inside the tombs which had remained largely intact over the centuries . A museum , the forerunner of the present @-@ day Gyeongju National Museum , was inaugurated in 1915 to exhibit the excavated artifacts .
Gyeongju emerged as a railroad junction in the later years of the Japanese Occupation , as the Donghae Nambu Line and Jungang Line were established to prepare for Second Sino @-@ Japanese War and to exploit rich resources of the eastern Korean peninsula . Following liberation in 1945 , Korea was plunged into turmoil , and Gyeongju was no exception . Returnees from abroad were numerous ; a village for them was constructed in present @-@ day Dongcheon @-@ dong . In a period marked by widespread conflict and unrest , the Gyeongju area became particularly notorious for the level of guerrilla activity in the mountains .
Although the Korean War broke out in 1950 , most of Gyeongju was spared from the fighting , and remained under South Korean control throughout the conflict . However , for a brief time in late 1950 portions of the city stood on the front lines , as North Korean forces pushed the Pusan Perimeter southward from Pohang .
In the 1970s , Korea saw substantial industrial development , much of it centered in the Yeongnam region of which Gyeongju is a part . The POSCO steel mill in neighboring Pohang commenced operations in 1973 , and the chemical manufacturing complex in Ulsan emerged in the same year . These developments helped to support the emergence of Gyeongju 's manufacturing sector .
= = Geography and climate = =
Gyeongju lies in the southeastern corner of North Gyeongsang Province , and is bounded by the metropolitan city of Ulsan on the south . Within the province , its neighbors include Pohang on the north , Cheongdo County on the southwest , and Yeongcheon on the northwest . Gyeongju is located about 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) north of Busan . To the east , it has no neighbor but the sea .
Most of Gyeongju lies in the Gyeongsang Basin , but a few areas of the city belong to the Pohang Basin , such as Eoil @-@ ri and Beomgok @-@ ri in Yangbuk @-@ myeon , and part of Cheonbuk @-@ myeon . The Gyeongsang Basin areas consist of Bulguksa intrusive rock penetrating layers of sedimentary rocks , mainly granite and porphyry . By contrast , the Pohang Basin areas are made up of stratum that formed in the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic era , which consist of igneous rock , aqueous rock , porphyry , sandstone , and tuff .
Low mountains are widespread throughout Gyeongju . The highest of these are the Taebaek Mountains , which run along the city 's western border . Gyeongju 's highest point , Munbok Mountain ( 문복산 ) , is 1 @,@ 015 meters ( 3 @,@ 330 ft ) above sea level . This peak lies in Sannae @-@ myeon , on the border with Cheongdo . East of the Taebaek range , other western peaks such as Danseok Mountain lie within the Jusa subrange . The city 's eastern peaks , including Toham Mountain , belong to the Haean Mountains and Dongdae Mountains .
Gyeongju 's drainage patterns are shaped by these lines of mountains . The Dongdae Mountains divide a narrow foothills area on their east , and various internal river systems to the west . Most of the city 's interior is drained by the small Hyeongsan River , which flows north from Ulsan and meets the sea at Pohang Harbor . The Hyeongsan 's chief tributaries include the Bukcheon and Namcheon , which join it in Gyeongju Basin . The southwestern corner of Gyeongju , on the far side of the Taebaek range , drains into the Geumho River , which then flows into the Nakdong . A small area of the south , just west of the Dongdae range , drains into the Taehwa River , which flows into the Bay of Ulsan .
The Gyeongju coastline runs for 36 @.@ 1 kilometers ( 22 @.@ 4 mi ) between Pohang in the north and Ulsan in the south . There are no islands or large bays , only the small indentations made by the small streams flowing off the Dongdae ridgeline . Because of this , the city has no significant ports , though there are 12 small harbors . One such harbor in Gyeongju 's southeast corner is home to the Ulsan base of the National Maritime Police . This base is responsible for security over a wide area of South Korea 's east @-@ central coast .
= = = Climate = = =
Due to its coastal location , Gyeongju has a slightly milder and wetter climate than the more inland regions of Korea . In general , however , the city 's climate is typical of South Korea . It has hot summers and cool winters , with a monsoon season between late June and early August . As on the rest of Korea 's east coast , autumn typhoons are not uncommon . The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 091 millimeters ( 43 @.@ 0 in ) , and the average annual high temperatures range from 8 @.@ 6 – 31 @.@ 1 ° C ( 47 – 88 ° F ) .
Gyeongju 's historic city center lies on the banks of the Hyeongsan in Gyeongju Basin . This lowlying area has been subject to repeated flooding throughout recorded history , often as a result of typhoons . On average , chronicles report a major flood every 27 @.@ 9 years , beginning in the 1st century . Modern flood control mechanisms brought about a dramatic reduction in flooding in the later 20th century . The last major flood occurred in 1991 , when the Deokdong Lake reservoir overflowed due to Typhoon Gladys .
= = Government = =
The executive branch of the government is headed by a mayor and vice @-@ mayor . As in other South Korean cities and counties , the mayor is elected directly , while the vice @-@ mayor is appointed . As of 2010 , the mayor is Choi Yang @-@ sik , who was appointed to the position on July 1 , 2010 after winning the local election held on June 2 of the same year . He is Gyeongju 's fifth mayor to be directly elected , the sixth to preside over the city in its present form , and the 31st mayor since 1955 . Like most heads of government in the Yeongnam region , he is a member of the conservative Grand National Party .
The legislative branch consists of the Gyeongju City Council , with 21 members as of 2009 . The present City Council was formed from the merger of the old Gyeongju City Council with the Wolseong County Council in 1991 . Most subdivisions of Gyeongju elect a single member to represent them in the Council , but Angang @-@ eup is represented by two members because of its large population , and two of the representatives serve combined districts composed of two dong . Like the mayor , the council members were last elected in 2006 , except for a small number elected in more recent by @-@ elections .
The central administration is composed of a City Council committee , five departments , two subsidiary organs , a chamber ( the auditor ) , and six business offices . The five departments are the departments of Planning and Culture , Autonomous Administration , Industry and Environment , Construction and Public Works , and the National Enterprise Committee ; these oversee a total of 29 subdivisions . The two subsidiary organs are the Health Care Center and Agro @-@ technology Center ; these belong directly to the central administration and have a total of 4 subdivisions . In addition , there are 23 local administrative subdivisions . Each of these subdivisions has a local office with a small administrative staff . As of December 2008 , the city government employed 1 @,@ 462 people .
= = Subdivisions = =
The city is divided into 23 administrative districts : 4 eup , 8 myeon , and 11 dong . These are the standard subdivisions of cities and counties in South Korea . The dong or neighborhood units occupy the area of the city center , which was formerly occupied by Gyeongju @-@ eup . Eup are typically substantial villages , whereas myeon are more rural .
The city 's boundaries and designation changed several times in the 20th century . From 1895 to 1955 , the area was known as Gyeongju @-@ gun ( " Gyeongju County " ) . In the first decades of the century , the city center was known as Gyeongju @-@ myeon , signifying a relatively rural rea . In 1931 , the downtown area was designated Gyeongju @-@ eup , in recognition of its increasingly urban nature . In 1955 , Gyeongju @-@ eup became Gyeongju @-@ si ( " Gyeongju City " ) , the same name as today , but with a much smaller area . The remainder of Gyeongju @-@ gun became " Wolseong County . " The county and city were reunited in 1995 , creating Gyeongju City as we know it today .
= = Demographics = =
When the Silla kingdom reached the peak of its development , Gyeongju was estimated to have a million residents , four times the city 's population in 2008 . In recent years , Gyeongju has followed the same trends that have affected the rest of South Korea . Like the country as a whole , Gyeongju has seen its population age and the size of families shrink . For instance , the mean household size is 2 @.@ 8 people . Because this has fallen in recent years , there are more households in the city as of 2008 ( 105 @,@ 009 ) than there were in 2003 , even though the population has fallen .
Like most of South Korea 's smaller cities , Gyeongju has seen a steady drop in population in recent years . From 2002 to 2008 , the city lost 16 @,@ 557 people . This is primarily due to the migration of workers seeking employment in the major South Korean cities . In 2007 , about 1 @,@ 975 more people moved away from the city each year than moved in . During the same period , births exceeded deaths by roughly 450 per year , a significant number but not enough to offset the losses due to migration .
Gyeongju has a small but growing population of non @-@ Koreans . In 2007 , there were 4 @,@ 671 foreigners living in Gyeongju . This number corresponds to 1 @.@ 73 % of the total population , more than double the figure from 2003 . The growth was largely in immigrants from other Asian countries , many of whom are employed in the automotive parts industry . Countries of origin whose numbers have risen include the Philippines , China , Taiwan , Indonesia , and Vietnam . The number of residents from Japan , the United States , and Canada fell significantly in the 2003 – 2007 period .
= = = Dialect = = =
The city has a distinctive dialect which it shares with northern portions of Ulsan . This dialect is similar to the general Gyeongsang dialect , but retains distinctive features of its own . Some linguists have treated the distinctive characteristics of the Gyeongju dialect as vestiges of the Silla language . For instance , the contrast between the local dialect form " 소내기 " ( sonaegi ) and the standard " 소나기 " ( sonagi , meaning " rainshower " ) has been seen as reflecting the ancient phonemic character of the Silla language .
= = Culture and people = =
= = = Cultural properties = = =
Gyeongju is the main destination in South Korea for visitors interested in the cultural heritage of Silla and the architecture of the Joseon Dynasty ( 1392 – 1910 ) . The city has 31 National Treasures , and Gyeongju National Museum houses 16 @,@ 333 artifacts . There are four broad categories of relics and historical sites : tumuli and their artifacts ; Buddhist sites and objects ; fortresses and palace sites ; and ancient architecture . Prehistoric remains including Mumun pottery have been excavated in central Gyeongju , in the Moa @-@ ri and Oya @-@ ri villages of the Cheonbuk @-@ myeon district , and in the Jukdong @-@ ri village of the Oedong @-@ eup district . Dolmens are found in several places , especially in Gangdong @-@ myeon and Moa @-@ ri . Bronze Age relics found in Angye @-@ ri village of Gangdong @-@ myeon , Jukdong @-@ ri and Ipsil @-@ ri villages of Oedong @-@ eup and graveyards in the Joyang @-@ dong district represent the Samhan confederacy period of around the 1st century BC to the 3rd century AD .
There are 35 royal tombs and 155 tumuli in central Gyeongju , and 421 tumuli in the outskirts of the city . Silla burial mounds built after the period of the Three Kingdoms are found in central Gyeongju , including tumuli in the districts of Noseo @-@ dong , Nodong @-@ dong , Hwangnam @-@ dong , Hwango @-@ dong and Inwang @-@ dong . Western Gyeongju has the tomb of King Muyeol in Seoak @-@ dong , nearby tumuli in Chunghyo @-@ dong and the tomb of Kim Yu @-@ sin . The tombs of Queen Seondeok , King Sinmun , King Hyogong and King Sinmu are at the base of Namsan mountain while the tombs of King Heongang , King Jeonggang , King Gyeongmyeong and King Gyeongae are on the slopes of the mountain . In addition to the tombs , tumuli have been found surrounding Namsan mountain and in the western part of Geumgang mountain . Artifacts excavated from the tombs of Geumgwanchong ( gold crown tomb ) , Seobongchong ( western phoenix tomb ) , Cheonmachong ( heavenly horse tomb ) and northern and southern parts of Tomb No. 98 are good examples of Silla culture .
= = = Notable people = = =
Gyeongju has produced notable individuals throughout its history . As the capital of Silla , Gyeongju was a center of culture in its heyday . Notable Gyeongju residents in the Silla period included most of the kingdom 's leading figures , not only rulers but scholars such as Seol Chong and Choe Chi @-@ won , and generals like Kim Yusin , the leader of the Hwarang warriors . The city continued to contribute to traditional Korean thought in subsequent dynasties . Relatives of Choe Chi @-@ won such as Choe Eon @-@ wui and Choe Hang played an important role in establishing the structures of early Goryeo . In the Joseon period , Gyeongju joined the rest of Gyeongsang in becoming a hotbed of the conservative Sarim faction . Notable Gyeongju members of this faction included the 15th century intellectual Yi Eon @-@ jeok . He has been enshrined in the Oksan Seowon since 1572 . In modern times , the city produced writers such as Kim Dong @-@ ni and Park Mok @-@ wol , both of whom did a great deal to popularize the region 's culture , as well as Choe Jun , a wealthy businessman who established the Yeungnam University Foundation .
Some Korean family clans trace their origins to Gyeongju , often to the ruling elites of Silla . For example , the Gyeongju Kim clan claims descent from the rulers of later Silla . The Gyeongju Park and Gyeongju Seok clans trace their ancestry to Silla 's earlier ruling families . These three royal clans played a strong role in preserving the historical precincts of Gyeongju into modern times . The Gyeongju Choe and Lee clans also trace their ancestry to the Silla elites . Prominent members of the Gyeongju Lee clan include Goryeo period scholar Yi Je @-@ hyeon , and Joseon period scholars Yi Hwang and Yi Hang @-@ bok . A contemporary notable figure from the Gyeongju Lee clan is Lee Byung @-@ chull , the founder of Samsung Group . However , not all Gyeongju clans date to the Silla period ; for instance , the Gyeongju Bing clan was founded in the early Joseon Dynasty .
= = = Religion = = =
The city remains an important centre of Korean Buddhism . East of the downtown area lies Bulguksa , one of South Korea 's largest Buddhist temples ; nearby is Seokguram , a famed Buddhist shrine . Traditional prayer locations are found on mountains throughout Gyeongju . Such mountains include Namsan near the city center , Danseok @-@ san and Obong @-@ san in the west , and the low peak of Hyeong @-@ san on the Gyeongju @-@ Pohang border . Namsan in particular is often referred to as " the sacred mountain " due to the Buddhist shrines and statues which cover its slopes . In addition , Gyeongju is the birthplace of Cheondoism , an indigenous religion to Korea based on Korean shamanism , Taoism and Korean Buddhism , with elements drawn from Christianity . The religion has been evolved from Donghak ( lit . East learning ) disciplines established by Choe Je @-@ u . His birthplace of Yongdamjeong , located in Hyeongok @-@ myeon , is regarded as a sacred place to followers of Cheondogyo .
= = = Cuisine = = =
The cuisine of Gyeongju is generally typical of the cuisine elsewhere in Gyeongsang province : spicy and salty . However , it has distinctive tastes according to region and several local specialties known nationwide . The most famous of these is " Gyeongju bread " or " Hwangnam bread " , a red @-@ bean pastry first baked in 1939 and now sold throughout the country . Chalboribbang , made with locally produced glutinous barley , is also a pastry with a filling of red bean paste . Local specialties with a somewhat longer pedigree include beopju , a traditional Korean liquor produced by the Gyeongju Choe in Gyo @-@ dong . The brewing skill and distill master were designated as Important Intangible Cultural Properties by South Korea government .
Other local specialities include ssambap , haejangguk , and muk . Ssambap refers to a rice dish served with vegetable leaves , various banchan ( small side dishes ) and condiments such as gochujang ( chili pepper paste ) or ssamjang ( a mixture of soybean paste and gochujang ) to wrap them together . Most ssambap restaurants in Gyeongju are gathered in the area of Daenuengwon or Grand Tumuli Park . Haejangguk is a kind of soup eaten as a hangover cure , and means " soup to chase a hangover " . A street dedicated to haejangguk is located near Gyeongju National Museum , where 20 haejangguk restaurants are gathered to serve the Gyeongju @-@ style haejangguk . The soup is made by boiling soybean sprout , sliced memilmuk ( buckwheat starch jelly ) , sour kimchi ( pickled vegetables ) and gulfweed in a clear broth of dried anchovy and Alaska pollack .
The east district of Gyeongju , Gampo @-@ eup town , is adjacent to the sea , so fresh seafood and jeotgal ( fermented salted seafood ) are abundant . There are over 240 seafood restaurants in Gampo Harbor offering various dishes made with seafood caught in the sea , such as hoe ( raw fish dishes ) , jeonboktang ( an abalone soup ) , grilled seafood and others .
= = Sports = =
As of 2007 , Gyeongju city had two stadiums , two gymnasiums , two tennis courts , one swimming pool and others as public sport facilities as well as various registered private sports venues . Many of public sport facilities are located in Hwangseong Park with an area of 1 @,@ 022 @,@ 350 m2 ( 11 @,@ 004 @,@ 500 sq ft ) including a luxuriant pine trees forest . The site was originally the location of the artificial forest of Doksan which was established for feng shui purposes during the Silla period . It was also used as a training ground for hwarang warriors and hunting spot for Silla kings , and was reported to be King Jinpyeong 's favorite location . Since 1975 , Hwangseong Park has been designated as " city neighborhood park " and currently consists of multi @-@ purposed Gyeongju Public Stadium , Football Park with 7 football fields and one futsal field , and one gymnasium , as well as Horimjang field for gukgung or Korean traditional archery and a ssireum wrestling ring . In addition , it contains a gateball field , an inline skating rink , jogging courses , and cycling roads . The Gyeongju Public Stadium was completed in 1982 and can accommodate 20 @,@ 000 people at capacity .
Angang Field Hockey Stadium , located in the district of Angang @-@ eup , is home to Gyeongju City Hockey , which is one of four professional women 's field hockey teams in South Korea . The team was formed in 1994 , and is governed by the Sport and Youth Division of Gyeongju City . Although not an initial successful team , Gyeongju City Hockey won the first trophies both at National Division Hockey Championships and National Sports Festival in 2000 . In 2002 , Gyeongju City Hockey took a first prize and three second prizes , and in 2008 , the team won the first prize at the 51st National Division Hockey Championships .
The city plays host to two annual marathon events . The Gyeongju International Marathon , held in October , garners elite level competition while the larger Gyeongju Cherry Blossom Marathon caters more for amateur fun runners . The Cherry Blossom Marathon has been held each year in Gyeongju since 1992 , usually in April , to improve relations with Japan ( a country with a long history of marathon running ) . The race , mainly sponsored by Gyeongju city and the district , attracted 13 @,@ 600 participants in 2009 including about 1 @,@ 600 foreigners .
= = Economy = =
The economy of Gyeongju is more diverse than the city 's image as a tourist haven would suggest . Although tourism is important to the economy , most residents work in other fields . Over 27 @,@ 000 are employed in manufacturing compared to roughly 13 @,@ 500 in the hospitality industry . The number involved in tourism has remained constant over recent years , while the manufacturing sector added about 6 @,@ 000 jobs from 1999 to 2003 . The manufacturing sector is closely tied to nearby cities , utilizing Gyeongju 's transit links with Ulsan , Pohang , and Daegu . As in Ulsan and Daegu the automotive parts industry plays an important role . Of the 1 @,@ 221 businesses incorporated in Gyeongju almost a third are involved in auto @-@ parts manufacture .
Fishing takes place in coastal towns , especially in Gampo @-@ eup in the city 's northeast , with 436 registered fishing craft in the city . Fishing industry in Gyeongju is generally in a declined status due to relatively inconvenient transport conditions and lacks of subordinate facilities . Much of the catch from these boats goes direct from the harbor to Gyeongju 's many seafood restaurants . Mainly , sauries , anchovies , rays are harvested and a small number of abalone and wakame farming takes place . Local specialties include myeolchijeot ( fermented anchovy ) , abalone , wakame , and squid .
Agriculture is still important , particularly in the outlying regions of Gyeongju . According to the 2006 statistical yearbook of Gyeongju , rice fields occupy an area of 169 @.@ 57 km2 ( 65 @.@ 47 sq mi ) , which is 70 % of the total cultivated acreage of 24 @,@ 359 km2 ( 9 @,@ 405 sq mi ) . The remaining 74 @.@ 02 km2 ( 28 @.@ 58 sq mi ) consists of fields under other crops and farmsteads . Crop production is centered in the fertile river basins near the Hyeongsan River . The main crops are rice , barley , beans and corn . Vegetables such as daikon and napa cabbage and fruits are also important crops . Apples are mainly produced in the districts of Geoncheon @-@ eup , Gangdong @-@ myeon and Cheonbuk @-@ myeon and Korean pear are cultivated in Geoncheon @-@ eup and Angang @-@ eup . The city plays a leading role in the domestic production of beef and mushrooms . Button mushrooms harvested in Geoncheon @-@ eup are canned and exported . The cultivated acreage and the number of households engaging in agriculture is however declining .
A small amount of quarrying activity takes place in the city , with 46 active mines and quarries in Gyeongju . Most are engaged in the extraction of kaolin , fluorspar and Agalmatolite and Kaolin is exported .
As the capital of Silla , commerce and trading in Gyeongju developed early on . Samguk Sagi has records on the establishment of Gyeongdosi ( capital area market ) in March , 490 during King Soji 's reign , and Dongsi ( East Market ) in 509 , during King Jijeung 's reign . In the 1830s , Gyeongju had five five @-@ day markets which remained very active until the late 1920s . Due to its size Gyeongju Bunaejang ( Gyeongju village market ) was referred to as one of the two leading markets in the Yeongnam area , along with Daegu Bunaejang . Transportation developed in the late period of the Japanese occupation , as the Jungang Line and the Daegu Line and the connecting route between Pohang and the northwestern part of Japan were set up , leading to increasing population and developing commerce . After the 1960s , traditional periodic markets gradually transformed into regular markets as the city was flourishing . In periodic markets , agricultural and marine products , industrial products , living necessaries , wild edible greens , herbs , and cattle are mainly traded . As of 2006 , Gyeongju had eight regular markets , nine periodic markets and the Gyeongju department store . Traditional periodic markets declined and have become token affairs these days .
= = = Tourism = = =
Gyeongju is a major tourist destination for South Koreans as well as foreign visitors . It boasts the 1000 years of Silla heritage with vast number of ancient ruins and archaeological sites found throughout the city , which help to attract 6 million visiting tourists including 750 @,@ 000 foreigners per year . The city government has parlayed its historic status into a basis for other tourism @-@ related developments such as conferences , festivals , and resorts .
Many Silla sites are located in Gyeongju National Park such as the Royal Tomb Complex , the Cheomseongdae observatory that is one of the oldest surviving astronomical observatories in East Asia , the Anapji royal pond garden , and the Gyerim forest . Gyeongju National Museum hosts many important artifacts and national treasures that have been excavated from sites within the city and surrounding areas .
Much of Gyeongju 's heritage are related to the Silla kingdom 's patronage of Buddhism . The grotto of Seokguram and the temple of Bulguksa were the first Korean sites to be included on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1995 . In addition , the ruins of the old Hwangnyongsa temple , said to have been Korean 's largest , are preserved on the slopes of Toham Mountain . Various Silla @-@ era stone carvings of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are found on mountainsides throughout the city , particularly on Namsan .
A significant portion of Gyeongju 's tourist traffic is due to the city 's promotion of itself as a site for various festivals , conferences , and competitions . Every year since 1962 , the Silla cultural festival has been held in October to celebrate and honour the dynasty 's history and culture . It is one of the major festivals of Korea . It features athletic events , folk games , music , dance , literary contests and Buddhist religious ceremonies . Other festivals include the Cherry Blossom Marathon in April , the Korean Traditional Liquor and Cake festival in March , and memorial ceremonies for the founders of the Silla Dynasty and General Kim Yu @-@ sin .
There were 15 hotels including Hilton Hotel , Gyeognju Chosun Hotel , and 276 lodging facilities , and 2 @,@ 817 restaurants in Gyeongju in 2006 .
= = Media = =
Gyeongju has two main local newspapers ; the Gyeongju Sinmun and the Seorabeol Sinmun . Both are weekly newspapers providing news via online as well and their headquarters are located in the neighborhood of Dongcheon @-@ dong . The Gyeongju Sinmun was founded in 1989 and provides various news and critics on anything concerning Gyeongju . Its online newspaper , Digital Gyeongju Sinmun opened in December , 2000 to provide live local news out of the limit as a weekly newspaper and to establish mutual information exchanges from Gyeongju locals . In 2001 , Gyeongju Sinmun started to present Gyeongju Citizen Awards to people who try to develop the local industry and economy , culture and education , and welfare service . Since 2003 , the Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant headquarter co @-@ hosts the awards with Gyeongju Sinmun .
The Seorabeol Sinmun was established in 1993 , however , from November 15 , 2000 to November 10 , 2005 , its publication was stopped for financial difficulties after the 1997 Asian economic crisis had left a strong impact on the nationwide economy . Since 2006 , Seorabeol Sinmun presents Serabeol Awards to people having devouring to develop Gyeongju .
Several major feature films have been filmed in the city , including Kick the Moon , On the Occasion of Remembering the Turning Gate , Taegukgi , Chwihwaseon and others . In 2009 , the filming of the Queen Seondeok , a popular MBC TV series took place in a studio at Silla Millennium Park located in Bomun Lake Resort .
= = Education = =
Gyeongju is strongly associated with the education tradition of Hwarangdo ( " Way of the Flower of Young Men " ) which was established and flourished during the Silla period . It is a military and philosophical code that offered the basis of training to Hwarang , a military cadet of youths from the aristocratic class . The training equally emphasized practicing academic and martial arts based on Buddhism and patriotism . A number of Silla 's greatest generals and military leaders such as Kim Yu @-@ sin were Hwarang who played a central role in Silla unification of the Korean peninsula . As Silla was integrated into the next ruling dynasty , Goryeo , the system declined and was officially disbanded in the Joseon dynasty . However , the spirit and discipline were revived in the second half of the 20th century as a form of Korean martial arts with the same name .
Formal education has a longer history in Gyeongju than anywhere else in South Korea . The Gukhak , or national academy , was established here in 682 , at the beginning of the Unified Silla period . Its curriculum focused on the Confucian classics for local officials . After the fall of Silla in the 10th century , the Gukhak closed . However , due to Gyeongju 's role as a provincial center under the Goryeo and early Joseon dynasties , the city was home to state @-@ sponsored provincial schools ( hyanggyo ) under both dynasties such as Gyeongju Hyanggyo . During the later Joseon dynasty there were several seowon , or private Confucian academies , were set up in the city such as Oksan Seowon and Seoak Seowon .
The education system of Gyeongju is the same as elsewhere in the country . Schooling begins with preschools ; there are 65 in the city . This is followed by six years in elementary schools ; Gyeongju has 46 . Subsequently students pass through three years of middle school . There are 19 middle schools in Gyeongju . High school education , which lasts for three years , is not compulsory , but most students attend and graduate from high school . Gyeongju is home to 21 high schools , of which 11 provide specialized technical training . At each of these levels , there is a mix of public and private institutions . All are overseen by the Gyeongju bureau of North Gyeongsang 's Provincial Office of Education . Gyeongju is home to a school for the mentally disabled , which provides education to students from preschool to adult age .
Gyeongju is home to four institutions of tertiary education . Sorabol College is a technical college in the district of Chunghyo @-@ dong that offers majors specializing in tourism , leisure , health care and cosmetic treatments .
Each of Gyeongju 's three universities reflects the city 's unique role . Dongguk and Uiduk universities are Buddhist institutions , reflecting that religion 's link to the city . Gyeongju University , formerly Korea Tourism University , is strongly focused on tourism , reflecting its importance in the region .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Healthcare = = =
According to the 2008 yearbook of Gyeongju , the total number of medical institutions was 224 with 3 @,@ 345 beds , including two general hospitals , thirteen hospitals , 109 clinics , five nursing homes , forty two dental hospitals , two Korean traditional medicine hospitals and 50 Korean traditional medicine clinics . There are also twenty eight medical institutions related to Gyeongju Health Center affiliated to the Gyeongju City government .
The two general hospitals are associated with two major universities in Gyeongju and nearby Daegu . One is the Dongguk University Gyeongju Hospital , located in the district of Seokjang @-@ dong , which is affiliated with Dongguk University Medical School and Center . The Gyeongju Hospital was opened in a seven @-@ story building in 1991 to provide Gyeongju locals with a quality medical service and train medical specialists in the region . After various renovations the hospital currently has 24 departments including a radiation oncology center and 438 beds . It is also assigned as a teaching and learning hospital and in partnership with Dongguk University Oriental Hospital . The other general hospital is a branch of Keimyung University , Dongsan Medical Hospital in Daegu . It is the successor of Gyeongju Christianity Hospital founded in 1962 , and was reborn as the current general hospital in 1991 . The Gyeongju Dongsan Hospital is located in the district of Seobu @-@ dong and has 12 departments in a three @-@ story building .
= = = Utilities = = =
Water supply and sewage disposal are municipal services which are respectively handled by the Water Supply Office and Water Quality and Environment Office . Water comes from the Hyeongsan River , the multi @-@ purpose Deokdong Dam and several streams . The city is divided into seven water districts , with eight filtration plants and seven sewage treatment plants . One of the sewage treatment plants , Angang Sewage Disposal Plant began operating in April 2005 by the co @-@ investment of the Government of North Gyeongsang and Gyeongju City with a fund of 44 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 won to install facilities to prevent the pollution of the Hyeongsan River , which is a main water source for Gyeongju and Pohang residents . The plant is located on a spacious site with 39 @,@ 000 m2 ( 420 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in Homyeong @-@ ri , Gangdong @-@ myeon in Gyeongju where nature friendly facilities provide recreational venues for the locals . Through 56 @.@ 1 km ( 34 @.@ 9 mi ) of sewer pipes and 14 pumping stations , the plant has a capacity of 18 @,@ 000 tonnes of domestic sewage per day that comes from Angang @-@ eup , and Gangdong @-@ myeon . The facilities have high @-@ powered disposal equipment developed by related industrial companies to maintain the discharged water at the first or second degree in quality , so that it is used as river maintenance flow and agricultural water in case a drought occurs .
The city had managed its own recycling service , but privatized it since July 1 , 2009 .
Other utilities are provided by private entities or South Korean government @-@ owned companies . Seorabeol City Gas , an affiliate of GS Group , provides gas to the Gyeongju residents , while , electrical power is supplied by the public enterprises , Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power via the Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant . The plant is known for the only nuclear power plant operating PHWRs ( Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor ) in South Korea and supplies about 5 % of South Korea 's electricity . The owner , Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power began to build the Wolseong 1 in the districts of Yangnam @-@ myeon , Yangbuk @-@ myeon and Gampo @-@ eup in 1976 . Since 1983 , the power plant has been providing commercial service and operating with the PHWRs that has a capacity of 678 @,@ 000 kW . As the construction of each Wolseong 2 , 3 and 4 with a capacity of 70 @,@ 000 kW were completed respectively in 1997 , 1998 and 1999 , Wolseong Nuclear Power plant site has been successfully operating the four PHWRs plants . New project , Sinwolseong No. 1 and No. 2 are currently under construction which is estimated to be completed until 2011 – 12 .
= = = Transportation = = =
The city lies at the junction of two minor lines operated by the Korean National Railroad . The Jungang Line runs from Seoul to Gyeongju and carries trains from the Daegu Line , which originates in Dongdaegu . In Gyeongju , the Jungang line connects to the Donghae Nambu Line which runs between Pohang and Busan . The Gyeongbu Expressway , which runs from Seoul to Busan , passes through Gyeongju , and Provincial highway 68 , aided by the South Korean government , connects Seocheon in the South Chungcheong province to Gyeongju . Additionally national highways such as Route 4 , 7 , 14 , 20 , 28 , 31 , and 35 crisscross the city . Since the city is a popular tourist destination , nonstop bus services are available from most major cities in South Korea .
High @-@ speed rail does not serve central Gyeongju , but the KTX Gyeongbu Line stops at the nearby Singyeongju Station , in Geoncheon @-@ eup , west of Gyeongju 's city center .
= = Sister cities = =
Iksan , North Jeolla , South Korea ( 1998 )
Nara , Nara , Japan ( 1970 )
Obama , Fukui , Japan ( 1977 )
Pompeii , Campania , Italy ( 1985 )
Versailles , Île @-@ de @-@ France , France ( 1987 )
Xi 'an , Shaanxi , China ( 1994 )
Huế , Thừa Thiên – Huế , Vietnam ( 2007 )
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= AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro =
The AnsaldoBreda -Ansaldo STS Driverless Metro is a class of driverless electric multiple units and corresponding signaling system . Manufactured by AnsaldoBreda and Ansaldo STS in Italy , it is or will be used on the Copenhagen Metro , Princess Nora bint Abdul Rahman University , the Brescia Metro , the Thessaloniki Metro , Line 5 of the Milan Metro , Line C of the Rome Metro and the Yellow Line of the Taipei Rapid Transit System . The first system to use this class of driverless electric multiple units was the Copenhagen Metro which opened in 2002 .
The rolling stock consists of two to six articulated cars . All trains are 2 @.@ 65 meters ( 8 @.@ 7 ft ) wide , except those used on the Rome Metro which are 2 @.@ 85 meters ( 9 @.@ 4 ft ) wide . All operate on standard gauge . Each car has a power output of 210 or 256 kilowatts ( 282 or 343 hp ) , fed from a third rail at 750 volts ( except in Rome where it is 1 @,@ 500 V overhead line ) . The systems are fully automated , consisting of automatic train protection ( ATP ) , automatic train operation ( ATO ) and automatic train supervision .
= = Rolling stock = =
The rolling stock uses standardized car bodies , articulated together . The number of cars varies across the different systems where they are used . The trains used on the Princess Nora bint Abdul Rahman University system are two car units . For the other systems , the units vary between three and six cars , making the trains from 39 to 109 meters ( 128 to 358 ft ) long . They are 2 @.@ 65 meters ( 8 @.@ 7 ft ) wide , except the Rome Metro units , which are 2 @.@ 85 meters ( 9 @.@ 4 ft ) . The units vary from 3 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 85 meters ( 11 ft 2 in to 12 ft 8 in ) tall . Each car has two doors on each side , which are 1 @.@ 3 meters ( 4 ft 3 in ) wide and 1 @.@ 945 meters ( 6 ft 4 @.@ 6 in ) tall . The vehicles are designed by Giugiaro Design .
The three and four @-@ car trains have six three @-@ phase asynchronous motors per train , with each motor giving a power output of 105 and 128 kilowatts ( 141 and 172 hp ) , giving each train a power output of 630 or 764 kilowatts ( 845 or 1 @,@ 025 hp ) . In each car , the two motors are fed by the car 's own insulated @-@ gate bipolar transistor . They transform the 750 @-@ volt ( 1 @,@ 500 V in Rome ) direct current collected from the third rail shoe to the three @-@ phase alternating current used in the motors . The trains ' top speeds are 80 or 90 km / h ( 50 or 56 mph ) , with an acceleration and deceleration capacity of 1 @.@ 3 m / s2 ( 4 @.@ 3 ft / s2 ) . Trains are fully compatible with platform screen doors , which are found at all stations in Brescia , Rome and Milan , and at underground stations in Copenhagen .
= = Automation = =
The systems are controlled by a fully automated computer system , located at the control and maintenance center . The automatic train control ( ATC ) consists of three subsystems : automatic train protection ( ATP ) , automatic train operation ( ATO ) and automatic train supervision ( ATS ) . The ATP is responsible for managing the trains ' speed , insuring that doors are closed before departure and insuring that switches are correctly set . The system uses fixed block signaling , except around stations , where moving block signaling is used . The system has been designed and built by Union Switch & Signal .
The ATO is the autopilot that drives the trains in line with a pre @-@ defined schedule , ensures that the train stop at stations and operates the doors . The ATS monitors all components of the network , including the rails and all trains on the system , and displays a live schematic at the control center . The ATC is designed so that only the ATP is safety @-@ critical , and will halt trains if the other systems have faults . Other aspects of the system , such a power supply , ventilation , security alarms , cameras and pumps , are controlled by a system called " control , regulating and surveillance " .
The most common repairs are the grinding of the wheels ; more complicated repairs are made by replacing entire components that are sent to the manufacturer . By having components in reserve , trains can have shorter maintenance times . The center also has the system 's work trains , including a diesel locomotive that can fetch broken trains . At any time , there are four people working at the control center . Two monitor the ATC system , one monitors passenger information , while the last is responsible for secondary systems , such as power supply . In case of technical problems , there is always a team of technicians who can be sent to perform repairs . Although the trains are not equipped with drivers , there are stewards that help passengers , perform ticket controls and assist in emergency situations .
= = Systems = =
= = = Brescia = = =
The Brescia Metro is a system which opened in March 2013 in Brescia , Italy . The 18 @-@ kilometer ( 11 mi ) system is being built in three stages and will have 23 stations . The system will feature a 90 @-@ second headway . ASM Brescia ordered 18 trains which are now being used on the Metro .
= = = Copenhagen = = =
The Copenhagen Metro , Denmark , consists of two lines , M1 and M2 , that run 20 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 12 @.@ 7 mi ) serving 22 stations . The system opened between 2002 and 2007 , and connects the city center to the areas of Frederiksberg and Amager , and Copenhagen Airport . The next extension , the City Circle Line is under construction and is planned to open in 2018 . Metroselskabet took delivery of 34 three @-@ car units between 2002 and 2007 , and operates with a headway of between two and twenty minutes , including an all @-@ night service . In April 2008 , the Copenhagen Metro won the award at MetroRail 2008 for the world 's best metro .
= = = Honolulu = = =
The Honolulu Rail Transit project will be a 20 mi ( 32 km ) elevated rail route which will connect the city of Honolulu on the island of Oahu in Hawaii with outlying suburbs . The project is planned to open in phases starting in 2018 with the entire 21 station route to be completed in 2019 . AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro rolling stock will be used for the system . Honolulu politicians and construction crews broke ground on the project on February 22 , 2011 in Kapolei , Hawaii . As of October 2012 , construction of the columns and foundations have been completed for the first 0 @.@ 5 mi ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) mile of the route . Future extensions to the route have been planned , which include spurs to the route and 15 additional stations . Construction of the project is currently on hold as litigation resulting from Kaleikini v. Yoshioka court case bars continuation of the project until the City and County submits a complete archeological survey to the State Historic Preservation Division for the entire line .
= = = Lima = = =
It is currently under construction in Lima the Line 2 of Lima Metro and a branch of Line 4 , which will connect the city of east to west in the first case and the portion of line 4 linking the Jorge Chavez International Airport with the line 2 @.@ the line will be built in two phases , the first of which is scheduled to open in 2017 and the second in 2020 @.@ the total of the 2 lines will cost US $ 5 @,@ 346 @,@ 000
= = = Milan = = =
The Milan Metro 's Line 5 first section between Bignami and the interconnection with M3 at Zara opened on 10 February 2013 . The second stage opened on 1 March 2014 , and runs from Zara to Porta Garibaldi station . The third and fourth sections are under construction and are both planned to open in 2015 , and will run from Garibaldi to San Siro stadium and from Bignami to Monza . Further extensions are planned . The first stage of 5 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) was estimated to cost € 500 million .
= = = Riyadh = = =
An 11 · 5 km metro serving the Princess Nora Bint Abdulrahman University on the outskirts of Riyadh opened in 2012 .
= = = Rome = = =
Rome Metro 's Line C , currently under construction , will be 25 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 15 @.@ 8 mi ) long , of which 17 @.@ 6 kilometers ( 10 @.@ 9 mi ) will be underground . The line will have 30 stations , of which 21 will be underground , and carry up to 24 @,@ 000 passengers per hour in each direction . Metropolitana di Roma has ordered thirty six @-@ car units , which are 20 centimeters ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) wider than the other systems ' vehicles , and capable of carrying 1 @,@ 200 passengers per train . Average speed on the system will be 35 km / h ( 22 mph ) , with the headway varying from three to twelve minutes . Construction of the system is estimated to cost € 3 billion and will open in four stages ; in addition to the section opened in 2014 , other sections will open in 2015 , 2016 and 2020 .
= = = Taipei = = =
The Yellow Line or Circular Line of the Taipei Rapid Transit System , Taiwan , will serve as a cross @-@ link between existing lines . The 52 @-@ kilometer ( 32 mi ) system will feature 46 stations . The 15 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 6 mi ) phase 1 will have 14 stations and is planned for completion in June 2018 . The Taipei Rapid Transit Corporation has ordered 17 trains for this phase .
= = = Thessaloniki = = =
The new Thessaloniki Metro in Greece has been under construction since 2006 , and is scheduled to open in 2018 after costing € 800 million . The 9 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) line will be entirely underground and feature 13 stations . Attiko Metro will use 18 three @-@ car units on the new line . The system will afterwards begin constructions of two 5 @-@ kilometer ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) five @-@ station extensions , creating a two @-@ line metro .
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= Pilot ( The Playboy Club ) =
The pilot episode of the American historical fiction television series The Playboy Club premiered on September 19 , 2011 in the United States on NBC . It was directed by Alan Taylor and written by Chad Hodge and Becky Mode . In this episode , Maureen , a newly hired Playboy bunny , gets involved in the murder of mob boss Bruno Bianchi . Nick Dalton , one of Chicago 's top attorneys and Club key @-@ holder , comes to her aid ; his girlfriend Carol @-@ Lynne makes an ambitious move and becomes the first Bunny Mother . Meanwhile , Bunnies Janie , Alice and Brenda each deal with their own personal issues and secrets while the club 's general manager Billy Rosen tries his best to keep the club running without interference from the mob .
Development for a pilot episode began in 2010 , when 20th Century Fox Television and Imagine TV attempted to produce the concept in time for the 2010 – 11 television season ; however , it never materialized . Its scripts were picked up by NBC in January 2011 and two months afterwards , principal photography for the episode commenced in Chicago , Illinois , where it occurred over a period of nine days . The pilot episode was heavily advertised in the weeks leading up to its premiere , as the show 's producers collaborated with several companies such as Bloomingdale 's to initiate cross @-@ promotional advertising deals .
Television critics were generally unimpressed with the episode , with many expressing that it was dull and mediocre . Upon airing , the series premiere was viewed by 5 @.@ 02 million viewers and was viewed by four percent of the audience in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings .
= = Plot = =
Nick Dalton , an attorney and key @-@ holder for the Playboy Club , introduces himself to newly hired Bunny Maureen and asks her for cigarettes . Maureen notifies to him that she is out of cigarettes , and goes to the storeroom to resupply . Bruno Bianchi , who previously tried to dance with her , is at the premises and attempts to seduce her . A terrified Maureen begins to resist his attempts ; the two later get into a scuffle . Dalton — checking on his order — witnesses the attack and gets into an altercation with Bianchi . Maureen stabs Bruno Bianchi in the neck with the heel of her shoes , killing him . Nick Dalton later informs her that Bianchi is the head of a local chapter of the Chicago Outfit . They dispose of his body in the Chicago River , and Dalton provides refuge for Maureen at his condominium .
Dalton prompts Maureen to hide in a closet , after hearing her fellow Bunny Carol @-@ Lynne entering his condo . The couple begins to flirt and kiss , only to abruptly end after Carol @-@ Lynne discovers a bunny outfit of a coworker . Infuriated , she ends her relationship with Dalton and calls for her things ; she finds Maureen hiding in her closet . Carol @-@ Lynne immediately leaves Dalton 's condo , and Maureen returns to the Playboy Mansion with her coworkers . The following day , the club 's manager Billy Rosen , speaks with the Bunnies regarding the whereabouts of Bianchi . Rosen later finds Carol @-@ Lynne in his office , much to his surprise . He fires her , after finding out that she has been stealing records of the workers . Meanwhile , Nick Dalton meets up with John Bianchi , the son of the deceased Bruno Bianchi .
Carol @-@ Lynne is rehired as Bunny Mother of the Playboy Club by Hugh Hefner . She discusses issues with Maureen in her office , and overtly attempts to persuade her to leave Chicago . After being told of a new training program , Maureen proceeds into the changing room , only to be confronted by a member of the Chicago Outfit . She tells Nick Dalton of the situation , and Dalton insists that he will come to her aid . Once entering in the car , Dalton discusses with John Bianchi on finding the murderer of his father . Meanwhile , all of the Bunnies aside from Alice — who appears as a meeting for the homophile group Mattachine Society — go to an event at the Playboy Mansion .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
20th Century Fox Television and Imagine TV were the production companies for the show that eventually became The Playboy Club . They had previously attempted to produce the concept during the 2010 – 11 television season but the project never came to fruition . After that initial attempt , the companies approached screenwriter Chad Hodge , who became the show 's creator and an executive producer . Imagine co @-@ founder Brian Grazer and president Francie Calfo also served as executive producers , as did Richard Rosenzweig , a longtime executive and consultant with Playboy Enterprises . Alta Loma Entertainment , Playboy 's entertainment production arm , received copies of all the story outlines and scripts for review but , according to Hodge , took a very hands @-@ off approach and did not get heavily involved in the creative process . Likewise , Playboy Enterprises founder Hugh Hefner reviewed each of the scripts personally , but did not provide much direct input or request major changes . The original title of the series was Bunny Tales , then Playboy , before the final title The Playboy Club was chosen . The show 's pilot script was the first new drama series ordered by NBC for the 2011 – 12 television season .
= = = Casting = = =
The main cast includes Eddie Cibrian , who was cast as Nick Dalton , the central character in the series . In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter , Cibrian stated that Dalton was a " chameleon " and very charismatic . He continued : " On the facade , he seems to have it all . He 's very successful . He 's dating the head Playboy bunny . He 's one of the first keyholders at the Playboy Club , but he has a very mysterious past . " Jeff Hephner was originally approached for the role after performing well in test auditions , but Hephner had no prior experience playing a television lead before , and the producers decided to let him go after the full cast table . Cibrian was cast just a few days before filming began . Amber Heard was approached by producers of the show to portray Bunny Maureen . Although the series premiere started with Nick helping Maureen out of a difficult situation , Heard said of the character , " Don 't underestimate that character and her intelligence , and the journey that she 's going to take to really rise above that . [ ... ] I think Maureen allows herself to be helped when she needs it , and by no means relies on any character , male or female , in this story , and never has . "
Producers of the show cast Naturi Naughton as Bunny Brenda . Naughton auditioned four times for the role before getting cast , singing the Nat King Cole song " When I Fall in Love " during one of the auditions . In researching the role , Naughton consulted the black former Playboy Bunny Pat Lacey , watched the documentary film The Bunny Years ( 1999 ) and read the book 50 Years of the Playboy Bunny . Brenda was loosely based on the model Jennifer Jackson , the actual first Black Playmate of the Month , although neither Naughton nor the Playboy Club producers contacted Jackson in preparing the role . Providing the role of the manager of the Playboy Club , Billy Rosen , David Krumholtz exclaimed that he was drawn to the character and wished to play a role different from Charlie Eppes , the character he played for six seasons on the crime drama Numb3rs . Other members of the main cast include Jenna Dewan , Laura Benanti , Leah Renee , Wes Ramsey , and Sean Maher . Hugh Hefner performed a brief voice @-@ over narration during the pilot episode .
= = = Development = = =
Principal photography for the episode took place in Chicago , Illinois , the same city where the story was set . Filming on the pilot episode began on March 15 , 2011 , with most scenes filmed on a set at Cinespace Studios on West 16th Street . Some scenes were also shot at the former Meigs Field on Northerly Island .
The pilot episode was heavily promoted in the weeks leading up to its airing . Laura Benanti appeared on a retro style cover of Playboy magazine released on September 16 , 2011 . The magazine had a 1961 theme , which included an old @-@ fashioned visual style , photos of 1960s Playboy bunnies and clubs , and the same sixty cent price as that time period . Benanti wore a black bunny costume and held a tray with drinks on the cover photo . NBC also entered into a cross @-@ promotional deal with the Bloomingdale 's department store . The Walton Street store in Chicago included display windows inspired by the series , which were unveiled in September 2011 by Benanti , as well as Naturi Naughton and Wes Ramsey . Chosen for the storefronts due to its close proximity to the original Playboy Club , the Walton Street store allowed visitors to take virtual photos with the show 's stars , view photos of the real @-@ life clubs and the show 's set , and enter into a contest to win such prizes as a walk @-@ on role on the show and a $ 5 @,@ 000 Bloomingdale 's shopping spree .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The series premiere of The Playboy Club was initially broadcast on September 19 , 2011 in the United States on NBC . It was watched by 5 @.@ 02 million viewers , despite airing simultaneously with Hawaii Five @-@ 0 on CBS and Castle on ABC . That was the lowest viewership among the major networks in its 10 p.m. timeslot , with Castle drawing 13 @.@ 28 million households and Hawaii Five @-@ 0 attaining 12 @.@ 19 million households . The episode gradually shed viewers from the first half to the next , with an average of 5 @.@ 36 million households tuning in for the first half @-@ hour and an average of 4 @.@ 69 million households for the second . The debut earned a 1 @.@ 6 rating / 4 share among viewers in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to the Nielson ratings , indicating it was viewed by four percent of those in the demographic who were actively watching television during the broadcast , which represented 1 @.@ 6 percent of the total demographic . This was considered a disappointing result for a coveted demographic . Speculations regarding the possible cancelation of the series immediately surfaced , but NBC officials told Deadline.com that such a decision would not be rushed because NBC Chairman Bob Greenblatt wanted to send a message that the network was willing to give all their new shows the necessary time to find an audience and succeed . Similarly in Canada , the pilot episode was viewed by 485 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics were generally unimpressed with the series premiere . Mike Hale of the New York Times critically panned the episode , writing , " An interesting drama could be made about Mr. Hefner 's success in fusing sex , privilege and pseudo @-@ cool into a wildly successful commercial empire during a conservative time , but The Playboy Club sets out to do much less , and succeeds . " Similarly , Seth Amitin of IGN gave the episode a 4 @.@ 5 out of ten , signifying a " bad " rating . Amitin stated that he was disappointed with its delivery , opining that while there were some potential in the show , it would " take a lot more work to get this show off the ground . " Meredith Blake of The A.V. Club reacted mildly to the episode , expressing that it was " glossy " but dull and mediocre . Fellow writer Phil Nugent echoed similar sentiments , writing , " The only outrageous thing about The Playboy Club is the scale of its miscalculated reverence for the sanctimonious mythology it 's trying to peddle . " In conclusion , Blake and Nugent gave the episode a ' C ' grade .
NPR writer Linda Holmes challenged the show 's assertions of female empowerment . Finding the episode itself " silly and full of bad dialogue " and " cheesy more than offensive " , Holmes questioned how a series about women whose conduct and appearance were micromanaged could simultaneously claim that those regimented women were uniformly empowered by the experience . She opined that " you can shake a Bunny tail and be empowered , no argument . It depends on what 's going on in the rest of your life . But shaking a Bunny tail isn 't enough to demonstrate empowerment if you have to go to Eddie Cibrian or Hugh Hefner for help every time you have a problem , and having the right not to be slapped on the behind when you deliver a cocktail isn 't exactly a societal advance on the order of universal suffrage . " The series , she concluded , might have been better served had those involved positioned it as a camp soap opera and not tried to make a feminist statement . In concurrence , Nancy Franklin of The New Yorker criticized Hefner 's narration , deeming it as delusional and stupid , and criticize the series for its stance on feminism . She wrote , " The show wants things both ways : to glamorize the Playboy ' lifestyle ' from a male point of view and also to try to persuade us that , although Bunnydom had its hardships and rigors — no gum chewing , constant smiling — wearing an uncomfortable skimpy uniform and putting a poufy fake tail on your butt meant you held the keys to the universe . " Television Blend 's Kelly West was much more optimistic about the episode , and asserted that " The Playboy Club offers a lot of shiny things to look at , but beyond that , there is a story beginning to develop and characters that , while not quite as original as they are nice to look at , are interesting and charismatic enough to carry the series . " Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter said the Playboy brand and the lifestyle portrayed in the series was dated and uninterestingm calling it a " bad show , period . The writing was weak , the acting spotty and the sexism too ridiculous and obvious to comment on more than once . " Alan Pergament , former critic for The Buffalo News , said of the show that " the truth is [ The Playboy Club ] should have been a pay @-@ cable series because without the sex it is pretty boring and tame . "
Several critics drew comparison to the television series Mad Men . Entertainment Weekly writer Margaret Lyons opined that the episode blatantly mimicked the show 's style , and called Eddie Cibrian 's performance an imitation of Jon Hamm 's Don Draper and even citing specific shots and camera angles similar to those in Mad Men . Lyons wrote , " [ The Playboy Club ] can 't copy the lyricism or narrative potency that make Mad Men what it is , which is more than a collection of artfully arranged period hairdos and moody pairs of people in front of rectangle @-@ patterned backgrounds . [ But ] it 's sure trying ! " TVLine 's Matt Webb Mitovich felt that despite evoking an accurate depiction of the 1960s , it did not succeed as well as Mad Men . He felt the series was too claustrophobic and that Cibrian was not strong enough for his part .
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= ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron =
ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron is a platform video game developed by Johnson Voorsanger Productions and published by Sega in 1993 for the Sega Genesis . The game is the sequel to cult video game ToeJam & Earl , released in 1991 . The game concerns two alien protagonists , ToeJam and Earl , both of whom have escaped from Earth , where they had crash landed . After returning to their home planet of Funkotron , the duo discover a number of antagonistic Earthlings have stowed away on the spacecraft and are wreaking havoc across the planet . The player must hunt down these Earthlings and imprison them in jars before sending them back to Earth .
The game 's platform format was a departure from the original ToeJam & Earl , a treasure hunt game with randomly generated levels , inspired by the game Rogue . Creators Greg Johnson and Mark Voorsanger originally began designing a game built on the concepts of the original , but changed to a more generic type of game due to a lack of support for their vision on the part of Sega . The game was critically well received , with reviewers praising the graphics , soundtrack , fluid action and two @-@ player mode . It was also a commercial success , but fans of ToeJam & Earl were disappointed and confused by the radical change in direction .
Since its release ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron has been criticized for being too sharp a departure from the first game , and some later reviewers felt that the developers had been more interested in the publisher 's wishes than the fans . Johnson and Voorsanger have stated they regret moving away from their prototype sequel in the vein of ToeJam & Earl . Research has suggested that a significant minority of fans favor ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron as the best in the series . Together with its predecessor , the game comprises one of the Mega Drive 's " key exclusive franchises " , which eventually spawned a third installment in 2002 , albeit a commercial failure with mixed reviews . ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron was re @-@ released in 2007 for the Wii 's Virtual Console , receiving mixed reviews . The game was released on PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade alongside its prequel in November 2012 . In August 2014 , ToeJam Earl 2 was listed on GamesRadar at # 10 on " Best Sega Genesis / Mega Drive games of all time " .
= = Plot = =
The game follows on the events of the first game , in which funky aliens ToeJam and Earl crash landed on Earth . After managing to rebuild their spaceship and returning safely to their home planet of Funkotron , the duo soon learn that a bunch of Earthlings had stowed away on their craft and have now invaded Funkotron . With the humans spreading panic across the planet 's citizens , even scaring the source of all funk , Lamont the Funkapotomus , away to another dimension , it is up to ToeJam and Earl to clean up the mess they 've made and send all the Earthlings they brought with them back to where they came from .
= = Gameplay = =
Unlike its predecessor , Panic on Funkotron is a side @-@ scrolling platform game in which up to two players play as ToeJam and Earl as they travel across Funkotron to capture antagonistic Earthlings that had stowed away . Players accomplish this by using a radar to locate an Earthling 's proximity ( some Earthlings may be hidden in the environment ) and attack them with jars in order to trap and collect them . Once all Earthlings have been found , the player can move on to the next level . Players can collect presents containing various bonuses , such as super jars , radar scans , and teleporting moves . Coins can be used with parking meters to trigger events in the environment or participate in minigames such as Jam Outs and Fungus Olympics . Players can also enter gateways leading to the Hyper Funk Zone , where the player must avoid obstacles in order to earn more presents . Hidden throughout the game are ten objects belonging to Lamont the Funkapotamus ; collecting all of which will earn the player the best ending upon completion .
= = Development = =
The game is the sequel to ToeJam & Earl , a treasure hunt game inspired by computer game Rogue and featuring randomly generated levels . After the success of the original game , Johnson Voorsanger Productions began work on a sequel in 1992 . The developer spent three to four months building on the original mechanics , adding elements such as indoor areas and additional terrain types , though the randomly generated levels were removed . The plot of this prototype would see ToeJam and Earl " return to Earth to stage a rap concert , only to find they 've lost their CDs " which would form the basis of the game 's treasure hunt . According to the Johnson and Voorsanger , the game would feature " more default items " for the characters to " use all the time " , new items and characters , and more detail and secret areas allowed by the fixed ( rather than randomly generated ) levels . The game employed a larger development team than the first installment and was originally projected for a Christmas 1992 release , and titled ToeJam & Earl 2 . Sega however conferred that they did not " understand " the game and though the " decision was still ultimately with Johnson and Voorsanger " , the developer started work on a more generic side @-@ scrolling platform game , a concept to which Sega had been more receptive . The increased size of the game 's cartridge over the original allowed for greater graphical detail . The soundtrack , including the original theme , was remixed and given a more layered quality .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The game was met with considerable anticipation , positive reviews and commercial success according to IGN , with GamaSutra also recalling a positive critical reaction . A contemporary review in the Chicago Tribune called it a " beautifully designed game " , as well as praising the Herbie Hancock @-@ inspired soundtrack and non @-@ violent action . The Washington Times also gave a positive verdict , stating : " This is one of the funniest games we 've ever seen . The graphics are superb , and the action and control are flawless . " Business Week wrote that " Sega knows what the kids find cool " with reference to the game . Mega placed the game at # 14 in its Top Mega Drive Games of All Time . Fans of the original ToeJam & Earl however were disappointed and confused by the game 's departure from the original concept to a more generic platforming format , with GameSpot and Shacknews later asserting that the game disappointed upon its initial release .
ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron and ToeJam & Earl comprised one of the Mega Drive 's " key exclusive franchises " . However , Sega 's subsequent video game console , the Saturn , performed poorly in the North American market and thus the franchise was neglected . A ToeJam & Earl game for the Sega Dreamcast was canceled , but a third instalment , ToeJam & Earl III : Mission to Earth , was eventually released for Microsoft 's Xbox in 2002 . The game returned to the concepts of the original game , but generated mixed reviews and poor sales .
Since its release , ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron " has developed a negative reputation as a selling @-@ out of a daring design " . With hindsight , Johnson and Voorsanger have stated they regret moving from the prototype sequel to a side @-@ scrolling platform game , though Johnson maintains " ToeJam & Earl 2 was a very original side @-@ scrolling game " . Johnson has further asserted that Toyoda Shinobu , who had been Sega 's Vice President of Development " admitted that it was probably a mistake on Sega 's part to jump to a side @-@ scroller " . A survey by IGN found that a majority of the franchise 's fans favored the original ToeJam & Earl as the best game in the series ; however a significant minority of respondents preferred ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron at 28 % . Research by the game 's developers said that a majority of fans preferred ToeJam & Earl , though the developers also claimed that " Panic on Funkotron was loved and admired by many " .
The game was re @-@ released on the Wii 's Virtual Console on June 1 , 2007 in Europe and June 4 , 2007 in North America . IGN felt the original game was superior , but praised the two @-@ player cooperative mode , fluid animations and the " fair number of extras that add a lot of depth " . GameSpot however called the game " mediocre " , " forgettable " and " not much fun " , though it noted the detailed " unique look " and parallax scrolling . Eurogamer , which gave ToeJam and Earl 's re @-@ release a negative review , praised the departure from the predecessor 's concept , saying " it gets some kudos at least for not following the ' more of the same ' game sequel mentality . " The reviewer praised the " forward thinking " environment interaction , but ultimately decided to give the game a middling score , saying " for all its bold ideas , the basic platforming mechanic is pretty shonky " .
The game was released alongside its predecessor as part of Sega 's Heritage Collection on Xbox Live Arcade on November 7 , 2012 and individually for PlayStation Network on November 6 , 2012 in North America and November 7 , 2012 in Europe .
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= Władysław Sikorski =
Władysław Eugeniusz Sikorski ( Polish pronunciation : [ vwaˈdɨswaf ɕiˈkɔrskʲi ] ; May 20 , 1881 – July 4 , 1943 ) was a Polish military and political leader .
Prior to the First World War , Sikorski established and participated in several underground organizations that promoted the cause of the independence of Poland from the Russian Empire . He fought with distinction in the Polish Legions during the First World War , and later in the newly created Polish Army during the Polish – Soviet War of 1919 to 1921 . In that war he played a prominent role in the decisive Battle of Warsaw ( 1920 ) . In the early years of the Second Polish Republic , Sikorski held government posts , including serving as Prime Minister ( 1922 to 1923 ) and as Minister of Military Affairs ( 1923 to 1924 ) . Following Józef Piłsudski 's May Coup of 1926 and the installation of the Sanacja government , he fell out of favor with the new régime .
During the Second World War , Sikorski became Prime Minister of the Polish Government in Exile , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Polish Armed Forces , and a vigorous advocate of the Polish cause in the diplomatic sphere . He supported the reestablishment of diplomatic relations between Poland and the Soviet Union , which had been severed after the Soviet pact with Germany and the 1939 invasion of Poland — however , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin broke off Soviet @-@ Polish diplomatic relations in April 1943 following Sikorski 's request that the International Red Cross investigate the Katyń Forest massacre . In July 1943 , a plane carrying Sikorski plunged into the sea immediately after takeoff from Gibraltar , killing all on board except the pilot . The exact circumstances of Sikorski 's death have been disputed and have given rise to a number of conspiracy theories surrounding the crash and his death . Sikorski had been the most prestigious leader of the Polish exiles , and his death was a severe setback for the Polish cause .
= = Early life and First World War = =
Sikorski was born in Tuszów Narodowy , Galicia , at the time part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . He was the third child in his family ; his father was Tomasz Sikorski , a school teacher ; his mother was Emilia Habrowska . His grandfather , Tomasz Kopaszyna Sikorski , had fought and been wounded at the Battle of Olszynka Grochowska in the November Uprising , during which he received the Virtuti Militari medal .
Sikorski attended the gimnazjum in Rzeszów ( now Konarski 's High School in Rzeszów ) from 1893 to 1897 , then transferred for a year to a Rzeszów teachers ' college . In 1899 he attended the Lwów Franciszek Józef Gymnasium , and in 1902 he passed his final high school exam there . Starting that year , young Sikorski studied engineering at the Lwów Polytechnic , specializing in road and bridge construction , and graduated in 1908 with a diploma in hydraulic engineering . In 1906 Sikorski volunteered for a year 's service in the Austro @-@ Hungarian army and attended the Austrian Military School , obtaining an officer 's diploma and becoming an army reserve second lieutenant ( podporucznik rezerwy ) . In 1909 he married Helena Zubczewska , whom he met while at the high school in Lwów . In 1912 they had a daughter , Zofia . After graduation he worked for the Galician administration 's hydraulic engineering department , working on the regulation of the Vistula river , and later was involved in private enterprises related to construction , real estate and petroleum trade .
During his studies at the Polytechnic , Sikorski became involved in the People 's School Association ( Towarzystwo Szkoły Ludowej ) , an organization dedicated to spreading literacy among the rural populace . Around 1904 – 1905 he was briefly involved with the endecja Association of the Polish Youth " Zet " , and then drifted towards paramilitary socialist organizations related to the Polish Socialist Party , which was intent on securing Polish independence . He made contact with the socialist movement around 1905 – 1906 through the Union for the Resurrection of the Polish Nation ( Związek Odrodzenia Narodu Polskiego ) . In 1908 , in Lwów , Sikorski — together with Józef Piłsudski , Marian Kukiel , Walery Sławek , Kazimierz Sosnkowski , Witold Jodko @-@ Narkiewicz and Henryk Minkiewicz — organized the secret Union for Active Struggle ( Związek Walki Czynnej ) , with the aim of bringing about an uprising against the Russian Empire , one of Poland 's three partitioners . In 1910 , likewise in Lwów , Sikorski helped to organize a Riflemen 's Association ( the Związek Strzelecki ) , became the president of its Lwów chapter , and became responsible for the military arm within the Commission of Confederated Independence Parties ( Komisja Skonfederowanych Stronnictwo Niepodległościowych , KSSN ) . Having a military education , he lectured other activists on military tactics .
Upon the outbreak of the First World War in July 1914 , Sikorski was mobilized , but through KSSN influence he was allowed to participate in the organizing of the Polish military units , rather than being delegated to other duties by the Austro @-@ Hungarian military command . In the first few weeks of the war he became the chief of the Military Department in the Supreme National Committee ( Naczelny Komitet Narodowy , NKN ) and remained in this post until 1916 . He was a commissioner in charge of the recruitment to the Polish Legions in Kraków , choosing this role over the opportunity to serve in the Legions as a frontline commander . On 30 September 1914 he was promoted to podpułkownik ( lieutenant colonel ) , and soon after that he became the commander of a Legions officer school ( Szkoła Podchorążych ) . The Legions - the army created by Józef Piłsudski to liberate Poland from Russian and , ultimately , Austro @-@ Hungarian and German rule - initially fought in alliance with Austria @-@ Hungary against Russia . From August 1915 there was growing tension between Sikorski , who advocated cooperation with Austria @-@ Hungary , and Piłsudski , who felt that Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany had betrayed the trust of the Polish people . In 1916 Piłsudski actively campaigned to have the Military Department of NKN disbanded . In July that year , Sikorski was promoted to pułkownik ( colonel ) . Following the Act of 5th November ( 1916 ) , Sikorski became involved with the Legions ' alternatives , the Polish Auxiliary Corps and Polnische Wehrmacht . In June 1917 Piłsudski refused Austro @-@ Hungarian orders to swear loyalty to the Habsburg Emperor ( the " oath crisis " ) and was interned at the fortress of Magdeburg , while Sikorski abandoned Polnische Wehrmacht and returned to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army . In 1918 , however , following the February Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk and the battle of Rarańcza , Sikorski chose belatedly to side with Piłsudski , announcing solidarity with his actions , protesting against planned separation of Chełm Land from the planned Polish state , and thus soon joined Piłsudski in internment ( he would be held in Dulfalva ( Dulovo ) ) . Nonetheless , this was not enough to smooth the differences between him and Piłsudski , and these two major Polish leaders would drift farther apart in the continuing years .
= = War with the Bolsheviks = =
= = = Polish – Ukrainian war = = =
In 1918 the Russian , Austro @-@ Hungarian and German empires collapsed , and Poland once again became independent , but the borders of the Second Polish Republic were not fully determined and unstable . In the east they would be formed in the escalating conflicts among Polish , Ukrainian , Lithuanian and Soviet forces in what culminated in the Polish – Soviet War ( 1919 – 1921 ) . Winston Churchill commented : " The war of giants has ended , the wars of the pygmies began . " Bolshevik leaders saw Poland as a bridge that the communist revolution will have to force to bring communism to the West , and Poland 's very existence would soon be at stake .
= = = Polish – Soviet war = = =
After his release from internment , from 1 May 1918 Sikorski worked for the Regency Council , organizing the new Polish Army . He was soon at the frontlines again , this time in the Polish – Ukrainian War , where troops under his command secured and defended Przemyśl in October – November 1918 .
Polish independence came in November 1918 with the formation of the Second Republic of Poland . In the course of the Polish – Ukrainian War , and in the opening phase of the Polish – Soviet War , Sikorski , now a high @-@ ranking officer of the Polish Army was involved in further operations in the Galicia region . In January 1919 he commanded troops defending Gródek Jagielloński ; in March that year he commanded an infantry division , advancing to Stawczany and Zbrucz . From 1 August 1918 Sikorski commanded the Polesie Group , and the Polish 9th Infantry Division . In order to curtail excesses of the forces under his command , he oversaw trials of 36 officers . His forces took Mozyr and Kalenkowicze in March 1920 , and he would command the Polesie Group during Poland 's Kiev offensive in April 1920 , advancing to Dniepr river and Chernobyl region . On April 1 that year he was promoted to brigade general .
As the Polish – Soviet War grew in intensity , in late April 1920 the Red Army of Russia 's new Soviet regime pushed back Polish forces and invaded Poland . Subsequently Sikorski successfully defended Mozyr and Kalenkowicze until 29 June , but later failed to hold the Brest fortress , although he defended it long enough to allow the Polish forces in the region to retreat in an orderly manner . On 6 August he was named the commander of the newly formed Polish 5th Army , which was tasked with holding the front to the north of Modlin , between Narew and Wkra rivers . He distinguished himself commanding the 5th Army on the Lower Vistula front during the Battle of Warsaw . At that time Soviet forces , expecting an easy final victory , were surprised and crippled by the Polish counter @-@ attack . During that battle ( sometimes referred to as " the Miracle at the Vistula " ) Sikorski stopped the Bolshevik advance north of Warsaw and gave Piłsudski , the Polish commander @-@ in @-@ chief , the time he needed for his counter @-@ offensive ; beginning with the 15 August his forces successfully engaged the Soviet 5th and 15th Armies . After the Battle of Warsaw , from 30 August , Sikorski commanded the 3rd Army . His forces took Pińsk , and fought during the latter stages of the Battle of Lwów and the Battle of Zamość , and then after Battle of Niemen advanced with his forces toward Latvia and deep into Belarus . The Poles defeated the Soviets , and the Polish – Soviet Treaty of Riga ( March 1921 ) gave Poland substantial areas of Belarus and Ukraine 's ( Kresy ) . Sikorski 's fame was enhanced as he became known to the Polish public as one of the heroes of the Polish – Soviet War . He also kept publishing military science articles during the war itself . For his valorous achievements Sikorski was promoted to divisional general on 28 February 1921 , and was awarded Poland 's highest military decoration , the order of Virtuti Militari , on 15 March that year .
= = In government and in opposition = =
Despite their differences , Piłsudski praised Sikorski in his reports , recommending him for Chief of the General Staff and Minister of War positions ; only generals Kazimierz Sosnkowski and Edward Rydz @-@ Śmigły received better evaluations from him . Sikorski was popular among many soldiers , and in politics , particularly appealing to Polish conservatives and liberals . On 1 April 1921 Sikorski replaced general Tadeusz Jordan @-@ Rozwadowski as the chief of the Polish General Staff . Between 1922 and 1925 he held a number of high government offices . Based on his analysis , the Polish Council of Ministers adopted new foreign policy that would remain roughly unchanged until the late 1930s ( preserving the status quo in Europe , and treating Germany and Russia as equal sources of potential threat ) . On 12 December 1922 he issued a general order , stressing the need for the military to stay out of politics . After the assassination of President of Poland Gabriel Narutowicz on 16 December 1922 , the Marshal of the Sejm ( Sejm being the Polish parliament ) , Maciej Rataj , appointed Sikorski prime minister . From December 18 , 1922 , to May 26 , 1923 , Sikorski served as Prime Minister and also as Minister of Internal Affairs , and was even considered as possible President . During his brief tenure as prime minister , he became popular with the Polish public and carried out essential reforms in addition to guiding the country 's foreign policy in a direction that gained the approval and cooperation of the League of Nations and tightened Polish @-@ French cooperation . He obtained recognition of Poland 's eastern frontiers from the UK , France and the United States during the Conference of Ambassadors on 15 March 1923 He aided Treasury Minister Władysław Grabski 's reforms aiming at curtailing inflation and reforming the currency , and supported ethnic minorities . His government nonetheless lost support in the Sejm and resigned on 26 May 1923 .
From 30 September 1923 to 1924 he held the post of Chief Inspector of Infantry ( Generalny Inspektor Piechoty ) . From 17 February 1924 to 1925 , under Prime Minister Grabski , he was Minister of Military Affairs and guided the modernization of the Polish military ; he also created the Korpus Ochrony Pogranicza . He worked actively to promote the cause of the Polish @-@ French military alliance . His proposal to increase the powers of the Minister of Military Affairs while reducing those of the Chief Inspector of the Armed Forces met with sharp disapproval from Piłsudski , who at that time was gathering many opponents of the current government . From 1925 to 1928 Sikorski commanded Military Corps District ( Okręg Korpusu ) VI in Lwów .
A democrat and supporter of the Sejm , Sikorski declared his opposition to Józef Piłsudski 's May coup d 'état in 1926 ; however he remained in Lwów , refused to dispatch his forces , and played no significant role in the short struggle surrounding the coup . In 1928 he was relieved by Piłsudski of his command , and while he remained on active service , he received no other posting . That year also saw the publication of his book on the Polish – Soviet War , Nad Wisłą i Wkrą . Studium do polsko – radzieckiej wojny 1920 roku ( At the Vistula and the Wkra Rivers : a Contribution to the Study of the Polish – Soviet War of 1920 ) . He would spend the following years studying military theory , publishing works on military theory , history and foreign policy . His most famous work was his 1934 book Przyszła wojna – jej możliwości i charakter oraz związane z nimi zagadnienia obrony kraju ( lit . War in the Future : Its Capacities and Character and Associated Questions of National Defense , published in English in as Modern warfare . Its character , its problems in 1943 ) , in which he predicted the return of the maneuver warfare . He wrote several other books and many articles , foreseeing , among other things , the rapid militarization of Germany .
In due course , soon after he was relieved of his command , and as a semi @-@ dictatorial Sanacja regime was established , Sikorski joined the anti @-@ Piłsudski opposition . Sikorski largely withdrew from politics , spending much of his time in Paris , France , and working with the French Ecole Superieure de Guerre ( war college ) . Even after the death of Piłsudski in 1935 , he was still marginalized , politically and militarily , by Piłsudski 's successors . In February next year , together with several prominent Polish politicians ( Wincenty Witos , Ignacy Paderewski , and General Józef Haller ) he joined the Front Morges , an anti @-@ Sanacja political grouping .
= = Prime Minister in exile = =
In the days before Poland was invaded by Germany in September 1939 , and during the invasion itself , Sikorski 's request for a military command continued to be denied by the Polish Commander in Chief , Marshal Edward Rydz @-@ Śmigły . Sikorski escaped through Romania to Paris , where on 28 September he joined Władysław Raczkiewicz and Stanisław Mikołajczyk in a Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , taking command of the newly formed Polish Armed Forces in France . Two days later , on September 30 , president Raczkiewicz called him to serve as the first Polish prime minister in exile . On 7 November he became Commander in Chief and General Inspector of the Armed Forces ( Naczelny Wódz i Generalny Inspektor Sił Zbrojnych ) , following Rydz @-@ Śmigły 's resignation . Sikorski would also hold the position of the Polish Minister of Military Affairs , thus uniting in his person all control over the Polish military in war time .
During his years as prime minister in exile , Sikorski personified the hopes and dreams of millions of Poles , as reflected in the saying , " When the sun is higher , Sikorski is nearer " ( Polish : " Gdy słoneczko wyżej , to Sikorski bliżej " ) . At the same time , from early on he had to work to reconcile the pro- and anti @-@ Piłsudski 's factions .
His government was recognized by the western Allies . Nonetheless Sikorski 's government struggled to get its point of view heard by France and the United Kingdom . The western Allies refused to recognize the Soviet Union as an aggressor , despite the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September 1939 . Furthermore , he struggled to secure resources needed to recreate the Polish Army in exile .
Poland , even with its territories occupied , still commanded substantial armed forces : the Polish Navy had sailed to Britain , and many thousands of Polish troops had escaped via Romania and Hungary or across the Baltic Sea . Those routes would be used until the end of the war by both interned soldiers and volunteers from Poland , who jocularly called themselves " Sikorski 's tourists " and embarked on their dangerous journeys , braving death or imprisonment in concentration camps if caught by the Germans or their allies . With the steady flow of recruits , the new Polish Army was soon reassembled in France and in French @-@ mandated Syria . In addition to that , Poland had a large resistance movement , and Sikorski 's policies included founding of the Związek Walki Zbrojnej ( Union of Armed Struggle ) , later transformed into Armia Krajowa ( Home Army ) , and creation of the Government Delegation for Poland position , to supervise the Polish Underground State in occupied Poland .
In 1940 the Polish Highland Brigade took part in the Battle of Narvik ( Norway ) , and two Polish divisions participated in the defense of France , while a Polish motorized brigade and two infantry divisions were in process of forming . A Polish Independent Carpathian Brigade was created in French @-@ mandated Syria . The Polish Air Force in France had 86 aircraft with one and a half of the squadrons fully operational , and the remaining two and a half in various stages of training . Although many Polish personnel had died in the fighting or had been interned in Switzerland following the fall of France , General Sikorski refused French Marshal Philippe Pétain 's proposal of a Polish capitulation to Germany . On June 19 , 1940 , Sikorski met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and promised that Polish forces would fight alongside the British until final victory . Sikorski and his government moved to London and were able to evacuate many Polish troops to Britain . After the signing of a Polish @-@ British Military Agreement on August 5 , 1940 , they proceeded to build up and train the Polish Armed Forces in the West . Experienced Polish pilots took part in the Battle of Britain , where the Polish 303 Fighter Squadron achieved the highest number of kills of any Allied squadron . Sikorski 's Polish forces would form one of the most significant Allied contingents .
The Fall of France weakened Sikorski 's position , and his proposal to consider building a new Polish army in the Soviet @-@ occupied territories led to much criticism from within the Polish community in exile . On 19 July Raczkiewicz dismissed him from his position as the Prime Minister , replacing him with August Zaleski , however within days pressure from Sikorski 's sympathizers , including the British government , made Raczkiewicz reconsider his decision , and Sikorski was reinstated as the Prime Minister on 25 July .
One of Sikorski 's political goals was the creation of a Central and Eastern European federation , starting with the Polish @-@ Czechoslovakian confederation . He saw such an organization as necessary if smaller states were to stand up to traditional German and Russian imperialism . That concept , although ultimately futile , gained some traction around that time , as Sikorski and Edvard Beneš from the Czechoslovak government @-@ in @-@ exile , signed an agreement declaring the intent to pursue closer cooperation on 10 November that year . On 24 December 1940 Sikorski was promoted to generał broni . In March 1941 he visited the United States ; he would visit USA again in March and December 1942 .
Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union ( " Operation Barbarossa " ) in June 1941 , Sikorski opened negotiations with the Soviet ambassador to London , Ivan Maisky , to re @-@ establish diplomatic relations between Poland and the Soviet Union , which had been broken off after the Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939 . In December that year , Sikorski went to Moscow with a diplomatic mission . The Polish Government reached an agreement with the Soviet Union ( the Sikorski @-@ Maisky Pact of 17 August 1941 ) , confirmed by Joseph Stalin in December of that year . Stalin agreed to invalidate the September 1939 Soviet @-@ German partition of Poland , declare the Russo @-@ German Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 null and void , and release tens of thousands of Polish prisoners @-@ of @-@ war held in Soviet camps . Pursuant to an agreement between the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile and Stalin , the Soviets granted " amnesty " to many Polish citizens , from whom a new army ( the Polish II Corps ) was formed under General Władysław Anders and later evacuated to the Middle East , where Britain faced a dire shortage of military forces . The whereabouts of thousands more Polish officers , however , would remain unknown for two more years , and this would weigh heavily on both Polish – Soviet relations and on Sikorski 's fate .
Initially , Sikorski supported the Polish – Soviet rapprochement , which reignited criticism of his person from some Polish factions . Nonetheless , Sikorski soon realized that the Soviet Union had plans for Polish territories , which would be unacceptable to Polish public . The Soviets began their diplomatic offensive after their first major military victory in the Battle of Moscow , and intensified this policy after the battle of Stalingrad , showing less and less regard for their deals with Poland . In January 1942 British diplomat Stafford Cripps informed General Sikorski that while Stalin planned to extend Polish borders to the west , by giving Poland Germany 's East Prussia , he also wanted to considerably push Poland 's eastern frontier westwards , along the lines of the Versailles concept of the Curzon Line , and acquire Lwów and Wilno , if not both . Sikorksi 's stance on eastern borders was not inflexible ; he noted in some documents that some concessions might be acceptable , however , giving up both Lwów and Wilno was not .
= = Katyn revelation and death = =
In 1943 the fragile relations between the Soviet Union and the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile finally reached their breaking point when , on April 13 , the Germans announced via the Katyn Commission the discovery of the bodies of 20 @,@ 000 Polish officers who had been murdered by the Soviets and buried in Katyn Forest , near Smolensk , Russia . Stalin claimed that the atrocity had been carried out by the Germans , while Nazi propaganda orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels successfully exploited the Katyn massacre to drive a wedge between Poland , the Western Allies and the Soviet Union . The Soviet Union , and subsequently Russia , did not acknowledge responsibility for this and similar massacres of Polish officers until the 1990s .
When Sikorski refused to accept the Soviet explanation and requested an investigation by the International Red Cross on April 16 , the Soviets accused the government @-@ in @-@ exile of cooperating with Nazi Germany and broke off diplomatic relations on April 25 .
Beginning in late May 1943 , Sikorski began visiting Polish forces stationed in the Middle East . In addition to inspecting the forces and raising morale , Sikorski was also occupied with political matters ; around that time , a conflict was growing between him and General Władysław Anders , as Sikorski was still open to some normalization of Polish – Soviet relations , to which Anders was vehemently opposed . On 4 July 1943 , while Sikorski was returning from an inspection of Polish forces deployed in the Middle East , he was killed , together with his daughter , his Chief of Staff , Tadeusz Klimecki , and seven others , when his plane , a Liberator II , serial AL523 , crashed into the sea 16 seconds after takeoff from Gibraltar Airport at 23 : 07 hours . The crash was attributed to cargo on the plane shifting to the back upon takeoff . Only the pilot , Eduard Prchal ( 1911 – 1984 ) , survived the crash . Sikorski was subsequently buried in a brick @-@ lined grave at the Polish War Cemetery in Newark @-@ on @-@ Trent , England on 16 July that year . Winston Churchill delivered a eulogy at his funeral . On 14 September 1993 , his remains were exhumed and transferred via Polish Air Force TU @-@ 154M , and escorted by RAF 56 Sqn Tornado F3 jets , to the royal crypts at Wawel Castle in Kraków , Poland .
= = Aftermath and remembrance = =
Immediately after the crash , a Polish officer who had witnessed the event from the airstrip began sobbing quietly and repeating : " This is the end of Poland . This is the end of Poland . " ( " To Polska stracona ! " ) General Sikorski 's death marked a turning point for Polish influence amongst the Anglo @-@ American allies . No Pole after him would have much sway with the Allied politicians . Sikorski had been the most prestigious leader of the Polish exiles and his death was a severe setback for the Polish cause . After the Soviets had broken off diplomatic relations with Sikorski 's government in April 1943 , in May and June Stalin had recalled several Soviet ambassadors for " consultations " : Maxim Litvinov from Washington , Fyodor Gusev from Montreal , and Ivan Maisky from London . While Churchill had been publicly supportive of Sikorski 's government , reminding Stalin of his pact with Nazi Germany in 1939 and their joint attack on Poland , in secret consultations with Roosevelt he admitted that some concessions would have to be made by Poland to appease the powerful Soviets . The Polish – Soviet crisis was beginning to threaten cooperation between the western Allies and the Soviet Union at a time when the Poles ' importance to the western Allies , essential in the first years of the war , was beginning to fade with the entry into the conflict of the military and industrial giants , the Soviet Union and the United States .
The Allies had no intention of allowing Sikorski 's successor , Stanisław Mikołajczyk , to threaten the alliance with the Soviets . No representative of the Polish government was invited to the Tehran Conference ( 28 November – 1 December 1943 ) or the Yalta Conference ( 4 – 11 February 1945 ) , the two crucial events in which the Western Allies and the Soviet Union discussed the shape of the post @-@ war world and decided on the fate of Poland . Only four months after Sikorski 's death , in November 1943 , at Tehran , Churchill and Roosevelt agreed with Stalin that the whole of Poland east of the Curzon Line would be ceded to the Soviets . In Teheran , neither Churchill nor Roosevelt objected to Stalin 's suggestion that the Polish government in exile in London was not representing Polish interests ; as historian Anita Prażmowska noted , " this spelled the end of that government 's tenuous influence and raison d 'être . " After the Teheran Conference , Stalin decided to create his own puppet government for Poland , and a Committee of National Liberation ( PKWN ) was proclaimed in the summer of 1944 . The Committee was recognized by the Soviet Government as the only legitimate authority in Poland , while Mikołajczyk 's Government in London , was termed by the Soviets an " illegal and self @-@ styled authority . " Mikołajczyk would serve in the Prime Minister 's role until 24 November 1944 , when , realizing the increasing powerlessness of the government in exile , he resigned and was succeeded by Tomasz Arciszewski , " whose obscurity " , in the words of historian Mieczysław B. Biskupski , " signaled the arrival of the government in exile at total inconsequentiality . " Stalin soon began a campaign for recognition by the Western Allies of a Soviet @-@ backed Polish government led by Wanda Wasilewska , a dedicated communist with a seat in the Supreme Soviet , with General Zygmunt Berling , commander of the 1st Polish Army in Russia , as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of all Polish armed forces . By the time of the Potsdam conference in 1945 , Poland has been relegated to the Soviet sphere of influence ; an abandonment of the Polish government in exile that has led to the rise of the Western betrayal concept .
A number of poems dedicated to Sikorski have been written by Polish authors during the war . In its aftermath , in the People 's Republic of Poland , Sikorski 's historic role , like that of all the adherents of the London government , would be minimized and distorted by propaganda , and those loyal to the government @-@ in @-@ exile would be liable to imprisonment and even execution . In time , restrictions on discussing Sikorski began to ease ; on a centennial anniversary of his birth in 1981 , commemorative events were held on the Rzeszów Voivodeship , including an academic conference , and revealing of plaques in Nisko and Leżajsk . Ryszard Zieliński published a novel on him , Wejście w mrok ( 1971 ) , and in 1983 a movie , Katastrofa w Gibraltarze by Bohdan Poręba , was made . The Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , of which Sikorski was the first Prime Minister , would continue in existence until the end of communist rule in Poland in 1990 , when Lech Wałęsa became the first post @-@ communist President of Poland . On 17 September 1993 a statue of Sikorski , sculpted by Wiesław Bielak , was revealed in Rzeszów . In 1995 , Sikorski became the patron of the newly formed Polish 9th Mechanized Brigade . In 2003 , the Polish parliament ( Sejm ) declared the year ( 60th anniversary of Sikorski 's death ) to be the " Year of General Sikorski " . A number of streets and schools in Poland bear Sikorski 's name .
Memory of General Sikorski was also preserved both in Poland and abroad , by organizations like the Sikorski Institute in London . In the UK , Sikorski received honoris causa degrees from the University of Liverpool and University of St Andrews . In 1981 , a commemorative plaque was revealed at Hotel Rubens in London , where during the war Polish Military Headquarters , including Sikorski 's office , were located . He is commemorated in London 's Portland Place , near the Embassy of Poland , with a larger than life statue , unveiled in 2000 . A propeller from the plane in which he died is the centrepiece of a new memorial to Sikorski at Europa Point , Gibraltar .
= = Controversy surrounding his death = =
A British Court of Inquiry convened on July 7 that year investigated the crash of Sikorski 's Liberator II serial AL 523 , but was unable to determine the cause , finding only that it was an accident and " due to jamming of elevator controls " , noting that " it has not been possible to determine how the jamming occurred but it has been established that there was no sabotage . " . The Polish government refused to endorse this report , due to the contradiction about the cause not being determined but sabotage being ruled out .
The political context of the event , coupled with a variety of curious circumstances , immediately gave rise to numerous speculation that Sikorski 's death had been no accident , and may have been the direct result of a Soviet , British , or even Polish conspiracy . Some modern sources still note that the accident is not fully explained ; for example Jerzy Jan Lerski in his Historical Dictionary of Poland ( 1996 ) , entry on the " Gibraltar , Catastrophe of " , notes that " there are several theories explaining the event , but the mystery was never fully solved . " However , as Roman Wapiński noted in his biographical entry on Sikorski in the Polish Biographical Dictionary in 1997 , no conclusive evidence of any wrongdoing has been found , and Sikorski 's official cause of death is listed as an accident .
In 2008 Sikorski was exhumed and his remains were examined by Polish scientists , who in 2009 concluded that he died due to injuries consistent with an air crash , and that there was no evidence that Sikorski was murdered , ruling out theories that he was shot or strangled before the incident ; however they did not rule out the possibility of sabotage , which is still being investigated by the Polish Institute of National Remembrance . As of 2012 , the investigation continues .
= = Honours and awards = =
Order of the White Eagle ( posthumously in 1943 )
Commander 's Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari ( in 1923 ; previously awarded the Silver Cross in 1921 )
Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta ( previously awarded the Commander 's Cross )
Order of the Cross of Grunwald , I Class - July 2 , 1946 , posthumously by the State National Council
Cross of Valour - four times
Gold Cross of Merit
Grand Officer of the Order of Leopold ( Belgium )
Grand Cross of the Order of the White Lion ( Czechoslovakia )
Cross of Liberty ( Estonia ) , Classes I and II ( Estonia )
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour ( France )
War Cross - August 1943 , posthumously ( Norway )
Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Romania , with spades ( Romania )
= = Works = =
General Sikorski was also an active writer on the subjects of military tactics and describing his personal war experiences . His works include :
Regulamin musztry Związku Strzeleckiego i elementarna taktyka piechoty ( Drill Regulations of the Riflemen 's Association and Basic Infantry Tactics ) , 1911 .
Nad Wisłą i Wkrą . Studium do polsko – radzieckiej wojny 1920 roku ( At the Vistula and the Wkra Rivers : a Contribution to the Study of the Polish – Soviet War of 1920 ) , 1923 ; latest edition , Warsaw , 1991 .
O polską politykę państwową . Umowy i deklaracje z okresu pełnienia urzędu prezesa Rady Ministrów 18 XII 1922 – 26 V 1923 ( Polish National Policies : Agreements and Declarations from My Tenure as Prime Minister , December 18 , 1922 to May 26 , 1923 ) , 1923 .
Podstawy organizacji naczelnych władz wojskowych w Polsce ( Basic Organization of the Supreme Military Authorities in Poland ) , 1923 .
Polesie jako węzeł strategiczny wschodniego frontu ( Polesie as a Strategic Node of the Eastern Front ) , 1924 .
La campagne polono @-@ russe de 1920 ( French : The Polish @-@ Russian Campaign of 1920 ) , 1928 .
Polska i Francja w przeszłości i w dobie współczesnej ( Poland and France in the Past and in the Present Day ) , 1931 .
Przyszła wojna – jej możliwości i charakter oraz związane z nimi zagadnienia obrony kraju ( War in the Future : Its Capacities and Character and Associated Questions of National Defense ) , 1934 ; translated into French in 1934 , and into English in 1943 ; latest edition Warsaw , MON , 1972 .
Some of his works have been collected in :
Generał Władysław Sikorski : Publicystyka generała Władysława Sikorskiego na łamach Kuriera Warszawskiego w latach 1928 – 1939 ( General Władysław Sikorski : Articles by General Władysław Sikorski in the Warsaw Courier , 1928 – 1939 ) , Oficyna Wydawnicza Aspra , 1999 , ISBN 83 @-@ 908937 @-@ 3 @-@ 8 .
= = = Other sources = = =
Dead Men 's Secrets the Mysterious Death of General Sikorski , The History Channel DVD , ASIN : B0007V0YCQ
Whiteley , Justin , Smierc Generala Sikorskiego , Bellona , 2007 , ISBN 978 @-@ 83 @-@ 11 @-@ 10921 @-@ 6
Generał Sikorski , premier , naczelny wodz ( General Sikorski : Prime Minister , Commander in Chief ) , London , Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum , 1981 , ISBN 0 @-@ 902508 @-@ 09 @-@ 1 .
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= Little Athletics =
Little Athletics is an Australian activity program that involves modified athletics events for children aged 5 to 15 ( or 16 in ACT , NSW , Qld and SA ) . More than 100 @,@ 000 young Australians competed in the sport in the 2013 / 14 season .
The competitions were founded by Trevor Billingham , a young Australian athletics enthusiast from Geelong , Victoria , in 1964 . By 1967 , there were more than 35 Little Athletics clubs in Victoria , and the decision was made to start the Victorian Little Athletics Association ( VLAA ) .
Soon after the formation of the VLAA , other states expressed interest in Little Athletics . In February 1968 , a year after the formation of the VLAA , Western Australia held its first Little Athletics meet at Perry Lakes Stadium . In 1972 , the states of Victoria , New South Wales , Northern Territory and Western Australia became the founding members of The Australian Little Athletics Union ( ALAU ) , which was formed in Perth . By 1974 , Tasmania , Australian Capital Territory , South Australia and Queensland had all joined the ALAU .
= = Events = =
Available Little Athletics events vary between age groups and from state to state . The following represents the range of events available .
= = Structure and governance = =
Under the independent governing body Little Athletics Australia ( LAA ) , each mainland state and territory has its own association , responsible for running Little Athletics in that state . Each state body controls the relevant centres and events in their state or territory . Clubs are the lowest level of the Little Athletics structure . Clubs are sections of centres , often have separate training sections and inform athletes of upcoming events .
= = History = =
In October 1963 , three young boys turned up at a senior athletics meet in Geelong , Victoria . They approached official Trevor Billingham , but Billingham turned them away citing their youth as a reason for them not to be allowed to compete . A few months later , Billingham held a coaching camp for secondary school students . His camp had a lot of primary school students in attendance .
Billingham decided to set up a Saturday competition for younger children . The first competition was on 3 October 1964 , in Geelong . Billingham had advertised the event in the Geelong Advertiser by saying :
" Also starting this Saturday , will be the special morning meeting for boys and girls . These will commence at 10 : 30 a.m. each Saturday and will be open to any school age competitor . It is intended that boys and girls not old enough to compete in the afternoon will take part in these special meetings . Anyone interested in the sport may attend , including parents , while the one @-@ hour of athletics is conducted . All of the standard athletic events will be conducted and boys and girls will be graded in each event . "
After the event , he wrote a one @-@ page article titled " Junior Athletics in Wet Conditions " , which appeared in the Geelong Advertiser on 5 October 1964 . He wrote that more than 80 boys and girls attended . He also wrote that there was a considerable need for such junior athletic competitions at the time , that the event was a success , and more events of the same type were to be held in the future .
By 1965 , Billingham had still not convinced the Geelong branch of the Victorian Amateur Athletics Association ( VAAA ) . In January 1965 , Billingham acquired lights for the Geelong senior athletics oval , Landy Field , which was also where the Little Athletics competition were . The lights were originally erected at Kardinia Park for the 1956 Olympics ; Billingham asked the Geelong Football Club if he could use the lights , and they allowed him . Billingham invited Ron Clarke to the now lighted Landy Field to break the 20 @,@ 000 meters and one hour run world records , and Clarke accepted . In January 1965 , Billingham also thought up the name " Little Athletics " ; previously the events had been called " Junior Athletics " . He took his two proposals to the VAAA , and both were accepted .
On 9 October 1965 , the 1965 / 66 Geelong Little Athletics season started . 14 meets were held , with a fee of three shillings for the season .
Billingham was the sole preparer for the Ron Clarke visit . When Clarke came , he broke both world records and brought fame to the Geelong Centre of the VAAA at Landy Field .
Despite his success with Clarke , Billingham still could not get support for Little Athletics from VAAA ; instead , they suggested he drop the junior competition and focus on the rapidly expanding senior one . One of the delegates , Jack Frewin , encouraged him to push through with his idea , so he published a notice in the Geelong Advertiser announcing that he needed to start a formation of Little Athletics clubs . There was a meeting of interested parents , and Billingham told them that he thought an organisation should be set up based on his experience from the seniors competitions but he need some parents to help him . On 27 November 1965 , six clubs were formed . They were run by parents with Billingham as an overall manager . By the end of the 1965 / 66 season , more than 200 boys and girls were competing regularly across nine clubs , and more than 500 had tried out at least once . The first Geelong championships were held in March 1966 over the long weekend .
There was another meeting in March 1966 . John McGlynn , an executive from the Ford Motor Company , suggested that there was a need to encourage other clubs from areas outside Geelong to start up . By September 1966 , there were clubs in Geelong , Belmont , Newtown , Lara , Corio YMCA and St Thomas . They were all based around local high schools .
In May 1967 , the Victorian Little Athletics Association ( VLAA ) was formed . By 1969 , there were 39 clubs in the VLAA . The first Western Australian meet was in February 1968 at Perry Lakes Stadium . In March 1968 , a Western Australian association was formed . Competitions in New South Wales started in October 1968 . In 1972 , the Australian Little Athletics Union ( ALAU ) was formed in Perth . Victoria , New South Wales , Northern Territory and Western Australia were the founding members . Tasmania , South Australia , Australian Capital Territory and Queensland joined shortly afterwards .
= = Current = =
In the 2013 / 14 season , Little Athletics had more than 100 @,@ 000 athletes and approximately 500 centres . Every year , there is a national championship for athletes under 13 years old , in which each state has a team of its best athletes .
In July 2014 , Jetstar Airways announced a two @-@ year sponsorship deal with Little Athletics Australia ( LAA ) , which saw the Australian airline becoming the first naming partner of LAA .
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= Andre Boucaud =
Andre Christopher Boucaud ( born 10 October 1984 ) is a professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for League Two club Dagenham & Redbridge .
Boucaud started his career in the youth system at Queens Park Rangers before moving to Reading , with whom he signed a professional contract in 2002 . He had two spells on loan with Peterborough United in 2003 and signed for the club permanently in 2004 . He had a loan spell with Aldershot Town of the Conference National in 2005 and was released by Peterborough in 2006 . Boucaud spent a season with Kettering Town in the Conference North before signing for League Two club Wycombe Wanderers in 2007 . He was released after one season and went on to spend two and a half seasons with Kettering after returning in 2008 . He left them after signing for York City in 2011 , following an initial loan spell at the club . Boucaud signed for Luton Town shortly after a year with York . Less than a year later he joined Notts County on loan , before signing permanently in 2013 . In 2014 he signed for League Two side Dagenham & Redbridge after leaving Notts County .
Despite being born in England , Boucaud has represented Trinidad and Tobago , the homeland of his parents , at international level . He made his debut in 2004 as a substitute against Iraq , with his first start coming against Northern Ireland . He played in three 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifiers for Trinidad .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Enfield , London , Boucaud joined the youth system at Queens Park Rangers in 2000 and after the club lost their Academy status he moved to the Reading youth system towards the end of 2001 . After breaking into Reading 's reserve team he signed a professional contract with the club on 25 March 2002 that contracted him at the club until the summer of 2004 . Boucaud was pursued by Premier League club Arsenal although he stayed with Reading as they gave him a three @-@ year contract . He was loaned out to Second Division side Peterborough United until the end of the 2002 – 03 season on 27 March 2003 and he made his debut two days later as an 85th minute substitute in a 5 – 1 victory at Mansfield Town . He finished the season with six appearances for Peterborough .
Reading agreed to allow Boucaud to rejoin Peterborough on loan in June 2003 , and Reading manager Alan Pardew said " he 's done enough to convince me that I shouldn 't keep him there for too long " . His return to Peterborough was completed on an initial one @-@ month loan on 8 August 2003 . His first appearance after returning was in a 4 – 3 defeat to Hartlepool United the following day , and in September 2003 Peterborough manager Barry Fry said he wanted to extend Boucaud 's stay at the club . Having made nine appearances and scored one goal for Peterborough in two months , he returned to Reading on 7 October 2003 .
= = = Peterborough United = = =
Fry spoke of his desire to re @-@ sign Boucaud , and after Reading released him on 10 May 2004 he re @-@ signed for Peterborough on a two @-@ year contract on 14 May . He made 24 appearances and scored one goal during the 2004 – 05 season . Boucaud joined Conference National team Aldershot Town on a three @-@ month loan on 16 September 2005 . He returned to Peterborough after being recalled from his loan on 15 December 2005 , which he finished with 13 appearances . Following his return to the club he was challenged by manager Mark Wright to fight for his place in the team . After failing to figure in Wright 's and subsequently Steve Bleasdale 's plans , Boucaud was released by Peterborough on 9 May 2006 after his contract was allowed to expire .
= = = Kettering Town = = =
He signed for Conference North team Kettering Town on 19 May 2006 and made his debut in a 1 – 0 victory over Hyde United on 12 August . He stayed with the club for one season and appeared in both legs of the play @-@ off semi @-@ final against Farsley Celtic , which Kettering lost 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out following a 1 – 1 draw on aggregate . He made 50 appearances and scored five goals for the club before leaving on 5 June 2007 after new manager Mark Cooper decided against retaining him .
= = = Wycombe Wanderers = = =
Boucaud joined League Two side Wycombe Wanderers on a free transfer on a one @-@ year contract on 8 August 2007 after impressing during a pre @-@ season trial . His debut came as a 78th @-@ minute substitute in Wycombe 's opening day 1 – 0 defeat against Accrington Stanley on 11 August 2007 . This was followed by his first start in a 2 – 2 draw at Dagenham & Redbridge the following weekend . He finished the 2007 – 08 season with 11 appearances for Wycombe and the club released him on 21 May 2008 .
= = = Return to Kettering Town = = =
He rejoined Kettering , by this time in the Conference Premier , on a one @-@ year contract on 5 August 2008 . He played for Kettering when they were defeated 4 – 2 by Premier League side Fulham in the fourth round of the FA Cup on 24 January 2009 , and was named man of the match by the Daily Mirror , who reported that Boucaud " ran the midfield " . Manager Cooper said in February 2009 he believed Boucaud was set " for greater things " after his performances during the 2008 – 09 season . He finished the season with 55 appearances and Kettering took up an option to extend his contract in May 2009 . He played a part when Kettering reached the FA Cup second round in the 2009 – 10 season , playing in a 1 – 1 draw with League One team Leeds United and in the 5 – 1 defeat in the replay . This season saw Boucaud make 41 appearances .
Boucaud committed his future to Kettering after signing a new two @-@ year contract with the club in May 2010 . He made his first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season in a 0 – 0 draw at Gateshead on 14 August 2010 . He was handed the captaincy in October following the appointment of Marcus Law as manager .
= = = York City = = =
After Kettering chairman Imraan Ladak decided to reduce the club 's wage bill , Boucaud joined Conference Premier rivals York City on loan until January 2011 on 26 November 2010 , with a view to a permanent transfer upon completion of the loan period . He had made 21 appearances for Kettering up to that point in the season . His debut for York came as a 76th @-@ minute substitute in a 0 – 0 draw at Kidderminster Harriers on 30 November 2010 , which was followed by his first start and home debut in a 1 – 0 defeat to Conference North side Boston United in the FA Trophy first round on 11 December . Boucaud signed for York permanently for a fee of £ 20 @,@ 000 on 5 January 2011 on a two @-@ and @-@ half @-@ year contract that would expire in the summer of 2013 . His first game after signing permanently came after starting in a 1 – 0 victory over Grimsby Town on 11 January 2011 . He finished the season with 20 York appearances .
Boucaud scored his first goal for York with the side 's opening goal in a 5 – 1 victory away at former club Kettering on 23 August 2011 . He was handed a three @-@ match suspension after being red carded during a 0 – 0 draw away at Barrow on 19 November 2011 after being adjudged by the referee to have raised his arms during the melee following the sending off of teammate Jason Walker during stoppage time . York 's Conference Premier rivals Fleetwood Town made an offer for Boucaud during the January 2012 transfer window , but this was rejected by manager Gary Mills .
= = = Luton Town = = =
Boucaud signed for York 's Conference Premier rivals Luton Town on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 on 31 January 2012 . He played in six games before falling out of favour with new Luton manager Paul Buckle , who used Boucaud in just one game as a substitute .
= = = Notts County = = =
During pre @-@ season for the 2012 – 13 campaign , Buckle stated that " [ Boucaud ] ’ s not in our plans , he knows that . " On 1 August 2012 , Boucaud joined League One side Notts County on loan until January 2013 . He made his debut for Notts County in a 2 – 0 victory over Hartlepool on 21 August 2012 , winning the man of the match award in what was described as an " assured performance ... knitting play together well with short , sharp passes " . Boucaud scored his first goal for the club in a 2 – 1 victory over Coventry City on 20 October 2012 , with a strike from 25 yards . It was also his first Football League goal in eight years . He signed for Notts County permanently on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 10 January 2013 . Boucaud was a key player for County as he completed the season with 43 appearances and one goal for Notts County . However , he fell out of favour under Shaun Derry and was released in May 2014 having made 33 appearances in the 2013 – 14 season .
= = = Dagenham & Redbridge = = =
In July 2014 , he joined League Two side Dagenham & Redbridge on trial , and impressed in the pre @-@ season before signing a one @-@ year contract on 7 August . He made his debut in a 3 – 0 home defeat to Morecambe on the opening day of the 2014 – 15 season on 9 August 2014 .
= = International career = =
Although born in England , Boucaud qualifies to play for Trinidad and Tobago through his parents , with his father born in Port of Spain and his mother born in Princes Town . At the age of 19 his international debut came as a 61st @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 0 friendly victory over Iraq at The Hawthorns on 23 May 2004 . A week later , he played in a 4 – 1 defeat against Scotland on 30 May 2004 , in which he forced goalkeeper Craig Gordon into making a save from a " raking drive " . His first start for Trinidad was in a 3 – 0 defeat to Northern Ireland on 6 June 2004 . He played in three 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifiers for Trinidad , playing against Saint Kitts and Nevis once and Mexico twice .
Boucaud was called up by Trinidad for the first time since 2004 for a friendly against Haiti on 10 August 2011 , although the game was postponed due to a lack of funds . This was followed by a call @-@ up for Trinidad 's 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Bermuda and Barbados . He was named on the bench for both of these matches . Boucaud was not capped again until 4 June 2013 , when he started in Trindad 's 4 – 0 friendly defeat away to Romania . He scored his first international goal in a 3 – 1 win over Saudi Arabia in the 2013 OSN Cup on 9 September 2013 .
= = Style of play = =
Boucaud is a midfielder who can play in attacking and defensive midfield positions . He is described as a " stylish player with a deft touch " who has " the ability to create chances as well as provide a shield to the [ defence ] " . After signing for Wycombe in 2007 he was described by manager Paul Lambert as a " gritty competitor who is also very good on the ball " .
= = Personal life = =
While suffering an unknown illness in the summer of 2009 , it was suspected that Boucaud could have contracted swine flu . His first child was born in 2010 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 7 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 3 June 2016 .
= = = International goals = = =
As of match played 3 June 2016 . Trinidad and Tobago score listed first , score column indicates score after each Boucaud goal .
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= Yesterday 's Enterprise =
" Yesterday 's Enterprise " is the 63rd episode of the television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . It was the 15th episode of the third season . The episode first aired in syndication the week of February 19 , 1990 . In the plot , the crew of the USS Enterprise @-@ D must decide whether to send the time @-@ travelling Enterprise @-@ C back through a temporal rift to its certain destruction in order to prevent their own disastrous timeline from ever occurring .
The plot for " Yesterday 's Enterprise " came from the uniting of two story ideas ; one which featured the crew of the time @-@ travelling Enterprise @-@ C , and another episode which featured the return of Denise Crosby , whose character had been killed in the show 's first season . Trent Christopher Ganino and Eric A. Stillwell rewrote the story to more prominently feature the character of Guinan , and the script was completed by a team of five writers .
Filming of the episode lasted a week ; some planned elements , including death scenes for many of the characters , were either too time @-@ intensive or costly to film . In syndication , " Yesterday 's Enterprise " outperformed most of the third season 's episodes with a 13 @.@ 1 ranking , the third @-@ highest number for the series at the time . The episode is cited as a favorite by members of the cast and by reviewers .
In December 2015 , writer / director Quentin Tarantino cited this episode as one he feels could be expanded into a feature film ( on Podcast " The Nerdist " hosted by Chris Hardwick on December 18 , 2015 ) .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise @-@ D encounters a rift in space @-@ time while on a routine mission . As they monitor the anomaly , the heavily damaged USS Enterprise @-@ C , a ship believed destroyed more than two decades earlier , emerges . Instantly , the Enterprise @-@ D undergoes a sudden and radical change : it is now a warship and the Federation is at war with the Klingons . Neither Worf nor Counselor Troi are seen or referred to , and Tasha Yar runs the tactical station . None of the crew notice the change , but Guinan senses that reality has changed , and has a meeting with Captain Picard . She says , for example , that there are supposed to be children on the ship , which of course is completely impractical on a warship . She suggests that the Enterprise @-@ C does not belong in their time and should return to the past . Picard , who knows that this would be a suicide mission , refuses to give such an order on Guinan 's intuition alone .
Captain Rachel Garrett of the Enterprise @-@ C and her crew learn they have travelled into the future . Garrett explains that they were responding to a distress call from the Klingon outpost on Narendra III , and were attacked by Romulan warbirds . While the crew works to repair the Enterprise @-@ C and tend to the crew 's injuries , Picard and his command staff discuss whether or not the ship should return to the past . Riker argues that their deaths would be meaningless , but Data suggests that it would be considered an honorable act by the Klingons . Picard discusses the situation with Garrett , who tells him that her crew will serve the Federation in the present . Picard quietly reveals to her that the Federation is on the verge of defeat and the presence of one ship will make no difference , but if the Enterprise @-@ C were to return to the past they might prevent the war from ever starting . Garrett agrees and announces to her crew that they will return through the anomaly , but at that moment , the two ships are ambushed by a Klingon Bird of Prey . Garrett is killed , and her helmsman , Richard Castillo , takes command .
During the repair efforts , Yar has become close to Castillo , but is unnerved by tense interactions with Guinan . Guinan reveals to Yar that she knows that Yar dies a meaningless death in the alternate timeline , and the two never should have met . Yar requests a transfer to the Enterprise @-@ C based on Guinan 's advice , to which Picard agrees .
As the Enterprise @-@ C prepares to return through the anomaly , three Klingon battlecruisers attack . With the anomaly becoming unstable , Picard orders the Enterprise @-@ D to cover the Enterprise @-@ C 's withdrawal . The Enterprise @-@ D suffers major crew losses under the Klingon barrage , including the death of Commander Riker , forcing Picard to man tactical himself . With the Enterprise @-@ D on the brink of destruction , the Enterprise @-@ C traverses the anomaly .
In the restored timeline , Guinan , still subtly aware of these events , asks La Forge to tell her more about Yar .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
At the beginning of Star Trek : The Next Generation 's third season , Michael Piller became the series ' head writer . Among the changes he implemented was to open the submission process for stories to non @-@ professional writers , or those not represented by agents ; though the studio resisted the effort , The Next Generation became the first show in Hollywood to allow such writers to submit their scripts . As soon as word got out , the studio was swamped with scripts — more than 5 @,@ 000 would arrive in a single year .
Among the scripts submitted by freelance or aspiring writers was one by Trent Christopher Ganino . Ganino completed a third draft of his speculative script in April 1989 and submitted it to the office of pre @-@ production associate Eric A. Stillwell . Ganino 's script , titled " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , ran 106 pages , far longer than the usual 65 @-@ page submission guideline , but a special allowance was made since the script was double @-@ spaced . The story involved the Enterprise @-@ D 's response to a crisis in the Golecian sector and the discovery of the Enterprise @-@ C , which had been destroyed 18 years before . The crew of the Enterprise @-@ C is in awe of the newer ship 's technology , but Picard is confronted with revealing to their guests their ultimate fate . An Enterprise @-@ C ensign accidentally discovers the fate of his vessel and panics ; Worf and Riker must capture him after he attempts to escape . When Golecian warships attack , Picard defends the Enterprise @-@ C using the same maneuver that caused the vessel 's destruction in the past . The ensign is hypnotized and returned to his ship , which returns to the past to its certain destruction .
Due to the backlog of scripts , processing all the drafts could take anywhere from weeks to a year . Ganino 's script was " logged " on May 2 and first read later that month by Richard Manning , a co @-@ producer on the writing staff . Manning commented that the draft was " not horrible , not particularly original , but good in spots , lousy in others " ; while not the review Ganino had hoped for , it was enough to keep the script in circulation .
Meanwhile , Ganino and Stillwell had struck up a friendship and began to develop ideas for other episodes . Gene Roddenberry had distributed a memo that suggested that though it would be unlikely to feature Leonard Nimoy as Spock on the series due to financial considerations , he suggested a reasonable alternative would be to feature Mark Lenard , who played Spock 's father , Sarek . Stillwell also met Denise Crosby , who had played Tasha Yar in the show 's first season , at a 1989 fan convention in San Jose . Over dinner , Crosby admitted she missed being part of the show and suggested that Stillwell could write a script to bring back her character , who had been killed off in the episode " Skin of Evil " . Ganino and Stillwell began to work on script ideas that would involve both Yar and Sarek .
In the meantime , executive story editor Melinda Snodgrass read Ganino 's spec script for " Yesterday 's Enterprise " in June and attached a post @-@ it note that declared that the story was an " interesting idea " . A " coverage " of the script , which outlined the plot and provided creative feedback , was written in August . The coverage 's analysis called the script a " good effort by an unrepresented writer " , and considered the script 's weak characterization and plot issues correctable . The main issue was whether the producers wanted to do a show with time travel .
Ganino and Stillwell were particular fans of two episodes from the original Star Trek series , " Mirror , Mirror " and " The City on the Edge of Forever " , and wanted to combine elements from them for a Next Generation episode . The foundation of their episode involved a team of Vulcans investigating the Guardian of Forever . In the past , the founder of modern Vulcan logic , Surak , is killed , causing massive changes to the timeline . The Romulans and Vulcans joined forces to attack the Federation ; Worf is no longer a crewmember on the Enterprise and Tasha Yar remains alive . Sarek and the Vulcans on the surface are the only people not affected by the timeline change , and in the end Sarek returns to the past to take Surak 's place and restore the timeline . Satisfied with the story , the writers decided to pitch the idea to Piller .
Piller read " Yesterday 's Enterprise " and suggested to producer Rick Berman that the story , not the script , be bought from Ganino . In a meeting , Piller told Ganino that he wanted to make changes to the story , which included the addition of Tasha Yar . Fearing that what they considered a better story was to be lost if the changes to " Yesterday 's Enterprise " were undertaken , Stillwell talked to Piller and pitched their Guardian of Forever story . While intrigued by elements , Piller felt the use of the Guardian was a " gimmick " and wanted The Next Generation to stand on its own . Instead , Piller suggested that they merge the two stories , with Stillwell and Ganino to share a writing credit . In meetings with the writers , Piller suggested that the Enterprise crew immediately undergo changes due to the presence of the older Enterprise , and that Guinan be integral to the realization that something was wrong . Ganino and Stillwell were ultimately given two weeks to complete their new story .
= = = Writing = = =
Ganino and Stillwell managed to complete their new combined story in slightly over a week ; the two writers spent hours each day at Stillwell 's apartment working over every detail . They were under pressure to write a story Piller would find acceptable , as they wanted to have the opportunity to write the teleplay . The story treatment was turned in on October 10 . Piller immediately decided to purchase the story , and distributed the treatment to the writing staff while he discussed changes . Piller felt Data 's romantic feelings for Tasha Yar were over @-@ the @-@ top , and that the alien probe that served as a central part of the story felt like a cheat in terms of resolving Picard 's dilemma . The writer wanted Ganino and Stillwell to beef up Guinan 's role and find another character arc for Tasha Yar . A revised treatment was submitted on October 29 , which incorporated Piller 's changes , but the writers learned that they would not be involved in development of the teleplay ; each was paid the Writers Guild minimum of $ 2400 .
Meanwhile , production of the episode was moved up from January 1990 to December 1989 , as this was the only time both Crosby and Whoopi Goldberg would be available for filming . The task of writing and polishing the new treatment in half the time fell upon writer Ronald D. Moore , who submitted his first draft on November 9 . Moore 's script made the alternate universe militaristic , with the Federation at war with the Klingons , and the alien probe was removed . The writing staff sat down in mid @-@ November to " break " the story , and turn the treatment into a rough script outline . Some characters , such as Troi , appeared only briefly at the beginning of the episode in order to offer more screen time to the guest characters of Guinan , Yar , Garrett , and Castillo . The beat sheet for the episode , which detailed characters and scenes , was distributed on November 27 .
Because of the lack of time before production needed to start , a team of writers was assigned to the task of writing the teleplay . In addition to the story credit to Ganino and Stillwell , Moore , Ira Steven Behr , Hans Beimler and Richard Manning would work on the teleplay with Piller to provide a final polish — a total of seven writers . Some of the staff were convinced that with so many writers , the script would be a disaster . Because the Writers Guild would not allow more than three staff writers to appear in the credits ( four after a special waiver was granted ) , Piller agreed not to feature his name in the credits . A partial first draft was turned in on November 30 so that preproduction for the episode could commence . The altered timeline provided the chance to show the Enterprise crew in a much more dramatic and human light than would be allowable in a normal episode ; since the original timeline was to be restored , Behr explained , the writers had the freedom to include more action . " Even though it was an alternate universe , [ Moore ] and I got all excited because we realized we were going to kill everyone on screen ! " he said . Michael Okuda and Rick Sternbach submitted technical memos on what kind of anomaly might drag the Enterprise @-@ C through time , and suggested interstellar , super @-@ dense strings as a possibility . The first draft teleplay was completed by December 4 , and a preproduction meeting was held the same day ; the various departments argued over costs and what items could be cut to reduce the budget . The final draft was finished and turned in on December 8 .
= = = Design = = =
After everyone had read the script , the studio decided to spend a little more on the episode than average ( at that time , Daily Variety estimated an average cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 million . ) This gave the production departments added liberties beyond what had been expected in the script . Among the reasons for the increase in budget was that " Yesterday 's Enterprise " would air during February sweeps , an important time for the studio to attract solid ratings . As The Next Generation was syndicated directly by the studio , the episode 's performance would impact advertising revenue for the future .
The script called for the creation of the Enterprise @-@ C. In the first season , illustrator Andrew Probert , who had designed the Enterprise @-@ D , was interested in a display of the design lineage of the ship from James T. Kirk 's Enterprises to The Next Generation 's much larger ship ( realized as a wall relief in the conference lounge behind the command bridge ) . Like most others , Probert assumed that the Enterprise @-@ B was an Excelsior @-@ class vessel and reasoned that the C would share design elements with its Excelsior @-@ class predecessor and its Galaxy @-@ class successor , Picard 's ship . The artist also produced a small color sketch of his version of Enterprise @-@ C , but left at the end of the season ; with his absence , no one knew what the drawing was intended to be .
When Rick Sternbach took over Probert 's duties , he believed the sketch was a rejected concept for the Enterprise @-@ D , but the ship 's design stayed with him . When he learned about the ship requirement for " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , he followed a thought process similar to Probert and built off the old sketch . Probert 's version had a highly curved engineering hull reminiscent of a sailing ship , but Sternbach was worried a design with so many compound curves would prove difficult to fabricate in the available time , so he made the hull entirely circular . A set of orthographic views was created and sent to Greg Jein , who fabricated the shooting model ; the model cost more than $ 10 @,@ 000 to produce .
The crew took several steps to differentiate the alternate universe from the original one . A " military log " is substituted for a captain 's log , " combat date " rather than stardate , and the absence of a counselor . The expanded budget allowed the bridge to be entirely redressed , something that would normally be infeasible . Steps replaced the bridge 's ramps , and the captain 's chair was elevated and made more throne @-@ like . Longer , more military @-@ looking tables were substituted for the usual decor in the Ten @-@ Forward lounge . While enlisted crew aboard the darker Enterprise wore variations of the Season 1 – 2 uniforms , the senior officers wore slightly modified versions of the uniforms added that season . The Enterprise @-@ C officers wore feature film costumes due to the expense and time @-@ consuming nature of creating more than a half @-@ dozen or so new uniforms for the episode . Costume designer Robert Blackman 's solution to change their appearance was to remove the turtleneck collars underneath the red tunics , as well as the belts , although the rear belt loop remained .
= = = Filming and casting = = =
Filming began on Monday , December 11 , 1989 and lasted for seven days . The episode was directed by David Carson , who had only helmed one other episode before " Yesterday 's Enterprise " was shot . Carson felt that his relative lack of experience helped because he had no preconceptions about how things should be done . Since much of the episode took place in the darker alternate universe , Carson wanted to emphasize the effect decades of war had on the crew and the bridge . " Picard really looked tired and worn and like a battle @-@ weary commander , and that 's what we wanted the bridge to look like--a battle weary bridge . I had lots of thoughts about making it as strong as possible using a lot of low lights , a lot of dark blues , making it very much more moody , " he said . In order to heighten the impact of the physical set changes , Carson took a different approach to how he constructed shots . " It was my intention to make it as much like a submarine as possible and to use low @-@ angle lighting ; basically , to do everything the opposite way that the Enterprise was normally shot . " The cameras were equipped with longer lenses than usual in order to reduce the depth of the scenes and provide a grittier feel . The use of low angles forced the lighting to be modified in order to prevent the scene from looking " like a hotel lobby " , in Carson 's words .
Two new roles needed to be filled for the production : Garrett and Castillo . The actors selected were both Star Trek fans . Christopher McDonald was picked for Castillo . " What impressed me about [ McDonald ] , " Carson remembers , " was that he wasn 't just your romantic leading man ; he was actually a very impressive actor . " Tricia O 'Neil was cast for similar reasons ; the actress was not the normal Star Trek commander type . Carson was also pleased to work with Crosby and Goldberg . The main cast enjoyed the opportunity to play their characters differently . The result was an unusual degree of friction between characters . This provoked some concern with the producers ; Berman was afraid that the episode was pushing the timeline too far .
Ganino and Stillwell visited the set frequently during filming . Members of the main cast approached Stillwell with questions about the nature of the altered universe and if they were still the same character . Goldberg asked Ganino about changing a piece of dialogue on set ; since Ganino was not the author of the teleplay , he deferred to Stillwell , who notified the production office . When Berman found out that Ganino and Stillwell were on set and talking to the actors , he banned them from setting foot on the sets again . Due to time constraints many planned elements were never filmed ; Moore had hoped for an extended battle scene in which Data would be electrocuted , and Wesley blown up in an explosion . Production of the episode wrapped on December 19 .
= = Release and reception = =
" Yesterday 's Enterprise " was first broadcast the week of February 19 , 1990 . Because The Next Generation aired in syndication , " Yesterday 's Enterprise " did not air on a specific day or time slot . The episode received a 13 @.@ 1 rating for the time period from February 19 to March 4 — the third highest rating for the series , and the highest for the entire season . While the season had averaged 9 @,@ 817 @,@ 000 households , " Yesterday 's Enterprise " attracted 12 @,@ 070 @,@ 000 households . The episode ranked first in Entertainment Weekly 's list of top 10 Star Trek : The Next Generation episodes .
Screenwriters John Logan and Roberto Orci , writers for the 2002 film Star Trek : Nemesis and the 2009 reboot Star Trek , respectively , cite " Yesterday 's Enterprise " as one of their favorite episodes and influences .
" Yesterday 's Enterprise " was also included as one of four episodes ( along with " The Best of Both Worlds , Parts I and II " and " The Measure of a Man " ) in a DVD collection entitled " The Best of Star Trek : The Next Generation " . Critic Marc Bernardin described the episode as Star Trek 's " smartest time @-@ travel experiment " and a fan favorite . The Toronto Star listed The Next Generation 's time @-@ shifting episodes , including " Yesterday 's Enterprise " as one of the twenty best elements of the show .
" Yesterday 's Enterprise " was the third most popular episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation according to an April 2013 poll issued by startrek.com. The two most popular episodes were " The Best of Both Worlds " and " The Inner Light " .
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= The Rejected =
The Rejected ( 1961 ) is a made @-@ for @-@ television documentary film about homosexuality , produced for KQED in San Francisco by John W. Reavis . The Rejected was the first documentary program on homosexuality broadcast on American television . It initially ran on KQED on September 11 , 1961 , and was later syndicated to National Educational Television ( NET ) stations across the country . The Rejected received positive critical reviews upon airing .
= = Production = =
Reavis , an independent producer who was apparently unconnected to the homophile movement , wrote up his idea for The Rejected in 1960 . Reavis originally titled the documentary The Gay Ones . He explained his goals for the program in his proposal :
The object of the program will be to present as objective analysis of the subject as possible , without being overly clinical . The questions will be basic ones : who are the gay ones , how did they become gay , how do they live in a heterosexual society , what treatment is there by medicine or psychotherapy , how are they treated by society , and how would they like to be treated ?
Thus , Reavis approached the topic from the standpoint of homosexuality being a social problem akin to alcoholism or prostitution . This echoed how many earlier programs , often produced as episodes of local talk shows , addressed homosexuality with shows bearing such titles as " Homosexuals and the Problems They Present " and " Homosexuality : A Psychological Approach " . The Rejected focused exclusively on gay men , with no representation of lesbians . Reavis expressed his reluctance to include lesbians in his proposal :
First , the repugnance — or desire not to think about the problem — is even greater in society than that towards the problem of Gay men . Second , the number of persons involved is much smaller .... Third , the problems are vastly different , as are the solutions . For example , promiscuity is much less , relationships apt to be bilateral , economic and social sanctions are less , and the ability to carry on a relationship of this sort is greatly simplified .
Commercial stations turned down the program , as did sponsors . KQED bought the project in early 1961 under the new title . The documentary was shot entirely in the KQED studio except for one segment on location at the Black Cat Bar , a San Francisco gay bar that had been fighting state and police harassment since 1948 . Reavis and co @-@ producer Irving Saraf filmed The Rejected on a budget of less than $ 100 .
Reavis and director Richard Christian utilized the talk show format , breaking down the subject matter into a series of smaller topics . Each segment included one or more subject matter experts discussing homosexuality from a different perspective . Within each segment , Reavis presented a stereotype about homosexuality and then challenged the validity of that stereotype through the expert interviews . His goal , as he noted in his original proposal , was to give the viewer " a feeling he is confused and that society as a whole is confused about homosexuality " . Experts interviewed for the program included :
Margaret Mead speaking from an anthropological standpoint . Mead spoke of the positive roles that homosexuality had played in the cultures of Ancient Greece and the South Sea Islands and in Inuit and Native American societies . Mead noted that it is society and not the individual that determines how homosexuality and homosexual behaviour are viewed .
Psychiatrist Karl Bowman of the Langley Porter Psychiatric Institute , who explained the Kinsey scale of human sexuality and who spoke against a punitive approach to treating homosexual patients . Medical doctor Erwin Braff also addressed medical issues .
Episcopal Bishop of San Francisco James Pike and rabbi Alvin Fine addressed religious topics . Each man espoused his belief that sodomy laws should be repealed because in his opinion homosexuality was a mental illness . Pike specifically compared homosexuality to chronic alcoholism , but called for homosexuals to be treated with " love and concern and interest " and for not condemning them as " evil " .
The city 's district attorney , Thomas C. Lynch , covered legal issues along with lawyers J. Albert Hutchinson , Al Bendich , and Morris Lowenthal ( who had previously defended the Black Cat Bar during its 15 @-@ year legal battle against police and government harassment ) .
Openly gay Mattachine Society president Hal Call , Mattachine executive secretary Donald Lucas and Mattachine treasurer Les Fisher spoke for gay men . The Rejected was unusual for its time in that it included actual gay people as opposed to only presenting ostensibly heterosexual experts .
KQED station manager James Day opened the documentary by reading a statement from California 's then @-@ Attorney General Stanley Mosk :
With all the revulsion that some people feel toward homosexuality , it cannot be dismissed by simply ignoring its presence . It is a subject that deserves discussion . We might just as well refuse to discuss alcoholism or narcotics addiction as to refuse to discuss this subject . It cannot be swept under the rug . It will not just go away .
= = Critical and popular response = =
The Rejected was critically and popularly well @-@ received upon its initial airing . Variety described it as handling the topic in a " matter @-@ of @-@ fact down @-@ the @-@ middle manner , covering it quite thoroughly and , for the most part , interestingly " . Terrence O 'Flaherty , critic for the San Francisco Chronicle , concurred , praising KQED for its courage in addressing the subject matter , as did the San Francisco Examiner , which said the program " handled [ the topic ] soberly , calmly and in great depth " . Of the letters KQED received , which numbered in the hundreds , 97 % were positive and many of the writers encouraged the station to make more programs like it . Dorian Book Service out of San Francisco published a transcript of The Rejected , and close to 400 people ordered copies . KQED syndicated The Rejected to NET channels across the country ; it aired on as many of 40 of the 55 NET stations and was repeated on educational stations in 1963 and 1964 . Conservative members of the gay community were pleased with how the Mattachine members presented themselves as ordinary people , an image that differed from the perception held by many outside the community . Some more radical activists , including Frank Kameny and Randy Wicker , found the program wanting for the apologetic tone it took toward homosexuality .
In 2002 , the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation presented KQED with the first Pioneer Award , in recognition of its production of The Rejected as the beginning of a long history of LGBT @-@ related programming .
= = Availability = =
KQED , after airing The Rejected , did not archive a hard copy of the documentary , and for many years , the full documentary was considered lost , with only transcripts available . Robert Chehoski , an archivist for KQED , and Alex Cherian , an archivist for the J. Paul Leonard Library at San Francisco State University , searched for any remaining hard copy for up to six years . Eventually , the two found that the film was owned by WNET , which funded the film , and a single 2 @-@ inch quad videotape was archived in the Library of Congress . The Library 's Recording Laboratory had already remastered the film onto a digital format and provided the San Francisco Bay Area Television Archive with a copy , for the purpose of making it available online . The 60 @-@ minute film was released by the TV Archive online on May 22 , 2015 .
The co @-@ producer of the film , Irving Saraf , also alluded to 30 extra minutes of unaired footage , including content filmed in the Black Cat Bar . This extra footage has not been recovered . Production correspondence written from March to July 1961 between KQED 's Program Manager Jonathan Rice and NET 's Director of TV Programming Donley F. Feddersen refer to scenes featuring the bar and its owner Sol Stouman that had been shot but were probably going to be cut from the final edit . These documents were preserved by the Wisconsin Historical Society .
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= The Carpet from Bagdad =
The Carpet from Bagdad is a 1915 American silent adventure film directed by Colin Campbell and based on Harold MacGrath 's 1911 eponymous novel . In the story , Horace Wadsworth ( played by Guy Oliver ) , one of a gang of criminals also planning a bank robbery in New York , steals the titular prayer rug from its Baghdad mosque . He sells the carpet to antique dealer George Jones ( Wheeler Oakman ) to fund the robbery scheme . But the theft places both men and Fortune Chedsoye ( Kathlyn Williams ) , the innocent daughter of another conspirator , in danger from the carpet 's guardian .
Marketing for the film included a media tour of part of the set and an invitation @-@ only screening sponsored by the publisher of MacGrath 's book . The Carpet from Bagdad was released on 3 May 1915 to mostly positive reviews . Many praised the tinted desert scenes and realistic Middle East imagery , although some felt the scenery overshadowed the characters . The film is now mostly lost , although one badly damaged reel was salvaged from the RMS Lusitania in 1982 .
= = Plot = =
Horace Wadsworth , disinherited brother of New York banker Arthur Wadsworth , joins a gang of international criminals . He plots to rob his brother 's bank by constructing a tunnel from the nearby home of antique dealer George Jones , who is currently on a trip to Cairo to purchase antique rugs . Horace follows him there , and , learning of the Sacred Carpet of Bagdad , joins the caravan of its sworn guardian , Mohamed . Meanwhile , Horace 's confederates Major Callahan and Mrs. Chedsoye arrive in Cairo along with Mrs. Chedsoye 's daughter , Fortune , who is unaware of her mother 's illicit activities .
When the criminals meet with Jones in Cairo , Jones becomes enamored of Fortune . Horace steals the Sacred Carpet from Mohamed 's mosque and sells it to Jones to fund the robbery plan . Fortune , becoming suspicious of her mother and the surrounding events , steals the prayer rug from Jones and hides it in her mother 's effects . Unable to locate the stolen carpet , Mohamed kidnaps Horace , Jones , and Fortune . Meanwhile , Mrs. Chedsoye and Major Callahan return to New York , where a fourth member of the conspiracy , Wallace , has acquired forged paperwork to gain access to the Jones residence .
The captives escape from Mohamed 's planned torture and flee to Damascus . Horace immediately returns to New York to rejoin his compatriots . Fortune and Jones , who have fallen in love , also travel back to New York . Once there , Jones learns of the forgery , and returns home to confront the gang , who still have the Sacred Carpet and who have completed their tunnel into the vaults of Arthur Wadsworth 's bank . Sympathetic to Horace after their shared experiences , Jones offers the robbers a two @-@ hour lead before he notifies the police , but keeps the prayer rug . Meanwhile , Mohamed resigns himself to the loss of the carpet .
= = Cast = =
Kathlyn Williams as Fortune Chedsoye
Wheeler Oakman as George P.A. Jones
Guy Oliver as Horace Wadsworth
Eugenie Besserer as Mrs. Chedsoye
Frank Clark as Major Callahan
Charles Clary as Mohamed
Harry Lonsdale as Arthur Wadsworth
Fred Huntley as Wallace
= = Production and marketing = =
The Carpet from Bagdad is a film adaptation of Harold MacGrath 's 1911 novel of the same name . MacGrath was a well @-@ traveled , successful author of over a dozen novels . Stories with Asian settings were in vogue at the time , and both The Carpet from Bagdad and the Selig Polyscope Company 's previous adaptation of MacGrath 's work , the popular serial The Adventures of Kathlyn , are set in part in the Near East .
Director Colin Campbell was concerned with the film 's realism . He had sets constructed to represent the streets of Cairo , Baghdad , and Damascus , and used animals from the Selig Zoo . Scenes set in the Arabian and Sahara Deserts were filmed in the deserts of California . The Arab characters ' clothing was genuine , and the actors portraying those roles were required to remain dressed in @-@ character throughout the several days of desert filming to ensure they would appear more natural in the imported garments . Much of the film , including the desert scenes , was hand tinted . Production costs exceeded $ 35 @,@ 000 , the equivalent of over $ 800 @,@ 000 in present @-@ day terms .
William Selig aggressively promoted his studio and its films . One such promotion , a March 1915 media tour of the unfinished Selig Zoo , allowed reporters a visit to The Carpet from Bagdad 's bazaar set . This was the first film distributed by V @-@ L @-@ S @-@ E , a conglomerate created by Vitagraph Studios , Lubin Manufacturing Company , Selig Polyscope Company , and Essanay Studios . The film was also screened in a special invitation @-@ only showing at the art gallery of the Bobbs @-@ Merrill Company , publisher of MacGrath 's novel , an early example of a sponsored exhibition of a feature film in a location other than a theater .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Carpet from Bagdad was released on 3 May 1915 , to generally positive reviews . Variety described it as a more interesting film than its title might imply , with " perfect direction and faultless acting " . Peter Milne of Motion Picture News approved of Campbell 's attention to detail and realism . The Moving Picture World 's James McQuade praised the film 's acting and special effects . Although he believed an unfilmed Cairo scene made Mohamed 's motivations easier to understand in the novel , he considered the film a " close second " to Campbell 's 1914 The Spoilers . Clarence Caine 's review in Motography also compared the The Carpet from Bagdad favorably to The Spoilers , but he viewed the film 's color as its best feature , especially the closing scene of a desert sunset . Several newspaper reviews also complimented the tinted desert scenes , with New Zealand 's The Levin Chronicle describing the film as " a gem of the cinematographer 's art " for its use of color . The Chicago Daily Tribune offered a more mixed opinion on the film ; reviewer Kitty Kelly found it difficult to care about characters " overshadowed by environment " , and considered the 35 @-@ year @-@ old Williams unconvincing as an ingenue .
Despite the acclaim from many contemporary reviewers , modern scholars of the silent film era would not consider The Carpet from Bagdad a masterpiece , according to the British Film Institute 's Clyde Jeavons .
= = = Partial rediscovery = = =
Like many films from the silent era , The Carpet from Bagdad was believed completely lost , but in 1982 an Oceaneering International diving expedition salvaged a number of artifacts from the wreck of the RMS Lusitania , including one reel of film . With the assistance of BBC technical advisor Laurie Ward , the BFI National Archive was able to recover images from several feet of the film , sufficient to identify the title , but not to restore any of the film to projectable condition . Although there was a theater on the Lusitania , this print of The Carpet from Bagdad was probably being taken to London as a film distributor 's preview , as was the case for several other films known to have been on board .
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= Loving You No More =
" Loving You No More " is a song by American rapper and producer Diddy and his band Dirty Money , from their debut album , Last Train to Paris . It was written by Dawn Richard of the group , as well as Mario Winans and Canadian rapper Drake , the latter of whom featured on the song . Sean Garrett and his production group , Team S. Dot , receive writing and production credits , as does Miykal Snoddy . The song was released as the album 's second single in the United States on September 21 , 2010 .
According to Diddy , the song is about loving someone so much that you forget about yourself . It is a R & B tune , which integrates usage of electronica and hip @-@ hop influences , while having a melodic , piano @-@ laden background . The song 's official remix features American rappers Gucci Mane and Red Cafe , while rapper and producer Jermaine Dupri also recorded a remix to the song . While critics were divided over Diddy 's part in the track , most complimented the song 's production , Drake 's cameo , and Harper and Richard 's vocals .
" Loving You No More " peaked at ninety @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 on two occasions . Meanwhile , it peaked in the top twenty of both the US R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Hot Rap Songs charts . The song 's Gil Green @-@ directed accompanying music video shows Diddy , accompanied by Richard and Kalenna Harper , reminiscing on a past love in a mansion , and in a club scene with Drake . The group performed the song on BET 's 106 & Park , during promotion of the album .
= = Background = =
" Loving You No More " first leaked under the title " Hurt " on November 13 , 2009 . After being announced as the second single from Last Train to Paris on August 26 , 2010 , the mastered version of the song was leaked . In an interview with MTV News , Diddy explained the meaning behind the song , commenting , " The concept of the song is about when you love somebody so much that you forget about yourself . You love them more than you love yourself . " The song 's official remix , released on October 22 , 2010 , features American rappers Gucci Mane and Red Cafe . Producer and rapper Jermaine Dupri also remixed the song with rap vocals from him , which was unveiled on September 29 , 2010 . The group performed the song on one occasion , during their takeover of 106 & Park to promote the album , on December 16 , 2010 .
= = Composition = =
The song is a mid @-@ tempo R & B song , with a length of four minutes and six seconds . Including electronica influences , it has a piano @-@ heavy beat , and has been described as " melodic " . Diddy has lead vocals , with Kalenna Harper and Dawn Richard singing background and having full vocals in numerous parts . Diddy 's lines feature the use of the auto @-@ tune effect . The song also integrates hip @-@ hop , featuring a rap cameo by Drake . Ed Easton , Jr. of WNOW @-@ FM summed up the track as " an emotional track about losing touch with a significant other . " According to Easton , the song also featured Diddy 's signature " rhythmic talking disguised as singing . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio Blog said , " the duo 's beautiful voices twist and soar around Drake 's supple and soulful vocals " . Although she commented that Drake 's voice was " almost unrecognizable " on the track , Becky Bain of Idolator noted " how sweetly he comes off in this sensitive track " . Bain also complimented Drake 's part in the song , stating , " Drizzy kills it in his mellow verse in the middle , his raspy monotone fitting in quite well with the melancholy vibe of the song . " A writer for Birthplace Magazine said the song was mixed with " a combination of slick production , strong vocals from Dirty Money songstresses Dawn and Kaleena , a guest appearance by Drake , and hype as only Diddy can deliver " , and called the song and video " mainstream guilty pleasures we can enjoy "
= = = Chart performance = = =
Upon digital release , " Loving You No More " debuted on multiple Billboard charts . While debuting at numbers twenty @-@ eight and twenty @-@ one on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Rap Songs charts , respectively , it therefore appeared at ninety @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 . It fell off the Hot 100 the next week , but would go on in the following weeks to peak at number twenty on the R & B chart and seventeen on the rap chart . After the release of Last Train to Paris , the song re @-@ entered the Hot 100 at its original peak , ninety @-@ one .
= = Music video = =
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Gil Green . In an interview with MTV News , Diddy explained the video , stating , " [ The video ] is really about me being in a relationship with a young lady and you 're constantly loving this person , and hoping that this day comes where they change and they love you back . " Additionally , Green said that the video shows " moments of him and his love but you can tell there 's an emotional distance " . The video was premiered on BET 's 106 & Park on October 27 , 2010 .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video opens with a still image of a woman in her bikini ( Manuela Arbeláez ) while various scenery backdrops are superimposed in the background . The first scenes of the video flicker between Diddy ’ s life with his femme fatale and Diddy singing with the rest of Dirty Money in the bedroom of a mansion . Some of the possessions in the house such as picture frames shatter as the chorus builds up . However , during Dawn Richard and Kalenna Harper ’ s verses , the camera focus on Richard and Harper singing directly into the camera lens . As Drake ’ s verse begins , Diddy falls backwards into a swimming pool in slow motion , while the camera image slowly fades into a club scene . There is a brief shot of a bottle of coconut @-@ flavored Cîroc vodka before Diddy is scene mingling in the club . The camera mainly focus on Drake , who is observing what is happening and rapping his verse . During the bridge , Richard and Harper appear in the club and Diddy ’ s femme fatale is seen in the background .
Ed Easton , Jr. of WNOW @-@ FM gave the song six and a half out of ten stars , calling it " average " . Easton said , " This is a rare situation , where the song was more of a draw than the actual video . " Becky Bain of Idolator said " We have to applaud Diddy for only throwing one shot to Ciroq vodka during his club scene with Drizzy , as opposed to using the entire video as a three @-@ minute commercial to promote his brand . " Bain was referring to Combs ' February 2010 video for " Ciroc Star " , which did not appear on the final track listing of Last Train to Paris .
= = Credits = =
Recording locations
Recorded at Circle House Recording Studios in Miami , Florida
Daddy 's House Studios in New York City .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Central African Republic at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
The Central African Republic sent three competitors to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . Béranger Bosse and Mireille Derebona represented the nation in track events , while Bruno Bongongo participated on the Central African Republic 's behalf in boxing . Of those athletes , none progressed past the first rounds of their events . The appearance of the Central African delegation at the Beijing Olympics marked its eighth appearance since the nation 's debut at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City and its seventh consecutive appearance at the Summer Olympics . At the ceremonies , Derebona was the nation 's flag bearer .
= = Background = =
The Central African Republic is a former French colony of approximately 5 million people situated in the heart of Africa . The nation borders the Democratic Republic of the Congo for most of its southern border , the coastal nation of Cameroon to its west , South Sudan to its east , and Chad to its north . The nation declared its independence from France in 1960 . Some eight years after its independence at the Mexico City 1968 Summer Olympics , the first Central African delegation debuted in the Olympic games . It sent a single male athlete to participate at those games , and did not send another delegation again for another three Olympics . The nation returned at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , and sent its largest delegations ( 15 athletes ) at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul and the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona , and sent its first female athletes to the Barcelona games . In total , the Central African Republic competed at eight games between its 1968 debut and its appearance at the 2008 Beijing Olympics . In its history up to Beijing , the Central African Republic has not sent an athlete that has won a medal .
Three athletes represented the Central African Republic . Two men and one woman participated across two different sports ( boxing and track and field ) and three distinct events . Mireille Derebona @-@ Ngaisset was the nation 's flag bearer at the ceremonies .
= = Athletics = =
Béranger Aymard Bosse represented the Central African Republic at the Beijing Olympics as one of its sprinters . Bosse participated in the men 's 100 meters dash , the only Central African both in that event and in any men 's event in Beijing . Bosse had not previously competed in any known Olympic games . During the qualification round , which occurred on 14 August , Bosse participated in the eight @-@ person second heat . He finished the event with a time of 10 @.@ 51 seconds , placing sixth ahead of Tonga 's Aisea Tohi ( 11 @.@ 17 seconds ) and behind Poland 's Dariusz Kuc ( 10 @.@ 44 seconds ) . The leaders of Bosse 's heat included first place finalist Asafa Powell of Jamaica ( 10 @.@ 16 seconds ) and second place finalist Kim Collins of Saint Kitts and Nevis ( 10 @.@ 17 seconds ) . Of the 80 athletes who finished the event , Bosse placed 45th . He did not advance to later rounds .
Mireille Derebona @-@ Ngaisset participated on the Central African Republic 's behalf as a sprinter . She took part in the women 's 800 meters for the country , and was the only female Central African athlete at Beijing 's Olympic games . Born in 1990 , Derebona @-@ Ngaisset was 18 years old at the time of her participation in the Beijing Olympics . The qualification round for the event took place on 14 August , where Derebona @-@ Ngaisset took place in the sixth heat against six other athletes . She was , however , disqualified , and did not rank in the event . The leaders of Derebona @-@ Ngaisset 's heat included Kenya 's Janeth Jepkosgei Busienei ( 1 : 59 @.@ 72 ) and the Ukraine 's Tetiana Petliuk ( 2 : 00 @.@ 00 ) . Of the 42 athletes participating in the event 's qualification round , Mireille Derebona @-@ Ngaisset was one of two athletes who did not finish ( the other was the United States ' Nicole Teter ) and the only one in the event to be disqualified that year .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye
= Athlete not required to compete in round
DSQ =
Disqualified
= = Boxing = =
Bruno Bongongo participated in boxing in the men 's welterweight class ( 69 kilograms in weight and below ) , and was the only Central African participated in any event outside track and field that year . Born in 1985 , Bongongo was 23 at the time he participated in Beijing . He had not previously participated in any Olympic games . Bongongo participated in the preliminary round of the event on 10 August , facing Cameroon 's Joseph Mulema in the fifth bout . Bruno Bongongo was defeated when Mulema scored 17 punches on him , while Bongongo only scored two in return . Of those two punches , Bongongo scored one in the third round , and another in the fourth . He did not advance to later rounds .
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= Holden Commodore =
The Holden Commodore is a car manufactured since 1978 by Holden in Australia and , formerly , in New Zealand .
For the original model , Holden replaced the long @-@ serving Kingswood and Premier large cars developed in Australia , with another rear wheel drive ( RWD ) platform that was , however , based on a smaller European design by Opel , re @-@ engineered for Australian conditions . Subsequent series became larger , culminating with the fourth generation Commodore , fully developed in Australia and based on the GM Zeta platform .
Initially introduced as a single sedan body style , the range expanded in 1979 to include a station wagon . From 1984 , Holden began branding the flagship Commodore model as Holden Calais , with the Commodore Berlina introduced in 1984 gaining independent Holden Berlina nomenclature in 1988 . Long @-@ wheelbase Statesman / Caprice derivatives and Commodore utility body variants followed in 1990 . The third generation architecture spawned the most body styles , with a new Holden utility launched in 2000 ( now officially as the Holden Ute ) , reborn Monaro coupé in 2001 , four @-@ door Holden Crewman utility and all @-@ wheel drive ( AWD ) Holden Adventra crossover in 2003 . Holden Special Vehicles ( HSV ) in 1987 began official modification of high performance variants of the Commodore and its derivatives , under its own nameplate .
Rivalry came predominantly from the Ford Falcon — also locally built . Prior to the second generation Commodore of 1988 , the Holden was positioned a full class below the full @-@ size Falcon . To varying degrees , competition also came from mid @-@ size offerings from Toyota Australia as well as Chrysler Australia , which morphed into Mitsubishi Motors Australia . Moreover , between 1989 and 1997 , Australian federal government policy saw the launch of the Toyota Lexcen , which was a rebadged version of the second generation Commodore . With the introduction of the third generation in 1997 , Holden implemented its largest export programs involving Commodore and its derivatives . In the Middle East , South Africa and Brazil , the Commodore sold as a Chevrolet . High @-@ performance export versions followed in North America , sold as Pontiac and later Chevrolet . HSV also exported to the United Kingdom as Vauxhall , in the Middle East as Chevrolet Special Vehicles ( CSV ) and in New Zealand and Singapore as HSV .
In December 2013 , Holden announced that it would cease its local production by 2017 committing , however , to use long @-@ standing Commodore nameplate on its fifth @-@ generation fully imported replacement , moving to a front @-@ wheel drive ( FWD ) platform .
= = First generation = =
= = = VB ( 1978 – 1980 ) = = =
Introduced in October 1978 , the VB Commodore development covered a period with the effects of the 1973 oil crisis still being felt . Hence , when Holden decided to replace the successful full @-@ size HZ Kingswood with a new model line , they wanted the new car to be smaller and more fuel efficient . Originally , Holden looked at developing a new WA Kingswood , however , this project was later dismissed . With no replacement in development , Holden looked towards Opel for providing the foundations of the VB , basing it loosely on the four @-@ cylinder Rekord E bodyshell with the front grafted on from the Opel Senator A , both constructed using GM 's V @-@ body platform . This change was necessitated to accommodate the larger Holden six- and eight @-@ cylinder engines . Holden also adopted the name " Commodore " from Opel , which had been using the name since 1967 . Opel went on to use Holden 's Rekord @-@ Senator hybrid as a foundation for its new generation Commodore C , slotting in between the two donor models .
The VB series retained 96 percent of the preceding HZ Kingswood 's interior space , despite being 14 percent smaller in overall dimensions , although five percent larger than the Torana . With the Commodore dropping a full class below the Kingswood and its Ford Falcon competitor , the smaller Commodore was predictably more fuel @-@ efficient . This downsizing was first seen as a major disadvantage for Holden , as they had effectively relinquished the potential of selling Commodores to the fleet and taxi industries . These sales losses were thought to be unrecoverable ; however , the 1979 energy crisis saw Australian oil prices rise by 140 percent , putting substantial strain on the automotive industry to collectively downsize , a change that Holden had already done .
During the VB 's development , Holden realised that when driven at speed over harsh Australian roads , the Rekord would effectively break in half at the firewall . This forced Holden to rework the entire car for local conditions , resulting in only 35 percent commonality with the Opel . The Rekord 's MacPherson strut front suspension was accordingly modified , and the recirculating ball steering was replaced with a rack and pinion type . These modifications blew development costs beyond expectations to a reported A $ 110 million — a figure close to the cost of developing a new model independently . With such a large sum consumed by the VB development programme , Holden was left with insufficient finances to resource the development of a wagon variant . Added that the Commodore architecture was considered an unsuitable base for utility and long @-@ wheelbase models , Holden was left with only a sedan , albeit one in three levels of luxury : a base , SL , and SL / E. Desperate measures forced Holden to shape the Commodore front @-@ end to the rear of the Rekord wagon . As the wagon @-@ specific sheet metal had to be imported from Germany , the wagon , introduced in July 1979 , suffered from inevitable component differences from the sedan . Although infrequently criticised in the early years , quality problems were evident , with poor trim and panel fit problematic for all first generation Commodores . This coupled with mechanical dilemmas such as water pump failure and steering rack rattle ensured warranty claims were high in the first year . In face of these issues , VB was praised for its value for money and sophistication , especially in regards to the steering , ride quality , handling and brakes , thus securing the Wheels Car of the Year award for 1978 .
= = = VC ( 1980 – 1981 ) = = =
The most significant change to the VC Commodore of March 1980 was the engine upgrading to " XT5 " specification . Now painted blue and thus known as the Blue straight @-@ sixes and Holden V8s , these replaced the Red units fitted to the VB and earlier cars . Changes included a new twelve @-@ port cylinder head , re @-@ designed combustion chambers , inlet and exhaust manifolds , a new two @-@ barrel carburettor and a Bosch electronic ignition system for the inline sixes . Tweaks and changes to the V8s surrounded the implementation of electronic ignition , revised cylinder head and inlet manifold design and the fitment of a four @-@ barrel carburettor on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ litre variant . These changes brought improved efficiency , increased outputs and aided driveability . In response to increasing oil prices , a four @-@ cylinder variant was spawned in June 1980 . Displacing 1 @.@ 9 @-@ litres , this powerplant known as Starfire was effectively Holden 's existing straight @-@ six with two cylinders removed . The four 's peak power output of 58 kilowatts ( 78 hp ) and torque rated at 140 newton metres ( 100 ft · lbf ) meant its performance was compromised . Reports indicate that the need to push the engine hard to extract performance led to real @-@ world fuel consumption similar to the straight @-@ sixes .
Holden 's emphasis on fuel economy extended beyond powertrains , with a fuel consumption vacuum gauge replacing the tachometer throughout the range , although this could be optioned back with the sports instrumentation package . Visual changes were limited : the relocation of the corporate crest to the centre of the redesigned grille , black @-@ coloured trim applied to the tail lamp surrounds on sedans , and the embossment of model badging into the side rubbing strips . The previously undesignated base car , was now the Commodore L , opening up the range for a new unbadged sub @-@ level car . This delete option model , was de @-@ specified and available only to fleet customers . On the premium Commodore SL / E , a resurrected " Shadowtone " exterior paint option became available in a limited range of dark @-@ over @-@ light colour combinations . According to contemporary reviews , changes made to the VC 's steering produced a heavier feel and inclined understeer , while the revised suspension gave a softer ride and addressed concerns raised while riding fully laden .
= = = VH ( 1981 – 1984 ) = = =
The VH series Commodore introduced in September 1981 brought moderately updated frontal bodywork , with a new bonnet and front guards to facilitate the reshaped headlamps and a horizontally slatted grille . These front @-@ end design changes worked to produce a longer , yet wider look . At the rear , sedans featured redesigned tail light clusters , the design of which borrowed from Mercedes @-@ Benz models of the day , using a louvered design . At the same time , the nomenclature of the range was rationalised . The SL superseded the L as the base model , with the old SL level becoming the mid @-@ range SL / X , and the SL / E remaining as the top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line variant . Wagons were restricted to the SL and SL / X trims . Redesigned pentagonal alloy wheels — replacing the original SL / E type used since 1978 — along with a black painted B @-@ pillar , wrap @-@ around chrome rear bumper extensions to the wheel arches , and extended tail lamps that converged with the license plate alcove — distinguished the range @-@ topping SL / E from other variants . The new pentagonal wheels were initially in short supply , such that only Shadowtone option SL / E sedans received them during 1981 production .
Mechanical specifications carried over , except for a new five @-@ speed manual transmission , optional on the 1 @.@ 9 @-@ litre four @-@ cylinder and 2 @.@ 85 @-@ litre six @-@ cylinder versions . In an attempt to improve sales figures of the inline @-@ four engine , Holden spent considerable time improving its performance and efficiency . Modifications were also made to the 2 @.@ 85 @-@ litre six to lift economy , and the powerplants managed to reduce fuel consumption by as much as 12 @.@ 5 and 14 percent , correspondingly . Holden released the sports @-@ oriented Commodore SS sedan in September 1982 — reintroducing a nameplate used briefly ten years prior with the HQ series . Provisioned with a choice of 4.2- or optional 5 @.@ 0 @-@ litre V8 engines , both versions of the VH SS were teamed with a four @-@ speed manual transmission . Racing driver Peter Brock 's Holden Dealer Team ( HDT ) high performance outfit produced three upgraded versions , known as Group One , Group Two and Group Three , the latter version available in either 4 @.@ 2 @-@ litre or more commonly 5 @.@ 0 @-@ litre V8 configuration .
By the time of the VH series , Commodore sales were beginning to decline . Holden 's six @-@ cylinder engine , which was carried over from the Kingswood , could trace its roots back to 1963 and was no longer competitive . Continual improvements made to Commodore 's Ford Falcon rival meant the VH was not significantly more fuel @-@ efficient or better performing despite the smaller size . This was curtailed by the absence of any major powertrain revisions by the time of the VH and the lack of visual departure from the original VB . Holden also had to deal with the influx of their own mid @-@ size Camira from 1982 , which presented comparable interior volume with lower fuel consumption , and for less than the Commodore pricing point . Camira sales were strong initially , but as fuel prices had stabilised , buyers gravitated away from Camira and Commodore towards the larger Falcon , which overtook the Commodore as Australia 's bestselling car for the first time in 1982 .
= = = VK ( 1984 – 1986 ) = = =
Representing the first major change since the VB original , the VK model of 1984 introduced a six @-@ window glasshouse , as opposed to the previous four @-@ window design , to make the Commodore appear larger . The revised design helped stimulate sales , which totalled 135 @,@ 000 in two years . This did not put an end to Holden 's monetary woes . Sales of the initially popular Camira slumped due to unforeseen quality issues , while the Holden WB series commercial vehicle range and the Statesman WB luxury models were starting to show their age ; their 1971 origins compared unfavourably with Ford 's more modern Falcon and Fairlane models .
New names for the trim levels were also introduced , such as Commodore Executive ( an SL with air conditioning and automatic transmission ) , Commodore Berlina ( replacing SL / X ) and Calais ( replacing SL / E ) . The 3 @.@ 3 @-@ litre Blue straight @-@ six engine was replaced by the Black specification , gaining computer @-@ controlled ignition system on the carburettor versions and optional electronic fuel injection boosting power output to 106 kilowatts ( 142 hp ) . The 5 @.@ 0 @-@ litre V8 engine continued to power high specification variants , but was shrunk from 5044 cc to 4987 cc in 1985 due to new Group A racing homologation rules . The new unit cut its predecessor 's weight by 75 kilograms ( 165 lb ) and models were fitted with an upgraded braking system . As high oil prices became a thing of the past , Holden decided to drop the 2.85- six and 4 @.@ 2 @-@ litre V8 , while the 1 @.@ 9 @-@ litre four @-@ cylinder was limited to New Zealand .
= = = VL ( 1986 – 1988 ) = = =
Marking a high point in terms of sales , the last @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series VL Commodore sold in record numbers , finally managing to outsell the Ford Falcon in the private sector . The 1986 VL represented a substantial makeover of the VK and would be the last of the mid @-@ size Commodores . Designers distanced the Commodore further away from its Opel origins , by smoothing the lines of the outer body and incorporating a subtle tail spoiler . A thorough redesign of the nose saw the Commodore gain sleek , narrow headlamps and a shallower grille , while the Calais specification employed unique partially concealed headlamps .
By this stage , Holden 's 24 ‑ year ‑ old six @-@ cylinder was thoroughly outmoded and would have been difficult to re @-@ engineer to comply with pending emission standards and the introduction of unleaded fuel . This led Holden to sign a deal with Nissan of Japan to import their RB30E engine . This seemed a good idea in 1983 when the Australian dollar was strong ; however by 1986 the once viable prospect became rather expensive . The public quickly accepted what was at first a controversial move , as reports emerged of the improvements in refinement , 33 percent gain in power and 15 percent better economy over the carburettor version of the VK 's Black straight @-@ six . An optional turbocharger appeared six months later and lifted power output to 150 kilowatts ( 200 hp ) . In October 1986 , an unleaded edition of Holden ’ s carburettored V8 engine was publicised . Holden had originally planned to discontinue the V8 to spare the engineering expense of converting to unleaded . However , public outcry persuaded them to relent . VLs in New Zealand were also available with the 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre six @-@ cylinder RB20E engine .
The VL suffered from some common build quality problems , such as poor windshield sealing , that can lead to water leakages and corrosion . Awkward packaging under the low bonnet coupled with Holden 's decision to utilise a cross @-@ flow radiator ( as opposed to the up @-@ down flow radiator installed to the equivalent Nissan Skyline ) meant the six @-@ cylinder engine was especially susceptible to cracked cylinder heads , a problem not displayed on the Nissan Skyline with which it shares the RB30E engine . The Used Car Safety Ratings , published in 2008 by the Monash University Accident Research Centre , found that first generation Commodores ( VB – VL ) provide a " worse than average " level of occupant safety protection in the event of an accident .
= = Second generation = =
= = = VN ( 1988 – 1991 ) = = =
The VN Commodore of 1988 and subsequent second generation models took their bodywork from the larger Opel Senator B and new Opel Omega A. However , this time , the floor plan was widened and stretched ; now matching the rival Ford Falcon for size . Continuing financial woes at Holden meant the wider VN body was underpinned by narrow , carry @-@ over VL chassis components in a bid to save development costs . In the VN and succeeding models , the Commodore Berlina became known simply as the Berlina . The range expanded in 1990 to include a utility variant , given the model designation VG . This was built on a longer @-@ wheelbase platform that it shared with the station wagon and luxury VQ Statesman sedans released earlier in the year . During this time , the rival Ford EA Falcon was plagued with initial quality issues which tarnished its reputation . Buyers embraced the VN Commodore , helping Holden to recover and post an operating profit of A $ 157 @.@ 3 million for 1989 . The team at Wheels magazine awarded the VN Car of the Year in 1988 : the second Commodore model to receive this award .
Changes in the relative values of the Australian dollar and Japanese yen made it financially impractical to continue with the well @-@ regarded Nissan engine of the VL . Instead , Holden manufactured their own 3 @.@ 8 @-@ litre V6 engine based on a Buick design , adapted from FWD to RWD . The 5 @.@ 0 @-@ litre V8 remained optional and received a power boost to 165 kilowatts ( 221 hp ) courtesy of multi @-@ point fuel injection . Although not known for its refinement , the new V6 was nevertheless praised for its performance and fuel efficiency at the time . A 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre Family II engine was also offered for some export markets including New Zealand and Singapore where it was sold as the Holden Berlina . Accompanying the changes to engines , the VL 's four @-@ speed automatic transmission was replaced by the Turbo @-@ Hydramatic and a Borg @-@ Warner five @-@ speed manual . A Series II update of the VN appeared in September 1989 , featuring a revised V6 engine known internally as the EV6 . With the update came a power hike of rising to 127 kilowatts ( 170 hp ) from 125 kilowatts ( 168 hp ) .
Under an unsuccessful model sharing arrangement that was part of the Hawke Labor government reforms in 1989 , which saw the formation of the United Australian Automobile Industries alliance between Holden and Toyota Australia , the latter began selling badge engineered versions of the VN Commodore manufactured by Holden . The rebadged Commodores were sold as the Toyota Lexcen , named after Ben Lexcen who was the designer of Australia II yacht that won the 1983 America 's Cup . The original T1 Lexcen offered sedan and station wagon body forms in three levels of trim : base , GL and GLX . Moreover , they were only available with 3 @.@ 8 @-@ litre V6 engine and automatic transmission combination .
= = = VP ( 1991 – 1993 ) = = =
The VP update of 1991 featured cosmetic changes and mechanical however most were not visible unless you were to pull the motor down ; and a very similar revised 3 @.@ 8 @-@ litre V6 and 5 @.@ 0 @-@ litre V8 engines from the VN were carried over . The 2 @.@ 0 @-@ litre straight @-@ four engine previously available in New Zealand was discontinued . Exterior cosmetic changes included a translucent acrylic grille on the base level Executive and Berlina , with a colour @-@ coded grille for the S and SS , and a chrome grille for Calais . Updated tail lights and boot garnishes were also a part of the changes , which were different for each model , with the Berlina having grey stripes and the Calais chrome stripes . Semi @-@ trailing arm independent rear suspension became standard on the Calais and SS , but was made an option on lower @-@ end models in lieu of the live rear axle , improving ride and handling .
A new wider front track was introduced to address issues with the previous carried @-@ over VL chassis components . In August 1992 , anti @-@ lock brakes were introduced as an option on the Calais and SS trim levels , later becoming optional on all Series II variants . This January 1993 update also included a colour @-@ coded grille for the Executive and alloy wheels for the Commodore S.
Toyota 's pattern of updating their Lexcen model tended to follow Commodore 's model cycle . The T2 ( VP ) Lexcen from 1991 pioneered new specification designations : CSi , VXi and Newport . All future updates ( T3 ( VR ) , T4 ( VS ) and T5 ( VS II ) Lexcens ) made use of the new naming system until 1997 , when the badge engineering scheme ceased . To give further differentiation to the Lexcen from the Commodore , the Lexcens from the VP model onwards had unique front @-@ end styling treatments .
= = = VR ( 1993 – 1995 ) = = =
The 1993 VR Commodore represented a major facelift of the second generation architecture leaving only the doors and roof untouched . Approximately 80 percent of car was new in comparison to the preceding model . Exterior changes brought an overall smoother body , semicircular wheel arches and the " twin @-@ kidney " grille — a Commodore styling trait which remained until the VY model of 2002 and remains a permanent staple on the HSV variants to this day . The rear @-@ end treatment saw raised tail lights , implemented for safety reasons , and a driver 's side airbag was introduced as an option : a first for an Australian @-@ built car . Other safety features such as anti @-@ lock brakes and independent rear suspension were only available with the new electronic GM 4L60 @-@ E automatic transmission . Along with a driver 's airbag and cruise control , these features were packaged into a new Acclaim specification level : a family @-@ oriented safety spec above the entry @-@ level Executive . Holden 's strong focus on safety can be seen in the Used Car Safety Ratings . The findings show that in an accident , VN / VP Commodores provide a " worse than average " level of occupant protection . However , the updated VR / VS models were found to provide a " better than average " level of safety protection . Holden issued a Series II revision in September 1994 bringing audible warning chimes for the handbrake and fuel level among other changes .
The latest revision of the Buick 3 @.@ 8 @-@ litre V6 engine was fitted to the VR Commodore , featuring rolling @-@ element bearings in the valve rocker arms and increased compression ratios . These changes combined to deliver an increase in power to 130 kilowatts ( 170 hp ) and further improvement in noise , vibration , and harshness levels . Wheels magazine awarded the VR Commodore Car of the Year in 1993 .
= = = VS ( 1995 – 1997 ) = = =
The 1995 VS Commodore served as a mechanical update of the VR , destined to maintain sales momentum before the arrival of an all @-@ new VT model . The extent of exterior changes amounted to little more than a redesigned Holden logo and wheel trims . An overhauled Ecotec ( Emissions and Consumption Optimisation through TEChnology ) version of the Buick V6 engine coincided with changes to the engine in the United States . The Ecotec engine packed 13 percent more power for a total of 147 kilowatts ( 197 hp ) , cut fuel consumption by 5 percent , increased the compression ratio from 9 @.@ 0 : 1 to 9 @.@ 4 : 1 and improved on the engine 's previous rough characteristics . Holden mated the new engine with a modified version of the GM 4L60 @-@ E automatic transmission , improving throttle response and smoothing gear changes . The Series II update of June 1996 included elliptical side turn signals , interior tweaks and the introduction of a supercharged V6 engine for selected trim levels , and the introduction of a new Getrag manual transmission . The new supercharged engine slotted between the existing V6 and V8 engines in the lineup and was officially rated at 165 kilowatts ( 221 hp ) , just 3 kilowatts ( 4 @.@ 0 hp ) below the V8 .
The VS Commodore was the last of which to be sold as Toyota Lexcens , as Holden and Toyota ended their model @-@ sharing scheme . The last Lexcens were built during 1997 . This model was also sold as the VS Commodore Royale in New Zealand . Similar in specification to the Calais also sold in New Zealand , the Royale featured a standard VS Commodore body with the front end from the VS Caprice and an Opel 2 @.@ 6 @-@ litre 54 @-@ Degree V6 engine . The Royale was also sold between 1995 and 1997 in small numbers to Malaysia and Singapore as the Opel Calais .
= = Third generation = =
= = = VT ( 1997 – 2000 ) = = =
With the VT Commodore of 1997 , Holden looked again to Opel in Germany for a donor platform . The proposal was to take the Opel Omega B and broaden the vehicle 's width and mechanical setup for local conditions . In the early days , Holden considered adopting the Omega as is , save for the engines and transmissions , and even investigated reskinning the existing VR / VS architecture . Later on , the VT bodywork spawned a new generation of Statesman and Caprice ( again based on the long @-@ wheelbase wagons ) , and even went as far as resurrecting the iconic Monaro coupé of the 1960s and 1970s via a prototype presented at the 1998 Sydney Motor Show .
The VT heralded the fitment of semi @-@ trailing arm independent rear suspension as standard across the range , a significant selling point over the rival Falcon , along with increased electronics such as Traction Control . However , in terms of suspension , the original Opel design was simplified by removing the toe control links that was standard equipment on the European Omega since 1987 . Consequently , this afflicted the VT with excessive tyre wear due to distortions to the suspension camber angle and toe under heavy load , such as heavy towing or when travelling over undulated surfaces .
Notably , Holden 's performance arm HSV re @-@ added the toe control link on the flagship GTS 300 model . The 1999 Series II update replaced the venerable Holden 5 @.@ 0 @-@ litre V8 engine with a new 5 @.@ 7 @-@ litre Generation III V8 sourced from the United States . The V8 was detuned to 220 kilowatts ( 300 hp ) from the original US version , but would receive incremental power upgrades to 250 kilowatts ( 340 hp ) throughout its time in the Commodore , before finally being replaced by the related Generation 4 in the VZ . The supercharged V6 was uprated to 171 kilowatts ( 229 hp ) from the VS . Safety wise , side airbags became an option for the Acclaim and higher models , a first for Holden .
From the onset , parent company General Motors was interested in incorporating a left @-@ hand drive Commodore in its Buick lineup , as manifested by the unveiling of the Buick XP2000 concept car in 1996 . Although this idea was ultimately abandoned ( due to pressures by the North American automotive trade unions to retain local production ) , the GM @-@ funded project allowed Holden to enter into a range of left @-@ hand export markets . Thus began the Commodore 's rapid expansion into parts of Indochina , the Middle East and South Africa badged as the Chevrolet Lumina and Brazil as the Chevrolet Omega 3 @.@ 8 V6 . In its home market , the VT series was awarded the 1997 Wheels Car of the Year award , the fourth such award in Commodore 's history . It found ready acceptance in the market as many buyers steered away from the slow selling Ford AU Falcon , becoming the best selling Commodore to date and cementing its place as number one in Australian sales .
The sedan and wagon range comprised : Commodore Executive ( base and fleet package ) ; Commodore Acclaim ( family and safety package ) ; Berlina ( luxury package ) and Calais ( sedan @-@ only sport luxury package ) . Limited editions included a " Sydney 2000 " Olympic version and Holden 50th Anniversary based on better equipped Executive models ( e.g. Berlina alloy wheels on the former but no climate control ) .
= = = VX ( 2000 – 2002 ) = = =
The VX update from 2000 featured a revised headlamp design . The VT 's rear tail lamp panel was replaced by two separate light assemblies . Conversely , the luxury @-@ oriented Berlina and Calais sedans continued using a full @-@ width boot @-@ lid panel incorporating the registration plate and tail lamps .
The VX series also formed the basis for a new Holden Ute , designated the VU @-@ series . Earlier utility models were instead entitled " Commodore utility " . An updated Series II was launched in early 2002 , featuring revised rear suspension system now equipped with toe control links to address the VT 's issues . The VX series also spawned the production version of the re @-@ launched Holden Monaro ( allowing Holden to commence exports to the United States , with this coupé sold as the Pontiac GTO ) .
Safety played a substantial role in the development of the VX model . Bosch 5 @.@ 3 anti @-@ lock brakes were made standard on all variants , a first for an Australian manufactured car ; and traction control was made available on vehicles equipped with manual transmission . Extensive research was undertaken to reduce the effects from a side @-@ impact collision through modification of the B @-@ pillars . The risk presented by a side @-@ impact collision in a VX fitted without side airbags is reduced by 50 percent when compared to a similarly specified VT model .
= = = VY ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = =
The A $ 250 million VY mid @-@ cycle update of 2002 represented the first major styling shift since the 1997 VT . Designers discarded the rounded front and rear styling of the VT and VX models , adopting more aggressive , angular lines . The same approach was applied to the interior , whereby the curvaceous dashboard design was orphaned in favour of an angular , symmetrical design . Satin chrome plastic now dominated the façade of the centre console stack , and high @-@ end models received fold @-@ out cup holders borrowed from fellow GM subsidiary Saab . Leaving Eurovox behind , Holden turned towards German electronics manufacturer Blaupunkt to source audio systems — an arrangement that remains in place today .
Engineering wise , Holden kept the changes low key . A revised steering system and tweaked suspension tuning were among some of the changes to sharpen handling precision . Further improvements were made to the Generation III V8 engine to produce peak power of 235 kilowatts ( 315 hp ) for sports variants . In a bid to recapture the market for low @-@ cost , high @-@ performance cars , Holden created a new SV8 specification level . Based on the entry @-@ level Executive , the SV8 inherited the V8 mechanical package from the SS but made do without the luxury appointments and was sold at a correspondingly lower price . Holden also experimented by releasing a limited edition wagon version of its high @-@ performance SS variant , of which only 850 were built . The Series II update added a front strut bar as standard to the SS , which was claimed to increase rigidity and hence handling . As became the trend , the update raised V8 power , now up 10 kilowatts ( 13 hp ) . Amendments in the remaining models were confined to new wheels , trims and decals , however , the Calais has taken on a sports @-@ luxury persona as opposed to the discrete luxury character seen in previous models . This repositioning in turn affected the Berlina 's standing . The once second @-@ tier model now became the sole luxury model , only overshadowed by the more expensive Calais . Coinciding with the VY II models was the first four @-@ door utility model dubbed the Holden Crewman . Crewman 's underpinnings and body structure while somewhat unique , shared a fair amount in common with the Statesman / Caprice , One tonner and the two @-@ door Ute .
In 2003 , Holden launched an AWD system that it developed for the VY platform dubbed Cross Trac , at a cost of A $ 125 million . Unveiled after the Series II updates , the first application of this electronically controlled system was the Holden Adventra , a raised VY wagon crossover . The system was only available in combination with the V8 and automatic transmission . Holden chose not to spend extra engineering resources on adapting the AWD system to the 3 @.@ 8 @-@ litre V6 , due to be replaced in the upcoming VZ model . Unfortunately for Holden , the Adventra fell well short of expected sales , despite modest targets .
= = = VZ ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = =
The final chapter of the third generation series was the VZ Commodore . Debuting in 2004 with a new series of V6 engines known as the Alloytec V6 , both 175 kilowatts ( 235 hp ) and 190 kilowatts ( 250 hp ) versions of the 3 @.@ 6 @-@ litre engine were offered . These were later upgraded to 180 and 195 kilowatts ( 241 and 261 hp ) respectively in the VE model . When compared to the previous Ecotec engines , the Alloytec benefits from increased power output , responsiveness and fuel efficiency . The new engines were mated to a new five @-@ speed 5L40E automatic transmission on the luxury V6 variants , and a new six @-@ speed Aisin AY6 manual transmission on the six @-@ cylinder SV6 sports variant . However , the long serving four @-@ speed automatic carried on in other variants , albeit with further tweaks in an attempt to address complaints about refinement . A new 6 @.@ 0 @-@ litre Generation 4 V8 engine was added to the range in January 2006 to comply with Euro III emission standards . Compared to the American version , both Active Fuel Management and variable valve timing were removed . The Alloytec V6 was also affected by the new standards , which saw the peak output reduced to 172 kilowatts ( 231 hp ) .
Along with the new powertrain , Holden also introduced new safety features such as electronic stability control and brake assist . The Used Car Safety Ratings evaluation found that VT / VX Commodores provide a " better than average " level of occupant protection in the event of an accident , with VY / VZ models uprated to " significantly better than average " . Interestingly , ANCAP crash test results rate the fourth generation VE lower in the offset frontal impact test than the third generation VY / VZ Commodore . The overall crash score was marginally higher than the outgoing model due to improved side impact protection .
= = Fourth generation = =
= = = VE ( 2006 – 2013 ) = = =
Launched in 2006 after GM 's 2003 abandonment of their last European rear @-@ drive sedan , the Opel Omega , the VE is the first Commodore model designed entirely in Australia , as opposed to being based on an adapted Opel @-@ sourced platform . Given this and high public expectations of quality , the budget in developing the car reportedly exceeded A $ 1 billion . Underpinned by the new Holden developed GM Zeta platform , the VE features more sophisticated independent suspension all round and near @-@ even 50 : 50 weight distribution , leading to improved handling . Engines and transmissions are largely carried over from the previous VZ model . However , a new six @-@ speed GM 6L80 @-@ E automatic transmission was introduced for V8 variants , replacing the old four @-@ speed automatic now relegated to base models . The design of this new model included innovative features to help minimise export costs , such as a symmetrical centre console that houses a flush @-@ fitting hand brake lever to facilitate its conversion to left @-@ hand drive . Internationally , the Commodore is again badge engineered as the Chevrolet Lumina and Chevrolet Omega , along with its new export market in the United States as the Pontiac G8 ( discontinued as of 2010 along with the Pontiac brand ) .
Variants by Holden 's performance arm , HSV , were released soon after the sedan 's debut , followed by the long @-@ wheelbase WM Statesman / Caprice models . The VE Ute did not enter production until 2007 whilst the Sportwagon began production in July 2008 . Since its release , the VE has been awarded Wheels Car of the Year , being the fifth Commodore model to do so .
In late 2008 Holden made changes to the VE Commodore , including the addition of a passenger seatbelt @-@ reminder system . The rollout of such modifications allowed the VE range to be upgraded in stages ( dependent on model ) to the five @-@ star ANCAP safety rating during 2008 and 2009 .
The September 2009 MY10 update to the VE Commodore platform introduces a new standard engine – a 3 @.@ 0 @-@ litre Spark Ignition Direct Injection ( SIDI ) V6 on the Omega and Berlina , with a 3 @.@ 6 @-@ litre version of the same reserved for all other V6 variants . The standard transmission is now a six @-@ speed GM 6L50 automatic , replacing the four @-@ speed in Omega and Berlina models and the five @-@ speed in higher luxury levels . A six @-@ speed manual is still available in sport models . Holden claims the new powertrains will provide better fuel economy than some smaller four @-@ cylinder cars ; the 3 @.@ 0 @-@ litre version is rated at 9 @.@ 3 L / 100 km ( 25 mpg @-@ US ; 30 mpg @-@ imp ) . However , economy tests performed by various motoring organisations have yielded varying results .
In mid @-@ 2010 Holden released the VE Series 2 ( VEII ) . The major difference saw the introduction of the Holden iQ system , a centre @-@ mounted LCD display that provides navigation , bluetooth , and controls to the stereo . There were also small alterations to the styling and other minor changes .
= = = VF ( 2013 – present ) = = =
The VF Commodore , a major overhaul of the VE , was officially revealed on 10 February 2013 in Melbourne .
The body shell , suspension and electrics of the GM Zeta platform have been thoroughly reworked to reduce weight , improving handling and fuel efficiency . Changes to the model line @-@ up see the deletion of the Berlina nameplate ( which was merged with the standard Calais variant , represented the smallest share of sales in Commodore 's line @-@ up ) and the base model renamed from Omega to Evoke .
Standard features across the Commodore range includes front and rear parking sensors , reverse camera and auto park assist , whereas high specifications models such as the Calais @-@ V and SS @-@ V redline models also feature , as standard , forward and reverse collision alert system and a colour heads @-@ up display - all possible thanks to the VF 's electronics now being compatible with those of more developed GM cars , resulting in the new Commodore being cheaper to manufacture . Indeed , recommended retail pricing have been reduced across the range , from A $ 5 @,@ 000 for the base model and up to A $ 10 @,@ 000 for the Calais V V8 and SS V Redline .
A day after the Australian range reveal and in the lead up to the Daytona 500 weekend , a more powerful and better equipped export version of the VF Commodore SS also made its debut in Daytona , Florida , as the MY14 Chevrolet SS . To maximise the SS 's profile in the United States , GM also replaced in NASCAR the silhouette of the Chevrolet Impala with that of the SS .
A Series II update ( VF II ) was launched in late 2015 , introducing minor styling revisions at the front , while the biggest change was the arrival of a 304 kW ( 408 hp ) LS3 across the entire V8 range . In addition , the SS Redline V 's gear ratios and the Redline 's suspension tune were also revised .
= = Fifth generation = =
Initial speculation in 2013 — which followed Holden 's announcement of its intention to cease local Australian production — suggested that Commodore 's fully imported FWD replacement would be based on a GM vehicle designed by Holden and built in China for the Chinese market . In January 2015 , however , automotive journalists claimed the Commodore replacement would be a local adaptation of the next generation Opel Insignia imported from Europe .
Also in January 2015 , Holden confirmed that the Commodore badge will be inherited by the fully imported replacement . This decision was made on the basis of a survey revealing that a majority of customers were in favour of retaining the long @-@ standing Australian badge introduced in 1978 .
By November 2015 , the fifth @-@ generation Commodore was now believed to be a rebadged version of the third @-@ generation Buick LaCrosse , which was presented at that month 's Los Angeles motorshow .
= = Australian export models = =
Since the late 1990s , Commodores have been sent abroad as the Chevrolet Lumina in the Middle East until 2011 and South Africa until 2012 , and as the Chevrolet Omega in Brazil until 2008 and , then again , in 2010 . Vauxhall VXR8 sales began in 2007 . Versions have also been previously exported in the mid @-@ 1990s to Southeast Asia as the Opel Calais and to North America from 2007 to 2009 as the Pontiac G8 . As of June 2014 , the VF Commodore is sold in North America as the Chevrolet SS .
= = = Chevrolet Lumina = = =
Since 1998 , the Holden Commodore has been sold as the Chevrolet Lumina in the Middle East and South Africa , and previously in South East Asia .
A coupe version based on the Holden Monaro was also sold in the Middle East as the Chevrolet Lumina Coupe . In Arabia , the Lumina was offered in four different trims : LS ( Omega ) , LTZ ( Berlina ) , S ( SV6 ) and SS ( SS ) . The LTZ and S comes standard with a 3.6L Alloytec V6 and a 6 @-@ speed automatic transmission for the S and 4 @-@ speed for the LTZ , while the SS comes standard with 6.0L Alloytec V8 with the option of Active Fuel management . A 6 @-@ speed manual is standard with the option of a 6 @-@ speed Automatic on SS . The LTZ was the luxury model , while the S and SS models focused on sportiness . Exports to the Middle East ceased in 2011 .
Lumina models sold in South Africa received updates for the 2011 model year . These changes were introduced to coincide with the release of the VE Series II Commodore . Changes include revised bumpers , there is a chrome moulding above the number plate on the boot lid , refreshed alloy wheel designs and the Holden IQ system . Also the SSV model was introduced . The Holden Ute is sold as the Lumina Ute in South Africa .
= = Australian production = =
Australian production of the first Commodore launched in 1978 was initially spread between Holden 's Pagewood ( NSW ) and Dandenong ( Vic ) plants . In August 1978 , Holden announced a $ 6 @.@ 7 million program to enable assembly of the Commodore range at the Elizabeth ( SA ) plant , which resulted in the closure of the Pagewood plant a year later . The Australian production of the Commodore was consolidated at Elizabeth in 1988 , coinciding with the launch of the then new VN Commodore .
The Commodore and its derivatives have been the basis of modified variants by companies separate to Holden . Officially , Holden 's performance partner is HSV , although other prominent high performance brands include HDT Special Vehicles , Corsa Specialized Vehicles ( CSV ) and Walkinshaw Performance ( WP ) , since the first , third and fourth generation Commodore , respectively .
In December 2013 , Holden announced that it will cease production of the Commodore in Australia in 2017 . This was followed , in December 2015 , by " Project Erich " involving Belgian entrepreneur Guido Dumarey . His plans involve buying the Holden production facilities , with a view to continue producing in Australia a rebadged range of RWD and AWD premium vehicles based on the GM Zeta platform , for local and export sales . Dumarey 's company , Punch Powerglide , already supplies automatic transmissions for Holden 's V6 @-@ powered models made in Australia .
= = Sales = =
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= Queen Anne 's War =
Queen Anne 's War ( 1702 – 1713 ) , as the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession was known in the British colonies , was the second in a series of French and Indian Wars fought between France and England , later Great Britain , in North America for control of the continent . The War of the Spanish Succession was primarily fought in Europe . In addition to the two main combatants , the war also involved numerous Native American tribes allied with each nation , and Spain , which was allied with France . It was also known as the Third Indian War or in French as the Second Intercontinental War .
The war was fought on three fronts :
Spanish Florida and the English Province of Carolina were each subjected to attacks from the other , and the English engaged the French based at Mobile in what was essentially a proxy war involving primarily allied Native Americans on both sides . The southern war , although it did not result in significant territorial changes , had the effect of nearly wiping out the Native population of Spanish Florida , including parts of present @-@ day southern Georgia , and destroying Spain 's network of missions in the area .
The English colonies of New England fought with French and Native American forces based in Acadia and Canada . Quebec City was repeatedly targeted ( but never successfully reached ) by British expeditions , and the Acadian capital Port Royal was taken in 1710 . The French and Wabanaki Confederacy sought to thwart New England expansion into Acadia , whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine . Toward this end , they executed raids against targets in Massachusetts ( including present @-@ day Maine ) , most famously raiding Deerfield in 1704 .
On Newfoundland , English colonists based at St. John 's disputed control of the island with the French based at Plaisance . Most of the conflict consisted of economically destructive raids against the other side 's settlements . The French successfully captured St. John 's in 1709 , but the British quickly reoccupied it after the French abandoned it .
Following a preliminary peace in 1712 , the Treaty of Utrecht ended the war in 1713 . It resulted in the French cession of claims to the territories of Hudson Bay , Acadia , and Newfoundland to Britain , while retaining Cape Breton and other islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence . Some of its terms were ambiguous , and concerns of various Native American tribes were not included in the treaty , setting the stage for future conflicts .
= = Background = =
In 1701 , following the death in late 1700 of King Charles II , war broke out over who should succeed him to the Spanish throne . Although the war was at first restricted to a few powers in Europe , in May 1702 it widened when England declared war on Spain and France . The hostilities in North America were further encouraged by existing frictions along the frontier areas separating the colonies of these powers . This dis @-@ harmony was most pronounced along the northern and southwestern frontiers of the English colonies , which then stretched from the Province of Carolina in the south to the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the north , with additional colonial settlements or trading outposts on Newfoundland and at Hudson Bay .
The total population of the English colonies at the time has been estimated at 250 @,@ 000 , with Virginia and New England dominating . The population centers of these colonies were concentrated along the coast , with small settlements inland , sometimes reaching as far as the Appalachian Mountains . Most European colonists knew very little of the interior of the continent , to the west of the Appalachians and south of the Great Lakes . This area was dominated by native tribes , although French and English traders had penetrated the area . Spanish missionaries in La Florida had established a network of missions to convert the indigenous inhabitants to Roman Catholicism . The Spanish population was relatively small ( about 1 @,@ 500 ) , and the native population they ministered to has been estimated to number 20 @,@ 000 . French explorers had located the mouth of the Mississippi River , near which they established a small colonial presence in 1699 at Fort Maurepas ( near present @-@ day Biloxi , Mississippi ) . From there they began to establish trade routes into the interior , establishing friendly relations with the Choctaw , a large tribe whose natural enemies included the British @-@ allied Chickasaw . All of these populations had suffered to some degree from the introduction of Eurasian infectious diseases like smallpox by early explorers and traders .
The arrival of the French in the South threatened existing trade links that Carolina colonists had established into the interior , and Spanish territorial claims , creating tension among all three powers . France and Spain , allies in this conflict , had been on opposite sides of the recently ended Nine Years ' War . Conflicting territorial claims between Carolina and Florida south of the Savannah River were overlaid by animosity over religious divisions between the Roman Catholic Spanish and the Protestant English along the coast .
To the north , the conflict held a strong economic component in addition to territorial disputes . Newfoundland was the site of a British colony based at St. John 's , and the French colonial base was at Plaisance , with both sides also holding a number of smaller permanent settlements . The island also had many seasonal settlements used by fishermen from Europe . These colonists , numbering fewer than 2 @,@ 000 English and 1 @,@ 000 French permanent settlers ( and many more seasonal visitors ) , competed with one another for the fisheries of the Grand Banks , which were also used by fishermen from Acadia ( then encompassing all of present @-@ day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ) and Massachusetts .
The border area between Acadia and New England remained uncertain despite battles along the border throughout King William 's War . New France defined the border of Acadia as the Kennebec River in southern Maine . There were Catholic missions at Norridgewock and Penobscot and a French settlement in Penobscot Bay near the site of modern Castine , Maine , which had all been bases for attacks on New England settlers migrating toward Acadia during King William 's War . The frontier areas between the Saint Lawrence River and the primarily coastal settlements of Massachusetts and New York were still dominated by natives ( primarily Abenaki and Iroquois ) , and the Hudson River – Lake Champlain corridor had also been used for raiding expeditions in both directions in earlier conflicts . Although the threat of natives had receded somewhat because of reductions in the population as a result of disease and the last war , they were still seen to pose a potent threat to outlying settlements .
The Hudson Bay territories ( known to the English as Prince Rupert 's Land ) were not significantly fought over in this war . Although they had been a scene of much dispute by competing French and English companies starting in the 1680s , the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick left France in control of all but one outpost on the bay . The only incident of note was a French attack on that outpost , Fort Albany , in 1709 . The Hudson 's Bay Company , unhappy that Ryswick had not returned its territories , successfully lobbied for the return of its territories in the negotiations that ended this war .
= = Technology and organization = =
Military technology used in North America was not as developed as it was in Europe . Only a few colonial settlements had stone fortifications ( among them St. Augustine , Boston , Quebec , and St. John 's ) at the start of the war , although Port Royal 's fortifications were completed early in the war . Some frontier villages were protected by wooden palisades , but many had little more than fortified wooden houses with gun ports through which defenders could fire , and overhanging second floors from which they might fire down on attackers trying to break in below . Europeans were typically armed with smooth @-@ bore muskets that had a maximum range of about 100 yards ( 91 m ) , but were inaccurate at ranges beyond half that distance . Some colonists also carried pikes , while tribal warriors were either supplied with European arms , or were armed with more primitive weapons like tomahawks and bows and arrows . A small number of colonists had training in the operation of cannon and other types of artillery ; these were the only effective weapons for attacking significant stone or wooden defenses .
English colonists were generally organized into militia companies , and their colonies had no regular military presence beyond a small number in some of the communities of Newfoundland . The French colonists were also organized into militias , but they also had a standing defense force called the troupes de la marine . This force consisted of some experienced officers , and was manned by recruits sent over from France . Numbering between 500 and 1 @,@ 200 , they were spread throughout the territories of New France , with concentrations in the major population centers . Spanish Florida was defended by a few hundred regular troops ; Spanish policy was to pacify the natives in their territory and not to provide them with weapons . This policy had devastating consequences : before the war , Florida held an estimated 8 @,@ 000 natives , but this was reduced to 200 after English raids made early in the war .
= = Course of the war = =
= = = Florida and Carolina = = =
Prominent French and English colonists understood at the turn of the 18th century that control of the Mississippi River would have a significant role in future development and trade , and each developed visionary plans to thwart the other 's activities . The French Canadian explorer Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville had , in the aftermath of the last war , developed a " Project sur la Caroline " that called for establishing relationships with natives in the Mississippi watershed and then leveraging those relationships to push the English off the continent , or at least limit them to coastal areas . In pursuit of this grand strategy he rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi ( which had first been found by La Salle in 1670 ) , and established Fort Maurepas in 1699 . From this base , and Fort Louis de la Mobile ( founded in 1702 ) , he began to establish relationships with the local Choctaw , Chickasaw , Natchez , and other tribes .
English traders and explorers from Carolina had , since its founding in 1670 , already established a substantial trading network across the southeastern part of the continent that extended all the way to the Mississippi . Its leaders , who had little respect for the Spanish in Florida , understood the threat posed by the French arrival on the coast . Both Joseph Blake , Carolina 's governor until his death in 1700 , and James Moore , who succeeded Blake in 1702 , articulated visions of expansion to the south and west at the expense of French and Spanish interests .
In January 1702 , before the war broke out in Europe , Iberville had approached the Spanish with the recommendation that the Apalachee warriors be armed and sent against the English and their allies . The Spanish organized an expedition under Francisco Romo de Uriza that left Pensacola in August for the trading centers of the Carolina backcountry . The English , with advance warning of the expedition , organized a defense at the head of the Flint River and routed the Spanish @-@ led force , with upwards of 500 Spanish @-@ led natives killed or captured .
When formal notification of hostilities arrived , Governor Moore organized and led a force against Spanish Florida . In the 1702 Siege of St. Augustine , 500 English soldiers and militia along with 300 Indians captured and burned the town of St. Augustine . The English were unable to take the main fortress , and withdrew when a Spanish fleet arrived from Havana . In 1706 Carolina successfully repulsed an attack on Charles Town by a combined Spanish and French amphibious force sent from Havana .
The Apalachee and Timucua of Spanish Florida were virtually wiped out in a raiding expedition by Moore that became known as the Apalachee Massacre of 1704 . Many of the survivors of these raids were relocated to the Savannah River , where they were confined to reservations . Raids consisting of large native forces , sometimes including a small number of white men , continued in the following years , including major expeditions directed at Pensacola in 1707 and Mobile in 1709 . The Muscogee ( Creek ) , Yamasee , and Chickasaw , armed and led by Englishmen , dominated these conflicts at the expense of the Choctaw , Timucua , and Apalachee , the latter being somewhat more pacific in nature than the Creek and Chickasaw .
= = = New England and Acadia = = =
Throughout the war , New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy were able to thwart New England expansion into Acadia , whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine . In 1703 , Michel Leneuf de la Vallière de Beaubassin , who commanded a few French Canadians and 500 of the natives in the Wabanaki Confederacy , led attacks against New England settlements from Wells to Falmouth ( present @-@ day Portland , Maine ) in the Northeast Coast Campaign . They killed or took prisoner more than 300 settlers .
In February 1704 , Jean @-@ Baptiste Hertel de Rouville led 250 Abenaki and Caughnawaga Indians and 50 French Canadians in a raid on Deerfield in the Province of Massachusetts Bay , and destroyed the settlement , killing and capturing many colonists . More than 100 captives were taken on an overland journey hundreds of miles north to the Caughnawaga mission village near Montreal , where most of the children who survived were adopted by the Mohawk people . Several adults were later redeemed or released in negotiated prisoner exchanges , including the minister , who tried for years without success to ransom his daughter . She became fully assimilated , marrying a Mohawk man . There was an active market in colonists during these years , and communities raised funds to ransom their citizens from Native American captivity .
Unable to effectively combat these raids , New England colonists retaliated by launching an expedition against Acadia . Led by the famous Native American fighter Benjamin Church , the expedition raided Grand Pré , Chignecto , and other settlements . Although French accounts claim that Church attempted an attack on Acadia 's capital , Port Royal , Church 's account of the expedition describes a war council in which the expedition decided against making an attack .
Father Sébastien Rale was widely suspected of inciting the Norridgewock tribe against the New Englanders . Massachusetts Governor Joseph Dudley put a price on his head . In the winter of 1705 , 275 British soldiers under the command of Colonel Winthrop Hilton were dispatched to seize Rale and sack the village . Warned in time , the priest escaped into the woods with his papers , but the militia burned the village and church .
French and Wabanaki Confederacy raiding activity continued in northern Massachusetts in 1705 , against which the English colonists were unable to mount an effective defense . The raids happened too quickly for defensive forces to organize , and reprisal raids usually found tribal camps and settlements empty . There was a lull in the raiding while the French and English leaders negotiated — with only limited success — the exchange of prisoners . Raids by Indians , sometimes with French participation , persisted until the end of the war .
In May 1707 , Governor Dudley organized an expedition to take Port Royal . Led by John March , 1 @,@ 600 men failed to take the fort by siege ; a follow @-@ up expedition in August was also repulsed . In response , the French developed an ambitious plan to raid most of the New Hampshire settlements on the Piscataqua River . However , much of the Native American support needed never materialized , and the Massachusetts town of Haverhill was raided instead . In 1709 , Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil , governor of New France , reported that two @-@ thirds of the fields north of Boston were untended because of French and Native American raids . French @-@ Native American war parties were returning without prisoners because the New England colonists stayed in their forts and would not come out .
In September 1710 , 3 @,@ 600 British and colonial forces led by Francis Nicholson finally captured Port Royal after a siege of one week . This ended official French control of the peninsular portion of Acadia ( present @-@ day mainland Nova Scotia ) , although resistance continued until the end of the war . Resistance by the Wabanaki Confederation continued in the Battle of Bloody Creek ( 1711 ) and raids along the Maine frontier . The remainder of Acadia , present @-@ day eastern Maine and New Brunswick , remained disputed territory between New England and New France .
= = = Expeditions against New France = = =
The French in New France 's heartland , Canada , opposed attacking the Province of New York . They were reluctant to arouse the Iroquois , who they feared more than they did the British , and with whom they had made the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701 . New York merchants were opposed to attacking New France , because it would interrupt the lucrative Native American fur trade , much of which came through New France . Despite the efforts of Peter Schuyler , the Albany commissioner of Indians , to interest them in the war , the Iroquois maintained their neutrality throughout the conflict .
Francis Nicholson and Samuel Vetch , with some financial and logistical support from the queen , organized an ambitious assault against New France in 1709 . The plan involved an overland assault on Montreal via Lake Champlain and a sea @-@ based assault by naval forces against Quebec . The land expedition reached the southern end of Lake Champlain , but was called off when the promised naval support for the attack on Quebec never materialized . ( Those forces were diverted to support Portugal . ) The Iroquois had made vague promises of support for this effort , but successfully delayed sending support until it seemed clear the expedition was going to fail . After this failure , Nicholson and Schuyler traveled to London accompanied by King Hendrick and other sachems to arouse interest in the North American frontier war . The Indian delegation caused a sensation in London , and Queen Anne granted them an audience . Nicholson and Schuyler were successful in their endeavour — the queen gave support for Nicholson 's successful capture of Port Royal in 1710 . With that success under his belt , Nicholson again returned to England , and gained support for a renewed attempt on Quebec in 1711 .
The plan for 1711 again called for land and sea @-@ based attacks ; its execution was a disaster . A fleet of 15 ships of the line and transports carrying 5 @,@ 000 troops led by Admiral Hovenden Walker arrived at Boston in June , doubling the town 's population and greatly straining the colony 's ability to provide necessary provisions . Sailing for Quebec at the end of July , the expedition entered the Gulf of Saint Lawrence , and a number of its ships foundered on the rocky shores near the mouth of the Saint Lawrence in the fog . More than 700 troops were lost , and Walker called the expedition off . In the meantime , Nicholson had departed for Montreal overland , but had only reached Lake George when word of Walker 's disaster reached him ; he also turned back . In this expedition , the Iroquois provided several hundred warriors to fight with the English , but they also sent warnings of the expedition to the French .
= = = Newfoundland = = =
Newfoundland 's coast was dotted with small French and English communities , with some fishing stations occupied seasonally by fishermen from Europe . Both sides had fortified their principal towns , the French at Plaisance on the western side of the Avalon Peninsula , the English at St. John 's on Conception Bay . During King William 's War , d 'Iberville had destroyed most of the English communities in 1696 – 7 ; the island again became a battleground in 1702 . In August of that year , an English fleet under the command of Commodore John Leake descended on the outlying French communities but made no attempts on Plaisance . During the winter of 1705 Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase , the French governor at Plaisance , retaliated , leading a combined French and Mi 'kmaq expedition that destroyed several English settlements and unsuccessfully besieged Fort William at St. John 's . The French and their Native American allies continued to harry the English throughout the summer , and did damages claimed at £ 188 @,@ 000 to the English establishments . The English sent a fleet in 1706 that destroyed French fishing outposts on the island 's northern coasts . In December 1708 a combined force of French , Canadian , and Mi 'kmaq volunteers captured St. John 's and destroyed the fortifications . Lacking the resources to hold the prize , they abandoned it , and St. John 's was reoccupied and refortified by the English in 1709 . ( The same French expedition also tried to take Ferryland , but it successfully resisted . )
English fleet commanders contemplated , but did not make , attacks on Plaisance in 1703 and 1711 ( the latter by Admiral Walker in the aftermath of the disaster at the mouth of the St. Lawrence ) .
= = = Peace = = =
In 1712 , Britain and France declared an armistice , and a final peace agreement was signed the following year . Under terms of the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht , Britain gained Acadia ( which they renamed Nova Scotia ) , sovereignty over Newfoundland , the Hudson Bay region , and the Caribbean island of St. Kitts . France recognized British suzerainty over the Iroquois , and agreed that commerce with Native Americans further inland would be open to all nations . It retained all of the islands in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence , including Cape Breton Island , and retained fishing rights in the area , including rights to dry fish on the northern shore of Newfoundland .
By the later years of the war many Abenakis had tired of the conflict despite French pressures to continue raids against New England targets . The peace of Utrecht , however , had ignored Native American interests , and some Abenaki expressed willingness to negotiate a peace with the New Englanders . Governor Dudley organized a major peace conference at Portsmouth , New Hampshire ( of which he was also governor ) . In negotiations there and at Casco Bay , the Abenakis orally objected to British assertions that the French had ceded their territory ( present @-@ day eastern Maine and New Brunswick ) to Britain , and agreed to a confirmation of boundaries at the Kennebec River and the establishment of government @-@ run trading posts in their territory . The Treaty of Portsmouth , ratified on July 13 , 1713 , by eight representatives of some of the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy , however , included language asserting British sovereignty over their territory . Over the next year other Abenaki tribal leaders also signed the treaty , but no Mi 'kmaq ever signed it or any other treaty until 1726 .
= = Consequences = =
= = = Southern colonies = = =
Spanish Florida never really recovered its economy or population from the effects of the war , and was ceded to Britain following the Seven Years ' War in the 1763 Treaty of Paris . Native Americans that had been resettled along the Atlantic coast chafed under British rule , as did those allied to the British in this war . This discontent flared into the 1715 Yamasee War that posed a major threat to South Carolina 's viability . The loss of population in the Spanish territories contributed to the 1732 founding of the Province of Georgia , which was , like Carolina , granted on territory Spain had originally claimed . Following military action by James Moore against the Tuscaroras of North Carolina ( part of the Tuscarora War begun in 1711 ) , many of them fled north as refugees to join their linguistic cousins , the Iroquois .
The economic costs of the war were high in some of the southern English colonies , including those that saw little military activity . Virginia , Maryland , and Pennsylvania to a lesser extent , were hit hard by the cost of shipping their export products ( primarily tobacco ) to European markets , and also suffered because of several particularly bad harvests . South Carolina accumulated a significant debt burden to finance military operations .
= = = New England = = =
Although Massachusetts and New Hampshire were on the front line of the war , the New England colonies suffered less economic damage than other areas . The importance of Boston as a center of shipbuilding and trade , combined with a financial windfall caused by the crown 's military spending on the 1711 Quebec expedition , offset some of the costs of waging the war .
= = = Newfoundland and Acadia = = =
The loss of Newfoundland and Acadia restricted the French presence on the Atlantic to Cape Breton Island . French settlers from Newfoundland were resettled there , creating the colony of Île @-@ Royale , and France constructed the Fortress of Louisbourg in the following years . This presence , combined with the rights to use the Newfoundland shore , resulted in continued friction between French and British fishing interests , which was not fully resolved until late in the 18th century . The economic effects of the war were severe in Newfoundland , with the fishing fleets plying its waters significantly reduced . The British fishing fleet began to recover immediately after the peace was finalized . The British attempted to prevent Spanish ships from fishing in Newfoundland waters , as they previously had . However , many Spanish ships were simply reflagged with English straw owners to evade British controls .
The British capture of Acadia had long @-@ term consequences for the Acadians and Mi 'kmaq living there . Britain 's hold on Nova Scotia was initially quite tenuous , a situation that French and Mi 'kmaq resistance leaders capitalized on . British relations with the Mi 'kmaq after the war developed in the context of British expansion not just in Nova Scotia , but also along the Maine coast , where New Englanders began moving into Abenaki lands , often in violation of previous treaties . Since neither the Abenakis nor the Mi 'kmaq were recognized in the Treaty of Utrecht and the 1713 Portsmouth treaty was interpreted differently by them than by the New England signatories , the Mi 'kmaq and Abenakis resisted these incursions into their lands . This conflict , abetted by French intriguers like Sébastien Rale , developed into Father Rale 's War ( 1722 – 1727 ) .
British relations with the nominally conquered Acadians were also difficult . Repeated British demands that Acadians swear oaths to the British crown were resisted , and eventually sparked an exodus by the Acadians to Île @-@ Royale and Île @-@ Saint @-@ Jean ( present @-@ day Prince Edward Island ) . By the 1740s French leaders like Father Jean @-@ Louis Le Loutre orchestrated a guerrilla war with their Mi 'kmaq allies against British attempts to expand Protestant settlements in peninsular Nova Scotia .
Friction also persisted between France and Britain over Acadia 's borders . The boundaries laid out by the treaty were unclear , which even the French had never really formally described . France insisted that only the Acadian peninsula ( modern Nova Scotia except Cape Breton Island ) was included in the treaty , and that they retained the rights to modern New Brunswick . The disputes over Acadia , which flared into open conflict during King George 's War in the 1740s , would not be resolved until the British conquest of all French North American territories in the area in the Seven Years ' War .
= = = Trade = = =
The French did not fully comply with the commerce provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht . They attempted to prevent English trade with remote Native American tribes , and erected Fort Niagara in Iroquois territory . French settlements on the Gulf Coast continued to grow , with the settlement of New Orleans in 1718 , and other attempts , ultimately unsuccessful , to expand into Spanish @-@ controlled Texas and Florida . French trading networks penetrated the continent along the waterways feeding the Gulf of Mexico , renewing conflicts with both the British and the Spanish . Trading networks established in the Mississippi River watershed , including the Ohio River valley , also brought the French into more contact with British trading networks and colonial settlements that crossed the Appalachian Mountains . Conflicting claims over that territory eventually led to war in 1754 , when the French and Indian War broke out .
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= World 's littlest skyscraper =
The Newby @-@ McMahon Building , commonly referred to as the world 's littlest skyscraper , is located at 701 La Salle ( on the corner of Seventh and La Salle streets ) in downtown Wichita Falls , Texas . This late Neoclassical style red brick and cast stone structure is 40 ft ( 12 m ) tall , and its exterior dimensions are 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) deep and 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide . Its interior dimensions are approximately 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) by 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) , or approximately 108 sq ft ( 10 @.@ 0 m2 ) . Steep , narrow , internal stairways leading to the upper floors occupy roughly 25 percent of the interior area .
Reportedly the result of a fraudulent investment scheme by a confidence man , the Newby @-@ McMahon Building was a source of great embarrassment to the city and its residents after its completion in 1919 . During the 1920s , the Newby @-@ McMahon Building was featured in Robert Ripley 's Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! syndicated column as " the world 's littlest skyscraper " , a nickname that has stuck with it ever since . The Newby @-@ McMahon Building is now part of the Depot Square Historic District of Wichita Falls , a Texas Historic Landmark .
= = Background = =
A large petroleum reservoir was discovered just west of the city of Burkburnett , a small town in Wichita County , Texas in 1912 . Burkburnett and its surrounding communities became boomtowns , experiencing explosive growth of their populations and economies . By 1918 , an estimated 20 @,@ 000 new settlers had taken up residence around the lucrative oil field , and many Wichita County residents became wealthy virtually overnight . As people streamed into the local communities in search of high @-@ paying jobs , the nearby city of Wichita Falls began to grow in importance . Though it initially lacked the necessary infrastructure for this sudden increase in economic and industrial activity , Wichita Falls was a natural choice to serve as the local logistical hub , being the seat of Wichita County . Because office space was lacking , major stock transactions and mineral rights deals were conducted on street corners and in tents that served as makeshift headquarters for the new oil companies .
= = Proposal and blueprints = =
The Newby @-@ McMahon Building is a four @-@ story brick building located near the railroad depot in downtown Wichita Falls , built in 1906 by Augustus Newby ( 1855 – 1909 ) , a director of the Wichita Falls and Oklahoma City Railway Company . The oil @-@ rig construction firm of J.D. McMahon , a petroleum landman and structural engineer from Philadelphia , was one of seven tenants whose offices were based in the original Newby Building .
According to local legend , when McMahon announced in 1919 that he would build a highrise annex to the Newby Building as a solution to the newly wealthy city 's urgent need for office space , investors were eager to invest in the project . McMahon collected $ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 2 @,@ 730 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in investment capital from this group of naive investors , promising to construct a highrise office building across the street from the St. James Hotel .
The key to McMahon 's swindle , and his successful defense in the ensuing lawsuit , was that he never verbally stated that the actual height of the building would be 480 feet ( 150 m ) . The proposed skyscraper depicted in the blueprints that he distributed ( and which were approved by the investors ) was clearly labeled as consisting of four floors and 480 inches ( 12 m ) .
= = Construction and ensuing legal battle = =
McMahon used his own construction crews to build the McMahon Building on the small , unused piece of property next to the Newby Building , without obtaining prior consent from the owner of the property , who lived in Oklahoma . As the building began to take shape , the investors realized they had been swindled into purchasing a four @-@ story edifice that was only 40 ft ( 12 m ) tall , rather than the 480 ft ( 150 m ) structure they were expecting .
They brought a lawsuit against McMahon but , to their dismay , the real estate and construction deal was declared legally binding by a local judge – as McMahon had built exactly according to the blueprints they had approved , there was to be no legal remedy for the deceived investors . They did recover a small portion of their investment from the elevator company , which refused to honor the contract after they learned of the confidence trick . There was no stairway installed in the building upon its initial completion , as none was included in the original blueprints . Rather , a ladder was employed to gain access to the upper three floors . By the time construction was complete , McMahon had left Wichita Falls and perhaps even Texas , taking with him the balance of the investors ' money .
= = Early occupancy and subsequent abandonment = =
Upon its completion and opening in 1919 , the Newby @-@ McMahon Building was an immediate source of great embarrassment to the city and its residents . The ground floor had six desks representing the six different companies that occupied the building as its original tenants . Throughout most of the 1920s , the building housed only two firms . During the 1920s , the Newby @-@ McMahon Building was featured in Robert Ripley 's Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! syndicated column as " the world 's littlest skyscraper " , which is a name that has stuck with it ever since .
The oil industry would ultimately prove to be a resource curse to Wichita Falls , and the Texas Oil Boom ended only a few years later . The building was vacated , boarded up , and virtually forgotten in 1929 as the Great Depression struck North Texas and office space became relatively inexpensive to lease or purchase . A fire gutted the building in 1931 , rendering it unusable for a number of years .
After the Great Depression , the building housed a succession of tenants , including barber shops and cafés . The building changed hands many times and was scheduled for demolition on several occasions , but escaped this fate apparently because a sufficient number of local residents came to its defense . It was eventually deeded to the city of Wichita Falls . As the building continued to deteriorate , in 1986 the city gave the building to the Wichita County Heritage Society ( WCHS ) , with the hope that it would eventually be restored , making it a viable part of the Depot Square Historic District .
= = Purchase and renovation = =
By 1999 , the Newby @-@ McMahon Building had proved to be an excessive burden on the limited capital reserves of the WCHS . The following year , the city council hired the local architectural firm of Bundy , Young , Sims & Potter to stabilize the crumbling structure , amid steadily growing talk of demolishing the building . Dick Bundy and his partners became fascinated with the history and legacy of the building ; they arranged a partnership with Marvin Groves Electric , another local business , to purchase the building . In December 2000 , the city council voted to allow the WCHS to sell the building to Marvin Groves for $ 3 @,@ 748 .
On June 11 , 2003 , a storm swept through Wichita Falls , bringing gusts of wind as strong as 97 mph ( 156 km / h ) . A 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 @-@ metre ) section of brick wall from the McMahon Building complex was knocked down . The damage from this storm was repaired , but full restoration of the building and the adjacent Newby Building was delayed until late 2005 . In June of that year , the City Council granted $ 25 @,@ 000 in funds from the city 's Tax Increment Financing Fund , to be invested in the restoration of the McMahon Building . Restoration of the building is estimated to have cost more than $ 254 @,@ 000 , the remainder of which was paid by the owners ( Bundy , Young , Sims & Potter , Inc. and Marvin Groves Electric ) .
= = Current status = =
With the passage of time , the Newby @-@ McMahon Building has become a monument to a long @-@ gone era . It has survived tornadoes , a fire , and decades of neglect to stand as a monument to the greed , genius , graft , and gullibility of the oil boom days of North Texas . The building is currently part of the Depot Square Historic District of Wichita Falls , which has been declared a Texas Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The building has never met the criteria for the definition of a skyscraper , nor even that of a " highrise " building . Aside from serving as a local tourist attraction , the building is home to an antiques dealership , The Antique Wood , which opened in 2006 on the ground floor . The third floor has been converted into an artist 's studio .
The Newby @-@ McMahon Building is among several historic buildings featured in the documentary film Wichita Falls : The Future of Our Past , a retrospective analysis of the city 's architectural past produced in 2006 by Barry Levy , a public information officer with the city of Wichita Falls .
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= Speed 2 : Cruise Control ( soundtrack ) =
Speed 2 : Cruise Control is the soundtrack album for the 1997 film of the same name . It was released by Virgin Records in May 1997 , nearly a month before the film 's release . Because of the film 's Caribbean setting , the soundtrack features a variety of reggae music from artists including Common Sense , Jimmy Cliff , Maxi Priest and Shaggy . UB40 , Carlinhos Brown and Tamia also have songs on the soundtrack , and appear in the film as entertainers on the cruise ship .
In addition to reggae , the soundtrack features a techno remix of the film score by Tetsuya " TK " Komuro and an R & B song by Tamia ( which is sung by her character in the film ) . Many of the songs were first released on the soundtrack , and five were released as singles . The soundtrack received mixed reviews from critics , although it was praised for featuring reggae music .
= = Music performed in the film = =
Speed 2 : Cruise Control , the action thriller sequel to 1994 's Speed starring Sandra Bullock , Jason Patric and Willem Dafoe , was released in 1997 . The film is set on a cruise ship in the Caribbean ; to complement its setting , the soundtrack primarily features reggae music . Speed 2 director @-@ producer Jan de Bont wanted musicians to appear in the film as the ship 's live entertainment . Four songs heard in Speed 2 were performed by the musicians appearing in the film , three of which were featured on the soundtrack album .
British reggae band UB40 perform " Can 't Help Falling in Love " and " Tell Me Is It True " . The former is a cover of an Elvis Presley song recorded by UB40 for the soundtrack to Sliver ( 1993 ) and released on their album , Promises and Lies ( 1993 ) . " Tell Me Is It True " was first released on the Speed 2 soundtrack album and was later featured on UB40 's studio album , Guns in the Ghetto ( released ten days after the soundtrack album ) . The band was featured in the film after the filmmakers heard a demo of " Tell Me Is It True " , and wrote a cameo appearance for them into the script .
Brazilian singer Carlinhos Brown was also featured in the film , performing " A Namorada " ( from his 1997 album , Alfagamabetizado ) . De Bont chose Brown because he wanted music that was " lively " , and thought Brown 's music was " very physical " and " full of energy " .
While UB40 and Brown appeared in the film as themselves , De Bont also wanted to feature a musician as one of the characters who gets trapped on the ship . He selected Canadian rhythm and blues ( R & B ) singer Tamia because he wanted someone who could sing and act . Tamia did not plan on acting in a film so early in her career , but said the part was " too perfect for [ her ] to resist " . She worked with de Bont and Quincy Jones to choose a song for the film ; they decided on " Make Tonight Beautiful " , written by Diane Warren .
= = Additional music = =
Jamaican musician Shaggy wanted to include his cover of the Erma Franklin song " Piece of My Heart " , but was unable because it was to be used in the soundtrack for an upcoming biographical film about Janis Joplin . He instead used his original song , " My Dream " ; both tracks were later featured on Shaggy 's next album Midnite Lover , released in August 1997 .
American reggae band Common Sense featured their song , " Never Give Up " , from their debut album Psychedelic Surf Groove ( 1996 ) . When they appeared on the soundtrack , they did not have a recording contract with a major record label ; lead singer Jai Vatuk said in June 1997 that the band had begun negotiations with the soundtrack 's label , Virgin Records . ; Virgin re @-@ released Psychedelic Surf Groove later that year , and signed a contract with the band in 1998 .
Jamaican reggae musician Jimmy Cliff contributed to the soundtrack with a re @-@ recording of " You Can Get It If You Really Want " from The Harder They Come ( 1972 ) ; Barbadian reggae singer Rayvon featured his song , " Some People " , before its release on his album Hear Me Cry , released in June 1997 .
British reggae singer Maxi Priest was featured on the soundtrack after recording " It Starts in the Heart " for the soundtrack to Jungle 2 Jungle ( 1997 ) . For the Speed 2 soundtrack he was asked cover a song in his characteristic style , and recorded a cover of " The Tide Is High " . Priest said his work for Jungle 2 Jungle was " more satisfying " than for Speed 2 because " It Starts in the Heart " was an original song .
The soundtrack also includes a reggae cover of The Police 's " Every Breath You Take " by Betty Wright , which was later released on the Police reggae @-@ tribute album Reggatta Mondatta in July 1997 . According to the San Jose Mercury News , Jamaican singer Diana King was scheduled to have a song on the soundtrack but her music was " judged too plodding " for the film .
In addition to " Make Tonight Beautiful " , other non @-@ reggae songs include a modern rock cover of Carole King 's " I Feel the Earth Move " by Leah Andreone and the R & B song " Crazy " by British singer Mark Morrison . The version of " Crazy " selected for the soundtrack was a remix by the song 's producer , Phil Chill , taken from the 12 @-@ inch single released in 1995 .
Composer Mark Mancina , who scored Speed 2 , wrote a techno instrumental based on the score . The track was entitled " Speed TK Re @-@ mix " , and was performed by Japanese musician Tetsuya " TK " Komuro with non @-@ lexical vocals by Lynn Mabry . The instrumental was TK 's debut in the United States , and was originally entitled " Speed 2 Theme " . " Speed TK Re @-@ mix " played during the film 's ending credits , but Mancina hoped it would be featured in the film .
= = Release = =
The Speed 2 : Cruise Control soundtrack , produced by Budd Carr , was released on May 20 , 1997 ( nearly a month before the film 's June 13 release ) by Virgin Records . The TK Party Mix of " Speed TK Re @-@ mix " was included on the Japanese release as a bonus track . Virgin Music Group executive vice president Nancy Berry said that when compiling the album , a decision was made not only to match the music in the film but to " create an album of summer music " and " a reggae compilation that would stand on its own " . Two songs from the film are not featured on the album : " Can 't Help Falling in Love " and " O mio babbino caro " by Victoria de los Ángeles . The album charted in Austria in August 1997 , peaking at number 40 .
To promote the soundtrack album , clips of each song were streamed on the film 's official website and five tracks were sent to radio stations . The first single , " Tell Me Is It True " , was released in late April 1997 and was commercially available on June 3 ; it was also the first single from Guns in the Ghetto . " My Dream " was the second single , followed by " Make Tonight Beautiful " in May and " Never Give Up " and " Speed TK Re @-@ mix " in July . De Bont agreed with Virgin that Mancina 's score could not be released until six months after the soundtrack 's release , to avoid competition . The score was not released as an album until 13 years later , when it was released in a June 2010 limited edition by La @-@ La Land Records .
= = Reception = =
Response to the soundtrack was mixed . J. D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun said the film 's Caribbean setting was a " perfect excuse " for the reggae tracks , and the album 's " most surprising moments come with its cover versions " . Jonathan Takiff of the Philadelphia Daily News awarded the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half of five stars for its reggae theme , which he described as a " rare [ ... ] display of soundtrack consistency " . Chuck Campbell from the Scripps @-@ Howard News Service gave the album three out of five stars , commending the " continuity " of the reggae tracks but saying that it should have featured artists more popular than UB40 and it lacked the " commercial appeal " of other soundtracks released at the time . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said that although none of the soundtrack 's songs are " standouts " , it is a " fairly enjoyable collection of pop @-@ reggae Latin @-@ dance " music .
Mansha Daswani of the South China Morning Post was more critical of the soundtrack , calling it " surprisingly bland " and saying that " tracks that should be catchy [ ... ] are surprisingly weak " ; however , she praised TK 's remix and Maxi Priest 's cover of " The Tide Is High " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly graded the album " D " , criticizing the " waterlogged " selection of artists and TK 's remix but saying the reggae collection was a " [ g ] ood idea " given the film 's setting . CMJ New Music Monthly said the soundtrack 's cover versions were unnecessary , contributing to " one of the scariest trends in soundtracks over the last few years " . At the 18th Golden Raspberry Awards in 1998 , " My Dream " was nominated for Worst Song but lost to " the entire song score " from The Postman ( 1997 ) . " Speed TK Re @-@ mix " became popular in Japan ; it was used as entrance music for wrestler Kazushi Sakuraba , and was re @-@ released as a single in 2001 by popular demand .
= = Track listing = =
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= Diocletianic Persecution =
The Diocletianic or Great Persecution was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire . In 303 , the Emperors Diocletian , Maximian , Galerius , and Constantius issued a series of edicts rescinding the legal rights of Christians and demanding that they comply with traditional Roman religious practices . Later edicts targeted the clergy and ordered all inhabitants to sacrifice to the Roman gods ( a policy known as universal sacrifice ) . The persecution varied in intensity across the empire — weakest in Gaul and Britain , where only the first edict was applied , and strongest in the Eastern provinces . Persecutory laws were nullified by different emperors at different times , but Constantine and Licinius 's Edict of Milan ( 313 ) has traditionally marked the end of the persecution .
Christians had always been subject to local discrimination in the empire , but early emperors were either too reluctant to issue general laws against them or , at least in the 3rd century ( see Crisis of the Third Century ) , too caught up with more immediate issues to do so . It was not until the 250s , under the reigns of Decius and Valerian , that such laws were passed . Under this legislation , Christians were compelled to sacrifice to Roman gods or face imprisonment and execution . When Gallienus acceded in 260 , he issued the first imperial edict regarding tolerance toward Christians , leading to nearly 40 years of peaceful coexistence . Diocletian 's accession in 284 did not mark an immediate reversal of disregard to Christianity , but it did herald a gradual shift in official attitudes toward religious minorities . In the first 15 years of his rule , Diocletian purged the army of Christians , condemned Manicheans to death , and surrounded himself with public opponents of Christianity . Diocletian 's preference for autocratic government , combined with his self @-@ image as a restorer of past Roman glory , presaged the most pervasive persecution in Roman history . In the winter of 302 , Galerius urged Diocletian to begin a general persecution of the Christians . Diocletian was wary , and asked the oracle of Apollo for guidance . The oracle 's reply was read as an endorsement of Galerius 's position , and a general persecution was called on February 24 , 303 .
Persecutory policies varied in intensity across the empire . Where Galerius and Diocletian were avid persecutors , Constantius was unenthusiastic . Later persecutory edicts , including the calls for universal sacrifice , were not applied in his domain . His son , Constantine , on taking the imperial office in 306 , restored Christians to full legal equality and returned property that had been confiscated during the persecution . In Italy in 306 , the usurper Maxentius ousted Maximian 's successor Severus , promising full religious toleration . Galerius ended the persecution in the East in 311 , but it was resumed in Egypt , Palestine , and Asia Minor by his successor , Maximinus . Constantine and Licinius , Severus 's successor , signed the Edict of Milan in 313 , which offered a more comprehensive acceptance of Christianity than Galerius 's edict had provided . Licinius ousted Maximinus in 313 , bringing an end to persecution in the East .
The persecution failed to check the rise of the church . By 324 , Constantine was sole ruler of the empire , and Christianity had become his favored religion . Although the persecution resulted in death , torture , imprisonment , or dislocation for many Christians , the majority of the empire 's Christians avoided punishment . The persecution did , however , cause many churches to split between those who had complied with imperial authority ( the traditores ) , and those who had remained " pure " . Certain schisms , like those of the Donatists in North Africa and the Meletians in Egypt , persisted long after the persecutions . The Donatists would not be reconciled to the Church until after 411 . In the centuries that followed , some historians consider that Christians created a " cult of the martyrs " , and exaggerated the barbarity of the persecutory era . These accounts were criticized during the Enlightenment and afterwards , most notably by Edward Gibbon . Modern historians , such as G. E. M. de Ste . Croix , have attempted to determine whether Christian sources exaggerated the scope of the Diocletianic persecution .
= = Background = =
= = = Prior persecutions = = =
From its first appearance to its legalization under Constantine , for the first two centuries of its existence , Christianity and its practitioners were unpopular with the people at large . Christians were always suspect , members of a " secret society " whose members communicated with a private code and who shied away from the public sphere . It was popular hostility — the anger of the crowd — which drove the earliest persecutions , not official action . In Lyon in 177 , it was only the intervention of civil authorities that stopped a pagan mob from dragging Christians from their houses and beating them to death . The governor of Bithynia – Pontus , Pliny , was sent long lists of denunciations by anonymous citizens , which Emperor Trajan advised him to ignore .
To the followers of the traditional cults , Christians were odd creatures : not quite Roman , but not quite barbarian either . Their practices were deeply threatening to traditional mores . Christians rejected public festivals , refused to take part in the imperial cult , avoided public office , and publicly criticized ancient traditions . Conversions tore families apart : Justin Martyr tells of a pagan husband who denounced his Christian wife , and Tertullian tells of children disinherited for becoming Christians . Traditional Roman religion was inextricably interwoven into the fabric of Roman society and state , but Christians refused to observe its practices . In the words of Tacitus , Christians showed " hatred of the human race " ( odium generis humani ) . Among the more credulous , Christians were thought to use black magic in pursuit of revolutionary aims , and to practice incest and cannibalism .
Nonetheless , for the first two centuries of the Christian era , no emperor issued general laws against the faith or its Church . These persecutions were carried out under the authority of local government officials . At Bithynia – Pontus in 111 , it was the imperial governor , Pliny ; at Smyrna ( İzmir ) in 156 and Scilli near Carthage in 180 , it was the proconsul ; at Lyon in 177 , it was the provincial governor . When Emperor Nero executed Christians for their alleged involvement in the fire of 64 , it was a purely local affair ; it did not spread beyond the city limits of Rome . These early persecutions were certainly violent , but they were sporadic , brief and limited in extent . They were of limited threat to Christianity as a whole . The very capriciousness of official action , however , made the threat of state coercion loom large in the Christian imagination .
In the 3rd century , the pattern changed . Emperors became more active and government officials began to actively pursue Christians , rather than merely to respond to the will of the crowd . Christianity , too , changed . No longer were its practitioners merely " the lower orders fomenting discontent " ; some Christians were now rich , or from the upper classes . Origen , writing at about 248 , tells of " the multitude of people coming in to the faith , even rich men and persons in positions of honour , and ladies of high refinement and birth . " Official reaction grew firmer . In 202 , according to the Historia Augusta , a 4th @-@ century history of dubious reliability , Septimius Severus ( r . 193 – 211 ) issued a general rescript forbidding conversion to either Judaism or Christianity . Maximin ( r . 235 – 38 ) targeted Christian leaders . Decius ( r . 249 – 51 ) , demanding a show of support for the faith , proclaimed that all inhabitants of the empire must sacrifice to the gods , eat sacrificial meat , and testify to these acts . Christians were obstinate in their non @-@ compliance . Church leaders , like Fabian , bishop of Rome , and Babylas , bishop of Antioch , were arrested , tried and executed , as were certain members of the Christian laity , like Pionius of Smyrna . The Christian theologian Origen was tortured during the persecution and died about a year after from the resulting injuries .
The Decian persecution was a grave blow to the Church . At Carthage , there was mass apostasy ( renunciation of the faith ) . At Smyrna , the bishop , Euctemon , sacrificed and encouraged others to do the same . Because the Church was largely urban , it should have been easy to identify , isolate and destroy the Church hierarchy . This did not happen . In June 251 , Decius died in battle , leaving his persecution incomplete . His persecutions were not followed up for another six years , allowing some Church functions to resume . Valerian , Decius 's friend , took up the imperial mantle in 253 . Though he was at first thought of as " exceptionally friendly " towards the Christians , his actions soon showed otherwise . In July 257 , he issued a new persecutory edict . As punishment for following the Christian faith , Christians were to face exile or condemnation to the mines . In August 258 , he issued a second edict , making the punishment death . This persecution also stalled in June 260 , when Valerian was captured in battle . His son , Gallienus ( r . 260 – 68 ) , ended the persecution and inaugurated nearly 40 years of freedom from official sanctions , praised by Eusebius as the " little peace of the Church " . The peace would be undisturbed , save for occasional , isolated persecutions , until Diocletian became emperor .
= = = Persecution and Tetrarchic ideology = = =
Diocletian , acclaimed emperor on November 20 , 284 , was a religious conservative , faithful to the traditional Roman cult . Unlike Aurelian ( r . 270 – 75 ) , Diocletian did not foster any new cult of his own . He preferred older gods , Olympian gods . Nonetheless , Diocletian did wish to inspire a general religious revival . As the panegyrist to Maximian declared : " You have heaped the gods with altars and statues , temples and offerings , which you dedicated with your own name and your own image , whose sanctity is increased by the example you set , of veneration for the gods . Surely , men will now understand what power resides in the gods , when you worship them so fervently . " As part of his plans for revival , Diocletian invested in religious construction . One quarter of all inscriptions referring to temple repairs in North Africa between 276 and 295 date to Diocletian 's reign . Diocletian associated himself with the head of the Roman pantheon , Jupiter ; his co @-@ emperor , Maximian , associated himself with Hercules . This connection between god and emperor helped to legitimize the emperors ' claims to power and tied imperial government closer to the traditional cult .
Diocletian did not insist on exclusive worship of Jupiter and Hercules , which would have been a drastic change in the pagan tradition . For example , Elagabalus had tried fostering his own god and no others , and had failed dramatically . Diocletian built temples for Isis and Sarapis at Rome and a temple to Sol in Italy . He did , however favor gods who provided for the safety of the whole empire , instead of the local deities of the provinces . In Africa , Diocletian 's revival focused on Jupiter , Hercules , Mercury , Apollo and the Imperial Cult . The cult of Saturn , the Romanized Baal @-@ hamon , was neglected . In imperial iconography , too , Jupiter and Hercules were pervasive . The same pattern of favoritism affected Egypt as well . Native Egyptian deities saw no revival , nor was the sacred hieroglyphic script used . Unity in worship was central to Diocletian 's religious policies .
Diocletian , like Augustus and Trajan before him , styled himself a " restorer " . He urged the public to see his reign and his governing system , the Tetrarchy ( rule by four emperors ) , as a renewal of traditional Roman values and , after the anarchic third century , a return to the " Golden Age of Rome " . As such , he reinforced the long @-@ standing Roman preference for ancient customs and Imperial opposition to independent societies . The Diocletianic regime 's activist stance , however , and Diocletian 's belief in the power of central government to effect major change in morals and society made him unusual . Most earlier emperors tended to be quite cautious in their administrative policies , preferring to work within existing structures rather than overhauling them . Diocletian , by contrast , was willing to reform every aspect of public life to satisfy his goals . Under his rule , coinage , taxation , architecture , law and history were all radically reconstructed to reflect his authoritarian and traditionalist ideology . The reformation of the empire 's " moral fabric " — and the elimination of religious minorities — was simply one step in that process .
The unique position of the Christians and Jews of the empire became increasingly apparent . The Jews had earned imperial toleration on account of the great antiquity of their faith . They had been exempted from Decius 's persecution and continued to enjoy freedom from persecution under Tetrarchic government . Because their faith was new and unfamiliar and not typically identified with Judaism by this time , Christians had no such excuse . Moreover , Christians had been distancing themselves from their Jewish heritage for their entire history .
Persecution was not the only outlet of the Tetrarchy 's moral fervor . In 295 , either Diocletian or his Caesar ( subordinate emperor ) , Galerius , issued an edict from Damascus proscribing incestuous marriages and affirming the supremacy of Roman law over local law . Its preamble insists that it is every emperor 's duty to enforce the sacred precepts of Roman law , for " the immortal gods themselves will favour and be at peace with the Roman name ... if we have seen to it that all subject to our rule entirely lead a pious , religious , peaceable and chaste life in every respect " . These principles , if given their full extension , would logically require Roman emperors to enforce conformity in religion .
= = = Public support = = =
Christian communities grew quickly in many parts of the empire ( and especially in the East ) after 260 , when Gallienus brought peace to the Church . The data to calculate the figures are nearly non @-@ existent , but the historian and sociologist Keith Hopkins has given crude and tentative estimates for Christian population in the 3rd century . Hopkins estimates that the Christian community grew from a population of 1 @.@ 1 million in 250 to a population of 6 million by 300 , about 10 % of the empire 's total population . Christians even expanded into the countryside , where they had never been numerous before . Churches in the later 3rd century were no longer as inconspicuous as they had been in the first and second . Large churches were prominent in certain major cities throughout the empire . The church in Nicomedia even sat on a hill overlooking the imperial palace . These new churches probably represented not only absolute growth in Christian population , but also the increasing affluence of the Christian community . In some areas where Christians were influential , such as North Africa and Egypt , traditional deities were losing credibility .
It is unknown how much support there was for persecution within the aristocracy . After Gallienus 's peace , Christians reached high ranks in Roman government . Diocletian appointed several Christians to those positions himself , and his wife and daughter may have been sympathetic to the church . There were many individuals willing to be martyrs , and many provincials willing to ignore any persecutory edicts from the emperors as well . Even Constantius was known to have disapproved of persecutory policies . The lower classes demonstrated little of the enthusiasm they had shown for earlier persecutions . They no longer believed the slanderous accusations that were popular in the 1st and 2nd centuries . Perhaps , as the historian Timothy Barnes has suggested , the long @-@ established Church had become another accepted part of their lives .
Within the highest ranks of the imperial administration , however , there were men who were ideologically opposed to the toleration of Christians , like the philosopher Porphyry of Tyre , and Sossianus Hierocles , governor of Bithynia . To E.R. Dodds , the works of these men demonstrated " the alliance of pagan intellectuals with the Establishment " . Hierocles thought Christian beliefs absurd . If Christians applied their principles consistently , he argued , they would pray to Apollonius of Tyana instead of Jesus . Hierocles considered that Apollonius 's miracles had been far more impressive and Apollonius never had the temerity to call himself " God " . He saw the scriptures were full of " lies and contradictions " and Peter and Paul had peddled falsehoods . In the early 4th century , an unidentified philosopher published a pamphlet attacking the Christians . This philosopher , who might have been a pupil of the Neoplatonist Iamblichus , dined repeatedly at the imperial court . Diocletian himself was surrounded by an anti @-@ Christian clique .
Porphyry was somewhat restrained in his criticism of Christianity , at least in his early works , On the Return of the Soul and Philosophy from Oracles . He had few complaints about Jesus , whom he praised as a saintly individual , a " humble " man . Christ 's followers , however , he damned as " arrogant " . Around 290 , Porphyry wrote a fifteen @-@ volume work entitled Against the Christians . In the work , Porphyry expressed his shock at the rapid expansion of Christianity . He also revised his earlier opinions of Jesus , questioning Jesus ' exclusion of the rich from the Kingdom of Heaven , and his permissiveness in regards to the demons residing in pigs ' bodies . Like Hierocles , he unfavorably compared Jesus to Apollonius of Tyana . Porphyry held that Christians blasphemed by worshiping a human being rather than the Supreme God , and behaved treasonably in forsaking the traditional Roman cult . " To what sort of penalties might we not justly subject people , " Porphyry asked , " who are fugitives from their fathers ' customs ? "
Pagan priests , too , were interested in suppressing any threat to traditional religion . The Christian Arnobius , writing during Diocletian 's reign , attributes financial concerns to provisioners of pagan services :
The augurs , the dream interpreters , the soothsayers , the prophets , and the priestlings , ever vain ... fearing that their own arts be brought to nought , and that they may extort but scanty contributions from the devotees , now few and infrequent , cry aloud , ' The gods are neglected , and in the temples there is now a very thin attendance . Former ceremonies are exposed to derision , and the time @-@ honoured rites of institutions once sacred have sunk before the superstitions of new religions.'
They believed their ceremonies were hindered by the presence of Christians , who were thought to cloud the sight of oracles and stall the gods ' recognition of their sacrifices .
= = Early persecutions = =
= = = Christians in the army = = =
At the conclusion of the Persian wars in 299 , co @-@ emperors Diocletian and Galerius traveled from Persia to Syrian Antioch ( Antakya ) . The Christian rhetor Lactantius records that , at Antioch some time in 299 , the emperors were engaged in sacrifice and divination in an attempt to predict the future . The haruspices , diviners of omens from sacrificed animals , were unable to read the sacrificed animals and failed to do so after repeated trials . The master haruspex eventually declared that this failure was the result of interruptions in the process caused by profane men . Certain Christians in the imperial household had been observed making the sign of the cross during the ceremonies and were alleged to have disrupted the haruspices ' divination . Diocletian , enraged by this turn of events , declared that all members of the court must make a sacrifice themselves . Diocletian and Galerius also sent letters to the military command , demanding that the entire army perform the sacrifices or else face discharge . Since there are no reports of bloodshed in Lactantius 's narrative , Christians in the imperial household must have survived the event .
Eusebius of Caesarea , a contemporary ecclesiastical historian , tells a similar story : commanders were told to give their troops the choice of sacrifice or loss of rank . These terms were strong — a soldier would lose his career in the military , his state pension and his personal savings — but not fatal . According to Eusebius , the purge was broadly successful , but Eusebius is confused about the technicalities of the event and his characterization of the overall size of the apostasy is ambiguous . Eusebius also attributes the initiative for the purge to Galerius , rather than Diocletian .
Modern scholar Peter Davies surmises that Eusebius is referring to the same event as Lactantius , but that he heard of the event through public rumors and knew nothing of the privileged discussion at the emperor 's private religion ceremony that Lactantius had access to . Since it was Galerius 's army that would have been purged — Diocletian had left his in Egypt to quell continuing unrest — Antiochenes would understandably have believed Galerius to be its instigator . The historian David Woods argues instead that Eusebius and Lactantius are referring to completely different events . Eusebius , according to Woods , describes the beginnings of the army purge in Palestine , while Lactantius describes events at court . Woods asserts that the relevant passage in Eusebius 's Chronicon was corrupted in the translation to Latin and that Eusebius 's text originally located the beginnings of the army persecution at a fort in Betthorus ( El @-@ Lejjun , Jordan ) .
Eusebius , Lactantius , and Constantine each allege that Galerius was the prime impetus for the military purge , and its prime beneficiary . Diocletian , for all his religious conservatism , still had tendencies towards religious tolerance . Galerius , by contrast , was a devoted and passionate pagan . According to Christian sources , he was consistently the main advocate of such persecution . He was also eager to exploit this position to his own political advantage . As the lowest @-@ ranking emperor , Galerius was always listed last in imperial documents . Until the end of the Persian war in 299 , he had not even had a major palace . Lactantius states that Galerius hungered for a higher position in the imperial hierarchy . Galerius 's mother , Romula , was bitterly anti @-@ Christian , for she had been a pagan priestess in Dacia , and loathed the Christians for avoiding her festivals . Newly prestigious and influential after his victories in the Persian war , Galerius might have wished to compensate for a previous humiliation at Antioch , when Diocletian had forced him to walk at the front of the imperial caravan , rather than inside it . His resentment fed his discontent with official policies of tolerance ; from 302 on , he probably urged Diocletian to enact a general law against the Christians . Since Diocletian was already surrounded by an anti @-@ Christian clique of counsellors , these suggestions must have carried great force .
= = = Manichean persecution = = =
Affairs quieted after the initial persecution . Diocletian remained in Antioch for the following three years . He visited Egypt once , over the winter of 301 – 302 , where he began the grain dole in Alexandria . In Egypt , some Manicheans , followers of the prophet Mani , were denounced in the presence of the proconsul of Africa . On March 31 , 302 , in a rescript from Alexandria , Diocletian , after consultation with the proconsul for Egypt , ordered that the leading Manicheans be burnt alive along with their scriptures . This was the first time an Imperial persecution ever called for the destruction of sacred literature . Low @-@ status Manicheans were to be executed ; high @-@ status Manicheans were to be sent to work in the quarries of Proconnesus ( Marmara Island ) or the mines of Phaeno . All Manichean property was to be seized and deposited in the imperial treasury .
Diocletian found much to be offended by in Manichean religion . His championing of traditional Roman cults impelled him to use the language of religious fervor . The proconsul of Africa forwarded Diocletian an anxious inquiry on the Manichees . In late March 302 , Diocletian responded : the Manicheans " have set up new and hitherto unheard of sects in opposition to the older creeds so that they might cast out the doctrines vouchsafed to us in the past by divine favour , for the benefit of their own depraved doctrine " . He continued : " .. our fear is that with the passage of time , they will endeavour ... to infect ... our whole empire ... as with the poison of a malignant serpent " . " Ancient religion ought not to be criticized by a new @-@ fangled one " , he wrote . The Christians of the empire were vulnerable to the same line of thinking .
= = = Diocletian and Galerius , 302 – 303 = = =
Diocletian was in Antioch in the autumn of 302 , when the next instance of persecution occurred . The deacon Romanus visited a court while preliminary sacrifices were taking place and interrupted the ceremonies , denouncing the act in a loud voice . He was arrested and sentenced to be set aflame , but Diocletian overruled the decision , and decided that Romanus should have his tongue removed instead . Romanus would be executed on November 18 , 303 . The boldness of this Christian displeased Diocletian , and he left the city and made for Nicomedia to spend the winter , accompanied by Galerius .
Throughout these years the moral and religious didacticism of the emperors was reaching a fevered pitch ; now , at the behest of an oracle , it was to hit its peak . According to Lactantius , Diocletian and Galerius entered into an argument over what imperial policy towards Christians should be while at Nicomedia in 302 . Diocletian argued that forbidding Christians from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods , while Galerius pushed for their extermination . The two men sought to resolve their dispute by sending a messenger to consult the oracle of Apollo at Didyma . Porphyry may also have been present at this meeting . Upon returning , the messenger told the court that " the just on earth " hindered Apollo 's ability to speak . These " just " , Diocletian was informed by members of the court , could only refer to the Christians of the empire . At the behest of his court , Diocletian acceded to demands for a universal persecution .
= = Great Persecution = =
= = = First edict = = =
On February 23 , 303 , Diocletian ordered that the newly built Christian church at Nicomedia be razed , its scriptures burned , and its treasures seized . February 23 was the feast of the Terminalia , for Terminus , the god of boundaries . It was the day they would terminate Christianity . The next day , Diocletian 's first " Edict against the Christians " was published . The key targets of this piece of legislation were , as they had been during Valerian 's persecution , Christian property and senior clerics . The edict prohibited Christians from assembling for worship , and ordered the destruction of their scriptures , liturgical books , and places of worship across the empire . But Christians tried to retain the scriptures as far as possible , though " it appears that giving them up ... was not regarded as a sin " in the East ; some of them must have been successfully saved , which is evident from the findings of " early biblical papyri " . They might give apocryphal works , or refused to surrender their scriptures despite it must be paid with their lives , and there were cases where the scriptures were not destructed . Christians were also deprived of the right to petition the courts , making them potential subjects for judicial torture ; Christians could not respond to actions brought against them in court ; Christian senators , equestrians , decurions , veterans , and soldiers were deprived of their ranks ; and imperial freedmen were re @-@ enslaved .
Diocletian requested that the edict be pursued " without bloodshed " , against Galerius 's demands that all those refusing to sacrifice be burned alive . In spite of Diocletian 's request , local judges often enforced executions during the persecution , as capital punishment was among their discretionary powers . Galerius 's recommendation — burning alive — became a common method of executing Christians in the East . After the edict was posted in Nicomedia , a man named Eutius tore it down and ripped it up , shouting " Here are your Gothic and Sarmatian triumphs ! " He was arrested for treason , tortured , and burned alive soon after , becoming the edict 's first martyr . The provisions of the edict were known and enforced in Palestine by March or April ( just before Easter ) , and was in use by local officials in North Africa by May or June . The earliest martyr at Caesarea was executed on June 7 ; the edict was in force at Cirta from May 19 . The first edict was the sole legally binding edict in the West ; in Gaul and Britain , however , Constantius did not actually impose this edict . In the East , however , progressively harsher legislation was devised .
= = = Second , third , and fourth edicts = = =
In the summer of 303 , following a series of rebellions in Melitene ( Malatya , Turkey ) and Syria , a second edict was published , ordering the arrest and imprisonment of all bishops and priests . In the judgment of historian Roger Rees , there was no logical necessity for this second edict ; that Diocletian issued one indicates that he was either unaware the first edict was being carried out , or that he felt it was not working as quickly as he needed it to . Following the publication of the second edict , prisons began to fill — the underdeveloped prison system of the time could not handle the deacons , lectors , priests , bishops , and exorcists forced upon them . Eusebius writes that the edict netted so many priests that ordinary criminals were crowded out , and had to be released .
In anticipation of the upcoming twentieth anniversary of his reign on November 20 , 303 , Diocletian declared a general amnesty in a third edict . Any imprisoned clergyman could now be freed , so long as he agreed to make a sacrifice to the gods . Diocletian may have been searching for some good publicity with this legislation . He may also have sought to fracture the Christian community by publicizing the fact that its clergy had apostatized . The demand to sacrifice was unacceptable to many of the imprisoned , but wardens often managed to obtain at least nominal compliance . Some of the clergy sacrificed willingly ; others did so on pain of torture . Wardens were eager to be rid of the clergy in their midst . Eusebius , in his Martyrs of Palestine , records the case of a clergy who , after being brought to an altar , had his hands seized and made to complete a sacrificial offering . The clergyman was told that his act of sacrifice had been recognized and was summarily dismissed . Others were told they had sacrificed even when they had done nothing .
In 304 , the fourth edict ordered all persons , men , women , and children , to gather in a public space and offer a collective sacrifice . If they refused , they were to be executed . The precise date of the edict is unknown , but it was probably issued in either January or February 304 , and was being applied in the Balkans in March . The edict was in use in Thessalonica ( Thessaloniki , Greece ) in April 304 , and in Palestine soon after . This last edict was not enforced at all in the domains of Maximian and Constantius . In the East , it remained applicable until the issue of the Edict of Milan by Constantine and Licinius in 313 .
= = = Abdications , instability , and renewed toleration , 305 – 311 = = =
Diocletian and Maximian resigned on May 1 , 305 . Constantius and Galerius became Augusti ( senior emperors ) , while two new emperors , Severus and Maximinus , became Caesars ( junior emperors ) . According to Lactantius , Galerius had forced Diocletian 's hand in the matter , and secured the appointment of loyal friends to the imperial office . In this " Second Tetrarchy " , it seems that only the Eastern emperors , Galerius and Maximinus , continued with the persecution . As they left office , Diocletian and Maximian probably imagined Christianity to be in its last throes . Churches had been destroyed , the Church leadership and hierarchy had been snapped , and the army and civil service had been purged . Eusebius declares that apostates from the faith were " countless " ( μυρίοι ) in number . At first , the new Tetrarchy seemed even more vigorous than the first . Maximinus in particular was eager to persecute . In 306 and 309 , he published his own edicts demanding universal sacrifice . Eusebius accuses Galerius of pressing on with the persecution as well .
In the West , however , the loose ends of the Diocletianic settlement were about to bring the whole Tetrarchic tapestry down . Constantine , son of Constantius , and Maxentius , son of Maximian , had been overlooked in the Diocletianic succession , offending the parents and angering the sons . Constantine , against Galerius 's will , succeeded his father on July 25 , 306 . He immediately ended any ongoing persecutions and offered Christians full restitution of what they had lost under the persecution . This declaration gave Constantine the opportunity to portray himself as a possible liberator of oppressed Christians everywhere . Maxentius , meanwhile , had seized power in Rome on October 28 , 306 , and soon brought toleration to all Christians within his realm . Galerius made two attempts to unseat Maxentius , but failed both times . During the first campaign against Maxentius , Severus was captured , imprisoned , and executed .
= = = The Peace of Galerius and the Edict of Milan , 311 – 313 = = =
In the East , the persecution was officially discontinued on April 30 , 311 , although martyrdoms in Gaza continued until May 4 . Galerius , now on his deathbed , issued a proclamation to end hostilities , and give Christians the rights to exist freely under the law , and to peaceable assembly . Persecution was everywhere at an end . Lactantius preserves the Latin text of this pronouncement , describing it as an edict . Eusebius provides a Greek translation of the pronouncement . His version includes imperial titles and an address to provincials , suggesting that the proclamation is , in fact , an imperial letter . The document seems only to have been promulgated in Galerius 's provinces .
Among all the other arrangements that we are always making for the benefit and utility of the state , we have heretofore wished to repair all things in accordance with the laws and public discipline of the Romans , and to ensure that even the Christians , who abandoned the practice of their ancestors , should return to good sense . Indeed , for some reason or other , such self @-@ indulgence assailed and idiocy possessed those Christians , that they did not follow the practices of the ancients , which their own ancestors had , perhaps , instituted , but according to their own will and as it pleased them , they made laws for themselves that they observed , and gathered various peoples in diverse areas . Then when our order was issued stating that they should return themselves to the practices of the ancients , many were subjected to peril , and many were even killed . Many more persevered in their way of life , and we saw that they neither offered proper worship and cult to the gods , or to the god of the Christians . Considering the observation of our own mild clemency and eternal custom , by which we are accustomed to grant clemency to all people , we have decided to extend our most speedy indulgence to these people as well , so that Christians may once more establish their own meeting places , so long as they do not act in a disorderly way . We are about to send another letter to our officials detailing the conditions they ought to observe . Consequently , in accord with our indulgence , they ought to pray to their god for our health and the safety of the state , so that the state may be kept safe on all sides , and they may be able to live safely and securely in their own homes .
Galerius 's words reinforce the Tetrarchy 's theological basis for the persecution ; the acts did nothing more than attempt to enforce traditional civic and religious practices , even if the edicts themselves were thoroughly nontraditional . Galerius does nothing to violate the spirit of the persecution — Christians are still admonished for their nonconformity and foolish practices — Galerius never admits that he did anything wrong . The admission that the Christians ' god might exist is made only grudgingly . Certain early 20th @-@ century historians have declared that Galerius 's edict definitively nullified the old " legal formula " non licet esse Christianos , made Christianity a religio licita , " on a par with Judaism " , and secured Christians ' property , among other things .
Not all have been so enthusiastic . The 17th @-@ century ecclesiastical historian Tillemont called the edict " insignificant " ; likewise , the late 20th @-@ century historian Timothy Barnes cautioned that the " novelty or importance of [ Galerius ' ] measure should not be overestimated " . Barnes notes that Galerius 's legislation only brought to the East rights Christians already possessed in Italy and Africa . In Gaul , Spain , and Britain , moreover , Christians already had far more than Galerius was offering to Eastern Christians . Other late 20th @-@ century historians , like Graeme Clark and David S. Potter , assert that , for all its hedging , Galerius 's issuance of the edict was a landmark event in the histories of Christianity and the Roman empire .
Galerius 's law was not effective for long in Maximinus 's district . Within seven months of Galerius 's proclamation , Maximinus resumed persecution . Persecution would continue in Maximinus 's district until 313 , soon before his death . At a meeting between Licinius and Constantine in Milan in February 313 , the two emperors drafted the terms of a universal peace . The terms of this peace were posted by the victorious Licinius at Nicomedia on June 13 , 313 . Later ages have taken to calling the document the " Edict of Milan " .
We thought it fit to commend these things most fully to your care that you may know that we have given to those Christians free and unrestricted opportunity of religious worship . When you see that this has been granted to them by us , your Worship will know that we have also conceded to other religions the right of open and free observance of their worship for the sake of the peace of our times , that each one may have the free opportunity to worship as he pleases ; this regulation is made that we may not seem to detract from any dignity or any religion .
= = Regional variation = =
The enforcement of the persecutory edicts was inconsistent . Since the Tetrarchs were more or less sovereign in their own realms , they had a good deal of control over persecutory policy . In Constantius 's realm ( Britain and Gaul ) the persecution was , at most , only lightly enforced ; in Maximian 's realm ( Italy , Spain , and Africa ) , it was firmly enforced ; and in the East , under Diocletian ( Asia Minor , Syria , Palestine and Egypt ) and Galerius ( Greece and the Balkans ) , its provisions were pursued with more fervor than anywhere else . For the Eastern provinces , Peter Davies tabulated the total number of martyrdoms for an article in the Journal of Theological Studies . Davies argued that the figures , although reliant on collections of acta that are incomplete and only partially reliable , point to a heavier persecution under Diocletian than under Galerius . The historian Simon Corcoran , in a passage on the origins of the early persecution edicts , criticized Davies ' over @-@ reliance on these " dubious martyr acts " and dismissed his conclusions .
= = = Britain and Gaul = = =
The sources are inconsistent regarding the extent of the persecution in Constantius 's domain , though all portray it as quite limited . Lactantius states that the destruction of church buildings was the worst thing that came to pass . Eusebius explicitly denies that any churches were destroyed in both his Ecclesiastical History and his Life of Constantine , but lists Gaul as an area suffering from the effects of the persecution in his Martyrs of Palestine . A group of bishops declared that " Gaul was immune " ( immunis est Gallia ) from the persecutions under Constantius . The death of Saint Alban , the first British Christian martyr , was once dated to this era , but most now assign it to the reign of Septimius Severus . The second , third and fourth edicts seem not to have been enforced in the West at all . It is possible that Constantius 's relatively tolerant policies were the result of Tetrarchic jealousies ; the persecution , after all , had been the project of the Eastern emperors , not the Western ones . After Constantine succeeded his father in 306 , he urged the recovery of Church property lost in the persecution , and legislated full freedom for all Christians in his domain .
= = = Africa = = =
While the persecution under Constantius was relatively light , there is no doubt about the force of the persecution in Maximian 's domain . Its effects are recorded at Rome , Sicily , Spain , and in Africa — indeed , Maximian encouraged particularly strict enforcement of the edict in Africa . Africa 's political elite were insistent that the persecution be fulfilled , and Africa 's Christians , especially in Numidia , were equally insistent on resisting them . For the Numidians , to hand over scriptures was an act of terrible apostasy . Africa had long been home to the Church of the Martyrs — in Africa , martyrs held more religious authority than the clergy — and harbored a particularly intransigent , fanatical , and legalistic variety of Christianity . It was Africa that gave the West most of its martyrdoms .
Africa had produced martyrs even in the years immediately prior to the Great Persecution . In 298 , Maximilian , a soldier in Tebessa , had been tried for refusing to follow military discipline ; in Mauretania , again in 298 , the soldier Marcellus refused his army bonus and took off his uniform in public . Once persecutions began , public authorities were eager to assert their authority . Anullinus , proconsul of Africa , expanded on the edict , deciding that , in addition to the destruction the Christians ' scriptures and churches , the government should compel Christians to sacrifice to the gods . Governor Valerius Florus enforced the same policy in Numidia during the summer or autumn of 303 , when he called for " days of incense burning " ; Christians would sacrifice or they would lose their lives . In addition to those already listed , African martyrs also include Saturninus and the Martyrs of Abitina , another group martyred on February 12 , 304 in Carthage , and the martyrs of Milevis ( Mila , Algeria ) .
The persecution in Africa also encouraged the development of Donatism , a schismatic movement that forbade any compromise with Roman government or traditor bishops ( those who had handed scriptures over to secular authorities ) . One of the key moments in the break with the mainline Church occurred in Carthage in 304 . The Christians from Abitinae had been brought to the city and imprisoned . Friends and relatives of the prisoners came to visit , but encountered resistance from a local mob . The group was harassed , beaten , and whipped ; the food they had brought for their imprisoned friends was scattered on the ground . The mob had been sent by Mensurius , the bishop of the city , and Caecilian , his deacon , for reasons that remain obscure . In 311 , Caecilian was elected bishop of Carthage . His opponents charged that his traditio made him unworthy of the office , and declared itself for another candidate , Majorinus . Many others in Africa , including the Abitinians , also supported Majorinus against Caecilian . Majorinus 's successor Donatus would give the dissident movement its name . By the time Constantine took over the province , the African church was deeply divided . The Donatists would not be reconciled to the Catholic Church until after 411 .
= = = Italy and Spain = = =
Maximian probably seized the Christian property in Rome quite easily — Roman cemeteries were noticeable , and Christian meeting places could have been easily found out . Senior churchmen would have been similarly prominent . The bishop of the city , Marcellinus , seems not to have ever been imprisoned , however , a fact which has led some to believe Maximian did not enforce the order to arrest clergy in the city . Others assert that Marcellinus was a traditor . Marcellinus appears in the 4th @-@ century Church 's depositio episcoporum but not its feriale , or calendar of feasts , where all Marcellinus 's predecessors from Fabian had been listed — a " glaring " absence , in the opinion of historian John Curran . Within forty years , Donatists began spreading rumors that Marcellinus had been a traditor , and that he had even sacrificed to the pagan gods . The tale was soon embroidered in the 5th @-@ century forgery , the ' Council of Sinuessa ' , and the vita Marcelli of the Liber Pontificalis . The latter work states that the bishop had indeed apostatized , but redeemed himself through martyrdom a few days afterward .
What followed Marcellinus 's act of traditio , if it ever actually happened , is unclear . There appears to have been a break in the episcopal succession , however . Marcellinus seems to have died on October 25 , 304 , and ( if he had apostatized ) was probably expelled from the church in early 303 , but his successor , Marcellus , was not consecrated until either November or December 306 . In the meantime , two factions diverged in the Roman church , separating the lapsed , Christians who had complied with the edicts to ensure their own safety , and the rigorists , those who would brook no compromise with secular authority . These two groups clashed in street fights and riots , eventually leading to murders . Marcellus , a rigorist , purged all mention of Marcellinus from church records , and removed his name from the official list of bishops . Marcellus himself was banished from the city , and died in exile on January 16 , 308 .
Maxentius , meanwhile , took advantage of Galerius 's unpopularity in Italy ( Galerius had introduced taxation for the city and countryside of Rome for the first time in the history of the empire ) to declare himself emperor . On October 28 , 306 , Maxentius convinced the Praetorian Guard to support him , mutiny , and invest him with the purple robes of the emperor . Soon after his acclamation , Maxentius declared an end to persecution , and toleration for all Christians in his realm . The news traveled to Africa , where in later years a Christian of Cirta could still recall the precise date when " peace " was ushered in . Maxentius did not permit the restitution of confiscated property , however .
On April 18 , 308 , Maxentius allowed the Christians to hold another election for the city 's bishop , which Eusebius won . Eusebius was a moderate , however , in a still @-@ divided church . Heraclius , head of the rigorist faction , opposed readmission of the lapsed . Rioting followed , and Maxentius exiled the combative pair from the city , leaving Eusebius to die in Sicily on October 21 . The office was vacant for almost three years , until Maxentius permitted another election . Miltiades was elected on July 2 , 311 , as Maxentius prepared to face Constantine in battle . Maxentius , facing increasingly strong domestic opposition to his rule , now agreed to the restitution of Christian property . Miltiades sent two deacons with letters from Maxentius to the prefect of Rome , the head of the city , responsible for publishing imperial edicts within the city , to ensure compliance . African Christians were still recovering lost property as late as 312 .
Outside Rome , there are fewer sure details of the progress and effects of the persecution in Italy ; there are not many deaths securely attested for the region . The Acta Eulpi records the martyrdom of Euplus in Catania , Sicily , a Christian who dared to carry the holy gospels around , refusing to surrender them . Euplus was arrested on April 29 , 304 , tried , and martyred on August 12 , 304 . In Spain the bishop Ossius of Corduba would later declare himself a confessor . After 305 , the year when Diocletian and Maximian abdicated and Constantius became Augustus , there were no more active persecutions in the West . Eusebius declares that the persecution lasted " less than two years " .
After a brief military standoff , Constantine confronted and defeated Maxentius , killing him at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge outside Rome on October 28 , 312 . He entered the city the next day , but declined to take part in the traditional ascent up the Capitoline Hill to the Temple of Jupiter . Constantine 's army had advanced on Rome under a Christian sign . It had become , officially at least , a Christian army . Constantine 's apparent conversion was visible elsewhere , too . Bishops dined at Constantine 's table , and many Christian building projects began soon after his victory . On November 9 , 312 , the old headquarters of the Imperial Horse Guard were razed to make way for the Lateran Basilica . Under Constantine 's rule , Christianity became the prime focus of official patronage .
= = = Nicomedia = = =
Before the end of February 303 , a fire destroyed part of the imperial palace . Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christian conspirators who had plotted with palace eunuchs . An investigation into the act was commissioned , but no responsible party was found . Executions followed . The palace eunuchs Dorotheus and Gorgonius were eliminated . One individual , a Peter , was stripped , raised high , and scourged . Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds , and he was slowly boiled over an open flame . The executions continued until at least April 24 , 303 , when six individuals , including the bishop Anthimus , were decapitated . The persecution intensified . Now presbyters and other clergymen could be arrested without having even been accused of a crime , and condemned to death . A second fire appeared sixteen days after the first . Galerius left the city , declaring it unsafe . Diocletian would soon follow . Lactantius blamed Galerius 's allies for setting the fire ; Constantine , in a later reminiscence , would attribute the fire to " lightning from heaven " .
Lactantius , still living in Nicomedia , saw the beginnings of the apocalypse in Diocletian 's persecution . Lactantius 's writings during the persecution exhibit both bitterness and Christian triumphalism . His eschatology runs directly counter to Tetrarchic claims to " renewal " . Diocletian asserted that he had instituted a new era of security and peace ; Lactantius saw the beginning of a cosmic revolution .
= = = Palestine and Syria = = =
= = = = Before Galerius 's edict of toleration = = = =
Palestine is the only region for which an extended local perspective of the persecution exists , in the form of Eusebius 's Martyrs of Palestine . Eusebius was resident in Caesarea , the capital of Roman Palestine , for the duration of the persecution , although he also traveled to Phoenicia and Egypt , and perhaps Arabia as well . Eusebius 's account is imperfect . It focuses on martyrs that were his personal friends before the persecutions began , and includes martyrdoms that took place outside of Palestine . His coverage is uneven . He provides only bare generalities at the bloody end of the persecutions , for example . Eusebius recognizes some of his faults . At the outset of his account of the general persecution in the Ecclesiastical History , Eusebius laments the incompleteness of his reportage : " how could one number the multitude of martyrs in each province , and especially those in Africa and Mauretania , and in Thebaid and Egypt ? "
Since no one below the status of governor held the legal power to enforce capital punishment , most recalcitrant Christians would have been sent to Caesarea to await punishment . The first martyr , Procopius , was sent to Caesarea from Scythopolis ( Beit She 'an , Israel ) , where he had been a reader and an exorcist . He was brought before the governor on June 7 , 303 , and asked to sacrifice to the gods , and to pour a libation for the emperors . Procopius responded by quoting Homer : " the lordship of many is not a good thing ; let there be one ruler , one king " . The governor beheaded the man at once .
Further martyrdoms followed in the months thereafter , increasing in the next spring , when the new governor , Urbanus , published the fourth edict . Eusebius probably does not list a complete account of all those executed under the fourth edict — he alludes in passing to others imprisoned with Thecla of Gaza , for example , though he does not name them .
The bulk of Eusebius 's account deals with Maximinus . Maximinus took up the office of emperor in Nicomedia on May 1 , 305 , and immediately thereafter left the city for Caesarea , hurrying , Lactantius alleges , so as to oppress and trample the diocese of Oriens . Initially , Maximinus governed only Egypt and the Levant . He issued his own persecutory edict in the spring of 306 , ordering general sacrifice . The edict of 304 had been difficult to enforce , since the Imperial government had no record of city @-@ dwelling subjects who held no agricultural land . Galerius solved this problem in 306 by running another census . This contained the names of all urban heads of household and the number of their dependents ( past censuses had only listed persons paying tax on land , such as landowners and tenants ) . Using lists drawn up by the civil service , Maximinus ordered his heralds to call all men , women , and children down to the temples . There , after tribunes called everyone by name , everyone sacrificed .
At some point after the publication of Maximinus 's first edict , perhaps in 307 , Maximinus changed the penalty for transgressions . Instead of receiving the death penalty , Christians would now be mutilated and condemned to labor in state @-@ owned mines . Since Egyptian mines were overstaffed , mostly due to the influx of Christian prisoners , Egyptian penitents were increasingly sent to the copper mines at Phaeno in Palestine and Cilicia in Asia Minor . At Diocaesarea ( Tzippori , Israel ) in the spring of 308 , 97 Christian confessors were received by Firmilianus from the porphyry mines in the Thebaid . Firmilianus cut the tendons on their left feet , blinded their right eyes , and sent them to the mines of Palestine . On another occasion , 130 others received the same punishment . Some were sent to Phaeno , and some to Cilicia .
Eusebius characterizes Urbanus as a man who enjoyed some variety in his punishments . One day , shortly after Easter 307 , he ordered the virgin Theodosia from Tyre ( Ṣūr , Lebanon ) thrown to the sea for conversing with Christians attending trial and refusing sacrifice ; the Christians in court , meanwhile , he sent to Phaeno . On a single day , November 2 , 307 , Urbanus sentenced a man named Domninus to be burned alive , three youths to fight as gladiators , and a priest to be exposed to a beast . On the same day , he ordered some young men to be castrated , sent three virgins to brothels , and imprisoned a number of others , including Pamphilus of Caesarea , a priest , scholar , and defender of the theologian Origen . Soon after , and for unknown reasons , Urbanus was stripped of his rank , imprisoned , tried , and executed , all in one day of expedited proceedings . His replacement , Firmilianus , was a veteran soldier and one of Maximinus 's trusted confidants .
Eusebius notes that this event marked the beginning of a temporary respite from persecution . Although the precise dating of this respite is not specifically noted by Eusebius , the text of the Martyrs records no Palestinian martyrs between July 25 , 308 and November 13 , 309 . The political climate probably impinged on persecutory policy here : This was the period of the conference of Carnuntum , which met in November 308 . Maximinus probably spent the next few months in discussion with Galerius over his role in the imperial government , and did not have the time to deal with the Christians .
In the autumn of 309 , Maximinus resumed persecution by issuing letters to provincial governors and his praetorian prefect , the highest authority in judicial proceedings after the emperor , demanding that Christians conform to pagan customs . His new legislation called for another general sacrifice , coupled with a general offering of libations . It was even more systematic than the first , allowing no exceptions for infants or servants . Logistai ( curatores ) , strategoi , duumviri , and tabularii , who kept the records , saw to it that there were no evasions . Maximinus introduced some innovations to the process , making him the only known persecuting emperor to have done so . This edict now required food sold in the marketplaces to be covered in libation . Maximinus sent sentries to stand guard at bathhouses and city gates to ensure that all customers sacrificed . He issued copies of the fictitious Acts of Pilate to encourage popular hatred of Christ . Prostitutes confessed , under judicial torture , to having engaged in debaucheries with Christians . Bishops were reassigned to work as stable boys for the Imperial horse guard or keepers of the Imperial camels .
Maximinus also worked for a revival of pagan religion . He appointed high priests for each province , men who were to wear white robes and supervise daily worship of the gods . Maximinus also demanded that vigorous restoration work be done on decaying temples within his domain .
The next few months saw the worst extremes of the persecution . On December 13 , 309 , Firmilianus condemned some Egyptians arrested at Ascalon ( Ashkelon , Israel ) on their way to visit the confessors in Cilicia . Three were beheaded ; the rest lost their left feet and right eyes . On January 10 , 310 , Peter and the bishop Asclepius from the dualist Christian sect Marcionism , both from Anaia , near ( Eleutheropolis , Israel ) , were burned alive . On February 16 , Pamphilus and his six companions were executed . In the aftermath , four more members of Pamphilus 's household were martyred for their displays of sympathy for the condemned . The last martyrs before Galerius 's edict of toleration were executed on March 5 and 7 . Then the executions stopped . Eusebius does not explain this sudden halt , but it coincides with the replacement of Firmilianus with Valentinianus , a man appointed at some time before Galerius 's death . The replacement is only attested to via epigraphic remains , like stone inscriptions ; Eusebius does not mention Valentinianus anywhere in his writings .
= = = = After Galerius 's edict of toleration = = = =
After Galerius 's death , Maximinus seized Asia Minor . Even after Galerius 's edict of toleration in 311 , Maximinus continued to persecute . His name is absent from the list of emperors publishing Galerius 's edict of toleration , perhaps through later suppression . Eusebius states that Maximinus complied with its provisions only reluctantly . Maximinus told his praetorian prefect Sabinus to write to provincial governors , requesting that they and their subordinates ignore " that letter " ( Galerius 's edict ) . Christians were to be free from molestation , and their mere Christianity would not leave them open to criminal charges . Unlike Galerius 's edict , however , Maximinus 's letter made no provisions for Christian assembly , nor did he suggest that Christians build more churches .
Maximinus issued orders in Autumn 311 forbidding Christians to congregate in cemeteries . After issuing these orders , he was approached by embassies from cities within his domain , demanding he begin a general persecution . Lactantius and Eusebius state that these petitions were not voluntary , but had been made at Maximinus 's behest . Maximinus began persecuting Church leaders before the end of 311 . Peter of Alexandria was beheaded on November 26 , 311 . Lucian of Antioch was executed in Nicomedia on January 7 , 312 . According to Eusebius , many Egyptian bishops suffered the same fate . According to Lactantius , Maximinus ordered confessors to have " their eyes gouged out , their hands cut off , their feet amputated , their noses or ears severed " . Antioch asked Maximinus if it could forbid Christians from living in the city . In response , Maximinus issued a rescript encouraging every city to expel its Christians . This rescript was published in Sardis on April 6 , 312 , and in Tyre by May or June . There are three surviving copies of Maximinus 's rescript , in Tyre , Arycanda ( Aykiriçay , Turkey ) , and Colbasa . They are all essentially identical . To address a complaint from Lycia and Pamphylia about the " detestable pursuits of the atheists [ Christians ] " , Maximinus promised the provincials whatever they wanted — perhaps an exemption from the poll tax .
When Maximinus received notice that Constantine had succeeded in his campaign against Maxentius , he issued a new letter restoring Christians their former liberties . The text of this letter , which is preserved in Eusebius 's Historia Ecclesiastica , however , suggests that the initiative was Maximinus 's alone , and not that of Constantine or Licinius . It is also the only passage in the ancient sources providing Maximinus 's rationale for his actions , without the hostility of Lactantius and Eusebius . Maximinus states that he supported Diocletian and Galerius 's early legislation but , upon being made Caesar , came to realize the drain such policies would have on his labor force , and began to employ persuasion without coercion . He goes on to assert that he resisted petitions from Nicomedians to forbid Christians from their city ( an event Eusebius does not otherwise record ) , and that when he accepted the demands of deputations from other cities he was only following imperial custom . Maximinus concludes his letter by referencing the letter he wrote after Galerius 's edict , asking that his subordinates be lenient . He does not refer to his early letters , which encouraged avid persecution .
In the early spring of 313 , as Licinius advanced against Maximinus , the latter resorted to savagery in his dealings with his own citizens , and his Christians in particular . In May 313 , Maximinus issued one more edict of toleration , hoping to persuade Licinius to stop advancing , and win more public support . For the first time , Maximinus issued a law which offered comprehensive toleration and the means to effectively secure it . As in his earlier letter , Maximinus is apologetic but one @-@ sided . Maximinus absolves himself for all the failings of his policy , locating fault with local judges and enforcers instead . He frames the new universal toleration as a means of removing all ambiguity and extortion . Maximinus then declares full freedom of religious practice , encourages Christians to rebuild their churches , and pledges to restore Christian property lost in the persecution . The edict changed little : Licinius defeated Maximinus at the Battle of Adrianople on April 30 , 313 ; the now @-@ powerless Maximinus committed suicide at Tarsus in the summer of 313 . On June 13 , Licinius published the Edict of Milan in Nicomedia .
= = = Egypt = = =
In Eusebius ' Martyrs of Palestine , Egypt is covered only in passing . When Eusebius remarks on the region , however , he writes of tens , twenties , even hundreds of Christians put to death on a single day , which would seem to make Egypt the region that suffered the most during the persecutions . According to one report that Barnes calls " plausible , if unverifiable " , 660 Christians were killed in Alexandria alone between 303 and 311 . In Egypt , Peter of Alexandria fled his namesake city early on in the persecution , leaving the Church leaderless . Meletius , bishop of Lycopolis ( Asyut ) , took up the job in his place . Meletius performed ordinations without Peter 's permission , which caused some bishops to complain to Peter . Meletius soon refused to treat Peter as any kind of authority , and expanded his operations into Alexandria . According to Epiphanius of Salamis , the Church split into two sections : the " Catholic Church " , under Peter , and , after Peter 's execution , Alexander ; and the " Church of the Martyrs " under Meletius . When the two groups found themselves imprisoned together in Alexandria during the persecution , Peter of Alexandria drew up a curtain in the middle of their cell . He then said : " There are some who are of my view , let them come over on my side , and those of Melitius 's view , stay with Melitius . " Thus divided , the two sects went on with their affairs , purposely ignoring each other 's existence . The schism continued to grow throughout the persecution , even with its leaders in jail , and would persist long after the deaths of both Peter and Meletius . Fifty @-@ one bishoprics are attested for Egypt in 325 ; fifteen are only known otherwise as seats of the schismatic Church .
= = Legacy = =
The Diocletianic persecution was ultimately unsuccessful . As one modern historian has put it , it was simply " too little and too late " . Christians were never purged systematically in any part of the empire , and Christian evasion continually undermined the edicts ' enforcement . Some bribed their way to freedom . The Christian Copres escaped on a technicality : To avoid sacrificing in court , he gave his brother power of attorney , and had him do it instead . Many simply fled . Eusebius , in his Vita Constantini , declared that " once more the fields and woods received the worshippers of God " . To contemporary theologians , there was no sin in this behavior . Lactantius held that Christ himself had encouraged it , and Bishop Peter of Alexandria quoted Matthew 10 : 23 ( " when they persecute you in this city , flee ye into another " ) in support of the tactic .
The pagan crowd was more sympathetic to the Christians ' sufferings than they had been in the past . Lactantius , Eusebius and Constantine write of revulsion at the excesses of the persecutors — Constantine of executioners " wearied out , and disgusted at the cruelties " they had committed . The fortitude of the martyrs in the face of death had earned the faith respectability in the past , though it may have won few converts . The thought of martyrdom , however , sustained Christians under trial and in prison , hardening their faith . Packaged with the promise of eternal life , martyrdom proved attractive for the growing segment of the pagan population which was , to quote Dodds , " in love with death " . To use Tertullian 's famous phrase , the blood of the martyrs was the seed of the Church .
By 324 , Constantine , the Christian convert , ruled the entire empire alone . Christianity became the greatest beneficiary of imperial largesse . The persecutors had been routed . As the historian J. Liebeschuetz has written : " The final result of the Great Persecution provided a testimonial to the truth of Christianity which it could have won in no other way . " After Constantine , the Christianization of the Roman empire would continue apace . Under Theodosius I ( r . 378 – 95 ) , Christianity became the state religion . By the 5th century , Christianity was the empire 's predominant faith , and filled the same role paganism had at the end of the 3rd century . Because of the persecution , however , a number of Christian communities were riven between those who had complied with imperial authorities ( traditores ) and those who had refused . In Africa , the Donatists , who protested the election of the alleged traditor Caecilian to the bishopric of Carthage , continued to resist the authority of the central Church until after 411 . The Melitians in Egypt left the Egyptian Church similarly divided .
In future generations , both Christians and pagans would look back on Diocletian as , in the words of theologian Henry Chadwick , " the embodiment of irrational ferocity " . To medieval Christians , Diocletian was the most loathsome of all Roman emperors . From the 4th century on , Christians would describe the " Great " persecution of Diocletian 's reign as a bloodbath . The Liber Pontificalis , a collection of biographies of the popes , alleges 17 @,@ 000 martyrs within a single thirty @-@ day period . In the 4th century , Christians created a " cult of martyrs " in homage to the fallen . Hagiographers portrayed a persecution far more extensive than the real one had been , and the Christians responsible for this cult were loose with the facts . Their " heroic age " of martyrs , or " Era of Martyrs " , was held to begin with Diocletian 's accession to the emperorship in 284 , rather than 303 , when persecutions actually began ; they fabricated a large number of martyrs ' tales ( indeed , most surviving martyrs ' tales are forgeries ) , exaggerated the facts in others , and embroidered true accounts with miraculous details . Of the surviving martyrs ' acts , only those of Agnes , Sebastian , Felix and Adauctus , and Marcellinus and Peter are even remotely historical . These traditional accounts were first questioned in the Enlightenment , when Henry Dodwell , Voltaire , and , most famously , Edward Gibbon questioned traditional accounts of the Christian martyrs .
In the final chapter of the first volume of his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ( 1776 ) , Gibbon claims that Christians had greatly exaggerated the scale of the persecutions they suffered :
After the church had triumphed over all her enemies , the interest as well as vanity of the captives prompted them to magnify the merit of their respective suffering . A convenient distance of time and place gave an ample scope to the progress of fiction ; and the frequent instances which might be alleged of holy martyrs , whose wounds had been instantly healed , whose strength had been renewed , and whose lost members had miraculously been restored , were extremely convenient for the purpose of removing every difficulty , and of silencing every objection . The most extravagant legends , as they conduced to the honour of the church , were applauded by the incredulous multitude , countenanced by the power of the clergy , and attested by the suspicious evidence of ecclesiastical history .
Throughout his history , Gibbon implies that the early Church undermined traditional Roman virtues , and thereby impaired the health of civil society . When Gibbon sought to reduce the numbers of the martyrs in his History , he was perceived as intending to diminish the Church and deny sacred history . He was attacked for his suspected irreligion in print . The contemporary classical scholar Richard Porson mocked Gibbon , writing that his humanity never slept , " unless when women are ravished , or the Christians persecuted " .
Later historians , however , took Gibbon 's emphases even further . As Marxist historian G.E.M. de Ste . Croix put it in 1954 , " The so @-@ called Great Persecution has been exaggerated in the Christian tradition to an extent which even Gibbon did not fully appreciate . " In 1972 , the ecclesiastical Protestant historian Hermann Dörries was embarrassed to admit to his colleagues that his sympathies lay with the Christians rather than their persecutors . W.H.C. Frend guesses that 3 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 500 Christians were killed in the persecution . Although the number of verifiably true martyrs ' tales has fallen , and estimates of the total casualty rate have been reduced , some modern writers are less skeptical than Gibbon of the severity of the persecution . As the author Stephen Williams wrote in 1985 , " even allowing a margin for invention , what remains is terrible enough . Unlike Gibbon , we live in an age which has experienced similar things , and knows how unsound is that civilised smile of incredulity at such reports . Things can be , have been , every bit as bad as our worst imaginings . "
= = = Ancient sources = = =
= = = Modern sources = = =
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= Advance Wars : Dual Strike =
Advance Wars : Dual Strike , known in Japan as Famicom Wars DS ( ファミコンウォーズDS , Famikon Wōzu Dī Esu ) , is a turn @-@ based tactics video game developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . It is the third installment in the Advance Wars series ( first on DS media ) and was released in Japan on June 23 , 2005 , in North America on August 22 , 2005 , in Europe on September 30 , 2005 , and in Australia on March 22 , 2006 . It was released on the European Wii U Virtual Console on March 3 , 2016 . The game is preceded by Advance Wars 2 : Black Hole Rising and Advance Wars and succeeded by Advance Wars : Days of Ruin . Advance Wars is the international title of the Wars video game series , which dates back to the Family Computer game Famicom Wars in 1988 .
The storyline is a continuation of the previous series and is set in the new location of Omega Land . Black Hole has returned under the leadership of a new commander who seeks to give himself eternal life by draining the energy of Omega Land . The Allied Nations struggle to overcome this threat and are eventually joined by several former Black Hole commanding officers in an effort to save the land .
Advance Wars : Dual Strike was well @-@ received , receiving an aggregate score of 90 % and at both Game Rankings and Metacritic . It also won several awards , including " Best Strategy Game for the DS " from IGN in 2005 . It sold more than 35 @,@ 000 copies in its first ten weeks in Japan .
= = Gameplay = =
The player 's objective in Dual Strike is to defeat the enemy army with their own army . Except in some campaign missions with special objectives , there are two ways to defeat an opponent : destroy all of the enemy 's units or capture their headquarters . The battle system is turn @-@ based tactics . Two to four armies , each headed by one or two commanding officers ( COs ) , take turns building and commanding units on grid @-@ based maps . Every turn , units , which consist of ground , sea and air units , can move across the different types of terrain and attack enemy units or perform other actions , such as submerging a submarine or resupplying friendly units . Many factors can affect the battle , such as fog of war , a phenomenon that prevents players from seeing enemy units other than those in the visual range of their units ; various weather conditions which change the terrain effects of the entire map ; and CO powers .
= = = COs and CO powers = = =
All of the COs from the previous two games in the series , aside from Sturm , return in Dual Strike . In addition , nine new COs make an appearance ; two for Orange Star , one each for Blue Moon , Yellow Comet , and Green Earth , and four for Black Hole , resulting in a total of 27 COs .
The namesake of Dual Strike is the ability to use two COs in a battle to command a single army . By using two COs , the weaknesses of each CO can effectively be covered by switching COs mid @-@ battle . In addition , when using two COs , a new CO power named " Tag Power , " or " Dual Strike , " can be used . It allows players to use both COs ' Super CO powers consecutively in the same turn , and effectively allows the player to have two turns .
Finally , COs in Dual Strike gain experience and can be promoted after each victorious battle in the War Room or Campaign . Higher ranked COs have access to different skills to tune and enhance their fighting styles . Abilities vary in type and benefit ; some improve attack or defense , others increase the benefits of certain units or terrain types , while others affect the player 's money flow . The star ranked skills must be unlocked by completing the Campaign modes . Each CO can use a maximum of four skills at once . Abilities can be changed around as many times as needed , but cannot be changed during a mission .
= = = Dual Front = = =
The DS 's two screens provide new ways of presenting a round of battle in Dual Strike . The bottom screen is where the main battle takes place , while the top screen is used to display the terrain and unit intelligence . However , in some missions , the top screen shows a second front . The second front is a second battle that is waged simultaneously with the battle on the lower screen , which is integral to some missions . The player can change the top screen back to the intel screen and vice versa , and units in the first front can be sent to the second . Units sent to the second front cannot , however , be sent back to the first front .
When battling on two fronts , one CO on each team takes control of one front . The CO on the second front can either be controlled by a computer or by the player . If the battle on the second front ends before the battle on the first front , the winning CO will join their teammate on the first front or other advantages will be given to the victor . Any remaining units on the second front are then added to the victor 's CO power meter .
= = = New units and properties = = =
There are seven new units . Three units operate on land : the Megatank , a Green Earth @-@ developed tank that is the most powerful direct attack unit but has severely limited ammunition for its main cannon and a small movement range ; the Piperunner , an indirect @-@ fire vehicle which can only travel on pipelines or bases , but has a large movement and firing range ; and the Oozium , a gelatinous blob which can only move one space per turn , but it can destroy any enemy it comes into contact with instantly .
There are two new naval units : the " Black Boat " , which can repair and resupply any allied unit next to it , while capable of transporting two infantry / mech units ; and the aircraft carrier , which can house two air units and is armed with surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . In addition , the cruiser 's missiles are now able to damage all naval units , making it more versatile .
A new air unit , the stealth fighter , has the ability to use stealth and turn invisible to all but adjacent enemy units . Similar to the submarine , the stealth bomber uses more fuel when stealth is activated ; however , it can only be attacked by certain units . The other new air unit is the Black Bomb , which can self @-@ destruct , damaging units around it .
Other new features include the Com Tower , a new property that , when captured , increases the firepower of all allied units . However , it provides no funds and cannot perform repairs . Black Crystals heal Black Hole units surrounding them . The Black Obelisk , which has the approximate look of a Black Cannon , also functions like a Black Crystal . The Rain weather effect now triggers Fog of War . Lastly , a new weather effect called the Sandstorm decreases both visibility and the attack range of all indirect fire units .
= = = Campaign = = =
The 28 missions ( including an integrated tutorial and several secret lab missions unlocked by capturing a certain property in another mission ) in Campaign mode that make up the game 's storyline are objective @-@ based , with most requiring the player to capture an enemy property . Some missions in Dual Strike 's campaign make use of the Dual Fronts system .
Upon completing a mission , the player is awarded a rank , from C ( lowest ) to S ( highest ) . The ranks are based on three categories : Power , Technique , and Speed . Power is determined by the number of enemy units destroyed in one turn , Technique by how many of the player 's units are destroyed , and Speed by how fast the mission is completed . All three categories are rated on a scale from 0 – 100 , and added together to form a numerical ranking from 0 – 300 , in addition to the letter ranking . These are converted to points and are added to the player 's overall points , which can be used to purchase War Room and Versus maps and COs . Bonus points can also be earned by destroying certain items , such as Oozium or Black Obelisks in certain missions .
Hard Campaign can be unlocked , which is a more difficult version of the standard campaign . All unlocked COs can be used in Hard Campaign , including those unavailable in Normal Campaign . Three save slots are available for Campaign Mode .
= = = New modes = = =
Several new modes were added to the modes from Black Hole Rising and the original Advance Wars in Dual Strike . In addition to the old War Room , Versus , and Link modes , two new modes , named Survival and Combat , have been added .
The new Survival mode is a nonstop war of attrition . Depending on the mode , players are either given limited money , turns , or time to complete a series of maps . However , victory often can be achieved by reaching preset requirements instead of satisfying the normal victory conditions . The ranking received depends on the amount of the given resource remaining at the end of the maps .
Combat , the other new mode , is an entirely new real @-@ time rendition of the game . While the victory conditions for Combat are identical to any other battle , where the goal is to capture the opponent 's HQ or defeat all enemies , players do not take turns . Instead , players fight in real time , controlling one of four different types of units , Mech , Recon , Tank , and Artillery , at a time with the touchpad . Each has strengths and weaknesses when graded in the four categories of firepower , rate of fire , movement speed , and capture speed , and their respective strengths and weaknesses resemble those of the units in the main game . Players must fight through six levels , each on a different map against a different CO . Units are bought before the first game of each set and must last through all six levels , as extra units cannot be purchased and can only be gained when a factory is captured . Multiplayer for this mode is supported , unlike Survival . Up to eight players on up to four teams can battle . Computer @-@ controlled units , which take on a gray color , may also be added into a match . A demo of Dual Strike , containing the Combat mode , can be sent wirelessly to other DS units .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Dual Strike fields extensive multiplayer modes that come in two forms : Versus mode and Link mode . In Versus mode , only one DS system is used , and the single DS is passed from player to player . These matches can be set up with any combination of human players and computer @-@ controlled armies . Link mode is the same game as Versus mode gameplay @-@ wise , but each player have a separate console and a copy of Dual Strike . Two to eight people can participate in wireless multiplayer games . Maps created by players by the Map Editor can also be traded wirelessly to other players .
= = Plot = =
Dual Strike stars two new characters : Jake , and Rachel , Jake 's advisor . These are the primary protagonists of Dual Strike and members of the Orange Star Army , and are accompanied by several other new protagonists , including Sasha , Grimm , and Javier , members of the Blue Moon , Yellow Comet , and Green Earth Armies respectively .
The Black Hole Army has returned under a new commander , Von Bolt . He is accompanied by his Bolt Guard : Jugger , Koal , and Kindle , along with Hawke and Lash from the original Black Hole Army . Using Lash 's new Black Obelisks , Von Bolt is draining Omega Land of its energy to give him eternal life , and is also starting to use this power to produce a bio @-@ weapon named Oozium 238 , a strange slime @-@ based monster that devours anything in its path . However , Hawke notices the energy draining ( which also is turning Omega Land into a desert ) and questions its use . After uncovering Von Bolt 's plot , Hawke is betrayed and Von Bolt attempts to swarm Hawke and Lash with Oozium 238 . After the Allied Nations ’ COs save Hawke and Lash , the COs , along with Hawke and Lash , begin to turn the tide against the Black Hole Army . Both Hawke and Lash provide valuable intelligence of the Black Hole weaponry and its plans for Omega Land .
With this information , the Allied Nations slowly corner the Black Hole Army , leading to a battle in the middle of the Crimson Sea . After destroying the last Black Obelisk , the Allied Nations proceed to the final battle where they fight Von Bolt and a giant oozium known as the Grand Bolt . After destroying the Grand Bolt , Hawke ( or Jake , based on the player 's decision ) destroys Von Bolt 's life support chair , supposedly causing both Hawke and Von Bolt to die in the aftermath . With the Black Obelisks gone , Omega Land begins returning to normal . However , Hawke is revealed to have stolen Von Bolt 's chair and escaped , leaving Von Bolt either dead or barely alive . With the power in Von Bolt 's chair Hawke revives all the land .
= = Development = =
On October 7 , 2004 , Dual Strike was first announced under the title Advance Wars : DS as a first @-@ party DS release in a Nintendo press release and it was to be released in the year following the DS 's release . In March , the Japanese release date was revealed to be June 23 , 2005 , under the title Famicom Wars DS . The American release date was also set to October 9 , 2005 . In May , the game was showcased at the 2005 Electronic Entertainment Expo , when the official title was also announced . The final American release date for Dual Strike was set to August 22 , 2005 and the European release date was set for September 30 , 2005 .
Advance Wars : Dual Strike was developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo . The executive producer was Satoru Iwata , the CEO of Nintendo . The producer was Tohru Nariho and the game was directed by Makoto Shimojo .
Wireless play was originally planned for the game . However , wireless was not part of the Electronic Entertainment Expo build and Nintendo was therefore unable to demonstrate its capabilities . By the final release build of the game , local wireless , but not Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi , was implemented and supported two to four players in Normal Battle mode , two players in DS Battle , and up to 8 players in Combat mode .
= = Reception = =
Advance Wars : Dual Strike received critical acclaim , gaining an aggregate score of 90 % and at both Game Rankings and Metacritic . 1UP.com commented that the game " is a much greater step forward in the series than its predecessor , Advance Wars : Black Hole Rising " and that the game was greatly enhanced by the addition of a second screen . While the game had drawbacks , including the dialogue , the lack of depth in the Combat mode , and the unbalanced COs , it was also cited as " the standard against which other strategy games , handheld or otherwise , should be judged . "
IGN praised the game for being " a fantastic single player game ... enhanced further with multiplayer focus for single and multiple cart users . " Though IGN thought the game " doesn 't offer anything entirely new or unique , " the game contains " some of the most engrossing turn @-@ based action on the Nintendo DS system . "
In general , the game was generally found to be extremely similar to previous games , which had both drawbacks and benefits . GameSpot commented that the visuals were all felt " recycled " but the game had great depth and addictive regardless . Game Informer considered the game " the first must @-@ have title for the system " while the innovations improved an already solid core gameplay . Similarly , EuroGamer commented that the game correctly ported the game to DS without losing the essence of the GBA game . The " variety and depth " did not cause a loss of the " unique and enjoyable " aspects of the game .
Advance Wars : Dual Strike was the 301st best @-@ selling game of 2005 in Japan , selling around 35 @,@ 000 copies in its first ten weeks .
The game was awarded the Editor 's Choice Award by both IGN and GameSpot . GameSpy also awarded the game " Game of the Month " in August 2005 . It also won Best Strategy Game for the DS and was a runner @-@ up for the Best Strategy Game on any platform in 2005 .
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= Delaware Route 36 =
Delaware Route 36 ( DE 36 ) is a state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . It runs in a generally northeast – southwest direction from DE 404 in Scotts Corner to Slaughter Beach , a town along the Delaware Bay . The road runs through the northern portion of Sussex County , passing through rural areas along Greenwood and Milford . The route intersects DE 16 and U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Greenwood and US 113 , DE 1 Business ( DE 1 Bus . ) , and DE 1 in Milford . DE 36 was built as a state highway in stages during the 1920s and 1930s . The road was designated by 1938 from DE 16 east of Greenwood to Fort Saulsbury ( present @-@ day Slaughter Beach ) and was extended west to DE 404 by 1994 .
= = Route description = =
DE 36 begins at an intersection with DE 404 in Scotts Corner , heading the northeast on two @-@ lane undivided Scotts Store Road . The road runs through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes , coming to an intersection with DE 16 . At this point , DE 16 turns east to become concurrent with DE 36 on Hickman Road . The road enters Greenwood and becomes Market Street , passing several homes along with a few businesses . The highway crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line before it intersects US 13 on the eastern edge of Greenwood . Past this intersection , DE 16 / DE 36 leaves Greenwood and becomes Beach Highway , crossing the Nanticoke River .
In Saint Johnstown , DE 36 splits from DE 16 by turning to the northeast onto Shawnee Road . The road heads through agricultural areas with some woods and homes . Farther northeast , the road reaches the city of Milford . Upon reaching Milford , the route runs through residential areas and intersects US 113 . Past this intersection , DE 36 becomes Lakeview Avenue and passes to the west of Bayhealth Milford Memorial hospital . The road forms the eastern border of Silver Lake , a lake along the Mispillion River , and crosses Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . After this , DE 36 continues to the east on Causey Avenue past homes and businesses . In the downtown area of Milford , the route turns north onto Walnut Street briefly before it heads east on Southeast Front Street . The route passes through the residential eastern part of Milford where it intersects DE 1 Bus .
DE 36 leaves Milford and heads to the northeast on Cedar Beach Road , entering a mix of farmland , woodland , and homes . The road turns to the east , running a short distance to the south of the Mispillion River as it comes to a diamond interchange with the DE 1 bypass of Milford . Past this interchange , the route continues to the northeast . DE 36 winds east through a mix of farmland and marshland and comes to a drawbridge over the Cedar Creek in Slaughter Beach . The DE 36 designation ends here , but the road continues past the drawbridge into Slaughter Beach where it becomes Bay Avenue and turns south to run along the Delaware Bay .
DE 36 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 9 @,@ 886 vehicles at the eastern edge of Greenwood to a low of 871 vehicles at the eastern terminus . None of DE 36 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , a section of present @-@ day DE 36 southwest of Milford was completed as a state highway while a portion leading further northeast into Milford was under contract as one ; the remainder of the route existed as an unimproved county road . The portion leading into Milford was completed four years later , in addition to the segment of the road through Greenwood . A year later , the state highway was under proposal between Greenwood and southwest of Milford . The state highway between Greenwood and Milford was finished in 1929 . All of current DE 36 was completed by 1931 except for the easternmost part of the road . DE 36 was designated to follow its current alignment between DE 16 east of Greenwood and Fort Saulsbury ( now Slaughter Beach ) by 1938 , with the entire route paved except for the part near Fort Saulsbury . The unpaved portion was paved a year later . DE 36 was extended westward to its current terminus at DE 404 by 1994 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
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= Carsten Borchgrevink =
Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink ( 1 December 1864 – 21 April 1934 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norwegian polar explorer and a pioneer of modern Antarctic travel . He was the precursor of Robert Falcon Scott , Ernest Shackleton , Roald Amundsen and other more famous names associated with the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . In 1898 – 1900 he led the British @-@ financed Southern Cross Expedition , which established a new Farthest South record at 78 ° 50'S .
Borchgrevink began his exploring career in 1894 by joining a Norwegian whaling expedition , during which he became one of the first persons to set foot on the Antarctic mainland . This achievement helped him to obtain backing for his Southern Cross Expedition , which became the first to overwinter on the Antarctic mainland , and the first to visit the Great Ice Barrier since the expedition of Sir James Ross nearly sixty years previously . However , the expedition 's successes , including the Farthest South , were received with only moderate interest by the public and by the British geographical establishment , whose attention was by then focused on Scott 's upcoming National Antarctic Expedition . Some of Borchgrevink 's colleagues were critical of his leadership , and his own accounts of the expedition were regarded as journalistic and unreliable .
After the Southern Cross Expedition , Borchgrevink was one of three scientists sent to the Caribbean in 1902 by the National Geographic Society , to report on the aftermath of the Mount Pelée disaster . Thereafter he settled in Oslo , leading a life mainly away from public attention . His pioneering work was subsequently recognised and honoured by several countries , and in 1912 he received a handsome tribute from Roald Amundsen , conqueror of the South Pole . In 1930 , Britain 's Royal Geographical Society finally acknowledged Borchgrevink 's contribution to polar exploration and awarded him its Patron 's Medal . The Society acknowledged in its citation that justice had not previously been done to the work of the Southern Cross Expedition .
= = Early life = =
Carsten Borchgrevink was born in Oslo , the son of a Norwegian lawyer , Henrik Christian Borchgrevink , and an English mother Annie , née Ridley . The family lived in the Uranienborg neighbourhood , where Roald Amundsen , an occasional childhood playmate , also grew up . Borchgrevink was educated at Gjertsen College , Oslo , and later ( 1885 – 88 ) at the Royal Saxon Academy of Forestry at Tharandt , Saxony , in Germany .
According to the historian Roland Huntford , Borchgrevink was of a restless nature , with a passion for adventure which took him , after his forestry training , to Australia . For four years he worked with government surveying teams in Queensland and New South Wales before settling in the small town of Bowenfels , where he became a teacher in languages and natural sciences at Cooerwull Academy . His initial interest in polar exploration developed from reading press reports about the work of local scientists on the first Australian Antarctic Exploration Committee . This organisation , founded in 1886 , was investigating the possibility of establishing permanent scientific research stations in the Antarctic regions . These plans were not realised ; it was a revival of interest in commercial whaling in the early 1890s that gave Borchgrevink the opportunity , in 1894 , to sign up for a Norwegian expedition to Antarctica .
= = Whaling voyage = =
The expedition that Borchgrevink joined was organised by Henryk Bull , a Norwegian businessman and entrepreneur who , like Borchgrevink , had settled in Australia in the late 1880s . Bull planned to make a sealing and whaling voyage into Antarctic waters ; after failing to interest Melbourne 's learned societies in a cost @-@ sharing venture of a commercial – scientific nature , he returned to Norway to organise his expedition there . He met Svend Foyn , the 84 @-@ year @-@ old " father of modern whaling " and inventor of the harpoon gun . With Foyn 's help he acquired the whaler Kap Nor ( " North Cape " ) , which he renamed Antarctic . Bull hired an experienced whaling captain , Leonard Kristensen , and with a crew and a small scientific team left Norway in September 1893 . When Borchgrevink learned that Antarctic was due to visit Melbourne in September 1894 , he hurried there hoping to find a vacancy . He was fortunate ; William Speirs Bruce , later an Antarctic expedition leader in his own right , had intended to join Bull 's expedition as a natural scientist but could not reach the ship before it left Norway . This created an opening for Borchgrevink , who met Bull in Melbourne and persuaded him to take him on as a deck @-@ hand and part @-@ time scientist .
During the following months , Antarctic 's sealing activities around the sub @-@ Antarctic islands were successful , but whales proved difficult to find . Bull and Kristensen decided to take the ship further south , to areas where the presence of whales had been reported by earlier expeditions . The ship penetrated a belt of pack ice and sailed into the Ross Sea , but whales were still elusive . On 17 January 1895 a landing was made at Possession Island , where Sir James Clark Ross had planted the British flag in 1841 . Bull and Borchgrevink left a message in a canister there , to prove their presence there . On the island Borchgrevink found a lichen , the first plant life discovered south of the Antarctic Circle . On 24 January the ship reached the vicinity of Cape Adare , at the northern extremity of the Victoria Land coastline of the Antarctic mainland . Ross 's 1841 expedition been unable to land here , but as Antarctic neared the cape , conditions were calm enough for a boat to be lowered . A party including Bull , Kristensen , Borchgrevink and others then headed for a shingled foreshore below the cape . Exactly who went ashore first became a matter of dispute , with both Kristensen and Borchgrevink contending for the honour along with a 17 @-@ year @-@ old New Zealand seaman , Alexander von Tunzelmann , who said that he had " leapt out to hold the boat steady " . The party claimed this as the first landing on the Antarctic mainland , although they may have been preceded by the Anglo @-@ American sealing captain John Davis , on the Antarctic Peninsula on 7 February 1821 , or by other whaling expeditions .
While ashore at Cape Adare , Borchgrevink collected further specimens of rocks and lichens , the latter of which would prove of great interest to the scientific community , which had doubted the ability of vegetation to survive so far south . He also made a careful study of the foreshore , assessing its potential as a site where a future expedition might land and establish winter quarters . When Antarctic reached Melbourne , Bull and Borchgrevink left the ship . Each hoped to raise funds for a further Antarctic expedition , but their efforts were unsuccessful . An animosity developed between them , possibly because of their differing accounts of the voyage on the Antarctic ; each emphasised his own role without fully acknowledging that of the other .
= = Making plans = =
= = = International Geographical Congress 1895 = = =
To promote his developing ideas for an expedition that would overwinter on the Antarctic continent at Cape Adare , Borchgrevink hurried to London , where the Royal Geographical Society was hosting the Sixth International Geographical Congress . On 1 August 1895 he addressed the conference , giving an account of the Cape Adare foreshore as a location where a scientific expedition might establish itself for the Antarctic winter . He described the site as " a safe situation for houses , tents and provisions " , and said there were indications that in this place " the unbound forces of the Antarctic Circle do not display the full severity of their powers " . He also suggested that the interior of the continent might be accessible from the foreshore by an easy route — a " gentle slope " . He ended his speech by declaring his willingness to lead an expedition there himself . Hugh Robert Mill , the Royal Geographical Society 's librarian , who was present at the Congress , reported reactions to the speech : " His blunt manner and abrupt speech stirred the academic discussions with a fresh breeze of realism . Nobody liked Borchgrevink very much at that time , but he had a dynamic quality and a set purpose to get out again to the unknown South that struck some of us as boding well for exploration " . The Congress did not , however , endorse Borchgrevink 's ideas . Instead , it passed a general resolution in support of Antarctic exploration , to the effect that " the various scientific societies throughout the world should urge , in whatever way seems to them most effective , that this work be undertaken before the close of the century " .
= = = Seeking support = = =
For the next two years Borchgrevink travelled in Europe and in Australia , seeking support and backing for his expedition ideas without success . One of those with whom he sought to join forces was William Speirs Bruce , who was planning his own Antarctic expedition . Their joint plans foundered when Borchgrevink , who had severed relations with Henryk Bull , learned that Bruce was in discussions with him ; " I regret therefore that we cannot collaborate " , wrote Borchgrevink to Bruce . He also discovered that the Royal Geographical Society had been harbouring its own plans for an Antarctic expedition since 1893 . Under the influence of its president , Sir Clements Markham , this RGS project was envisaged not only as a scientific endeavour , but as an attempt to relive the former glories of Royal Naval polar exploration . This vision would eventually develop into the National Antarctic Expedition with the Discovery , under Captain Scott , and it was this that attracted the interest of the learned societies rather than Borchgrevink 's more modest proposals . Markham was fiercely opposed to private ventures that might divert financial support from his project , and Borchgrevink found himself starved of practical help : " It was up a steep hill " , he wrote , " that I had to roll my Antarctic boulder . "
= = = Sir George Newnes = = =
During his search for backers , Borchgrevink met Sir George Newnes , a leading British magazine publisher and cinema pioneer whose portfolio included the Westminster Gazette , Tit @-@ Bits , Country Life and the Strand Magazine . It was not unusual for publishers to support exploration — Newnes 's great rival Alfred Harmsworth ( later Lord Northcliffe ) had recently financed Frederick Jackson 's expedition to Franz Josef Land , and had pledged financial backing to the National Antarctic Expedition . Newnes was sufficiently impressed by Borchgrevink to offer the full costs of his proposed expedition — around £ 40 @,@ 000 , ( at least £ 3 million in 2008 values ) . This generosity infuriated Sir Clements Markham and the geographical establishment , who saw Borchgrevink as a penniless Norwegian nobody who had secured British money which they believed ought to have been theirs . Markham maintained an attitude of hostility and contempt towards Borchgrevink , and chastised Mill for attending the launch of his expedition .
Newnes stipulated that the expedition should sail under a British flag , and should be styled the " British Antarctic Expedition " . In the event , of the total party of 29 , only two were British , with one Australian and the rest Norwegian . Despite this , Borchgrevink took steps to emphasise the expedition 's British character , flying the personal flag of the Duke of York and taking 500 bamboo poles with miniature Union Jacks for , as he put it , " purpose of survey and extension of the British Empire " .
= = Southern Cross Expedition = =
= = = Winter in Antarctica = = =
With funding assured , Borchgrevink purchased the whaling ship Pollux , renamed her Southern Cross , and had her fitted out for Antarctic service . Southern Cross sailed from London on 22 August 1898 , and after a three @-@ week pause in Hobart , Tasmania , reached Cape Adare on 17 February 1899 . Here , on the site which Borchgrevink had described to the Congress , the expedition set up the first ever shore base on the Antarctic continent — in the midst of a penguin colony . It was named " Camp Ridley " in honour of Borchgrevink 's mother . On 2 March the ship departed for New Zealand to winter there , leaving a shore party of 10 with their provisions , equipment and 70 dogs . These were the first dogs brought to the Antarctic ; likewise , the expedition pioneered the use there of the Primus stove , invented in Sweden six years earlier .
Louis Bernacchi , the party 's Australian physicist , was later to write : " In many respects , Borchgrevink was not a good leader " . Borchgrevink was evidently no autocrat but , Bernacchi said , without the framework of an accepted hierarchy a state of " democratic anarchy " prevailed , with " dirt , disorder and inactivity the order of the day " . Furthermore , as winter developed , Borchgrevink 's hopes that Cape Adare would escape the worst Antarctic weather proved false ; in fact he had chosen a site which was particularly exposed to the freezing winds blown northwards from the inland ice . As time progressed , tempers wore thin ; the party became irritable and boredom set in . There were accidents : a candle left burning caused extensive fire damage , and on another occasion several members of the party were almost asphyxiated by fumes from the stove . Borchgrevink did attempt to establish a routine , and scientific work was carried on throughout , but as he wrote himself , referring to the general lack of fellowship : " The silence roars in one 's ears " . Further lowering the group 's spirits , their zoologist , Nicolai Hanson , fell ill , failed to respond to treatment and died on 14 October 1899 .
When the southern winter ended and sledging activity became possible , Borchgrevink 's assumptions about an easy route to the interior were shattered ; the glaciated mountain ranges adjoining Cape Adare precluded any travel inland , restricting exploration to the immediate area around the cape . However , Borchgrevink 's basic expedition plan — to overwinter on the Antarctic continent and carry out scientific observations there — had been achieved . When Southern Cross returned at the end of January 1900 , Borchgrevink decided to abandon the camp , although there were sufficient fuel and provisions left to last another year . Instead of returning home directly , Southern Cross sailed south until it reached the Great Ice Barrier , discovered by Sir James Clark Ross during his 1839 – 43 voyage and later renamed the Ross Ice Shelf in his honour . No one had visited the Barrier since then , and Ross had been unable to effect a landing . Borchgrevink discovered an inlet in the Barrier edge ; in later years this would be named the " Bay of Whales " by Shackleton . Here , on 16 February 1900 , Borchgrevink , William Colbeck and the Sami dog @-@ handler Per Savio made the first landing on the Barrier and , with dogs and sledges , travelled 10 miles ( 16 km ) south to set a new Farthest South record at 78 ° 50'S . Southern Cross visited other Ross Sea islands before turning for home , reaching New Zealand on 1 April 1900 . Borchgrevink then took a steamer to England , arriving early in June .
= = = Return and reception = = =
The reception afforded to the expedition on its return to England was lukewarm . Public interest and attention was fixed on the forthcoming national expedition of which Robert Falcon Scott had just been appointed commander , rather than on a venture which was considered British only in name . In spite of the Southern Cross Expedition 's achievements there was still resentment in geographical circles — harboured especially by Sir Clements Markham — about Borchgrevink 's acceptance of Newnes 's gift . Also , Bruce complained that Borchgrevink had appropriated plans that he had developed but been forced to abandon . Borchgrevink 's credibility was not helped by the boastful tone sounded in various articles which were published in Newnes 's magazines , nor by the journalistic style of his rapidly written expedition account , First on the Antarctic Continent , the English edition of which appeared in 1901 .
In hailing his expedition as a great success , Borchgrevink spoke of " another Klondyke " , an abundance of fish , seals and birds , and of " quartz , in which metals are to be seen " . In his book he listed the expedition 's main achievements : proof that an expedition could live on Victoria Land over winter ; a year 's continuous magnetic and meteorological observations ; an estimate of the current position of the South Magnetic Pole ; discoveries of new species of insects and shallow @-@ water fauna ; coastal mapping and the discovery of new islands ; the first landing on Ross Island and , finally , the scaling of the Great Ice Barrier and the sledging to 78 ° 50'S , " the furthest south ever reached by man " . Other commentators have observed that the choice of the winter site at Cape Adare had ruled out any serious geographical exploration of the Antarctic interior . The scientific results of the expedition were less than had been anticipated , due in part to the loss of some of Nicolai Hanson 's natural history notes ; Borchgrevink may have been responsible for this loss ; He would later be involved in a dispute with Hanson 's former employers , London 's Natural History Museum , over these missing notes and other specimens collected by Hanson .
During the years following his return Borchgrevink was honoured by the American Geographical Society , and was made a Knight of St Olaf by King Oscar II of Norway and Sweden . Later he received honours from Denmark and Austria , but in England his work was for many years largely disregarded , despite Mill 's acknowledgement of " a dashing piece of pioneer work , useful in training men for later service " . The historian David Crane suggests that if Borchgrevink had been a British naval officer , England would have taken his achievements more seriously .
= = Post @-@ expedition life = =
= = = Mount Pelée disaster = = =
In summer 1902 Borchgrevink was one of three geographers invited by the National Geographic Society ( NGS ) to report on the after @-@ effects of the catastrophic eruptions of Mount Pelée , on the French @-@ Caribbean island of Martinique . These eruptions , in May 1902 , had destroyed the town of Saint @-@ Pierre , with enormous loss of life . Borchgrevink visited the island in June , when the main volcanic activity had subsided , and found the mountain " perfectly quiet " , and the islanders recovered from their panic . However , he did not think that Saint @-@ Pierre would ever be inhabited again . He reported a narrow escape when , at the foot of the mountain , a jet of steam came out of the ground over which he and his party had just passed : " If it had struck any one of us we would have been scalded to death " . He later presented his report to the NGS in Washington .
= = = Retirement = = =
On his return from Washington , Borchgrevink virtually retired into private life . On 7 September 1896 , he had married an English bride , Constance Prior Standen , with whom he settled in Slemdal , in Oslo , where two sons and two daughters were born . Borchgrevink devoted himself mainly to sporting and literary activities , producing a book entitled The Game of Norway . On two occasions he apparently considered returning to the Antarctic ; in August 1902 he stated his intention to lead a new Antarctic expedition for the NGS , but nothing came of this , and a later venture , announced in Berlin in 1909 , was likewise stillborn .
Although he remained out of the limelight , Borchgrevink retained his interest in Antarctic matters , visiting Captain Scott shortly before the Terra Nova sailed on Scott 's last Antarctic expedition in June 1910 . When news of Scott 's fate reached the outside world , Borchgrevink paid tribute : " He was the first in the field with a finely organised expedition and the first who did systematic work on the great south polar continent " . In a letter of condolence to John Scott Keltie , the Royal Geographical Society 's secretary , Borchgrevink said of Scott : " He was a man ! "
In Norway differing assessments of Borchgrevink were made by the country 's polar elite : Roald Amundsen was a long @-@ time friend and supporter , whereas Fridtjof Nansen , according to Scott , spoke of him as a " tremendous fraud " . When Amundsen returned from his South Pole conquest in 1912 he paid full tribute to Borchgrevink 's pioneering work : " We must acknowledge that in ascending the Barrier , Borchgrevink opened the way to the south and threw aside the greatest obstacle to the expeditions that followed " .
During his later years Borchgrevink lived quietly . In 1929 , the Parliament of Norway awarded him a pension of 3 @,@ 000 Norwegian kroner . In 1930 came belated recognition from London — the Royal Geographical Society awarded him its Patron 's Medal , proclaiming that the magnitude of the difficulties overcome by Borchgrevink had initially been underestimated : " It was only after the work of Scott 's Northern Party ... that we were able to realise the improbability that any explorer could do more in the Cape Adare district than Mr Borchgrevink had accomplished . It appeared , then , that justice had not been done at the time to the pioneer work of the Southern Cross expedition , which had been carried out under the British flag and at the expense of a British benefactor . "
= = Death and commemoration = =
Carsten Borchgrevink died in Oslo on 21 April 1934 . Despite what one biographer describes as his obsessive desire to be first , and his limited formal scientific training , he has been acknowledged as a pioneer in Antarctic work and as a forerunner of later , more elaborate expeditions . A number of geographical features in Antarctica commemorate his name , including the Borchgrevink Coast of Victoria Land , between Cape Adare and Cape Washington , the Borchgrevink Glacier in Victoria Land , and the Borchgrevinkisen glacier in Queen Maud Land . His name is also carried by the small Antarctic fish Pagothenia borchgrevinki . His expedition 's accommodation hut remains at Cape Adare , under the care of The New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust which acts as guardian to this hut and to those of Scott and Shackleton elsewhere on the continent . The Borchgrevink hut was designated by the Trust as Antarctic Specially Protected Area ( ASPA ) No. 159 in 2002 . In June 2005 the Trust adopted a management plan for its future maintenance and accessibility .
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= Reginald Miles =
Brigadier Reginald Miles , CBE , DSO & Bar , MC ( 10 December 1892 – 20 October 1943 ) was a professional soldier who served in the New Zealand Military Forces during the First and Second World Wars .
Miles was a New Zealand entrant into the Australian Royal Military College , Duntroon , from which he graduated in 1914 . He served as an artillery officer in the First World War and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his actions during the Spring Offensive . He remained in the military after the war , holding artillery commands for the next several years . When the Second World War broke out , Miles was the Quartermaster General of the New Zealand Military Forces . In 1940 , he was seconded to the 2nd New Zealand Division as its commander of artillery . He saw action during the Battle of Greece and later during Operation Crusader in North Africa . Captured during fighting near Tobruk in late 1941 , he was held in a prisoner of war camp in Italy but escaped in April 1943 with five other officers , including fellow New Zealander James Hargest . By October , Miles had made his way to Spain where , overcome with depression , he committed suicide .
= = Early life = =
Reginald Miles was born in Springston , near Christchurch , on 10 December 1892 to William and Mary Miles , who were farmers . Educated at Rangiora High School , he was commissioned in the school cadets in 1910 . He was one of the limited number of officer cadets from New Zealand who , in 1911 , enrolled in the Royal Military College in Duntroon , Australia , as part of the college 's first intake following its establishment .
= = First World War = =
A highly rated student , Miles was in the final year of his cadetship at Duntroon when the First World War broke out . He immediately volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) and was posted to the Canterbury Infantry Battalion . He took ill before the NZEF left New Zealand for the Middle East and was discharged . On recovery , he re @-@ enlisted in the NZEF and this time was posted to a howitzer battery in the New Zealand Field Artillery . He embarked for Egypt in December 1914 with a draft of reinforcements for the NZEF . He held the rank of captain during the Gallipoli Campaign and was badly wounded in July 1915 . After he recovered , he returned to the front shortly before the evacuation from Gallipoli in December 1915 . He was briefly the adjutant of 1st Field Artillery Brigade but later transferred to 15th Battery . He served on the Western Front with this unit and participated in the Battle of the Somme . As a result of his gallantry in action he was awarded the Military Cross in December 1916 . In May 1917 he was promoted to major and appointed commander of a howitzer battery .
In July 1918 , Miles was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) , having originally been recommended for the Victoria Cross , for his actions during the German Spring Offensive . His battery had come under threat from an advance by the enemy . He rounded up nearby infantry to reinforce his position , which had nearly exhausted its ammunition , and manned a fire trench . He then undertook a reconnaissance ahead of his position but was wounded by sniper fire . The citation for the DSO read :
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . He fought his battery until the enemy were within 500 yards , and his ammunition exhausted , at the same time rallying infantry stragglers and manning a fire trench , then made a reconnaissance into a wood sending back valuable information . He was finally wounded by rifle fire at close range .
After recuperating from his wounds , Miles returned to active service in July as brigade major of the Field Artillery of the New Zealand Division . He was mentioned in despatches in November 1918 .
= = Interwar period = =
After his return to New Zealand , Miles served as commander of Wellington Harbour 's defences . In 1924 he was posted to England to attend Staff College , Camberley , after which he undertook specialist artillery courses . He returned to New Zealand in 1926 and , after serving at Army Headquarters in Wellington , was posted to Auckland to command artillery units . While in Auckland , he was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal . In 1937 , he was promoted to colonel and appointed commander of the Northern Military District . The following year he was sent to England to attend the Imperial Defence College . He was then attached to the War Office for three months before returning to New Zealand in 1939 . In September 1939 , he was appointed Quartermaster General of the New Zealand Military Forces .
= = Second World War = =
In January 1940 , Miles was promoted to brigadier and seconded to the newly raised 2nd New Zealand Division as its Commander , Royal Artillery . His command consisted of three field regiments , one for each brigade of the division , as well as an anti @-@ tank regiment . In March 1940 , he was dispatched to Egypt , where the first elements of the division had arrived , but was then sent to England , where he would spend the rest of the year . Here he commanded a portion of the division that had been diverted there while in transit . An initial attempt to join the main part of the division in the Middle East in October 1940 was foiled when the ship he was travelling on was bombed and forced to return to England .
= = = Greece = = =
Miles served throughout the Greece campaign and played a key role in the organisation of the withdrawal of the division as it retreated ahead of the advancing Germans . His artillery allowed the New Zealand infantry to defend against attacks in daylight and then withdraw at night . The artillery was particularly vital in covering the undefended high ground on the flanks of 6th Infantry Brigade as it manned a holding position at Thermopylae . Miles was mentioned in despatches for his work during this period. and was also awarded the Greek Cross of Valour . He briefly took command of all New Zealand forces on Crete , to where the bulk of the division had been evacuated from Greece , but after a few days went on to Egypt and missed the subsequent Battle of Crete . Some of his artillery units had also left Crete , albeit without much of their equipment , prior to the fighting .
= = = North Africa = = =
After convalescing , Miles re @-@ joined the 2nd New Zealand Division in North Africa , where it was reforming after the losses incurred in Greece and on Crete . He then participated in Operation Crusader . During this campaign , aimed at lifting the besieged port of Tobruk , the 2nd New Zealand Division was involved in heavy fighting around Sidi Rezegh , where Miles deployed artillery in support of the 6th Infantry Brigade . Having established a corridor to Tobruk , the commander of the division , Major General Bernard Freyberg , was becoming concerned that they would be unable to hold it open . On 30 November , he entrusted Miles with getting permission from Lieutenant General Alfred Godwin @-@ Austen , the corps commander , to withdraw into or alongside Tobruk . Tentative permission was granted but only if Sidi Rezegh could not be held . However , the same day the 6th Brigade was overrun by elements of the 15th Panzer Division .
Miles advised Freyberg , still unaware of the fate of 6th Brigade due to poor communications , of Godwin @-@ Austen 's instructions on his return to the 2nd New Zealand Division 's headquarters early on 1 December . Later that day , the 6th Field Regiment was overrun by German forces advancing to Belhamed . Miles , concerned about his artillery given the uncertainty surrounding the status of the 6th Brigade , was present on an inspection of the battle zone and he moved about , rifle in hand , encouraging his men , and directing them to fire their guns over open sights . Eventually , he was wounded and taken prisoner . This action was the most costly day of the war for the divisional artillery , with 275 casualties , including 96 prisoners of war , Miles among them .
= = = Prisoner of War = = =
Together with Brigadier James Hargest , the commander of the New Zealand 5th Infantry Brigade and captured around the same time , Miles arrived in the Italian prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp Vincigliata PG 12 in 1942 . The camp was a medieval castle near Florence , where he found himself amongst other captured high @-@ ranking personnel such as Lieutenant General Sir Philip Neame , General Sir Richard O 'Connor and Air Marshal Owen Tudor Boyd . Miles settled into camp routine and became a gardener , and was actively involved in escape attempts . Together with Hargest , he escaped through a tunnel that he helped to build and made his way to Switzerland in April 1943 . Neame received a coded letter announcing their success a fortnight later .
Miles was one of only three men ( Hargest was one of the others ) known to British Military Intelligence to have escaped from an Italian prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp and make their way to another country prior to the armistice with Italy . In Switzerland , Miles and Hargest split up and travelled independently . As Hargest wrote in his book Farewell Campo 12 , " I was over in Lucerne when Miles rang up to say he was off , and to suggest I should follow him later " . Having travelled as far as the Spanish frontier on 20 October 1943 , exhausted and depressed , Miles shot himself . He was buried with military honours , and escorted to his final resting place in the Figueras Municipal Cemetery by members of the British Consulate and a party of Spanish officers . Shortly before his death , his appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire was confirmed .
Miles was posthumously awarded a bar to his DSO for his efforts in escaping from Italy . The citation for the bar , published in the New Zealand Gazette on 21 September 1944 , read :
" Escape from Camp 12 , P.M. 3200 , Italy ( General 's Camp ) . This camp was extremely well guarded and in consequence it was decided that the only possible method of escape would be by way of a tunnel . On the 18th September , 1942 , tunnelling began . All officers and other ranks worked , with the exception of one officer who was awaiting repatriation . The entrance to the tunnel was through a sealed up chapel which all soil was placed . The work , which consisted of a 3 foot by 3 foot tunnel , 40 feet long with a 10 foot shaft at the entrance and a 7 foot shaft at the exit , was completed by the end of February 1943 . At 2100 hours on the 29th March , 1943 , Brigadiers Miles and Hargest , in company with four other officers , escaped through the tunnel . The four other officers were subsequently recaptured . Brigadiers Miles and Hargest dressed as workmen and having walked to Florence station , caught a train to Milan where they went to the North station . They caught a train to Como and walked towards Chiasso . 2 kilometres from Chiasso they left the main road and proceeded across country until they reached a knoll south of Chiasso where the frontier lay along the opposite slope of a valley below them . The frontier consisted of heavy cyclone netting 12 foot high interlaced with brambles and with small bells near the top . They cut the wire with pliers at ground level without making much noise and came on to Swiss territory at 220 hours on the 30th March , 1943 . They gave themselves up to the police at Mendrisio and were released in Berne on the 2nd April , 1943 .
= = Legacy = =
Miles was survived by his four daughters from his marriage to Aimée Zita Donnelly , who he had married in Egypt in 1916 , and his second wife , Rosalind Georgette Bisset @-@ Smith , who he had wed in 1940 following the death of his first wife a few years previously . His second marriage did not result in any children . His only son was a lieutenant in the Fleet Air Arm ; he also served in the Second World War and was killed travelling aboard HMS Glorious when the ship was attacked and sunk by the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau off Norway on 8 June 1940 .
= = = Medals = = =
Miles ' medals were held by the family , which had managed to collect them after some had been lost . On 13 August 2009 , they were donated to the National Army Museum at Waiouru , New Zealand , in a presentation ceremony attended by the New Zealand Chief of Army , Major General Rhys Jones .
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= George T. Reynolds =
George Thomas Reynolds ( May 27 , 1917 – April 19 , 2005 ) was an American physicist best known for his accomplishments in particle physics , biophysics and environmental science .
Reynolds received his PhD in physics from Princeton in 1943 , writing a thesis of the propagation of shock waves . During World War II , he joined the United States Navy , and served with the Manhattan Project . He worked with George Kistiakowsky on the design of the explosive lenses required by the implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . He was involved in the investigation of the Port Chicago disaster , served with Project Alberta on Tinian , and was part of the Manhattan Project team sent to Hiroshima and Nagasaki to inspect the bomb damage .
After the war , Reynolds began a long academic career at Princeton University . He was director of the Princeton 's High Energy Physics Program from 1948 until 1970 , when he became the first director of Princeton 's new Center for Environmental Studies . He combined his interest in the sea and science by working during the summers at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole , Massachusetts , where he studied marine bioluminescence . He also worked at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution .
= = Early life = =
George Thomas Reynolds was born in Trenton , New Jersey on May 27 , 1917 , the son of George W. Reynolds , a trainmaster for the Pennsylvania Railroad , and his wife Laura , a secretary with the New Jersey Department of Geology . He attended Franklin Junior High School in Highland Park , New Jersey , until year 10 , and then New Brunswick High School .
He received a bachelor 's degree in physics from Rutgers University in 1939 . He then entered Princeton University , where was awarded a master of science degree in 1942 . He earned his PhD in 1943 under the supervision of Walker Bleakney , writing his thesis " Studies in the production , propagation , and interactions of shock waves " .
= = Manhattan Project = =
World War II was raging at this time , and someone with a doctorate in such a topic area was highly sought after by the wartime Manhattan Project , but Reynolds turned down an offer to join it . An avid surf fisherman and sailor , he aspired to join the United States Navy . He attempted to enlist , but was turned down because he wore glasses . He then lobbied the Navy , which waived this requirement . He was then commissioned as an ensign in 1943 , and married Virginia Rendall , a librarian , while he waited for his first assignment .
Instead of the seafaring assignment he hoped for , Reynolds was sent to the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory to assist George Kistiakowsky in the design of the explosive lenses required by the implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . In April 1944 , Kistiakowsky named Reynolds as one of eleven men that he would like to have working for him at Los Alamos .
Reynolds was one of the naval officers who was sent to investigate the Port Chicago disaster , in which an ammunition ship had blown up in the harbor . He was tasked with estimating the size of the explosion , based upon observations of the damage . His estimate was 1 @,@ 550 tons of TNT ( 6 @,@ 500 GJ ) ± 50 tons of TNT ( 210 GJ ) tons . A bill of lading was subsequently found for 1 @,@ 540 tons , confirming his estimate .
Reynolds was one of several researchers who determined that an atomic bomb would do maximum damage if detonated in the air rather than at ground level .
He later served with Project Alberta , the part of the Manhattan Project for operations in the field . He served on Tinian , where the worked with the X @-@ Unit Section , which was responsible for the Fat Man bomb 's firing unit . He flew a number of practice missions , but not the bombing of Hiroshima or Nagasaki . After the fighting ended , he was part of the Manhattan Project team sent to Hiroshima and Nagasaki to inspect the bomb damage .
= = Princeton = =
After the war , Reynolds accepted an offer of an assistant professorship at Princeton University . He would spend the rest of his career there , being promoted to associate professor in 1951 , and then to professor in 1959 . John Archibald Wheeler interested him in cosmic rays . Reybolds was director of the Princeton 's High Energy Physics Program from 1948 to 1970 . He initially recruited Ronald Rau from Caltech and Joseph Ballam from the University of California . Ballam eventually became a professor and division head at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory , while Rau went on to become Chairman of the Physics Department at the Brookhaven National Laboratory . Reynolds later hired Sam Treiman , Giorgio Salvini , Riccardo Giacconi , Val Fitch and Jim Cronin . His reputation for spotting and hiring talent was assured when Giacconi , Fitch and Cronin won Nobel Prizes .
For his cosmic ray research , Reynolds attempted to grow large organic crystal scintillators to use as ionized particle detectors . Scintillators are luminescent materials that , when struck by an incoming particle , absorb its energy and scintillate – emit light . They are used in many areas of scientific research . He was frustrated by cracks in the crystals , and attempted to get around the problem by dissolving them in liquid . To the surprise of many , the liquid was just as effective as crystal scintillators . Today , liquid scintillators are in widespread use in nuclear , biological and medical research . He also developed automated X @-@ ray detectors for collecting data on protein structures .
Interest in environmental issues increased in the late 1960s , and in 1970 , Princeton established Princeton 's Center for Environmental Studies . Reynolds was appointed as its first director . Under his leadership , it investigated a number of unusual inter @-@ disciplinary topics , such as energy conservation in buildings , indoor air quality , the relationship between nuclear power and nuclear weapons , and the decision @-@ making process in environmental issues
Although most of his career was at Princeton , he spent some time in England , where was a Churchill Fellow at Cambridge University in 1973 and 1974 . He was later a visiting Senior Research Fellow at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology at Oxford University , and a visiting professor at Oxford Research Unit of the Open University , from 1981 to 1982 , and a Royal Society Guest Research Fellow at Oxford University in 1985 .
Reynolds became the Class of 1909 Professor of Physics in 1978 , and Professor Emeritus 1987 . For 31 years he combined his interest in the sea and science by working during the summer at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole , Massachusetts , where he studied marine bioluminescence . He also worked at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution .
Reynolds died from cancer at his home in Skillman , New Jersey on April 19 , 2005 . He was survived by his wife , Virginia , and his four sons , G. Thomas , Richard , Robert and David .
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= Battles of Lexington and Concord =
The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War . The battles were fought on April 19 , 1775 , in Middlesex County , Province of Massachusetts Bay , within the towns of Lexington , Concord , Lincoln , Menotomy ( present @-@ day Arlington ) , and Cambridge , near Boston . The battles marked the outbreak of open armed conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen of its colonies on the mainland of British America .
In late 1774 the Suffolk Resolves were adopted to resist the enforcement of the alterations made to the Massachusetts colonial government by the British parliament following the Boston Tea Party . The colonial assembly responded by forming an illegal Patriot provisional government known as the Massachusetts Provincial Congress and calling for local militias to train for possible hostilities . The rebel government exercised effective control of the colony outside of British @-@ controlled Boston . In response , the British government in February 1775 declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion .
About 700 British Army regulars in Boston , under Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith , were given secret orders to capture and destroy rebel military supplies reportedly stored by the Massachusetts militia at Concord . Through effective intelligence gathering , Patriot colonials had received word weeks before the expedition that their supplies might be at risk and had moved most of them to other locations . They also received details about British plans on the night before the battle and were able to rapidly notify the area militias of the British expedition .
The first shots were fired just as the sun was rising at Lexington . The militia were outnumbered and fell back , and the regulars proceeded on to Concord , where they broke apart into companies to search for the supplies . At the North Bridge in Concord , approximately 400 militiamen engaged 100 regulars from three companies of the King 's troops at about 11 : 00 am , resulting in casualties on both sides . The outnumbered regulars fell back from the bridge and rejoined the main body of British forces in Concord .
The British forces began their return march to Boston after completing their search for military supplies , and more militiamen continued to arrive from neighboring towns . Gunfire erupted again between the two sides and continued throughout the day as the regulars marched back towards Boston . Upon returning to Lexington , Lt. Col. Smith 's expedition was rescued by reinforcements under Brigadier General Hugh Percy , a future duke of Northumberland known as Earl Percy . The combined force , now of about 1 @,@ 700 men , marched back to Boston under heavy fire in a tactical withdrawal and eventually reached the safety of Charlestown . The accumulated militias blockaded the narrow land accesses to Charlestown and Boston , starting the Siege of Boston .
Ralph Waldo Emerson , in his " Concord Hymn " , described the first shot fired by the Patriots at the North Bridge as the " shot heard round the world " .
= = Background = =
The British Army 's infantry , nicknamed " redcoats " and sometimes " devils " by the colonists , had occupied Boston since 1768 and had been augmented by naval forces and marines to enforce what the colonists called The Intolerable Acts , which had been passed by the British Parliament to punish the Province of Massachusetts Bay for the Boston Tea Party and other acts of defiance . General Thomas Gage , the military governor of Massachusetts and commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the roughly 3 @,@ 000 British military forces garrisoned in Boston , had no control over Massachusetts outside of Boston , where implementation of the Acts had increased tensions between the Patriot Whig majority and the pro @-@ British Tory minority . Gage 's plan was to avoid conflict by removing military supplies from Whig militias using small , secret , and rapid strikes . This struggle for supplies led to one British success and several rebel successes in a series of nearly bloodless conflicts known as the Powder Alarms . Gage considered himself to be a friend of liberty and attempted to separate his duties as Governor of the colony and as General of an occupying force . Edmund Burke described Gage 's conflicted relationship with Massachusetts by saying in Parliament , " An Englishman is the unfittest person on Earth to argue another Englishman into slavery . "
The colonists had been forming militias since the 17th century , initially for local defense against Indian attacks . These forces also saw action in the French and Indian War between 1754 and 1763 when they fought alongside British regulars . Under provincial law , all towns were obligated to form militia companies composed of all males 16 years of age and older ( there were exemptions for some categories ) , and to assure that the members were properly armed . The militias were formally under the jurisdiction of the provincial government , but New England militia companies elected their own officers . When Gage effectively dissolved the provincial government under the terms of the Massachusetts Government Act , these existing connections were employed by the colonists under the Massachusetts Provincial Congress for the purpose of resistance to the military threat from Britain .
= = = British government preparations = = =
A February 1775 address to King George III , by both houses of Parliament , declared that a state of rebellion existed :
We ... find that a part of your Majesty ' s subjects , in the Province of the Massachusetts Bay , have proceeded so far to resist the authority of the supreme Legislature , that a rebellion at this time actually exists within the said Province ; and we see , with the utmost concern , that they have been countenanced and encouraged by unlawful combinations and engagements entered into by your Majesty 's subjects in several of the other Colonies , to the injury and oppression of many of their innocent fellow @-@ subjects , resident within the Kingdom of Great Britain , and the rest of your Majesty ' s Dominions ....
We ... shall ... pay attention and regard to any real grievances ... laid before us ; and whenever any of the Colonies shall make a proper application to us , we shall be ready to afford them every just and reasonable indulgence . At the same time we ... beseech your Majesty that you will ... enforce due obedience to the laws and authority of the supreme Legislature ; and ... it is our fixed resolution , at the hazard of our lives and properties , to stand by your Majesty against all rebellious attempts in the maintenance of the just rights of your Majesty , and the two Houses of Parliament .
On April 14 , 1775 , Gage received instructions from Secretary of State William Legge , Earl of Dartmouth , to disarm the rebels and to imprison the rebellion 's leaders , but Dartmouth gave Gage considerable discretion in his commands . Gage 's decision to act promptly may have been influenced by information he received on April 15 , from a spy within the Provincial Congress , telling him that although the Congress was still divided on the need for armed resistance , delegates were being sent to the other New England colonies to see if they would cooperate in raising a New England army of 18 @,@ 000 colonial soldiers .
On the morning of April 18 , Gage ordered a mounted patrol of about 20 men under the command of Major Mitchell of the 5th Regiment of Foot into the surrounding country to intercept messengers who might be out on horseback . This patrol behaved differently from patrols sent out from Boston in the past , staying out after dark and asking travelers about the location of Samuel Adams and John Hancock . This had the unintended effect of alarming many residents and increasing their preparedness . The Lexington militia in particular began to muster early that evening , hours before receiving any word from Boston . A well @-@ known story alleges that after nightfall one farmer , Josiah Nelson , mistook the British patrol for the colonists and asked them , " Have you heard anything about when the regulars are coming out ? " upon which he was slashed on his scalp with a sword . However , the story of this incident was not published until over a century later , which suggests that it may be little more than a family myth .
Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith received orders from Gage on the afternoon of April 18 with instructions that he was not to read them until his troops were underway . He was to proceed from Boston " with utmost expedition and secrecy to Concord , where you will seize and destroy ... all Military stores ... But you will take care that the soldiers do not plunder the inhabitants or hurt private property . " Gage used his discretion and did not issue written orders for the arrest of rebel leaders , as he feared doing so might spark an uprising .
= = = American preparations = = =
On March 30 , 1775 , the Massachusetts Provincial Congress issued the following resolution :
Whenever the army under command of General Gage , or any part thereof to the number of five hundred , shall march out of the town of Boston , with artillery and baggage , it ought to be deemed a design to carry into execution by force the late acts of Parliament , the attempting of which , by the resolve of the late honourable Continental Congress , ought to be opposed ; and therefore the military force of the Province ought to be assembled , and an army of observation immediately formed , to act solely on the defensive so long as it can be justified on the principles of reason and self @-@ preservation .
The rebellion 's leaders — with the exception of Paul Revere and Joseph Warren — had all left Boston by April 8 . They had received word of Dartmouth 's secret instructions to General Gage from sources in London well before they reached Gage himself . Adams and Hancock had fled Boston to the home of one of Hancock 's relatives in Lexington , where they thought they would be safe from the immediate threat of arrest .
The Massachusetts militias had indeed been gathering a stock of weapons , powder , and supplies at Concord and much further west in Worcester . An expedition from Boston to Concord was widely anticipated . After a large contingent of regulars alarmed the countryside by an expedition from Boston to Watertown on March 30 , The Pennsylvania Journal , a newspaper in Philadelphia , reported , " It was supposed they were going to Concord , where the Provincial Congress is now sitting . A quantity of provisions and warlike stores are lodged there .... It is ... said they are intending to go out again soon . "
On April 8 , Paul Revere rode to Concord to warn the inhabitants that the British appeared to be planning an expedition . The townspeople decided to remove the stores and distribute them among other towns nearby .
The colonists were also aware that April 19 would be the date of the expedition , despite Gage 's efforts to keep the details hidden from all the British rank and file and even from the officers who would command the mission . There is reasonable speculation , although not proven , that the confidential source of this intelligence was Margaret Gage , General Gage 's New Jersey @-@ born wife , who had sympathies with the Colonial cause and a friendly relationship with Warren .
Between 9 and 10 pm on the night of April 18 , 1775 , Joseph Warren told Revere and William Dawes that the British troops were about to embark in boats from Boston bound for Cambridge and the road to Lexington and Concord . Warren 's intelligence suggested that the most likely objectives of the regulars ' movements later that night would be the capture of Adams and Hancock . They did not worry about the possibility of regulars marching to Concord , since the supplies at Concord were safe , but they did think their leaders in Lexington were unaware of the potential danger that night . Revere and Dawes were sent out to warn them and to alert colonial militias in nearby towns .
= = = Militia forces assemble = = =
Dawes covered the southern land route by horseback across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge to Lexington . Revere first gave instructions to send a signal to Charlestown using lanterns hung in the steeple of Boston 's Old North Church . He then traveled the northern water route , crossing the mouth of the Charles River by rowboat , slipping past the British warship HMS Somerset at anchor . Crossings were banned at that hour , but Revere safely landed in Charlestown and rode west to Lexington , warning almost every house along the route . Additional riders were sent north from Charlestown .
After they arrived in Lexington , Revere , Dawes , Hancock , and Adams discussed the situation with the militia assembling there . They believed that the forces leaving the city were too large for the sole task of arresting two men and that Concord was the main target . The Lexington men dispatched riders to the surrounding towns , and Revere and Dawes continued along the road to Concord accompanied by Samuel Prescott . In Lincoln , they ran into the British patrol led by Major Mitchell . Revere was captured , Dawes was thrown from his horse , and only Prescott escaped to reach Concord . Additional riders were sent out from Concord .
The ride of Revere , Dawes , and Prescott triggered a flexible system of " alarm and muster " that had been carefully developed months before , in reaction to the colonists ' impotent response to the Powder Alarm . This system was an improved version of an old notification network for use in times of emergency . The colonists had periodically used it during the early years of Indian wars in the colony , before it fell into disuse in the French and Indian War . In addition to other express riders delivering messages , bells , drums , alarm guns , bonfires and a trumpet were used for rapid communication from town to town , notifying the rebels in dozens of eastern Massachusetts villages that they should muster their militias because over 500 regulars were leaving Boston . This system was so effective that people in towns 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Boston were aware of the army 's movements while they were still unloading boats in Cambridge . These early warnings played a crucial role in assembling a sufficient number of colonial militia to inflict heavy damage on the British regulars later in the day . Adams and Hancock were eventually moved to safety , first to what is now Burlington and later to Billerica .
= = = British forces advance = = =
Around dusk , General Gage called a meeting of his senior officers at the Province House . He informed them that instructions from Lord Dartmouth had arrived , ordering him to take action against the colonials . He also told them that the senior colonel of his regiments , Lieutenant Colonel Smith , would command , with Major John Pitcairn as his executive officer . The meeting adjourned around 8 : 30 pm , after which Earl Percy mingled with town folk on Boston Common . According to one account , the discussion among people there turned to the unusual movement of the British soldiers in the town . When Percy questioned one man further , the man replied , " Well , the regulars will miss their aim . "
" What aim ? " asked Percy . " Why , the cannon at Concord " was the reply . Upon hearing this , Percy quickly returned to Province House and relayed this information to General Gage . Stunned , Gage issued orders to prevent messengers from getting out of Boston , but these were too late to prevent Dawes and Revere from leaving .
The British regulars , around 700 infantry , were drawn from 11 of Gage 's 13 occupying infantry regiments . Major Pitcairn commanded ten elite light infantry companies , and Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin Bernard commanded 11 grenadier companies , under the overall command of Lieutenant Colonel Smith .
Of the troops assigned to the expedition , 350 were from grenadier companies drawn from the 4th ( King 's Own ) , 5th , 10th , 18th ( Royal Irish ) , 23rd , 38th , 43rd , 47th , 52nd and 59th Regiments of Foot , and the 1st Battalion of His Majesty 's Marine Forces . Protecting the grenadier companies were about 320 light infantry from the 4th , 5th , 10th , 23rd , 38th , 43rd , 47th , 52nd , and 59th Regiments , and the 1st Battalion of the Marines . Each company had its own lieutenant , but the majority of the captains commanding them were volunteers attached to them at the last minute , drawn from all the regiments stationed in Boston . This lack of familiarity between commander and company would cause problems during the battle .
The British began to awaken their troops at 9 pm on the night of April 18 and assembled them on the water 's edge on the western end of Boston Common by 10 pm . Colonel Smith was late in arriving , and there was no organized boat @-@ loading operation , resulting in confusion at the staging area . The boats used were naval barges that were packed so tightly that there was no room to sit down . When they disembarked near Phipps Farm in Cambridge , it was into waist @-@ deep water at midnight . After a lengthy halt to unload their gear , the regulars began their 17 miles ( 27 km ) march to Concord at about 2 am . During the wait they were provided with extra ammunition , cold salt pork , and hard sea biscuits . They did not carry knapsacks , since they would not be encamped . They carried their haversacks ( food bags ) , canteens , muskets , and accoutrements , and marched off in wet , muddy shoes and soggy uniforms . As they marched through Menotomy , sounds of the colonial alarms throughout the countryside caused the few officers who were aware of their mission to realize they had lost the element of surprise .
At about 3 am , Colonel Smith sent Major Pitcairn ahead with six companies of light infantry under orders to quick march to Concord . At about 4 am Smith made the wise but belated decision to send a messenger back to Boston asking for reinforcements .
= = The Battles = =
= = = Lexington = = =
Though often styled a battle , in reality the engagement at Lexington was a minor brush or skirmish . As the regulars ' advance guard under Pitcairn entered Lexington at sunrise on April 19 , 1775 , about 80 Lexington militiamen emerged from Buckman Tavern and stood in ranks on the village common watching them , and between 40 and 100 spectators watched from along the side of the road . Their leader was Captain John Parker , a veteran of the French and Indian War , who was suffering from tuberculosis and was at times difficult to hear . Of the militiamen who lined up , nine had the surname Harrington , seven Munroe ( including the company 's orderly sergeant , William Munroe ) , four Parker , three Tidd , three Locke , and three Reed ; fully one quarter of them were related to Captain Parker in some way . This group of militiamen was part of Lexington 's " training band " , a way of organizing local militias dating back to the Puritans , and not what was styled a minuteman company .
After having waited most of the night with no sign of any British troops ( and wondering if Paul Revere 's warning was true ) , at about 4 : 15 AM , Parker got his confirmation . Thaddeus Bowman , the last scout that Parker had sent out , rode up at a gallop and told him that they were not only coming , but coming in force and they were close . Captain Parker was clearly aware that he was outmatched in the confrontation and was not prepared to sacrifice his men for no purpose . He knew that most of the colonists ' powder and military supplies at Concord had already been hidden . No war had been declared . ( The Declaration of Independence was a year in the future ) . He also knew the British had gone on such expeditions before in Massachusetts , found nothing , and marched back to Boston .
Parker had every reason to expect that to occur again . The Regulars would march to Concord , find nothing , and return to Boston , tired but empty @-@ handed . He positioned his company carefully . He placed them in parade @-@ ground formation , on Lexington Common . They were in plain sight ( not hiding behind walls ) , but not blocking the road to Concord . They made a show of political and military determination , but no effort to prevent the march of the Regulars . Many years later , one of the participants recalled Parker 's words as being what is now engraved in stone at the site of the battle : " Stand your ground ; don 't fire unless fired upon , but if they mean to have a war , let it begin here . " According to Parker 's sworn deposition taken after the battle :
" I ... ordered our Militia to meet on the Common in said Lexington to consult what to do , and concluded not to be discovered , nor meddle or make with said Regular Troops ( if they should approach ) unless they should insult or molest us ; and , upon their sudden Approach , I immediately ordered our Militia to disperse , and not to fire : — Immediately said Troops made their appearance and rushed furiously , fired upon , and killed eight of our Party without receiving any Provocation therefor from us . "
Rather than turn left towards Concord , Marine Lieutenant Jesse Adair , at the head of the advance guard , decided on his own to protect the flank of the British column by first turning right and then leading the companies onto the Common itself , in a confused effort to surround and disarm the militia . Major Pitcairn arrived from the rear of the advance force and led his three companies to the left and halted them . The remaining companies under Colonel Smith lay further down the road toward Boston .
= = = = First shot = = = =
A British officer ( probably Pitcairn , but accounts are uncertain , as it may also have been Lieutenant William Sutherland ) then rode forward , waving his sword , and called out for the assembled militia to disperse , and may also have ordered them to " lay down your arms , you damned rebels ! " Captain Parker told his men instead to disperse and go home , but , because of the confusion , the yelling all around , and due to the raspiness of Parker 's tubercular voice , some did not hear him , some left very slowly , and none laid down their arms . Both Parker and Pitcairn ordered their men to hold fire , but a shot was fired from an unknown source .
" [ A ] t 5 o ’ clock we arrived [ in Lexington ] , and saw a number of people , I believe between 200 and 300 , formed in a common in the middle of town ; we still continued advancing , keeping prepared against an attack through without intending to attack them ; but on our coming near them they fired on us two shots , upon which our men without any orders , rushed upon them , fired and put them to flight ; several of them were killed , we could not tell how many , because they were behind walls and into the woods . We had a man of the 10th light Infantry wounded , nobody else was hurt . We then formed on the Common , but with some difficulty , the men were so wild they could hear no orders ; we waited a considerable time there , and at length proceeded our way to Concord . "
According to one member of Parker 's militia , none of the Americans had discharged their muskets as they faced the oncoming British troops . The British did suffer one casualty , a slight wound , the particulars of which were corroborated by a deposition made by Corporal John Munroe . Munroe stated that :
" After the first fire of the regulars , I thought , and so stated to Ebenezer Munroe ... who stood next to me on the left , that they had fired nothing but powder ; but on the second firing , Munroe stated they had fired something more than powder , for he had received a wound in his arm ; and now , said he , to use his own words , ' I 'll give them the guts of my gun . ' We then both took aim at the main body of British troops the smoke preventing our seeing anything but the heads of some of their horses and discharged our pieces . "
Some witnesses among the regulars reported the first shot was fired by a colonial onlooker from behind a hedge or around the corner of a tavern . Some observers reported a mounted British officer firing first . Both sides generally agreed that the initial shot did not come from the men on the ground immediately facing each other . Speculation arose later in Lexington that a man named Solomon Brown fired the first shot from inside the tavern or from behind a wall , but this has been discredited . Some witnesses ( on each side ) claimed that someone on the other side fired first ; however , many more witnesses claimed to not know . Yet another theory is that the first shot was one fired by the British , that killed Asahel Porter , their prisoner who was running away ( he had been told to walk away and he would be let go , though he panicked and began to run ) . Historian David Hackett Fischer has proposed that there may actually have been multiple near @-@ simultaneous shots . Historian Mark Urban claims the British surged forward with bayonets ready in an undisciplined way , provoking a few scattered shots from the militia . In response the British troops , without orders , fired a devastating volley . This lack of discipline among the British troops had a key role in the escalation of violence .
Witnesses at the scene described several intermittent shots fired from both sides before the lines of regulars began to fire volleys without receiving orders to do so . A few of the militiamen believed at first that the regulars were only firing powder with no ball , but when they realized the truth , few if any of the militia managed to load and return fire . The rest ran for their lives .
" We Nathaniel Mulliken , Philip Russell , [ and 32 other men ... ] do testify and declare , that on the nineteenth in the morning , being informed that ... a body of regulars were marching from Boston towards Concord ... About five o ’ clock in the morning , hearing our drum beat , we proceeded towards the parade , and soon found that a large body of troops were marching towards us , some of our company were coming to the parade , and others had reached it , at which time , the company began to disperse , whilst our backs were turned on the troops , we were fired on by them , and a number of our men were instantly killed and wounded , not a gun was fired by any person in our company on the regulars to our knowledge before they fired on us , and continued firing until we had all made our escape . "
The regulars then charged forward with bayonets . Captain Parker 's cousin Jonas was run through . Eight Lexington men were killed , and ten were wounded ; only one British soldier of the 10th Regiment of Foot was wounded . The eight colonists killed were John Brown , Samuel Hadley , Caleb Harrington , Jonathon Harrington , Robert Munroe , Isaac Muzzey , Asahel Porter , and Jonas Parker . Jonathon Harrington , fatally wounded by a British musket ball , managed to crawl back to his home , and died on his own doorstep . One wounded man , Prince Estabrook , was a black slave who was serving in the militia .
The companies under Pitcairn 's command got beyond their officers ' control in part because they were unaware of the actual purpose of the day 's mission . They fired in different directions and prepared to enter private homes . Colonel Smith , who was just arriving with the remainder of the regulars , heard the musket fire and rode forward from the grenadier column to see the action . He quickly found a drummer and ordered him to beat assembly . The grenadiers arrived shortly thereafter , and once order was restored among the soldiers , the light infantry were permitted to fire a victory volley , after which the column was reformed and marched on toward Concord .
= = = Concord = = =
In response to the raised alarm , the militiamen of Concord and Lincoln had mustered in Concord . They received reports of firing at Lexington , and were not sure whether to wait until they could be reinforced by troops from towns nearby , or to stay and defend the town , or to move east and greet the British Army from superior terrain . A column of militia marched down the road toward Lexington to meet the British , traveling about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) until they met the approaching column of regulars . As the regulars numbered about 700 and the militia at this time only numbered about 250 , the militia column turned around and marched back into Concord , preceding the regulars by a distance of about 500 yards ( 457 m ) . The militia retreated to a ridge overlooking the town , and their officers discussed what to do next . Caution prevailed , and Colonel James Barrett withdrew from the town of Concord and led the men across the North Bridge to a hill about a mile north of town , where they could continue to watch the troop movements of the British and the activities in the center of town . This step proved fortuitous , as the ranks of the militia continued to grow as minuteman companies arriving from the western towns joined them there .
= = = = The search for militia supplies = = = =
When the British troops arrived in the village of Concord , Lt. Col. Smith divided them to carry out Gage 's orders . The 10th Regiment 's company of grenadiers secured South Bridge under Captain Mundy Pole , while seven companies of light infantry under Captain Parsons , numbering about 100 , secured the North Bridge , where they were visible across the cleared fields to the assembling militia companies . Captain Parsons took four companies from the 5th , 23rd , 38th and 52nd Regiments up the road 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) beyond the North Bridge to search Barrett 's Farm , where intelligence indicated supplies would be found . Two companies from the 4th and 10th Regiments were stationed to guard their return route , and one company from the 43rd remained guarding the bridge itself . These companies , which were under the relatively inexperienced command of Captain Walter Laurie , were aware that they were significantly outnumbered by the 400 @-@ plus militiamen . The concerned Captain Laurie sent a messenger to Lt. Col. Smith requesting reinforcements .
Using detailed information provided by Loyalist spies , the grenadier companies searched the small town for military supplies . When they arrived at Ephraim Jones 's tavern , by the jail on the South Bridge road , they found the door barred shut , and Jones refused them entry . According to reports provided by local Loyalists , Pitcairn knew cannon had been buried on the property . Jones was ordered at gunpoint to show where the guns were buried . These turned out to be three massive pieces , firing 24 @-@ pound shot , that were much too heavy to use defensively , but very effective against fortifications , with sufficient range to bombard the city of Boston from other parts of nearby mainland . The grenadiers smashed the trunnions of these three guns so they could not be mounted . They also burned some gun carriages found in the village meetinghouse , and when the fire spread to the meetinghouse itself , local resident Martha Moulton persuaded the soldiers to help in a bucket brigade to save the building . Nearly a hundred barrels of flour and salted food were thrown into the millpond , as were 550 pounds of musket balls . Of the damage done , only that done to the cannon was significant . All of the shot and much of the food was recovered after the British left . During the search , the regulars were generally scrupulous in their treatment of the locals , including paying for food and drink consumed . This excessive politeness was used to advantage by the locals , who were able to misdirect searches from several smaller caches of militia supplies .
Barrett 's Farm had been an arsenal weeks before , but few weapons remained now , and according to family legend , these were quickly buried in furrows to look like a crop had been planted . The troops sent there did not find any supplies of consequence .
= = = = The North Bridge = = = =
Colonel Barrett 's troops , upon seeing smoke rising from the village square as the British burned cannon carriages , and seeing only a few light infantry companies directly below them , decided to march back toward the town from their vantage point on Punkatasset Hill to a lower , closer flat hilltop about 300 yards ( 274 m ) from the North Bridge . As the militia advanced , the two British companies from the 4th and 10th Regiments that held the position near the road retreated to the bridge and yielded the hill to Barrett 's men .
Five full companies of Minutemen and five more of militia from Acton , Concord , Bedford and Lincoln occupied this hill as more groups of men streamed in , totaling at least 400 against Captain Laurie 's light infantry companies , a force totaling 90 – 95 men . Barrett ordered the Massachusetts men to form one long line two abreast on the highway leading down to the bridge , and then he called for another consultation . While overlooking North Bridge from the top of the hill , Barrett , Lt. Col. John Robinson of Westford and the other Captains discussed possible courses of action . Captain Isaac Davis of Acton , whose troops had arrived late , declared his willingness to defend a town not their own by saying , " I 'm not afraid to go , and I haven 't a man that 's afraid to go . "
Barrett told the men to load their weapons but not to fire unless fired upon , and then ordered them to advance . Laurie ordered the British companies guarding the bridge to retreat across it . One officer then tried to pull up the loose planks of the bridge to impede the colonial advance , but Major Buttrick began to yell at the regulars to stop harming the bridge . The Minutemen and militia from Concord , Acton and a handful of Westford Minutemen , advanced in column formation , two by two , led by Major Buttrick , Lt. Col. Robinson , then Capt. Davis , on the light infantry , keeping to the road , since it was surrounded by the spring floodwaters of the Concord River .
Captain Laurie then made a poor tactical decision . Since his summons for help had not produced any results , he ordered his men to form positions for " street firing " behind the bridge in a column running perpendicular to the river . This formation was appropriate for sending a large volume of fire into a narrow alley between the buildings of a city , but not for an open path behind a bridge . Confusion reigned as regulars retreating over the bridge tried to form up in the street @-@ firing position of the other troops . Lieutenant Sutherland , who was in the rear of the formation , saw Laurie 's mistake and ordered flankers to be sent out . But as he was from a company different from the men under his command , only three soldiers obeyed him . The remainder tried as best they could in the confusion to follow the orders of the superior officer .
A shot rang out . It was likely a warning shot fired by a panicked , exhausted British soldier from the 43rd , according to Captain Laurie 's report to his commander after the fight . Two other regulars then fired immediately after that , shots splashing in the river , and then the narrow group up front , possibly thinking the order to fire had been given , fired a ragged volley before Laurie could stop them .
Two of the Acton Minutemen , Private Abner Hosmer and Captain Isaac Davis , who were at the head of the line marching to the bridge , were hit and killed instantly . Rev. Dr. Ripley recalled :
The Americans commenced their march in double file … In a minute or two , the Americans being in quick motion and within ten or fifteen rods of the bridge , a single gun was fired by a British soldier , which marked the way , passing under Col. Robinson ’ s arm and slightly wounding the side of Luther Blanchard , a fifer , in the Acton Company .
Four more men were wounded . Major Buttrick then yelled to the militia , " Fire , for God 's sake , fellow soldiers , fire ! " At this point the lines were separated by the Concord River and the bridge , and were only 50 yards ( 46 m ) apart . The few front rows of colonists , bound by the road and blocked from forming a line of fire , managed to fire over each other 's heads and shoulders at the regulars massed across the bridge . Four of the eight British officers and sergeants , who were leading from the front of their troops , were wounded by the volley of musket fire . At least three privates ( Thomas Smith , Patrick Gray , and James Hall , all from the 4th ) were killed or mortally wounded , and nine were wounded . In 1824 , Reverend and Minuteman Joseph Thaxter wrote :
I was an eyewitness to the following facts . The people of Westford and Acton , some few of Concord , were the first who faced the British at Concord bridge . The British had placed about ninety men as a guard at the North Bridge ; we had then no certain information that any had been killed at Lexington , we saw the British making destruction in the town of Concord ; it was proposed to advance to the bridge ; on this Colonel Robinson , of Westford , together with Major Buttrick , took the lead ; strict orders were given not to fire , unless the British fired first ; when they advanced about halfway on the causeway the British fired one gun , a second , a third , and then the whole body ; they killed Colonel Davis , of Acton , and a Mr. Hosmer . Our people then fired over one another ’ s heads , being in a long column , two and two ; they killed two and wounded eleven . Lieutenant Hawkstone , said to be the greatest beauty of the British army , had his cheeks so badly wounded that it disfigured him much , of which he bitterly complained . On this , the British fled , and assembled on the hill , the north side of Concord , and dressed their wounded , and then began their retreat . As they descended the hill near the road that comes out from Bedford they were pursued ; Colonel Bridge , with a few men from Bedford and Chelmsford , came up , and killed several men .
The regulars found themselves trapped in a situation where they were both outnumbered and outmaneuvered . Lacking effective leadership and terrified at the superior numbers of the enemy , with their spirit broken , and likely not having experienced combat before , they abandoned their wounded , and fled to the safety of the approaching grenadier companies coming from the town center , isolating Captain Parsons and the companies searching for arms at Barrett 's Farm .
= = = = After the fight = = = =
The colonists were stunned by their success . No one had actually believed either side would shoot to kill the other . Some advanced ; many more retreated ; and some went home to see to the safety of their homes and families . Colonel Barrett eventually began to recover control . He moved some of the militia back to the hilltop 300 yards ( 274 m ) away and sent Major Buttrick with others across the bridge to a defensive position on a hill behind a stone wall .
Lieutenant Colonel Smith heard the exchange of fire from his position in the town moments after he received the request for reinforcements from Laurie . He quickly assembled two companies of grenadiers to lead toward the North Bridge himself . As these troops marched , they met the shattered remnants of the three light infantry companies running towards them . Smith was concerned about the four companies that had been at Barrett 's , since their route to town was now unprotected . When he saw the Minutemen in the distance behind their wall , he halted his two companies and moved forward with only his officers to take a closer look . One of the Minutemen behind that wall observed , " If we had fired , I believe we could have killed almost every officer there was in the front , but we had no orders to fire and there wasn 't a gun fired . " During a tense standoff lasting about 10 minutes , a mentally ill local man named Elias Brown wandered through both sides selling hard cider .
At this point , the detachment of regulars sent to Barrett 's farm marched back from their fruitless search of that area . They passed through the now mostly @-@ deserted battlefield , and saw dead and wounded comrades lying on the bridge . There was one who looked to them as if he had been scalped , which angered and shocked the British soldiers . They crossed the bridge and returned to the town by 11 : 30 AM , under the watchful eyes of the colonists , who continued to maintain defensive positions . The regulars continued to search for and destroy colonial military supplies in the town , ate lunch , reassembled for marching , and left Concord after noon . This delay in departure gave colonial militiamen from outlying towns additional time to reach the road back to Boston .
= = = Return march = = =
= = = = Concord to Lexington = = = =
Lieutenant Colonel Smith , concerned about the safety of his men , sent flankers to follow a ridge and protect his forces from the roughly 1 @,@ 000 colonials now in the field as the British marched east out of Concord . This ridge ended near Meriam 's Corner , a crossroads about a mile ( 2 km ) outside the village of Concord , where the main road came to a bridge across a small stream . To cross the narrow bridge , the British had to pull the flankers back into the main column and close ranks to a mere three soldiers abreast . Colonial militia companies arriving from the north and east had converged at this point , and presented a clear numerical advantage over the regulars . The British were now witnessing once again what General Gage had hoped to avoid by dispatching the expedition in secrecy and in the dark of night : the ability of the colonial militiamen to rise and converge by the thousands when British forces ventured out of Boston . As the last of the British column marched over the narrow bridge , the British rear guard wheeled and fired a volley at the colonial militiamen , who had been firing irregularly and ineffectively from a distance but now had closed to within musket range . The colonists returned fire , this time with deadly effect . Two regulars were killed and perhaps six wounded , with no colonial casualties . Smith sent out his flanking troops again after crossing the small bridge .
On Brooks Hill ( also known as Hardy 's Hill ) about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) past Meriam 's Corner , nearly 500 militiamen had assembled to the south of the road , awaiting opportunity to fire down upon the British column on the road below . Smith 's leading forces charged up the hill to drive them off , but the colonists did not withdraw , inflicting significant casualties on the attackers . Smith withdrew his men from Brooks Hill , and the column continued on to another small bridge into Lincoln , at Brooks Tavern , where more militia companies intensified the attack from the north side of the road .
The regulars soon reached a point in the road now referred to as the " Bloody Angle " where the road rises and curves sharply to the left through a lightly @-@ wooded area . At this place , the militia company from Woburn had positioned themselves on the southeast side of the bend in the road in a rocky , lightly @-@ wooded field . Additional militia flowing parallel to the road from the engagement at Meriam 's Corner positioned themselves on the northwest side of the road , catching the British in a crossfire , while other militia companies on the road closed from behind to attack . Some 500 yards ( 460 m ) further along , the road took another sharp curve , this time to the right , and again the British column was caught by another large force of militiamen firing from both sides . In passing through these two sharp curves , the British force lost thirty soldiers killed or wounded , and four colonial militia were also killed , including Captain Jonathan Wilson Bedford , Captain Nathan Wyman of Billerica , Lt. John Bacon of Natick , and Daniel Thompson of Woburn . The British soldiers escaped by breaking into a trot , a pace that the colonials could not maintain through the woods and swampy terrain . Colonial forces on the road itself behind the British were too densely packed and disorganized to mount more than a harassing attack from the rear .
As militia forces from other towns continued to arrive , the colonial forces had risen to about 2 @,@ 000 men . The road now straightened to the east , with cleared fields and orchards along the sides . Lt. Col. Smith sent out flankers again , who succeeded in trapping some militia from behind and inflicting casualties . British casualties were also mounting from these engagements and from persistent long @-@ range fire from the militiamen , and the exhausted British were running out of ammunition .
When the British column neared the boundary between Lincoln and Lexington , it encountered another ambush from a hill overlooking the road , set by Captain John Parker 's Lexington militiamen , including some of them bandaged up from the encounter in Lexington earlier in the day . At this point , Lt. Col. Smith was wounded in the thigh and knocked from his horse . Major John Pitcairn assumed effective command of the column and sent light infantry companies up the hill to clear the militia forces .
The light infantry cleared two additional hills as the column continued east — " The Bluff " and " Fiske Hill " — and took still more casualties from ambushes set by fresh militia companies joining the battle . In one of the musket volleys from the colonial soldiers , Major Pitcairn 's horse bolted in fright , throwing Pitcairn to the ground and injuring his arm . Now both principal leaders of the expedition were injured or unhorsed , and their men were tired , thirsty , and exhausting their ammunition . A few surrendered or were captured ; some now broke formation and ran forward toward Lexington . In the words of one British officer , " we began to run rather than retreat in order . ... We attempted to stop the men and form them two deep , but to no purpose , the confusion increased rather than lessened . ... the officers got to the front and presented their bayonets , and told the men if they advanced they should die . Upon this , they began to form up under heavy fire . "
Only one British officer remained uninjured among the three companies at the head of the British column as it approach Lexington Center . He understood the column 's perilous situation : " There were very few men had any ammunition left , and so fatigued that we could not keep flanking parties out , so that we must soon have laid down our arms , or been picked off by the Rebels at their pleasure — nearer to — and we were not able to keep them off . " He then heard cheering further ahead . A full brigade , about 1 @,@ 000 men with artillery under the command of Earl Percy , had arrived to rescue them . It was about 2 : 30 PM , and the British column had now been on the march since 2 o 'clock in the morning . Westford Minuteman , Rev. Joseph Thaxter , wrote of his account :
We pursued them and killed some ; when they got to Lexington , they were so close pursued and fatigued , that they must have soon surrendered , had not Lord Percy met them with a large reinforcement and two field @-@ pieces . They fired them , but the balls went high over our heads . But no cannon ever did more execution , such stories of their effects had been spread by the tories through our troops , that from this time more wont back than pursed . We pursued to Charlestown Common , and then retired to Cambridge . When the army collected at Cambridge , Colonel Prescott with his regiment of minute men , and John Robinson , his Lieutenant Colonel , were prompt at being at their post .
In their accounts afterward , British officers and soldiers alike noted their frustration that the colonial militiamen fired at them from behind trees and stone walls , rather than confronting them in large , linear formations in the style of European warfare . This image of the individual colonial farmer , musket in hand and fighting under his own command , has also been fostered in American myth : " Chasing the red @-@ coats down the lane / Then crossing the fields to emerge again / Under the trees at the turn of the road , / And only pausing to fire and load . " To the contrary , beginning at the North Bridge and throughout the British retreat , the colonial militias repeatedly operated as coordinated companies , even when dispersed to take advantage of cover . Reflecting on the British experience that day , Earl Percy understood the significance of the American tactics :
During the whole affair the Rebels attacked us in a very scattered , irregular manner , but with perseverance & resolution , nor did they ever dare to form into any regular body . Indeed , they knew too well what was proper , to do so . Whoever looks upon them as an irregular mob , will find himself much mistaken . They have men amongst them who know very well what they are about , having been employed as Rangers against the Indians & Canadians , & this country being much covered with wood , and hilly , is very advantageous for their method of fighting .
= = = = Percy 's rescue = = = =
General Gage had anticipated that Lt. Col. Smith 's expedition might require reinforcement , so Gage drafted orders for reinforcing units to assemble in Boston at 4 AM . But in his obsession for secrecy , Gage had sent only one copy of the orders to the adjutant of the 1st Brigade , whose servant then left the envelope on a table . Also at about 4 AM , the British column was within three miles of Lexington , and Lt. Col. Smith now had clear indication that all element of surprise had been lost and that alarm was spreading throughout the countryside . So he sent a rider back to Boston with a request for reinforcements . At about 5 AM , the rider reached Boston , and the 1st Brigade was ordered to assemble : the line infantry companies of the 4th , 23rd , and 47th Regiments , and a battalion of Royal Marines , under the command of Earl Percy . Unfortunately for the British , once again only one copy of the orders were sent to each commander , and the order for the Royal Marines was delivered to the desk of Major John Pitcairn , who was already on the Lexington Common with Smith 's column at that hour . After these delays , Percy 's brigade , about 1 @,@ 000 strong , left Boston at about 8 : 45 AM , headed toward Lexington . Along the way , the story is told , they marched to the tune of " Yankee Doodle " to taunt the inhabitants of the area . By the Battle of Bunker Hill less than two months later , the song would become a popular anthem for the colonial forces .
Percy took the land route across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge , which some quick @-@ thinking colonists had stripped of its planking to delay the British . His men then came upon an absent @-@ minded tutor at Harvard College and asked him which road would take them to Lexington . The Harvard man , apparently oblivious to the reality of what was happening around him , showed him the proper road without thinking . ( He was later compelled to leave the country for inadvertently supporting the enemy . ) Percy 's troops arrived in Lexington at about 2 : 00 PM . They could hear gunfire in the distance as they set up their cannon and deployed lines of regulars on high ground with commanding views of the town . Colonel Smith 's men approached like a fleeing mob with the full complement of colonial militia in close formation pursuing them . Percy ordered his artillery to open fire at extreme range , dispersing the colonial militiamen . Smith 's men collapsed with exhaustion once they reached the safety of Percy 's lines .
Against the advice of his Master of Ordnance , Percy had left Boston without spare ammunition for his men or for the two artillery pieces they brought with them , thinking the extra wagons would slow him down . Each man in Percy 's brigade had only 36 rounds , and each artillery piece was supplied with only a few rounds carried in side @-@ boxes . After Percy had left the city , Gage directed two ammunition wagons guarded by one officer and thirteen men to follow . This convoy was intercepted by a small party of older , veteran militiamen still on the " alarm list , " who could not join their militia companies because they were well over 60 years of age . These men rose up in ambush and demanded the surrender of the wagons , but the regulars ignored them and drove their horses on . The old men opened fire , shot the lead horses , killed two sergeants , and wounded the officer . The British survivors ran , and six of them threw their weapons into a pond before they surrendered .
= = = = Lexington to Menotomy = = = =
Percy assumed control of the combined forces of about 1 @,@ 700 men and let them rest , eat , drink , and have their wounds tended at field headquarters ( Munroe Tavern ) before resuming the march . They set out from Lexington at about 3 : 30 PM , in a formation that emphasized defense along the sides and rear of the column . Wounded regulars rode on the cannon and were forced to hop off when they were fired at by gatherings of militia . Percy 's men were often surrounded , but they had the tactical advantage of interior lines . Percy could shift his units more easily to where they were needed , while the colonial militia were required to move around the outside of his formation . Percy placed Smith 's men in the middle of the column , while the 23rd Regiment 's line companies made up the column 's rear guard . Because of information provided by Smith and Pitcairn about how the Americans were attacking , Percy ordered the rear guard to be rotated every mile or so , to allow some of his troops to rest briefly . Flanking companies were sent to both sides of the road , and a powerful force of Marines acted as the vanguard to clear the road ahead .
During the respite at Lexington , Brigadier General William Heath arrived and took command of the militia . Earlier in the day , he had traveled first to Watertown to discuss tactics with Joseph Warren , who had left Boston that morning , and other members of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety . Heath and Warren reacted to Percy 's artillery and flankers by ordering the militiamen to avoid close formations that would attract cannon fire . Instead , they surrounded Percy 's marching square with a moving ring of skirmishers at a distance to inflict maximum casualties at minimum risk .
A few mounted militiamen on the road would dismount , fire muskets at the approaching regulars , then remount and gallop ahead to repeat the tactic . Unmounted militia would often fire from long range , in the hope of hitting somebody in the main column of soldiers on the road and surviving , since both British and colonials used muskets with an effective combat range of about 50 yards ( 46 m ) . Infantry units would apply pressure to the sides of the British column . When it moved out of range , those units would move around and forward to re @-@ engage the column further down the road . Heath sent messengers out to intercept arriving militia units , directing them to appropriate places along the road to engage the regulars . Some towns sent supply wagons to assist in feeding and rearming the militia . Heath and Warren did lead skirmishers in small actions into battle themselves , but it was the presence of effective leadership that probably had the greatest impact on the success of these tactics . Percy wrote of the colonial tactics , " The rebels attacked us in a very scattered , irregular manner , but with perseverance and resolution , nor did they ever dare to form into any regular body . Indeed , they knew too well what was proper , to do so . Whoever looks upon them as an irregular mob , will find himself very much mistaken . "
The fighting grew more intense as Percy 's forces crossed from Lexington into Menotomy . Fresh militia poured gunfire into the British ranks from a distance , and individual homeowners began to fight from their own property . Some homes were also used as sniper positions , turning the situation into a soldier 's nightmare : house @-@ to @-@ house fighting . Jason Russell pleaded for his friends to fight alongside him to defend his house by saying , " An Englishman 's home is his castle . " He stayed and was killed in his doorway . His friends , depending on which account is to be believed , either hid in the cellar , or died in the house from bullets and bayonets after shooting at the soldiers who followed them in . The Jason Russell House still stands and contains bullet holes from this fight . A militia unit that attempted an ambush from Russell 's orchard was caught by flankers , and eleven men were killed , some allegedly after they had surrendered .
Percy lost control of his men , and British soldiers began to commit atrocities to repay for the supposed scalping at the North Bridge and for their own casualties at the hands of a distant , often unseen enemy . Based on the word of Pitcairn and other wounded officers from Smith 's command , Percy had learned that the Minutemen were using stone walls , trees and buildings in these more thickly settled towns closer to Boston to hide behind and shoot at the column . He ordered the flank companies to clear the colonial militiamen out of such places .
Many of the junior officers in the flank parties had difficulty stopping their exhausted , enraged men from killing everyone they found inside these buildings . For example , two innocent drunks who refused to hide in the basement of a tavern in Menotomy were killed only because they were suspected of being involved with the day 's events . Although many of the accounts of ransacking and burnings were exaggerated later by the colonists for propaganda value ( and to get financial compensation from the colonial government ) , it is certainly true that taverns along the road were ransacked and the liquor stolen by the troops , who in some cases became drunk themselves . One church 's communion silver was stolen but was later recovered after it was sold in Boston . Aged Menotomy resident Samuel Whittemore killed three regulars before he was attacked by a British contingent and left for dead . ( He recovered from his wounds and later died in 1793 at age 98 . ) All told , far more blood was shed in Menotomy and Cambridge than elsewhere that day . The colonists lost 25 men killed and nine wounded there , and the British lost 40 killed and 80 wounded , with the 47th Foot and the Marines suffering the highest casualties . Each was about half the day 's fatalities .
= = = = Menotomy to Charlestown = = = =
The British troops crossed the Menotomy River ( today known as Alewife Brook ) into Cambridge , and the fight grew more intense . Fresh militia arrived in close array instead of in a scattered formation , and Percy used his two artillery pieces and flankers at a crossroads called Watson 's Corner to inflict heavy damage on them .
Earlier in the day , Heath had ordered the Great Bridge to be dismantled . Percy 's brigade was about to approach the broken @-@ down bridge and a riverbank filled with militia when Percy directed his troops down a narrow track ( now Beech Street , near present @-@ day Porter Square ) and onto the road to Charlestown . The militia ( now numbering about 4 @,@ 000 ) were unprepared for this movement , and the circle of fire was broken . An American force moved to occupy Prospect Hill ( in modern @-@ day Somerville ) , which dominated the road , but Percy moved his cannon to the front and dispersed them with his last rounds of ammunition .
A large militia force arrived from Salem and Marblehead . They might have cut off Percy 's route to Charlestown , but these men halted on nearby Winter Hill and allowed the British to escape . Some accused the commander of this force , Colonel Timothy Pickering , of permitting the troops to pass because he still hoped to avoid war by preventing a total defeat of the regulars . Pickering later claimed that he had stopped on Heath 's orders , but Heath denied this . It was nearly dark when Pitcairn 's Marines defended a final attack on Percy 's rear as they entered Charlestown . The regulars took up strong positions on the hills of Charlestown . Some of them had been without sleep for two days and had marched 40 miles ( 64 km ) in 21 hours , eight hours of which had been spent under fire . But now they held high ground protected by heavy guns from HMS Somerset . Gage quickly sent over line companies of two fresh regiments — the 10th and 64th — to occupy the high ground in Charlestown and build fortifications . Although they were begun , the fortifications were never completed and would later be a starting point for the militia works built two months later in June before the Battle of Bunker Hill . General Heath studied the position of the British Army and decided to withdraw the militia to Cambridge .
= = Aftermath = =
In the morning , Boston was surrounded by a huge militia army , numbering over 15 @,@ 000 , which had marched from throughout New England . Unlike the Powder Alarm , the rumors of spilled blood were true , and the Revolutionary War had begun .
Now under the leadership of General Artemas Ward , who arrived on the 20th and replaced Brigadier General William Heath , they formed a siege line extending from Chelsea , around the peninsulas of Boston and Charlestown , to Roxbury , effectively surrounding Boston on three sides . In the days immediately following , the size of the colonial forces grew , as militias from New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Connecticut arrived on the scene . The Second Continental Congress adopted these men into the beginnings of the Continental Army . Even now , after open warfare had started , Gage still refused to impose martial law in Boston . He persuaded the town 's selectmen to surrender all private weapons in return for promising that any inhabitant could leave town .
The battle was not a major one in terms of tactics or casualties . However , in terms of supporting the British political strategy behind the Intolerable Acts and the military strategy behind the Powder Alarms , the battle was a significant failure because the expedition contributed to the fighting it was intended to prevent , and because few weapons were actually seized .
The battle was followed by a war for British political opinion . Within four days of the battle , the Massachusetts Provincial Congress had collected scores of sworn testimonies from militiamen and from British prisoners . When word leaked out a week after the battle that Gage was sending his official description of events to London , the Provincial Congress sent a packet of these detailed depositions , signed by over 100 participants in the events , on a faster ship . The documents were presented to a sympathetic official and printed by the London newspapers two weeks before Gage 's report arrived . Gage 's official report was too vague on particulars to influence anyone 's opinion . George Germain , no friend of the colonists , wrote , " the Bostonians are in the right to make the King 's troops the aggressors and claim a victory . " Politicians in London tended to blame Gage for the conflict instead of their own policies and instructions . The British troops in Boston variously blamed General Gage and Colonel Smith for the failures at Lexington and Concord .
The day after the battle , John Adams left his home in Braintree to ride along the battlefields . He became convinced that " the Die was cast , the Rubicon crossed . " Thomas Paine in Philadelphia had previously thought of the argument between the colonies and the Home Country as " a kind of law @-@ suit " , but after news of the battle reached him , he " rejected the hardened , sullen @-@ tempered Pharaoh of England forever . " George Washington received the news at Mount Vernon and wrote to a friend , " the once @-@ happy and peaceful plains of America are either to be drenched in blood or inhabited by slaves . Sad alternative ! But can a virtuous man hesitate in his choice ? " A group of hunters on the frontier named their campsite Lexington when they heard news of the battle in June . It eventually became the city of Lexington , Kentucky .
= = Legacy = =
It was important to the early American government that an image of British fault and American innocence be maintained for this first battle of the war . The history of Patriot preparations , intelligence , warning signals , and uncertainty about the first shot was rarely discussed in the public sphere for decades . The story of the wounded British soldier at the North Bridge , hors de combat , struck down on the head by a Minuteman using a hatchet , the purported " scalping " , was strongly suppressed . Depositions mentioning some of these activities were not published and were returned to the participants ( this notably happened to Paul Revere ) . Paintings portrayed the Lexington fight as an unjustified slaughter .
The issue of which side was to blame grew during the early nineteenth century . For example , older participants ' testimony in later life about Lexington and Concord differed greatly from their depositions taken under oath in 1775 . All now said the British fired first at Lexington , whereas fifty or so years before , they weren 't sure . All now said they fired back , but in 1775 , they said few were able to . The " Battle " took on an almost mythical quality in the American consciousness . Legend became more important than truth . A complete shift occurred , and the Patriots were portrayed as actively fighting for their cause , rather than as suffering innocents . Paintings of the Lexington skirmish began to portray the militia standing and fighting back in defiance .
Ralph Waldo Emerson immortalized the events at the North Bridge in his 1837 " Concord Hymn " . The " Concord Hymn " became important because it commemorated the beginning of the American Revolution , and that for much of the 19th century it was a means by which Americans learned about the Revolution , helping to forge the identity of the nation .
After 1860 , several generations of schoolchildren memorized Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's poem " Paul Revere 's Ride " . Historically it is inaccurate ( for example , Paul Revere never made it to Concord ) , but it captures the idea that an individual can change the course of history .
In the 20th century , popular and historical opinion varied about the events of the historic day , often reflecting the political mood of the time . Isolationist anti @-@ war sentiments before the World Wars bred skepticism about the nature of Paul Revere 's contribution ( if any ) to the efforts to rouse the militia . Anglophilia in the United States after the turn of the twentieth century led to more balanced approaches to the history of the battle . During World War I , a film about Paul Revere 's ride was seized under the Espionage Act of 1917 for promoting discord between the United States and Britain .
During the Cold War , Revere was used not only as a patriotic symbol , but also as a capitalist one . In 1961 , novelist Howard Fast published April Morning , an account of the battle from a fictional 15 @-@ year @-@ old 's perspective , and reading of the book has been frequently assigned in American secondary schools . A film version was produced for television in 1987 , starring Chad Lowe and Tommy Lee Jones . In the 1990s , parallels were drawn between American tactics in the Vietnam War and those of the British Army at Lexington and Concord .
The site of the battle in Lexington is now known as the Lexington Battle Green , has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and is a National Historic Landmark . Several memorials commemorating the battle have been established there .
The lands surrounding the North Bridge in Concord , as well as approximately 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the road along with surrounding lands and period buildings between Meriam 's Corner and western Lexington are part of Minuteman National Historical Park . There are walking trails with interpretive displays along routes that the colonists might have used that skirted the road , and the Park Service often has personnel ( usually dressed in period dress ) offering descriptions of the area and explanations of the events of the day . A bronze bas relief of Major Buttrick , designed by Daniel Chester French and executed by Edmond Thomas Quinn in 1915 , is in the park , along with French 's Minute Man statue .
Four current units of the Massachusetts National Guard units ( 181st Infantry , 182nd Infantry , 101st Engineer Battalion , and 125th Quartermaster Company ) are derived from American units that participated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord . There are only thirty current units of the U.S. Army with colonial roots .
Several ships of the United States Navy , including two World War II aircraft carriers , were named in honor of the Battle of Lexington .
= = Commemorations = =
Patriots ' Day is celebrated annually in honor of the battle in Massachusetts , Maine , and by the Wisconsin public schools , on the third Monday in April . Re @-@ enactments of Paul Revere 's ride are staged , as are the battle on the Lexington Green , and ceremonies and firings are held at the North Bridge .
= = = Centennial commemoration = = =
On April 19 , 1875 , President Ulysses S. Grant and members of his cabinet joined 50 @,@ 000 people to mark the 100th anniversary of the battles . The sculpture by Daniel Chester French , The Minute Man , located at the North Bridge , was unveiled on that day . A formal ball took place in the evening at the Agricultural Hall in Concord .
= = = Sesquicentennial commemoration = = =
In April 1925 the United States Post Office issued three stamps commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Battles at Lexington and Concord . The Lexington — Concord commemorative stamps were the first of many commemoratives issued to honor the 150th anniversaries of events that surrounded America 's War of Independence . The three stamps were first placed on sale in Washington , D.C. and in five Massachusetts cities and towns that played major roles in the Lexington and Concord story : Lexington , Concord , Boston , Cambridge , and Concord Junction ( as West Concord was then known ) . This is not to say that other locations were not involved in the battles .
= = = Bicentennial commemoration = = =
The Town of Concord invited 700 prominent U.S. citizens and leaders from the worlds of government , the military , the diplomatic corps , the arts , sciences , and humanities to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the battles . On April 19 , 1975 , as a crowd estimated at 110 @,@ 000 gathered to view a parade and celebrate the Bicentennial in Concord , President Gerald Ford delivered a major speech near the North Bridge , which was televised to the nation .
Freedom was nourished in American soil because the principles of the Declaration of Independence flourished in our land . These principles , when enunciated 200 years ago , were a dream , not a reality . Today , they are real . Equality has matured in America . Our inalienable rights have become even more sacred . There is no government in our land without consent of the governed . Many other lands have freely accepted the principles of liberty and freedom in the Declaration of Independence and fashioned their own independent republics . It is these principles , freely taken and freely shared , that have revolutionized the world . The volley fired here at Concord two centuries ago , ' the shot heard round the world ' , still echoes today on this anniversary .
President Ford laid a wreath at the base of The Minute Man statue and then respectfully observed as Sir Peter Ramsbotham , the British Ambassador to the United States , laid a wreath at the grave of British soldiers killed in the battle .
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= Acacia pycnantha =
Acacia pycnantha , commonly known as the golden wattle , is a tree of the family Fabaceae native to southeastern Australia . It grows to a height of 8 m ( 26 ft ) and has phyllodes ( flattened leaf stalks ) instead of true leaves . Sickle @-@ shaped , these are between 9 and 15 cm ( 3 1 ⁄ 2 and 6 in ) long , and 1 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) wide . The profuse fragrant , golden flowers appear in late winter and spring , followed by long seed pods . Plants are cross @-@ pollinated by several species of honeyeater and thornbill , which visit nectaries on the phyllodes and brush against flowers , transferring pollen between them . An understorey plant in eucalyptus forest , it is found from southern New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory , through Victoria and into southeastern South Australia .
Explorer Thomas Mitchell collected the type specimen , from which George Bentham wrote the species description in 1842 . No subspecies are recognised . The bark of A. pycnantha produces more tannin than any other wattle species , resulting in its commercial cultivation for production of this compound . It has been widely grown as an ornamental garden plant and for cut flower production , but has become a weed in South Africa , Tanzania , Italy , Portugal , Sardinia , India , Indonesia , New Zealand , as well as Western Australia , Tasmania and New South Wales . Acacia pycnantha was made the official floral emblem of Australia in 1988 , and has been featured on the country 's postal stamps .
= = Description = =
Acacia pycnantha generally grows as a small tree to between 3 and 8 m ( 10 and 30 ft ) in height , though trees of up to 12 m ( 40 ft ) high have been reported in Morocco . The bark is generally dark brown to grey — smooth in younger plants though it can be furrowed and rough in older plants . Branchlets may be bare and smooth or covered with a white bloom . The mature trees do not have true leaves but have phyllodes — flat and widened leaf stems — that hang down from the branches . Shiny and dark green , these are between 9 and 15 cm ( 3 1 ⁄ 2 and 6 in ) long , 1 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) wide and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) to oblanceolate in shape . New growth has a bronze coloration . Field observations at Hale Conservation Park show the bulk of new growth to take place over spring and summer from October to January .
Floral buds are produced year @-@ round on the tips of new growth , but only those initiated between November and May go on to flower several months later . Flowering usually takes place from July to November ( late winter to early summer ) in the golden wattle 's native range ; because the later buds develop faster , flowering peaks over July and August . The bright yellow inflorescences occur in groups of 40 to 80 on 2 @.@ 5 – 9 cm ( 1 – 3 1 ⁄ 2 in ) -long racemes that arise from axillary buds . Each inflorescence is a ball @-@ like structure that is covered by 40 to 100 small flowers that have five tiny petals ( pentamerous ) and long erect stamens , which give the flower head a fluffy appearance .
Developing after flowering has finished , the seed pods are flattish , straight or slightly curved , 5 – 14 cm ( 2 – 5 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long and 5 – 8 mm wide . They are initially bright green , maturing to dark brown and have slight constrictions between the seeds , which are arranged in a line in the pod . The oblong seeds themselves are 5 @.@ 5 to 6 mm long , black and shiny , with a clavate ( club @-@ shaped ) aril . They are released in December and January , when the pods are fully ripe .
Species similar in appearance include mountain hickory wattle ( A. obliquinervia ) , coast golden wattle ( A. leiophylla ) and golden wreath wattle ( A. saligna ) . Acacia obliquinervia has grey @-@ green phyllodes , fewer flowers in its flower heads , and broader ( 1 @.@ 25 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 1 in ) -wide ) seed pods . A. leiophylla has paler phyllodes . A. saligna has longer , narrower phyllodes .
= = Taxonomy = =
Acacia pycnantha was first formally described by botanist George Bentham in the London Journal of Botany in 1842 . The type specimen was collected by the explorer Thomas Mitchell in present @-@ day northern Victoria between Pyramid Hill and the Loddon River . Bentham thought it was related to A. leiophylla , which he described in the same paper . The specific epithet pycnantha is derived from the Greek words pyknos ( dense ) and anthos ( flowers ) , a reference to the dense cluster of flowers that make up the globular inflorescences . Queensland botanist Les Pedley reclassified the species as Racosperma pycnanthum in 2003 , when he proposed placing almost all Australian members of the genus into the new genus Racosperma . However , this name is treated as a synonym of its original name .
Johann Georg Christian Lehmann described Acacia petiolaris in 1851 from a plant grown at Hamburg Botanic Gardens from seed said to be from the Swan River Colony ( Perth ) . Carl Meissner described A. falcinella from material from Port Lincoln in 1855 . Bentham classified both as A. pycnantha in his 1864 Flora Australiensis , though he did categorise a possible subspecies angustifolia based on material from Spencer Gulf with narrower phyllodes and fewer inflorescences . However , no subspecies are currently recognised , though an informal classification distinguishes wetland and dryland forms , the latter with narrower phyllodes .
In 1921 Joseph Maiden described Acacia westonii from the northern and western slopes of Mount Jerrabomberra near Queanbeyan in New South Wales . He felt it was similar to , but distinct from , A. pycnantha and was uncertain whether it warranted species rank . His colleague Richard Hind Cambage grew seedlings and reported they had much longer internodes than those of A. pycnantha , and that the phyllodes appeared to have three nectaries rather than the single one of the latter species . It is now regarded as a synonym of A. pycnantha .
Common names recorded include golden wattle , green wattle , black wattle , and broad @-@ leaved wattle . At Ebenezer Mission in the Wergaia country of north @-@ western Victoria the aborigines referred to it as witch .
Hybrids of the species are known in nature and cultivation . In the Whipstick forest near Bendigo in Victoria , putative hybrids with Whirrakee wattle ( Acacia williamsonii ) have been identified ; these resemble hakea wattle ( Acacia hakeoides ) . Garden hybrids with Queensland silver wattle ( Acacia podalyriifolia ) raised in Europe have been given the names Acacia x siebertiana and Acacia x deneufvillei .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Golden wattle occurs in south @-@ eastern Australia from South Australia 's southern Eyre Peninsula and Flinders Ranges across Victoria and northwards into inland areas of southern New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory . It is found in the understorey of open eucalypt forests on dry , shallow soils .
The species has become naturalised beyond its original range in Australia . In New South Wales it is especially prevalent around Sydney and the Central Coast region . In Tasmania it has spread in the east of the state and become weedy in bushland near Hobart . In Western Australia , it is found in the Darling Range and western wheatbelt as well as Esperance and Kalgoorlie .
Outside Australia it has become naturalised in South Africa , Tanzania , Italy , Portugal , Sardinia , India , Indonesia and New Zealand . It is present in California as a garden escapee , but is not considered to be naturalised there . In South Africa , where it had been introduced between 1858 and 1865 for dune stabilization and tannin production , it had spread along waterways into forest , mountain and lowland fynbos , and borderline areas between fynbos and karoo . The gall @-@ forming wasp Trichilogaster signiventris has been introduced in South Africa for biological control and has reduced the capacity of trees to reproduce throughout their range . The eggs are laid by adult wasps into buds of flower heads in the summer , before hatching in May and June when the larvae induce the formation of the grape @-@ like galls and prevent flower development . The galls can be so heavy that branches break under their weight . In addition , the introduction in 2001 of the acacia seed weevil Melanterius compactus has also proved effective .
= = Ecology = =
Though plants are usually killed by a severe fire , mature specimens are able to resprout . Seeds are able to persist in the soil for more than five years , germinating after fire .
Like other wattles , Acacia pycnantha fixes nitrogen from the atmosphere . It hosts bacteria known as rhizobia that form root nodules , where they make nitrogen available in organic form and thus help the plant grow in poor soils . A field study across Australia and South Africa found that the microbes are genetically diverse , belonging to various strains of the species Bradyrhizobium japonicum and genus Burkholderia in both countries . It is unclear whether the golden wattle was accompanied by the bacteria to the African continent or encountered new populations there .
Self @-@ incompatible , Acacia pycnantha cannot fertilise itself and requires cross @-@ pollination between plants to set seed . Birds facilitate this and field experiments keeping birds away from flowers greatly reduces seed production . Nectaries are located on phyllodes ; those near open flowers become active , producing nectar that birds feed upon just before or during flowering . While feeding , birds brush against the flower heads and dislodge pollen and often visit multiple trees . Several species of honeyeater , including the white @-@ naped , yellow @-@ faced , New Holland , and occasionally white @-@ plumed and crescent honeyeaters , and Eastern spinebills have been observed foraging . Other bird species include the silvereye , striated , buff @-@ rumped and brown thornbills . As well as eating nectar , birds often pick off insects on the foliage . Honeybees , native bees , ants and flies also visit nectaries , but generally do not come into contact with the flowers during this activity . The presence of Acacia pycnantha is positively correlated with numbers of swift parrots overwintering in box – ironbark forest in central Victoria , though it is not clear whether the parrots are feeding on them or some other factor is at play .
The wood serves as food for larvae of the jewel beetle species Agrilus assimilis , A. australasiae and A. hypoleucus . The larvae of a number of butterfly species feed on the foliage including the fiery jewel , icilius blue , lithocroa blue and wattle blue . Trichilogaster wasps form galls in the flowerheads , disrupting seed set and Acizzia acaciaepycnanthae , a psyllid , sucks sap from the leaves . Acacia pycnantha is a host to rust fungus species in the genus Uromycladium that affect the phyllodes and branches . These include Uromycladium simplex that forms pustules and U. tepperianum that causes large swollen brown to black galls that eventually lead to the death of the host plant . Two fungal species have been isolated from leaf spots on Acacia pycnantha : Seimatosporium arbuti , which is found on a wide range of plant hosts , and Monochaetia lutea .
= = Uses = =
Golden wattle has been grown in temperate regions around the world for the tannin in its bark , as it provides the highest yield of all wattles . Trees can be harvested for tannin from seven to ten years of age . Commercial use of its timber is limited by the small size of trees , but it has high value as a fuel wood . The scented flowers have been used for perfume making , and honey production in humid areas . However , the pollen is too dry to be collected by bees in dry climates . In southern Europe , it is one of several species grown for the cut @-@ flower trade and sold as " mimosa " . Like many other species of wattle , Acacia pycnantha exudes gum when stressed . Eaten by indigenous Australians , the gum has been investigated as a possible alternative to gum arabic , commonly used in the food industry .
= = Cultivation = =
Golden wattle is cultivated in Australia and was introduced to the northern hemisphere in the mid @-@ 1800s . Although it has a relatively short lifespan of 15 to 30 years , it is widely grown for its bright yellow , fragrant flowers . As well as being an ornamental plant , it has been used as a windbreak or in controlling erosion . Trees are sometimes planted with the taller sugar gum ( Eucalyptus cladocalyx ) to make a two @-@ layered windbreak . One form widely cultivated was originally collected on Mount Arapiles in western Victoria . It is floriferous , with fragrant flowers appearing from April to July . The species has a degree of frost tolerance and is adaptable to a wide range of soil conditions , but it prefers good drainage . It tolerates heavy soils in dry climates , as well as mild soil salinity . It can suffer yellowing ( chlorosis ) in limestone @-@ based ( alkaline ) soils . Highly drought @-@ tolerant , it needs 370 – 550 mm ( 10 – 20 in ) winter rainfall for cultivation . It is vulnerable to gall attack in cultivation . Propagation is from seed which has been pre @-@ soaked in hot water to soften the hard seed coating .
= = Symbolic and cultural references = =
Although wattles , and in particular the golden wattle , have been the informal floral emblem of Australia for many years , it was not until Australia 's bicentenary in 1988 that the golden wattle was formally adopted as the floral emblem of Australia . This was proclaimed by Governor @-@ General Sir Ninian Stephen in the Government gazette published on 1 September . The day was marked by a ceremony at the Australian National Botanic Gardens which included the planting of a golden wattle by Hazel Hawke , the Prime Minister 's wife . In 1992 , 1 September was formally declared " National Wattle Day " .
The Australian Coat of Arms includes a wreath of wattle ; this does not , however , accurately represent a golden wattle . Similarly , the green and gold colours used by Australian international sporting teams were inspired by the colours of wattles in general , rather than the golden wattle specifically .
The species was depicted on a stamp captioned " wattle " as part of a 1959 – 60 Australian stamp set featuring Australian native flowers . In 1970 , a 5c stamp labelled " Golden Wattle " was issued to complement an earlier set depicting the floral emblems of Australia . To mark Australia Day in 1990 , a 41c stamp labelled " Acacia pycnantha " was issued . Another stamp labelled " Golden Wattle " , with a value of 70c , was issued in 2014 .
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= Secret Santa ( 30 Rock ) =
" Secret Santa " is the eighth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 66th overall episode of the series . The episode was written by series ' creator Tina Fey and directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on December 10 , 2009 . The episode featured appearances by actors Cheyenne Jackson as Danny Baker , Julianne Moore as Nancy Donovan , and Larry Wilcox playing himself .
The episode centered on a gift @-@ giving contest between Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) jealousy over new TGS with Tracy Jordan cast member Danny Baker 's ( Jackson ) singing skills , and the writers — Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , and J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) — coming up with a fake religion to get out of NBC page Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) " Secret Santa " scheme .
Critical reception of the episode was generally less than favorable . According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Secret Santa " was watched by 7 @.@ 54 million households during its original broadcast . The night the episode premiered , it was immediately preceded by an episode of The Office with the same title .
= = Plot = =
Jack and Liz decide to exchange gifts for Christmas . Meanwhile , Jack reconnects with a friend from high school , Nancy Donovan ( Julianne Moore ) , and ponders the possibility of romance as Nancy 's marriage is falling apart . When Liz ends up buying an expensive necktie that Jack already owns , they agree to spend zero dollars on their gifts . Jack gets Liz a program from her performance of The Crucible framed in wood from her high school stage — and does not reimburse his office assistant , Jonathan ( Maulik Pancholy ) for fuel costs . In return , Liz calls in a bomb threat to Penn Station , keeping Nancy in New York , and finally Jack arranges for Liz to fulfill her dream of meeting Larry Wilcox as Officer Jon Baker from the show CHiPs .
TGS producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) learns that the new actor on the show , Danny , is a talented singer . Despite Danny 's lack of interest in singing on the show , Pete gives him the Christmas solo as revenge for Jenna not chipping in to tip the cleaning ladies , which is a yearly source of frustration for Pete . Jenna is outraged when she hears Danny was assigned the solo , and tries to get Subhas the janitor to punch Danny in the throat . But when the agreeable Danny learns of Jenna 's hurt feelings , he arranges for them to perform a duet , in which he sings off @-@ key to make Jenna look good .
Meanwhile , Kenneth is throwing his rule @-@ filled " Secret Santa Fun Swap " , much to the writers ' chagrin . Frank , Toofer , and Lutz proclaim they are strict adherents of " Verdukianism , " a religion they make up on the spot , and have Kenneth give them things they claim to need for " Merlinpeen , " the Verdukian Holiday of Mouth Pleasures ( such as meat @-@ lover 's pizza and having their teeth flossed by a blonde virgin ) . Their famous holiday song is , " Oh , Meatbowl of Verduke , you bring me such pizza . Meatbowl . " When Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) tells Kenneth that they made up their religion , he goes into shock at the idea that all religions are made up by man . His faith is restored when the three are arrested for the bomb threat Liz called in , using their phone .
= = Production = =
" Secret Santa " was written by series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey . The director of this episode was Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , a long @-@ time television director who worked with Fey on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . This was Fey 's nineteenth writing credit , and McCarthy @-@ Miller 's ninth directed episode . " Secret Santa " originally aired on NBC as the eighth episode of the show 's fourth season , and the 66th overall episode of the series , in the United States on December 10 , 2009 . It was filmed on November 5 and November 20 , 2009 .
In November 2009 , it was announced that actress Julianne Moore would guest star on 30 Rock as a love interest for Alec Baldwin 's character , Jack Donaghy . Moore would later guest star in the episodes " Winter Madness " , " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " , " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " , and " I Do Do " . In an interview with USA Today in October 2009 , Fey said that Jack would find more enduring love in the upcoming season . " As we move into the back half of the season , we 'd like to get [ Jack ] into a real adult relationship with some hurdles . " In the same interview , Baldwin noted , " Fifty @-@ year @-@ old Jack running around still using women like a drug is not where I 'd like him to end up . " Actor Larry Wilcox made a cameo in this episode , though , he was in character playing Officer Jon Baker from his old days in the drama show CHiPs , as Liz Lemon had a teen crush on Wilcox . In one scene of this episode , Liz says " shark farts " , and when asked about it in an April 2010 interview , Fey revealed that the term " was one that we ad @-@ libbed that we ended up leaving in . The studio asked us not to leave it in , but we left it in . "
This was actor Cheyenne Jackson 's second appearance as Danny on 30 Rock . He made his debut in the November 12 , 2009 , episode " The Problem Solvers " . Fey had seen Jackson in the Broadway musicals Xanadu and Damn Yankees , the latter that starred Jane Krakowski , who plays Jenna Maroney on the show . According to Jackson in a November 2009 interview , Fey set up a meeting to interest him in a role on the program . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , it was revealed that it was Krakowski who brought Jackson to the attention of the 30 Rock producers . In the episode , Danny sang off @-@ key during a duet with Jenna , in order to keep her happy . In regards of his off @-@ pitch performance , Jackson said in an interview , " It 's actually harder than you might think . I worked on it a lot to make it sound real and to make it sound believable . But I got some good , funny feedback from it , so I 'm glad it worked out . "
One filmed scene from " Secret Santa " was cut out from the airing . Instead , the scene was featured on 30 Rock 's season four DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature . In the scene , Liz goes to Vattene , a men 's dress apparel retailer . She is there to buy a gift for Jack for Christmas but is shocked at the prices . She then sees a red neck tie and purchases it .
= = Cultural references = =
Jack tells Liz about YouFace , " an up @-@ and @-@ coming social @-@ networking site " , similar to that of MySpace and Facebook . Jack promises actor Larry Wilcox an appearance on the reality show Dancing with the Stars , if he visits Liz , until she tells him that the show airs on ABC . Liz revealed that she played John Proctor " in a gender @-@ blind " high school production of The Crucible . In one scene of " Secret Santa " , Kenneth has multiple arrangements of multicultural holiday decorations in his desk page , which includes a portrait of U.S. President Barack Obama " for the Muslims . "
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Secret Santa " was watched by 7 @.@ 54 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 3 @.@ 5 rating / 9 share in the 18 – 49 demographic , the season high in the 18 – 49 rating . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . ABC had an all @-@ repeat evening on December 10 , 2009 , which helped increase numbers for the other networks . The night this episode broadcast , it was immediately preceded by an episode of The Office — another NBC program — with the same title .
Critical reception of the episode was not entirely favorable . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club noted a general decline in the show 's quality in the fourth season , and after a return to form in its previous episode , " Dealbreakers Talk Show # 0001 " , he found " Secret Santa " disappointing , and gave it a grade B − . " It was cute and nicely plotted " , he wrote " but it felt a little rote and familiar . " IGN contributor Robert Canning was more positively inclined . He appreciated Julianne Moore 's appearance , but he found that some of the story lines , " though sprinkled with funny moments , were more successful as sweet tales made for the holiday . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad was glad to see Cheyenne Jackson 's Danny back on 30 Rock , and noted that the plots concerning Jack and Nancy and Kenneth and the TGS writers , respectively , were " home runs " . He liked that Tina Fey 's character Liz " was more of a supporting player " in " Secret Santa " . Sassone also enjoyed Moore 's appearance on the show , commenting that she was " wicked good " as Jack 's new love interest . Entertainment Weekly 's Margaret Lyons wrote that this episode " had some awesome Liz / Jack moments , a nice little storyline for Pete and Danny , and the invention of a whole new pizza @-@ loving religion . "
Meredith Blake , writing for the Los Angeles Times , found that television Christmas episodes generally tended to bring " an awkward shift in tone : All of a sudden , everyone 's being nice to each other . " She also complained about the invented holiday , which she found to be an overused cliché of Christmas programming : " See also : ' Chrismukkah ' or ' Festivus . ' " Also , television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger found that the episode compared unfavorably with the preceding one , but still enjoyed the showcasing of several minor characters , and the " tender holiday spirit " . What he appreciated most of all , however , was the Alec Baldwin – Julianne Moore angle . Mark Graham of New York magazine opined that the three plots in " Secret Santa " could not be considered as " A @-@ material " for 30 Rock . Michael Anthony for TV Guide worried about the kiss between Jack and Nancy , as Nancy is married , and experiencing marital troubles . " The Nancy kiss kind of troubles me ; is Jack going to become the ' other woman ? ' "
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= Russian gay propaganda law =
The Russian federal law " for the Purpose of Protecting Children from Information Advocating for a Denial of Traditional Family Values " , also known in English @-@ language media as the gay propaganda law and the anti @-@ gay law , is a bill that was unanimously approved by the State Duma on 11 June 2013 ( with just one MP abstaining — Ilya Ponomarev ) , and was signed into law by President Vladimir Putin on 30 June 2013 .
The Russian government 's stated purpose for the law is to protect children from being exposed to content recognizing homosexuality as being a norm in society , under the argument that it contradicts traditional family values . The statute amended the country 's child protection law and the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses , to make the distribution of " propaganda of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " among minors , an offense punishable by fines . This definition includes materials that " raises interest in " such relationships , cause minors to " form non @-@ traditional sexual predispositions " , or " [ present ] distorted ideas about the equal social value of traditional and non @-@ traditional sexual relationships . " Businesses and organizations can also be forced to temporarily cease operations if convicted under the law , and foreigners may be arrested and detained for up to 15 days then deported , or fined up to 5 @,@ 000 rubles and deported .
Supported by a number of far right @-@ wing groups and a majority of Russians surveyed , the passing of the law was met with criticism , primarily from the democratic world , the international community and global media . The statute was criticized for its broad and ambiguous wording ( including the aforementioned " raises interest in " and " among minors " ) , which many critics characterized as being an effective ban on publicly promoting the rights and culture of the LGBT community . The law was also criticized for leading to an increase and justification of homophobic violence , while the implications of the laws in relation to the then @-@ upcoming Winter Olympics being hosted by Sochi were also cause for concern , as the Olympic Charter contains language explicitly barring various forms of discrimination .
However , some felt that critics had overreacted to the law , noting that unlike some countries with stricter anti @-@ LGBT legislation , it did not criminalize same @-@ sex relationships , sexual activity , or being associated with pro @-@ LGBT organizations .
= = Background = =
Despite the fact that the cities of Moscow and Saint Petersburg have been well known for their thriving LGBT communities , there has been growing opposition towards gay rights among politicians since 2006 . The city of Moscow has actively refused to authorize gay pride parades , and former Moscow mayor Yuri Luzhkov supported the city 's refusal to authorize the first two Moscow Pride events , describing them as " satanic " and blaming western groups for spreading " this kind of enlightenment " in the country . Fair Russia member of parliament Alexander Chuev was also opposed to gay rights and attempted to introduce a similar " propaganda " law in 2007 . In response , prominent LGBT rights activist and Moscow Pride founder Nikolay Alexeyev disclosed on the television talk show К барьеру ! that Chuev had been publicly involved in same @-@ sex relationships prior to his time in office .
In 2010 , Russia was fined by the European Court of Human Rights under allegations by Alexeyev that cities were discriminating against gays by refusing to approve pride parades . Although claiming a risk of violence , the court interpreted the decisions as being in support of groups which oppose such demonstrations . In March 2012 , a Russian judge blocked the establishment of a Pride House in Sochi for the 2014 Winter Olympics , ruling that it would " undermine the security of Russian society " , and that it contradicted with public morality and policies " in the area of family motherhood and childhood protection . " In August 2012 , Moscow upheld a ruling blocking Nikolay Alexeyev 's requests for 100 years ' worth of permission to hold Moscow Pride annually , citing the possibility of public disorder .
The bill " On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development " introduced laws which prohibited the distribution of " harmful " material among minors . This includes content which " may elicit fear , horror , or panic in children " among minors , pornography , along with materials which glorify violence , unlawful activities , substance abuse , or self @-@ harm . An amendment to the law passed in 2012 instituted a mandatory content rating system for material distributed through an " information and telecommunication network " ( covering television and the internet ) , and established a blacklist for censoring websites which contain child pornography or content glorifying drug abuse and suicide .
The 2013 amendment , which added " propaganda of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " as a class of harmful content under the law was , according to the Government of Russia , intended to protect children from being exposed to content that portrays homosexuality as being a " behavioural norm " . Emphasis was placed upon a goal to protect " traditional " family values ; bill author Yelena Mizulina ( the chair of the Duma 's Committee on Family , Women , and Children , who has been described by some as a " moral crusader " ) , argued that " traditional " relations between a man and a woman required special protection under Russian law . The amendment also expanded upon similar laws enacted by several Russian regions , including Ryazan , Arkhangelsk ( who repealed its law shortly after the passing of the federal version ) , and Saint Petersburg .
= = Contents = =
Article 1 of the bill amended On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development with a provision classifying " propaganda of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " as a class of materials that must not be distributed among minors . The term is defined as materials that are " [ aimed ] at causing minors to form non @-@ traditional sexual predispositions , notions of attractiveness of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships , distorted ideas about the equal social value of traditional and non @-@ traditional sexual relationships , or imposing information about non @-@ traditional sexual relationships which raises interest in such relationships insofar as these acts do not amount to a criminal offence . " Article 2 makes similar amendments to " On basic guarantees for the rights of the child in the Russian Federation " , commanding the government to protect children from such material .
Article 3 of the bill amended the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses with Article 6 @.@ 21 , which prescribes penalties for violations of the propaganda ban : Russian citizens found guilty can receive fines of up to 5 @,@ 000 rubles , and public officials can receive fines of up to 50 @,@ 000 rubles . Organizations or businesses can be fined up to 1 million rubles and be forced to cease operations for up to 90 days . Foreigners may be arrested and detained for up to 15 days then deported , or fined up to 5 @,@ 000 rubles and deported . The fines for individuals are much higher if the offense was committed using mass media or internet .
= = Reaction = =
According to a survey conducted in June 2013 by the All @-@ Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion ( also known as VTsIOM ) , at least 90 percent of Russians surveyed were in favour of the law . Over 100 conservative groups worldwide signed a petition in support for the law , with Larry Jacobs , manager of the World Congress of Families , supporting its aim to " prohibit advocacy aimed at involving minors in a lifestyle that would imperil their physical and moral health . " President of Russia Vladimir Putin answered to early objections to the then @-@ proposed bill in April 2013 by stating that " I want everyone to understand that in Russia there are no infringements on sexual minorities ' rights . They 're people , just like everyone else , and they enjoy full rights and freedoms " . He went on to say that he fully intended to sign the bill because the Russian people demanded it . As he put it , " Can you imagine an organization promoting pedophilia in Russia ? I think people in many Russian regions would have started to take up arms .... The same is true for sexual minorities : I can hardly imagine same @-@ sex marriages being allowed in Chechnya . Can you imagine it ? It would have resulted in human casualties . " Putin also mentioned that he was concerned about Russia 's low birth rate , as same @-@ sex relationships do not produce children . In August 2013 , Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko also defended the law , equating it to protecting children from content that glorifies alcohol abuse or drug addiction . He also argued that the controversy over the law and its effects was " invented " by the Western media .
= = = Criticism = = =
The passing of the law was met with major international backlash , especially from the Western world , as critics considered it an attempt to effectively ban the promotion of LGBT rights and culture in the country . Article 19 disputed the claimed intent of the law , and felt that many of the terms used within were too ambiguous , such as the aforementioned " non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " , and " raises interest in " . The organization argued that it " feasibly could apply to any information regarding sexual orientation or gender identity that does not fit with what the State considers as in @-@ line with ' tradition ' . " The use of the term " among minors " was also criticized , as it was unclear whether it refers to being in the presence of minors , or any place where minors could be present , arguing that " predicting the presence of children in any space , on @-@ line or off @-@ line , is quite impossible and is a variable that the proponent of any expression will rarely be in absolute control of . "
LGBT rights activists , human rights activists , and other critics stated that the broad and vague wording of the law , which was characterized as a ban on " gay propaganda " by the media , made it a crime to publicly make statements or distribute materials in support of LGBT rights , hold pride parades or similar demonstrations , state that gay relationships are equal to heterosexual relationships , or according to Human Rights Campaign ( HRC ) president Chad Griffin , even display LGBT symbols such as the rainbow flag or kiss a same @-@ sex partner in public . The first arrest made under the law involved a person who publicly protested with a sign containing a pro @-@ LGBT message .
The legislation was also alleged to lead to an increase in homophobic violence in Russia by groups opposed to the LGBT rights movement ; Russian LGBT Network chairman Igor Kochetkov argued that the law " [ has ] essentially legalised violence against LGBT people , because these groups of hooligans justify their actions with these laws , " supported by their belief that gays and lesbians are " not valued as a social group " by the federal government . Reports surfaced of activity by groups such as ' Occupy Paedophilia ' and ' Parents of Russia ' , who lured alleged " paedophiles " into " dates " where they were tortured and humiliated . In August 2013 , it was reported that a gay teenager was kidnapped , tortured , and killed by a group of Russian Neo @-@ Nazis . Violence also increased during pro @-@ gay demonstrations ; on 29 July 2013 , a gay pride demonstration at Saint Petersburg 's Field of Mars resulted in a violent clash between activists , protesters , and police .
In January 2014 , a letter , co @-@ written by chemist Sir Harry Kroto and actor Sir Ian McKellen and co @-@ signed by 27 Nobel laureates from the fields of science and the arts , was sent to Vladamir Putin urging him to repeal the propaganda law as it " inhibits the freedom of local and foreign LGBT communities . " In February 2014 , the activist group Queer Nation announced a planned protest in New York City outside the Russian consulate on 6 February 2014 , timed to coincide with the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Winter Olympics . The same day , gay rights group All Out similarly coordinated worldwide protests in London , New York City , Paris , and Rio de Janeiro . On 8 February 2014 , a flash mob was held in Cambridge , England featuring same @-@ sex couples embracing and hugging , as part of a video project known as " From Russia With Love " .
Writing for The Guardian , Marc Bennetts argued that criticism of the law by foreign outlets had ties to anti @-@ Russian sentiment ; describing their response as being " both hysterical and hypocritical " , he acknowledged that countries had been inconsistent on their treatment of other countries for their stances on LGBT rights . He noted that Russia 's laws did not ban LGBT relationships as a whole , and did not go as far as those in other countries , such as India — which had recently reinstated a ban on same @-@ sex sexual activity , and Nigeria , which criminalized same @-@ sex marriage with sentences of up to 14 years ' imprisonment , and membership in pro @-@ gay groups with up to 10 years ' imprisonment . In conclusion , he stated that " in reality , there is little the west can do to influence Russia , on gay rights or anything else . But to stand even a chance , criticism needs to be measured , accurate and , above all , consistent . There are enough reasons to disapprove of Putin 's authoritarian regime without resorting to hyperbole and falsehoods . "
= = = Protests = = =
A number of protests were held against the law , both locally and internationally . Activists demonstrated outside New York City 's Lincoln Center at the opening night of the Metropolitan Opera on 23 September 2013 , which was set to feature Tchaikovsky 's opera Eugene Onegin . The protests targeted Tchaikovsky 's own homosexuality , and the involvement of two Russians in the production ; soprano Anna Netrebko and conductor Valery Gergiev , as they were identified as vocal supporters of Putin 's government .
On 12 October 2013 , the day following National Coming Out Day , a protest organized by at least 15 activists was held in Saint Petersburg . The protest site was occupied by a large number of demonstrators , some of whom were dressed as Russian Orthodox priests and Cossacks . In total , 67 protestors were arrested for creating a public disturbance .
Activists also called for a boycott of Stolichnaya vodka , who had prominently branded itself as a Russian vodka ( going as far as to dub itself " [ the ] Mother of All Vodkas from The Motherland of Vodka " in an ad campaign ) . However , its Luxembourg @-@ based parent company , Soiuzplodoimport , responded to the boycott effort , noting that the company was not technically Russian , did not support the government 's opinion on homosexuality , and described itself as a " fervent supporter and friend " of LGBT people .
= = Prosecutions and other effects = =
The first arrest made under the propaganda law occurred just hours after it was passed : 24 @-@ year @-@ old activist Dmitry Isakov was arrested in Kazan for publicly holding a sign reading " Freedom to the Gays and Lesbians of Russia . Down With Fascists and Homophobes " , and ultimately fined 4 @,@ 000 rubles ( US $ 115 ) . Isakov had performed a similar protest in the same location the previous day as a " test " run , but was later caught in an altercation with police officers who targeted his pro @-@ gay activism , and arrested him for swearing . He would be released without charge , but pledged to return there the next day to show that he would " not be cowed by such pressure . " Isakov also claimed that he had been fired from his job at a bank as a result of the conviction .
In December 2013 , Nikolay Alexeyev and Yaroslav Yevtushenko were fined 4 @,@ 000 rubles ( US $ 115 ) for picketing outside a children 's library in Arkhangelsk with banners reading , " Gays aren 't made , they 're born ! " Their appeal was denied . Alexeyev later criticized Western media outlets for its " biased " coverage of his conviction .
In January 2014 , Alexander Suturin , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Khabarovsk newspaper Molodoi Dalnevostochnik , was fined 50 @,@ 000 rubles ( US $ 1 @,@ 400 ) for publishing a news story discussing the teacher Alexander Yermoshkin , who had been fired for self @-@ admittedly holding " rainbow flash mobs " in Khabarovsk with his students , and was subsequently attacked by right @-@ wing extremist groups because of his sexuality . The fine centred around a quote in the article by the teacher , who stated that his very existence was " effective proof that homosexuality is normal . "
Elena Klimova has been charged under the law multiple times for operating Children @-@ 404 — an online support group for LGBT youth on the social networking services VKontakte and Facebook . The first of these charges was overturned in February 2014 , after a court ruled in consultation with a mental health professional that the group " helps teenagers exploring their sexuality to deal with difficult emotional issues and other problems that they may encounter " , and that these activities did not constitute " propaganda of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " as defined under the law . In January 2015 , Klimova was sent to court for the same charges . They were overturned on appeal , only for the same court to convict Kilmova and issue a fine of 50 @,@ 000 rubles in July 2015 , pending an appeal .
In May 2014 , it was revealed that in accordance with the propaganda law , the computer game The Sims 4 — a new instalment in a life simulation game franchise that has historically allowed characters to participate in same @-@ sex relationships , had been given a " 18 + " rating , allowing its sale to adults only . In contrast , the pan @-@ European ratings board PEGI has historically given The Sims games a " 12 " rating , while the German rating board USK had given The Sims 3 an even lower " 6 + " rating .
In November 2014 , one day after current Apple Inc . CEO Tim Cook publicly announced that he was proud of being gay , it was reported that an iPhone @-@ shaped memorial honoring Apple founder Steve Jobs had been removed from a Saint Petersburg university campus by its installer , the West European Financial Union [ ZEFS ] , which issued a press release citing the law and noting that the memorial was in an area frequented by minors . However , the reports were later found to be a hoax , and the monument had actually been removed for maintenance . In September 2015 , Apple became the subject of an investigation by officials in Kirov for implementing emoji on its operating systems which depict same @-@ sex relationships , over whether they may constitute a promotion of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships to minors . Roskomnadzor later ruled that by themselves , emoji depicting same @-@ sex couples did not constitute a violation of the propaganda law , as whether they have a positive or negative connotation depends on their actual context and usage .
= = = Effects on sports = = =
The 2013 World Championships in Athletics , held at Moscow 's Luzhniki Stadium in August 2013 , were overshadowed by comments and protests over the law by athletes . After winning a silver medal at the event , U.S. runner Nick Symmonds stated that " whether you 're gay , straight , black , white , we all deserve the same rights . If there 's anything I can do to champion the cause and further it , I will , shy of getting arrested . " Swedish athletes Emma Green Tregaro and Moa Hjelmer painted her fingernails in rainbow colors as a symbolic protest . However , Tregaro was forced to re @-@ paint them after they were deemed a political gesture that violated the rules of the IAAF . In response , she re @-@ painted them red as a symbol of love . Russian pole vaulter Yelena Isinbaeva criticized Tregaro 's gesture as being disrespectful to the host country , stating in a press conference that " we have our law which everyone has to respect . When we go to different countries , we try to follow their rules . We are not trying to set our rules over there . We are just trying to be respectful . " After Isinbaeva 's remarks were characterized as being homophobic , she argued that her choice of words had been misinterpreted by the media , and that she was against the discrimination of gays .
The implications of the law on Russia 's hosting of two major international sporting events ; the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi ( where seven LGBT athletes , all female , were expected to compete ) and the 2018 FIFA World Cup , were called into question . In the case of the World Cup , FIFA had recently established an anti @-@ discrimination task force , and was also facing criticism for awarding the 2022 World Cup to the country of Qatar , where homosexuality is illegal ; in August 2013 , FIFA requested information from the Russian government on the law and its potential effects on the association football tournament . In the case of the Winter Olympics , critics considered the law to be inconsistent with the Olympic Charter , which states that " [ discrimination ] on grounds of race , religion , politics , gender or otherwise is incompatible with belonging to the Olympic Movement . " In August 2013 , the International Olympic Committee " received assurances from the highest level of government in Russia that the legislation will not affect those attending or taking part in the Games " , and also received word that the government would abide by the Olympic Charter . The IOC also confirmed that it would enforce Rule 50 of the Olympic Charter , which forbids political protest , against athletes who make displays of support for the LGBT community at the Games . Vladimir Putin also made similar assurances prior to the Games , but warned LGBT attendees that they would still be subject to the law .
Athletes and supporters used the Olympics as leverage for further campaigns against the propaganda law . A number of athletes came out as lesbian , gay , or bisexual to spread awareness of the situation in Russia , including Australian snowboarder Belle Brockhoff , Canadian speed skater Anastasia Bucsis , gold medal figure skater Brian Boitano , and Finnish swimmer Ari @-@ Pekka Liukkonen . There were also calls to boycott the Games , drawing comparisons to the Summer Olympics of 1980 in Moscow , the last time the Olympics were held on what is now Russian soil . A campaign known as Principle 6 was established in collaboration between a group of Olympic athletes , the organizations All Out and Athlete Ally , and clothing maker American Apparel , selling merchandise ( such as clothing ) with a quotation from the Olympic Charter to support pro @-@ LGBT organizations . Toronto advertising copywriter Brahm Finkelstein also began to market a rainbow @-@ coloured matryoshka doll set known as " Pride Dolls " , designed by Italian artist Danilo Santino , to benefit the Gay and Lesbian International Sport Association , organizers of the World OutGames .
Action was leveraged directly against Olympic sponsors and partners as well ; in late @-@ August 2013 , the Human Rights Campaign sent letters to the ten Worldwide Olympic Partner companies , urging them to show opposition towards anti @-@ LGBT laws , denounce homophobic violence , ask the IOC to obtain written commitments for the safety of LGBT athletes and attendees , and oppose future Olympic bids from countries that outlaw support for LGBT equality . In February 2014 , prior to the games , a group of 40 human rights organizations ( including Athlete Ally , Freedom House , Human Rights Campaign , Human Rights Watch and Russian LGBT network among others ) also sent a joint letter to the Worldwide Olympic Partners , urging them to use their prominence to support the rights of LGBT athletes under the Olympic Charter , and pressure the IOC to show greater scrutiny towards the human rights abuses of future host countries . On 3 February 2014 , USOC sponsor AT & T issued a statement in support of LGBT rights at the Games , becoming the first major Olympic advertiser to condemn the laws . Several major non @-@ sponsors also made pro @-@ LGBT statements to coincide with the opening of the Games ; Google placed a quotation from the Olympic Charter and an Olympic @-@ themed logo in the colours of the rainbow flag on its home page worldwide , while Channel 4 ( who serves as the official British broadcaster of the Paralympics ) adopted a rainbow @-@ coloured logo and broadcast a " celebratory " , pro @-@ LGBT advert entitled " Gay Mountain " on 7 February 2014 , alongside an interview with former rugby union player and anti @-@ homophobia activist Ben Cohen . As part of its Dispatches series , Channel 4 had also broadcast a documentary during the week of the Opening Ceremony entitled Hunted , which documented the violence and abuse against LGBT people in Russia in the wake of the law .
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= Roland ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Roland " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on May 6 , 1994 . It was written by Chris Ruppenthal and directed by David Nutter . The episode featured guest appearances by Željko Ivanek , James Sloyan and Kerry Sandomirsky . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Roland " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 9 , being watched by 7 @.@ 4 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received mixed reviews from critics , although Ivanek 's guest role was met with acclaim .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When Mulder and Scully investigate a series of murders at an aerospace testing facility , they find that a mentally handicapped janitor may be responsible — and that he is being telepathically controlled by one of the facility 's former researchers .
" Roland " was the first of two episodes of The X @-@ Files written by Chris Ruppenthal , who would go on to write the second season episode " 3 " , which was heavily rewritten by series regulars Glen Morgan and James Wong . " Roland " contains the series ' first mention of Fox Mulder 's father Bill , although the character would not actually make an appearance until the second season episode " Colony " .
= = Plot = =
At a research lab in Colson , Washington , intellectually disabled janitor Roland Fuller is scolded by scientist Dr. Keats for forgetting how to use the facility 's keycard locks . Keats walks in on his colleagues , Frank Nollette and Ronald Surnow , as they argue over a prototype jet engine they are developing . Nollette wants to push testing of the engine to break mach 15 , but Surnow is unwilling to risk damaging the prototype . After Keats and Nollette angrily leave , Surnow enters the facility 's wind tunnel to make adjustments . However , Roland activates the tunnel 's turbines , sending Surnow flying to his death .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are brought in to investigate Surnow 's death . Scully notes that another member of the research team , Arthur Grable , had mysteriously died several months earlier , and believes it to be a case of industrial espionage . Mulder examines the handwriting on the team 's whiteboard and concludes that it has been written by at least four different people , leading him to suspect that a fourth individual was present . Keats and Nollette both inform the agents that Roland Fuller was the only one left in the facility at the time of Surnow 's death , but do not believe him to be capable of murder .
Nevertheless , Mulder and Scully visit the care home where Roland lives . When they gently ask him about the night of the murder , he tells them he had not seen anything out of the ordinary . He also inadvertently reveals his mathematical prowess by rapidly counting the star designs visible on Scully 's blouse ; however , his handwriting does not match the fourth sample taken from the whiteboard . The discussion ends when Roland experiences a violent vision and has what seems to be a fit . Later that night , Roland has another vision in which he sees someone killing Keats . He appears at the lab and murders Keats by submerging his head in a tank of liquid nitrogen . Keats ' frozen body is left to shatter as Roland begins typing at one of the computers .
The next day , the agents notice that the computer had been used for five hours after Keats ' death . Attempting to open the file that was being worked on , Mulder realizes that the number Roland had written on an art project the previous day is the computer 's password . The file turns out to be the work of Arthur Grable , a scientist who had supposedly died several months earlier , and has been worked on constantly since his death .
Looking into Grable 's death , the agents find that it was he who had hired Roland . They begin to think that Grable faked his death and is killing his former colleagues , using Roland as a patsy . Grable 's body was never brought to the morgue , nor was a funeral ever held . However , Nollette brings the agents to a neuropreservation facility where Grable 's remains are being stored . When a photo of Grable is found , the agents discover that he is Roland 's identical twin brother . Speaking to Roland again , Mulder becomes convinced that the janitor is being periodically controlled by Grable .
Meanwhile , Nollette sneaks into the cryogenic facility and tampers with Grable 's storage unit , thawing his remains . Roland returns to the lab and is in the process of pushing the prototype engine to mach 15 when Nollette enters . Nollette admits to stealing Grable 's work and prepares to shoot Roland , but is distracted by some equations . Roland strikes him with a computer keyboard and drags him into the wind tunnel . The agents arrive in time to convince Roland not to kill Nollette . At the same time , the rising temperatures in the storage unit kill Grable . Roland is removed from the care home , to be taken to a psychiatric institute for testing . However , as he leaves he stops to comb his hair in a style reminiscent of his brother , raising the question of whether he is actually free of Grable 's control .
= = Production = =
" Roland " was the first of two episodes of The X @-@ Files written by Chris Ruppenthal . He would return to write the second season episode " 3 " , which was heavily rewritten by series regulars Glen Morgan and James Wong . Željko Ivanek , who plays the episode 's title character , was the first actor to read for the part . Series creator Chris Carter felt that Ivanek 's audition " just blew [ him ] away " , deciding almost immediately to cast him . Garry Davey , who portrays scientist Dr. Keats , also appeared in several other episodes of the series , and was also at one time the artistic director of the William Davis Centre for Actors Study , working alongside William B. Davis , who plays the series ' villain The Smoking Man . Art director Graeme Murrary spent time scouting universities and research facilities in Vancouver to aid in creating the right look for the episode 's laboratory and wind tunnel sets .
" Roland " contains the series ' first mention of Fox Mulder 's father Bill , although the character would not actually make an appearance until the second season episode " Colony " . In the original draft of the script for " Roland " , however , Mulder 's mention of his father was instead meant to be his sister , Samantha . The scene depicting the aftermath of the Dr. Keats ' murder — with the scattered pieces of his shattered frozen body marked off with multiple chalk outlines — has been described as " truly inspired " . Chris Carter noted that " any shock and horror was eliminated by the laugh you got when you saw those little pieces on the floor " , also commenting that the actual murder takes place off @-@ screen , and is only heard .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Roland " premiered on the Fox network on May 6 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on March 2 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 9 , with a 14 share , meaning that in the US , roughly 7 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 14 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 7 @.@ 4 million households .
Director David Nutter felt that casting Željko Ivanek was the key to creating the episode , feeling that " Roland " was " probably the weakest script from start to finish " that the director had seen , but that once Ivanek had been cast , it became " important to push that as much as possible , to help outweigh the frailties in the script " . Chris Carter has also praised Ivanek 's involvement with the episode , calling the actor 's portrayal " just an amazing performance . This guy , Zeljko , should have won an award for this " . Glen Morgan , a regular writer for the series , felt that the episode " wasn 't completely effective " , but also added that it offered a " softer " outlook compared to the series ' other episodes so far , feeling that it was important to include several " episodes that demonstrate the paranormal isn 't always horrifying " .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Roland " was rated a B + , with guest star Željko Ivanek 's portrayal of the eponymous Roland being called " astonishing ( and convincing ) " , and the episode 's " excellent death scenes " noted as highlights . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , had mixed feelings about the episode , feeling that its plot was too similar to the previous episode " Born Again " , though rating Ivanek 's acting as " authentic " and " uncontrived " ; ultimately calling the episode " well @-@ built enough to be enjoyable despite its familiarity " . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , felt negatively about the episode , again finding it too similar to other episodes of the season , finding it to be " nothing incredibly exciting " , noting that it " follows pretty much the same template as many of the other episodes " .
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= M @-@ 79 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 79 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the central portion of Lower Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan . The western terminus is about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of Hastings at the junction with M @-@ 37 and the eastern terminus is in downtown Charlotte at the junction with M @-@ 50 and Business Loop Interstate 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) . It passes through Quimby and Nashville , where there is a junction with M @-@ 66 . The entire highway is undivided surface road . It has no direct access with Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) , although a sign for the highway is located on southbound I @-@ 69 at exit 61 .
The highway was first designated in 1919 between Hastings and Battle Creek . It was later moved to run to Charlotte . A section of M @-@ 79 was designated as M @-@ 214 in the 1930s . M @-@ 214 would later be decommissioned as a highway designation and the M @-@ 79 designation was reapplied to the roadway .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 79 starts south of Hastings at a three @-@ way intersection with M @-@ 37 in Hastings Township . The trunkline runs east and parallel to a section of the Thornapple River through wooded terrain that is interspersed with farm fields . South of Thornapple Lake , M @-@ 79 angles southeasterly moving from Quimby Road to Scott Road running parallel to the Thornapple River again into the community of Nashville . M @-@ 79 meets M @-@ 66 and turns south along the latter highway 's route along Main and Durkee streets through the community . South of town in Maple Grove Township , M @-@ 79 separates from M @-@ 66 and turns east along Lawrence Road . Outside of Charlotte , M @-@ 79 curves southeast to transition to Lawrence Avenue through town . The eastern terminus is at an intersection with Cochran Avenue , which carries BL I @-@ 69 and M @-@ 50 .
= = History = =
M @-@ 79 was formed as a state trunkline by July 1 , 1919 along part of its present routing . At the time , it ran between Hastings and Nashville as it does today . From Nashville , the trunkline turned south and west to end at the contemporary M @-@ 17 in Battle Creek . By 1927 , the southernmost section of M @-@ 79 was truncated when M @-@ 78 was extended to Battle Creek . In late 1930 , the southernmost section is shortened once again as a new M @-@ 14 designation replaced M @-@ 79 south of Nashville . An eastward extension of M @-@ 79 at the same time carries the highway designation to Vermontville .
M @-@ 79 was extended easterly to Charlotte in 1934 at the same time that the section of the trunkline between Nashville and Vermontville was redesignated M @-@ 214 . M @-@ 79 was rerouted along Assyria and Lawrence roads at the time to connect the sections of M @-@ 79 on either side of M @-@ 214 . By 1941 , M @-@ 214 was shortened to a 3 @-@ mile ( 5 km ) connector route in downtown Nashville running between M @-@ 79 and M @-@ 66 . In 1953 , M @-@ 79 replaced M @-@ 214 and the latter designation was retired from the highway system . The last section of gravel roadway in Eaton County was paved by 1960 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= USS President ( 1800 ) =
USS President was a wooden @-@ hulled , three @-@ masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy , nominally rated at 44 guns . George Washington named her to reflect a principle of the United States Constitution . She was launched in April 1800 from a shipyard in New York City . President was one of the original six frigates whose construction the Naval Act of 1794 had authorized , and she was the last to be completed . Joshua Humphreys designed these frigates to be the young Navy 's capital ships , and so President and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than standard frigates of the period . Forman Cheeseman , and later Christian Bergh were in charge of her construction . Her first duties with the newly formed United States Navy were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the Quasi War with France and to engage in a punitive expedition against the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War .
On 16 May 1811 , President was at the center of the Little Belt Affair ; her crew mistakenly identified HMS Little Belt as HMS Guerriere , which had impressed an American seaman . The ships exchanged cannon fire for several minutes . Subsequent U.S. and Royal Navy investigations placed responsibility for the attack on each other without a resolution . The incident contributed to tensions between the U.S. and Great Britain that led to the War of 1812 .
During the war , President made several extended cruises , patrolling as far away as the English Channel and Norway ; she captured the armed schooner HMS Highflyer and numerous merchant ships . In January 1815 , after having been blockaded in New York for a year by the Royal Navy , President attempted to run the blockade , and was chased by a blockading squadron . During the chase , she was engaged and crippled by the frigate HMS Endymion off the coast of the city . The British squadron captured President soon after , and the Royal Navy took her into service as HMS President until she was broken up in 1818 . President 's design was copied and used to build the next HMS President in 1829 .
= = Design and construction = =
During the 1790s , American merchant vessels began to fall prey to Barbary Pirates in the Mediterranean , most notably from Algiers . Congress 's response was the Naval Act of 1794 . The Act provided funds for the construction of six frigates ; however , it included a clause stating that construction of the ships would cease if the United States agreed to peace terms with Algiers .
Joshua Humphreys ' design was long on keel and narrow of beam ( width ) to allow for mounting very heavy guns . The design incorporated a diagonal scantling ( rib ) scheme to limit hogging ( warping ) ; the ships were given extremely heavy planking . This gave the hull greater strength than those of more lightly built frigates . Humphreys developed his design after realizing that the fledgling United States Navy could not match the navies of the European states for size . He therefore designed his frigates to be able to overpower other frigates , but with the speed to escape from a ship of the line .
George Washington named President in order to reflect a principle of the United States Constitution . In March 1796 , before President 's keel could be laid down , a peace accord was announced between the United States and Algiers . Construction was suspended in accordance with the Naval Act of 1794 . At the onset of the Quasi @-@ War with France in 1798 , funds were approved to complete her construction , and her keel was laid at a shipyard in New York City . Her original naval constructor was Forman Cheeseman and the superintendent was Captain Silas Talbot .
Based on experience Humphreys gained during construction of President 's sister ships , Constitution and United States , he instructed Cheeseman to make alterations to the frigate 's design . These included raising the gun deck by 2 in ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) and moving the main mast 2 ft ( 61 cm ) further rearward . President was built to a length of 175 ft ( 53 m ) between perpendiculars and a beam of 44 @.@ 4 ft ( 13 @.@ 5 m ) .
Although construction was begun at New York in the shipyard of Foreman Cheesman , work on her was discontinued in 1796 . Construction resumed in 1798 , under Christian Bergh and naval constructor William Doughty .
= = = Armament = = =
President 's nominal rating was that of a 44 @-@ gun ship . However , she usually carried over 50 guns . President was originally armed with a battery of 55 guns : thirty @-@ two 24 @-@ pounder ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) cannon , twenty @-@ two 42 @-@ pounder ( 19 kg ) carronades , and one 18 @-@ pounder ( 8 kg ) long gun .
During her Royal Navy service as HMS President , she was initially rated at 50 guns , although she was at this stage armed with 60 guns — thirty 24 @-@ pounders ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) on the upper deck , twenty @-@ eight 42 @-@ pounder ( 19 kg ) carronades on the spar deck , plus two more 24 @-@ pounder guns on the forecastle . In February 1817 , she was again re @-@ rated , this time to 60 guns .
Unlike modern Navy vessels , ships of this era had no permanent battery of guns . Guns were portable and were often exchanged between ships as situations warranted . Each commanding officer modified his vessel 's armaments to his liking , taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo , complement of personnel aboard , and planned routes to be sailed . Consequently , a vessel 's armament would change often during its career ; records of the changes were not generally kept .
= = Quasi and First Barbary Wars = =
President launched on 10 April 1800 — the last of the original six frigates to do so . After her fitting out , she departed for Guadeloupe on 5 August with Captain Thomas Truxtun in command . She conducted routine patrols during the latter part of the Quasi @-@ War and made several recaptures of American merchant ships . Nevertheless , her service in this period was uneventful . She returned to the United States in March , after a peace treaty with France was ratified on 3 February 1801 . During the Quasi @-@ War , the United States paid tribute to the Barbary States to ensure that they would not seize or harass American merchant ships . In 1801 Yusuf Karamanli of Tripoli , dissatisfied with the amount of tribute in comparison to that paid to Algiers , demanded an immediate payment of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Thomas Jefferson responded by sending a squadron of warships to protect American merchant ships in the Mediterranean and to pursue peace with the Barbary States .
In May , Commodore Richard Dale selected President as his flagship for the assignment in the Mediterranean . Dale 's orders were to present a show of force off Algiers , Tripoli , and Tunis and maintain peace with promises of tribute . Dale was authorized to commence hostilities at his discretion if any Barbary State had declared war by the time of his arrival . Dale 's squadron consisted of President , Philadelphia , Essex , and Enterprise . The squadron arrived at Gibraltar on 1 July ; President and Enterprise quickly continued to Algiers , where their presence convinced the regent to withdraw threats he had made against American merchant ships . President and Enterprise subsequently made appearances at Tunis and Tripoli before President arrived at Malta on 16 August to replenish drinking water supplies .
Blockading the harbor of Tripoli on 24 August , President captured a Greek vessel with Tripolitan soldiers aboard . Dale negotiated an exchange of prisoners that resulted in the release of several Americans held captive in Tripoli . President arrived at Gibraltar on 3 September . Near Mahón in early December , President struck a large rock while traveling at 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) . The impact brought Dale on deck and he successfully navigated President out of danger . An inspection revealed that the impact had twisted off a short section of her keel . President remained in the Mediterranean until March 1802 ; she departed for the United States and arrived on 14 April .
Although President remained in the United States , operations against the Barbary States continued . A second squadron assembled under the command of Richard Valentine Morris in Chesapeake . Morris ' poor performance resulted in his recall and subsequent dismissal from the Navy in 1803 . A third squadron assembled under the command of Edward Preble in Constitution ; by July 1804 , they had fought the Battle of Tripoli Harbor .
= = = Second Barbary patrol = = =
In April 1804 , President Jefferson decided to reinforce Preble 's squadron . President , Congress , Constellation , and Essex prepared to sail as soon as possible under the direction of Commodore Samuel Barron . Barron selected President as his flagship , but she required a new bowsprit and repairs to her masts and rigging . Some two months passed before the squadron was ready to sail . They departed in late June and arrived at Gibraltar on 12 August .
President left Gibraltar on 16 August with Constellation ; the frigates paused at Malta before arriving off Tripoli on 10 September , joining Constitution , Argus , and Vixen . Sighting three ships running the blockade of Tripoli , the squadron moved in to capture them ; during the pursuit , a sudden change in wind direction caused President to collide with Constitution . The collision caused serious damage to Constitution 's stern , bow , and figurehead . Two of the captured ships were sent to Malta with Constitution ; President sailed to Syracuse , Sicily , arriving on 27 August .
When Barron arrived in the Mediterranean , his seniority of rank over Preble entitled him to assume the duties of commodore . However , soon after replacing Preble , Barron went ashore at Syracuse in poor health and became bedridden . Under command of Captain George Cox , President began routine blockade duties of Tripoli during the winter months of 1804 – 05 . In late April 1805 , Constitution captured three ships off Tripoli . President escorted them to port at Malta before rejoining Constitution .
Barron 's fragile health necessitated his resignation ; he passed command to John Rodgers in late May 1805 . Barron ordered Cox to command Essex , and turned President over to his brother , James Barron , on 29 May . On 3 June , after the Battle of Derne , the U.S signed a peace treaty with Tripoli . President sailed for the United States on 13 July , carrying the ailing Barron and many sailors released from captivity in Tripoli .
= = Little Belt Affair = =
In 1807 , the Chesapeake @-@ Leopard Affair heightened tensions between the United States and Britain . In preparation for further hostilities , Congress began authorizing naval appropriations , and President recommissioned in 1809 under the command of Commodore John Rodgers . She made routine and uneventful patrols , mainly along the United States ' eastern seaboard , until 1 May 1811 , when the British frigate HMS Guerriere stopped the American brig Spitfire 18 mi ( 29 km ) from New York and impressed a crewman .
Rodgers received orders to pursue Guerriere , and President sailed immediately from Fort Severn on 10 May . On 16 May , approximately 40 miles ( 64 km ) northeast of Cape Henry , a lookout spotted a sail on the horizon . Closing to investigate , Rodgers determined the sail belonged to a warship , and raised signal flags to identify his ship . The unidentified ship , later learned to be HMS Little Belt — a 20 @-@ gun sixth rate — hoisted signal flags in return , but the hoist was not understood by President 's crew . Little Belt sailed southward and Rodgers , believing the ship to be Guerriere , pursued .
Darkness set in before the ships were within hailing distance , and Rodgers hailed twice , only to have the same question returned to him : " What ship is that ? " According to Rodgers , immediately after the exchange of hails , Little Belt fired a shot that tore through President 's rigging . Rodgers returned fire . Little Belt promptly answered with three guns , and then a whole broadside . Rodgers ordered his gun crews to fire at will ; several accurate broadsides heavily damaged Little Belt in return . After five minutes of firing , President 's crew realized their adversary was much smaller than a frigate and Rodgers ordered a cease fire . However , Little Belt fired again and President answered with more broadsides . After Little Belt became silent , President stood off and waited overnight . At dawn it was obvious that Little Belt was greatly damaged from the fight ; Rodgers sent a boat over from President to offer assistance in repairing the damage . Her Captain , Arthur Bingham , acknowledged the damage ; declining any help , he sailed to Halifax , Nova Scotia . President had one sailor slightly wounded in the exchange , while Little Belt suffered 31 killed or wounded .
Upon President 's return to port , the U.S. Navy launched an investigation into the incident . Gathering testimony from President 's officers and crewmen , they determined that Little Belt had fired the first shot in the encounter . In the Royal Navy investigation , Captain Bingham insisted that President had fired the first shot and continued firing for 45 minutes , rather than the five minutes Rodgers claimed . In all subsequent reports , both captains continually insisted that the other ship had fired the first shot . Reaching a stalemate , the American and British governments quietly dropped the matter .
= = War of 1812 = =
The United States declared war against Britain on 18 June 1812 . Three days later , within an hour of receiving official word of the declaration , Commodore Rodgers sailed from New York City . The commodore sailed aboard President , leading a squadron consisting of United States , Congress , Hornet , and Argus on a 70 @-@ day North Atlantic cruise . A passing American merchant ship informed Rodgers about a fleet of British merchantmen en route to Britain from Jamaica . Rodgers and his squadron sailed in pursuit , and on 23 June they encountered what was later learned to be HMS Belvidera . President pursued the ship , and in what is recorded as the first shot of the War of 1812 , Rodgers himself aimed and fired a bowchaser at Belvidera , striking her rudder and penetrating the gun room . Upon President 's fourth shot at Belvidera , a cannon one deck below Rodgers burst , killing or wounding 16 sailors and throwing Rodgers to the deck with enough force to break his leg .
The ensuing confusion allowed Belvidera to fire her stern chasers , killing six more men aboard President . Rodgers kept up the pursuit , using his bow chasers to severely damage Belvidera 's rigging , but his two broadsides had little effect . The crew of Belvidera quickly made repairs to the rigging . They cut loose her anchors and boats and pumped drinking water overboard to lighten her load , thereby increasing her speed . Belvidera soon gained enough speed to distance herself from President , and Rodgers abandoned the pursuit . Belvidera sailed to Halifax to deliver the news that war had been declared .
President and her squadron returned to the pursuit of the Jamaican fleet , and on 1 July began to follow the trail of coconut shells and orange peels the Jamaicans had left behind them . President sailed to within one day 's journey of the English Channel , but never sighted the convoy . Rodgers called off the pursuit on 13 July . During their return trip to Boston , Rodgers ' squadron captured seven merchant ships and recaptured one American vessel .
After some refitting , President , still under Rodgers ' command , sailed on 8 October with Congress , United States , and Argus . On 12 October , United States and Argus parted from the squadron for their own patrols . On 10 October , President chased HMS Nymphe , but failed to overtake her . On 17 October President captured the British packet ship Swallow , which carried a large amount of currency on board . On 31 October , President and Congress began pursuit of HMS Galatea , which was escorting two merchant ships . The chase lasted about three hours , and in that time Congress captured the merchant ship Argo . Meanwhile , President kept after Galatea and drew very close , but lost sight of her in the night . Congress and President remained together , but did not find any ships to capture during November . Returning to the United States , they passed north of Bermuda and proceeded toward the Virginia capes ; they arrived in Boston on 31 December , having taken nine prizes . President and Congress found themselves blockaded there by the Royal Navy until April 1813 .
On 30 April , President and Congress sailed through the blockade on their third cruise of the war . On 2 May , they pursued HMS Curlew , but she outran them and escaped . President parted company with Congress on 8 May , and Rodgers set a course along the Gulf Stream to search for merchant ships to capture . By June , not having come across a single ship , President turned north ; she put into North Bergen , Norway , on 27 June to replenish her drinking water . Sailing soon after , President captured two British merchant ships , which helped to replenish her stores . On 10 June President captured the outward @-@ bound Falmouth packet Duke of Montrose , Captain Aaron Groub Blewett , which managed to throw her mails overboard before President could send a prize crew aboard . President made a cartel of Duke of Montrose , putting all of President 's prisoners on board and then sending her into Falmouth under the command of an American officer . When Duke of Montrose arrived at Falmouth the British Government abrogated the cartel on the grounds that they had advised the American Government that the British would not recognize agreements entered into on the high seas .
Around the same time , two Royal Navy ships came into view . President set all sails to escape , and outran them in a chase lasting 80 hours . Rodgers reported that his decision to flee the ships was based on identifying them as a ship of the line and a frigate . Royal Navy records later revealed that the vessels were actually the 32 @-@ gun frigate Alexandria and the 16 @-@ gun fireship Spitfire .
Spending a few days near the Irish Channel , President captured several more merchant ships . She then set a course for the United States . In late September , she encountered HMS Highflyer along the east coast of the United States . Rodgers used his signal flags to trick Highflyer into believing that President was HMS Tenedos . Lieut . George Hutchinson , Highflyer 's captain , came aboard President only to discover he had walked into a trap ; President captured Highflyer without a shot being fired . President 's long cruise netted her 11 merchant ships , in addition to Highflyer .
On 4 December , President sailed from Providence , Rhode Island . On the 25th , she encountered two frigates in the dark , one of which fired at her . Rodgers believed the ships to be British , but they were two French frigates , Méduse and Nymphe . Afterward , Rodgers headed toward Barbados for an eight @-@ week cruise in the West Indies , reportedly making three small captures . Returning to New York City on 18 February 1814 , President encountered HMS Loire , which turned to escape once the latter 's crew realized President was a 44 @-@ gun frigate . President remained in New York for the duration of 1814 due to the harbor 's blockade by a British squadron consisting of HMS Endymion , Majestic , Pomone , and Tenedos .
= = = Capture = = =
The Treaty of Ghent , ending hostilities between the United States and Britain , was signed on 24 December 1814 . However , the United States did not ratify the treaty until 18 February 1815 . The war carried on in the interim .
Stephen Decatur assumed command of President in December 1814 , planning a cruise to the West Indies to prey on British shipping . In mid @-@ January 1815 , a snowy gale with strong winds forced the British blockading squadron away from New York Harbor , giving Decatur the opportunity to put to sea . On the evening of 14 January , President headed out of the harbor but ran aground , the result of harbor pilots incorrectly marking a safe passage . Stranded on the sand bar , President lifted and dropped with the incoming tide . Within two hours her hull had been damaged , her timbers twisted , and masts sprung . Damage to her keel caused the ship to hog and sag . Decatur was finally able to float President off the bar and , assessing the damage , he decided to return to New York for repairs ; however , the wind direction was not favorable and President was forced to head out to sea .
Unaware of the exact location of the blockading squadron , Decatur set a course to avoid them and seek a safe port , but approximately two hours later the squadron 's sails were spotted on the horizon . President changed course to outrun them , but the damage she suffered the night before had significantly reduced her speed . Attempting to gain speed , Decatur ordered expendable cargo thrown overboard ; by late afternoon of 15 January , HMS Endymion under Captain Henry Hope came alongside and proceeded to fire broadsides . Decatur planned to bring President in close to Endymion , whereby President 's crew could board and capture the opposing ship and sail her to New York . ( President would be scuttled to prevent her capture ) .
Making several attempts to close on Endymion , Decatur discovered that President 's damage limited her maneuverability , allowing Endymion to anticipate , and draw away from , positions favorable for boarding . Faced with this new dilemma , Decatur ordered bar and chain shot fired to disable Endymion 's sails and rigging , the idea being to shake his pursuer and allow President to proceed to a safe port without being followed . At noon , Endymion , being the much better sailer , was close @-@ hauled , outpacing her squadron and leaving them behind . At 2 pm , she gained on President and took position on the American ship 's quarter , shooting into President as she tried to escape . Endymion was able to rake President three times and did considerable damage to her ; by contrast , President primarily directed her fire at Endymion 's rigging in order to slow her down during the two @-@ hour engagement .
Finally at 7 : 58 pm , President ceased fire and hoisted a light in her rigging , indicating that she had surrendered . Endymion ceased firing on the defeated American ship but did not board to take possession of her prize , due to a lack of undamaged boats . Endymion 's foresails had been damaged in the engagement and while she hove to for repairs , Commodore Stephen Decatur took advantage of the situation and , despite having struck , made off to escape at 8 @.@ 30 pm ; Endymion , hastily completed repairs and resumed the chase at 8 @.@ 52 pm .
President drew away while her crew made hurried repairs of their own . Within two hours , one of her lookouts spotted the remainder of the enemy squadron drawing near . President continued her escape attempt , but by nightfall HMS Pomone and Tenedos had caught up and began firing broadsides . Realizing his situation , Decatur surrendered President again , just before midnight .
= = As HMS President = =
Now in possession of the Royal Navy , President and her crew were ordered to proceed to Bermuda with Endymion . During the journey , they encountered a dangerous gale . The storm destroyed President 's masts and strained Endymion 's timbers so badly that all the upper @-@ deck guns were thrown overboard to prevent her from sinking . Decatur and his crew were briefly held prisoner in Bermuda . Upon the prisoners ' return to the United States , a U.S. Navy court martial board acquitted Decatur , his officers , and his men of any wrongdoing in the surrender of President .
President and Endymion continued to England , arriving at Spithead on 28 March . President was commissioned into the Royal Navy under the name HMS President . Her initial rating was set at 50 guns , although she was at this stage armed with 60 guns — thirty 24 @-@ pounders ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) on the upper deck , twenty @-@ eight 42 @-@ pounder ( 19 kg ) carronades on the spar deck , plus two more 24 @-@ pounder guns on the forecastle . In February 1817 she was again re @-@ rated , this time to 60 guns .
In March 1818 she was considered for refitting . A drydock inspection revealed that the majority of her timber was defective or rotten and she was broken up at Portsmouth in June . President 's design was copied and used to build HMS President in 1829 , although this was reportedly more of a political maneuver than a testament to the design . The Royal Navy wished to retain the name and likeness of the American ship on their register as a reminder to the United States and other nations of the capture .
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