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= Gianni Schicchi = Gianni Schicchi ( Italian pronunciation : [ ˈdʒanni ˈskikki ] ) is a comic opera in one act by Giacomo Puccini to an Italian libretto by Giovacchino Forzano , composed in 1917 – 18 . The libretto is based on an incident mentioned in Dante 's Divine Comedy . The work is the third and final part of Puccini 's Il trittico ( The Triptych ) — three one @-@ act operas with contrasting themes , originally written to be presented together . Although it continues to be performed with one or both of the other trittico operas , Gianni Schicchi is now more frequently staged either alone or with short operas by other composers . The aria " O mio babbino caro " is one of Puccini 's best known , and one of the most popular arias in opera . Puccini had long considered writing a set of one @-@ act operas which would be performed together in a single evening , but faced with a lack of suitable subjects and opposition from his publisher , he repeatedly put the project aside . However , by 1916 Puccini had completed the one @-@ act tragedy Il tabarro and , after considering various ideas , he began work the following year on the solemn , religious , all @-@ female opera Suor Angelica . Gianni Schicchi , a comedy , completes the triptych with a further contrast of mood . The score combines elements of Puccini 's modern style of harmonic dissonance with lyrical passages reminiscent of Rossini , and it has been praised for its inventiveness and imagination . When Il trittico premiered at New York 's Metropolitan Opera in December 1918 , Gianni Schicchi became an immediate hit , whereas the other two operas were received with less enthusiasm . This pattern was broadly repeated at the Rome and London premieres and led to commercial pressures to abandon the less successful elements . Although on artistic grounds Puccini opposed performing the three operas except as the original triptych , by 1920 he had given his reluctant consent to separate performances . Gianni Schicchi has subsequently become the most @-@ performed part of Il trittico and has been widely recorded . = = Historical background = = A man named Gianni Schicchi is only briefly referred to in Dante 's Inferno Canto XXX . In that canto , Dante visits the Circle of Impersonators and sees a man savagely attacking another . Dante is told that the attacker is Schicchi , condemned to Hell for impersonating Buoso Donati and making his will highly favorable to Schicchi . The plot used in the opera derives from an 1866 edition of The Divine Comedy by philologist Pietro Fanfani , which contained an appendix with commentary attributed to an anonymous Florentine of the 14th century . In this version , Buoso wishes to make a will , but is put off doing so by his son , Simone . Once it is too late , Simone fears that Buoso , before his illness , may have made a will unfavourable to him . Simone calls on Schicchi for advice , and Schicchi has the idea of impersonating Buoso and making a new will . Simone promises Schicchi he will be well rewarded , but Schicchi takes no chances , " leaving " a considerable sum and Buoso 's mule to himself ( though most goes to Simone ) , and makes the bequests conditional on Simone 's distributing the estate within fifteen days , otherwise everything will go to charity . Both Schicchi and Buoso Donati were historical characters . Dante 's verses , and the opera , are based on an actual incident that took place in 13th century Florence . Dante had several reasons for his harsh treatment of Schicchi : Dante 's wife , Gemma , was of the Donati family ; the poet himself was of pure Florentine descent . He despised members of the peasant class such as Schicchi . Dante 's class prejudice displays itself in several episodes in the Inferno : in one , three noble Florentines , who have died and gone to Hell , ask Dante for news of their home city . A disgusted Dante tells them that the city is now dominated by the nouveau riche . According to Burton Fisher , Puccini and Forzano borrowed heavily from the commedia dell 'arte tradition in Gianni Schicchi . Schicchi himself recalls the roguish Harlequin , while his daughter Lauretta , whose romance is nearly foiled by Buoso 's relatives , resembles Columbina . Simone is drawn from Pantaloon , while the poverty @-@ stricken Betto recalls the buffoonish valet Zany . Doctor Spinelloccio recalls the classic doctor from the commedia dell 'arte , Balanzone even to his Bolognese origin . The Moor whose death momentarily scares the relatives , and his captain , are stock characters from commedia dell 'arte . = = Roles = = = = Synopsis = = Place : Florence Time : 1299 . As Buoso Donati lies dead in his curtained four @-@ poster bed , his relatives gather round to mourn his passing , but are really more interested in learning the contents of his will . Among those present are his cousins Zita and Simone , his poor @-@ relation brother @-@ in @-@ law Betto , and Zita 's nephew Rinuccio . Betto mentions a rumour he has heard that Buoso has left everything to a monastery ; this disturbs the others and precipitates a frantic search for the will . The document is found by Rinuccio , who is confident that his uncle has left him plenty of money . He withholds the will momentarily and asks Zita to allow him to marry Lauretta , daughter of Gianni Schicchi , a newcomer to Florence . Zita replies that if Buoso has left them rich , he can marry whom he pleases ; she and the other relatives are anxious to begin reading the will . A happy Rinuccio sends little Gherardino to fetch Schicchi and Lauretta . As they read , the relatives ' worst fears are soon realised ; Buoso has indeed bequeathed his fortune to the monastery . They break out in woe and indignation and turn to Simone , the oldest present and a former mayor of Fucecchio , but he can offer no help . Rinuccio suggests that only Gianni Schicchi can advise them what to do , but this is scorned by Zita and the rest , who sneer at Schicchi 's humble origins and now say that marriage to the daughter of such a peasant is out of the question . Rinuccio defends Schicchi in an aria " Avete torto " ( You 're mistaken ) , after which Schicchi and Lauretta arrive . Schicchi quickly grasps the situation , and Rinuccio begs him for help , but Schicchi is rudely told by Zita to " be off " and take his daughter with him . Rinuccio and Lauretta listen in despair as Schicchi announces that he will have nothing to do with such people . Lauretta makes a final plea to him with " O mio babbino caro " ( Oh , my dear papa ) , and he agrees to look at the will . After twice scrutinizing it and concluding that nothing can be done , an idea occurs to him . He sends his daughter outside so that she will be innocent of what is to follow . First , Schicchi establishes that no one other than those present knows that Buoso is dead . He then orders the body removed to another room . A knock announces the arrival of the doctor , Spinelloccio . Schicchi conceals himself behind the bed curtains , mimics Buoso 's voice and declares that he 's feeling better ; he asks the doctor to return that evening . Boasting that he has never lost a patient , Spinelloccio departs . Schicchi then unveils his plan in the aria " Si corre dal notaio " ( Run to the notary ) ; having established in the doctor 's mind that Buoso is still alive , Schicchi will disguise himself as Buoso and dictate a new will . All are delighted with the scheme , and importune Schicchi with personal requests for Buoso 's various possessions , the most treasured of which are " the mule , the house and the mills at Signa " . A funeral bell rings , and everyone fears that the news of Buoso 's death has emerged , but it turns out that the bell is tolling for the death of a neighbour 's Moorish servant . The relatives agree to leave the disposition of the mule , the house and the mills to Schicchi , though each in turn offers him a bribe . The women help him to change into Buoso 's clothes as they sing the lyrical trio " Spogliati , bambolino " ( Undress , little boy ) . Before taking his place in the bed , Schicchi warns the company of the grave punishment for those found to have falsified a will : exile from Florence together with the loss of a hand . The notary arrives , and Schicchi starts to dictate the new will , declaring any prior will null and void . To general satisfaction he allocates the minor bequests , but when it comes to the mule , the house and the mills , he orders that these be left to " my devoted friend Gianni Schicchi " . Incredulous , the family can do nothing while the lawyer is present , especially when Schicchi slyly reminds them of the penalties that discovery of the ruse will bring . Their outburst of rage when the notary leaves is countered by a love duet from Lauretta and Rinuccio , " Lauretta mia " ; there is now no bar to their marriage , since Schicchi can provide a full dowry . Schicchi chases the relatives out of what is now his house , and when he returns stands moved at the sight of the two lovers . He turns to the audience and asks them to agree that no better use could be found for Buoso 's wealth . Although the poet Dante has condemned him to hell for this trick , Schicchi asks the audience to forgive him in light of " extenuating circumstances . " = = Composition history = = The one @-@ act opera genre had become increasingly popular in Italy following the 1890 competition sponsored by publisher Edoardo Sonzogno for the best such work , which was won by the young Pietro Mascagni 's Cavalleria rusticana . With Tosca essentially completed by November 1899 , Puccini sought a new project . Among sources he considered , before proceeding with Madama Butterfly , were three works by French dramatist Alphonse Daudet that Puccini thought might be made into a trilogy of one @-@ act operas . After Butterfly premiered in 1904 , Puccini again had difficulty finding a new subject . He further considered the idea of composing three one @-@ act operas to be performed together , but found his publisher , Giulio Ricordi , firmly opposed to such a project , convinced that it would be expensive to cast and produce . The composer then planned to work with his longtime librettist , Giuseppe Giacosa , on an opera about Marie Antoinette , a project frustrated by the librettist 's illness . Puccini wrote in November 1905 , " Will we go back to it ? [ Maria Antonietta ] If I find three one @-@ act works that suit me , I 'll put off M.A. " Puccini pursued neither project , as Giacosa 's illness led to his death in September 1906 . In March 1907 , Puccini wrote to Carlo Clausetti , Ricordi 's representative in Naples , proposing three one @-@ act operas based on scenes from stories by Russian novelist Maxim Gorky . By May the composer had set aside this proposal to concentrate on the project which became La fanciulla del West , although he did not wholly abandon the idea of a multiple @-@ opera evening . His next idea in this vein , some years later , was for a two @-@ opera bill , one tragic and one comic ; he later expanded this to include a third opera with a mystic or religious tone . By November 1916 Puccini had completed the " tragic " element , which became Il tabarro , but he still lacked ideas for the other two works . He considered staging Il tabarro in combination with his own early work Le Villi , or with other two @-@ act operas which might be used to round out the evening 's entertainment . Finally , librettist Giovacchino Forzano presented the composer with two works of his own , which became Suor Angelica and Gianni Schicchi . The latter would be Puccini 's first setting of a comic text ; although his earlier operas , for example La bohème , contain comic episodes , these are merely ancillary to the drama to provide contrast . Forzano wrote to Tito Ricordi , Giulio 's son , on 3 March 1917 : I sent the libretto of Suor Angelica to Maestro Puccini some days ago . He has declared himself – kind as he is – very satisfied ... I have also finished a brief outline of a plot based on Gianni Schicchi . You know the Maestro 's opinion of this subject , which is rich in possibilities and whose comic nature is quite out of the ordinary . In fact , Puccini was at first less than enthusiastic about the idea for this comic opera – Florence as a setting did not appeal to him , and he feared the public would have little interest in the subject . However , he soon became interested , and did some work on the piece even while composing Suor Angelica . The religious @-@ themed opera was completed in September 1917 , and Puccini turned his full attention to Gianni Schicchi , although the war news and the 1918 influenza pandemic , in which Puccini lost a sister , distracted him from his work . The first draft was completed on 20 April 1918 , and Puccini continued to refine and orchestrate it through the summer of 1918 . With the trilogy complete , Puccini had to decide on a place for the premiere . In 1918 , travel was risky and uncertain . Puccini received an offer from Buenos Aires which he refused , unwilling to have so complex a work first performed overseas in his absence . He finally agreed that the premiere could take place at the Metropolitan Opera in New York , without his being there , on the basis of performing instructions which he supplied to the conductor . Gianni Schicchi proved to be the last opera completed by Puccini . = = Performance history = = = = = Early performances = = = Gianni Schicchi was first performed at the Metropolitan Opera on 14 December 1918 , with Roberto Moranzoni conducting , as the final part of Il trittico . While the sold @-@ out house showed polite enthusiasm for Il tabarro and Suor Angelica , Gianni Schicchi was , in the words of the New @-@ York Tribune 's critic , " received with uproarious delight " . In the Evening Sun , W.J. Henderson called it " one of the most delightful bits ever put upon the Met stage " . The undoubted " pearl of the evening " , he said , was Lauretta 's aria " O mio babbino caro " which , despite a public notice forbidding encores , was repeated through popular insistence . The only singer to appear in all three works was American soprano Marie Tiffany , who played one of the lovers in Il tabarro , a lay sister in Suor Angelica , and Nella in Gianni Schicchi . Il trittico was performed at the Met 's Philadelphia opera house on 17 December with the same cast , before returning to New York for five more performances during the 1918 / 19 season . At the time of the New York premiere , Il trittico was in rehearsal in Rome in preparation for an Italian premiere at the Teatro Costanzi . Puccini wrote Tito Ricordi that the rehearsals were going slowly , but that the orchestra sounded fine , at least in Gianni Schicchi . The Italian premiere , more important to Puccini than the New York world premiere , took place on 11 January 1919 . Gianni Schicchi was again warmly received , more so than the first two operas of Il trittico . Among those dissatisfied by the triptych was Puccini 's friend , the conductor Arturo Toscanini , who was in the audience for the Rome premiere . Toscanini was disgusted by the verismo of Il tabarro , and left the performance after the first curtain . This caused a rift in his relationship with Puccini , who stated that he would not allow " this god " to conduct the London premiere , though the two were later reconciled . At the Rome premiere , the part of Rinuccio was sung by the Canadian tenor Edward Johnson , a future general manager of the Met . Johnson later recalled that , at the composer 's request , he had dragged a mock @-@ reluctant Puccini from the wings to acknowledge the house 's applause . In 1919 , Puccini visited London to discuss plans for the following year 's Covent Garden premiere of Il trittico . This took place on 18 June 1920 ; King George V and Queen Mary were present , and called Puccini to their box to give him their congratulations . With Toscanini not considered , Puccini hoped that Sir Thomas Beecham would conduct the premiere , but he declined and Gaetano Bavagnoli conducted . Once again , only Gianni Schicchi was received with real warmth . Other early performances included the October 1920 production of Il trittico in German , at the Vienna State Opera . In the years following the premiere , Puccini made modifications to the three operas , but Gianni Schicchi required few . The principal change was to Rinuccio 's arioso , " Avete torto " , which was set in a higher pitch to take better advantage of the tenor voice . By 1920 Puccini was facing increasing pressure , not only from impresarios but also from his publishing firm , Casa Ricordi , to allow Il trittico to be broken up and presented separately . Opera houses first wanted to omit Suor Angelica , which had proven the least popular of the three , but some wished to omit Il tabarro as well . Puccini had left London confident that Il trittico would gain a place in the Covent Garden repertoire , but soon learned that the opera house 's director , Henry V. Higgins , had removed Suor Angelica , feeling that the audience disliked it . In fact , Higgins would never stage it again . Puccini vociferously objected , as did his longtime London friend , Sybil Seligman , to no avail . Higgins then decided to remove Il tabarro , and stage Gianni Schicchi together with a Russian ballet presentation . Puccini retorted , " This is a real betrayal " , but in the end gave in and permitted the performance . Puccini , however , was still convinced that the three works should be performed together , and that his original conception was being " brutally torn to pieces " . The Metropolitan Opera joined in the dismemberment : after 1920 , it would not again present the three operas together until 1975 . = = = Later performances = = = Gianni Schicchi returned to the Met in 1926 , after Puccini 's death , shorn of the other two parts of its operatic triptych , but instead mated to Ruggero Leoncavallo 's two @-@ act opera Pagliacci . The 1926 production , by Wilhelm von Wymetal , featured sets by Joseph Novak . In the following years at the Met , Gianni Schicchi would form part of a bill with such diverse works as Engelbert Humperdinck 's Hänsel und Gretel , Italo Montemezzi 's L 'amore dei tre re , and even be incestuously mated with Puccini 's own La bohème . In 1952 , Novak 's sets were revised by Wilhelm von Wymetal in a production which remained in service until 1958 . Among the leading singers associated with the opera , Tito Gobbi was particularly prominent in the 1950s and 1960s . He first sang the role of Schicchi in the Rome production in 1951 ; in subsequent years he appeared in further Rome seasons , in Bologna , and at La Scala , Milan , where Renata Scotto sang Lauretta in Carlo Maestrini 's production . Gobbi directed and sang in the 1969 production at the Teatro Comunale di Firenze , and later that year performed in and directed the same version at the August 1969 Edinburgh Festival . In 1974 , the Met gave Gianni Schicchi its first new production since 1926 . The production , by Fabrizio Melano , was paired with the Met debut of Bartók 's Bluebeard 's Castle . The following year , the Met revived Il trittico in the original form , combining the Melano production with new productions for the other two operas by the same director . The 1975 Schicchi featured Renata Scotto as Lauretta . Scotto also played the two other Il trittico heroines , a feat she repeated later that season , on tour , and when the three operas were again presented by the Met in 1981 . When the production was revived again by the Met in 1989 , Teresa Stratas sang the " trittico hat @-@ trick " . Lili Chookasian sang the mezzo @-@ soprano leads in all three operas ( Zita in Gianni Schicchi ) and Cornell MacNeil played Schicchi . Glyndebourne Festival Opera put on a 2004 double bill of Gianni Schicchi and Rachmaninoff 's The Miserly Knight , in which the sets for the two operas ( designed by Vicki Mortimer ) are back @-@ to @-@ back on a turntable . In 2007 Los Angeles Opera announced that it would be staging Il trittico in the 2008 / 2009 season , with Woody Allen making his operatic directing debut in Gianni Schicchi . The production starred baritone Sir Thomas Allen , soprano Laura Tătulescu , and tenor Saimir Pirgu . The 2007 Royal Opera House production by Richard Jones updated the action to a shabby 1940s Italy of " unemptied chamber pots , garish floral wallpaper and damp ceilings " , with Bryn Terfel in the title role " a masterpiece of monstrous vulgarity " . In the 2009 revival of this production , Schicchi was sung by Thomas Allen , while Gwynne Howell , as Simone , celebrated 40 years with the Royal Opera . = = = Critical reception = = = In reviewing the New York premiere , the critics greeted Gianni Schicchi warmly ; most reviewers found it to be the best of the three operas . New York Herald Tribune critic Henry Krehbiel described it as " so uproariously funny ... so full of life , humor , and ingenious devices " . The New York Times reviewer James Huneker considered the opera to be " a rollicking , madcap scherzo , overflowing with merry deviltries ... And the last shall be first . " Huneker praised De Luca as " a most engaging rascal , fit for a minor niche in Moliere 's gallery " . The Times critic also was amused by Marto Malatesta as " The ' Kid ' Gherardino , who is spanked by the irate family " . Rome 's critics gave Il trittico as a whole a warmer reception , but still saw Gianni Schicchi as the best of the three . Alberto Gasco in La tribuna noted , " In terms of harmonic technique , Il tabarro and Schicchi advance quite startling elements of novelty . Nothing that contemporary art has produced escapes the studious and astute Giacomo Puccini . " Gasco also stated that while many critics were waiting for the first two operas with their fists drawn , Gianni Schicchi disarmed these " hired assassins " with a " single glance " . An anonymous reviewer in L 'idea nazionale felt that the three works comprised a unified whole , but feared that Puccini was becoming less inventive . L 'idea nazionale was a nationalist newspaper , and praised Puccini for returning to an Italian subject " after so many useless Japanese , American , Parisian digressions " . Modern productions , including those in an updated context , have been generally well received . Describing the 2004 Glyndebourne pairing with The Miserly Knight as " flip sides of the same coin " , reviewer Edward Seckerson in The Independent found the Schicchi performance " a triumph of ensemble directing and playing , ... wickedly observed , sharp , focussed and funny " . The New York Times gave a positive review to the Woody Allen 2008 production , which is set in a crowded tenement in which the boy Gherardino is practising knife thrusts . However , the critic questioned Allen 's altered ending , in which Schicchi is stabbed by Zita as he addresses the audience . Los Angeles Times critic Mark Swed deemed Allen 's production one of the top ten moments in classical music for 2008 , and applauded it for " hilarious wit and engaging musicality " . Allen Rich of Variety praised the piece , though he disliked Allen 's idea of beginning the opera with a montage of old film clips , with credits featuring mock @-@ Italian names . = = Music = = Verdi said of Puccini , early in the latter 's career , that " the symphonic element dominates in him " , and Gianni Schicchi has been compared by later analysts to that of the final presto movement of a three @-@ movement symphony . With the fast @-@ moving pace of the work , the set pieces are given a simpler melodic structure than those in the other two parts of the triptych . On stage , with the commedia dell 'arte references , a humorous atmosphere is established from the very beginning . However , the music itself is of the 20th century ; Edward Greenfield refers to its " dissonant modernity " , with simultaneous clashing chords suggesting that " Puccini was beginning to think in bi @-@ tonal terms " . Alongside these dissonant passages are others which opera scholar Julian Budden calls " bland , schoolroom diatonism " . Puccini 's score is built around a series of motifs which recur through the opera , generally representing characters , situations and moods though sometimes without specific associations . The opening motif is a rapid burst of rhythmic music , described by Greenfield as of " almost Stravinskian sharpness " , which quickly transforms into a mock @-@ solemn dirge depicting the hypocritical grief of the Donati relatives . This juxtaposition of the humorous and the solemn pervades the opera ; critic Ernest Newman suggests that it " keeps us perpetually suspended between the comic and the tragic " . Other principal motifs include the theme associated with the lovers Rinuccio and Lauretta , introduced in Rinuccio 's first solo " Salvati ! Salvati ! " , and a short , formal woodwind statement which represents Donati 's will . Rinuccio sings the name " Gianni Schicchi " to a jaunty four @-@ note phrase which becomes Schicchi 's personal motif , and it is heard again as Schicchi knocks on the door before his first appearance . The best @-@ known theme in the opera , that associated with Lauretta , is introduced in the second part of Rinuccio 's aria " Avete torto " . The theme is briefly played on clarinet and violin as Lauretta enters with Schicchi , before its full expression in O mio babbino caro . Budden dismisses the view that Lauretta 's aria , at the midpoint of the opera , was a concession to popular taste ; rather , " its position at the turning point of the action is precisely calculated to provide a welcome moment of lyrical repose " . Andrew Davis , in his book on Puccini 's late style , notes that Lauretta 's aria , and the two interruptions by the young lovers ( " Addio , speranza bella " ) as Schicchi mulls over the will , constitute interruptions in the Romantic style , delivered during a lengthy sequence of non @-@ Romantic music . Another interruption , both dramatically and musically , is that provided by the appearance of Doctor Spinelloccio . The doctor 's dissonant harmonies contrast sharply with the scena music for Schicchi and symbolise Spinelloccio 's place as an outsider to the dramatic action of the opera . The music historian Donald Jay Grout has written that in this opera Puccini 's comic skill is " seen at its most spontaneous , incorporating smoothly all the characteristic harmonic devices of his later period . " Greenfield remarks on the score 's inventiveness , imagination and flawless timing . Several critics have likened Gianni Schicchi to Verdi 's Falstaff , as both are masterpieces of operatic comedy from composers more usually associated with tragedy . Both composers took the conventions of comic opera into consideration , choosing a baritone for the principal role , setting the tenor @-@ soprano love story against family opposition to the marriage , and constructing a hoax which permits the happy ending . Charles Osborne cites in particular the trio for three female voices , Spogliati , bambolino , as equal to anything in Falstaff , " its exquisite harmonies almost turning the unprepossessing women into Wagnerian Rhine maidens " , and its lilting melody reminiscent of Rossini . = = Arias and musical numbers = = Although the score is through @-@ composed , within the general structure of the opera there are several identifiable numbers : four solos given to the three main characters , a trio and a brief love duet . Only Lauretta 's O mio babbino caro , the best @-@ known of the solos , is separable from its context and can be sung as a concert piece . = = Recordings = = Despite its popularity as a stage work , Gianni Schicchi was not available as a recording until after the Second World War , a neglect described by a Gramophone reviewer as " extraordinary " . One of the earliest recordings , a Turin Radio 1950 broadcast performance conducted by Alfredo Simonetto , was praised for its lively presentation but was considered by the critic Philip Hope @-@ Wallace to be " too rough a piece of recording to be warmly recommended " . By contrast , the 1958 recording under Gabriele Santini , with a cast including Tito Gobbi and Victoria de los Ángeles , was still being discussed nearly 50 years later as the classic performance , with Gobbi 's singing at a standard rarely equalled . Among more recent recordings , that of the complete Trittico with the London Symphony Orchestra under Antonio Pappano ( 1998 ) has been generally recommended . There are numerous video recordings now available . = = English @-@ language sequel = = American composer Michael Ching wrote a one @-@ act English @-@ language sequel , Buoso 's Ghost , which had its first full staging with the Pittsburgh Opera in 1996 , and its official premiere at Opera Memphis in 1997 . Starting where Gianni Schicchi ends , the new opera , with a libretto by the composer , opens with Schicchi 's final chords and carries the plot forward by following the sinister dealings of Buoso Donati 's family , who apparently had poisoned Buoso , and the continued machinations of Schicchi , who tries to exploit this growing suspicion on his part . Opera News noted that Ching uses " a more modern musical mode , yet avoiding excessive atonality . The score subtly introduces brief tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek quotations from other works , ranging from Mozart to Sondheim , plus one unmistakable interjection of Shostakovich . " It has been performed throughout the U.S. as an ideal pairing with Gianni Schicchi .
= Joseph F. Glidden House = The Joseph F. Glidden House is located in the United States in the DeKalb County , Illinois city of DeKalb . It was the home to the famed inventor of barbed wire Joseph Glidden . The barn , still located on the property near several commercial buildings , is said to be where Glidden perfected his improved version of barbed wire which would eventually transform him into a successful entrepreneur . The Glidden House was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 . The home was designed by another barbed wire patent holder in DeKalb , Jacob Haish . The property contains the house and two outbuildings ; the barn and the remains of an old windmill foundation . Constructed in 1861 , the Glidden House adheres mostly to a French Colonial style of architecture . The raised basement and full @-@ length porch are two of the architectural elements found on the Glidden House that are consistently found in French Colonial homes . The barn , a building of high historical significance , was not included as part of the National Register listing for the property until 2002 , nearly 30 years after the original nomination was approved . = = House = = The land that the Glidden House stands on is what remains of Joseph Glidden 's once large DeKalb County farm . His holdings stretched along Lincoln Highway , both the north and south sides , from the Kishwaukee River in the east to present @-@ day Annie Glidden Road on the west . The Glidden Farm went as far north as today 's Lucinda Avenue . The farm 's south border , near where Glidden would grant the Galena and Chicago Union Railroad right @-@ of @-@ way through DeKalb in the early 1990s was near present @-@ day Taylor Street . The two @-@ story Joseph F. Glidden House is constructed from locally fired brick , which is relatively soft . The softness of the brick has caused it to weather in a non @-@ uniform fashion . The brick is said to have been fired at a small brickyard which once existed on the Kishwaukee River in DeKalb , near the present @-@ day Lincoln Highway bridge . The home stands on a stone foundation and was designed by local carpenter and eventual barbed wire competitor to Glidden , Jacob Haish . Construction was completed in 1861 and the home is a prominent example of Illinois French Colonial architecture . = = = History = = = The land where the Glidden House stands once held a log structure , which Glidden lived in when he first came to DeKalb at the beckoning of his cousin Russell Huntley . The house was built in 1861 for barbed wire entrepreneur Joseph Farwell Glidden . As his personal residence , the house , and its accompanying barn , were closely associated with his invention , really just an improvement , of barbed wire . Glidden 's improvement upon a wire board fence developed by Henry Rose was of vast importance in the settlement of the United States west of the Mississippi . It was after Glidden saw Rose exhibit his wire at a fair in 1873 that he was struck with the idea of attaching barbs to wire strand fencing . Glidden is said to have experimented with some of his ideas in the basement kitchen of the Glidden House . He noticed that whenever he tried to attach barbs directly to strands of wire they slid along the length of the wire ; Glidden realized he needed a way to crimp the barbs . He began tinkering around the home 's kitchen . Glidden fit two hair pins to the shaft of a coffee mill , one centered and the other off @-@ center . He found that by placing the wire between the pins and turning the crank a uniform barb resulted . How to crimp the barbs to the wire was solved , in the barn , by tying one end of the wire and another length of wire to a poplar tree on the grounds of the Glidden House and the other ends of the wires to a grindstone . The grindstone was used to twist the wires together and prevent the barbs from slipping . Day @-@ to @-@ day life at the Glidden House was mostly carried out in the home 's basement which contained a full kitchen , dining room , and living room . The upper floors were used for guests and for sleeping quarters . In 1877 Glidden 's daughter , Elva , married William H. Bush in the homestead . As of 2006 extensive restoration work had been completed on the home . The front porch was repaired and restored and inside , the hardwood floors have been replaced and refinished . In addition , the front parlors have been repainted and restored . = = = Architecture = = = The home was mostly designed in a French Colonial style , though it contains some elements of Greek Revival architecture . French Colonial architecture was more popular in the American South than it ever was in the northern tier of states . = = = = Exterior = = = = The two @-@ story brick structure is supported by a fieldstone foundation and still features its original front porch . The porch spans the length of the building 's front ( south ) facade , at a height of about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . The porch is supported by four wooden pillars , which rest on stone bases . The stairs leading to the front porch are supported by two similar wooden posts , which , like the house , are set into fieldstone bases . The first step on the stairs was originally a limestone block embedded in the ground . The porch roof is supported by six wooden , bracketed pillars . The pillars are simple , with the brackets coming from the boxed capitals . At the rear of the porch wooden pilasters set at each end help to support the roof . Differentiating the home from the traditional French Colonial design is the porch roof , which is separate from the main roof . The house stands mostly as it did in 1861 save a few alterations . The front porch was screened in at the time the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places , the screens have since been removed . At the rear of the house a small porch was enclosed . In 1909 or 1910 there were major subtractions and replacements . Removed were a cast @-@ iron widow 's walk along the roof ridge and a large gable dormer , decorated in the same manner as the cornice decorating the roof trim . The present dormer replaced the larger one and is more of a low @-@ shed type . The roof itself is a low gable and dominated by single stack , straddle ridge chimneys at its east and west ends . The boxed roof trim is a decorated cornice . The low @-@ shed dormer is covered with green asphalt . The old widow 's walk , which a neighbor dubbed Glidden 's " obscuratory " , was balustraded and set just above the dormer . = = = = Interior = = = = The interior of the building is also similar to how it appeared when the house was constructed . However , a few changes have been made . In 1910 the two marble fireplaces were replaced by brick . The flooring has been replaced as needed . The home 's basement , once the main living area , has since been converted several times for other uses . On the first floor of the home the rooms remain much the same as they were when Glidden lived in the house . An original multi @-@ paneled wooden door remains at the entry from the porch to the central hall . The door , however , was altered , having glass panels installed to admit more light . The staircase is also original and its newel posts resemble those found in the Isaac and Harriet Ellwood House , another Haish designed home , and the Gurler House , whose architect is unknown though it was quite possibly Haish , both in DeKalb . On the house 's east side are three rooms , whose original presence is open to debate . The three rooms are interconnected , another common French colonial element . The room adjacent the porch was used as the Glidden 's dining room and is where the large brick fireplace , which replaced the marble one in 1909 , is located . The 1909 fireplace is of the American Craftsman style . At the end of the hall , near the kitchen , there is a full bathroom . The western part of the first floor is dominated by a large formal living room . The room has two entrances , one at the front of the hall , near the front door and the other at the back end of the hall . This was the room in which Elva Glidden married in the late 19th century . After 1941 the rear part of the living room , or " west " room , was walled off and a second kitchen added . When Jessie Glidden , the last Glidden to occupy the old homestead , moved in 1998 , the west room was restored to its original size and the second kitchen removed . The basement , and for part of the home 's history , the main living area , is accessed via a staircase at the back of the first @-@ floor hall . The steep stairs still show years of wear . One of the rooms off the main basement is the kitchen where Glidden is said to have experimented with the coffee grinder and his wife 's hair pins , eventually leading to his brand of barbed wire . The second @-@ floor served as the main sleeping quarters . It consists of a few simple bedrooms , all historically without closets . The upstairs hall contains a door which once accessed a staircase to the widow 's walk , what remains of the space has been used as a closet for over a century . = = Outbuildings = = The property has two remaining outbuildings . The barn is where Glidden invented his famous improvement on barbed wire . Dubbed " The Winner , " his barbed wire became the most popular version of the invention . Barbed wire is considered to be one of the most important factors in American progress and settlement . The other outbuilding on the property along historic Lincoln Highway are the remnants of a once dominating windmill . Though only the foundation remains , it gives a glimpse of how impressive the structure must have once been . = = = Barn = = = The Glidden Barn , located to the rear and east of the home , was thought to have been added to the National Register of Historic Places when the original nomination for the house was approved in 1973 . However , in the late 1990s , the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency revealed that the nomination included only the house . The Glidden Historical Center initiated the process of adding the barn to the Register . Those moves were approved by the Illinois Historic Sites Advisory Council in 2002 and the barn officially became part of the National Register . The barn was built sometime around 1871 , possibly even before , and is constructed of the same soft brick that makes up the exterior of the home . Tradition in the Glidden family holds that the barn , like the house itself , was designed and built by prominent local carpenter Jacob Haish . The famous barn , one of DeKalb County 's oldest remaining , stands a full two @-@ stories high , measuring around 50 feet ( 15 m ) tall , with a width of 30 feet ( 9 m ) . In February 2007 the Glidden Homestead and Historical Center kicked off a fundraising drive . The drive is aimed at raising US $ 2 million to expand the Joseph F. Glidden House site to include museum space and a media center . Some of the funds will be used to help restore the barn and expand historical center museum space into the building . = = = = Architecture = = = = The Glidden barn is of pole and beam construction . The second @-@ floor interior is dominated by two large transverse wooden beams . It is of the three @-@ bay , English tradition , the west bay containing a space for a stairwell leading to a hayloft and seven stalls . It is constructed of red brick and stands on a foundation of limestone . Glidden 's barn took full advantage of the term vernacular ; the brick was locally manufactured and the limestone locally quarried . The east bay of the barn contains an animal stall in its northeast corner and a fully enclosed office in its opposite corner . The second @-@ floor hayloft is supported by the two massive transverse beams . The full @-@ sized loft is accessible via an enclosed staircase against the south wall . The building 's exterior roof is fully supported by the brick walls . The result is a loft which is an entirely open space save for some pole and beam construction supporting the laminated beams , which act as tie rods at the base of the roof . The barn roof is a common gable roof pitched at a 45 degree angle , it was originally covered with wooden shingles , those have been replaced over the years with asphalt . The barn features extensive windows , somewhat unique outside of dairy barns , with a total of 14 eight @-@ paned , double @-@ hung windows dispersed over three sides of the rectangular structure , north , south and east . On the west side , facing the house , are seven smaller single @-@ pane windows . The double @-@ hung windows are topped with segmented arches constructed from a double row of bricks ; the north and south main entrances are also topped with segmented brick arches , each of three rows of bricks . = = = Windmill building = = = Only the foundation remains of the property 's windmill . What is left , ten rows of stone above the ground , is completely invisible when the home is viewed by passers @-@ by on Lincoln Highway . The windmill started to fall into disrepair around the 1930s or 40s . The original , specific use of the windmill is unknown .
= Judas ( Lady Gaga song ) = " Judas " is a song by American recording artist Lady Gaga , from her second studio album , Born This Way ( 2011 ) . It was released four days ahead of schedule by Interscope Records on April 15 , 2011 . Written and produced by Lady Gaga and RedOne , " Judas " is a dance and electro house song about a woman in love with a man who betrayed her . It embodies the incidents that have haunted Gaga in the past , and its core meaning refers to the negative parts of her life that she cannot escape . Gaga has further explained that the song was also about honoring one 's inner darkness in order to bring oneself into the light . The artwork for the single was designed by Gaga in Microsoft Word . In spite of a polarizing impact on several religious groups , the song was generally well received by critics , who likened the song to " Bad Romance " with some noting it should have been the album 's lead single . " Judas " received generally positive reviews from most music critics . The song has a similar sound to Gaga 's previous RedOne @-@ produced tracks , including " Poker Face " , " LoveGame " , " Bad Romance " , and " Alejandro " . It contains three distinct hooks and a house @-@ influenced break down . Gaga explained that the lines spoken during the breakdown talk about her as beyond redemption , regarding the traditional views of what a woman should be . " Judas " initially had a strong sales opening , but was less successful commercially in comparison to Gaga 's previous singles . The song reached the top ten of the charts in most major music markets , and also reached the top of the charts in South Korea . A music video for the song was filmed in April 2011 , co @-@ directed by Gaga and Laurieann Gibson and co @-@ starring Norman Reedus . It has a Biblical storyline where Reedus played Judas Iscariot and Gaga played Mary Magdalene . The video portrays them as modern day missionaries going to Jerusalem . It included the Biblical story of Judas betraying Jesus , and ended with Gaga as Magdalene getting stoned to death . Before its release , the Catholic League condemned Gaga for the use of religious imagery and her role in the video . However , the video was generally praised by critics and nominated for two awards at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards . Gaga has performed " Judas " on a number of television shows , including The Graham Norton Show , Saturday Night Live , Good Morning America 's " Summer Concert Series " , the French X Factor as well as on The Ellen DeGeneres Show . = = Background = = " Judas " was revealed as the name of the second single in Gaga 's interview for Vogue . Gaga confirmed the release of " Judas " as the second single , on Ryan Seacrest 's radio show on February 14 , 2011 , and also revealed RedOne as the co @-@ producer of the song . At the 53rd Grammy Awards , he told MTV News that if the previous single from Born This Way , the title track , polarized people , " Judas " was expected to shock them more . On the talk show Last Call with Carson Daly , Gaga explained to the host that " Judas " was about always falling in love with the wrong man over and over again . " ' Judas ' is a very , very dark song . It 's rad " , she added . With MSN Canada , Gaga revealed the metaphors and the meaning behind the song : 'Judas ' is a metaphor and an analogy about forgiveness and betrayal and things that haunt you in your life and how I believe that it 's the darkness in your life that ultimately shines and illuminates the greater light that you have upon you . Someone once said to me , ' If you have no shadows then you 're not standing in the light . ' So the song is about washing the feet of both good and evil and understanding and forgiving the demons from your past in order to move into the greatness of your future . I just like really aggressive metaphors — harder , thicker , darker — and my fans do as well . So it is a very challenging and aggressive metaphor , but it is a metaphor . Gaga further elaborated on the inspiration behind the song as walking towards the light force in her life and peering towards the devil in the back , while clutching onto the source of the light . " I sing about what a holy fool I am , and that although moments in my life are so cruel and relationships can be so cruel I ’ m still in love with Judas . I still go back again to those evil things , " she said . During her interview with Google , Gaga added to the song 's meaning as honoring one 's inner darkness in order to bring themselves into the light . One has to learn to forgive themselves in order to move on with their life . With Popjustice she clarified that she has a lot of things that have haunted her from her past , including her choices , men , drug abuse , being afraid to go back to New York , confronting old romances . Hence " Judas " represented something that was not good for her , something she could not escape . Gaga said : " I keep going back and forth between the darkness and the light in order to understand who I am . " = = Composition = = Garibay said that " Judas " sounded similar to many of Gaga 's previous singles , like " Poker Face " , " LoveGame " , " Bad Romance " , and " Alejandro " . According to Jocelyn Vena of MTV , " Judas " finds Gaga in a similar territory music @-@ wise but vocally she is in completely new territory ; according to Popjustice , in the verses and pre @-@ chorus , Gaga hurls herself into a decadent half @-@ sung , half @-@ rapped Jamaican Patois style . " Jason Gregory of Gigwise called the song a " heavy slice of electro @-@ house of the highest order " . The song contains three hooks , and begins with Gaga singing the line " Oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh , I 'm in love with Judas " , accompanied by building synths . This is followed by a thumping electronic beat , as Gaga sings , " Judahhh / Juda @-@ a @-@ ah / Gaga " . The utterance of these words are reminiscent of the opening verse in " Bad Romance " . Gaga 's vocals are partially spoken , and at times have a Caribbean accent . The first verse follows as : " When he comes to me I am ready / I 'll wash his feet with my hair if he needs / Forgive him when his tongue lies through his brain / Even after three times , he betrays me / I 'll bring him down , a king with no crown . " The tone lightens up on the song 's chorus , which is influenced by ' 80s pop in its melody , as the beat picks up a bit and Gaga sings , " I 'm just a holy fool / Oh , baby , it 's so cruel / But I 'm still in love with Judas , baby . " After the second verse and chorus , the song features a break down influenced by house music . Gaga chants the lines in the same way she does in the middle of " Born This Way " . Then she sings , " I wanna love you / But something 's pulling me away from you / Jesus is my virtue , Judas is the demon I cling to , I cling to . " In this section , Gaga 's vocals drew comparison to that of Rihanna 's by Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone . He also added that her voice sounded less dark and dramatic and was full of " bubbly sweetness " . Popjustice wrote that the breakdown sounded like tribal @-@ techno , and the whole song was " a turbo @-@ charged electrogothic wrongness anthem " . Dan Martin from NME wrote that the breakdown was in the dubstep genre with the chorus being " pure @-@ pop " . There were some similarities and influences of " Bad Romance " in the song , which Gaga said was deliberate . She explained that while sometimes it is important for her to push herself in new directions , she did want her characteristic sound to be imbibed in her records . " I wanted [ ' Judas ' ] to be an evolution from where I ’ ve been before but in terms of the formula I wanted there to be something about ' Judas ' that reminded people of what I ’ ve done in the past , " she added . According to the sheet music published on Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is written in the time signature of common time , and is composed in the key of C minor with a tempo of 131 beats per minute . Gaga 's voice ranges from the tonal nodes of B ♭ 3 to E ♭ 5 and the song follows a basic sequence of A ♭ – Fm7 – Cm – B ♭ – Cm as its chord progression . Gaga had posted some of the lyrics of the song in February 2011 , and next month she revealed more lyrics for " Judas " in the Google interview . Gaga also confirmed that the song was influenced by the Biblical Judas Iscariot . According to Popjustice , lyrically on the surface " Judas " is a song about being double @-@ crossed and contemplating revenge , but being repeatedly drawn to awfulness . The middle eight of the song , with the lyrics " But in the cultural sense I just speak in future tense . Judas kiss me if offenced , or wear an ear condom next time " , talks about Gaga being beyond the ability to redeem herself , in terms of the traditional views of what a woman is supposed to be . " But I don 't want to redeem myself , because in the cultural sense I believe that I 'm just before my time . And if you don 't like it , wear an ear condom , " she explained . The main portion of the song is about Gaga in private and the middle eight is about Gaga in public , two themes that are explored elsewhere on the parent album too . = = Artwork and release = = In the 42nd episode of Gaga 's web video series , called Transmission Gagavision , it was revealed that the single 's accompanying cover artwork was designed by Gaga in Microsoft Word and featured a black background with the word " Judas " written in red capital letters in Impact font . Below it was a red Christian cross with a heart in the middle . Gaga photographed the design on her computer screen using her cellular telephone " for texture , " which resulted in visible pixels on the letters and cross , as well as a faint reflection of her face and hands holding the phone , to appear on the cover . The episode showed Gaga sitting in a meeting with her creative team Haus of Gaga , discussing the specifics of her album release . Scattered around Gaga were a number of photographs , which were speculated by MTV as something " Judas " -related . On one photo the word " Judas " was printed with a cross on it . Jocelyn Vena from MTV felt that the artwork could have easily appeared in director Baz Luhrmann 's version of Romeo and Juliet ( 1996 ) . On the 41st episode of Transmission Gagavision , Gaga announced that the song was going to be released soon . She added the abstract message along with the announcement : " Let the cultural baptism begin . If they were not who you were taught they would be , would you still believe ? " " Judas " was scheduled to be sent to mainstream airplay on April 19 , 2011 , and digital retailers on the same day , but after the track was leaked to the internet , its release was brought forward to April 15 , 2011 . This was done to counteract the pre @-@ release leaks . Before the release , Gaga tweeted about the single , saying : " # PawsUpForJudas ! I 've learned love is like a brick , you can build a house or sink a dead body . " On April 15 , 2011 , hours before the song was played on radio she again tweeted : " Even After Three Times He Betrays Me , " she wrote , harking back to the song 's lyrics about love and betrayal . In the United Kingdom , the song premiered on The Capital FM Network on April 15 , 2011 , during their program Home Run . Gaga addressed the leak in the 43rd episode of Transmission Gagavision , likening it to a disembodiment , saying , " A slow death ! Just put me out of my f---ing misery , just put that sh-- out . They were tearing [ the song ] limb for limb . First it was the arm of the song , then the liver .... " = = Critical reception = = " Judas " was generally well received by most music critics . Jonathan Van Meter from Vogue gave the song a positive review , saying the song sounded like it was written for The Ronettes , but was set to a " sledgehammering " dance beat . MTV 's James Dinh noted that the song was very similar in its composition to " Bad Romance " . Popjustice also compared it to " Bad Romance " describing it as " a highly evolved , Titanium @-@ plated ' Bad Romance ' from the year 2511 travelling half a millennium back in time to save music from a tidal wave of ' in the club ' -obsessed pop drivel , and that 's ' Judas ' . " Kevin O 'Donnel from Spin felt that the song sounded like a rowdy , industrial @-@ disco banger , and described Gaga 's performance as " insanely over the top : She alternates between rapping , a robotic monotone , and a crow @-@ like squawk — before gliding into a more conventional chorus that hews closer to ' Bad Romance ' . " He complimented the primal energy of the music of " Judas , " and felt that the breakdown was one of the weirdest moments to hit the pop music scene in 2011 . Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson noted that the disconnection and deviation from Gaga 's previous single " Born This Way " was more pronounced with " Judas " . Musically he felt that " Judas " had the same " glitter @-@ jackhammer level as ' Born This Way ' , though the big anthemic chords are almost inverted — not unlike Inner City 's Big Fun vs. Good Life . It 's a good twin , evil twin thing . " Henderson continued that the song conjured the imagery of a disturbed vision of hell , and in a warped sense the song seemed more forward @-@ thinking to him and less of a message , " than the ' gay = great ' equation at the heart of ' Born This Way ' . " Amos Barshad from New York declared that the song reminded him of being drunk and dancing in a remote discothèque in Berlin . NME 's Dan Martin was of the opinion that " Judas " was the song that Gaga should have come back with . But he understood why she did not choose it as the lead single from Born This Way , given the fact that the song was characteristic of Gaga 's music . Pointing the same thing , Matthew Perpetua from Rolling Stone wrote that the song played to Gaga 's established musical sensibilities . He added that although " Judas " certainly had its own charms and " at least three insanely catchy hooks it leans hard on Gaga 's signature moves . " Maura Johnston of The Village Voice summarized the song as a twin of " Bad Romance " describing its " instantly memorable wordless vocalizing , a pummeling beat , lyrics about a romance that is , well , bad . " Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey gave the song five out of five stars , commending the " blasphemously camp " chorus and comparing it to be worthy of Eurovision – " a Scooch @-@ meets @-@ Lordi affair that , unsurprisingly , takes a few listens to get your head around . " Mark Lepage from The Gazette praised the song and understood that as Gaga 's music has progressed , so has her themes and inspirations , indicated by the conflicted relationship she has with the character Judas in the song . Rick Fulton , while writing in the Daily Record , compared it to " ' Like a Prayer ' on steroids " and gave it three out of five points . NME called the song " Gaga 's worst single so far " . = = Plagiarism allegations = = On August 4 , 2011 , Rebecca Francescatti , a Chicago @-@ based songwriter , filed a lawsuit against Gaga and Interscope for allegedly ripping off the song " Juda " from her album , It 's All About You . According to NBC Chicago , the bassist that worked on the song with Gaga , Brian Gaynor , also plays for Francescatti . A copy of the lawsuit revealed Francescatti seeks a cut from the profits " Judas " has earned , on a song that " copied and incorporated substantial , original portions " of the work . In June 2014 , the lawsuit was dismissed without trial by a Federal Judge in an act of Summary Judgment in Chicago , stating , in part , " The differences [ between the songs " Juda " and " Judas " ] so outweigh the purported similarities between the melodies that they cannot be said to be even remotely similar ” “ We agree with Defendants that the songs do not have common lyrics , the themes are different , and they do not sound at all alike musically . ” “ Thus , we find the similarity of expression to be , quite clearly , ‘ totally lacking . ’ The ( two songs ) are so utterly dissimilar that reasonable minds could not differ as to a lack of substantial similarity between them . ” = = Chart performance = = After its release to the digital outlets and radio , Billboard theorized that " Judas " would need to sell between 350 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 copies in two and a half days , and make a large number of radio listener impressions through the end of the airplay tracking period on April 19 , 2011 , in order to debut at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . The song debuted at number 30 on the Billboard Pop Songs chart with 1 @,@ 405 detections on 118 of the Pop Songs panel 's 132 reporting stations , translating to an opening audience of 13 @.@ 6 million . For the issue dated April 30 , 2011 , " Judas " debuted at number four on Hot Digital Songs chart with 162 @,@ 000 copies sold . It debuted at its peak position of number ten on the Hot 100 — Gaga 's third debut in the top 10 — and started at number 48 on the Radio Songs chart with 26 million audience . The next week " Judas " dropped two places on the Hot 100 , while selling 156 @,@ 000 downloads ( down 4 % ) in its first full week at retail . However , on Radio Songs , " Judas " jumped from number 48 to number 36 ( 34 million impressions , up 29 % ) , while also moving up to number 19 on the Pop Songs chart , reaching a peak of number 15 to date . " Judas " also debuted on the Hot Dance Club Songs Chart at number 38 , and on Adult Pop Songs at number 40 , for the issue dated May 14 , 2011 . It has since reached the top of the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Judas " has sold 984 @,@ 000 copies of digital downloads in the US as of April 2016 . " Judas " , " Marry the Night " and " G.U.Y. " have been her only singles to not sell over one million copies . In Canada , " Judas " debuted at number nine on the Canadian Hot 100 with three days of sales , entering the Digital Songs chart of Canada at number five with 16 @,@ 000 copies sold . The next week it moved up one position to its peak of number eight , while becoming the greatest gainer on the chart in terms of airplay . The song moved from number 66 to number 23 on the Canadian Hot 100 Airplay chart , with a 161 % increase in audience . In the United Kingdom , " Judas " debuted at number 14 on the UK Singles Chart on April 17 , 2011 , with 20 @,@ 729 copies . The next week it moved to number nine . The song debuted at number nine on the French Singles Chart with 5 @,@ 719 copies of the single , and has since reached a peak of seven . In New Zealand , " Judas " debuted at number 13 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on April 18 , 2011 , and also debuted at number six on the ARIA Singles Chart of Australia , which became its peak there . " Judas " was certified platinum in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In Ireland and Finland , " Judas " achieved a top @-@ five debut at positions four and three respectively . Other top @-@ ten debuts happened at Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Norway and Spain . In Japan " Judas " debuted at number seven on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 chart . The song debuted and peaked at number 23 in the German Singles Chart , ending her consecutive top @-@ ten placings in that charts since her debut " Just Dance " . = = Music video = = = = = Development = = = The music video for " Judas " was filmed on April 2 – 3 , 2011 , and was directed by Gaga and her choreographer , Laurieann Gibson . The following Sunday , Gaga had tweeted , " Directing Judas video with my sister @ boomkack is the most exciting artistic moment of my career . It 's the greatest work we 've done . Day 2 . " Her stylist Thierry Mugler and creative director Nicola Formichetti announced on the coming Monday that the shooting for the video was over . With MTV , Gibson explained the idea behind the video : " I will tell you now , first off , I 'm Christian , and my career is evidence of God in my life , and I think that most people are already thinking that Gaga and the blasphemy and they 're premeditating the approach and I think they 'll be very shocked to find out how huge and really groundbreaking the message is and how freeing the message is for all the right reasons . And it 's really going to shock the world . " The cast included Norman Reedus as Judas , while Gaga played the part of Mary Magdalene . Gibson and Gaga wanted to make sure the video 's direction was perfect — so they directed it themselves . Gibson explained that while working with Nick Knight on the music video for " Born This Way " , they had felt that the ideas presented did not execute in a way they wanted . But with the music video of " Judas " , the whole idea and the inspiration was clear enough . They had initially approached a director , but the dates did not work out with him , so Gaga 's manager asked her and Gibson to direct the video instead . Gibson said she took a moment before agreeing , as she had just wrapped up work on Gaga 's Monster Ball HBO special but she could not resist in the end . " It 's a phenomenal video : really powerful , really impactful . She 's such a strong , committed artist . Her loyalty to me is something I will be forever grateful for . We 're spiritually connected . We need each other ... and ' Judas ' is ultimately a representation of our true bond , " she added . With The Hollywood Reporter , Gibson explained that within the video they created a new Jerusalem . The shock value in the video was purposefully added , but ultimately the story was about oppression ; and about following one 's heart and the glory of being free . With NME magazine Gaga revealed that the video involved motorbikes and a death sequence . She also described the portrayal of her character as being " beyond repentance " , which evolved from the continuous media accusations towards her that " [ she 's ] trashy. or pretentious or this and that . [ The video ] is my way of saying ' I 've crossed the line , I won 't even try to repent . Nor should I ' . " Forgiveness and destiny also played a part in the video , and Gaga wanted to portray a Federico Fellini @-@ esque story with apostles being revolutionaries in a modern @-@ day Jerusalem . They are led to Jesus , by Gaga as Magdalene . Although initially reported to be premiered during an episode of the tenth season of American Idol , the music video premiered on May 5 , 2011 , on E ! News at 7 pm . = = = Synopsis = = = The video opens with a motorcycle gang cruising down a freeway , wearing studded leather jackets . The motorcycle gang are the Twelve Apostles who followed Jesus , including Judas . Gaga as Mary Magdalene clutches onto a Jesus @-@ like figure ( Rick Gonzalez ) who wears a golden crown of thorns . Among the riders is Judas ( Norman Reedus ) , who crosses Gaga 's bike as she looks meaningfully towards him . The gang passes under a flyover , when the song starts . They reach their rustic hideout called " Electric Chapel " where Gaga dances wearing a red sarong and a bikini top with crosses covering her nipples . Gaga 's character watches curiously as the wily Judas enters the biker club and immediately gets involved in a brawl . While trying to protect Jesus from the fights she attempts to warn him about his apostle 's impending betrayal , but becomes hypnotized by Judas ' allure . The storyline is interspersed with choreographed dance sequences and close @-@ ups of Gaga with stark imagery , including artistic eye make @-@ up , which was compared to the Egyptian Eye of Horus . Her flowing blonde hair is accented by a red bandana , blue leather top and puffy white dress in different parts of the clip . The blue top worn by Gaga displays the " Sacred Heart " , a depiction of what Jesus is said to have revealed as a symbol of his love for humanity . During the second verses , Gaga points towards Peter during the line " Build a house " , and towards herself during " Or sink a dead body " . After the second chorus , in a climatic sequence , the singer holds a gun up to Judas ' mouth , and a stick of red lipstick bursts out and smears his lips . The scene portrays Gaga 's choice to refuse to shoot Judas through the heart . As the breakdown ends , the music stops and Gaga is seen in a bathtub with Jesus and Judas , washing their feet and cleaning it with her hair . The sequence is interspersed with Gaga standing lonely on a rock as waves engulf her , the scene being reminiscent of artist Sandro Botticelli 's The Birth of Venus and Jesus marching towards his fatal destiny . The music restarts and Judas is shown pouring beer in the bathtub . Next Jesus is shown standing on a stage , surrounded by his supporters , the setting being inspired by scaffoldings present around newly constructed buildings in New York . Gaga kneels in front of Jesus and tries to explain something to him , but he places his palm on her head as Judas looks on . After Judas delivers the fateful kiss upon Jesus ' cheeks , marking him for his death , Gaga falls on the ground with a silent , anguished cry . The video ends with the death of neither Judas nor Jesus , but of Gaga as she 's stoned to death by the crowd . = = = Reception = = = Before its release , the Catholic League 's president William Anthony Donohue criticized the music video for its portrayal of Gaga as Mary Magdalene . He spoke exclusively to HollywoodLife.com about Gaga 's focus on Judas and Mary Magdalene , calling her " increasingly irrelevant " compared to people with " real talent " , and attacked her for seemingly purposefully debuting the song and video close to Holy Week and Easter . Gaga noted in an interview with E ! that the video was not meant to cause controversy in any way , jokingly adding " the only controversial thing about this video is that I 'm wearing Christian Lacroix and Chanel in the same frame . This video is not meant to be an attack on religion . I respect and love everyone 's beliefs . I 'm a religious and spiritual person who 's obsessed with religious art . I 'm obsessed with it . " After its release , the Catholic League released a further statement stating : " In her ' Judas ' video , Lady Gaga plays fast and loose with Catholic iconography , and generates several untoward statements , but she typically dances on the line without going over it . The faux @-@ baptismal scene is a curious inclusion , as is her apparent fondness for the Jesus character . But if anyone thinks the Catholic League is going to go ballistic over Lady Gaga 's latest contribution , they haven 't a clue about what really constitutes anti @-@ Catholicism . The video is a mess , incoherent , it leaves the viewer more perplexed than moved . " Jason Lipshutz from Billboard described it as a " motorcycle mayhem meets biblical betrayal . " MTV News ' James Montogomery called the video as a pure pop clip , " albeit one that looks great and is sure to earn the ire of a few folks on the religious right . " He added that " Judas " is , at its sacred heart , an artistic explosion contained within the confines of a traditional pop clip . Christian Blauvelt from Entertainment Weekly did not like the video at first , calling it her weakest effort to date and attributing it to Gibson 's choreography and the literal storyline . However , he admitted that after watching the video a few times , he became fond of it . Tris McCall from The Star @-@ Ledger felt that there was neither anything blasphemous about the video , nor anything too daring about it . McCall explained that the dancing in the video is a " pleasure to watch " , but would have been better if the camera work was more professional . According to him , the only eye @-@ catching prop in the video was the gun that turned into a lipstick . Matthew Perpetua from Rolling Stone was certain that the video would offend some Christians for its irreverent and highly sexualized take on Jesus Christ ; he also said that Gaga interpreted the Biblical story in her own style . Oscar Moralde from Slant Magazine complimented the production of the video by calling it " visually stunning " , while adding that " ' Judas ' is the work of a repertory , not a revolutionary . It takes familiar swatches from Gaga 's palette ( the leather @-@ and @-@ chain aesthetic of " Telephone " ; the plaintive , tear @-@ stained camera stare of " Bad Romance " ) and puts them all together for a competently executed work . " Phil Fox Rose , while reviewing the video for The Washington Post , gave it a positive review stating that he found it " moving , both artistically and spiritually . " He then went on to explain how the religion related accusations against Gaga were completely biased . VH1 found that the video was inspired by Madonna 's " Like a Prayer " , the films Our Lady of the Assassins , The Wild Angels and Romeo + Juliet , and the American television series Lost . NME named ' Judas ' the fourth worst music video ever , describing it as " an attempt to jump on the Madonna / Catholicism bandwagon that so incredibly misjudged it 's quite comical . " . Laurieann Gibson 's choreography to the song that was used in the music video was received positively . The video was nominated for Best Choreography at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards . Gaga 's fan bases hailed the choreography with many videos of them interpreting the choreography on YouTube . One notable video is of two Australian boys Jesse and Jermaine D 'Vauz dancing to the choreography in their bedroom , which was posted by Gaga on her Twitter page in May 2011 . Gaga tweeted : " JUDAS choreography by two sexy boys ! Swoon ! This is why I love my fans , you don 't skip a beat . " At the 2011 MuchMusic Video Awards , Gaga won the Best International Artist Video award for " Judas " . The song 's music video also received two nominations at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards , in the categories of Best Choreography and Best Art Direction ; however , the video won neither at the award show , losing to Beyoncé Knowles ' " Run The World ( Girls ) " in Best Choreography , and Adele 's " Rolling in the Deep " in Best Art Direction . = = Live performances = = On April 17 , 2011 , Gaga performed " Judas " at a nightclub called Kennedy Lounge , in Tampa , Florida , after her Monster Ball show in the city 's St. Pete Times Forum . Gaga performed " Judas " live on television for the first time on Ellen on April 28 , 2011 . She was accompanied by a string of male dancers , wearing black monk @-@ like garments , by her side . The song was performed as a dance @-@ filled number , with Gaga singing the lines while wearing a blue latex ensemble . According to James Dinh from MTV , the " choreography [ of the performance ] seemingly more difficult than in her usual performances , the singer showcased her best high @-@ energy moves . " As the music came to a close , she struck a pose before planting a kiss on the cheek of DeGeneres , who playfully replicated her stance . At the 2011 Cannes Film Festival , Gaga sang the song for French television show Le Grand Journal . Wearing a gold @-@ embellished ensemble , a red hood and a black @-@ and @-@ white hairstyle , Gaga performed an energetic version of the song accompanied by her male dancers , on a stage in front of the Mediterranean Sea . She explained to host Michel Denisot that the inspiration behind her look was the religious imagery and fashion portrayed in the " Judas " music video . " I 've been wearing very romantic , very biblical arrangements , and I always throw in some punk rock for good measure , " Gaga added . " Judas " was performed by Gaga on The Graham Norton Show on May 13 , 2011 , and two days later on Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Carlisle , Cumbria . " Judas " was the final song of the setlist , and she finished her performance by taking a bow with her dancers and musicians , as confetti rained on the crowd . Gaga sang " Judas " on the season finale of Saturday Night Live on May 21 , 2011 , after performing the piano version of " The Edge of Glory " . She was dressed in a black shiny top and knee high boots , with a metallic headgear . On May 27 , 2011 , Gaga also performed the song on Good Morning America as a part of their " Summer Concert Series " . She wore a black sheer dress with a gold bejewelled jacket , and gold @-@ studded bikini top and bottom . The stage was filled with steam billowing out of controlled machines . Gaga performed " Judas " on the X Factor in Paris on June 14 , 2011 , as a medley with " The Edge of Glory " . The performance started with Gaga playing a keytar for " The Edge of Glory " , wearing a fringed coat as well as a teal wig . She then removed the keytar and fringed coat , revealing a lingerie outfit which included a thong , and transitioned into " Judas " . A medley of " Judas " and " Born This Way " was the closing performance on the Paul O 'Grady Live show . Ryan Love of Digital Spy had a preview of the show 's recording , and felt that this was the best performance of the two songs by Gaga . The song was performed on The Born This Way Ball . She performed the song after a speech about betrayal and loyalty . The song was performed atop of one of the turrets of the castle . A shortened version was performed , cutting out the second verse and chorus . The song contained elements of the DJ White Shadow Remix . On the Born This Way Ball tour 's venue in Manila , Philippines , Lady Gaga faced threats of incarceration and lawsuits from nearly 200 Christians from the Biblemode Youth Philippines organization . The group marched to protest about her " blasphemous " music , taking particular offense to the song " Judas " , which they assert demeans Jesus Christ . Responding to the protests , Gaga said in an official statement , " I ’ m not a creature of your government , Manila , " and performed " Judas " anyway . Following the controversy , Roman Catholic legal authorities greenlighted the concerts for Monday , May 21 , 2012 and the following Tuesday , restricting nudity and acts deemed vulgar from the performance . Gaga was also injured while performing " Judas " in Auckland . She was struck accidentally on stage with a metal pole by one of her back @-@ up dancers , giving her a concussion . = = Track listing = = = = Credits and personnel = = Recording Recorded at Gang Studios ( Paris , France ) Mixed at Henson Studios ( Los Angeles , California ) Mastered at Oasis Mastering ( Burbank , California ) Personnel Lady Gaga – vocals , songwriter , producer , background vocals RedOne – songwriter , producer , vocal editing , vocal arrangement , background vocals , audio engineering , instrumentation , programming , recording Trevor Muzzy – recording , vocal editing , audio engineering , instrumentation , programming , audio mixing Dave Russell – additional recording Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering Credits adapted from Born This Way album liner notes . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= Jumping Flash ! 2 = Jumping Flash ! 2 ( Japanese : ジャンピングフラッシュ ! , Hepburn : Janpingu Furasshu ! 2 ) is a first @-@ person shooter platform video game developed by Exact and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation in 1996 . It is the direct sequel to Jumping Flash ! , which was released the previous year . It was later ported for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable via the PlayStation Network in 2009 . The game revolves around the robotic rabbit protagonist Robbit as he searches for lost Muu Muus , which are scattered throughout different levels in the game by the game 's new antagonist , Captain Kabuki . Robbit must explore each expansive new world to recapture all the lost Muu Muus . As with its predecessor , the game is presented in a first @-@ person perspective . Much of the interface was transferred from the first Jumping Flash ! to the second in order to save time during development . New features include a much longer draw distance , updated enemy AI and a meter displaying whether or not Robbit can triple @-@ jump . Similar to its predecessor , Jumping Flash ! 2 was well received by critics , who praised the game for its updated interface , advanced graphics and gameplay that " really [ excelled ] beyond the competition " . However , also like its predecessor , it was criticised for its short length , lack of challenging gameplay and close similarities to the first game . Despite this , Jumping Flash ! 2 gained enough popularity to spawn a final sequel , Robbit Mon Dieu . = = Plot = = The game is set after an undisclosed amount of time after the first instalment in the series , Jumping Flash ! . After Robbit denounces Baron Aloha 's plans to take over Crater Planet ( events from the first game ) , Aloha flees for his life and returns to his home planet , Little Muu . While planning his revenge , however , Aloha 's turn to face the fear of having his planet attacked comes . A hostile alien invader known as Captain Kabuki ( voiced by Lorelei King ) descends upon Little Muu and starts taking it apart , piece by piece , contrasting on what Aloha himself had once tried to do to Crater Planet in the first game . Aloha flees the onslaught in his space pod , and lands on an asteroid far away from Little Muu , where he calls for help from his sworn enemy , Universal City Hall . Once again , Robbit is dispatched to help , and manages to free the parts of Little Muu which Kabuki has taken , and ultimately faces Kabuki one @-@ on @-@ one in mortal combat . Robbit defeats Kabuki , resulting in the latter escaping . Still carrying a grudge against Robbit , Aloha seeks Kabuki and convinces him to form an alliance so that they can destroy Robbit together . In exchange , Aloha will pay Kabuki a large amount of money , and Kabuki , also desiring revenge against Robbit , agrees . Aloha and Kabuki attack Little Muu together , prompting Robbit to take action again . Eventually , Robbit and Kabuki battle each other one last time , and Robbit manages to destroy Kabuki once and for all while Aloha flees for his life once again . At the end of the game , Aloha returns to Little Muu , but is disowned by all the Muu Muus , who now resent him for teaming with Kabuki ( who had tried to destroy them all ) and trying to destroy Robbit , who had saved their lives . They throw him out of the bar and tell him to never come back . = = Gameplay = = The gameplay of Jumping Flash ! 2 is virtually identical to its predecessor ; the game is presented in a first @-@ person perspective , and the player can move freely in three @-@ dimensional world and rotate the camera in any direction . The user interface resembles much of the characteristics of its predecessor ; the top part of the screen shows the time remaining , the player 's score , and one of four of Robbit 's AI sidekicks who offers the player warnings , reminders and hints . Despite its similarities however , the gameplay offered many new changes . Instead of collecting four Jet Pods , the player @-@ character must rescue four MuuMuus in each level before exiting . Another new addition is the new interface , which displays one of Robbit 's travelling AI companions , a health bar , a timer and a jump @-@ meter that displays whether or not the player is eligible for a triple jump . Other new additions include the power orbs as an added power @-@ up and the ability to obtain Performance Medals . A certain Performance Medal may be awarded depending on how the player completes a level . For example , playing through a single level without firing any weapons will reward the player with the Flower Child medal . There are a total of twelve medals to collect . Identical to its predecessor however , the core of the gameplay is centred on the player 's ability to make Robbit jump and shoot projectiles at enemies . Robbit can jump up to three times ( as indicated by the new interface ) , allowing him to reach extreme heights in the game . As with the first instalment , Jumping Flash ! 2 introduced new in @-@ game power ups and weapons such as a powerful laser beam , missiles and trip mines . In addition to the new weapons , the player can find and use the older weapons in form of fireworks to deal massive damage to enemies . Other weapons include cherry bombs , rockets and Roman candles . The player still has the ability to shoot low @-@ powered projectiles where a target reticle is centred in the middle of the screen . = = Development and release = = As with the first instalment , Jumping Flash ! 2 was developed by Japanese developer Exact Co . , Ltd however Ultra Co . , Ltd was not involved in development . The game engine and most of the interface were transferred from its predecessor to Jumping Flash ! 2 in order to save time during the development . Despite the initial similarities the developers decided to give Jumping Flash ! 2 a much larger draw distance , higher quality textures , and updated enemy AI in order to give the game a more memorable first @-@ person 3D perspective . Jumping Flash ! 2 was not designed to be a technology demonstrator , unlike its predecessor . The music for both the first game and Jumping Flash ! 2 was composed by Japanese video games and anime music composer Takeo Miratsu . Many of the tracks were included with tracks from the previous game ( which Miratsu also composed the music for ) on the Jumping Flash ! 2 Original Soundtrack . The soundtrack was published by Antinos Records in Japan in 1996 . Jumping Flash ! 2 was re @-@ released as a downloadable game for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable via the PlayStation Network in 2009 , with the same controls and interface as the 1996 release . = = Reception = = Upon release , Jumping Flash ! 2 was received mostly positive review scores ( similar to its predecessor ) from critics and magazines alike . Many critics praised the new innovation the game offered ; IGN staff was impressed by the game 's newly expanded worlds and the inclusion of bonus worlds which were not included in the first game , however noted that despite not significantly different from the first , the game " still delivers " . Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu awarded the game as among the top 120 games reviewed by the publication in 2000 . Matthew House of GamePro also criticised the game on its difficulty and length ; stating that " while some games are extremely frustrating , this sequel is astonishingly easy the lack of the game 's challenging gameplay " . House however praised its playability and its improved graphic engine , respectively giving the game a score of three and a half stars out of five stars . Shawn Sackenheim of GamePro also found the main downfall of the game too short and too easy , however he noted the new Time Attack mode and the expansion of the storyline to be an interesting new feature that extended playability . Sackenheim established that despite the minor add @-@ ons and overhauled textures , Jumping Flash ! 2 was essentially a technical update of the 1995 original . Other criticisms conclude that the game was too short despite Game Revolution citing that the game offered a total of 32 levels if including the " repetitive " epilogue . Game Revolution also noted that Jumping Flash ! 2 was a " very worthy sequel with better graphics , higher jumps , and lots more levels " , and that upon release the game the gameplay " really [ excelled ] beyond the competition " .
= Burkhan Khaldun = The Burkhan Khaldun ( Cyrillic : Бурхан Халдун ) is one of the Khentii Mountains in the Khentii Province of northeastern Mongolia . The mountain or its locality is believed to be the birthplace of Genghis Khan as well as the location of his tomb . It is also the birthplace of one of his most successful generals , Subutai . The mountain is part of the 12 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 600 sq mi ) Khan Khentii Strictly Protected Area established in 1992 . It had strong religious significance before Genghis Khan made it a powerful landmark , but is considered the most sacred mountain in Mongolia since it was designated as sacred by Genghis Khan . It was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 4 July 2015 under the title " Great Burkhan Khaldun Mountain and its surrounding sacred landscape . " Under a Presidential Decree of 1955 the worship of this mountain has been formalised and the mountain declared a national monument . Its ecosystem is complex with unique biodiversity with flora of the Central Asian steppe . It has 50 species of fauna and 253 species of birds . = = Location = = Burkhan Khaldun is situated in the north @-@ east of Mongolia in the middle of the Khentii mountain range . The mountain is integral to the Khan Khentii Strictly Protected Area established in 1992 and which extends over an area of 12 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 600 sq mi ) . = = Geography = = Burkhan Khaldun means the " God Mountain " ( in Cyrillic ) and is also called Khentii Khan ( The King of the Khentii Mountain range ) . It is one of the Khentii Mountains in the Khentii Province of northeastern Mongolia . It is the highest mountain of the region , rising to an elevation of 2 @,@ 362 metres ( 7 @,@ 749 ft ) , and is crescent @-@ shaped . It is the source of several rivers : the Onon and Kherlen rivers flow into the Amur , which has its outfall in the Pacific Ocean ; and the rivers Tuul , Kharaa and Yeruu flow northwards to join the Selenge , which empties into the Arctic Ocean . It is in a complex ecosystem with unique biodiversity which is defined as a " transition zone from Siberian permafrost land forms to great steppe " . = = History = = Genghis Khan ( also known as Chinggis Khan ) lost his battle against the Merkit ( one of the major tribal confederations ( khanlig ) of the Mongols ) and escaped death by seeking protection in the sacred precincts of the Burkhan Khaldun mountains . An old woman saved him and a few others . As mark of great reverence to the mountain , which in Mongolia is considered a highly sacred mountain of spiritual significance , and to the sun above , he offered his respects to the spirits of the mountain around him , sprayed milk into the air and sprinkled it on the earth . He removed his girdle strap , unwinding it from his outfit , and then put it around his neck . Symbolically by this act he surrendered his Mongolian man 's pride and expressed his submission to the gods . He also took off his hat , crossed his hand across his chest and knelt in obeisance nine times offering worship to the sun and the mountain . He spent three days in the mountain offering prayers and thus established a strong bond of spirituality with the mountain and derived special strength from it . In the Secret History of the Mongols , Genghis Khan , who later became the " World Conqueror " believing in his own destiny , had said : Genghis Khan then started his campaign to unify the land and people of Mongolia as a strong force . He gave the Burkhan Khaldun the status of a royal sacred mountain . The history is chronicled in the “ Secret History of the Mongols ” , which UNESCO recognised in 1990 as a " literary creation of outstanding universal significance " . In this document Burkhan Khaldun is described in detail and finds mention 27 times , which signifies the unique position of the mountain in Mongolia ‘ s heritage . This document establishes the authenticity of the site , stating : A Presidential Decree of 1955 formalised the worship of the Burkhan Khaldun Mountain as a national monument . Special worship is offered to the mountain according to a prescribed procedure at the Main " Ovoo of the Heaven " ; it is reserved for a few officials of the state and local administration , shamans and a few Buddhist lamas ( monks ) . = = World heritage status = = Burkhan Khaldun was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site at the 39th session of the World Heritage Committee on 4 July 2015 under the title " Great Burkhan Khaldun Mountain and its surrounding sacred landscape " , covering an area of 443 @,@ 739 hectares ( 1 @,@ 096 @,@ 500 acres ) and an additional buffer zone of 271 @,@ 651 hectares ( 671 @,@ 260 acres ) , categorised under Criterion ( iv ) for its unique cultural tradition of mountain worship and nature worship of past several millennium , and ( vi ) for its universally known historical and literary epic of immense importance . = = Religious significance = = This mountain has a spiritual significance unmatched by any other mountain in Mongolia , and is given the symbolic status of the “ cradle ” of Mongolia 's nationhood fully representing the " heritage and traditional ways of life of nomadic people of Mongolia " . The ( unconfirmed ) Mongolian belief that Genghis Khan was born here and is buried somewhere in this mountain has added to the sanctity of the mountain , particularly since Khan offered worship here and declared the mountain as the most sacred in the country . It has given authenticity to the spiritual nature of the mountain , and as a result regular pilgrimage is under taken by the people to the three sacred major ovoos or stone cairns fixed at the sacred sites along a specified route where Mongolian shamanic worship is offered . The specified route is unique and covers : Main Ovoo of Heaven at the pinnacle of the mountain via Gurvan Khoriud ( " Three Forbidden Precincts " ) ; the Uud Mod ( " Two Trees of Entrance " ) ; the Bosgo Tengeriin Davaa ( " Threshold Pass of Heaven " ) ; the catchment of the Kherlen River and the Sacred Bogd Rivers ; and finally to the Beliin ( " Lowest " ) Ovoo . = = Flora = = The flora found in the mountain belongs to the Central Asian steppe and consists of coniferous forests of the taiga . The plant species reported are 28 listed in the Mongolian Red Book , 15 very rare species , and 28 species listed as rare species . The species listed in the IUCN Red List are also found here and these are : 2 critically endangered species , 4 endangered species and 8 vulnerable species . = = Fauna = = In the faunal geographical province of the Burkhan Khaldun Mountain in the Khentii district the fauna reported are more than " 50 species of 27 genera of six orders including five species of mammals / insectivores , 4 species of hymenoptera , four species of lagomorpha , 19 species of rodents , 13 species of predators , five species of ungulate , one species of reptile , and 253 species of birds . According to the Mongolian Red Data Book : the very rare mammal species are musk deer ( Moshus moshiferus ) and moose ( Alces alces ) ; the very rare bird species are the Siberian white crane ( Grus luecogeranus ) , Greater spotted eagle ( Aquila clanga ) , Pallas ’ s fish eagle ( Haliaeetus leucoryphus ) , white @-@ naped crane ( Grus vipio ) and hooded crane ( Grus monacha ) ; the fish species is the Amur sturgeon ( Acipenser schrenckii ) .
= USS Milwaukee ( CL @-@ 5 ) = USS Milwaukee ( CL @-@ 5 ) was an Omaha @-@ class light cruiser built for the United States Navy during the 1920s . The ship spent most of her early career assigned to the Asiatic and Battle Fleets . In 1941 she was assigned to the Neutrality Patrol until she was refitted in New York in late 1941 . She escorted a troop convoy to the Pacific in early 1942 before returning to the South Atlantic where she patrolled for German commerce raiders and blockade runners . In November , she intercepted one of the latter , but it scuttled itself before it could be captured . In 1944 she was temporarily transferred to the Soviet Navy and commissioned as Murmansk . The ship was returned by the Soviets in 1949 and sold for scrap in December . = = Description = = Milwaukee was 550 feet ( 170 m ) long at the waterline and 555 feet 6 inches ( 169 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 55 feet 4 inches ( 16 @.@ 9 m ) and a mean draft of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . Her standard displacement was 7 @,@ 050 long tons ( 7 @,@ 160 t ) and 9 @,@ 150 long tons ( 9 @,@ 300 t ) at full load . Her crew consisted of 29 officers and 429 enlisted men . The ship was fitted with a powerful echo sounder . The ship was powered by four Westinghouse geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam generated by 12 Yarrow boilers . The engines were rated at 90 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 67 @,@ 000 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . At deep load she carried 1 @,@ 852 long tons ( 1 @,@ 882 t ) of fuel oil that provided her a range of 6 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 000 km ; 7 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Milwaukee mounted a dozen 53 @-@ caliber six @-@ inch guns ; four in two twin gun turrets and eight in tiered casemates fore and aft . Her secondary armament initially consisted of two 50 @-@ caliber three @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts , but this was doubled to four guns during construction . Milwaukee was initially built with the capacity to carry 224 mines , but these were removed early in her career to make more space for crew accommodations . The ship carried above @-@ water two triple and two twin torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . The triple mounts were fitted on the upper deck , aft of the aircraft catapults , and the twin mounts were one deck lower , covered by hatches in the side of the hull . These lower mounts proved to be very wet and were removed , and the openings plated over , before the start of World War II . Another change made before the war was to increase the 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns to four , all mounted in the ship 's waist . The ship lacked a full @-@ length waterline armor belt . The sides of her boiler and engine rooms and steering gear were protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor . The transverse bulkheads at the end of her machinery rooms were 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick forward and three inches thick aft . The deck over the machinery spaces and steering gear had a thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches . The gun turrets were only protected against muzzle blast and the conning tower had 1 @.@ 5 inches of armor . Milwaukee carried two floatplanes aboard that were stored on the two catapults . Initially these were probably Vought VE @-@ 9s , but the ship operated Curtiss SOC Seagulls from 1935 and Vought OS2U Kingfishers after 1940 . = = = Wartime changes = = = After 1940 the lower aft six @-@ inch guns were removed and the casemates plated over . The ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented by two quadruple 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch gun mounts by early 1942 , although these were replaced by twin Bofors 40 mm gun mounts later in the war . At about the same time , Milwaukee received eight Oerlikon 20 mm cannon . = = Service history = = = = = Inter @-@ war period = = = The contract for Milwaukee , the third ship named for the city of Milwaukee , Wisconsin , was signed on 27 August 1917 and the ship was laid down by Todd Dry Dock & Construction Co . , at their Tacoma , Washington shipyard on 13 December 1918 . She was launched on 24 March 1921 and was commissioned on 20 June 1923 . During the ship 's shakedown cruise , she visited Sydney , Australia during the Pan @-@ Pacific Scientific Congress which opened on 23 August . With her new depth – finding equipment , Milwaukee surveyed the floor of the Pacific en route . " The Milwaukee Seamounts in the Northern Pacific are named after a set of soundings taken by Milwaukee in 1929 . " During Fleet Problem VI , she collided with her sister ship Detroit in Guantanamo Bay , Cuba , on 1 February 1926 , although neither ship was seriously damaged . Milwaukee and the destroyer Goff assisted victims of a fierce hurricane which had devastated the Isle of Pines in October 1926 . She was assigned to Cruiser Division 2 of the Asiatic Fleet in 1928 . During an engagement with " enemy " cruisers during Fleet Problem IX on 16 April 1930 , the ship was ruled to have been knocked out by the exercise 's umpires . Three years later , during Fleet Problem XIV , Milwaukee was spotted by fighters from the aircraft carrier Saratoga and sunk by some of the opposing cruisers . In 1933 , the ship was assigned to Cruiser Division 3 of the Battle Fleet . After the Panay Incident in December 1937 , Milwaukee made a cruise through the Western Pacific from January to April 1938 . While steaming north of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico on 14 February 1939 , Milwaukee discovered the deepest place in the Atlantic Ocean . The spot — which has a depth of 28 @,@ 680 feet ( 8 @,@ 740 m ) — is now known as the " Milwaukee Deep " . By January 1941 , the ship had returned to Cruiser Division 2 which was now assigned to the Caribbean Patrol , commanded by Rear Admiral Jonas H. Ingram , part of the Neutrality Patrol established after the war began . Cruiser Division 2 was ordered to patrol the Atlantic between Trinidad , the Cape Verde Islands and the eastern bulge of Brazil in April , although Milwaukee was not immediately available . The ship , escorted by the destroyers Somers and Jouett , began her first patrol in May , making a port visit to Recife , Brazil on 1 June , before returning to San Juan , Puerto Rico . These patrols continued in the same manner for most of the rest of the year . = = = World War II = = = = = = = South Atlantic = = = = Milwaukee , commanded by Captain Forrest B. Royal , was being overhauled in the Brooklyn Navy Yard when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December . The ship escorted a convoy to the Caribbean from New York on 31 December and then escorted eight troop transports from the Panama Canal to the Society Islands . She rejoined the South Atlantic Patrol Force upon her return and spend the next two years making patrols between Brazil and the African coast . On 19 May she received an SOS from the Brazilian cargo ship SS Commandante Lyra , which had been torpedoed by the Italian submarine Barbarigo off the coast of Brazil . Milwaukee found the freighter abandoned , burning , and listing to port . She rescued 25 survivors from their lifeboats , including the ship 's master . Reinforced by her sister Omaha and the destroyer McDougal , the fires were brought under control , cargo was jettisoned to lighten the ship , and Commandante Lyra was towed to Fortaleza , Brazil . Rear Admiral O. M. Read assumed command of Cruiser Division 2 in October and hoisted his flag aboard Milwaukee . On 21 November , Milwaukee , her sister Cincinnati and the destroyer Somers intercepted the German blockade runner Anneliese Essberger . When Somers had closed to 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 5 nmi ; 6 @.@ 4 km ) , the German ship scuttled herself to prevent capture . Milwaukee rescued 62 of the ship 's crew . On 2 May 1943 , while the ship was under repair at Recife , her crew helped to fight a fire on the oil tanker SS Livingston Roe . Milwaukee and Omaha collided on 31 May off the coast of Brazil , although the extent of the damage is not known . The ship sailed for the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 8 February 1944 , preparatory to her temporary transfer to the Soviet Union in lieu of Italian ships allotted after the Italian surrender that could not be delivered . She escorted a convoy to Belfast , Northern Ireland on 8 March before forming part of the escort of Convoy JW 58 during her voyage to Murmansk beginning on 29 March . = = = Soviet service = = = On 20 April , the ship was transferred on loan to the Soviet Northern Fleet in Murmansk . She was commissioned in the Soviet Navy as Murmansk and performed convoy and patrol duty in the Arctic Ocean for the remainder of the war . Afterward , she became a training ship and participated in the 1948 fleet maneuvers . On 16 March 1949 , Milwaukee was transferred back to the United States . She was the first of 15 American warships returned by Russia . She entered the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard on 18 March 1949 , and was sold for scrapping on 10 December to the American Shipbreakers , Inc. of Wilmington , Delaware .
= Les Holden = Leslie Hubert ( Les ) Holden , MC , AFC ( 6 March 1895 – 18 September 1932 ) was an Australian fighter ace of World War I and later a commercial aviator . A South Australian , he joined the Light Horse in May 1915 , serving in Egypt and France . In December 1916 , he volunteered for the Australian Flying Corps and qualified as a pilot . As a member of No. 2 Squadron on the Western Front , he gained the sobriquets " Lucky Les " and " the homing pigeon " after a series of incidents that saw him limping back to base in bullet @-@ riddled aircraft . He was awarded the Military Cross , and went on to achieve five aerial victories flying Airco DH.5s and Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s. Promoted to captain , Holden finished the war as an instructor with No. 6 ( Training ) Squadron in England , where his work earned him the Air Force Cross . After leaving the Australian Flying Corps in 1919 , he became a manager at the family firm of Holden 's Motor Body Builders and joined the part @-@ time Citizen Air Force , before setting up as a commercial pilot and establishing his own air service . In 1929 , he located Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm in the north @-@ west Australian desert after the pair was reported missing on a flight to England in the Southern Cross . Holden began transport operations in New Guinea in 1931 . He was killed the following year in a passenger plane crash in Australia . = = Family and early life = = Leslie Hubert Holden was born on 6 March 1895 in East Adelaide , South Australia , to travelling businessman Hubert William Holden and his wife Annie Maria . Les was the nephew of Henry Holden , who later founded the Adelaide @-@ based firm Holden 's Motor Body Builders with his son Edward . Hubert Holden landed a partnership with Nestlé in 1905 , and the family moved to Turramurra , New South Wales . Les completed his education at Sydney Church of England Grammar School , and joined Nestlé in 1911 as a salesman . By the time Australia entered World War I in August 1914 , he was an assistant manager . = = World War I = = Holden enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on 26 May 1915 , and was posted to the 4th Light Horse Brigade as a private . He departed for Egypt aboard the transport A29 Suevic on 13 June . Serving as a driver first in the Middle East and then on the Western Front , his mechanical ability and sense of adventure led him to volunteer for the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) in December 1916 . After qualifying as a pilot in England , he was commissioned a lieutenant and posted to No. 2 Squadron . Commanded by Major Oswald Watt , No. 2 Squadron 's personnel included many former Lighthorsemen , as well as mechanics from the AFC 's first combat formation , the Mesopotamian Half Flight . The force trained extensively in England commencing in January 1917 , before deploying to the Western Front that September . Holden was involved in the AFC 's first day of combat in France ; just after noon on 2 October , in the vicinity of Saint @-@ Quentin , he and his wingman engaged a German two @-@ seater that managed to escape . Because its Airco DH.5s were handicapped as fighters by engine problems and low speed , No. 2 Squadron was employed mainly in ground support duties . During the fog @-@ shrouded opening day of the Battle of Cambrai on 20 November , Holden bombed and machine @-@ gunned a German communications trench from altitudes as low as 20 or 30 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 or 9 @.@ 1 metres ) . He returned to a forward airfield near Havrincourt Wood with his plane " a flying wreck " , in the words of the official history of Australia in the war . " Every part of it was shot full of holes , including petrol @-@ tank , tail @-@ plane , both longerons , and part of the undercarriage , while the elevator control was shot clean away . " Two days later he repeated the exercise with similar consequences for his aircraft — " clear evidence of the dangers of the work and of his own good luck " , as the official history put it . This brace of close calls gained him the nicknames " Lucky Les " and " the homing pigeon " . He was recommended for the Military Cross on 3 December for his actions of 20 November . The award was promulgated in the London Gazette on 4 February 1918 , and the citation appeared on 5 July : Lt. Leslie Hubert Holden , F.C. For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . Whilst on a special mission he dropped a bomb direct on a support trench full of the enemy , causing them to scatter , and another bomb upon a strong point which was holding up our advance . He also bombed a large group of enemy infantry , and turned his machine gun on them from a height of 100 feet . He rendered very valuable service throughout the operations . Holden claimed his first aerial victory while No. 2 Squadron was still flying DH.5s , before it began converting to Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s in December 1917 . On 18 February 1918 , he shared in one of the unit 's first two victories in the S.E.5 , helping send an Albatros down in a spin . He claimed another three aircraft shot down over the following month , giving him a total of five victories . At least one of these took place during the Spring Offensive , on 22 March , when all available Allied aircraft were thrown into battle to stem the German advance . Royal Air Force policy required pilots to be rotated to home establishment for rest and instructional duties after nine to twelve months in combat . Promoted to captain in March 1918 , Holden was posted to England in May as a flying instructor with No. 6 ( Training ) Squadron at Minchinhampton . His unit was part of the 1st Training Wing , led by Lieutenant Colonel Watt , the former commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron . Holden briefly took command of No. 6 Squadron from 25 July to 11 August . He was awarded the Air Force Cross , promulgated on 3 June 1919 , for his skill as an instructor . = = Post @-@ war career and legacy = = No. 6 Squadron was disbanded in March 1919 . Along with many other Australian Flying Corps personnel including Colonel Watt , Major Roy King , and Captain Garnet Malley , Holden departed for Australia on 6 May aboard the troopship Kaisar @-@ i @-@ Hind , disembarking in Sydney on 19 June . He was discharged from the AFC on 18 August 1919 . After taking part in the Commonwealth Government 's Peace Loan flights , he joined Holden 's Motor Body Builders as its Sydney manager . In May 1921 , he served with Malley and other veteran pilots as a pall @-@ bearer at Watt 's funeral in Randwick . Holden married Kathleen Packman at St Mark 's Anglican Church in Darling Point on 3 June 1924 ; the couple had three daughters . On 19 June 1925 , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) established the Citizen Air Force as a part @-@ time active reserve , and Holden became one of its first recruits . Ranked flight lieutenant , he served as a pilot with No. 3 Squadron , which operated Airco DH.9s and S.E.5s. Formed at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , it transferred to the newly opened RAAF Richmond , New South Wales , during 29 – 30 June ; Holden and Malley touched down at Richmond with the first two S.E.5s on the 30th . Still hankering after a full @-@ time career in flying , Holden enlisted the help of friends to purchase a de Havilland DH.61 Giant Moth in 1928 . He named it Canberra , and used it to start a charter operation out of Mascot Aerodrome in Sydney . Holden became a national celebrity in April 1929 when he successfully undertook an aerial search of the north @-@ western Australian wilderness to locate Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm , after the pair had gone missing on a flight from Sydney to England in the Southern Cross . Two other searchers , Keith Anderson and Bob Hitchcock , were lost in their aircraft , the Kookaburra . The media of the day turned on Smith and Ulm , accusing them of a publicity stunt , and the Sydney Citizens ' Relief Committee , which had commissioned Holden to undertake the rescue operation , withheld payment of his expenses . He nevertheless continued flying commercially , and is credited with making — in September 1931 — possibly the first flight from Sydney to New Guinea , where he started an air freight service . Returning to Sydney the following year , he established Holden 's Air Transport Services . He also acquired two more aircraft for his New Guinea operations , a Waco and a Moth , to supplement the Canberra . On 18 September 1932 , Holden was travelling as a passenger aboard a New England Airways DH.80 Puss Moth from Sydney to Brisbane when it crashed at Byron Bay in northern New South Wales , killing him instantly . The other occupants , pilot Ralph Virtue and the joint owner of the Canberra , Holden 's schoolfriend Dr George Hamilton , also perished . Investigations determined that the Puss Moth , VH @-@ UPM , had gone down as a result of wing failure caused by aileron flutter . A crowded memorial service for Holden and Hamilton took place at Sydney Church of England Grammar School on 20 September ; they were cremated that afternoon at Rookwood Cemetery , where eighteen aircraft piloted by friends and associates of the pair overflew the chapel . Holden was survived by his wife and children . His father Hubert carried on operating Holden 's Air Transport Services , floating it as a public corporation and serving as chairman . Les Holden , George Hamilton , and one of their schoolmates who had also recently died , Henry Braddon , were commemorated with a memorial stained @-@ glass window at the Sydney Church of England Grammar School chapel in 1934 . Holden was also honoured by Holden Street , built in the Sydney suburb of Maroubra in 1943 .
= Habitat = A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal , plant , or other type of organism . The term typically refers to the zone in which the organism lives and where it can find food , shelter , protection and mates for reproduction . It is the natural environment in which an organism lives , or the physical environment that surrounds a species population . A habitat is made up of physical factors such as soil , moisture , range of temperature , and light intensity as well as biotic factors such as the availability of food and the presence or absence of predators . Every organism has certain habitat needs for the conditions in which it will thrive , but some are tolerant of wide variations while others are very specific in their requirements . A habitat is not necessarily a geographical area , it can be the interior of a stem , a rotten log , a rock or a clump of moss , and for a parasitic organism it is the body of its host , part of the host 's body such as the digestive tract , or a single cell within the host 's body . Habitat types include polar , temperate , subtropical and tropical . The terrestrial vegetation type may be forest , steppe , grassland , semi @-@ arid or desert . Fresh water habitats include marshes , streams , rivers , lakes , ponds and estuaries , and marine habitats include salt marshes , the coast , the intertidal zone , reefs , bays , the open sea , the sea bed , deep water and submarine vents . Habitats change over time . This may be due to a violent event such as the eruption of a volcano , an earthquake , a tsunami , a wildfire or a change in oceanic currents ; or the change may be more gradual over millennia with alterations in the climate , as ice sheets and glaciers advance and retreat , and as different weather patterns bring changes of precipitation and solar radiation . Other changes come as a direct result of human activities ; deforestation , the ploughing of ancient grasslands , the diversion and damming of rivers , the draining of marshland and the dredging of the seabed . The introduction of alien species can have a devastating effect on native wildlife , through increased predation , through competition for resources or through the introduction of pests and diseases to which the native species have no immunity . = = Definition and etymology = = The word " habitat " has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the Latin third @-@ person singular present indicative of habitāre , to inhabit , from habēre , to have or to hold . Habitat can be defined as the natural environment of an organism , the place in which it is natural for it to live and grow . It is similar in meaning to a biotope , an area of uniform environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants and animals . = = Environmental factors = = The chief environmental factors affecting the distribution of living organisms are temperature , humidity , climate , soil type and light intensity , and the presence or absence of all the requirements that the organism needs to sustain it . Generally speaking , animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities . Some plants and animals are generalists , and their habitat requirements are met in a wide range of locations . The small white butterfly ( Pieris rapae ) for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from Antarctica . Its larvae feed on a wide range of Brassicas and various other plant species , and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations . The large blue butterfly is much more specific in its requirements ; it is found only in chalk grassland areas , its larvae feed on Thymus species and because of complex lifecycle requirements it inhabits only areas in which Myrmica ants live . Disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitats . In the absence of disturbance , a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species . Wildflower meadows are sometimes created by conservationists but most of the flowering plants used are either annuals or biennials and disappear after a few years in the absence of patches of bare ground on which their seedlings can grow . Lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created . Similarly coastal habitats can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm and the algae swept away , or shifting sediment exposes new areas for colonisation . Another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat . = = Types of habitat = = Terrestrial habitat types include forests , grasslands , wetlands and deserts . Within these broad biomes are more specific habitats with varying climate types , temperature regimes , soils , altitudes and vegetation types . Many of these habitats grade into each other and each one has its own typical communities of plants and animals . A habitat may suit a particular species well , but its presence or absence at any particular location depends to some extent on chance , on its dispersal abilities and its efficiency as a coloniser . Freshwater habitats include rivers , streams , lakes , ponds , marshes and bogs . Although some organisms are found across most of these habitats , the majority have more specific requirements . The water velocity , its temperature and oxygen saturation are important factors , but in river systems , there are fast and slow sections , pools , bayous and backwaters which provide a range of habitats . Similarly , aquatic plants can be floating , semi @-@ submerged , submerged or grow in permanently or temporarily saturated soils besides bodies of water . Marginal plants provide important habitat for both invertebrates and vertebrates , and submerged plants provide oxygenation of the water , absorb nutrients and play a part in the reduction of pollution . Marine habitats include brackish water , estuaries , bays , the open sea , the intertidal zone , the sea bed , reefs and deep water zones . Further variations include rock pools , sand banks , mudflats , brackish lagoons , sandy and pebbly beaches , and seagrass beds , all supporting their own flora and fauna . The benthic zone or seabed provides a home for both static organisms , anchored to the substrate , and for a large range of organisms crawling on or burrowing into the surface . Some creatures float among the waves on the surface of the water , or raft on floating debris , others swim at a range of depths , including organisms in the demersal zone close to the seabed , and myriads of organisms drift with the currents and form the plankton . A desert is not the kind of habitat that favours the presence of amphibians , with their requirement for water to keep their skins moist and for the development of their young . Nevertheless , some frogs live in deserts , creating moist habitats underground and hibernating while conditions are adverse . Couch 's spadefoot toad ( Scaphiopus couchii ) emerges from its burrow when a downpour occurs and lays its eggs in the transient pools that form ; the tadpoles develop with great rapidity , sometimes in as little as nine days , undergo metamorphosis , and feed voraciously before digging a burrow of their own . Other organisms cope with the drying up of their aqueous habitat in other ways . Vernal pools are ephemeral ponds that form in the rainy season and dry up afterwards . They have their specially @-@ adapted characteristic flora , mainly consisting of annuals , the seeds of which survive the drought , but also some uniquely adapted perennials . Animals adapted to these extreme habitats also exist ; fairy shrimps can lay " winter eggs " which are resistant to desiccation , sometimes being blown about with the dust , ending up in new depressions in the ground . These can survive in a dormant state for as long as fifteen years . Some killifish behave in a similar way ; their eggs hatch and the juvenile fish grow with great rapidity when the conditions are right , but the whole population of fish may end up as eggs in diapause in the dried up mud that was once a pond . Many animals and plants have taken up residence in urban environments . They tend to be adaptable generalists and use the town 's features to make their homes . Rats and mice have followed man around the globe , pigeons , peregrines , sparrows , swallows and house martins use the buildings for nesting , bats use roof space for roosting , foxes visit the garbage bins and squirrels , coyotes , raccoons and skunks roam the streets . About 2 @,@ 000 coyotes are thought to live in and around Chicago . A survey of dwelling houses in northern European cities in the twentieth century found about 175 species of invertebrate inside them , including 53 species of beetle , 21 flies , 13 butterflies and moths , 13 mites , 9 lice , 7 bees , 5 wasps , 5 cockroaches , 5 spiders , 4 ants and a number of other groups . In warmer climates , termites are serious pests in the urban habitat ; 183 species are known to affect buildings and 83 species cause serious structural damage . = = Microhabitats = = A microhabitat is the small @-@ scale physical requirements of a particular organism or population . Every habitat includes large numbers of microhabitats with subtly different exposure to light , humidity , temperature , air movement , and other factors . The lichens that grow on the north face of a boulder are different to those that grow on the south face , from those on the level top and those that grow on the ground nearby ; the lichens growing in the grooves and on the raised surfaces are different from those growing on the veins of quartz . Lurking among these miniature " forests " are the microfauna , each species of invertebrate with its own specific habitat requirements . There are numerous different microhabitats in a wood ; coniferous forest , broad @-@ leafed forest , open woodland , scattered trees , woodland verges , clearings and glades ; tree trunk , branch , twig , bud , leaf , flower and fruit ; rough bark , smooth bark , damaged bark , rotten wood , hollow , groove and hole ; canopy , shrub layer , plant layer , leaf litter and soil ; buttress root , stump , fallen log , stem base , grass tussock , fungus , fern and moss . The greater the structural diversity in the wood , the greater the number of microhabitats that will be present . A range of tree species with individual specimens of varying sizes and ages , and a range of features such as streams , level areas , slopes , tracks , clearings and felled areas will provide suitable conditions for an enormous number of biodiverse plants and animals . For example , in Britain it has been estimated that various types of rotting wood are home to over 1700 species of invertebrate . For a parasitic organism , its habitat is the particular part of the outside or inside of its host on or in which it is adapted to live . The life cycle of some parasites involves several different host species , as well as free @-@ living life stages , sometimes providing vastly different microhabitats . One such organism is the trematode ( flatworm ) Microphallus turgidus , present in brackish water marshes in the southeastern United States . Its first intermediate host is a snail and the second , a glass shrimp . The final host is the waterfowl or mammal that consumes the shrimp . = = Extreme habitats = = Although the vast majority of life on Earth lives in mesophyllic ( moderate ) environments , a few organisms , most of them microbes , have managed to colonise extreme environments that are unsuitable for most higher life forms . There are bacteria , for example , living in Lake Whillans , half a mile below the ice of Antarctica ; in the absence of sunlight , they must rely on organic material from elsewhere , perhaps decaying matter from glacier melt water or minerals from the underlying rock . Other bacteria can be found in abundance in the Mariana Trench , the deepest place in the ocean and on Earth ; marine snow drifts down from the surface layers of the sea and accumulates in this undersea valley , providing nourishment for an extensive community of bacteria . Other microbes live in habitats lacking in oxygen , and are dependent on chemical reactions other than photosynthesis . Boreholes drilled 300 m ( 1 @,@ 000 ft ) into the rocky seabed have found microbial communities apparently based on the products of reactions between water and the constituents of rocks . These communities have been little studied , but may be an important part of the global carbon cycle . Rock in mines two miles deep also harbour microbes ; these live on minute traces of hydrogen produced in slow oxidizing reactions inside the rock . These metabolic reactions allow life to exist in places with no oxygen or light , an environment that had previously been thought to be devoid of life . The intertidal zone and the photic zone in the oceans are relatively familiar habitats . However the vast bulk of the ocean is unhospitable to air @-@ breathing humans , with scuba divers limited to the upper 50 m ( 160 ft ) or so . The lower limit for photosynthesis is 100 to 200 m ( 330 to 660 ft ) and below that depth the prevailing conditions include total darkness , high pressure , little oxygen ( in some places ) , scarce food resources and extreme cold . This habitat is very challenging to research , and as well as being little studied , it is vast , with 79 % of the Earth 's biosphere being at depths greater than 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . With no plant life , the animals in this zone are either detritivores , reliant on food drifting down from surface layers , or they are predators , feeding on each other . Some organisms are pelagic , swimming or drifting in mid @-@ ocean , while others are benthic , living on or near the seabed . Their growth rates and metabolisms tend to be slow , their eyes may be very large to detect what little illumination there is , or they may be blind and rely on other sensory inputs . A number of deep sea creatures are bioluminescent ; this serves a variety of functions including predation , protection and social recognition . In general , the bodies of animals living at great depths are adapted to high pressure environments by having pressure @-@ resistant biomolecules and small organic molecules present in their cells know as piezolytes , which give the proteins the flexibility they need . There are also unsaturated fats in their membranes which prevent them from solidifying at low temperatures . Hydrothermal vents were first discovered in the ocean depths in 1977 . They result from seawater becoming heated after seeping through cracks to places where hot magma is close to the seabed . The under @-@ water hot springs may gush forth at temperatures of over 340 ° C ( 640 ° F ) and support unique communities of organisms in their immediate vicinity . The basis for this teeming life is chemosynthesis , a process by which microbes convert such substances as hydrogen sulfide or ammonia into organic molecules . These bacteria and Archaea are the primary producers in these ecosystems and support a diverse array of life . About 350 species of organism , dominated by molluscs , polychaete worms and crustaceans , had been discovered around hydrothermal vents by the end of the twentieth century , most of them being new to science and endemic to these habitats . Besides providing locomotion opportunities for winged animals and a conduit for the dispersal of pollen grains , spores and seeds , the atmosphere can be considered to be a habitat in its own right . There are metabolically active microbes present that actively reproduce and spend their whole existence airborne , with hundreds of thousands of individual organisms estimated to be present in a cubic metre of air . The airborne microbial community may be as diverse as that found in soil or other terrestrial environments , however these organisms are not evenly distributed , their densities varying spatially with altitude and environmental conditions . Aerobiology has been little studied , but there is evidence of nitrogen fixation in clouds , and less clear evidence of carbon cycling , both facilitated by microbial activity . There are other examples of extreme habitats where specially adapted lifeforms exist ; tar pits teeming with microbial life ; naturally occurring crude oil pools inhabited by the larvae of the petroleum fly ; hot springs where the temperature may be as high as 71 ° C ( 160 ° F ) and cyanobacteria create microbial mats ; cold seeps where the methane and hydrogen sulfide issue from the ocean floor and support microbes and higher animals such as mussels which form symbiotic associations with these anaerobic organisms ; salt pans harbour salt @-@ tolerant microorganisms and also Wallemia ichthyophaga , a basidomycotous fungus ; ice sheets in Antarctica which support fungi Thelebolus spp . , and snowfields on which algae grow . = = Habitat change = = Whether from natural processes or the activities of man , landscapes and their associated habitats change over time . There are the slow geomorphological changes associated with the geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence , and the more rapid changes associated with earthquakes , landslides , storms , flooding , wildfires , coastal erosion , deforestation and changes in land use . Then there are the changes in habitats brought on by alterations in farming practices , tourism , pollution , fragmentation and climate change . Loss of habitat is the single greatest threat to any species . If an island on which an endemic organism lives becomes uninhabitable for some reason , the species will become extinct . Any type of habitat surrounded by a different habitat is in a similar situation to an island . If a forest is divided into parts by logging , with strips of cleared land separating woodland blocks , and the distances between the remaining fragments exceeds the distance an individual animal is able to travel , that species becomes especially vulnerable . Small populations generally lack genetic diversity and may be threatened by increased predation , increased competition , disease and unexpected catastrophe . At the edge of each forest fragment , increased light encourages secondary growth of fast @-@ growing species and old growth trees are more vulnerable to logging as access is improved . The birds that nest in their crevices , the epiphytes that hang from their branches and the invertebrates in the leaf litter are all adversely affected and biodiversity is reduced . Habitat fragmentation can be ameliorated to some extent by the provision of wildlife corridors connecting the fragments . These can be a river , ditch , strip of trees , hedgerow or even an underpass to a highway . Without the corridors , seeds cannot disperse and animals , especially small ones , cannot travel through the hostile territory , putting populations at greater risk of local extinction . Habitat disturbance can have long @-@ lasting effects on the environment . Bromus tectorum is a vigorous grass from Europe which has been introduced to the United States where it has become invasive . It is highly adapted to fire , producing large amounts of flammable detritus and increasing the frequency and intensity of wildfires . In areas where it has become established , it has altered the local fire regimen to such an extant that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires , allowing it to become even more dominant . A marine example is when sea urchin populations " explode " in coastal waters and destroy all the macroalgae present . What was previously a kelp forest becomes an urchin barren that may last for years and this can have a profound effect on the food chain . Removal of the sea urchins , by disease for example , can result in the seaweed returning , with an over @-@ abundance of fast @-@ growing kelp . = = Habitat protection = = The protection of habitats is a necessary step in the maintenance of biodiversity because if habitat destruction occurs , the animals and plants reliant on that habitat suffer . Many countries have enacted legislation to protect their wildlife . This may take the form of the setting up of national parks , forest reserves and wildlife reserves , or it may restrict the activities of humans with the objective of benefiting wildlife . The laws may be designed to protect a particular species or group of species , or the legislation may prohibit such activities as the collecting of bird eggs , the hunting of animals or the removal of plants . A general law on the protection of habitats may be more difficult to implement than a site specific requirement . A concept introduced in the Unites States in 1973 involves protecting the critical habitat of endangered species , and a similar concept has been incorporated into some Australian legislation . International treaties may be necessary for such objectives as the setting up of marine reserves . Another international agreement , the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals , protects animals that migrate across the globe and need protection in more than one country . However , the protection of habitats needs to take into account the needs of the local residents for food , fuel and other resources . Even where legislation protects the environment , a lack of enforcement often prevents effective protection . Faced with food shortage , a farmer is likely to plough up a level patch of ground despite it being the last suitable habitat for an endangered species such as the San Quintin kangaroo rat , and even kill the animal as a pest . In this regard , it is desirable to educate the community on the uniqueness of their flora and fauna and the benefits of ecotourism . = = Monotypic habitat = = A monotypic habitat is one in which a single species of animal or plant is so dominant as to virtually exclude all other species . An example would be sugarcane ; this is planted , burnt and harvested , with herbicides killing weeds and pesticides controlling invertebrates . The monotypic habitat occurs in botanical and zoological contexts , and is a component of conservation biology . In restoration ecology of native plant communities or habitats , some invasive species create monotypic stands that replace and / or prevent other species , especially indigenous ones , from growing there . A dominant colonization can occur from retardant chemicals exuded , nutrient monopolization , or from lack of natural controls such as herbivores or climate , that keep them in balance with their native habitats . The yellow starthistle , Centaurea solstitialis , is a botanical monotypic @-@ habitat example of this , currently dominating over 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 km2 ) in California alone . The non @-@ native freshwater zebra mussel , Dreissena polymorpha , that colonizes areas of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed , is a zoological monotypic @-@ habitat example ; the predators that control it in its home @-@ range in Russia are absent and it proliferates abundantly . Even though its name may seem to imply simplicity as compared with polytypic habitats , the monotypic habitat can be complex . Aquatic habitats , such as exotic Hydrilla beds , support a similarly rich fauna of macroinvertebrates to a more varied habitat , but the creatures present may differ between the two , affecting small fish and other animals higher up the food chain .
= Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Florida = The effects of Hurricane Dennis in Florida included 14 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 2005 US $ ) in damage . The tropical wave that became Hurricane Dennis formed on June 29 , 2005 , and proceeded westward across the Atlantic Ocean . It became a tropical depression on July 4 , a tropical storm on July 5 , and a hurricane on July 7 . Dennis rapidly intensified to attain Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and made landfall in Cuba where it weakened to Category 1 status , before re @-@ emerging in the Gulf of Mexico and re – intensifying . The storm made landfall as a Category 3 hurricane on Santa Rosa Island on July 10 . As Dennis was impacting Cuba , the outer rainbands affected the Florida Keys causing moderate wind gusts peaking at 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) on Sombrero Key . In central Florida , Dennis produced numerous tornadoes , one severely damaging a house . In Punta Gorda , three people were found dead in a car submerged in a ditch flooded by heavy rain . Dennis made landfall in the Florida Panhandle , causing moderate damage , although not as severe as previously predicted . Wind gusts peaked at 121 mph ( 195 km / h ) , and maximum rainfall reached 7 @.@ 08 inches ( 180 mm ) . Storm surge of 6 – 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 7 m ) inundated parts of St. Marks and nearby locations . During the height of the storm , approximately 236 @,@ 000 customers in the Florida Panhandle were without electric power . = = Preparations = = On July 7 , a tropical storm watch was issued for Florida 's Gulf coast from Bonita Beach southward , and for Florida 's Atlantic coast from Golden Beach to Ocean Reef . Later that day , a hurricane watch was issued for the Florida Keys and Florida Bay . By 2100 UTC , the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning for the Florida Keys . Subsequently , a tropical storm watch was issued for Florida 's west coast north of Bonita Beach to Longboat Key which was discontinued at 2100 UTC . At the same time , a hurricane watch was issued for Steinhatchee River , Florida to the mouth of the Pearl River . By 0900 UTC on July 9 , the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning just prior to the discontinuing of the hurricane watch for the Florida Keys . At 2100 UTC on July 9 , the tropical storm warning was lifted for Florida 's coast from Golden Beach to Flamingo , and for the Florida Keys from the Seven Mile Bridge eastward . By July 10 , all advisories for the Keys were discontinued and the hurricane warning was downgraded to a tropical storm warning for Florida 's coast east of the Ochlockonee River to the Steinhatchee River . By July 11 , all advisories were discontinued . About 50 @,@ 000 tourists in the Keys were forced to evacuate by July 8 . Governor Jeb Bush declared a statewide emergency , and evacuations started in the Florida Keys , a highly exposed chain of islands connected to the mainland by a single road and a series of bridges , stating that people " should have enough water , enough food , non @-@ perishable food , batteries of course for 72 hours so people could safely weather the storm " . Residents of the Florida Keys who did not evacuate were advised to remain indoors due to dangerous weather conditions that were predicted . At Cape Canaveral , the space shuttle Discovery was considered to be safe on its launching pad after concerns of unfavorable weather , and NASA re @-@ scheduled a liftoff the following week ; however , shuttle managers eventually decided to begin moving Discovery from the launching pad to ride out the storm . In Miami , the Booker T. Washington Senior High School opened as a voluntary evacuation shelter for all pre @-@ registered special needs residents . Also , the MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa evacuated its aircraft to McConnell Air Force Base near Wichita . In the Florida Panhandle , Governor Jeb Bush warned " This is serious . This is a very dangerous storm . " As Bush announced that hundreds of tractor @-@ trailers would be carrying ice , water and generators to staging areas in north central Florida , he stated " Here we go again " , referring to the large number of storms which had threatened Florida in the years prior to Dennis . 700 @,@ 000 people in the Florida panhandle were evacuated in the days prior to Dennis , 100 @,@ 000 of them in Escambia County alone . As a result of the large evacuations , more than 200 truckloads provided about 1 @.@ 8 million US gallons ( 6 @,@ 800 m3 ) of gasoline . The Red Cross put dozens of volunteers on standby to go into regions affected by the storm , and open shelters . The Red Cross also moved 60 mobile canteens , each capable of serving 30 @,@ 000 hot meals a day , to the staging points of Hattiesburg and Jackson . National guardsmen were mobilized , and four emergency medical teams , each capable of setting up a small field hospital , were on standby . Also , at Eglin Air Force Base , about 20 @,@ 000 military personnel were evacuated , and at Hurlburt Field , home to Air Force 's 16th Special Operations Wing , a mandatory evacuation was ordered for all 15 @,@ 000 airmen and their families . = = Impact = = = = = South Florida and Florida Keys = = = In southern Florida , damage was mostly limited to moderate wind gusts ; in Miami @-@ Dade County , gusty winds knocked out several traffic lights along U.S. 1 , the only route to and from the Florida Keys . A man died in Ft . Lauderdale when he stepped on a downed electrical wire and was electrocuted . Also , 100 @,@ 000 homes in Miami Dade County were without electric power . In the Florida Keys , Dennis passed to the west as a Category 2 hurricane producing winds of 59 miles per hour ( 95 km / h ) on Carysfort Reef Light . Rainfall peaked at 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) in the Monroe County Upper Keys . Damage in the Keys totaled $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2005 USD ) , mostly to landscape and electric utility equipment . During the height of the storm , 211 @,@ 000 customers were without electric power in South Florida and the Keys . Sand Key reported sustained winds of 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) with a gust to 78 miles per hour ( 126 km / h ) at 0820 UTC on July 9 , while the " C @-@ MAN " station at Sombrero Key reported sustained winds of 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) with a gust of 87 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) at 0800 UTC on July 9 . These strong winds pushed a vintage DC @-@ 3 plane about 300 yards ( 1000 ft ) down the tarmac at the Key West airport , which was closed during the storm . Maximum storm surge topped out at 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . In addition , a man drowned in a rip current off of Hollywood Beach . One beneficial effect of Hurricane Dennis was the rolling of the former USS Spiegel Grove . Spiegel Grove was sunk in Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary in an attempt to create an artificial reef . However , the ship turned over and landed on the bottom upside down . Efforts to roll the ship were partially successful , bringing it onto its starboard side , but Hurricane Dennis completed the roll , bringing Spiegel Grove into its intended upright position . = = = Central Florida = = = Damage was mostly minor and limited to outer rainbands and tornadoes in Central Florida . In the Tampa Bay area , several tornadoes were reported to have touched down causing minor damage such as downed trees and power lines . On July 8 , five tornadoes were officially reported , three of which caused damage . The most notable one left a path of damage one @-@ half mile wide , severely damaging a house . That same day , a wind gust of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) was reported at Pinellas . On July 9 , four tornadoes officially touched down , with the most notable one downing numerous trees and some powerlines . In Punta Gorda , three people were found dead in a car submerged in a ditch flooded by heavy rain . The road was covered with 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of water and caused the vehicle to hydroplane into a ditch where it flipped upside down . The victims were still wearing their seat belts when found . = = = Florida Panhandle = = = Hurricane Dennis made landfall as a Category 3 hurricane on Santa Rosa Island on July 10 . At Navarre Beach , sustained winds of 98 miles per hour ( 158 km / h ) were reported with a peak gust of 121 miles per hour ( 195 km / h ) , while a tower at the Pensacola Airport reported sustained winds of 82 miles per hour ( 132 km / h ) and a peak gust of 96 miles per hour ( 154 km / h ) . At the Pensacola Airport , a minimum pressure reading of 956 @.@ 3 mb was recorded and at Navarre , a pressure reading of 965 @.@ 2 mb was seen . Additionally , an unofficial storm chaser reported a minimum pressure of 942 mb at Pace , Florida . The most severe property damage occurred from Walton County to Wakulla County , where 1 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed . Numerous boats were ripped from the dock and either floated out to sea , or were washed ashore . In McDavid , the tin roof of the recreation center for Ray 's Chapel was ripped off as about 12 people stood in the hallway . Also , several historic sites were damaged or destroyed by Dennis ; Angelo 's on Ochlockonee Bay , a landmark restaurant , was completely washed away . Beach front cottages on St. Teresa were either damaged or destroyed and several beach dunes on St. George Island were washed away by the pounding surf . On Holiday Island , several houses and apartment buildings were severely damaged . On Santa Rosa Island , the hurricane produced a storm surge of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) , over washing parts of the low @-@ lying island on the eastern and western shores . In Apalachee Bay , storm surge of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) inundated parts of St. Marks and nearby locations , which was higher than previously anticipated and was thought to be enhanced by an oceanic trapped shelf wave that propagated northward along Florida 's west coast . As a result , sea water washed ashore up to eight blocks inland . The surge , in combination with the high surf , caused moderate beach erosion and wiped out 80 percent of the sea turtle 's nests . Along the coast , severe beach erosion occurred as a result of the storm , mostly in Walton , Bay , Gulf , Franklin and Wakulla counties . As a result of the pounding surf , the Navarre pier was ripped apart in two places . Milton received 7 @.@ 08 inches ( 180 mm ) of rain , which is the highest reported rainfall total in Florida caused by Dennis . Rainfall across the Florida Panhandle ranged from 3 inches ( 76 mm ) to 7 inches ( 180 mm ) , while rainfall across the central and southern portions of the state ranged from 1 inch ( 25 mm ) to 5 inches ( 130 mm ) near Tampa . In southern Leon County , flooding was reported with several areas under 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of water . At St. George Island , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of road and numerous buildings were damaged or destroyed . Parts of U.S. Route 98 were washed out by flood waters . As a result of the storm , over 236 @,@ 000 customers in the Florida Panhandle were without electric power . An indirect death occurred when a three @-@ year @-@ old boy was accidentally crushed to death when his father ran him over with a car as the family was evacuating . Two more people died from carbon monoxide poisoning in Escambia county . In all , two people were directly killed while several others were killed indirectly , and total damage amounted to $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 2005 USD ) . Directly after the storm , Bay , Dixie , Franklin , Gulf , Taylor , Wakulla and Walton counties were declared federal disaster areas . = = Aftermath = = In the aftermath of the hurricane , president George W. Bush declared 13 counties – Bay , Calhoun , Escambia , Franklin , Gulf , Holmes , Jackson , Monroe , Okaloosa , Santa Rosa , Wakulla , Walton and Washington – in Florida as federal disaster areas . Applicants , including units of local government , in 19 counties became eligible for Public Assistance funds for emergency services and debris removal and to help restore or rebuild essential public facilities . On July 10 , President Bush ordered the release of federal disaster funds and emergency resources for Florida to aid people effected by Dennis . One day after the storm made landfall , four disaster recovery centers were opened by disaster officials , two in Escambia County , and two in Santa Rosa County . Supplies of food , water and ice were supplied from staging areas to distribution centers throughout the Florida Panhandle . The American Red Cross and other voluntary agencies assisted with food and water distribution as well as emergency needs and housing . Subsequently , an additional disaster relief center was opened in Santa Rosa County . Just days after the storm , six additional counties became eligible for federal disaster aid . Voluntary agencies such as AmeriCorps , the Christian Contractors Association and the United Way provided assistance to residents who have temporary roofing and repair needs . Shortly after , three additional disaster relief centers opened on July 16 , with one being in Franklin County , one in Okaloosa County , and another in Wakulla County . Within a week , over 2 @,@ 100 individuals visited the Disaster Recovery Centers in Escambia and Santa Rosa counties . Another disaster recovery center opened in Franklin County on July 7 , and by July 18 , over $ 3 million ( 2005 USD ) in individual assistance applications for rental , housing and other needs assistance were approved . On July 23 , Dixie and Levy counties became eligible federal funds under its Public Assistance program for damages . By July 28 , all disaster recovery centers ceased operations on Sundays , although on August 4 , Gadsden County became eligible for Public Assistance funding . Two more disaster recovery centers opened on August 4 , one in Dixie County and one in Taylor County . By August 18 , over $ 24 million ( 2005 USD ) in individual assistance funds were collected for victims of Hurricane Dennis . On October 13 , the last disaster recovery centers ceased operations , although individual assistance funds were still being collected .
= Cho Ki @-@ chon = Cho Ki @-@ chon ( Korean : 조기천 ; 6 November 1913 – 31 July 1951 ) was a Russian @-@ born North Korean poet . He is regarded as " a founding father of North Korean poetry " whose distinct Soviet @-@ influenced style of lyrical epic poetry in the socialist realist genre became an important feature of North Korean literature . He was nicknamed " Korea 's Mayakovsky " after the writer whose works had had an influence on him and which implied his breaking from the literature of the old society and his commitment to communist values . After a remark made by Kim Jong @-@ il on his 2001 visit to Russia , North Korean media has referred to Cho as the " Pushkin of Korea " . Cho was dispatched by the Soviet authorities to liberated Korea when the Red Army entered in 1945 . By that time , he had much experience of Soviet literature and literature administration . The Soviets hoped that Cho would shape the cultural institutions of the new state based on the Soviet model . For the Soviets , the move was successful and Cho did not only that but also significantly developed socialist realism as it would become the driving force of North Korean literature and arts . Cho offered some of the earliest contributions to Kim Il @-@ sung 's cult of personality . His most famous work is Mt . Paektu ( 1947 ) , a lyrical epic praising Kim Il @-@ sung 's guerrilla activities and promoting him as a suitable leader for the new North Korean state . Other notable works by Cho include " Whistle " , a seemingly non @-@ political love poem which was later adapted as a popular song that is known in both North and South Korea . During the Korean War , Cho wrote wartime propaganda poems . He died during the war in a United Nations force bombing raid . He and his works are still renowned in North Korean society . = = Life and career = = Cho Ki @-@ chon was born to poor Korean peasants in the village of Ael 'tugeu in the Vladivostok District of the Russian Far East on 6 November 1913 . The Pacific region of the Soviet Union , where he lived , was a center for Korean independence activists . He particularly drew literary inspiration from Cho Myong @-@ hui , a fellow Korean writer living in the Soviet Union who – in believing in national emancipation by upholding socialist principles – had already written about anti @-@ Japanese guerillas . Thus he acquired a nationalistic and class conscious worldview in his literature . = = = Before emigrating from the Soviet Union = = = Cho studied at the Korean Teachers College in Voroshilov @-@ Ussuriysk between 1928 and 1931 . During that time , he was also a member of the communist youth league of the Soviet Union , Komsomol . Cho was initially supposed to enroll at the Moscow University , but he was robbed at a train station in Omsk . With no money , Cho was stranded and had to work at a kolkhoz in Omsk for the summer to get some . The rector of the Omsk University , Aleksandr Sergeevitch Slivko was touched by his fate and decided to admit him in the university . Thus , from 1933 until his graduation in 1937 , he attended the Faculty of Literature of the Gorky Omsk State Pedagogical University . Although he was not fluent in Russian upon entering the university , he graduated with excellent marks , and his time spent there amplified his Russian and Soviet sides . He returned to the Far East and took up teaching responsibilities at the Korean Pedagogical Institute in Vladivostok until all ethnic Koreans were forcibly moved to Central Asia , and the Institute along with Cho were relocated to Kzyl @-@ Orda , Kazakh SSR in 1937 . The following year Cho went to Moscow and tried to enroll at the Moscow Literature University , only to find himself arrested on the spot for breaking the law confining Koreans to Central Asia . He then returned to the Institute in Kzyl @-@ Orda and worked there until 1941 . Between 1942 and 1943 , Cho served in the Soviet 25th Army 's headquarters in Voroshilov @-@ Ussuriysk in desk duty , and in a similar assignment in the Pacific Navy in Khabarovsk between 1943 and 1945 and in the First Far Eastern Front from October 1945 . A part of his job was to write propaganda leaflets spread by the Soviet Red Army in Korea . Tatiana Gabroussenko thinks it is probable that he also translated the first speech given by Kim Il @-@ sung after the liberation , on 14 October 1945 , called " Every Effort for the Building of a New Democratic Korea " , into Korean . The original speech was written by Soviet officers . Cho entered North Korea with the Red army that year . = = = Creating model literature in North Korea = = = Immediately after the liberation of Korea , Soviet authorities sent Cho , who was fluent in both Korean and Russian , to North Korea in order to shape the country 's literary institutions on the Soviet model . Cho diligently followed the Workers ' Party 's instructions to " immerse [ oneself ] in the masses " and would visit factories , villages and farms and write poems based on these experiences . His experiences in the Soviet Union helped him in producing explicitly political works . Many other authors were not equally adept to write about political subjects and were reluctant to visit places of work . His role in shaping North Korean literature was to be pivotal . Cho 's early works Mt . Paektu ( MR : Paektusan , 1947 ) and Land ( MR : Ttang , 1946 ) would point out the direction that North Korean literature was about to take . These very works would soon become models for North Korean literature . Upon his return , he started writing for Chosŏn Sinmun , the Soviet Red Army 's Korean @-@ language paper , working as a correspondent and translator . He translated works of such Soviet poets as Mayakovsky , Gribachev , and Jambyl Jabayev . The literary circles of the time were divided based on divisions in North Korean politics as a whole . Cho associated himself with the other ethnic Koreans who had come from the Soviet Union . This literary group was close to the political Soviet Koreans faction . During the Korean War , Cho worked for Rodong Sinmun and also wrote propaganda poems . Before the war , he had been a member of the Standing Committee of the North Korean Literary and Art Federation . In 1951 , he was selected the vice @-@ chairman of the unified Korean Federation of Literature and Arts ( MR : Chosŏn munhakyesul ch 'ongdongmaeng , KFLA ) which was chaired by Han Sorya . He was a member of its subdivision called the Literature Organization ( MR : Munhak tongmaeng ) . = = Works = = = = = In the Soviet Union = = = While still at the Pedagogical Institute , Cho released a novel . The novel describes anti @-@ Japanese armed struggle , and is similar in content to his later work Mt . Paektu . The novel might have acted as a prototype for it . In addition to poetry and poetic criticism , Cho was interested in drama . Cho contributed to the creation of a drama called Hong Beom @-@ do , about the revolutionary Hong Beom @-@ do , by Tae Jang @-@ chun and other Koreans living in the Soviet Union . Mt . Paektu retains elements from this work , too . He published his first poem the age of 17 in a Korean newspaper , Sŏnbong , in Russia . Between 1930 and 1933 he wrote poems such as " The Morning of the Construction " , " To the Advanced Workers " , " The Military Field Study " and " Paris Commune " . While still in the Soviet Union , he also wrote poems " To Rangers " and " Outdoor Practice " . = = = In North Korea = = = After moving to North Korea , he released " New Year " . Other poems by Cho include : " Tuman River " ( MR : Tumanggang , 1946 ) about the sufferings of Koreans under Japanese rule and " Our Way " ( Uri @-@ ŭi kil , 1949 ) on Soviet @-@ Korean friendship . The Song of Life ( Saeng 'ai @-@ ŭi Norae , 1950 ) is a long epic about industrialization . It praises the country 's developing industry but fails to take note of its roots in Japanese projects during the occupation . It also features a theme often found in Stalinist fiction : " class enemies " that seek to hamper progress . Other poems include : Land , " Aircraft Hunters " , " On the Burning Street " ( Pul 'anŭn kŏriesŏ , 1950 ) , " Korean Mother " ( Chosŏn @-@ ŭi ŏmŏni , 1950 ) , " My Heights " ( Na @-@ ŭi koji , 1951 ) , " We are Korean Youth " ( Urinŭn Chosŏn Ch 'ŏngnyŏnida , 1951 ) as well as lyric poems " Swing " ( Kŭne ) and " Sitting On a White Rock " ( Hŭin pauie anjaso , 1947 ) . The serial poem Resistance in Yosu ( Hangjaeng @-@ ŭi yŏsu ) tells about the Yosu uprising in South Korea . The lyric epic Land was written on the Workers ' Party 's orders on producing works about the land reform in North Korea after the liberation , and was the first poem to describe the topic . Cho wrote lyrics for " Mungyong Pass " , a song about Korean People 's Army soldiers fighting their way through Kyonggi to Ryongnam . While all of the poems are thoroughly ideological , some South Korean scholars such as Yi Chang @-@ ju of the North Research Institution , have sought to emphasize Cho 's lyrical side in order to " domesticate " him to serve rapprochement between the two countries ' cultural orientations . Some of Cho 's poems have been adapted into popular music lyrics that enjoy popularity in the South as well as the North . " Whistle " ( Hŭip 'aram ) , " Willow " ( Suyang pŏtŭl ) and " Swing " are love songs that were inspired by a more relaxed cultural atmosphere following the translation of Russian @-@ language poetry into Korean . These influence include Mikhail Isakovsky 's " Katyusha " , to which " Whistle " in particular bears likeness . " Whistle " , adapted as a popular song in 1990 , is often seen in the South as a non @-@ political song . However , according to Gabroussenko , South Korean observers often fail to notice the political and cultural elements borrowed from Isakovsky and Soviet lyrical poetry . In " Whistle " , for instance , the couple embodies exemplary socialist traits : = = = = Mt . Paektu = = = = Cho 's long epic poem Mt . Paektu was written in February 1947 and published in 1948 in Rodong Sinmun . It was the first poem written about Kim Il @-@ sung , whom the original version of the poem simply refers to as " Commander Kim " . The poem is a classic in literature portraying the anti @-@ Japanese struggle and tells the story of the Battle of Pochonbo which took place in 1937 . The poem inextricably links Kim Il @-@ sung 's person with Paektu Mountain , the namesake height of the poem ; a connection that has remained central in North Korean propaganda to this day . The poem has its origins in Cho 's fascination with the anti @-@ Japanese guerrillas , including Rim Chun @-@ chu and Ch 'oe Hyŏn , with whom he had met . The creation of the epic was politically motivated , too , as the Soviets , who had dispatched Cho to North Korea , wanted to strengthen Kim Il @-@ sung 's grip on power . Publications presenting him as a legendary anti @-@ Japanese hero were needed , and so Mt . Paektu was born . The work is dedicated " to the glorious Soviet Army that liberated Korea " , and is written with the Soviets and not the Koreans in mind . Due to vigorous promotion of a " mass culture " in both the output and readership of literature , copies of Mt . Paektu were printed by the hundreds of thousands , more than any work in the history of Korean literature before that . Generally speaking , the poem was well received . The public was interested and young readers acclaimed it . It was liked in the KFLA as it employed revolutionary romanticism in its portrayal of Kim . Kim personally liked the poem , too , and began visiting Cho 's home . In his memoirs With the Century , Kim writes that he was the first person to listen to Cho recite the poem and liked its " jewel @-@ like sentences " . More than aesthetic , Kim says he was attracted to the content and they both " shed tears " when Cho chanted a passage about fallen comrades . In truth , the content of Mt . Paektu exaggerates Kim Il @-@ sung 's activities during the liberation struggle . The poem presents Kim as having heroic , transcendental , humane and warm qualities . He is represented as a popular hero that the people look up to , suggesting that he is the right person to lead the newly established state . Politically , Mt . Paektu was very effective in the newly founded state . As such , it became a " new classic " , a model for the cult of personality of Kim Il @-@ sung perpetuated by subsequent works of literature in North Korea . According to B. R. Myers , the work exemplifies particular traits of an early cult of personality built upon Soviet Marxism – Leninism and bloc conformity , which were soon replaced by Korean ethnic nationalism of writers like Han Sorya . While Cho 's Kim Il @-@ sung is a brilliant strategist who has masculine qualities like strength and intellect , in Han 's works he embodies traditional Korean virtues of innocence and naivity having " mastered Marxism – Leninism with his heart , not his brain " . The ethnically inspired style of Han would establish itself as the standard of propaganda over Jo 's . Benoit Berthelier , however , sees continuity in Cho 's work and contemporary propaganda . According to him , Cho can be credited with having created a genre of " revolutionary romanticism " , which systematized the use of legends and supernatural imagery in Kim and his followers ' cult of personality . Long epic poetry was not a popular genre in North Korea before Mt . Paektu , but it was in the Soviet Union where Cho had immigrated from . Poema and Mayakovsky 's prosody and poetry were also among Cho 's influences that can be seen in Mt . Paektu . These Russian stylistic influences gave Mt . Paektu its peculiar characteristics that prompted mixed reactions from the North Korean public . For instance , some in the literature circles were unfamiliar with the concept of a lyrical epic and thought of it as an improbable amalgam of genres , criticizing the work for being indistinguishable from ordinary prose . According to Alzo David @-@ West , lecturer at Aichi Prefectural University and North Korea Review newsbrief editor , the relatively favorable reaction to Mt . Paektu compared to some other literature testifies to North Korean readership being capable at being both a receptive and a dismissive audience . South Korean scholars have presented two competing views about Mt . Paektu : academics of the older generation typically dismiss Mt . Paektu as " personality cult literature " . Younger generation minjung and leftist scholars , however , see guerrillas other than Kim Il @-@ sung — such as Ch 'ŏl @-@ ho , Kkot @-@ pun , and Sŏk @-@ jun — and by extension , the people , as the " hero " of the story . For some of them , like Sin Tong @-@ ho , excluding the role of others than Kim Il @-@ sung is an outright obstruction for creating a national unity in literature . The 1947 text has been revised three times because of changes within the political system of North Korea to produce " heavily revised chuch 'e [ Juche ] editions " : in 1955 , 1986 and 1995 . The original version of the poem invokes Russian Civil War heroes Vasily Chapayev , Nikolay Shchors and Sergey Lazo , while a newer revision omits them and concentrates on indigenous assets : The work was adapted on stage by Han T 'ae @-@ ch 'ŏn . It has been translated into English , Arabic , French , German , Russian , Spanish , Chinese , Japanese , and Mongolian . Of these , the Mongolian one was deemed " distorted " by North Koreans and sparked a diplomatic crisis in 1976 , resulting in expulsion of the Mongolian ambassador to the country . = = Death and legacy = = Cho died on 31 July 1951 in his office room in Pyongyang during a United Nations forces ' bombing raid in the war . Mt . Paektu received the National Prize , first class , in 1948 . Cho 's works were awarded the Festival Prize , the country 's highest literary honor , modeled after the Stalin Prize . He also was awarded the Order of the National Flag , second class , for his work during the war in 1951 , as well as a posthumous National Prize , first class , in 1952 for his cycle of poems Korea is Fighting ( MR : Chosŏnŏn Ssaunda , 1951 ) . His resting place is at the Patriotic Martyrs ' Cemetery , in Pyongyang . Today , Cho is regarded as the founding father of North Korean socialist realist poetry , or indeed poetry in general , or even North Korean literature as a whole . In the mid @-@ 1950s many Soviet Koreans , including Cho 's close friends , were discredited in purges . According to Gabroussenko , Cho 's untimely death in 1951 may have spared him his reputation and ensured his continued popularity in North Korea today .
= Cyclone Ivy = Severe Tropical Cyclone Ivy ( Fiji Meteorological Service designation : 05F , Joint Typhoon Warning Center designation : 13P ) was a tropical cyclone that affected about 25 % of the population of Vanuatu in February 2004 . It was first classified as a tropical disturbance on February 21 between Vanuatu and Fiji . The system tracked northwestward , gradually organizing and intensifying . After attaining tropical storm status on February 23 , Ivy strengthened more quickly as it turned southwestward toward Vanuatu . It attained peak winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) while moving over Vanuatu , making it an intense Category 4 cyclone on the Australian Region Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale . By the time it passed through Vanuatu , Ivy had turned southeastward , and it gradually weakened while accelerating . After becoming extratropical on February 28 , it passed just east of New Zealand and eventually dissipated on March 2 . The third significant cyclone in 14 months to affect the region , Ivy produced heavy rainfall and high winds in Vanuatu . Due to advance warning , only two people were killed , and several people were injured . The high winds damaged about 11 @,@ 000 houses , leaving many people homeless . The cyclone passed very close to the Vanuatu capital city of Port Vila , forcing the evacuation of about 2 @,@ 000 people and shutting down the main port . Cyclone Ivy also affected the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia with rainfall , and later it produced high waves in New Zealand that killed two people . Because of its severe damage on Vanuatu , the name Ivy was retired following its usage . = = Meteorological history = = In the middle of February 2004 , a monsoon trough formed in the southwest Pacific Ocean during the middle of a Madden – Julian oscillation pulse . A low pressure area developed along the trough , and the Fiji Meteorological Service ( FMS ) designated it Tropical Disturbance 5F on February 21 about halfway between Vanuatu and Fiji . Initially , the system was moving little and had a circulation that was detached from the primary area of convection . On February 22 after the thunderstorms increased , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) initiated advisories on the disturbance with the designation Tropical Cyclone 13P . Shortly thereafter , the FMS reported that the disturbance developed into a tropical depression , although the convection was transient and displaced from the circulation . The system tracked west @-@ northwestward , due to a ridge located to its south . With low wind shear and good outflow , the system gradually organized , with the circulation becoming situated underneath the convection . At 0300 UTC on February 23 , the FMS upgraded it to a tropical cyclone and gave it the name Ivy while the storm was about 510 km ( 315 mi ) northeast of Port Vila , Vanuatu . After being named , Ivy quickly intensified after its convection was drawn into the circulation . Late on February 23 , the JTWC upgraded Ivy to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , and the FMS followed suit the following day by upgrading Ivy to a severe tropical cyclone as continued favorable conditions allowed for rapid deepening . On February 24 the cyclone began a turn to the southwest as it moved around the ridge , and the next day it turned to the south toward Vanuatu as an approaching shortwave trough passed to the south and created a weakness in the ridge . A nearby upper @-@ level low temporarily cut off outflow , although once it moved further away the low enhanced ventilation . Strengthening continued and , late on February 25 , the FMS reported that Ivy attained peak 10 – minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) over the Vanuatu archipelago ; this made it a Category 4 on the Australian Region Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale . Around the same time , the JTWC estimated peak 1 – minute sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) , after a 19 km ( 12 mi ) eye developed . After passing slowly through Vanuatu , Ivy began accelerating to the southeast and its eye passed very close to the capital city of Port Vila , after moving over the island of Epi . As the cyclone moved away from the island group , it underwent an eyewall replacement cycle . In addition , the combination of cooler water temperatures , greater wind shear , less outflow , and land interaction with Vanuatu caused gradual weakening . Late on February 27 , Ivy entered the area of warning responsibility of the Wellington Regional Specialized Meteorological Center . The convection rapidly diminished and left the circulation exposed , and Ivy transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on February 28 . It remained strong and maintained a well @-@ defined circulation as it passed just east of East Cape , New Zealand . Continuing southeastward , the extratropical remnants crossed the International Dateline on February 29 , and Ivy dissipated about 1800 km ( 1100 mi ) southeast of New Zealand on March 2 . = = Preparations and impact = = While Ivy was reaching peak intensity , it passed through Vanuatu , becoming the third major cyclone in 14 months to affect the region , after Cyclone Zoe and Cyclone Gina . Its threat prompted over 2 @,@ 000 people in Port Vila to evacuate . While Ivy moved through the country , a station on Anatom island recorded winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , which were the highest sustained winds observed in the nation . In addition , the cyclone dropped heavy rainfall , reaching 254 @.@ 4 mm ( 10 @.@ 02 in ) at Bauerfield International Airport in Port Vila . The central area of deep convection moved across every island in the archipelago . As the cyclone moved through Vanuatu , it cut off communications between the various islands , and also knocked Radio Vanuatu offline . Overall there was widespread moderate damage , with small areas of heavier damage . The cyclone affected more than 54 @,@ 000 people – about 25 % of the population – on various islands , including Paama , Epi , Ambrym , eastern Malekula , northern Aoba , and northern Maewo . On Ambrym island , the winds wrecked the roofs of houses and downed trees and vegetables . Overall , about 11 @,@ 000 houses were damaged , and a large proportion of the 24 @,@ 000 people in Ivy 's path became homeless due to the destruction of their houses , with many buildings made of iron and bamboo wrecked . In addition , the winds downed trees and power lines . Heavy damage occurred in the capital city of Port Vila , where flooding washed out small bridges . Strong waves wrecked the main port there and also capsized two boats . High winds downed trees and blocked roads across the capital , with 70 % of the nation 's roads affected . Several people were injured due to flying debris , and one person was severely injured due to the storm . The high winds affected 80 % of the nation 's food crops , including the loss of much of the mango and banana crops as well as the ruination of about 75 % of the coconut and cocoa crops . The latter loss was significant due to its status as a cash crop . The cyclone damaged 90 % of the water facilities across the archipelago . It also damaged about 60 % of the health centers , as well as 112 schools , some of which were completely destroyed . Monetary damage was estimated at VT427.6 million ( 2004 VUV , $ 3 @.@ 8 million 2004 USD ) . Due to advance warning , there were only two deaths in Vanuatu , including one when a landslide killed a woman on Malakula island . In addition to affecting Vanuatu , Ivy produced heavy rainfall in Tikopia and Anuta , two small islands in the southeastern Solomon Islands . Later , intense rainbands spread across the Loyalty Islands in New Caledonia . Along the Bay of Plenty in New Zealand , the extratropical remnants of Ivy produced high waves that killed two people in Whakatane . The storm produced a 1 in 10 year storm surge as it passed the country that peaked at 1 @.@ 04 m ( 3 @.@ 4 ft ) at Omaio . The surge , in combination with waves , reached about 5 m ( 16 ft ) at Papamoa , based on the position of debris on the beach . Wind gusts reached 79 @.@ 7 km / h ( 49 @.@ 5 mph ) at the Whakatane Airport , and the combination of winds and waves produced beach erosion along the coast . = = Aftermath = = The local Red Cross offices in Port Vila and Luganville prepared general relief supplies before the storm 's arrival , including tents , tool kits , and first aid units . By four days after the cyclone 's passage , the main wharf in Port Vila was re @-@ opened and the two sunken boats were removed . Additionally , the evacuees were allowed to return to their homes , and communications between the various islands were restored . The Red Cross distributed various relief supplies to the affected citizens , including candles , matches , water , and blankets . By about two weeks after the storm , about 30 @,@ 000 household relief packages were distributed . The Vanuatu government allocated VT25 million ( 2004 VUV , $ 236 @,@ 000 2004 USD ) for the affected citizens . Overall , the cyclone severely affected the daily lives of the Vanuatu citizens . On Tanna island , the cyclone 's passage produced a malaria outbreak . In the immediate aftermath , the New Zealand Red Cross provided $ 10 @,@ 000 ( 2004 NZD ) for essential relief supplies . In addition , the New Zealand government provided $ 70 @,@ 000 for assistance in the most affected areas , after the country 's Air Force dispatched a plane over Vanuatu to determine the extent of damage . The Government of Australia similarly sent a helicopter reconnaissance mission to determine damage , as well as two planes with $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2004 AUD ) in relief supplies , including 2 @,@ 400 tarps , 2 @,@ 600 water containers , and 5 @,@ 200 packets of water purification tablets . The French government also sent a helicopter and assistance as per the 1992 FRANZ Agreement between New Zealand , Australia , and France . Due to the severity of damage wrought by the cyclone , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Ivy following its usage and replaced it with Irene . Ivy was retired along with earlier Cyclone Heta ; the two were the only named storms to form within the basin that season .
= Solipskier = Solipskier is a sports video game for Adobe Flash , iOS , and Android developed and published by Mikengreg , a two @-@ man independent development team consisting of Michael Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend . In Solipskier , the player draws the snowy slope for an on @-@ screen skier to pass through slalom gates and tunnels . The character accelerates with downhill sections and can launch into the air to perform tricks and earn a higher score . The idea came from a brainstorming session about parallax scrolling with speedy action in the foreground and the ability for the player to " paint " the terrain . It was Boxleiter and Wohlwend 's first game to receive public appreciation . It was released August 29 , 2010 to generally favorable reviews and was a runner @-@ up in the 2011 Game Developers Conference Independent Games Festival 's Best Mobile Game category . = = Gameplay = = In the sports game Solipskier , the player draws the ground for the on @-@ screen skier to pass through a level filled with gates , tunnels , and walls . Drawing an incline , for example , will launch the skier into the air to perform tricks , and a downhill section will accelerate the skier . Upcoming obstacles are indicated at the right of the screen along with the necessary altitude and distance . A streak of successful passes through gates will accrue a bonus score . The skier 's speed also increases with time . As an endless runner ( compared to Canabalt ) , the characters advance until they die , as there is no end . If the skier travels fast enough , he loses his headphones , which cuts out the background music to the sound of the wind passing by . The player receives " All Star Dunk Contest @-@ like scorecards " after landing big jumps . Solipskier also has an online leaderboard , and offers tips for new players to improve their scores . It focuses on style and emotion from the player @-@ character 's terminal speed rather than on jumps and tricks . It also has a hard rock guitar soundtrack . = = Development = = Solipskier was designed for the Adobe Flash platform . Michael Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend had worked on Flash games earlier as Intuition Games . The idea for the game came from a brainstorming session about parallax scrolling , and was revised in fits of creativity . They paired the parallax scrolling with speed , and eventually Boxleiter " blurted out with wide @-@ eyes " that the player could " paint the terrain to determine the speed of the character " . They chose a snow or snowmobile theme and began to prototype that same night . Boxleiter used skills he had acquired from previous games ( heightmaps from Dinowaurs and bitmap drawing from EON ) to make a mockup within hours : a red ball that moved along with a slope ( made with the mouse ) and floated down slowly when suspended in air . He added three gates to create a slalom skiing course and a sense of distance and speed , which was not apparent otherwise . Boxleiter then set up indicators to show the incoming gates , though he thought it was odd to have the indicators move to the right as the gate moved to towards the player ( to the left ) . There was no parallax scrolling implemented in this phase . Meanwhile , Wohlwend mocked up a 2D course in grayscale , with humps of mountains . He originally designed the visuals such that there would be nothing on the screen where the player had not painted , which was later cut . After seeing Boxleiter 's draft , he used crisp colors to make distinct gate markers and made the foreground highly contrast with the background . Their early drafts had a nighttime theme and included an aurora that was later cut due to difficulty of implementation in Flash . Wohlwend left the character design for last as his " weak point " . Boxleiter was particularly inspired by the idea of a skier replacing the snowmobile , and set up the parallax scrolling and motion blur , which made the skier appear to go faster . He also added the " tunnel " idea as a series of gates . They animated the skier , who they gave an " ego @-@ tastic " large head on a stick figure body , and decided to not use tutorials , opting for a game that began with the player 's first click . Wohlwend 's rainbow trail effect was added as a scarf or cape ( which later became a rainbow burst behind the player ) , and the scoring mechanics were refined to reward players who took risks by letting the skier fly through the air without touching the screen . This was partly inspired by the Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater series . The title refers to a combination of solipsism and skiing . The game was their first to receive public appreciation . Boxleiter first understood its potential when publishers fought for the bid to the game . At the time , it was solely designed for Flash and not iOS , though they were interested in making bigger games outside the Flash market . They announced the game in mid August 2010 , where they revealed that the game would release on Flash ( through Kongregate ) and iOS simultaneously , which happened on August 29 , 2010 . Joe Bergeron , a programmer who had previously worked on Dinowaurs with Mikengreg , helped with the iOS version of the game . Solipskier made around $ 70 @,@ 000 in its first two months ( as compared to $ 15 @,@ 000 from the Flash release ) , which let them work in other non @-@ Flash mediums in the future . They released an Android version three months later . = = Reception = = The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . It was a runner @-@ up in the 2011 Game Developers Conference Independent Games Festival 's Best Mobile Game category . IGN 's Levi Buchanan praised the art direction , especially the rainbow scarf against the gray , monotone background . Chris Hall of 148Apps called it " the most original since Fastar " . Hall praised the touch of having the headphones fall off , with the contrast between the hard rock guitar and the rushing natural wind , but criticized the complex scoring system . Edge 's Chris Donlan , on the other hand , appreciated the trade @-@ offs between the different opportunities to score higher . Hall of 148Apps added that Solipskier did not look as great on a Retina Display . Tim Rattray of Slide to Play called the graphics " pure eye candy " . He felt that the game was " unique , but a ' one @-@ trick pony ' combination of fast Canabalt and platform @-@ drawing Line Racer " . Likewise , IndieGames.com felt Solipskier 's novelty was ephemeral . Pocket Gamer 's Mark Brown called its difficulty " steeper than the Alps " . Pocket Gamer listed the game as one of the toughest and best indie games in 2011 , one of the best endless runners in 2012 , and a " hidden gem " in 2013 .
= The Botanic Garden = The Botanic Garden ( 1791 ) is a set of two poems , The Economy of Vegetation and The Loves of the Plants , by the British poet and naturalist Erasmus Darwin . The Economy of Vegetation celebrates technological innovation , scientific discovery and offers theories concerning contemporary scientific questions , such as the history of the cosmos . The more popular Loves of the Plants promotes , revises and illustrates Linnaeus 's classification scheme for plants . One of the first popular science books , the intent of The Botanic Garden is to pique readers ' interest in science while educating them at the same time . By embracing Linnaeus 's sexualized language , which anthropomorphizes plants , Darwin makes botany interesting and relevant to his readers , but his reliance on conventional images of women when describing plants and flowers reinforces traditional gender stereotypes . Darwin emphasizes the connections between humanity and plants , arguing that they are all part of the same natural world and that sexual reproduction is at the heart of evolution ( ideas that his grandson , Charles Darwin , would later turn into a full @-@ fledged theory of evolution ) . This evolutionary theme continues in The Economy of Vegetation which contends that scientific progress is part of evolution and urges its readers to celebrate inventors and scientific discoveries in a language usually reserved for heroes or artistic geniuses . Because amateur botany was popular in Britain during the second half of the eighteenth century , The Botanic Garden , despite its high cost , was a bestseller . Nevertheless , the poem 's radical political elements , such as its support of the French revolution and its criticism of slavery , angered conservative British readers . Darwin 's attempt to popularize science and to convey the wonders of scientific discovery and technological innovation through poetry helped initiate a tradition of popular science writing that continues to the present day . = = Historical background = = In the 1760s and 1770s , botany became increasingly popular in Britain because of the translation of Linnaeus 's works into English . One of the most prominent books about botany was William Withering 's Botanical Arrangement of all the Vegetables Naturally Growing in Great Britain ( 1776 ) , which used Linnaeus 's system for classifying plants . Withering 's book went through multiple editions and became the standard text on British plants for a generation . The book delighted and intrigued experts , amateurs , and children alike . One of the effects of Withering 's book was that it provoked a debate over the translation of Linnaeus 's works . Withering aimed for an Anglicized translation of Linnaeus 's Latin that also stripped the nomenclature of its sexualized language . Although he wanted to make botany widely available , he believed that women readers should be protected from any mention of sexuality . In his preface he writes : " from an apprehension that botany in an English dress would become a favourite amusement with the ladies , . . . it was thought proper to drop the sexual distinctions in the titles to the Classes and Orders . " Darwin held the opposite position ; he maintained that Linnaeus 's works should be translated as literally as possible and that the sexual references in the nomenclature should be retained . In 1783 and 1787 , the Botanical Society of Lichfield , founded by Darwin and several of his friends specifically to translate Linnaeus 's works , issued their own English translation , A System of Vegetables , that categorized over 1400 plants . Assisted by Samuel Johnson , they coined over fifty new botanical words ; it is this work , along with the group 's The Families of Plants that introduced the words stamen and pistil into the English language , for example . By 1796 their translation had prevailed and Withering was forced to adopt their vocabulary in later editions of his work . = = = Linnaean system = = = The reliability and usefulness of the Linnaean system was a subject of much debate when Darwin was composing The Loves of the Plants , leading scholars to conclude that one of his intentions in publishing the poem was to defend the Linnaean classification scheme . Linnaeus had proposed that , like humans , plants are male and female and reproduce sexually ; he also described his system using highly sexualized language . Therefore , as scholar Janet Browne writes , “ to be a Linnaean taxonomist was to believe in the sex life of flowers . ” In his poem , Darwin not only embraced Linnaeus 's classification scheme but also his metaphors . At the same time that he was defending Linnaeus 's system , however , Darwin was also refining it . Linnaeus classified plants solely on the number of reproductive organs they had , but Darwin 's poem also emphasized “ proportion , length , and arrangement of the [ sexual ] organs ” . = = Writing and publication = = Inspired by his enjoyment of his own botanical garden but primarily by Anna Seward 's poem “ Verses Written in Dr. Darwin 's Botanic Garden ” ( 1778 ) , Darwin decided to compose a poem that would embody Linnaeus 's ideas . ( Darwin would later include an edited version of Seward 's poem in The Loves of the Plants without her permission and without acknowledgment . Seward was rankled by this treatment and complained of Darwin 's inattention to her authorial rights in her Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin . ) According to Seward , Darwin said that “ the Linnean System is unexplored poetic ground , and an [ sic ] happy subject for the muse . It affords fine scope for poetic landscape ; it suggests metamorphoses of the Ovidian kind , though reversed . ” Darwin may have also thought of The Love of the Plants “ as a kind of love song ” to Elizabeth Pole , a woman with whom he was in love and would eventually marry . Concerned about his scientific reputation and curious to see if there would be an audience for his more demanding poem The Economy of Vegetation , he published The Loves of the Plants anonymously in 1789 ( see 1789 in poetry ) . He was stunned at its success and therefore published both Loves of the Plants and Economy of Vegetation together as The Botanic Garden in 1791 . Joseph Johnson , his publisher , eventually bought the copyright for The Botanic Garden from him for the staggering sum of ₤ 800 . When Johnson published The Botanic Garden in 1791 , he charged twenty @-@ one shillings for it , a hefty price at the time . Seward wrote that " the immense price which the bookseller gave for this work , was doubtless owing to considerations which inspired his trust in its popularity . Botany was , at that time , and still continues a very fashionable study . " However , the high price would also have discouraged government prosecution for a book that contained radical political views . Any subversive ideas that the poem contained were therefore limited to an audience of the educated elite who could afford to purchase the book . = = The Loves of the Plants = = = = = Structure and poetic style = = = Suggesting the passing of a single day , The Loves of the Plants is divided into four cantos , all written in heroic couplets . A preface to the poem outlines the basics of the Linnaean classification system . Guiding the reader through the garden is a “ Botanic Muse ” who is described as Linnaeus 's inspiration . Interspersed between the cantos are dialogues on poetic theory between the poet and his bookseller . The poem is not a narrative ; instead , reminiscent of the picaresque tradition , it consists of discrete descriptions of eighty @-@ three separate species which are accompanied by extensive explanatory footnotes . In The Loves of the Plants , Darwin claims " to Inlist Imagination under the banner of Science " . A believer in Enlightenment ideals , he wanted not only to participate in scientific discovery but also to disseminate its new knowledge in an accessible format . As Darwin scholar Michael Page has written , “ Darwin sought to do for Linnaeus . . . what Pope had done for Newton and celestial mechanics in the Essay on Man ” = = = = Personification = = = = In one of the interludes of The Loves of the Plants , the voice of the Poet , which would seem to be Darwin 's voice as well , argues that poetry is meant to appeal to the senses , particularly vision . Darwin 's primary tool for accomplishing this was personification . Darwin 's personifications were often based on the classical allusions embedded with Linnaeus 's own naming system . However , they were not meant to conjure up images of gods or heroes ; rather , the anthropomorphized images of the plants depict more ordinary images . They also stimulate the readers ' imaginations to assist them in learning the material and allow Darwin to argue that the plants he is discussing are animate , living things — just like humans . Darwin 's use of personification suggests that plants are more akin to humans than the reader might at first assume ; his emphasis on the continuities between mankind and plantkind contributes to the evolutionary theme that runs throughout the poem . The Loves of the Plants argues that human emotion is rooted in physiology rather than Christian theology . Darwin would take his materialism even further in The Economy of Vegetation and The Temple of Nature , works that have been called atheistic . In describing plants through the language of love and sex , Darwin hoped to convey the idea that humans and human sexuality are simply another part of the natural world . Darwin writes that his poem will reverse Ovid who “ did , by art poetic , transmute Men , Women , and even Gods and Goddesses , into trees and Flowers ; I have undertaken , by similar art , to restore some of them to their original animality ” = = = Themes = = = = = = = Evolution = = = = In his Phytologia ( 1800 ) , Darwin wrote “ from the sexual , or amatorial generation of plants new varieties , or improvements , are frequently obtained ” . He insisted in The Loves of the Plants that sexual reproduction was at the heart of evolutionary change and progress , in humans as well as plants . Browne writes that the poem may be seen as " an early study in what was to be Darwin 's lifelong commitment to the idea of transmutation . ” Darwin illustrated not only organic change , but social and political change as well . Throughout The Botanic Garden , Darwin endorses the ideals of the American and French revolutions and criticizes slavery . His celebration of technological progress in The Economy of Vegetation suggests that social and scientific progress are part of a single evolutionary process . Humanity was improving , moving towards perfection , as evidenced by abolitionism and the broadening of political rights . = = = = Gender = = = = The Love of the Plants , however , while opening up the world of botany to the non @-@ specialist and to women in particular , reinforced conventional gender stereotypes . Darwin 's images “ remained deeply polarized between the chaste , blushing virgin and the seductive predatory woman , the modest shepherdess and the powerful queen . ” Although Darwin gives plant @-@ women the central role in each vignette ( a reversal of Linnaeus 's classification scheme , which focuses on the male ) , few of the representations stray from stereotypical images of women . When the female and male reproductive organs are in a 1 : 1 ratio in a plant , Darwin represents traditional couplings . The women are “ playful ” , “ chaste ” , “ gentle ” and “ blooming ” . When the ratio is 1 : 2 @-@ 4 , the female becomes a “ helpmate ” or “ associate ” to the males , who have separate bonds to their “ brothers ” . Once he reaches 1 : 5 @-@ 6 , however , Darwin presents women as “ seductive or wanton ” or , at the other extreme , “ needing protection ” . By 1 : 8 + , he presents “ unambiguous metaphors of power and command , [ with the woman ] being pictured as a saint , a reigning sovereign , a sorceress , a proto @-@ industrialist . . . a priestess ” . The images also present a largely positive view of the relationship between the sexes ; there is no rape or sexual violence of any kind , elements central to much of Ovid and Linnaeus . There is also no representation of the marriage market , divorce or adultery ( with one exception ) ; the poem is largely pastoral . There are also no representations of intelligent women or women writers , although Darwin knew quite a few . The exception is the “ Botanic Muse ” , who has the botanical knowledge that the poem imparts ; however , as Browne argues , few readers in the eighteenth century would have seen this as a liberating image for women since they would have been skeptical that a woman could have written the poem and inhabited the voice of the muse ( they would have assumed that the anonymous writer was a man ) . Despite its traditional gender associations , some scholars have argued that the poem provides “ both a language and models for critiquing sexual mores and social institutions ” and encourages women to engage in scientific pursuits . = = The Economy of Vegetation = = While The Loves of the Plants celebrates the natural world , The Economy of Vegetation celebrates scientific progress and technological innovation , such as the forging of steel , the invention of the steam engine and the improvements to gunpowder . It also advances several scientific hypotheses regarding the formation of the cosmos , the moon and the earth . Moreover , Darwin 's poem represents the scientists and inventors , such as Benjamin Franklin , responsible for this progress as the heroes of a new age ; he “ mythologizes ” them . Although the two poems seem separated , they both endorse an evolutionary view of the world . Darwin did not see a distinction between nature and culture ; industrialization and technological progress were part of a single evolutionary process . Much of The Economy of Vegetation deals with mining and the use of minerals . For example , Darwin describes the great mining capability of the steam engine : As such examples demonstrate , The Economy of Vegetation is part of an Enlightenment paradigm of progress while The Loves of the Plants , with its focus on an integrated natural world , is more of an early Romantic work . Darwin also connected scientific progress to political progress ; “ for Darwin the spread of revolution meant that reason and equity vanquished political tyranny and religious superstition . ” Criticizing British imperialism and slavery , he writes : = = Reception and legacy = = The Botanic Garden was reissued repeatedly in Britain , Ireland and the United States throughout the 1790s . Until the publication of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's Lyrical Ballads in 1798 , Darwin was considered one of England 's preeminent poets . His poems , with their “ dynamic vision of change and transformation ” , resonated with the ideals of the French revolution . However , when the revolution entered its more radical and bloody phase , scientific progress became associated with what many started to see as a failed revolution . Anti @-@ Jacobins , who were opposed to the French revolution , denounced the sexual freedom gaining ground in France and linked it to the scientific projects of men like Darwin . George Canning and John Frere published a parody of The Loves of the Plants in the Anti @-@ Jacobin Review in 1798 titled “ Loves of the Triangles ” , suggesting just these connections . Darwin 's poems were not published during the first two decades of the nineteenth century as conservative reaction solidified in Britain , although bowdlerized and sentimentalized poems imitating Darwin 's became increasingly popular . The analogy between plants and humans lasted well into the nineteenth century ; Alice in Wonderland was one of the many books to employ the image . Darwin 's unique poetic style impressed some while it revolted others . Wordsworth called it “ dazzling " while Coleridge said , “ I absolutely nauseate Darwin 's poem ” . Darwin 's “ visionary temperament ” is similar in some ways to modern popular science writing .
= Norah Head Light = Norah Head Light is an active lighthouse located at Norah Head , a headland on the Central Coast , New South Wales , Australia , close to Toukley . It is the last lighthouse of the James Barnet style to be built , and the last staffed lighthouse constructed in New South Wales . Officially displayed for the first time in 1903 , the original vapourized kerosene burner was upgraded in 1923 , electrified in 1961 and automated and demanned in 1994 , after more than 90 years of being staffed . It celebrated its centenary in 2003 . The concrete block tower is 27 @.@ 5 metres ( 90 ft ) high , topped by a bluestone gallery . On top of the gallery is the original Chance Bros. lantern . This lantern holds the original housing of the Chance Bros. 1st order bivalve dioptric Fresnel lens . Other important structures include the chief lightkeeper 's cottage and assistant keeper 's duplex , and a flag house . = = History = = Calls for construction of a lighthouse at Norah Head ( then " Bungaree Noragh Point " ) were made as early as 1861 due to many wrecks occurring in the area . A notable supporter in the end of the 19th century was local landholder Edward Hargraves from Noraville . However , these efforts were fruitless for many years . The first formal recommendation to construct the lighthouse was made by the Newcastle Marine Board , just prior to its abolition , in 1897 . The lighthouse was designed in a style similar to the style of James Barnet , by his successor Charles Assinder Harding , who also designed Cape Byron Light and Point Perpendicular Light . It is the last to be designed in this style . Construction commenced in 1901 , undertaken by day labour . Materials were brought by boat and unloaded on a wharf constructed at Cabbage Tree Harbour for that purpose . It was officially lit on 15 November 1903 , two years after Cape Byron Light . The first keepers were N. H. Williams as chief keeper , with N. Hanson and S. Kells as assistant keepers . The cost of the tower and cottages was nearly £ 24 @,@ 000 , £ 19 @,@ 000 for the construction of the tower and £ 5 @,@ 000 for the optical apparatus , a Chance Bros. 1st order bivalve dioptric Fresnel lens with 700 prisms The original light source was a vapourized kerosene burner and mantle generating a light intensity of 438 @,@ 000 cd , visible for 18 nautical miles ( 33 km ; 21 mi ) . The original mechanism was a grandfather clock @-@ type mechanism with the counterweights going down a 100 feet ( 30 m ) central column . The weights went down gradually as the light turned and had to be wound every half an hour . The light revolved every 10 seconds , and was floating in a mercury bath of more than 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 kg ) to lessen the friction . The high speed of rotation made operating the light while it was active very difficult . On 13 April 1923 the light source was upgraded to a Ford @-@ Schmidt kerosene burner with an intensity of 700 @,@ 000 candlepower . It was changed to revolve every thirty seconds in 1928 , to east the operation . The stables originally constructed at the complex were converted to a garage in 1960 . On 28 March 1961 the light was electrified , with mains electricity as the power source , and an intensity of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cd . The drive was replaced with a 0 @.@ 3 amp electric motor . At the same time the staff was cut from three lightkeepers to two . The light was automated and demanned in 1994 . It was one of the last stations in Australia to demanned , after over 90 years of being staffed . The current light source is a 1000 Watt 120 Volt tungsten @-@ halogen lamp , which flashes white every 15 seconds ( Fl.W. 15s ) and can be seen for 26 nautical miles ( 48 km ; 30 mi ) . It also shows a fixed red ( F.R. ) and green ( F.G. ) lights for coastal shipping . The lighthouse celebrated its centenary on 15 November 2003 , and the lighthouse appeared on the cover of the Wyong Shire Council annual report for 2003 . = = Structures = = The lighthouse is a 27 @.@ 5 metres ( 90 ft ) tower , made from concrete blocks . The concrete blocks were made on the ground using a local aggregate , lifted and cemented into position and finally cement rendered inside and out with deep ashlar coursing , and painted white . This technique was used in the period to reduce the cost of construction . On the inside of the tower there are 96 steps leading to the gallery in 4 stages , the first 3 of the same grade and the last stage a bit steeper and narrower . The staircase is made of concrete with slate treads and cast iron and brass balustrade . On top of the tower is a bluestone gallery and balcony with gunmetal railings . The gallery has a painted cast iron floor grate with a cast iron stair leading to the outdoor gallery . The lantern room is atop this gallery , made of metal and glass , encircled and protected by perspex and aluminium panels . It has a decorative iron catwalk encircling the glass to allow for cleaning . The lantern house is the original 3 @,@ 700 millimetres ( 150 in ) Chance Bros. cast iron and copper lantern house , one of about 21 known to exist in Australia . On the ground floor there is an entrance door made of cedar set with sidelights and fanlight , with an etching on the door glass saying Olim Periculum Nunc Salus , Latin for " Once Perilous , Now Safe " . Above the door is the writing " • A1903D • " , stating the year of official lighting . There is also a " ghost door " on the outside which was planned but never completed . The first floor comprises an entry hallway and two rooms . The hallways is set with tessellated tiles and still has the original desk for the visitor 's book . Of the two rooms , one was the report room used for administrative work , record keeping and logbooks . It is currently used as a radio room . The second room housed a spare mantle holder . It currently houses the electrical controls , including the sensors responsible for starting the light . It also houses the backup batteries , backup diesel generator and fuel tank , as well as a small workshop . The accommodations in the complex consist of a lightkeepers cottage with garden and Assistant Keeper 's duplex , both constructed from concrete blocks , unpainted from construction , and originally having " Marseilles pattern " terracotta tile roofs . The keeper 's cottage includes an open verandah on three sides , with cast iron posts and curved timber beams . The hipped roof is still the original terracotta tiles and one chimney remains . As for the duplex , circa 1970 the roof was replaced with concrete tiles and the chimneys have been demolished . Also constructed were a small fuel store , workshop , paint store and earth closet near the keeper 's cottage , and two fuel stores with earth closet and sink for the assistant cottages . All were constructed in the same form , from unpainted concrete blocked and the same terracotta tile roofs . All still remain in the complex , pretty much intact . As of 2010 , one of the cottages is occupied by a resident keeper and another two are available for overnight accommodations . Another structure at the complex is a small signal house , which was constructed as a flag house for the timber flagstaff , both constructed with the original structures in 1903 . The flag house was constructed to match the lighthouse , from precast concrete blocks , rendered walls , with the same plinth and deep ashlar coursing . The roof is made of concrete in a shallow hipped form , in contrast to the concrete dome proposed in the original drawings . The flag locker now houses maritime signal flags . The timber flagstaff was removed at an unknown date , and what remains of it are a concrete and steel base , a concrete apron , and four concrete and iron anchor points . A stable was also constructed at the premises from the same concrete blocks with Marseilles pattern terracotta tiles . In 1960 , as the stables were being converted to a garage , the roof tiles were replaced with a concrete tiles . Three timber doors to the former stable , tack and carriage rooms remain . Also at the complex are underground fresh water tanks and sealed off condensation water tank beneath the tower . About 100 metres ( 330 ft ) up the hill there used to be a weather station , a mother station for Montague Island in the south and South Solitary Island in the north . Reports used to be collected and sent to the Weather Bureau in Sydney . This is all done now electronically . = = Site operation = = The light is operated by Roads and Maritime Services ( formerly NSW Maritime ) , while the lighthouse reserve is managed by the New South Wales Department of Landssince 1997 . The Norah Head Reserve Lighthouse Trust is a government appointed trust " Dedicated to the preservation , conservation and management of the Norah Head Lighthouse Reserve . " = = Visiting = = The lighthouse is on a narrow strip of land that separates the sea from Tuggerah Lake . The site is accessible and the lighthouse is open for guided tours on weekends and for group bookings during the week . Two cottages are available for overnight staying , housing eight people each . It is also available for weddings .
= Hurricane Fay ( 2014 ) = Hurricane Fay was the first hurricane to make landfall on Bermuda since Emily in 1987 . The sixth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 2014 Atlantic hurricane season , Fay evolved from a broad weather disturbance several hundred miles northeast of the Lesser Antilles on October 10 . Initially a subtropical cyclone with an expansive wind field and asymmetrical cloud field , the storm gradually attained tropical characteristics as it turned north , transitioning into a tropical storm early on October 11 . Despite being plagued by disruptive wind shear for most of its duration , Tropical Storm Fay steadily intensified . Veering toward the east , Fay briefly achieved Category 1 hurricane status while making landfall on Bermuda early on October 12 . Wind shear eventually took its toll on Fay , causing the hurricane to weaken to a tropical storm later that day and degenerate into an open trough early on October 13 . A few tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued in anticipation of Fay 's impact on Bermuda , and public schools were closed as a precaution . Despite its modest strength , Fay produced extensive damage on Bermuda . Winds gusting over 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) clogged roadways with downed trees and utility poles , and left a majority of the island 's electric customers without power . The terminal building at L.F. Wade International Airport was flooded after the storm compromised its roof and sprinkler system . Along the coast , the storm unmoored and destroyed numerous boats . Immediately after the hurricane , 200 Bermuda Regiment soldiers were called to clear debris and assist in initial damage repairs . Cleanup efforts overlapped with preparations for the approach of the stronger Hurricane Gonzalo , which struck the island less than six days later and compounded the damage . Fay and Gonzalo marked the first recorded instance of two Bermuda hurricane landfalls in one season . = = Meteorological history = = Hurricane Fay originated in a disturbance calved from a mid- to upper @-@ level trough over the east @-@ central Atlantic . On October 7 , a broad region of showers and thunderstorms formed around it , possibly enhanced by moisture from a tropical wave to the south . Tracking westward , the energy coalesced into an upper @-@ level cold @-@ core low on the following day , and an associated trough formed at the surface . Southwesterly wind shear initially hindered development , but as the system became more vertically aligned on October 9 , the hostile winds calmed . In turn , a curved banding feature was able to take form . Early on October 10 , satellite imagery indicated that the center of circulation had become better @-@ defined , with a swath of deep convection to the north and west of the low . It became a subtropical storm at 06 : 00 UTC on October 10 , though it was not named " Fay " until later that day , after initially being classified Subtropical Depression Seven . Its involvement with the upper @-@ level low and wide radius of maximum winds precluded designation as a fully tropical cyclone . Immediately after forming , the storm moved northwestward around the periphery of a ridge of high pressure in the central Atlantic . As Fay moved away from its parent upper low , wind shear once again increased . The National Hurricane Center originally expected the cyclone to remain weak , but Fay began organizing more quickly than anticipated . Relatively strong winds sampled by a Hurricane Hunters aircraft necessitated a special off @-@ hour advisory to raise the cyclone 's intensity estimate . The storm started to acquire characteristics of a fully tropical system , and despite strong southerly wind shear preventing thunderstorms from developing near the center , Fay 's wind speeds steadily increased . Upper @-@ level air divergence from the nearby non @-@ tropical low may have contributed to the storm 's resilience . After convection became more symmetrical and the wind field contracted , Fay transitioned into a tropical storm at 06 : 00 UTC on October 11 . At the same time , the system turned toward the north around the central Atlantic ridge , soon gaining an easterly component to its movement . Fay remained heavily sheared , with the deepest convection still displaced from the center . Forecasters originally believed Fay to have only briefly been a hurricane , but post @-@ season reanalysis revealed that the system had actually strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane by early on October 12 and maintained that strength for 12 hours . The upgrade was confirmed by buoy and land observations and weather radar data . At 08 : 10 UTC , the cyclone made landfall on Bermuda with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , the hurricane 's peak intensity . Fay was the first hurricane to make landfall on the island since Emily in 1987 . Its satellite presentation improved as a mid @-@ level eye feature formed , though the system remained lopsided . Fay then accelerated toward the east @-@ northeast ahead of a shortwave trough to the north , which also acted to further enhance shear in the area . The hurricane finally succumbed to the persistent wind shear when the low @-@ level center decoupled from the mid @-@ level low and became elongated . By the early morning hours of October 13 , Fay started transitioning into an extratropical cyclone as it entered a baroclinic environment and ingested colder , drier air . The circulation rapidly deteriorated ; consequently , the NHC issued its last operational advisory on the system at 21 : 00 UTC on October 12 . Early the following day , the storm degenerated into an open trough , ending its existence as a tropical cyclone . Shortly after , the system became reestablished as a frontal cyclone , which lost its definition over the northeastern Atlantic on October 15 . = = Preparations = = In advance of Fay , a tropical storm watch was issued on October 10 and upgraded to a tropical storm warning the next day . Additionally , in response to the storm 's unexpected strengthening , a hurricane watch was posted at 21 : 00 UTC on October 11 . All public schools on the island were closed for the storm . Bus and ferry services were canceled , and two cruise ships delayed their arrival into port to avoid the cyclone . = = Impact = = Fay produced unexpectedly strong winds across Bermuda , especially over western and southern parts of the territory . L.F. Wade International Airport reported 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) , with gusts to 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) . Several stations at higher elevations recorded gusts in excess of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , reaching 123 mph ( 198 km / h ) at Commissioner 's Point , about 150 ft ( 46 m ) above sea level . The most intense winds occurred in a relatively quick burst on the backside of the storm , within a large band of thunderstorms that affected the island a couple hours after the official landfall . Local radar imagery indicated possible tornadic activity coinciding with the period of most damaging winds , though this could also have been an artifact of radar velocity folding . A gauge at St. George 's recorded a 1 @.@ 78 ft ( 0 @.@ 54 m ) storm surge , though higher water rises may have affected the southern and western sides of the island . Rainfall unofficially amounted to 3 @.@ 70 in ( 94 mm ) as reported by a member of the public , and the airport recorded 1 @.@ 87 in ( 47 mm ) of rain , though the observing equipment was compromised in both cases . The hurricane brought down thousands of trees and tree limbs , making streets impassable . The winds also toppled utility poles and inflicted roof damage on buildings . Over 27 @,@ 000 of the Bermuda Electric Light Company 's 36 @,@ 000 customers lost power at the height of the storm . Several roads , including Front Street in Hamilton , were flooded . Many boats up to 60 ft ( 18 m ) in length broke free from their moorings and were damaged or destroyed upon being driven aground . Hamilton city parks sustained considerable damage , and were closed due to safety hazards . The combined effects of Fay and Gonzalo forced the Botanical Gardens and Arboretum to stay closed until mid @-@ November , while cleanup of vegetation damage was underway . Fay damaged the roof of the airport 's terminal building , causing the sprinkler system to malfunction and inundate parts of the structure with water ; the resultant flooding crippled computer systems crucial to processing passenger information . The airport 's radar was also impacted by the storm . In response to the damage , the airport was closed to all flights , though it quickly reopened to emergency diversions and non @-@ commercial flights . Including subsequent damage from Gonzalo , about $ 2 million was spent on airport repairs , and the storms were later cited as evidence of the need for a newer terminal in a more protected location . Overall , the cyclone 's effects were greater than anticipated , with destruction at least partially facilitated by saturated soils from nearly 14 inches ( 360 mm ) of rain in August and above @-@ normal precipitation in September . Farmers reported that much of their autumn and winter crops had been lost , along with a few head of livestock . Fay and Gonzalo had a significant cumulative impact on Bermuda 's agriculture and fishing industries , contributing to a slight GDP decline . By about a week after Fay 's landfall , a local insurance company had received nearly 400 claims resulting from the storm , accounting for $ 3 @.@ 8 million in damage . However , with several insurers on the island , the actual damage total was likely much higher ; in a report to the World Meteorological Organization , the Bermuda Weather Service speculated that all insurance claims from Fay totaled " tens of millions of dollars " . Ten people suffered minor storm @-@ related injuries , but no fatalities were attributed to the storm . = = Aftermath = = Cleanup efforts after the storm were hastened as Hurricane Gonzalo approached from the south , amid concerns that strewn debris from Fay could become airborne and exacerbate future destruction . The unanticipated heavy damage from Fay prompted residents to prepare more thoroughly for Gonzalo , as evidenced by stores reporting an influx of customers purchasing emergency supplies . Two hundred Bermuda Regiment soldiers helped clear debris and began repairing structural damage . On October 13 , crews of soldiers put tarpaulins on 30 homes with roof damage , as well as distributing another 150 tarps to homeowners . Early on October 16 , the Bermuda Electric Light Company ( BELCO ) switched its focus from service restoration after Fay to preparations for the onslaught of Gonzalo , leaving about 1 @,@ 500 households without power . The remaining affected customers were asked to refrain from calling in to report outages , as further repairs would not be attempted before Gonzalo 's passage unless " an easy fix can be made [ and ] resources are available " . With the same 1 @,@ 500 customers still without electricity by October 23 , BELCO tasked several crews with restoring the residual Fay outages on a priority basis , aided by Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation linemen who arrived in the aftermath of Gonzalo . Following the two hurricanes , service was not completely restored to the island until November 3 ; BELCO ultimately spent $ 2 @.@ 9 million on system repairs , having replaced 228 utility poles and over 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 5 km ) of wire .
= Harriet Bosse = Harriet Sofie Bosse ( 19 February 1878 – 2 November 1961 ) was a Swedish – Norwegian actress . A celebrity in her own day , Bosse is today most commonly remembered as the third wife of the playwright August Strindberg . Bosse began her career in a minor company run by her forceful older sister Alma Fahlstrøm in Kristiania ( now Oslo , the capital of Norway ) . Having secured an engagement at the Royal Dramatic Theatre ( " Dramaten " ) , the main drama venue of Sweden 's capital Stockholm , Bosse caught the attention of Strindberg with her intelligent acting and exotic " oriental " appearance . After a whirlwind courtship , which unfolds in detail in Strindberg 's letters and diary , Strindberg and Bosse were married in 1901 , when he was 52 and she 23 . Strindberg wrote a number of major roles for Bosse during their short and stormy relationship , especially in 1900 – 01 , a period of great creativity and productivity for him . Like his previous two marriages , the relationship failed as a result of Strindberg 's jealousy , which some biographers have characterized as paranoid . The spectrum of Strindberg 's feelings about Bosse , ranging from worship to rage , is reflected in the roles he wrote for her to play , or as portraits of her . Despite her real @-@ life role as muse to Strindberg , she remained an independent artist . Bosse married Swedish actor Anders Gunnar Wingard in 1908 , and Swedish screen actor , director , and matinee idol Edvin Adolphson in 1927 . All three of her marriages ended in divorce after a few years , leaving her with a daughter by Strindberg and a son by Wingård . On retiring after a high @-@ profile acting career based in Stockholm , she returned to her roots in Oslo . = = Early career = = Bosse was born in Norway 's capital Kristiania , today called Oslo , as the thirteenth of fourteen children of Anne @-@ Marie and Johann Heinrich Bosse . Her German father was a publisher and bookseller , and his business led to the family 's alternating residence in Kristiania and Stockholm , the capital of Sweden . Bosse was to experience some confusion of national identity throughout her life , and to take the 512 kilometres ( 318 mi ) rail trip between the cities many times . A bold , independent child , she first made the journey alone when she was only six years old . Two of Bosse 's older sisters , Alma ( 1863 – 1947 ) and Dagmar ( 1866 – 1954 ) , were already successful performers when Harriet was a small child . Inspired by these role models , Harriet began her acting career in a Norwegian touring company run by her sister Alma and Alma 's husband Johan Fahlstrøm ( 1867 – 1938 ) . Invited to play Juliet in Romeo and Juliet , the eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Harriet reported in a letter to her sister Inez that she had been paralysed by stage @-@ fright before the premiere , but had then taken delight in the performance , the curtain @-@ calls , and the way people stared at her in the street the next day . Alma was Harriet 's first and only — rather authoritarian — acting teacher . Their harmonious and sisterly teacher – pupil relationship became strained when Alma discovered that her husband Johan and Harriet were having an affair . Both Bosse parents were now dead , and Harriet , ordered by Alma to leave , used a modest legacy from her father to finance studies in Stockholm , Copenhagen , and Paris . The Paris stage — at that time in dynamic conflict between traditional and experimental production styles — was inspirational for Bosse and convinced her that the low @-@ key realistic acting style in which she was training herself was the right choice . Returning to Scandinavia , she was hesitant as to whether she should carve out a career in Stockholm , with its greater opportunities , or in Kristiania , to which she had closer emotional ties . In spite of the disadvantage of speaking Swedish with a Norwegian accent , Bosse let herself be persuaded by her opera @-@ singer sister Dagmar to try her luck in Stockholm . She applied for a place at the Royal Dramatic Theatre ( " Dramaten " ) , the main drama venue of Stockholm , governed by the conservative tastes of King Oscar II and his personal advisors . After working hard at elocution lessons to improve her Swedish , which was Dramaten 's condition for employing her , Bosse was eventually to become famous on the Swedish stage for her beautiful speaking voice and precise articulation . Having trained her Swedish to a high level , she was engaged by Dramaten in 1899 , where the sensation of the day was the innovative play Gustaf Vasa by August Strindberg . = = Marriage to August Strindberg = = = = = August Strindberg = = = Although Bosse was a successful professional , she is chiefly remembered as the third wife of Swedish dramatist August Strindberg ( 1849 – 1912 ) . Strindberg , an important influence on the development of modern drama , had become nationally known in the 1870s as an angry young socialist muckraker and had risen to fame with his satire on the Swedish establishment , The Red Room ( 1879 ) . In the 1890s , he had suffered a long and miserable psychotic interlude , known as the " Inferno Crisis " , and , emerging from this ordeal , he remained marked by it . He turned from naturalism to symbolism in his prolific literary output , and his convictions and interests at the turn of the 20th century focused less on politics and more on theosophy , mysticism , and the occult . When Bosse met him in 1899 – 1900 , he was , at age 51 , at the height of his creative powers , his name " red @-@ hot " on the stage . Strindberg had the reputation of a misogynist , something which all of his wives stoutly denied . Bosse wrote in an unpublished statement which she left to her daughter with Strindberg , Anne @-@ Marie : " During the years I knew and was married to Strindberg I saw only a completely natural , kind , honorable , faithful man — a ' gentleman ' " . However , all of Strindberg 's marriages were blighted by his jealousy and a sensitivity which has sometimes been considered paranoid and delusional . = = = Courtship = = = Bosse later published Strindberg 's letters from their courtship and marriage . Incidents narrated in those letters and in Bosse 's own interspersed comments have been analysed at length by biographers and psychiatrists , and have become part of the " Strindberg legend " . Even before their first meeting , Bosse had been inspired by the newness and freshness of Strindberg 's pioneering plays ; an iconoclast and radical with two turbulent marriages already behind him presented an intriguing and irresistible mix to her . Strindberg was susceptible to strong , independent career women , as well as to dainty , delicate @-@ looking young girls ; like his first and second wives — Siri von Essen and Frida Uhl — Bosse combined these qualities . He was entranced when he saw the dark , exotic @-@ looking , petite 22 @-@ year @-@ old Bosse ( who was often cast in sprite roles or what were conceptualized as " Oriental " roles ) play her first major part , an impish Puck in A Midsummer Night 's Dream . He immediately picked her out as a suitable actress for the part of The Lady in his coming play To Damascus , and invited her to his bachelor establishment to discuss the role . At this famous first meeting , Strindberg , according to Bosse 's narrative of the event , met her at the door all smiles and charm . Offering her wine , flowers , and beautifully arranged fruit , he shared with her his fascination with alchemy , showing her a golden brown mixture he told her was gold he had made . When she got up to leave , Bosse claims Strindberg asked for the feather in her hat to use for writing his plays . Bosse gave it to him , and he used this feather , with a steel nib insert , to write all his dramas during their marriage . It is now in the Strindberg Museum in Stockholm . Strindberg wooed Bosse by sending her books about theosophy and the occult , by attempting to mould her mind , and by furthering her career . Throwing himself into writing plays with central parts he considered suitable for her , he tried to persuade her to act them , and the Dramaten management to cast her in them . Bosse asserts in her edition of the Letters that she tended to hang back , as did the management , being in agreement that she lacked the experience for major and complex roles . Strindberg , a power in the theatre , nevertheless often prevailed . The role of Eleonora in Easter ( 1901 ) , which intimidated Bosse by its sensitivity and delicacy , but which she finally undertook to play , turned out to be Bosse 's most successful and beloved role , and a turning @-@ point in Bosse 's and Strindberg 's relationship . They became engaged in March 1901 , during the rehearsals of Easter , in what in Bosse 's narrative may be the best @-@ known incident of the Strindberg legend . Bosse relates how she went to see Strindberg to ask him to give the part to a more experienced actress , but he assured her she would be perfect for it . " Then he placed his hands on my shoulders , looked at me long and ardently , and asked : ' Would you like to have a little child with me , Miss Bosse ? ' I made a curtsey and answered , as though hypnotized : ' Yes , thank you ! ' — and we were engaged . " = = = Marriage and divorce = = = Bosse and Strindberg were married on 6 May 1901 . Strindberg insisted that Bosse bring none of her possessions to the home he had furnished for her , creating a " setting in which to nurture and dominate her " . In this setting , his taste in interior decoration was revealed to be Oscarian and old @-@ fashioned , with pedestals , aspidistras , and dining @-@ room furniture in hideous imitation of German renaissance , to Bosse 's modern judgment . Striving towards the life beyond , Strindberg explained , he could permit nothing in the apartment that would lead the thoughts towards the earthly and material . In her comments in the Letters , Bosse described with loyalty and affection Strindberg 's protectiveness and his efforts to bring his young wife with him along his own spiritual paths ; nevertheless , she chafed under these efforts , pointing out that she herself , at 22 , was not even remotely finished with this world . Increasingly agoraphobic , Strindberg attempted to overcome his anxieties and allow his young wife the summer excursions she longed for . He planned sunny drives in hired victorias , but often the mystical " Powers " which governed him intervened . A crisis came as early as June 1901 , when Strindberg arranged , and then at the last moment called off , a honeymoon trip to Germany and Switzerland . Bosse wrote in the Letters that she had nothing to do but stay at home and choke down the tears while Strindberg attempted consolation by giving her a Baedeker " to read a trip in " . The cancelled journey was the beginning of the end . A crying , defiant Bosse went off by herself to the seaside resort Hornbæk in Denmark , a much shorter trip , but to her senses , a delightfully refreshing one . There , she was soon followed by Strindberg 's letters , full of agonized remorse at having given her pain , and then by Strindberg himself , steeling himself to bear the social life Bosse relished . However , the relationship quickly foundered on jealousy and suspicion , as when Strindberg struck a photographer over the head with his stick , unable to endure any attention to Bosse . In August , when Bosse discovered that she was pregnant , even Strindberg 's delight ( he was a fond parent of the four children of his previous marriages ) could not save a marriage full of distrust and accusation . This was illustrated in Strindberg 's increasingly frantic letters to Bosse When their daughter Anne @-@ Marie was born on 25 March 1902 , they were already living apart . " For the sake of us both it is best that I do not return " , wrote Bosse in a letter to Strindberg . " A continuation of life together with suspicion of every word , every act of mine , would be the end of me . " At her insistence , Strindberg began divorce proceedings . = = = Strindberg 's roles for Bosse = = = The relationship of Strindberg and Bosse was highly dramatic . Strindberg would lurch back and forth from adoration of Bosse as the regenerator of his creativity ( " lovely , amiable , and kind " ) to a wild jealousy ( calling her " a small , nasty woman " , " evil " , " stupid " , " black " , " arrogant " , " venomous " , and " whore " ) . His letters show that Bosse inspired several important characters in his plays , especially during the course of 1901 , and that he manipulated her by promising to pull strings so that she could play them . During the brief , intense , creative 1901 period , the roles Strindberg wrote as artistic vehicles for Bosse , or that were based on their relationship , reflect this combination of adoration and " suspicion of every word , every act " . Carla Waal counts eight minor and six major roles written for Bosse to act , or as portraits of her , several of them classics of Western theatre history . The major roles enumerated by Waal are The Lady in To Damascus ( 1900 ; mainly already written when Bosse and Strindberg met , but used between them to enhance their intimacy ) ; Eleonora in Easter ( 1901 ; modelled on Strindberg 's sister Elisabeth , but intended for Bosse to star in ) ; Henriette in Crimes and Crimes ( 1901 ) ; Swan White in Swan White ( 1901 ) ; Christina in Queen Christina ( 1901 ) ; and Indra 's daughter in A Dream Play ( 1902 ) . The years refer to dates of publication ; Bosse never played in Swan White , even though Strindberg kept proposing it , and though she was many years later to describe this play as Strindberg 's wedding present to her . Strindberg claimed that Queen Christina was an " explanation " of Bosse 's character as being that of an actress in real life , flirtatious and deceitful . In his influential Strindberg biography , Lagercrantz describes this play as a synopsis of the entire course of the Bosse – Strindberg marriage . He sees the courtiers as representing various stages of Strindberg 's own emotions : Tott , in the first glow of love ; de la Gardie , betrayed but loyal ; Oxenstierna , who has rejected her . Each of the three men has words to speak which Strindberg himself had spoken to Bosse . A Dream Play is positioned at the median of Strindberg 's series of portrayals of his own marriage , the Bosse role imbued with both light and darkness . With its associative dream structure , this play is a milestone of modernist drama , described by Strindberg as a lawless reflection of The Dreamer 's ( Strindberg 's ) consciousness , limited only by his imagination which " spins and weaves new patterns … on an insignificant basis of reality " . Agnes , played by and representing Bosse , is the daughter of the Vedic god Indra , descending to earth to observe human life and bring its disappointments to the attention of her divine father . The " Oriental " aspect of the play is based on Bosse 's dark , exotic looks . Yet she is also drawn into mere humanity and into a claustrophobic marriage to The Lawyer , one of the versions of The Dreamer and , thereby , of Strindberg . Shut up indoors by a possessive husband , Agnes can not breathe ; she despondently watches the servant working to exclude light and air from the house by pasting insulating strips of paper along the windows ' edges . Recognizably , the " insignificant basis of reality " of Agnes ' marriage to The Lawyer is the frustration of the newly married Bosse , yearning for fresh air , sunshine , and travel but fobbed off with a Baedeker . = = Independence = = Both before and after the divorce from Strindberg , Bosse was a Stockholm celebrity in her own right . Her independence and self @-@ supporting status gained her a reputation for being strong @-@ willed and opinionated , insisting on , and receiving , high pay and significant roles . She left Dramaten with its conventional repertoire and began working at Albert Ranft 's Swedish Theatre , where she and the skillful but more modest actor ( Anders ) Gunnar Wingård ( 1878 – 1912 ) formed a popular co @-@ star team . She travelled frequently , particularly for guest performances in Helsinki , leaving little Anne @-@ Marie with Strindberg , a competent and affectionate father . In 1907 , Bosse made theatrical history as Indra 's daughter in Strindberg 's epoch @-@ making Dream Play . She and Strindberg met weekly for dinner at his house , and remained lovers until she severed connections in preparation for her marriage with Gunnar Wingård in 1908 . In 1909 the Wingårds had a son , Bo . This marriage was also brief , ending in divorce in 1912 . According to rumour , the cause of the divorce was Wingård 's infidelity . However , Strindberg also heard gossip that Wingård 's large debts threatened Bosse 's finances . In 1911 , a divorced woman with two children to care for and support , Bosse returned to Dramaten . Strindberg was at that time fatally ill with cancer ; he died on 14 May 1912 . 1912 was altogether a year of death and disaster for the Bosse and Strindberg families : Alma Fahlstrøm 's son Arne went down with the Titanic on 15 April ; Strindberg 's first wife Siri von Essen died later the same month ; von Essen 's and Strindberg 's daughter Greta , a promising young actress , was killed in a train crash in June ; and Bosse 's divorced husband Gunnar Wingård shot himself on 7 October . Strindberg 's funeral was a national event . Gunnar Wingård , a popular and charming actor , was also the subject of public grief . Throughout these shattering events , which left both her children fatherless , Bosse kept up her busy schedule , apart from a few days off , distraught and grief @-@ stricken , after Wingård 's suicide . For months after it , she received anonymous letters and threatening phone @-@ calls , blaming her for Wingård 's depression and death . Bosse 's third marriage , 1927 – 32 , was to Edvin Adolphson ( 1893 – 1979 ) , fifteen years her junior . Adolphson had abandoned his stage career in order to become instead a film director and one of the best @-@ known Swedish film actors , a ruggedly handsome matinée idol whose screen persona Nils Beyer referred to as a combination of " apache , gangster and gigolo " . Bosse made two films , ambitiously shot and directed and based on novels by well @-@ known writers . The artistic achievement of Sons of Ingmar ( 1919 ) has been highly praised . Directed by and co @-@ starring Victor Sjöström , it was based on a novel by Swedish Nobel Prize winner Selma Lagerlöf ; many years later , Ingmar Bergman referred to Sons of Ingmar as a " magnificent , remarkable film " and acknowledged his own debt to Sjöström . Bosse , who played the female lead Brita , called Sons of Ingmar " the only worthwhile Swedish film I was involved in . " However , the film failed to give her career the kind of fresh start that the Swedish film industry had given Edvin Adolphson , and it was seventeen years before she made another film . This was Bombi Bitt and I ( 1936 ) , her only talkie , based on Fritiof Nilsson Piraten 's popular first novel with the same title and directed by Gösta Rodin . Bombi Bitt was a successful , though more lightweight , production with a smaller Bosse role ( " Franskan " ) . = = Retirement = = After many years of ambitious and successful free @-@ lance acting , Bosse found her options narrowing in the 1930s . The Great Depression brought her economic hardship , and , even though she looked younger than her age , most important women 's roles were out of her age range . Her technique was still often praised , but also sometimes perceived as old @-@ fashioned and mannered , in comparison with the more ensemble @-@ oriented style of the times . Finding herself unneeded by any Swedish repertory theatre , she only managed to return as a member of Dramaten by means of skillful persuasion and pointed reminders of her long history there . A humble employee at a humble salary , she played only fifteen roles , all minor , during her last ten years at Dramaten , 1933 – 43 . Retiring from the stage during World War II , Bosse considered moving back to Norway 's capital Oslo , the home of her childhood and youth . Both her children had settled there . The move was delayed for ten years , during which she travelled whenever possible , and when it took place in 1955 , she perceived it to be a mistake . Her brother Ewald 's death in 1956 left her the only survivor of the fourteen children of Anne @-@ Marie and Johann Heinrich Bosse . " How I long desperately for Stockholm " , she wrote to a friend in 1958 . " My whole life is there . " She became chronically melancholy , enduring failing health and bitter memories of the final phase of her career at Dramaten . Bosse always guarded her privacy , so much so that the memoir she wrote of her life with Strindberg was deemed to be too uninterestingly discreet to be publishable .
= Kalpavriksha = Kalpavriksha ( Devanagari : कल ् पवृक ् ष ) , also known as kalpataru , kalpadruma or kalpapādapa , is a wish @-@ fulfilling divine tree in Hindu mythology . It is mentioned in Sanskrit literature from the earliest sources . It is also a popular theme in Jain cosmology and Buddhism . Sage Durvasa and Adi Shankaracharya , meditated under the Kalpavriksha . The birth of Ashokasundari , the daughter of Shiva and Parvati , is attributed to the Kalpavriksha tree . Another daughter Aranyani was also gifted to Kalpavriksha for safekeeping . The Kalpavriksha originated during the Samudra manthan or " churning of the ocean of milk " along with the Kamadhenu , the divine cow providing for all needs . The king of the gods , Indra , returned with this tree to his paradise . Kalpavriksha is also identified with many trees such as Parijata ( Erythrina variegata ) , Ficus benghalensis , coconut tree ( Cocos nucifera ) , Madhuca longifolia , Prosopis cineraria , Bassia butyracea , and mulberry tree ( Morus nigra tree ) . The tree is also extolled in iconography and literature . = = Religious beliefs = = Kalpavriksha is an artistic and literary theme common to the Hindu Bhagavatas , the Jains and the Buddhists . = = = In Hinduism = = = Kalpavriksha , the tree of life , also meaning " World Tree " finds mention in the Vedic scriptures . In the earliest account of the Samudra manthan or " churning of the ocean of milk " Kalpavriksha emerged from the primal waters during the ocean churning process along with Kamadhenu , the divine cow that bestows all needs . The tree is also said to be the Milky way or the birthplace of the stars Sirius . The king of the gods , Indra returned with this Kalpavriksha to his abode , the paradise and planted it there . Tree also finds mention in the Sanskrit text Mānāsara , part of Shilpa Shastras.Another myth says that Kalpavriksha was located on earth and was transported to Indra 's abode after people started misusing it by wishing evil and wrong things . In Indra 's " Devaloka " it is said that there are five Kalpavrikshas , which are called Mandana , Parijata , Santana , Kalpavriksha and Harichandana , all of which fulfill various wishes . Kalpavriksha , in particular , is said to be planted at Mt . Meru peak in the middle of Indra 's five paradise gardens . It is on account of these wish @-@ granting trees that the asuras waged a perpetual war with the devas as the heavenly gods who exclusively benefited freely from the " divine flowers and fruits " from the Kalpavriksha , whereas the demigods lived comparatively in penury at the lower part of its " trunk and roots " . The Parijata is often identified with its terrestrial counterpart , the Indian coral tree ( Eyrthrina indica ) , but is most often depicted like a magnolia or frangipani ( Sanskrit : champaka ) tree . It is described as having roots made of gold , a silver midriff , lapislazuli boughs , coral leaves , pearl flower , gemstone buds , and diamond fruit . It is also said that Ashokasundari was created from a Kalpavriksha tree to provide relief to Parvati from her loneliness . In Hindu mythology Shiva and Parvati after much painful discussions while parting with their daughter Aranyani gave her away to the divine Kalpavriksha for safe keeping when the demon Andhakasura waged war . Parvati requested Kalpavriksha to bring up her daughter with " safety , wisdom , health and happiness , " and to make her Vana Devi , the protector of forests . = = = In Jainism = = = Kalpavrikshas are wish @-@ granting trees which fulfill the desires of people in initial stages of worldly cycle as per Jain Cosmology . In initial times children are born in pairs ( boy and girl ) and don 't do any karma . There are 10 Kalpavrikshas which grant 10 distinct wishes such as an abode to reside , garments , utensils , nourishment including fruits and sweets , pleasant music , ornaments , fragrant flowers , shining lamps and a radiant light at night . According to Jain cosmology , in the three Aras ( unequal periods ) of the descending arc ( Avasarpini ) , Kalpavrikshas provided all that was needed , but towards the end of the third ara , the yield from them diminished . Eight types of these trees are described in some texts , each of which provided different objects . Thus from the " Madyanga tree " delicious and nutritious drinks could be obtained ; from the " Bhojananga " , delicious food ; from " yotiranga " , light more radiant than the sun and the moon ; while from " Dopanga " came indoor light . Other trees provided homes , musical devices , table ware , fine garments , wreaths and scents . The Tiloya Panatti give the following list : Pananga , Turiyanga , Bhusananga , Vatthanga , Bhoyanga , Alayanga , Diviyanga , Bhayananga , Malanga , Tejanga with excellent drinks , music , ornaments , garments , edibles and ready @-@ made dishes , mansions to live in , lamps , utensils and garlands of flowers respectively while the last type , namely Tejanga , seems to be self @-@ luminous , serving the purpose of heavenly luminaries . = = = In Buddhism = = = In Buddhism a small wish granting tree is depicted decorating the upper part of the " long @-@ life vase " held by " longevity deities " like Amitayus and Ushnishavijaya . The goddess Shramana devi holds jeweled branch of Kalpavriksha in her left hand . Worship of the Nyagrodha tree as a form of non @-@ human worship is depicted in a Buddhist sculpture at Besnagar . This sculpture in Besnagar , also known as Vidisa ( Bhilsa ) , is dated to third century BC and is exhibited in the Calcutta Museum . In Myanmar , where Theravada Buddhism is practiced , the significance of the Kalpavriksha is in the form of an annual ritual known as Kathina ( presenting a robe ) in which the laity present gifts to the monks in the form of money trees . = = Identification with other trees = = In different states of India some trees are specifically referred to as the Kalpavriksha . These are stated below . The banyan tree ( Ficus benghalensis ) , also called Nyagrodha tree , which grows throughout the country is referred to as Kalpavriksha or Kaplaptaru because of its ability to amply provide for human needs . The coconut tree ( Cocos nucifera ) found in most regions of the country is called " Kalpavriksha " , as every part of it is useful in one way or the other . The coconut water inside the nut is a delicious drink . In dried form it is called copra and is used to manufacture oil . The coconut husk , called coir , is used to make rope . Leaves are used to make huts , fans , mats . Palm sugar is made from budding flower . The dried midrib is used to make boats . Ashwatha tree ( sacred fig tree ) is also known as Kalapvriksha where the deities and Brahma are stated to reside , and it is where sage Narada taught the rishis on the procedure for worshipping the tree and its usefulness . Mahua tree ( Madhuca longifolia ) holds an important place in the day @-@ to @-@ day life of the tribal people . It is like the Kalpavriksha wish tree called madhu ( Madhuca indica ) . Shami tree ( Prosopis cineraria ) , found in desert areas of the country , called in local dialect as khejari or jaant is called Kalpavriksha . In Rajasthan desert area its roots go deep to a depth of 17 – 25 metres ( 56 – 82 ft ) . This checks the erosion of the sandy soil of the desert . For this reason the tree stays green even drought conditions of weather . People of Rajasthan hence regard this tree as Kalpavriksha , because at the time of drought when no grass or fodder is found anywhere the animals are able to sustain by eating its green leaves . Chyur tree in the high altitudes of the Himalayas growing at an altitude between 500 to 1000 m , known as the Indian butter tree ( Diploknema butyracea ) , is called a Kalpavriskha , or tree of paradise by the people of the mountainous region as it yields honey , jaggery and ghee . It is in the shape of an umbrella . In Joshimath in Uttarakhand a mulberry tree , which is said to be 2400 years old , is renowned and revered as the Kalpavriksha as it was the location where , in the 8th century , Adi Sankaracharya did " penance " under the tree as he considered it an incarnation of Lord Shiva . It is also believed that sage Durvasa meditated under this tree , in Urgam . The mountain slopes of Kailasa are stated to have a profusion of Kalpavrikshas . At Mangaliyawas near Ajmer , Rajasthan , there are two revered trees ( Male and Female ) which are more than 800 years old , known as Kalpavrikshas . They are worshipped on an Amavasya day in the Hindu month of Shraavana . In Tamil Nadu 's culture , tala ( Borassus flabellifer ) a variety of Palmyra palm ( Borassus ) , also known as toddy , is referred to as Kalpataru as all its parts have a use . This tree is also native to Asia and South East Asia , has normally a life span of 100 years , grows up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) height ; its leaves in the shape of a fan are rough texture . The leaves were used for writing in the ancient times . In the Harivansh Puraan , the Parijata , baobab tree , is called a Kalpavriksha , or wish bearing tree , which apart from the village of Kintoor , near Barabanki , Uttar Pradesh , is only found in heaven . The tree has mythological link with prince Arjuna of the Pandava clan who is said to have brought it from heaven . His mother Kunti after whom the village Kintoor is named used to offer flowers from this tree to worship Lord Shiva . It is also said that Lord Krishna brought this tree from heaven to please his wife Satyabhama . Kalpalatha is another wish fulfilling tree , a creeper , which was extolled during the later part of the Aryan period . It is said that a person standing below this tree would be blessed with beautiful ornaments , dresses and even unmarried girls . = = In iconography = = In iconography , Kalpavriksha , the wish @-@ fulfilling tree , is painted within a picture of a landscape , decorated with flowers , silks , and suspended with jewelry . It is a pattern which has a prominent symbolic meaning . Ornamental Kalpavriksha design was a feature that was adopted on the reverse of the coins and sculptures in the Gupta period . Kalpavriksha is also dated to the Dharmachakra period of Buddhism . The paintings of this period depicting the tree with various branches and leaves have a female figure painted on its top part . The female figure is painted from mast upwards holding a bowl in her hand . Similar depiction of female figure with tree representing it as presiding deity was a notable feature during the Sunga period as seen in the image of " Salabhanvka " in the railing pillars . In most paintings of Kalpavriksha Shiva and Parvati are a common feature . It forms a canopy over Shiva . In one painting Paravati is paying obeisance to Lord Shiva with her hands held up in adoration when she is blessed with a stream of water from the Kalpavriksha . = = In literature = = A Kalpavriksha is mentioned in the Sanskrit work Mānāsara as a royal insignia . In Hemādri 's work Caturvargacīntama , the Kalpavriksha is said to be a tree of gold and gem stones . In poetry Kalpavriksha is compared to Lakshmi as its sister emerging from the sea . It is born to the Naga King Kumuda , the fifth descendant of Takshaka , along with his sister Kumudavati . It emerged from below the bed of the Sarayu River challenging Kusa considered an incarnation of Vishnu just in the disguise as a son . Kalidasa , in his poetry Meghadūta epitomizing wish @-@ fulfilling trees found in the capital of the Yaksha king extols the virtues of Kalpavriksha as " the dainties and fineries for the fair women of Alaka , coloured clothes for the body , intoxicating drinks for exciting glances of the eyes , and flowers for decorating the hair and ornaments of various designs " .
= Coat of arms of Basque Country ( autonomous community ) = The current Basque coat of arms ( Spanish : Escudo del País Vasco , Basque : Euskal autonomi erkidegoaren armarria ) is the official coat of arms of the Basque Country , Autonomous community of Spain . It consists of a party per cross representing the three historical territories of Álava , Gipuzkoa and Biscay , as well as a fourth , void quarter . The arms are ringed by a regal wreath of oak leaves , symbolic of the Gernikako Arbola . The fourth quarter constituted since the late 19th century the linked chains of Navarre ; however , following a legal suit by the Navarre Government claiming that the usage of the arms of a region on the flag of another was illegal , the Constitutional Court of Spain ordered the removal of the chains of Navarre in a judgement of 1986 . = = Origin = = After the end of home rule in 1839 @-@ 1841 , the Basque governments started a mutual approach out of common concerns in face of their exposure to Spanish centralism . The movement intensified after 1866 , and a motto was coined , the " Laurac bat " , ' the four make one ' , echoing the " Irurac bat " of the Royal Basque Company , which in turn crystallized in a coat of arms including the four historic Basque districts in Spain ( called variously the Sister Provinces , the Chartered Territories , the Basque Country , the Basque @-@ Navarrese Country , etc . ) , to represent their common bonds , as claimed during that period by the chartered provincial governments , or the 1931 draft Statute of the Basque Country . In 1936 , the Provisional Government of Euzkadi , presided over by the first president , José Antonio Aguirre , adopted the shield with the arms of the three provinces of Álava , Gipuzkoa , Biscay comprised in the 1936 Statute ( the Basque Provinces , as established in the 1833 administrative design ) , and Navarre . The president of the government affirmed in the preamble to the Decree of 19 October 1936 , and thereby approved , the emblem and flag that was to be used by the Basque Country . Thus the shield of the Government of Euzkadi contained the arms of Álava , Gipuzkoa , Biscay and Navarre in a single blazon of four quarters surrounded by a crown of oak leaves . The Provisional Government of Euzkadi stated that " the flag must be that which gathers Basque unity and which the use , ever more frequent in the Basque lands , has sanctioned as such symbol of their unity . " As an official shield , like the 1936 Basque Autonomous Community , disappeared after the pro @-@ Franco victory in the Spanish Civil War , but the coat of arms continued in unofficial use , it was even used in its flag by the rightist pro @-@ rebel newspaper from Donostia El Diario Vasco during wartime ( data for 2 May 1937 ) . On 2 November 1978 , the Consejo General del País Vasco ( General Council of the Basque Country ) , restored the republican shield , albeit modified as follows : The Álava quarter lost the motto " En aumento de la justicia contra malhechores " and both the designs of the castle and of the arm with sword were changed . The castle is now on top of a grey rock and the arm and sword are light blue in colour . In the Biscay quarter , the wolves of the arms of the Haro family were suppressed in 1986 and the field changed from gules to argent , the bordure from argent to gold , the crosses from sinople to gules , and the ground ( terrase ) from sinople to maroon . In the Gipuzkoa quarter , the field changed from argent to gold , and the ground ( terrase ) was removed , leaving only the trees and the waves . The fourth quarter once contained the linked chains of Navarre ; however , following a legal suit by the Navarre government claiming that the usage of the arms of a region on the flag of another was illegal , the Constitutional Court of Spain forced the Basque government to remove the chains of Navarre , leaving the red background . In 1991 the Basque Government standardised the colours used in the shield . Basque nationalists , but not only , have used an unofficially recognised Basque coat of arms , the Zazpiak Bat . It has been argued that it differs from the original one by being divided into six squares and by including the coat of arms of the Basque regions in France . The motto " Zazpiak bat " was coined by Antoine @-@ Thomson d 'Abbadie in the late 19th century . = = The quarters = =
= Olav Meisdalshagen = Olav Meisdalshagen ( 17 March 1903 – 21 November 1959 ) was a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party best known for serving as the Norwegian Minister of Finance from December 1947 to November 1951 and as the Norwegian Minister of Agriculture from January 1955 to May 1956 . He was also a Member of Parliament for a long time , being elected for the first time in parliamentary election of 1936 and serving until his death , except for the period between 1940 and 1945 when the Parliament of Norway was de facto defunct due to the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany . His death in 1959 came halfway through his fifth term in Parliament , and shortly after a parliamentary speech . A jurist by profession , Meisdalshagen came from a humble family background , growing up at a former crofter 's farm in rural Nord @-@ Aurdal , and losing his father in the 1920s . After studying he moved back to Nord @-@ Aurdal , worked as an attorney and built the Labour Party organization in the region . The background formed him in that his main political goal was to improve the economy of dwellers in rural farming districts . He was a proponent of economic regulation , which marked his period as Minister of Finance . However , his period was also marked by the dominance of Erik Brofoss and the Ministry of Trade in deciding the country 's overall financial policy . When Trygve Bratteli succeeded Meisdalshagen as Minister of Finance , the ministry regained its dominance , but also set out on a gradual deregulation . This , in addition to Meisdalshagen 's discontent with increased spendings on defence , made him an oppositional figure within the Labour Party . He did return briefly to cabinet as Minister of Agriculture , and also cooperated with the government through the position as chairman of Norges Kooperative Landsforening , a national association of consumer co @-@ operatives . However his oppositional tendencies grew stronger in his later life . He was a part of the " Easter Uprising " in 1958 , and in 1958 and 1959 there were rumours of Meisdalshagen worked behind the scene to facilitate a change of personnel — and policy — in the Labour Party . His death came in this period . = = Early life and career = = = = = Early life and education = = = Meisdalshagen was born on 17 March 1903 in Nord @-@ Aurdal as a son of smallholder and joiner Ole Meisdalshagen and Marit Myren . The family lived at the former crofter 's farm Hagen in Skrautvål . Meisdalshagen attended Valdres Folk High School from 1920 to 1921 , and took secondary education at Voss between 1921 and 1925 with financial support from his brothers ; his father died in 1924 . Meisdalshagen took the examen artium in 1925 , and enrolled in law studies at the Royal Frederick University ( now : University of Oslo ) . While studying he was involved in the students ' branch of Noregs Mållag . He came also under the influence of the revolutionary group Mot Dag , though he was never a member . He graduated from university with a cand.jur. degree in 1932 . = = = Pre @-@ war political career = = = Meisdalshagen became involved in politics while attending school in Voss , and chaired the Labour Party chapter in Nord @-@ Aurdal from 1927 to 1940 . He also chaired the local chapters of Valdres , from 1930 to 1932 , and Fagernes , from 1931 to 1934 . From 1931 to 1940 he was a board member of the Labour Party county chapter . He was elected as a member of Nord @-@ Aurdal municipal council in 1931 , and was re @-@ elected to serve until 1940 . From 1934 he served in the council 's executive committee . He spent his professional life in Fagernes , where he had opened an attorney 's office in 1933 . He also headed the municipal board of arbitration in debt matters , from 1935 to 1940 . This had a significant influence on his further political career , in that he sought to improve the economy of rural Norwegian districts , especially through a centralized increase of farmers ' income . He also favoured ensuring a low interest , preferably at 2 @,@ 5 % . During the term 1934 – 1936 he served as a deputy representative to the Parliament of Norway from the constituency Oppland ; in the election of 1936 , he was elected to a regular seat in the parliament . He was the youngest member of Parliament at the time . = = = World War II = = = As the Parliament amended the Constitution in 1938 to introduce four @-@ year terms instead of three @-@ year terms , the representatives elected in 1936 were still active in 1940 . On 9 April that year , Norway was invaded and occupied by Germany as a part of World War II . With the German invasion , a radio broadcast coup d 'état by Vidkun Quisling followed , and German diplomat Curt Bräuer was sent to Norway to demand the abdication of the Norwegian King Haakon VII and Nygaardsvold 's Cabinet . This was initially refused , as the Parliament , meeting at Elverum on 9 April , issued the Elverum Authorization where it empowered the King and government to continue representing Norway . Norway and Germany was at war that time , and fighting continued for some months . However , when mainland Norway capitulated on 10 June 1940 , new negotiations with Nazi Germany were opened , resulting in a request being submitted from the Presidium of the Parliament of Norway to the now @-@ exiled King and government to abdicate . The case had been controversial , splitting the parliamentary group of the Labour Party . Olav Meisdalshagen agreed that the King should abdicate , as did the majority of the parliamentary group . When the King broadcast his refusal to abdicate via BBC Radio on 8 July 1940 , this became famous as " The King 's No " . Germany gradually tightened the grip of Norwegian society , and the Parliament became defunct during the rest of the German occupation of Norway . In 1941 Meisdalshagen became a prominent figure in the Norwegian resistance movement against German rule , in the position of district leader of Milorg in Valdres . In 1944 he left Norway and fled to Sweden , where he was a secretary at Flyktningskontoret in Stockholm until 1945 . Briefly in 1945 he served as an advisor in London for the coordination of Milorg cells . = = Post @-@ war career = = = = = First post @-@ war years = = = In the first parliamentary election after the war , in 1945 , Meisdalshagen was re @-@ elected for a second term in Parliament . It was not clear that he would be nominated for the ballot , as this was not at all usual for those Labour Party members who in the summer of 1940 had agreed to the King 's abdication . However , Meisdalshagen 's service in Milorg probably tipped the scales in his favour . He was a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Customs and secretary of the Preparatory Credentials Committee , and also became a member of the Standing Committee on Justice in December 1946 . Meisdalshagen was also board chairman of the Norwegian State Housing Bank from 1946 to 1953 . = = = Minister of Finance = = = Midway through his four @-@ year term , Meisdalshagen was appointed Minister of Finance in Gerhardsen 's Second Cabinet . He served from 6 December 1947 to 19 November 1951 , when Torp 's Cabinet was formed . Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen and former party secretary Martin Tranmæl were the architects behind his appointment . Ultimately , Meisdalshagen 's opposition to the Labour Party 's foreign and defence policy in general , and extraordinary monetary grants for defence measures specifically , was cited as the reason for his resignation from the cabinet , and even for the entire cabinet shift . During his period as minister , Meisdalshagen 's parliamentary seat was occupied by Gunnar Kalrasten until June 1948 and then by Thorvald Ulsnæs . He was succeeded as Minister of Finance by Trygve Bratteli ; other candidates were discussed but rejected , including Meisdalshagen 's old acquaintance Klaus Sunnanå . As a politician , Meisdalshagen has been noted as being an opposite figure to his predecessor as Minister of Finance , Erik Brofoss . Still , earlier in 1947 he had argued strongly in favour of " Lex Brofoss " , the law proposed by Brofoss which meant that the elected politicians gave temporary authority to the Norwegian Price Directorate to regulate the economy . Meisdalshagen even stated that a majority in Parliament probably agreed that such a law should have permanent effect , not be renewed from time to time . Historian Einar Lie has stated that Brofoss left Meisdalshagen in charge of the price policy with a " very easy heart " . On the other hand , the new Ministry of Trade , where Brofoss was appointed as Minister , clearly became more important than the Ministry of Finance in this period . The higher importance of the Ministry of Trade ended after 1951 , and Meisdalshagen 's period was thus an exception in the history of the Ministry of Finance . Meisdalshagen was ultimately criticized by Brofoss for " lack of economical insight " , and he also ran afoul with Central Bank of Norway Governor Gunnar Jahn . According to Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen , it took long to persuade Meisdalshagen to even take the post as Minister of Finance , and he was more interested in agro @-@ economical questions than traditional planning of the economy . It was even said that Gerhardsen 's Cabinet had an interest in luring Meisdalshagen away from the Parliament , where he had driven through significant increases in farmer 's income , threatening the overall balance and planning of the state finances . In fact the income from farming , measured in the amount of money earned per decare , was doubled between the war 's end in 1945 and 1950 , when the Main Agreement for Agriculture , Hovedavtalen for jordbruket , was introduced . It regulated future price negotiations , and institutionalized the negotiating partners : the state on one side of the table , the Norwegian Agrarian Association and the Norwegian Farmers and Smallholders Union on the other . During Meisdalshagen 's time the lines between various parts of government were somewhat blurred . When the state budget was presented by the cabinet , and subsequently treated by the standing committees of the Parliament , committee members would contact the Ministry of Finance directly to ask whether a proposed budgetary change was feasible ( after Meisdalshagen 's resignation this practice was altered , in that the contact was initiated by the Labour Party committee fraction , not by the committee as a whole ) . Meisdalshagen also became known for nontraditional arrangements when it came to the Ministry 's bureaucrats : assistant secretary Egil Lothe , who had a " very good relationship " with Meisdalshagen , doubled as assistant secretary and State Secretary from 1948 until Meisdalshagen 's resignation in 1951 . Such a double role , where a person was both bureaucrat and politician at the same time , was very uncommon , probably unique . Lothe was not formally appointed , either , and thus does not appear on historical lists of state secretaries . According to Einar Lie , there was no clear division of tasks between Meisdalshagen and Lothe when it came to the Ministry 's daily work . In addition to Lothe , the consultant Karl Trasti , another friend of Meisdalshagen , had influence in this period , especially in budgetary questions . = = = Return to Parliament = = = Since 1913 , parliamentarians who are appointed to the cabinet may return to Parliament later , provided that the four @-@ year term has not expired . After leaving as Minister of Finance , Meisdalshagen returned to Parliament as a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Customs , which he even chaired from January 1952 to January 1953 . While being Minister of Finance , Meisdalshagen had been re @-@ elected on the Labour Party parliamentary ticket in 1949 , and was elected for a fourth time in 1953 . He was still a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and Customs . On 22 January 1955 the Gerhardsen 's Third Cabinet was formed , and Meisdalshagen served as Minister of Agriculture until 14 May 1956 . During this period his parliamentary seat was occupied by Per Mellesmo . Meisdalshagen then returned to Parliament , this time as a member of the now @-@ defunct Standing Committee on Agriculture . He was elected for a fifth time in 1957 . This time , he became a member of the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence as well as the Enlarged Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence . From 1957 to 1959 he was also a member of the Labour Party 's central committee ( sentralstyre ) . Meisdalshagen was also chairman of the Norges Kooperative Landsforening ( NKL ) from 1952 to his death . NKL was the national association of consumer co @-@ operatives . This way , he represented trade interests in meetings with the government , at the same time as being a parliament member . = = = Internal opposition = = = Meisdalshagen was regarded as an internal opponent of the Labour Party 's foreign affairs and defence policy . His obituarist in Verdens Gang writes that he was " more controversial in his own party than outside of it " . This tendency had surfaced already in the 1940s , when he very reluctantly accepted the Norwegian signing of the North Atlantic Treaty . Meisdalshagen remained skeptic to a non @-@ neutral foreign policy in the 1950s , and in February 1951 a conflict with Minister of Defence Jens Chr . Hauge arose . Meisdalshagen formally dissented against a proposal to grant an extra NOK 250 million to the Norwegian Armed Forces for the years 1951 and 1952 , and he became furious when he entered a budgetary debate without being notified of a certain press release , issued by Jens Chr . Hauge , where another grant of NOK 125 million was declared . According to Haakon Lie , Meisdalshagen influenced persons in the newspaper Oppland Arbeiderblad to write and print an editorial titled La Hauge gå ( " Let Hauge Go " ) . Meisdalshagen was a member of the board of Oppland Arbeiderblad from 1945 to 1957 , and had spent some time working there before the war . Meisdalshagen was also discontented with the deregulation policy to which the Labour Party gradually adhered in the 1950s . Trygve Bratteli , on the other hand , was viewed as a proponent of gradual deregulation . In November 1958 there were rumours that Meisdalshagen would return to the cabinet , probably as Minister of Transport of Communications . Some believed that Meisdalshagen worked together with Karl Trasti to have Trygve Bratteli removed from the cabinet ; Trasti would succeed Bratteli as Minister of Finance , according to the rumour , with was told to Bratteli by Meisdalshagen 's predecessor as Minister of Agriculture , Rasmus Nordbø . At the time Karl Trasti was a member of the ad @-@ hoc Paulson Committee , which worked with questions regarding the Ministry of Finance 's policy . It was thought that some of the committee 's policy proposals could be undesirable to Bratteli , and thereby compromise his minister position . This information was given to Trygve Bratteli from parliamentary secretary Haakon Bingen in January 1959 . Binge had heard it from Egil Lothe , at the time a deputy under @-@ secretary of state in the Ministry of Finance . A friend of Meisdalshagen , Lothe was thereby tied to the alleged intriguers . Jens Haugland noted the scheme of Trasti and Meisdalshagen in his diary , and that this caused Bratteli to keep himself " in the background " . This was a part of a broader schism in the party , where Meisdalshagen was the " strongest man in the group " consisting of parliamentarians who deviated in questions of foreign policy : Finn Moe , Trygve Bull , Hans Offerdal , Sverre Løberg and Meisdalshagen . Meisdalshagen had been a supporter of the " Easter Uprising " of 1958 , a voicing of dissent within the Labour Party , where the socialist students ' association gained the signatures of Labour MPs on a NATO @-@ critical resolution . In Meisdalshagen 's obituary , he was likened to Olav Oksvik , another NATO @-@ critical Labour politician . Halfway through his fifth term in Parliament , on 21 November 1959 , Meisdalshagen suffered from a sudden indisposition after a parliamentary speech . He was hospitalized , but died later that same day . The cause of death was intracranial hemorrhage . In Parliament he was replaced by Per Mellesmo , who advanced from deputy to regular representative . He was biographized in 1982 by Nils Oddvar Bergheim .
= Love Don 't Live Here Anymore = " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " is a song written by Miles Gregory and originally recorded by Rose Royce . It was produced by former Motown songwriter and producer Norman Whitfield for the Whitfield Records . Lead vocals were sung by Gwen Dickey and the song was released as the second single from their third studio album Rose Royce III : Strikes Again ! The song was developed as a result of producer Whitfield 's interest to work with Paul Buckmaster , the British arranger and composer . Together they asked songwriter Miles Gregory to write a song for them . Gregory was undergoing medications for his drug overuse problem , and this situation and his deteriorating physical health became the inspiration behind the song . " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " incorporated the use of the Electronic LinnDrum machine , and was one of the first songs to effectively use the sound reverbs of the instrument . The song was mainly recorded at music contractor Gene Bianco 's house , where Dickey was present during the recording . After its release , the song was critically appreciated , but was only moderately successful commercially . It reached a peak of 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 and five on the Hot Black Singles chart . Its highest position was in the United Kingdom , where it reached two . " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " has been covered by a number of artists , including Madonna , Morrissey – Mullen and Faith Evans . Madonna 's version was included in her second studio album Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) , and it was the idea of Michael Ostin , the head of the A & R department of Warner Bros. Records , that Madonna record a cover version of the song to include in the album . It was further included in her 1995 ballad compilation album Something to Remember , in a remixed form . The original and the remixed version of the Madonna song differs in the usage of more classical instruments in the latter . The 1995 version also received a number of club remix treatments . Critics were not impressed with the version present in Like a Virgin , calling it " awful " , while they warmed to the version present in Something to Remember . However , it was a commercial disappointment , reaching a peak of only 78 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was promoted by a music video shot by Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino , which portrayed Madonna in an empty suite of an abandoned hotel , and was shot in a single take . = = Background and music = = Producer Norman Whitfield had always wanted to work with Paul Buckmaster , the British arranger and composer . One day he called Buckmaster and invited him to work on some recordings he had finished . After meeting , they decided to contact songwriter Miles Gregory to use one of his songs for Whitfield 's record group Rose Royce . Buckmaster found that Gregory was under medication from overuse of drugs and " was in considerable discomfort , if not in outright pain . He didn 't write a song and dance about his pain , but I remember him sitting at the piano and wincing . So before jumping on the thing that Miles was merely indulging himself and writing , one has to remember that the guy was in a lot of pain . " Nevertheless , Whitfield and Buckmaster encouraged Gregory to write the song and the result was " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " , inspired by Gregory 's own situation and his deteriorating physical health . " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " incorporated the use of the Electronic LinnDrum machine , and was one of the first songs to effectively use the sound reverbs of the instrument . LinnDrum had been used sparingly in their previous single " Do Your Dance " , but in " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " its use was more spontaneous , which Dave Thompson , author of Funk noted as if " it virtually duetted with Dickey , creating one of the most distinctive records of the year — and one of the most imitated of the age . " The song was mainly recorded at music contractor Gene Bianco 's house , where Rose Royce lead singer Gwen Dickey was present during the recording . Buckmaster recalled : " I was over at [ Gene 's ] place almost every day with Norman , and some days I stayed away to write , or to mix the music . Gene had given me the keys to his apartment , and also let me use the piano to record the song . I didn 't want to work on at Miles ' because his piano was falling to bits . " = = Reception = = Kenny Hill from The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune said that the song " was a lasting impression of Rose Royce 's brilliance as a group " and it proved that disco and R & B soul music was not dead . " Frederick Douglas from The Baltimore Sun complimented the song saying that " with their soul ballad ' Love Don 't Live Here Anymore ' , Rose Royce is poised to take their place in the musical landscape as the greatest soul group . " Bob Kostanczuk from Post @-@ Tribune listed " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " as Rose Royce 's greatest song . Jim Mortimer from Deseret News felt that " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " was a perfect example of how gospel and soul music can be clubbed together and complimented producer Buckmaster . Shannon Kingly from Los Angeles Daily News felt that " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " is " a tad bit overrated , and is full of shouting . " " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " debuted at 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and made a slow climb , ultimately reaching a peak of 32 . It was more successful on the Hot Black Singles chart , where it reached five , and stayed there for four weeks . In Canada , the song debuted at 100 on the RPM Singles Chart on December 23 , 1978 . The song began a slow climb , and after nine weeks reached a peak of 41 on the chart . It was present for a total of 12 weeks on the chart . In the United Kingdom , " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " became Rose Royce 's biggest hit , reaching two on the UK Singles Chart while in Ireland it reached a peak of number seven . Across Europe , the song failed to chart except in Netherlands , where it reached eleven . The song was successful in Australia and New Zealand , where it reached positions four and two on the charts , respectively . = = Track listing = = 7 " Single Warner " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " – 3 : 56 " Do It , Do It " – 4 : 09 = = Credits and personnel = = Gwen Dickey – lead vocals Norman Whitfield – producer , acoustic guitar Paul Buckmaster – producer , piano , bass drum , LinnDrum Miles Gregory – writer Rose Royce – background vocals = = Charts and certification = = = = Cover versions = = An instrumental cover was recorded by the UK jazz @-@ funk duo Morrissey – Mullen at EMI 's London Abbey Road Studios in 1979 and was the first digital recording to be made of a non @-@ classical ensemble . It was released as the first of the EMI Digital series in a limited edition 12 " single . Jimmy Nail 's version was released in 1985 in his native United Kingdom , reaching number three on the UK Singles Chart . Coincidentally , Australian band I 'm Talking also released a version in late 1985 . British dance music producers Double Trouble released a version of ‘ Love Don ’ t Live Here Anymore ’ as a single in 1990 . Their arrangement had the vocals mixed over a House @-@ influenced backing track . A reggae version was released in 1997 by dancehall artist Bounty Killer and Swedish singer Robyn . Faith Evans recorded it on her 1995 album Faith . = = Madonna version = = = = = Background = = = Madonna covered " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " for her second studio album , Like a Virgin , in 1984 . It was originally given a single release in March 1986 as a 7 " vinyl in Japan only and was given a full release in 1996 as it was included on the 1995 ballads hits compilation Something to Remember . The idea to cover the song was actually Michael Ostin 's , the head of the A & R department of Warner Bros. Records . In author Warren Zanes book Revolutions in Sound : Warner Bros. Records , the First 50 Years , he recalled : " I had the good fortune of finding material that Madonna really responded to , ' Love Don 't Live Here Anymore ' for instance , which was the old Rose Royce record . I was driving into work one day and heard it on the radio , I called producer Nile Rodgers and Madonna , they were in the studio . I said , ' I have an idea , . You know the old Rose Royce record , ' Love Don 't Live Here Anymore ' ? Why don 't you try and record a version of it for Like a Virgin ? " Initially both Rodgers and Madonna were apprehensive of tackling an already well @-@ known ballad , but in the last minute they decided that if Madonna wanted to bring diversity to the album , there could be no better song than " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " . According to Rodgers , although Like a Virgin was mainly driven by Madonna , he was instrumental in adding " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " to the track list . The song was a favorite of Madonna , so when in 1995 she released the compilation , she included a remixed and reworked version of " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " produced by David Reitzas . The version was released as the second single from the album in North America and the third single in Europe and Australia . The original 1986 release was included in the 1996 Japanese box set CD Single Collection on 3 " CD single and includes the track listing from the 7 " vinyl version . = = = Composition = = = Madonna 's version of the song begins with the sound of acoustic guitars and synth strings . Madonna 's voice sounds high @-@ pitched , eluding the deeper resonance of the tune . After the first verse , Tony Thompson starts playing the drums , which moves along the rhythm of the song . Towards the end , Madonna sings the song like a soul singer and the song ends with a gasp of breath . The song was recorded at Power Station Studio in Manhattan , New York . Rodgers recalled : " Madonna had never performed with a live orchestra before . I was very much into doing everything live , so I just said , ' Madonna , you go out there and sing and we will follow you . ' At first Madonna was hesitant , but the live setting ended up producing memorable results . She sang and she was overcome with emotions and she started crying , but I left it on the record . " The 1995 remix was quite different from the 1984 version . It began with the sound of violins and Uilleann pipes , followed by Madonna beginning the first verse . As the song progresses , the sound of the violin fades in and the drum machine starts , and the piano is played along with it . As the chorus is sung the third time , a bass drum is also added in the flow . The violin again fades in as Madonna sings " Through the windmills of my eye , Everyone can see the loneliness inside me . " Near the end , she utters the chorus a number of times , emphasizing on the word " anymore " and the phrase " live here anymore " . It ends with the Uilleann pipes fading out . The song was also treated with remixes in various formats . SoulShock & Karlin made an R & B styled remix ; while Marcus Schulz created a house remix . Madonna 's voice was paired with an energetic beat , coupled with vibrant organ lines and blipping synth effects . The remixes were released as promotional 12 " and CD singles on May 6 , 1996 . = = = Critical response = = = Author Rikky Rooksby wrote in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna that Madonna 's singing in the song " deserved a commendation for bravery and was a sign that she was going to set herself challenges . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic , while reviewing Like a Virgin , wrote that the cover of the song was " well worth hearing " . Debbie Bull from Rolling Stone , meanwhile , opined that " her torchy ballad ' Love Don 't Live Here Anymore ' is awful . " Larry Flick from Billboard complimented both the versions of the song , calling the first version " a lush slice of symphonic pop " , and the other an " old @-@ school , jeep @-@ soul cruiser . Both arrangements perfectly suit her vocal , which is rife with emotional belts and theatrical gasps . [ ... ] David Reitzas string @-@ laden version will please those who never got enough of the previous single ' You 'll See ' . The bottom line is that this will likely be another smash for an artist whose stock as a credible musical entity deservedly rises with each release . " He also complimented the dance remixes of the song , saying that " when combined , [ Marcus Schultz house remix ] keyboard lines add up to a very pastel , tea @-@ dance ready twirler . His five mixes lean largely towards the middle of the club road . " Liz Smith , while reviewing the Something to Remember album in Newsday , felt that all of Madonna 's vocal trainings that she received while shooting for the film Evita , had " paid off , because the La M 's second single sounds wonderful , and is a step up from the previous haunting ' You 'll See ' . " Dorothy Holmes from Telegram & Gazette said that " ' Love Don 't Live Here Anymore ' sounds like her perfect adult contemporary staple . " = = = Chart performance = = = In the United States , " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " debuted at the top of the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , a position comparable to 101 on the main Billboard Hot 100 . After two weeks , it debuted at 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Madonna 's 36th entry on the chart , and her first entry with a remake of someone else 's single . The song ultimately reached only a peak of 78 , and was present for only eight weeks on the chart . On June 8 , 1996 , the song was one of the breakout tracks for the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart . It debuted at 39 on the chart and reached 30 the next week , becoming the Power Pick song of the chart . It ultimately reached a peak of 16 on the chart . It debuted on the Hot Adult Contemporary Chart at 30 , and reached a peak of 29 , the next week . In Canada , the song debuted at 99 on the RPM Singles Chart , on May 6 , 1996 . After eight weeks , the song reached a peak of 24 on the chart . It was present on the chart for 12 weeks . Across Europe , the song charted in France at 48 , and also reached 27 in Australia . = = = Music video and live performance = = = The music video was directed by Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino , who worked with Madonna in her videos for " Open Your Heart " , " Justify My Love " and " Human Nature " , and shot on March 4 , 1996 , at the Confitería El Molino in Buenos Aires , Argentina , during her day off from filming Evita . Maria Gallagher was the producer , with Jean @-@ Yves Escoffier serving as director of photography . It was a Bandits Production . In her Evita diaries , published by Vanity Fair magazine in 1996 , Madonna made reference to the video shoot . In her writings , she specifically mentioned forgetting the lyrics of the song , suggesting she was having an identity crisis of sorts , trying to juggle her own identity with that of her role of Eva Perón in Evita . Madonna was also in the early stages of her pregnancy with daughter Lourdes while making the video . Hence , she felt great stress while shooting it , which led her to forget the lyrics . She said , " There are no words to describe the weariness I feel today . I have not slept well in days , and when I do , there is no comfort . My dreams are violent and full of betrayal . Like my life , there 's no escape . I feel the responsibility of this film . I cannot talk about Evita and her life without defending myself ... Dear God , what have I gotten myself into ? What is happening to me ? Today we went to shoot a music video for my next song . But I kept forgetting the lyrics , and felt like crying each and every time I did it . It was so frustrating . It 's my own song ! " The video features Madonna at the empty suite of an abandoned hotel , a similar setting to her " Like a Virgin " music video . It was shot in a single frame , with the camera approaching Madonna , as she stands behind a pillar . She rotates around it and sings the song , as air blows through the room . The video ends with Madonna looking up towards the camera the last time , and then closing her eyes . It was treated with sepia color . Carol Vernallis , author of Experiencing music video : aesthetics and cultural context felt that the video was a good example of how image can direct the viewer 's attention towards the shift in instrumentation and arrangement of the song . She noted the aimless movement of the camera towards her as " bringing focus to the main subject , with the viewer 's attention fully captured . " A mashup of " HeartBreakCity " , a track from her 13th studio album Rebel Heart , and " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " was performed on Madonna 's 2015 – 16 Rebel Heart Tour . It began with the singer dancing with a male back @-@ up dancer as she sang " HeartBreakCity " ; then , she chased him up a long spiral staircase and pushed him backwards before merging into " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " . Erik Kabik from The Las Vegas Sun , praised the performance for its simplicity . = = = Credits and personnel = = = Madonna – vocals , background vocals Nile Rodgers – producer , electric and acoustic guitars , musical arrangement Bernard Edwards – bass Rob Sabino – assorted synthesizers , bass synthesizer Tony Thompson – drum machine Curtis King – background vocals Frank Simms – background vocals George Simms – background vocals Karen Milne – string instruments David Reitzas – remix producer , remix engineer Jan Mullaney – remix keyboards Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes . = = = Charts = = =
= 1880 Greenback National Convention = The 1880 Greenback Party National Convention convened at the Interstate Exposition Building in Chicago from June 9 to 11 , 1880 , to select presidential and vice presidential nominees and write a party platform for the Greenback Party in the United States presidential election of 1880 . Delegates chose James B. Weaver of Iowa for President and Barzillai J. Chambers of Texas for Vice President . The Greenback Party was a newcomer to the political scene in 1880 , having arisen , mostly in the nation 's West and South , as a response to the economic depression that followed the Panic of 1873 . During the American Civil War , Congress had authorized " greenbacks , " a form of money redeemable in government bonds , rather than in gold , as was traditional . After the war , many Democrats and Republicans in the East sought to return to the gold standard , and the government began to withdraw greenbacks from circulation . The reduction of the money supply , combined with the economic depression , made life harder for debtors , farmers , and industrial laborers ; the Greenback Party hoped to draw support from these groups . Six men were candidates for the presidential nomination . Weaver , an Iowa congressman and Civil War general , was the clear favorite , but two other congressmen , Benjamin F. Butler of Massachusetts and Hendrick B. Wright of Pennsylvania , also commanded considerable followings . Weaver triumphed quickly , winning a majority of the 850 delegates ' votes on the first ballot . Chambers , a Texas businessman and Confederate veteran , was likewise nominated on the initial vote . More tumultuous was the fight over the platform , as delegates from disparate factions of the left @-@ wing movement clashed over women 's suffrage , Chinese immigration , and the extent to which the government should regulate working conditions . Votes for women was the most contentious of these , with the party ultimately endorsing the suffragists ' cause , despite a vocal minority 's opposition . Weaver and Chambers left the convention with high hopes for the third party 's cause , but in the end they were disappointed . The election was a close contest between the Republican , James A. Garfield , and the Democrat , Winfield Scott Hancock , with Garfield being the narrow victor . The Greenback ticket placed a distant third , netting just over three percent of the popular vote . = = Background = = = = = Origins = = = The Greenback Party was a newcomer to politics in 1880 , having first nominated candidates for national office four years earlier . The party had arisen , mostly in the West and South , as a response to the economic depression that followed the Panic of 1873 . During the Civil War , Congress had authorized " greenbacks , " a new form of fiat money that was redeemable not in gold but in government bonds . The greenbacks had helped to finance the war when the government 's gold supply did not keep pace with the expanding costs of maintaining the armies . When the crisis had passed , many in both the Democratic and Republican parties , especially in the East , wanted to return the nation 's currency to a gold standard as soon as possible ( candidates who favored the gold @-@ backed currency were called " hard money " supporters , while the policy of encouraging inflation was known as " soft money " ) . The Specie Payment Resumption Act , passed in 1875 , ordered that greenbacks be gradually withdrawn and replaced with gold @-@ backed currency beginning in 1879 . At the same time , economic depression had made it more expensive for debtors to pay debts they had contracted when currency was less valuable . Neither the Democrats nor the Republicans offered a home to those who favored retaining the greenbacks , so many looked to create a third party that would address their concerns . Greenbackers drew support from the growing labor movement in the nation 's Eastern cities as well as Western and Southern farmers who had been harmed by deflation . Beyond their support for a larger money supply , they also favored an eight @-@ hour work day , safety regulations in factories , and an end to child labor . As one author put it , they " anticipated by almost fifty years the progressive legislation of the first quarter of the twentieth century " . In 1876 , various independent delegates gathered in Indianapolis to nominate a presidential ticket to campaign on those issues . For president , they chose Peter Cooper , an eighty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old industrialist and philanthropist from New York , with Samuel Fenton Cary , a former Congressman from Ohio , as his running mate . The Greenback ticket fared poorly in the election that November , attracting just 81 @,@ 740 votes — less than 1 % of the total . As bad economic times continued , however , the party gained momentum . Labor unrest the following year , culminating in the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 , added to many laborers ' alienation from the two major parties . Local movements , like California 's Workingmen 's Party , began to agitate for laws to improve the condition of laborers ( and for an end to Chinese immigration ) . By 1878 , the third @-@ party movement had become strong enough to elect 22 independents to the federal House of Representatives , most tied in some way to the Greenback movement . As the 1880 presidential election approached , members of the Greenback Party ( or Greenback @-@ Labor Party , as it was sometimes known ) had reason to believe that they could improve on the results of 1876 . = = = Party split = = = Attempts to fuse the disparate state and local parties into a national force led to friction between party leaders . By 1879 , there was a clear split , as a group led by Marcus M. " Brick " Pomeroy formed their own " Union Greenback Labor Party . " Pomeroy 's group of mostly Southern and Western Greenbackers was opposed to electoral fusion with either of the two major parties and took more radical positions on monetary policy , including payment of all federal bonds in greenbacks , rather than the gold dollars originally promised investors . They also differed from the Eastern @-@ centered rump party ( often called the " National Greenback Party " ) in calling for the popular election of postmasters and the death penalty as punishment for corruption in public office . After a January 1880 conference in Washington , D.C. failed to unite the factions , each party called for its own national convention to nominate candidates for president . The Union Greenbackers held their convention first , meeting in St. Louis in March 1880 . Although much of the young party 's leadership remained with the Eastern faction , the March gathering included Solon Chase and Kersey Graves , among other third party notables . They nominated Stephen D. Dillaye , a New Jersey lawyer and journalist , for President and Barzillai J. Chambers , a Texas merchant and surveyor , for Vice President . Because Dillaye had previously declared he was not interested in the nomination , many delegates protested , seeing Dillaye as a placeholder for eventual re @-@ unification with the National Greenbackers . Dillaye , himself , supported reunification , and Pomeroy also urged the delegates to send representatives to the Easterners ' convention , which was set for June 1880 in Chicago . The majority agreed with the sentiment , and Union Greenbackers gathered in Chicago along with National Greenbackers as their convention began a few months later . = = Candidates = = = = = Weaver = = = James Baird Weaver grew up on the Iowa frontier and was involved with the Republican Party from its early days in the late 1850s . At the outbreak of Civil War , he joined the Union Army . Weaver saw action at the battles of Fort Donelson , Shiloh , and Resaca , and rose to the rank of brevet brigadier general . After the war , he continued to be active in Iowa Republican politics . Weaver sought nomination to the House of Representatives and the Governorship , but each time was defeated by candidates from the party 's more conservative faction , led by William B. Allison . He campaigned for the Republican presidential candidate , Rutherford B. Hayes , in 1876 , but also attended the 1876 Greenback National Convention as an observer . By 1877 , differences with party leadership on the money question led him to consider other options . After initially supporting the Republican candidate for governor that year , Weaver joined the Greenback Party in August . In 1878 , Weaver accepted the Greenback nomination for Iowa 's 6th congressional district . Although Weaver 's political career up to then had been as a staunch Republican , Democrats in the 6th district considered that endorsing him was likely the only way to defeat Ezekiel S. Sampson , the incumbent Republican . Despite objections from some hard @-@ money Democrats , the Greenback @-@ Democrat ticket prevailed , and Weaver was elected with 16 @,@ 366 votes to Sampson 's 14 @,@ 307 . Weaver entered the 46th Congress in March 1879 . Although the House was closely divided , neither major party included the Greenbackers in their caucus , leaving them few committee assignments and little input on legislation . Weaver gave his first speech in April 1879 , criticizing the use of the army to police Southern polling stations , while also decrying the violence against black Southerners that made such protection necessary ; he then described the Greenback platform , which he said would put an end to the sectional and economic strife . The next month , he spoke in favor of a bill calling for an increase in the money supply by allowing the unlimited coinage of silver , but the bill was easily defeated . Weaver 's oratorical skill drew praise , and while he was unable to advance Greenback policy ideas , he was soon considered the front @-@ runner for the presidential nomination in 1880 . = = = Butler = = = Benjamin Franklin Butler was born in Deerfield , New Hampshire , and later moved to Massachusetts to pursue a legal career . He built a successful practice in the 1840s and 1850s and became involved in local politics as a Democrat . A compelling public speaker , Butler was first elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1853 . He successfully ran for a Massachusetts Senate seat in 1859 . Despite his Protestant upbringing , he gained a faithful following among Massachusetts Catholics and also built support among laborers . In the 1860 presidential campaign , Butler sought compromise with the slave power and believed Senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi should be the Democratic Party 's nominee for president . Butler had been elected a brigadier general of the Massachusetts militia , and when the Civil War began in 1861 , he quickly organized his men and marched south . Butler 's men occupied Baltimore to ensure that Maryland did not follow its fellow Southern states into secession . In May of that year , he was promoted to major general and sent to command at Fort Monroe in Virginia , where he pioneered the tactic of seizing and freeing slaves as " contraband of war " . When Union forces captured New Orleans , Butler was sent to command there . Butler 's rule was harsh , and he became especially reviled among Southern whites , to whom he was known as " Beast " Butler . He was transferred to the Virginia theater in 1863 , where he worked under General Ulysses S. Grant 's direction in the campaigns that led to the Confederacy 's defeat . After the war , Butler was elected to Congress as a Republican , and soon came to identify with that party 's more radical element . In 1868 , he was among the leaders in President Andrew Johnson 's impeachment . Butler 's wartime exploits earned him support among blacks and abolitionists , which , combined with his existing base among laborers , ensured his reelection for several terms . His radicalism made him enemies among conservative Republicans , however , and when he lost his seat in the Democratic wave of 1874 , he began to shift his allegiance to the nascent Greenback Party . In 1876 , he returned to the House as a Republican , but in 1878 he ran unsuccessfully for Governor of Massachusetts as an independent Greenbacker with Democratic support . Butler had supporters across the political spectrum — he was often said to be " a member of all parties and false to each " — and was considered a presidential possibility when the Greenbackers convened in Chicago in 1880 . = = = Wright = = = Hendrick Bradley Wright was born and raised in northeastern Pennsylvania . After studying law at Dickinson College , Wright returned to Wilkes @-@ Barre and quickly became known as a gifted attorney and orator . His powers of speech earned him notice in Pennsylvania Democratic Party circles , as well as the nickname " Old @-@ Man @-@ Not @-@ Afraid @-@ To @-@ Be @-@ Called @-@ A @-@ Demagogue " . He became a district attorney for Luzerne County in 1834 and was elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives in 1841 . Wright was reelected in 1842 and 1843 , serving as Speaker in his final term . He served as president of the 1844 Democratic National Convention , working with the anti @-@ Van Buren faction to prevent that former President 's nomination . After the convention , he sought a seat in the United States Senate , but was unsuccessful . Wright was defeated for election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1850 , but was successful in 1852 . Defeated for reelection in 1854 , he ran in 1860 as a Democrat with Republican support , and was elected to represent Pennsylvania 's 12th congressional district . He spoke against the Peace Democrats early in the Civil War , but by 1864 , believing the Union war aims had changed for the worse , he supported Democrat George B. McClellan for the presidency . Wright did not run for reelection , returning to private life in 1863 . He continued his legal career and published writings on the relationship between labor and capital . His book , A Practical Treatise on Labor , was published in 1871 . In 1876 , Wright was elected to his old seat in Congress as a Democrat , but with support from the small Greenback movement . In 1878 , the situation was reversed : Wright ran as a Greenbacker , but was reelected with support by Democrats . He attracted attention in Congress with his proposal to amend the Homestead Act of 1862 to establish government loans to would @-@ be settlers of the West , making it easier for landless Easterners to claim homesteads there . Congress was , on the whole , not receptive to Wright 's proposal . Wright proposed it again in 1879 and emphasized the conservatism of his proposal , that it was a loan secured by the homestead , not a gift from the state ; even so , the bill went down to overwhelming defeat . Despite his failure , Wright , like Weaver , had raised his profile as a potential presidential nominee by attempting to advance Greenback ideas in Congress . = = = Other contenders = = = Several favorite son candidates had delegates interested in their nomination , although they were seen as having less of a chance of gaining the nomination . Alexander Campbell had represented Illinois in the House of Representatives several years earlier . He was seen as a pragmatist who represented the Greenback Party 's more conservative members . Henly James was the head of the Grange in Indiana and had served in the state legislature there , but attracted little support outside his own delegation . In the Wisconsin delegation , many favored Edward P. Allis , an industrialist who owned the Reliance Iron Works . Allis was a longtime supporter of soft money , but had no experience in elected office . Finally , Solon Chase of Maine had some support from the New England delegations . Chase was a publisher of a Greenback newspaper , Chase 's Inquirer , and had narrowly lost a House election in 1878 . Chase was among the most radical of the Greenbackers , attracting support from the party 's left @-@ wing members . = = Convention = = = = = Preliminaries = = = The National Greenback Party delegates assembled in the Interstate Exposition Building in Chicago on Wednesday , June 9 , 1880 . The Republican convention took place in the same building and had only just ended after a record 36 rounds of balloting . When the Greenbackers arrived , the Republicans ' banners still hung from the walls , so the delegates were greeted by images of Abraham Lincoln and Thaddeus Stevens as they entered . The building , popularly known as the " Glass Palace " , had been built in 1873 for an Interstate Industrial Exposition . Franklin P. Dewees of the party 's executive committee called the convention to order at 12 : 30 p.m. on June 9 . Reverend Pearl P. Ingalls of Iowa said a brief prayer , and the convention was opened . Gilbert De La Matyr , a Methodist minister and Greenback congressman from Indiana , was unanimously chosen as temporary chairman . After De La Matyr gave a brief , fiery speech , they proceeded to call the roll , which included delegates from every state except Oregon . As the roll call finished , Matilda Joslyn Gage , a suffragist , mounted the stage , provoking cheers from some delegates and howls of outrage from others . She called for the new party to recognize women 's right to vote , but the issue was avoided temporarily when the delegates voted to send her petition to a committee for further study . = = = Reunification = = = The Union Greenback convention had reconvened at nearby Farwell Hall and sent an emissary to the National Greenbackers . The delegates voted to join the other faction in a special conference committee to work for reunification , then adjourned until 7 : 30 that evening . While they waited for the committees to finish their work , the delegates listened to speeches by several prominent Greenbackers , including Denis Kearney , a California labor leader , and William Wallace , a Canadian parliamentarian and advocate for currency reform . Meanwhile , the Credentials Committee voted narrowly to admit the Union Greenbackers , as well as a delegation from the Socialist Labor Party . The Committee on Permanent Organization voted to recommend Richard F. Trevellick , a Michigan trade union organizer , as the permanent chairman of the convention . None of the reports were finished by the appointed time , so the convention adjourned again until 10 : 45 Thursday morning . When they reconvened , the Credentials Committee announced that there were 608 regularly selected delegates , and recommended the admission of 185 Union Greenbackers and 44 Socialist Laborites , along with a handful of others . After a spirited and chaotic discussion , the convention voted to admit the other delegates in a voice vote : the party was reunified . Messages were sent to the Union Greenbackers and Socialist Laborites informing them of the results . In the meantime , the women 's suffrage supporters again tried to convince the delegates to endorse their cause . Sarah Andrews Spencer mounted the stage to give an impassioned argument for women 's right to vote , while Kearney climbed a nearby platform to shout his disapproval . Their informal debate was interrupted by a brass band announcing the arrival of the Union Greenbackers and Socialist Laborites . The convention erupted in prolonged cheering and a banner with the word " Reunion " was hoisted . The convention broke for a brief recess as the delegates renewed their acquaintance with the erstwhile schismatics . = = = Platform = = = The delegates voted to address the platform before deciding on nominees , and debate began when they reconvened at 8 : 45 p.m. Many fights and compromises had been hashed out in the Resolutions Committee already , but the delegates insisted on debating several provisions . On many planks , there was widespread agreement among the delegates . On the monetary issue , the platform declared that all money , whether metal or paper , should be issued by the government , not by banks ( as was common for paper money at the time ) . They also called for the unlimited coinage of silver and the repayment of the national debt in bonds , rather than gold dollars . Other planks of the platform called for a graduated income tax , laws to mandate safe working conditions in factories , the regulation of interstate commerce , and an end to child and convict labor ; all of these were familiar parts of Greenback platforms from earlier elections , and provoked no serious dissent . Social issues provoked greater disagreement . Kearney 's Western faction gained a victory when the platform was made to include a call for an end to Chinese immigration . They also turned , at last , to the issue of suffrage . They eventually agreed on a vague statement in the platform , that the party would " denounce as dangerous , the efforts everywhere manifest to restrict the right of suffrage " . Many of the delegates found this unsatisfying , and called for a separate resolution on the subject . After more debate , a resolution calling for the enfranchisement of " every citizen " passed by a vote of 528 to 124 . The Socialist Labor faction proposed another resolution declaring " that land , air , and water are the grand gifts of nature to all mankind " , and that no person had a right to monopolize them ; the convention applauded , but the proposal was shunted off to a committee . = = = Nominations and balloting = = = It was nearly midnight Thursday night when the platform fights were finished , but the delegates voted to proceed immediately to nominations for President . At 1 : 00 Friday morning , the roll call began . S.F. Norton proposed his fellow Illinoisan , Alexander Campbell , proclaiming his great financial knowledge and association with Lincoln . James Buchanan , the editor of the Indianapolis Sun , proposed Benjamin Butler . Iowa Congressman Edward H. Gillette nominated Weaver , and Frank M. Fogg of Maine proposed " the farmer 's friend " , Solon Chase . Perry Talbot of Missouri nominated the Union Greenbackers ' nominee , Stephen D. Dillaye , who immediately asked that his name be withdrawn . Pennsylvania 's delegation nominated Hendrick Wright , and Wisconsin 's closed with the nomination of Edward P. Allis . Now 3 : 25 a.m. , the delegates took an informal ballot . Weaver led the pack with about 30 % of the votes , with Wright , Dillaye , and Butler trailing at about 15 % each and the remaining votes scattered among the remaining candidates . Supporters of Wright and Butler talked of combining their forces , but the momentum favored Weaver . In the first formal ballot , at 4 : 10 a.m. , Weaver gained votes , and delegates began shifting their ballots to him . Without any official motion , the nomination was made unanimous , and the brass band again began to play . Weaver , who was staying at the nearby Palmer House hotel , was summoned to the convention . As they waited , the delegates turned to the vice presidential nomination . Some of Butler 's supporters proposed nominating Absolom M. West of Mississippi , a more conservative Greenbacker , to balance the ticket against Weaver , whom they regarded as radical . West , who was present at the convention , had already disappointed the radicals by opposing women 's suffrage and the eight @-@ hour day . They instead proposed Barzillai J. Chambers of Texas , who had been the Union Greenbackers ' nominee for vice president . The majority agreed , as Chambers took 403 votes to West 's 311 . Weaver had still not arrived , and the Socialist Labor delegates took the opportunity to call for a re @-@ vote on their land plank and the women 's suffrage issue . The delegates overruled the chairman 's holding that the question was out of order and overwhelmingly voted that the " land , air , and water " plank and a plank explicitly supporting women 's suffrage should be considered " part of the platform " . Finally , at 6 : 00 a.m. , Weaver arrived . To thunderous applause , the nominee thanked the convention for its decision and accepted the nomination . At 6 : 45 a.m. , the exhausted delegates adjourned . = = Aftermath = = Three weeks later , Weaver published his formal letter of acceptance , calling for all party members to " go forth in the great struggle for human rights " . In a departure from the political traditions of the day , Weaver himself campaigned , making speeches across the South in July and August . As the Greenbackers had the only ticket that included a Southerner , Weaver and Chambers hoped to make inroads in the South . Chambers 's own participation was limited , as before reaching home from the convention , he fell as he exited his train and broke two ribs . He was confined to bed for several weeks and considered withdrawing from the race , but decided against it ; his efforts were limited by his injuries , and his only contribution to the campaign was to publish his newspaper . As the campaign progressed , Weaver 's message of racial inclusion drew violent protests in the South , as the Greenbackers faced the same obstacles the Republicans did in the face of increasing black disenfranchisement . In the autumn , Weaver campaigned in the North , but the Greenbackers ' lack of support was compounded by Weaver 's refusal to run a fusion ticket in states where Democratic and Greenbacker strength might have combined to outvote the Republicans . The Greenback ticket received 305 @,@ 997 votes and no electoral votes , compared to 4 @,@ 446 @,@ 158 for the winner , Republican James A. Garfield , and 4 @,@ 444 @,@ 260 for Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock . The party was strongest in the West and South , but in no state did Weaver receive more than 12 % of the vote , and his nationwide total was just 3 % . That figure represented an improvement over the Greenback vote of 1876 , but to Weaver , who expected twice as many votes as he received , it was a disappointment .
= Cyclone Pat = Severe Tropical Cyclone Pat was a small but strong tropical cyclone that passed directly over Aitutaki , Cook Islands , in southern Pacific Ocean on February 10 , 2010 . Part of a series of storms to impact the group of islands early that year , Pat was first identified as a tropical depression on February 6 well to the northeast of the Samoan Islands . The storm steadily organized as it moved generally southeast , becoming a tropical cyclone on February 8 . Turning to the south , intensification began in earnest and the system acquired hurricane @-@ force winds within 48 hours of being named . The 445 km ( 275 mi ) wide system displayed annular characteristics and a 19 km ( 12 mi ) wide eye . Pat reached its peak strength early on February 10 as a severe tropical cyclone with winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 960 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 35 inHg ) . Hours later it struck Aitutaki , producing gusts in excess of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) on the island . Hostile wind shear then prompted rapid weakening of the cyclone . The system degraded below gale @-@ intensity on February 11 , just 24 hours after it peaked , and was last noted early on February 12 . Battering Aitutaki with wind gusts in excess of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , Cyclone Pat devastated the island . Approximately 78 percent of homes were damaged , with 72 structures destroyed . The electrical grid was left completely offline and supply of water was largely lost . Agriculture also experienced tremendous impact , with most crops completely lost . Damage on Aitutaki amounted to US $ 13 @.@ 7 million ; however , casualties were minimal with only eight minor injuries reported . Recovery efforts began immediately after the storm , with the Red Cross and the Government of New Zealand aiding the local government . A reconstruction plan was enacted by the Cook Islands within a month and subsequently funded by New Zealand . Owing to its destructive effects , the name Pat was later retired and replaced with Pili . = = Meteorological history = = Between January and March 2010 , the Australian monsoon trough extended unusually far east over the southern Pacific Ocean . With above @-@ average sea surface temperatures , stemming from a moderate @-@ strength El Niño , multiple low pressure systems were able to develop across the region . An unusual spree of tropical cyclogenesis in rapid succession ensued , including four hurricane @-@ strength storms : Oli , Pat , Rene , and Tomas . On February 6 , the Fiji Meteorological Service ( FMS ) began monitoring a tropical depression , dubbed 09F , well to the northeast of the Samoan Islands . Embedded within a well @-@ developed trough , the system displayed curved convective banding features . Environmental conditions in the area , including low wind shear , high ocean heat content , and upper @-@ level outflow , favored cyclogenesis . Additionally , an active Madden – Julian oscillation phase moving into the region was expected to bolster development . Steady improvement of the system 's convective structure ensued and early on February 7 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . The low trekked generally east @-@ southeast in response to a near @-@ equatorial ridge anchored to the north . The storm 's appearance continued to improve and Dvorak classifications rose to T2.5 , indicating gale @-@ force winds were likely present . Accordingly , the JTWC began issuing advisories on the system at 18 : 00 UTC and dubbed it Tropical Cyclone 14P . Forecasters noted , however , that the small size of the cyclone could lead to erroneously low Dvorak estimates . The FMS followed suit six hours later and assigned the name Pat to the cyclone , assessing it as a Category 1 on the Australian cyclone scale . Convection became increasingly symmetric on February 8 , and a small eye feature appeared on microwave satellite imagery . Spanning no more than 445 km ( 275 mi ) , the developing storm began a gradual turn to the south as steering currents shifted from the equatorial ridge to a subtropical ridge . Based on increasing Dvorak numbers , the JTWC assessed Pat to have reached hurricane @-@ intensity by 06 : 00 UTC on February 9 . The eye feature became more pronounced throughout the day , with convection consolidating inward and becoming more symmetric . Accordingly , the FMS accordingly upgraded Pat to a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone by 18 : 00 UTC . The system became annular in nature on February 10 , characterized by a lack of prominent banding features and uniform convection which surrounded its 19 km ( 12 mi ) wide eye . Pat reached its peak intensity at 06 : 00 UTC that day as it began turning to the southwest . Maximum winds were estimated at 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) alongside a barometric pressure of 960 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 35 inHg ) . At the same time , the JTWC assessed Pat to have been a Category 2 @-@ equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale with one @-@ minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Weakening began shortly thereafter as wind shear over the system increased . Pat passed directly over the island of Aitutaki between 12 : 00 and 18 : 00 UTC . The low @-@ level center of Pat began decoupling from convection late on February 10 once it cleared Aitutaki . The storm rapidly weakened amid strong shear , with the center being left completely exposed early on February 11 . A solitary band remained along the south side of the storm by that time , and the FMS no longer considered it a tropical cyclone after 06 : 00 UTC . The lone band of convection dissipated later that day and with no residual thunderstorm activity , the skeletal low turned westward in response to westerly flow . The JTWC maintained Pat as a tropical storm until 18 : 00 UTC and as a tropical depression until its dissipation early on February 12 . = = Preparations = = Starting on February 7 , tropical cyclone alerts and later gale warnings were issued for the northern Cook Islands under the anticipation of gale @-@ force winds impacting populated islands . The first of these islands were Manihiki , Rakahanga , and Suwarrow . As the storm moved southward , the advisories shifted accordingly . Strong wind warnings were raised for Pukapuka , Nassau , and Penryhn on February 8 ; however , they were dropped later that day as Cyclone Pat moved away . Alerts on potential gales in the southern Cook Islands also began on February 8 , including the islands of Atiu , Aitutaki , Manuae , Mitiaro , and Takutea . Gale warnings for Aitutaki , Palmerston , and Rarotonga began on February 9 and extended to Mauke the next day . Early on February 10 , a hurricane warning was issued for Aitutaki . With the core of Pat 's destructive winds forecast to pass close to or over the island , sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) and gusts of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) were anticipated . The aforementioned warnings were allowed to expire once Pat cleared the Cook Islands on February 11 and was no longer a threat . Emergency centers were prepped across the northern Cook Islands on February 8 . The Cook Islands Chapter of the Red Cross took early action with Cyclone Pat and began stockpiling relief supplies on February 9 . Volunteers from the organization assisted elderly residents with preparation and evacuation on Aitutaki . Anticipating high winds , residents tied down homes with rope and wire and boarded up windows with shutters . Similar preparations took place on Rarotonga , though the main concern there was storm surge . Government offices and schools there were closed on February 11 . Most residents and all tourists along the coast in Aitutaki evacuated inland to designated shelters . Authorities later announced that they were under @-@ prepared for Cyclone Pat . The lack of an official process during an emergency was cited as a core issue . = = Impact = = Passing directly over Aitutaki on February 10 , Pat produced wind gusts in excess of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) making it one of the most powerful storms ever experienced by residents on the island . It is also considered among the most damaging on the island . Aitutaki Mayor Tai Herman claimed the winds to be much stronger , with gusts up to 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) during the worst of the storm . These winds were above building codes at the time , which required structures to be able to withstand winds of 176 km / h ( 109 mph ) . Numerous trees and power lines fell amid the powerful winds , cutting power to the entirety of the island and severing communications . According to the Government of the Cook Islands , 78 percent of the homes on the island sustained damage . Of the 277 affected homes , 59 sustained minor damage , 51 moderate , 95 major , and 72 were destroyed . Severity of damage correlated with the age of each home , with buildings over 25 years old suffering the greatest impact . Collateral damage took place when debris from damaged or destroyed structures became airborne and struck other buildings . Hardest hit were the villages of Nikaupara and Tautu . Costs to homes amounted to NZ $ 15 million ( US $ 10 @.@ 6 million ) . One building at the Seventh Day Adventist church primary school collapsed while another sustained severe damage . Although damage occurred at Vaitau School , it was utilized as an evacuation shelter . The primary school and college in Araura also suffered damage . The island 's electrically run water supply was substantially effected . A total of 568 homes lost access to clean water , with many waters tanks damaged or destroyed . Aitutaki 's only hospital fared well through the storm , with some roof damage and flooded rooms . Infrastructural losses totaled to NZ $ 2 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) , mainly stemming from the power grid . The agricultural sector sustained extensive damage , amounting to US $ 1 @.@ 5 million , with some crops experiencing a total loss . The severity of damage raised concerns about food security in the months after the storm . Particularly hard @-@ hit was the mango crop , which was to be harvested two weeks after Pat struck . Approximately 60 – 75 percent of the coconut trees and 75 percent of java plum , mango , and kapok trees sustained damage . Most trees had at least one branch torn off and in most cases , multiple branches . Additionally , the blue lorikeet ( Vini peruviana ) , a bird native to French Polynesia and the Cook Islands , population suffered dramatic losses due to the storm , with the population on Aitutaki dropping by more than 50 percent . All told , losses from Pat amounted to US $ 13 @.@ 7 million . However , Dr. Russell Howorth from the Secretariat of the Pacific Community ( SPC ) stated that damage reached US $ 8 @.@ 2 million . In comparison , the collective damage from cyclones in the Cook Islands since 1955 was US $ 47 million according to the SPC . In contrast to the severity of damage , no fatalities and only eight minor injuries took place . Fearing similar damage to Aitutaki , a pre @-@ emptive state of emergency was issued for Rarotonga . This was soon lifted as Pat ultimately spared Rarotonga and little damage took place there . Gale @-@ force winds and heavy rains impacted Rarotonga and Palmerston islands . Large swells affected the uninhabited Penrhyn atoll , interfering with a study of marine turtles . = = Aftermath = = Immediately following Pat 's passage , the Government of the Cook Islands declared Aitutaki a disaster zone . In accordance with the FRANZ agreement , the Government of New Zealand made an initial donation of NZ $ 350 @,@ 000 for recovery efforts prior to the formal request for assistance on February 13 . Following said request , New Zealand prepped a C @-@ 130 Hercules aircraft with emergency supplies and New Zealand Defense Force ( NZDF ) personnel which arrived in Aitutaki on February 15 . The aircraft made four trips in all which provided several tonnes of aid to the island . The NZDF priority was repair of schools and hospitals , though they assisted the Red Cross with clearing debris , restoring power , and setting up temporary shelters for affected residents . The lack of access to clean water prompted significant concern , and a water and sanitation expert from the Australian Red Cross flew in on February 12 to assist with restoration efforts . Immediate provisions of 600 water bottles were sent to the island on February 16 . The Red Cross subsequently began pumping and filtering water , using a truck to distribute it to the island 's villages . Through September 24 , they provided over 100 @,@ 000 litres of clean water . Distribution of 2 @,@ 050 collapsible containers and 200 hygiene kits lessened dependency on the Red Cross 's water pump . An extensive repair and recovery plan was enacted by the Government of the Cook Islands within a month of Cyclone Pat , which covered agricultural , infrastructural , and societal sectors . Financial restraints hindered the expected progress of this operation , with more than two @-@ thirds of it not being funded by the final plan report on March 4 . Of the NZ $ 15 million ( US $ 10 @.@ 6 million ) in home damage , NZ $ 7 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 1 million ) was covered . New Zealand later provided a NZ $ 5 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 9 million ) grant to assist in this effort . Priority was placed on repairing damaged homes , with lesser emphasis on destroyed ones . Labor costs would ultimately reach NZ $ 6 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 2 million ) for this project . Finalization of the funding for reconstruction was delayed and had not started by early June , with some residents still living in tents . Farmers were provided with NZ $ 195 @,@ 000 ( US $ 138 @,@ 000 ) worth of seeds , seedlings , and various supplies to jump @-@ start agricultural recovery . Since the majority of the island 's electrical grid was destroyed , an earlier plan to convert the network to underground cables was accelerated due to a convenience factor . By February 17 , 80 percent of the grid was restored ; however , only 10 percent homes were actually connected . The presence of dead vegetation left behind by the storm created fire hazards across the island , prompting the government to issue a ban on burning . The Seventh Day Adventist church primary school resumed classes on February 15 despite losing a building . All other schools suspended activities until February 22 ; however , the approach of Tropical Depression 11F delayed this until the following day . On February 23 , the European Union provided US $ 110 @,@ 000 in emergency funds to the Cook Islands . Habitat for Humanity later sought to assist in the rebuilding process in April , with a funding goal of NZ $ 300 @,@ 000 ( US $ 210 @,@ 000 ) . Depression set in among members throughout the storm @-@ battered community once the rebuilding process began . Fears of possible emigration stemming soon arose . Mayor Tai Herman feared that survivors would consider selling their homes and leave the Cook Islands altogether . Even Prime Minister Jim Marurai was reported to be left in shock by the scale of damage . The government enacted a three @-@ month psychological support plan accordingly to help residents cope with the disaster and maintain social integrity among victims . Through September , 265 people took advantage of this program .
= Indian Head eagle = The Indian Head eagle was a ten @-@ dollar gold piece , or eagle struck by the United States Mint continuously from 1907 until 1916 , and then irregularly until 1933 . The obverse and the reverse , designed by the sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , were originally commissioned for use on other denominations . Saint @-@ Gaudens was suffering from cancer , and did not survive to see the coins released . Beginning in 1904 , President Theodore Roosevelt proposed the introduction of new , more artistic designs on US coins , prompting the Mint to hire Saint @-@ Gaudens to create them . Roosevelt and Saint @-@ Gaudens at first considered a uniform design for the four denominations of US coin which were struck in gold , but in 1907 Roosevelt decided to use a model for the obverse of the eagle that the sculptor had meant to use for the cent . For the reverse of the ten @-@ dollar coin the President decided on a design featuring a standing bald eagle , which had been developed for the twenty @-@ dollar piece designed by Saint @-@ Gaudens . The coin , as sculpted by Saint @-@ Gaudens , was in too high relief for the Mint to strike readily ; completion of the design modifications necessary to make the coin sufficiently flat to be struck by one blow of the Mint 's presses took months . Following the sculptor 's death on August 3 , 1907 , Roosevelt insisted that the new eagle be finished and struck that month . New pieces were given to the President on August 31 , which differ from the coins struck later for circulation . The omission of the motto " In God We Trust " on the new coins caused public outrage , and prompted Congress to pass a bill mandating its inclusion . Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber added the words and made minor modifications to the design . The Indian Head eagle was struck regularly until 1916 , and then intermittently until President Franklin Roosevelt directed the Mint to stop producing gold coins in 1933 . Its termination ended the series of eagles struck for circulation begun in 1795 . Many Indian Head eagles were melted by the government in the late 1930s ; the 1933 issue is a particular rarity , as few were distributed . = = Inception = = In 1904 , President Theodore Roosevelt wrote to his Secretary of the Treasury , Leslie Mortier Shaw , complaining that U.S. coinage lacked artistic merit , and enquiring if it would be possible to engage a private artist , such as sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , to prepare new coin designs . At Roosevelt 's direction , the Mint hired Saint @-@ Gaudens to redesign the cent and the four gold pieces : the double eagle ( $ 20 ) , eagle ( $ 10 ) , half eagle ( $ 5 ) , and quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 ) . The Liberty Head design had been first struck for the eagle in 1838 ; the last addition to the Liberty Head gold series , the double eagle , was first struck for circulation in 1850 . The designs of those pieces had remained unchanged for more than 25 years , hence they could be changed without an act of Congress . In 1905 , Mint Engraver Charles E. Barber engraved the obverse of Roosevelt 's inauguration medal , while his assistant , George T. Morgan , engraved the reverse . Roosevelt disliked the work , and engaged Saint @-@ Gaudens to design an unofficial medal commemorating the inauguration . Saint @-@ Gaudens foresaw resistance from Barber on the question of the new coinage ; he wrote to his brother , Louis Saint @-@ Gaudens , " Barber is a S.O.A.B. [ son of a bitch ] but I had a talk with the President who ordered Secretary Shaw in my presence to cut Barber 's head off if he didn 't do our bidding " . Roosevelt was impressed by some models Saint @-@ Gaudens had prepared for the cent showing a head of Liberty . In early 1907 , he wrote to Saint @-@ Gaudens proposing that a Native American or Indian headdress be added to the obverse of the cent : " I feel very strongly that on at least one coin we ought to have the Indian feather headdress . It is distinctly American , and very picturesque . Couldn 't you have just such a head as you have now , but with the feather headdress ? " Numismatic historian Walter Breen described this as " the absurd addition of a feathered warbonnet , such as neither Ms. Liberty nor any Native American woman would ever have worn " . Art historian Cornelius Vermeule stated that the Indian Head eagle " missed being a great coin because Roosevelt interfered with the choice of headdress ( or no headdress ) for Liberty " . In February 1907 , Saint @-@ Gaudens added the headdress to the head of Liberty . The sculptor was undecided about which design to use for the gold pieces ( which were still intended to have a uniform appearance ) , and after he proposed using the headdress Liberty for the double eagle , Roosevelt tentatively decided to use different designs on the eagle and double eagle , with the eagle to bear the headdress Liberty . The double eagle would show a Liberty striding forward , with a flying eagle on the reverse . The President was prepared to meet personally with Saint @-@ Gaudens if the sculptor objected , but unknown to Roosevelt he was seriously ill with cancer , and no meeting took place . Mint Director George E. Roberts wrote to Saint @-@ Gaudens on May 25 , 1907 , " It is now settled ... the design for the Eagle shall be the feather head of Liberty with the standing eagle " . Saint @-@ Gaudens and his assistants moved quickly on the revision . On June 1 , Saint @-@ Gaudens sent models of the new coin , with the designs at a relief that Saint @-@ Gaudens believed the Mint could coin , together with a letter stating that the relief of the new models should be coinable by the Mint . The double eagles were then being delayed because Saint @-@ Gaudens had twice sent the Mint models with too high a relief , which could not be struck in one blow , as required for circulating coinage . Saint @-@ Gaudens 's letter was sent to the Philadelphia Mint , where Superintendent John Landis had Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber read and initial it . On June 7 , Barber responded to Landis , I beg to report that I have received two models in plaster and also a copy of a letter from Mr. Saint @-@ Gaudens to the Director , in which there are certain statements that are somewhat misleading ... the relief of the design must conform to the fixed conditions and therefore , the only relief that I knew of was coin relief ; the models now sent are not coin relief ... The date of the year is in Roman notation , there is no provision made for even next year , there being no place left , and as these coins have to stand for twenty @-@ five years before another change can be made , I feel it necessary to state that within a few years it would be impossible to date the dies . Roberts wrote to Saint @-@ Gaudens on June 11 suggesting there might be problems with the date and the relief ; when he received no response he wrote again on June 18 . This time the sculptor responded , writing that he had been awaiting the return of his assistant , Henry Hering , who had handled much of the dealings with the Mint . He agreed that Roman numerals were ill @-@ advised for the eagle , and on June 24 , new models were sent to the Mint by Hering . These models , along with a bronze casting which was produced privately , were used by Barber to prepare a die , and experimental pieces were struck on July 19 . These " high relief " pieces required multiple strikes of the press to fully bring up the design . Saint @-@ Gaudens wrote to the Mint in mid @-@ July , " I am waiting to know about this in order to proceed with the other reliefs " , and he was sent one of the new pieces , along with a Liberty Head eagle for comparison , for which he paid by check . On July 19 , Roberts sent a similar pair of coins to Secretary of the Treasury George Cortelyou , noting that Saint @-@ Gaudens 's use of a smooth finish to the design , rather than the sharp die work characteristic of the Liberty gold pieces , might encourage counterfeiting . Roberts communicated these concerns to Saint @-@ Gaudens , who requested casts of the dies used to strike the new pieces , which were sent to his house in Cornish , New Hampshire on July 28 . Saint @-@ Gaudens died there of cancer on August 3 , 1907 , and Roosevelt wrote to his widow Augusta , " I count it as one of the privileges of my administration to have had him make two of our coins " . = = Preparations = = Roberts left office on July 31 , 1907 to become president of the Commercial National Bank of Chicago . As his successor , San Francisco Mint Superintendent Frank A. Leach , did not take office until November 1 , former Mint Director Robert Preston served as acting director in the interim . On August 7 , Roosevelt ordered Secretary Cortelyou to have the designs for the eagle and double eagle finalized and in production by September 1 . With Landis on vacation , Cortelyou passed the President 's letter on to the acting Philadelphia Mint superintendent , Dr. Albert A. Norris , instructing him to " have this matter taken up at once and the President 's instructions carried out ; and everything possible must be done to expedite the work . " Preston wrote to Roberts , asking for information about the new coinage , and the former Mint director responded on August 12 , outlining the correspondence with Saint @-@ Gaudens , and noting that " no instructions have been received from the President as to the half and quarter eagle , but I expected that the eagle design would be used upon them ... The President concluded to leave the One Cent piece unchanged , and there has been no discussion about any change in the Nickel piece . " In response to the President 's instructions , Barber wrote to Norris informing him that the design for the eagle had been awaiting approval since July , making no mention of the Mint 's desire for sharper die work . Norris noted in his subsequent letter to Acting Director Preston that the Mint had been having trouble with the collar , which would strike the edge of the coin and impress 46 stars , representing the number of states there would be after Oklahoma 's already scheduled admission to the Union later in 1907 . Mint authorities had turned unsuccessfully to their counterparts in Paris for advice , but the Mint 's machine shop was able to perfect the collar . Norris defended Barber in his letter to Preston , I think the President does Mr. Barber an injustice when he speaks of " a certain cumbersomeness of mind and inability to do the speediest modern work , as shown by these delays , " here . The making of the models for these coins was given to Saint Gaudens , who was a sculptor and had no experience with coinage designs . When the models were received , the Bureau [ of the Mint ] was notified that the dies made from them would not work in the coining press ... the models were returned to Saint Gaudens , at his request and a modified set furnished after some time . The Bureau was informed that even these would not make dies satisfactory for coinage , but the dies were made and it was found they could not be used in the coining press . How are we going to strike coins from these for the President ? In late August , Augusta Saint @-@ Gaudens sent new models for the eagle to Acting Director Preston . When Barber examined them , he noted , " dies made from these models would be a great improvement over those already made " and stated that with these models , the Mint could have the eagle in full production within a month . Homer Saint @-@ Gaudens , the sculptor 's son , wrote to Preston , " Mr. Hering has finally finished the eagle at a relief slightly lower than that on the French [ gold ] coin by Chaplin , [ sic , actually Chaplain ] which is the lowest relief that Mr. Hering knew my father would abide by , and which I understand Mr. Barber can mint . " In the meantime , Cortelyou ordered 500 pieces struck on the Mint 's high @-@ pressure medal press from the dies the Mint had from Saint @-@ Gaudens 's earlier efforts , thus complying with the letter of the President 's August 7 order . Preston sent a note to Norris , warning that the President would likely order 100 pieces and suggesting that he have the coins available " so you can furnish them without a moment 's delay " . According to numismatic historian Roger Burdette , " these were an ' insurance policy ' , put in place by Cortelyou against additional presidential rage " . The President viewed sample eagle coins on August 31 , and expressed his satisfaction with them and his desire to see more struck . As Saint @-@ Gaudens 's design did not include a rim ( the raised surface which surrounds each side of a coin ) , excess metal was forming a " fin " or extrusion from the coin . The fin was easily broken off , and there was a threat that the eagles would quickly become underweight , diminishing their usefulness as a trade coin . Barber engraved a rim onto the die , eliminating the problem . About five hundred pieces had been struck from Saint @-@ Gauden 's original dies ; these were struck on the medal press and were for the most part distributed to government officials . They are referred to as " wire rim " pieces , denoting the sharp angle at which the field of the coin meets the edge without the intermediary of a rim . They remained available for purchase from the Mint for face value at least until 1912 . One sold at auction in January 2011 for $ 230 @,@ 000 . A total of 32 @,@ 000 eagles were struck using the Barber @-@ modified Saint @-@ Gaudens dies , for the most part using ordinary coinage presses . These are known as the " rounded rim " pieces . On November 9 , 1907 , with the dies made from the low relief Saint @-@ Gaudens models in full production , Frank Leach , the new Mint director , decided to have 31 @,@ 950 of the rounded rim specimens melted , saving only fifty . According to Leach in his memoirs , these " were given to museums of art and officials and others connected with the work " . The surviving rounded rim specimens can be readily distinguished from later 1907 strikes , as they have dots before , between , and after the words " Ten Dollars " on the reverse . One , which had been in the possession of the Leach family for a century , sold in January 2011 for $ 2 @,@ 185 @,@ 000 . = = Design = = Still believing that the design would be considered for the cent , Saint @-@ Gaudens based his head of Liberty on a model he had sculpted , but ultimately not used , for the statue of Victory in the Sherman Monument in New York City . That bust , of South Carolinian Harriet ( Hettie ) Eugenia Anderson , also inspired Saint @-@ Gaudens in his model and bas @-@ relief , NIKΗ EIPHNH ( Ancient Greek for victory and peace ) . Saint @-@ Gaudens 's reverse design , with an eagle standing on a bundle of arrows with an olive branch at its feet , was his original concept for the reverse of the double eagle , and bears a close similarity to his reverse for the inaugural medal . Saint @-@ Gaudens 's ultimate inspiration for the reverse , by one account , was a coin of Ptolemy I of Egypt portraying a standing eagle , which was illustrated in a book he owned and had lent to Roosevelt . Jeff Garrett and Ron Guth , in their work on American gold coins , call the details of the coin " a trifle fantastic " . They point to the unlikeliness of any female wearing a headdress only donned by a male warrior , and describe the word " LIBERTY " on the headdress as " placed incongruously " . Mint Director Leach described the pieces in a report to Cortelyou summarizing the redesign project : The obverse of the eagle bears the feathered head of Liberty which was originally intended for the one cent piece . The President was so pleased with this design that he decided to have it placed on the eagle . The head , the artist stated , was designed in accordance with the suggestions of the President . The reverse bears the standing eagle , and on the edge of the coins there are forty @-@ six stars , one for each State . = = Release and production = = The new eagles entered circulation around November 4 , 1907 , although Leach did not receive formal approval to issue the pieces until December 19 . As early as November 7 , articles were appearing in newspapers noting the omission of the motto " In God We Trust " on the eagle , and the Mint soon began to receive many complaints . Roosevelt believed that using God 's name on coins was sacrilegious , and had confirmed with government lawyers that no law required the motto 's use . Saint @-@ Gaudens wanted to include only the minimum of lettering on the new coins , and was content to omit the motto . According to his son Homer , as Saint @-@ Gaudens considered " the motto ' In God We Trust ' as an artistic intrusion not required by law , he wholly discarded [ it ] and thereby drew down on himself the lightning of public comment " . The House of Representatives passed a bill ordering the use of the motto on the new eagle and double eagle ( which also lacked the phrase ) in March 1908 ; the Senate followed suit in May . Roosevelt , finding public opinion against him , signed the bill into law that month . Barber duly placed the motto on the reverse , to the left of the eagle 's breast . On the " No Motto pieces " struck at the Denver Mint in 1908 ( catalogued as 1908 @-@ D ) , the mintmark " D " appears above the leaves near the eagle 's feet on the reverse ; on the pieces with motto struck both at Denver and at San Francisco ( mintmark S ) beginning in 1908 , the mintmark appears to the left of the arrow on which the bird stands . Barber also made other , minor changes in the coin ; according to Breen , " Aside from the addition of the motto , none of Barber 's niggling changes are defensible as improvements , unless one insists that more of the first U of UNUM had to show . Nor is striking quality increased . " Denver mintmarks from 1908 to 1910 are much larger than those in subsequent years ; San Francisco mintmarks are consistently small . With the admission of New Mexico and Arizona as states in 1912 , the number of stars on the edge was increased from 46 to 48 . The coin was struck every year from 1907 to 1916 . During World War I , with gold coins commanding a premium above face value and many gold pieces returning from Europe to pay for war materials , there was little need for new gold coins ; coinage of eagles was discontinued after 1916 . Subsequently , Indian Head eagles were struck only in 1920 ( at San Francisco ) , 1926 ( at Philadelphia ) , 1930 ( at San Francisco ) , and final Philadelphia issues in 1932 and 1933 . In March 1933 , President Franklin Roosevelt ordered that no more gold in the form of coins be released from the Treasury ; the Mint subsequently stopped its production of gold coins , ending the eagle series that had begun in 1795 . On December 28 , 1933 , Acting Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau ordered Americans to turn in all gold coins and gold certificates , with limited exceptions , receiving paper money in payment . Millions of gold coins were melted down by the Treasury in the following years . Many of the gold coins seen today had been exported to Europe before 1933 and repatriated once restrictions on holding gold were ended . = = Collecting = = With the exception of the 1907 high relief pieces , no date or mintmark of the circulation strikes of the Indian Head eagle before 1920 is particularly rare . The 1911 @-@ D , with a mintage of 30 @,@ 100 commands a significant premium in mint state or uncirculated condition , but only a modest one in circulated grades . Despite its mintage of 126 @,@ 500 , the 1920 @-@ S is a major rarity . It was little collected at the time , and with Europe still recovering from the war , few coins were exported there ; accordingly , most were melted post @-@ 1933 . Only a handful of 1933 eagles were distributed before Roosevelt ended the paying out of gold , and virtually the entire mintage of 312 @,@ 500 was melted . One sold in 2004 , graded MS @-@ 66 ( the finest example of this date known ) for $ 718 @,@ 750 . Approximately forty 1933 eagles are known to have survived . Proof coins were struck from 1907 until 1915 , all at Philadelphia . Not all quantities are known , but the highest for which the number struck is known is 1910 , with a mintage of 204 ( one sold for $ 80 @,@ 500 in 2006 ) . One of the surviving specimens of the mostly melted rounded rim pieces is in proof ; this unique specimen is in private hands . Numismatic expert Mike Fuljenz , in his book on the gold pieces with Indian designs struck in the early 20th century , suggests that this coin was a trial piece , resulting from the test of new dies . Different finishes are known for the proof coins . The unique 1907 piece is in satin proof ( the raised designs appear like satin ) , but later proof eagles were struck in a dark matte finish . Some 1908 – 1910 proof eagles were struck in a lighter " Roman finish " .
= Boletopsis nothofagi = Boletopsis nothofagi is a fungus in the family Bankeraceae . The fungus forms grey fruit bodies that grow in clusters . Like all species of Boletopsis , it has a porous spore @-@ bearing surface on the underside of the cap , but differs from other species of Boletopsis by having characteristics such as elongated spores and a green discoloration when stained with potassium hydroxide . Boletopsis nothofagi is endemic to New Zealand and has a mycorrhizal association with red beech ( Nothofagus fusca ) . It is unknown when exactly the fungus forms its fruit body , but it has so far been found solely in May , during autumn in the Southern Hemisphere . The first description of B. nothofagi was published in 2012 by Jerry A. Cooper and Patrick Leonard . DNA studies of the fungus suggest that it is a somewhat basal member of the genus Boletopsis . The fungus is most likely a native species of New Zealand and was present there before the arrival of Europeans . As it is very rare and possibly threatened , B. nothofagi is listed in the Red List of Threatened Species as an endangered species . = = Taxonomy = = In 2009 , an unknown species of Boletopsis was discovered in the Orongorongo valley near Wellington , New Zealand . In 2010 , the fungus was found again in the same place and also discovered on the South Island . Morphological comparisons and molecular analysis of other species of the genus suggested that the fungus could not be attributed to any known representative of the genus , and so it was described by mycologists Jerry A. Cooper and Patrick Leonard as a new species . The species description of Boletopsis nothofagi appeared in the journal MycoKeys in 2012 . The two authors chose the epithet nothofagi based on the characteristic of the fungus as mycorrhizal symbiont of Nothofagus fusca . Swollen hyphae and smooth spores show that B. nothofagi is a member of the subgenus Boletopsis in the genus Boletopsis . Boletopsis nothofagi is a genetically clearly differentiated representative of the genus Boletopsis , which according to the investigations of Cooper and Leonard separated relatively early from the precursor of most other known species . Only a North American species , B. leucomelaena , branches off from their phylogenetic tree even earlier . However , the relationships between many of the species were not fully resolved in the study , so in the future , new species may be described . = = Description = = The fruit bodies of Boletopsis nothofagi usually grow in tufts and only rarely individually . They have a centrally stalked cap . The cap is convex , measuring 10 – 80 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) wide and 5 – 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) high . In young specimens , the cap 's edge is slightly bent , whereas the cap of older fruit bodies often curl . The cap cuticle is gray in color , and its texture ranges from smooth to slightly fibrous . Pressure- or scrape @-@ spots are stained darker and eventually blacken . The stipes are club @-@ shaped to cylindrical , slightly tapering towards both base and cap , with a height of about 20 – 60 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) and a thickness of 10 – 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) . The stipe is smooth and dry on the surface and has a firm texture on the inside . The stipes have a similar color as the cap and shows the same responses to damage . The white , porous hymenium has a thickness of 1 – 2 mm and turns brown when bruised . Per millimeter , there are two to three square pores . When dried , the hymenium 's color becomes pinkish @-@ brown . The hymenium extends slightly down the stipe , and is sharply defined . Dried tissue smells similar to fenugreek . The morphology of the mycorrhiza has not yet been described ; however , as with all other types of Boletopsis it is likely to be ectomycorrhizal . = = = Microscopic characteristics = = = Boletopsis nothofagi has a monomitic hyphal structure , whereby all hyphae are generative hyphae , which serve the growth of the fungus . The cap , when viewed under a microscope , is clearly differentiated and consists of a cutis , a layer of oriented hyphae lying radially . They are up to 2 µm thick , pigmented brown and covered with small , irregularly shaped granules . They become green when stained with potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) , a diagnostic characteristic of the genus . The subcutis consists of swollen hyphae up to 6 µm thick . These are thin @-@ walled , filled with oil droplets and have clamp connections in the septa . The hymenial layer has porous cystidium structures measuring 4 by 80 µm . The basidia of B. nothofagi are pleurobasidia arising on the sides of the hyphae . They are cylindrical to club shaped , 5 – 10 by 20 – 30 µm in size , and clamped at the base . The basidia always have four sterigmata , on which light brown , thin spores are situated . The spores are uneven , with flattened ends and elongated in shape . On average , they measure 5 @.@ 3 by 4 @.@ 1 µm . = = Distribution = = The known range of Boletopsis nothofagi is limited to two narrowly defined areas of New Zealand , one on the North Island and the other on the South Island . These areas are in Rimutaka Forest Park near Wellington , and Saint Arnaud in the northern part of the South Island . These locations are relatively far away from each other and isolated , which , together with its absence in the rest of New Zealand , makes it unlikely that the species is a recent import . It is more likely that the species is native to New Zealand and has been overlooked in earlier surveys due to its rarity . Boletopsis nothofagi is the most southern member of the genus Boletopsis , and as of 2013 the sole known member of the genus in the Southern Hemisphere ; its closest relatives are found in Asia and Costa Rica . = = Ecology = = The occurrence of Boletopsis nothofagi seems to be strongly connected to the occurrence of the southern beech Nothofagus fusca , a species of Fagales that is endemic to New Zealand . B. nothofagi has been found exclusively in N. fusca forests spread through New Zealand below 37 ° S. The fungus forms a mycorrhizal association with the trees of N. fusca , in which the hyphae of the fungal mycelium wrap around the roots of the tree and penetrate the cortex , but not its cells . Subsequently , B. nothofagi takes over the function of the root hair and directs water and soil nutrients to the tree . In return , the fungus can , through contact with the root tissue , access the products of the tree 's photosynthesis . The fruit bodies of the species have so far always been found in May , the end of autumn in the Southern Hemisphere . Little is known about the habitat requirements – such as humidity , temperature , soil composition and water content – of B. nothofagi . However , as the species seems to only occur together with N. fusca , it should largely conform to their demands . The tree species prefers lowlands and hills along river valleys and usually grows on nutrient @-@ rich , well @-@ drained soil . The species is more likely to be found inland than in the coastal regions . = = Status = = According to Cooper and Leonard , the fact that Boletopsis nothofagi was only found 200 years after the European settlement of New Zealand illustrates the rarity of this species , although it is also possible that the late discovery was caused by rare or infrequent fructification . The authors assume that the species occurs very sparsely and that this cannot be attributed to human activity . Although no data on population trends or historical distribution of the fungus exists , Cooper and Leonard consider the species in accordance to the New Zealand Threat Classification System as " naturally uncommon " . = = = Cited literature = = = Cooper , Jerry ; Patrick Leonard ( 2012 ) . " Boletopsis nothofagi sp. nov. associated with Nothofagus in the Southern Hemisphere " . MycoKeys 3 : 13 – 22 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 3897 / mycokeys.3.2762. ISSN 1314 @-@ 4057 .
= Crime and Punishment = Crime and Punishment ( Russian : Преступлéние и наказáние , tr . Prestupleniye i nakazaniye ; IPA : [ prʲɪstʊˈplʲenʲɪɪ ɪ nəkɐˈzanʲɪɪ ] ) is a novel by the Russian author Fyodor Dostoevsky . It was first published in the literary journal The Russian Messenger in twelve monthly installments during 1866 . It was later published in a single volume . It is the second of Dostoyevsky 's full @-@ length novels following his return from 10 years of exile in Siberia . Crime and Punishment is considered the first great novel of his " mature " period of writing . Crime and Punishment focuses on the mental anguish and moral dilemmas of Rodion Raskolnikov , an impoverished ex @-@ student in St. Petersburg who formulates and executes a plan to kill an unscrupulous pawnbroker for her cash . Raskolnikov , in attempts to defend his actions , argues that with the pawnbroker 's money he can perform good deeds to counterbalance the crime , while ridding the world of a vermin . He also commits the murder to test a theory of his that dictates some people are naturally capable of such actions , and even have the right to perform them . Several times throughout the novel , Raskolnikov compares himself with Napoleon Bonaparte and shares his belief that murder is permissible in pursuit of a higher purpose . = = Creation = = Dostoyevsky conceived the idea of Crime and Punishment in the summer of 1865 . At the time the author owed large sums of money to creditors , and was trying to help the family of his brother Mikhail , who had died in early 1864 . Projected under the title The Drunkards , it was to deal " with the present question of drunkness ... [ in ] all its ramifications , especially the picture of a family and the bringing up of children in these circumstances , etc . , etc . " Once Dostoyevsky conceived Raskolnikov and his crime , now inspired by the case of Pierre François Lacenaire , this theme became ancillary , centering on the story of the Marmeladov family . Dostoyevsky offered his story or novella ( at the time Dostoyevsky was not thinking of a novel ) to the publisher Mikhail Katkov , whose monthly journal , The Russian Messenger , was a prestigious publication of its kind , and the outlet for both Ivan Turgenev and Leo Tolstoy . However , Dostoyevsky , having carried on quite bruising polemics with Katkov in early 1860s , had never published anything in its pages . Nonetheless , forced by his situation , after all other appeals elsewhere failed , Dostoyevsky turned as a last resort to Katkov , urging for an advance on a proposed contribution . In a letter to Katkov written in September 1865 , Dostoyevsky explained to him that the work was to be about a young man who yields to " certain strange , ' unfinished ' ideas , yet floating in the air " ; he had thus embarked on his plan to explore the moral and psychological dangers of the ideology of " radicalism " . In letters written in November 1865 an important conceptual change occurred : the " story " has become a " novel " , and from here on all references to Crime and Punishment are to a novel . Dostoyevsky had to race against time , in order to finish on time both The Gambler and Crime and Punishment . Anna Snitkina , a stenographer who would soon become his second wife , was a great help for Dostoyevsky during this difficult task . The first part of Crime and Punishment appeared in the January 1866 issue of The Russian Messenger , and the last one was published in December 1866 . In the complete edition of Dostoyevsky 's writings published in the Soviet Union , the editors reassembled and printed the notebooks that the writer kept while working on Crime and Punishment , in a sequence roughly corresponding to the various stages of composition . Because of these labors , there is now a fragmentary working draft of the story , or novella , as initially conceived , as well as two other versions of the text . These have been distinguished as the Wiesbaden edition , the Petersburg edition , and the final plan , involving the shift from a first @-@ person narrator to the indigenous variety of third @-@ person form invented by Dostoyevsky . The Wiesbaden edition concentrates entirely on the moral and psychological reactions of the narrator after the murder . It coincides roughly with the story that Dostoyevsky described in his letter to Katkov , and written in a form of a diary or journal , corresponds to what eventually became part II . Why Dostoyevsky abandoned his initial version remains a matter of speculation . According to Joseph Frank , " one possibility is that his protagonist began to develop beyond the boundaries in which he had first been conceived " . The notebooks indicate that Dostoyevsky was aware of the emergence of new aspects of Raskolnikov 's character as the plot action proceeded , and he structured the novel in conformity with this " metamorphosis , " Frank says . Dostoyevsky thus decided to fuse the story with his previous idea for a novel called The Drunkards . The final version of Crime and Punishment came into being only when , in November 1865 , Dostoyevsky decided to recast his novel in the third person . This shift was the culmination of a long struggle , present through all the early stages of composition . Once having decided , Dostoyevsky began to rewrite from scratch , and was able to easily integrate sections of the early manuscript into the final text — Frank says that he did not , as he told Wrangel , burn everything he had written earlier . The final draft went smoothly , except for a clash with the editors of The Russian Messenger , about which very little is known . Since the manuscript Dostoyevsky turned in to Katkov was lost , it is unclear to what the editors had objected in the original . = = Plot = = Raskolnikov , a conflicted former student , lives in a tiny , rented room in Saint Petersburg . He refuses all help , even from his friend Razumikhin , and devises a plan to murder and to rob an unpleasant elderly pawn @-@ broker and money @-@ lender , Alyona Ivanovna . His motivation comes from the overwhelming sense that he is predetermined to kill the old woman by some power outside of himself . While still considering the plan , Raskolnikov makes the acquaintance of Semyon Zakharovich Marmeladov , a drunkard who recently squandered his family 's little wealth . Raskolnikov also receives a letter from his sister and mother , speaking of their coming visit to Saint Petersburg , and his sister 's sudden marriage plans which they plan to discuss upon their arrival . After much deliberation , Raskolnikov sneaks into Alyona Ivanovna 's apartment , where he murders her with an axe . He also kills her half @-@ sister , Lizaveta , who happens to stumble upon the scene of the crime . Shaken by his actions , Raskolnikov manages to steal only a handful of items and a small purse , leaving much of the pawn @-@ broker 's wealth untouched . Raskolnikov then flees and , due to a series of coincidences , manages to leave unseen and undetected . After the bungled murder , Raskolnikov falls into a feverish state and begins to worry obsessively over the murder . He hides the stolen items and purse under a rock , and tries desperately to clean his clothing of any blood or evidence . He falls into a fever later that day , though not before calling briefly on his old friend Razumikhin . As the fever comes and goes in the following days , Raskolnikov behaves as though he wishes to betray himself . He shows strange reactions to whoever mentions the murder of the pawn @-@ broker , which is now known about and talked of in the city . In his delirium , Raskolnikov wanders Saint Petersburg , drawing more and more attention to himself and his relation to the crime . In one of his walks through the city , he sees Marmeladov , who has been struck mortally by a carriage in the streets . Rushing to help him , Raskolnikov gives the remainder of his money to the man 's family , which includes his teenage daughter , Sonya , who has been forced to become a prostitute to support her family . In the meantime , Raskolnikov 's mother , Pulkheria Alexandrovna , and his sister , Avdotya Romanovna ( or Dunya ) have arrived in the city . Dunya had been working as a governess for the Svidrigaïlov family until this point , but was forced out of the position by the head of the family , Arkady Ivanovich Svidrigaïlov . Svidrigaïlov , a married man , was attracted to Dunya 's physical beauty and her feminine qualities , and offered her riches and elopement . Mortified , Dunya fled the Svidrigaïlov family and lost her source of income , only to meet Pyotr Petrovich Luzhin , a man of modest income and rank . Luzhin proposes to marry Dunya , thereby securing her and her mother 's financial safety , provided she accept him quickly and without question . It is for these very reasons that the two of them come to Saint Petersburg , both to meet Luzhin there and to obtain Raskolnikov 's approval . Luzhin , however , calls on Raskolnikov while he is in a delirious state and presents himself as a foolish , self @-@ righteous and presumptuous man . Raskolnikov dismisses him immediately as a potential husband for his sister , and realizes that she only accepted him to help her family . As the novel progresses , Raskolnikov is introduced to the detective Porfiry , who begins to suspect him of the murder purely on psychological grounds . At the same time , a chaste relationship develops between Raskolnikov and Sonya . Sonya , though a prostitute , is full of Christian virtue and is only driven into the profession by her family 's poverty . Meanwhile , Razumikhin and Raskolnikov manage to keep Dunya from continuing her relationship with Luzhin , whose true character is exposed to be conniving and base . At this point , Svidrigaïlov appears on the scene , having come from the province to Petersburg , almost solely to seek out Dunya . He reveals that his wife is dead , and that he is willing to pay Dunya a vast sum of money in exchange for nothing . She , upon hearing the news , refuses flat out , suspecting him of treachery . As Raskolnikov and Porfiry continue to meet , Raskolnikov 's motives for the crime become exposed . Porfiry becomes increasingly certain of the man 's guilt , but has no concrete evidence or witnesses with which to back up this suspicion . Furthermore , another man admits to committing the crime under questioning and arrest . However , Raskolnikov 's nerves continue to wear thinner , and he is constantly struggling with the idea of confessing , though he knows that he can never be truly convicted . He turns to Sonya for support and confesses his crime to her . By coincidence , Svidrigaïlov has taken up residence in a room next to Sonya 's and overhears the entire confession . When the two men meet face to face , Svidrigaïlov acknowledges this fact , and suggests that he may use it against him , should he need to . Svidrigaïlov also speaks of his own past , and Raskolnikov grows to suspect that the rumors about his having committed several murders are true . In a later conversation with Dunya , Svidrigaïlov denies that he had a hand in the death of his wife . Raskolnikov is at this point completely torn ; he is urged by Sonya to confess , and Svidrigaïlov 's testimony could potentially convict him . Furthermore , Porfiry confronts Raskolnikov with his suspicions and assures him that confession would substantially lighten his sentence . Meanwhile , Svidrigaïlov attempts to seduce Dunya , but when he realizes that she will never love him , he lets her go . He then spends a night in confusion and in the morning shoots himself . This same morning , Raskolnikov goes again to Sonya , who again urges him to confess and to clear his conscience . He makes his way to the police station , where he is met by the news of Svidrigaïlov 's suicide . He hesitates a moment , thinking again that he might get away with a perfect crime , but is persuaded by Sonya to confess . The epilogue tells of how Raskolnikov is sentenced to eight years of penal servitude in Siberia , where Sonya follows him . Dunya and Razumikhin marry and are left in a happy position by the end of the novel , while Pulkheria , Raskolnikov 's mother , falls ill and dies , unable to cope with her son 's situation . Raskolnikov himself struggles in Siberia . It is only after some time in prison that his redemption and moral regeneration begin under Sonya 's loving influence . = = Characters = = In Crime and Punishment , Dostoyevsky fuses the personality of his main character , Rodion Romanovich Raskolnikov , with his new anti @-@ radical ideological themes . The main plot involves a murder as the result of " ideological intoxication , " and depicts all the disastrous moral and psychical consequences that result from the murder . Raskolnikov 's psychology is placed at the center , and carefully interwoven with the ideas behind his transgression ; every other feature of the novel illuminates the agonizing dilemma in which Raskolnikov is caught . From another point of view , the novel 's plot is another variation of a conventional nineteenth @-@ century theme : an innocent young provincial comes to seek his fortune in the capital , where he succumbs to corruption , and loses all traces of his former freshness and purity . However , as Gary Rosenshield points out , " Raskolnikov succumbs not to the temptations of high society as Honoré de Balzac 's Rastignac or Stendhal 's Julien Sorel , but to those of rationalistic Petersburg " . Raskolnikov ( Rodion ) is the protagonist , and the novel focuses primarily on his perspective . A 23 @-@ year @-@ old man and former student , now destitute , Raskolnikov is described in the novel as " exceptionally handsome , above the average in height , slim , well built , with beautiful dark eyes and dark brown hair . " Perhaps the most striking feature of Raskolnikov , however , is his dual personality . On the one hand , he is cold , apathetic , and antisocial ; on the other , he can be surprisingly warm and compassionate . He commits murder as well as acts of compulsive charity . His chaotic interaction with the external world and his nihilistic worldview might be seen as causes of his social alienation or consequences of it . Despite its title , the novel does not so much deal with the crime and its formal punishment , as with Raskolnikov 's internal struggle ( the book shows that his punishment results more from his conscience than from the law ) . Believing society would be better for it , Raskolnikov commits murder with the idea that he possessed enough intellectual and emotional fortitude to deal with the ramifications , [ based on his paper / thesis , " On Crime " , that he is a Napoleon ] , but his sense of guilt soon overwhelms him to the point of psychological and somatic illness . It is only in the epilogue that he realizes his formal punishment , having decided to confess and end his alienation from society . Sofya Semyonovna Marmeladova , variously called Sonya and Sonechka , is the daughter of a drunkard named Semyon Zakharovich Marmeladov , whom Raskolnikov meets in a tavern at the beginning of the novel . She is often characterized as self @-@ sacrificial , shy , and even innocent despite the fact that she is compelled into prostitution to help her family . She also , as Raskolnikov discerns , shares the same feelings of shame and alienation as he does and becomes the first person to whom Raskolnikov confesses his crime , and she supports him even though she was friends with one of the victims ( Lizaveta ) . Throughout the novel , Sonya is an important source of moral strength and rehabilitation for Raskolnikov , and in some interpretations , even considered a Christ @-@ like figure . She is forced to prostitute herself to provide for her family , leading some critics to make comparisons with Mary Magdalene . Avdotya Romanovna Raskolnikova – Raskolnikov 's dominant and sympathetic sister , called Dunya or Dunechka for short . She initially plans to marry the wealthy , yet smug and self @-@ possessed , Luzhin , to free the family from financial destitution . She has a habit of pacing across the room while thinking . She is followed to Saint Petersburg by the disturbed Svidrigailov , who seeks to win her back through blackmail . She rejects both men in favour of Raskolnikov 's loyal friend , Razumikhin . Pulkheria Alexandrovna Raskolnikova – Raskolnikov 's relatively clueless , hopeful and loving mother . Following Raskolnikov 's sentence , she falls ill ( mentally and physically ) and eventually dies . She hints in her dying stages that she is slightly more aware of her son 's fate , which was hidden from her by Dunya and Razumikhin . Dmitry Prokofyich Vrazumikhin , often referred to as Razumikhin , is Raskolnikov 's loyal friend and also a former law student . In terms of Razumikhin 's contribution to Dostoyevsky 's anti @-@ radical thematics , he is intended to represent something of a reconciliation of the pervasive thematic conflict between faith and reason . The fact that the name Razumikhin means " reason " shows Dostoyevsky 's desire to employ this faculty as a foundational basis for his Christian faith in God . Other characters of the novel are : Praskovya Pavlovna Zarnitsyna – Raskolnikov 's landlady ( called Pashenka ) . Shy and retiring , Praskovya Pavlovna does not figure prominently in the course of events . Raskolnikov had been engaged to her daughter , a sickly girl who had died , and Praskovya Pavlovna had granted him extensive credit on the basis of this engagement and a promissory note for 115 roubles . She had then handed this note to a court councillor named Chebarov , who had claimed the note , causing Raskolnikov to be summoned to the police station the day after his crime . Porfiry Petrovich – The head of the Investigation Department in charge of solving the murders of Lizaveta and Alyona Ivanovna , who , along with Sonya , moves Raskolnikov towards confession . Unlike Sonya , however , Porfiry does this through psychological games . Despite the lack of evidence , he becomes certain Raskolnikov is the murderer following several conversations with him , but gives him the chance to confess voluntarily . He attempts to confuse and to provoke the unstable Raskolnikov in an attempt to coerce him to confess . According to the creators of the TV series Columbo ( William Link and Richard Levinson ) , the title character was based on Porfiry . Arkady Ivanovich Svidrigaïlov – Sensual , depraved , and wealthy former employer and current pursuer of Dunya , Svidrigaïlov is suspected of multiple acts of murder , and overhears Raskolnikov 's confessions to Sonya . With this knowledge he torments both Dunya and Raskolnikov but does not inform the police . When Dunya tells him she could never love him ( after attempting to shoot him ) he lets her go and commits suicide . Despite his apparent malevolence , Svidrigaïlov is similar to Raskolnikov in regard to his random acts of charity . He fronts the money for the Marmeladov children to enter an orphanage ( after both their parents die ) , gives Sonya five percent bank notes totalling three thousand rubles , and leaves the rest of his money to his juvenile fiancée . There is an interesting fact : Svidrigaïlov has blue eyes ; blue color in Russian culture symbolizes purity , kindness , and innocence , implying that Svidrigaïlov is a good person beneath his philandering exterior . ( It is noteworthy that Sonya also has blue eyes . ) Marfa Petrovna Svidrigaïlova – Arkady Svidrigaïlov 's deceased wife , whom he is suspected of having murdered , and who he claims has visited him as a ghost . Her bequest of 3 @,@ 000 rubles to Dunya allows Dunya to reject Luzhin as a suitor . Katerina Ivanovna Marmeladova – Semyon Marmeladov 's consumptive and ill @-@ tempered second wife , stepmother to Sonya . She drives Sonya into prostitution in a fit of rage , but later regrets it , and beats her children mercilessly , but works ferociously to improve their standard of living . She is obsessed with demonstrating that slum life is far below her station . Following Marmeladov 's death , she uses Raskolnikov 's money to hold a funeral . She later succumbs to her illness . The character is partially based on Polina Suslova . Semyon Zakharovich Marmeladov – Hopeless drunk who indulges in his own suffering , and father of Sonya . Marmeladov could be seen as a Russian equivalent of the character of Micawber in Charles Dickens ' novel , David Copperfield . Pyotr Petrovich Luzhin – A well @-@ off lawyer who is engaged to Raskolnikov 's sister Dunya in the beginning of the novel . His motives for the marriage are rather despicable , as he states more or less that he chose her since she will be completely beholden to him financially . Andrey Semyonovich Lebezyatnikov – Luzhin 's utopian socialist and feminist roommate who witnesses his attempt to frame Sonya and subsequently exposes him . He is proven right by Raskolnikov , the only one knowing of Luzhin 's motives . Alyona Ivanovna – Suspicious old pawnbroker who hoards money and is merciless to her patrons . She is Raskolnikov 's intended target , and he kills her in the beginning of the book . Lizaveta Ivanovna – Alyona 's handicapped , innocent and submissive sister . Raskolnikov murders her when she walks in immediately after Raskolnikov had killed Alyona . Lizaveta was a friend of Sonya . Zosimov ( Зосимов ) – A friend of Razumikhin and a doctor who cared for Raskolnikov . Nastasya Petrovna ( Настасья Петровна ) – Raskolnikov 's landlady 's servant who often brings Raskolnikov food and drink . Nikodim Fomich ( Никодим Фомич ) – The amiable chief of police . Ilya Petrovich ( Илья Петрович ) – A police official and Fomich 's assistant , nicknamed " Gunpowder " for his very bad temper . Alexander Grigorievich Zamyotov ( Александр Григорьевич Заметов ) – Head clerk at the police station and friend to Razumikhin . Raskolnikov arouses Zamyotov 's suspicions by explaining how he , Raskolnikov , would have committed various crimes , although Zamyotov later apologizes , believing , much to Raskolnikov 's amusement , that it was all a farce to expose how ridiculous the suspicions were . Nikolai Dementiev ( Николай Дементьев ) – A self @-@ sacrificial painter and sectarian who admits to the murder , since his sect holds it to be supremely virtuous to suffer for another person 's crime . Polina Mikhailovna Marmeladova ( Полина Михайловна Мармеладова ) – Ten @-@ year @-@ old adopted daughter of Semyon Zakharovich Marmeladov and younger stepsister to Sonya , sometimes known as Polechka . = = Structure = = Crime and Punishment has a distinct beginning , middle and end . The novel is divided into six parts , with an epilogue . The notion of " intrinsic duality " in Crime and Punishment has been commented upon , with the suggestion that there is a degree of symmetry to the book . Edward Wasiolek who has argued that Dostoyevsky was a skilled craftsman , highly conscious of the formal pattern in his art , has likened the structure of Crime and Punishment to a " flattened X " , saying : Parts I @-@ III [ of Crime and Punishment ] present the predominantly rational and proud Raskolnikov : Parts IV @-@ VI , the emerging " irrational " and humble Raskolnikov . The first half of the novel shows the progressive death of the first ruling principle of his character ; the last half , the progressive birth of the new ruling principle . The point of change comes in the very middle of the novel . This compositional balance is achieved by means of the symmetrical distribution of certain key episodes throughout the novel 's six parts . The recurrence of these episodes in the two halves of the novel , as David Bethea has argued , is organized according to a mirror @-@ like principle , whereby the " left " half of the novel reflects the " right " half . For her part , Margaret Church discerns a contrapuntal structuring : parts I , III and V deal largely with the main hero 's relationship to his family ( mother , sister and mother surrogates ) , while parts II , IV and VI deal with his relationship to the authorities of the state " and to various father figures " . The seventh part of the novel , the Epilogue , has attracted much attention and controversy . Some of Dostoyevsky 's critics have criticized the novel 's final pages as superfluous , anti @-@ climactic , unworthy of the rest of the work , while others have rushed to the defense of the Epilogue , offering various ingenious schemes which conclusively prove its inevitability and necessity . Steven Cassedy argues that Crime and Punishment " is formally two distinct but closely related , things , namely a particular type of tragedy in the classical Greek mold and a Christian resurrection tale " . Cassedy concludes that " the logical demands of the tragic model as such are satisfied without the Epilogue in Crime and Punishment ... At the same time , this tragedy contains a Christian component , and the logical demands of this element are met only by the resurrection promised in the Epilogue " . Crime and Punishment is written from a third @-@ person omniscient perspective . It is focalized primarily from the point of view of Raskolnikov ; however , it does at times switch to the perspective of Svidrigailov , Razumikhin , Peter Petrovich , or Dunya . This narrative technique , which fuses the narrator very closely with the consciousness and point of view of the central characters of the plot , was original for its period . Franks notes that his identification , through Dostoyevsky 's use of the time shifts of memory and his manipulation of temporal sequence , begins to approach the later experiments of Henry James , Joseph Conrad , Virginia Woolf , and James Joyce . A late nineteenth @-@ century reader was , however , accustomed to more orderly and linear types of expository narration . This led to the persistence of the legend that Dostoyevsky was an untidy and negligent craftsman and to critical observations like the following by Melchior de Vogüé : A word ... one does not even notice , a small fact that takes up only a line , have their reverberations fifty pages later ... [ so that ] the continuity becomes unintelligible if one skips a couple of pages . Dostoevsky uses different speech mannerisms and sentences of different length for different characters . Those who use artificial language — Luzhin , for example — are identified as unattractive people . Mrs. Marmeladov 's disintegrating mind is reflected in her language , too . In the original Russian text , the names of the major characters have something of a double meaning , but in translation the subtlety of the Russian language is predominately lost due to major differences in the language structure and culture . For example , the original title ( " Преступление и наказание " ) is not the direct equivalent to the English . " Преступление " is literally translated as a stepping across . The physical image of crime as a crossing over a barrier or a boundary is lost in translation . So is the religious implication of transgression , which in English refers to a sin rather than a crime . = = Symbolism = = = = = Dreams = = = Raskolnikov 's dreams have a symbolic meaning , which suggests a psychological view . The dream of the mare being whipped has been suggested as the fullest single expression of the whole novel , symbolizing gratification and punishment , contemptible motives and contemptible society , depicting the nihilistic destruction of an unfit mare , the gratification therein , and Rodion 's disgust and horror , as an example of his conflicted character . Raskolnikov 's disgust and horror is central to the theme of his conflicted character , his guilty conscience , his contempt for society , his rationality of himself as an extraordinary man above greater society , holding authority to kill , and his concept of justified murder . His reaction is pivotal , provoking his first taking of life toward the rationalization of himself as above greater society . The dream is later mentioned when Raskolnikov talks to Marmeladov . Marmeladov 's daughter , morally chaste and devout Sonya , must earn a living as a prostitute for their impoverished family , the result of his alcoholism . The dream is also a warning , foreshadowing an impending murder and holds several comparisons to his murder of the pawnbroker . The dream occurs after Rodion crosses a bridge leading out of the oppressive heat and dust of Petersburg and into the fresh greenness of the islands . This symbolizes a corresponding mental crossing , suggesting that Raskolnikov is returning to a state of clarity when he has the dream . In it , he returns to the innocence of his childhood and watches as a group of peasants beat an old mare to death . After Raskolnikov awakes , he reflects on it as a “ such a hideous dream , ” the same term he earlier used to describe his plot to kill the old woman ( 62 ) . This diction draws a parallel between the two , suggesting that the child represents the part of him that clings to morality and watches horrified as another facet , represented by the peasants , is driven by hardship and isolation to become cold and unfeeling . The constant laughing of the peasants in the face of brutal slaughter reveals the extent to which they have been desensitized by their suffering , which is a reflection of Raskolnikov ’ s own condition . This interpretation is further supported by fact that the main peasant , Mikolka , feels that he has the right to kill the horse , linking his actions to Raskolnikov ’ s theory justifying murder for a select group of extraordinary men . The comparison between the cruel slaughter of the old mare and the plan to murder Alyona Ivanovna delineates the brutality of Raskolnikov ’ s crime , which is often downplayed by his habitual dehumanizing referral to the old woman as simply a “ louse . ” While awake , Raskolnikov ’ s view of the old woman is spiteful , defined by his tenacious belief in his extraordinary man theory . However , the dream acts as a conduit for Raskolnikov ’ s subconscious , and without the constraints of his theory the horrific nature of his crime becomes apparent . Therefore , in order for Raskolnikov to find redemption , he must ultimately renounce his theory . In the final pages , Raskolnikov , who at this point is in the prison infirmary , has a feverish dream about a plague of nihilism , that enters Russia and Europe from the east and which spreads senseless dissent ( Raskolnikov 's name alludes to " raskol " , dissent ) and fanatic dedication to " new ideas " : it finally engulfs all of mankind . Though we don 't learn anything about the content of these ideas they clearly disrupt society forever and are seen as exclusively critical assaults on ordinary thinking : it is clear that Dostoyevsky was envisaging the new , politically and culturally nihilist ideas which were entering Russian literature and society in this watershed decade and with which Dostoyevsky would be in debate for the rest of his life ( cp . Chernyshevsky 's What Is to Be Done ? , Dobrolyubov 's abrasive journalism , Turgenev 's Fathers and Sons and Dostoyevsky 's own The Possessed ) . Janko Lavrin , who took part in the revolutions of the World War I era , knew Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky and many others , and later would spend years writing and researching on Dostoyevsky and other Russian classics , called this final dream " prophetic in its symbolism " . = = = Cross = = = Sonya gives Rodya a cross when he goes to turn himself in and symbolizes the burden Raskolnikov must bear . Sonya tells him they will bear the cross together and is taking part of his burden onto herself , encouraging him to confess . Sonya and Lizaveta had exchanged crosses , so originally the cross was Lizaveta 's — whom Rodya didn 't intend to kill , making it an important symbol of redemption . Sonya 's face reminds him of Lizaveta 's face , another example of his guilty conscience and symbolizes a shared grief . Self @-@ sacrifice , along with poverty , is a larger theme of the novel . The desperation of poverty creates a situation where the only way to survive is through self @-@ sacrifice , which Raskolnikov consistently rejects , as part of his philosophical reasoning . For example , he rejects Razumikhin 's offer of employment and the idea of his sister 's arranged marriage . Raskolnikov originally rejects Sonya 's offer to accompany him to the confession but , in a feverish state of mind , sees her following him through the market , and finds power in that idealism . = = = Twice Two is Four = = = A certain detail that comes up in the novel is whether we are limited to certain realities , such as 2 + 2 = 4 , a theme that also comes up in Yevgeny Zamyatin 's We and George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four . = = = The environment of Saint Petersburg = = = On an exceptionally hot evening early in July a young man came out of the garret in which he lodged in S. Place and walked slowly , as though in hesitation , towards K. bridge . The above opening sentence of the novel has a symbolic function : Russian critic Vadim K. Kozhinov argues that the reference to the " exceptionally hot evening " establishes not only the suffocating atmosphere of Saint Petersburg in midsummer but also " the infernal ambience of the crime itself " . Dostoyevsky was among the first to recognize the symbolic possibilities of city life and imagery drawn from the city . I. F. I. Evnin regards Crime and Punishment as the first great Russian novel " in which the climactic moments of the action are played out in dirty taverns , on the street , in the sordid black rooms of the poor " . Dostoyevsky 's Petersburg is the city of unrelieved poverty ; " magnificence has no place in it , because magnificence is external , formal abstract , cold " . Dostoyevsky connects the city 's problems to Raskolnikov 's thoughts and subsequent actions . The crowded streets and squares , the shabby houses and taverns , the noise and stench , all are transformed by Dostoyevsky into a rich store of metaphors for states of mind . Donald Fanger asserts that " the real city ... rendered with a striking concreteness , is also a city of the mind in the way that its atmosphere answers Raskolnikov 's state and almost symbolizes it . It is crowded , stifling , and parched . " The inner turmoil suffered by Raskolnikov can also be perceived as a Shakespearean pathetic fallacy . For example , the great storm in Shakespeare 's King Lear reflects the state of the titular character 's mind , much like the chaos , disorder and noise of St. Petersburg reflects the state of Raskolnikov 's mind . = = = Yellow = = = The colour yellow is used throughout the novel to signify suffering and mental illness . Examples include Sonya 's yellow ticket , a license to practice prostitution , the walls of Raskolnikov 's garret , and the walls of the old pawnbroker , among numerous other examples . Of note , the Russian term for lunatic asylum , " zholti dom " , is literally translated as " yellow house " . Yellow is also mentioned as the color of Luzchin 's ring . = = Themes = = Dostoyevsky 's letter to Katkov reveals his immediate inspiration , to which he remained faithful even after his original plan evolved into a much more ambitious creation : a desire to counteract what he regarded as nefarious consequences arising from the doctrines of Russian nihilism . In the novel , Dostoyevsky pinpointed the dangers of both utilitarianism and rationalism , the main ideas of which inspired the radicals , continuing a fierce criticism he had already started with his Notes from Underground . A Slavophile religious believer , Dostoyevsky utilized the characters , dialogue and narrative in Crime and Punishment to articulate an argument against westernizing ideas in general . He thus attacked a peculiar Russian blend of French utopian socialism and Benthamite utilitarianism , which had led to what revolutionaries , such as Nikolai Chernyshevsky , called " rational egoism " . The radicals refused , however , to recognize themselves in the novel 's pages ( Dimitri Pisarev ridiculed the notion that Raskolnikov 's ideas could be identified with those of the radicals of his time ) , since Dostoyevsky pursued nihilistic ideas to their most extreme consequences . The aim of these ideas was altruistic and humanitarian , but these aims were to be achieved by relying on reason and suppressing entirely the spontaneous outflow of Christian pity and compassion . Chernyshevsky 's utilitarian ethic proposed that thought and will in Man were subject to the laws of physical science . Dostoyevsky believed that such ideas limited man to a product of physics , chemistry and biology , negating spontaneous emotional responses . In its latest variety of Bazarovism , Russian nihilism encouraged the creation of an élite of superior individuals to whom the hopes of the future were to be entrusted . Raskolnikov exemplifies all the potentially disastrous hazards contained in such an ideal . Frank notes that " the moral @-@ psychological traits of his character incorporate this antinomy between instinctive kindness , sympathy , and pity on the one hand and , on the other , a proud and idealistic egoism that has become perverted into a contemptuous disdain for the submissive herd " . Raskolnikov 's inner conflict in the opening section of the novel results in a utilitarian @-@ altruistic justification for the proposed crime : why not kill a wretched and " useless " old moneylender to alleviate the human misery ? Dostoyevsky wants to show that this utilitarian type of reasoning and its conclusions had become widespread and commonplace ; they were by no means the solitary invention of Raskolnikov 's tormented and disordered mind . Such radical and utilitarian ideas act to reinforce the innate egoism of Raskolnikov 's character and , likewise , contempt for the lower qualities in Man and for His ideals . He even becomes fascinated with the majestic image of a Napoleonic personality who , in the interests of a higher social good , believes that he possesses a moral right to kill . Indeed , his " Napoleon @-@ like " plan drags him to a well @-@ calculated murder , the ultimate conclusion of his self @-@ deception with utilitarianism . In his depiction of the Petersburg background , Dostoyevsky accentuates the squalor and human wretchedness that pass before Raskolnikov 's eyes . He also uses Raskolnikov 's encounter with Marmeladov to present both the heartlessness of Raskolnikov 's convictions and the alternative set of values to be set against them . Dostoyevsky believes that the " freedom " propounded by the aforementioned ideas is a dreadful freedom " that is contained by no values , because it is before values " . The product of this " freedom " , Raskolnikov , is in perpetual revolt against society , himself , and God . He thinks that he is self @-@ sufficient and self @-@ contained , but at the end " his boundless self @-@ confidence must disappear in the face of what is greater than himself , and his self @-@ fabricated justification must humble itself before the higher justice of God " . Dostoyevsky calls for the regeneration and renewal of the " sick " Russian society through the re @-@ discovering of its country , its religion , and its roots . = = Reception = = The first part of Crime and Punishment published in the January and February issues of The Russian Messenger met with public success . Although the remaining parts of the novel had still to be written , an anonymous reviewer wrote that " the novel promises to be one of the most important works of the author of The House of the Dead " . In his memoirs , the conservative belletrist Nikolay Strakhov recalled that in Russia Crime and Punishment was the literary sensation of 1866 . The novel soon attracted the criticism of the liberal and radical critics . G.Z. Yeliseyev sprang to the defense of the Russian student corporations , and wondered , " Has there ever been a case of a student committing murder for the sake of robbery ? " Pisarev , aware of the novel 's artistic value attempted in 1867 another approach : he argued that Raskolnikov was a product of his environment , and explained that the main theme of the work was poverty and its results . He measured the novel 's excellence by the accuracy and understanding with which Dostoyevsky portrayed the contemporary social reality , and focused on what he regarded as inconsistencies in the novel 's plot . Strakhov rejected Pisarev 's contention that the theme of environmental determinism was essential to the novel , and pointed out that Dostoyevsky 's attitude towards his hero was sympathetic : " This is not mockery of the younger generation , neither a reproach nor an accusation — it is a lament over it . " = = English translations = = Frederick Whishaw ( 1885 ) Constance Garnett ( 1914 ) David Magarshack ( 1951 ) Princess Alexandra Kropotkin ( 1953 ) Jessie Coulson ( 1953 ) Michael Scammell ( 1963 ) Sidney Monas ( 1968 ) Julius Katzer ( 1985 ) David McDuff ( 1991 ) Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky ( 1992 ) Oliver Ready ( 2014 ) The Garnett translation was the dominant translation for more than 80 years after its publication in 1914 . Since the 1990s , McDuff and Pevear / Volokhonsky have become its major competitors . = = Film adaptations = = There have been over 25 film adaptations of Crime and Punishment . They include : Raskolnikow ( aka Crime and Punishment ) ( 1923 , directed by Robert Wiene ) Crime and Punishment ( 1935 , starring Peter Lorre , Edward Arnold and Marian Marsh ) Eigoban Tsumi to Batsu ( 1953 , manga by Tezuka Osamu , under his interpretation ) Crime and Punishment ( 1970 film ) ( Soviet film , 1970 , starring Georgi Taratorkin , Tatyana Bedova , Vladimir Basov , Victoria Fyodorova ) dir . Lev Kulidzhanov Rikos ja Rangaistus ( 1983 ; Crime and Punishment ) , the first movie by the Finnish director Aki Kaurismäki , with Markku Toikka in the lead role . The story has been transplanted to modern @-@ day Helsinki , Finland . Elu Suttina Kote ( 1987 Kannada film starring Ambareesh , Ramesh Aravind and Gautami Tadimalla ) , an Indian Kannada @-@ language film which is primarily based on the novel . Few differences can be noted such as the lead actor wants to surrender to police however is said persuaded by his lover not to do so as there is no evidence . In the climax , the lead actor goes running himself to the police when he sees him on the way promising her that he will return with a clear conscience . Although this was an intellectual film with good expectations , it did not see huge commercial success as other films where Ambareesh was the lead actor . Crime and Punishment in Suburbia ( 2000 , an adaptation set in modern America and " loosely based " on the novel ) Crime and Punishment ( 2002 film ) , 2002 , starring Crispin Glover and Vanessa Redgrave . Crime and Punishment was a 2002 television serial produced by the BBC , starring John Simm as Raskolnikov and Ian McDiarmid as Porfiry Petrovich . Match Point ( 2005 ) , a film by Woody Allen borrows many elements from the novel , in fact it is loosely based on it . In the movie the name of Dostoyevsky is referred to in several occasions . Crime and Punishment ( 2007 Russian TV serial ) was a 2007 television serial directed by Dmitry Svetozarov starring Vladimir Koshevoy as Raskolnikov . Classic Alice embarked on a 6 @-@ episode arc in 2014 that covered Crime & Punishment . It was the series ' first book . When Crime and Punishment came up in an interview , Alfred Hitchcock told French director Francois Truffaut that he would never consider filming it . Hitchcock explained that he could make a great film out of a good book , and even ( or especially ) a mediocre book , but never a great book , because the film would always suffer by comparison .
= Maraba coffee = Maraba coffee ( Kinyarwanda : Ikawa ya Maraba ; French : Café de Maraba ) is grown in the Maraba area of southern Rwanda . Maraba 's coffee plants are the Bourbon variety of the Coffea arabica species and are grown on fertile volcanic soils on high @-@ altitude hills . The fruit is handpicked , mostly during the rainy season between March and May , and brought to a washing station in Maraba , where the coffee beans are extracted and dried . At several stages , the beans are sorted according to quality . The farmers receive credits based on the amount and quality of the beans they provide . The beans are sold to various roasting companies , with the best beans going to Union Coffee Roasters of the United Kingdom , who produce a Fairtrade @-@ certified brand and Community Coffee of the United States . Rwanda Specialty Coffee Roasters buys from Maraba and sells to the domestic market . Maraba coffee is also brewed into a beer . About 2 @,@ 000 smallholder farmers grow the coffee plants under the Abahuzamugambi cooperative , founded in 1999 . Since 2000 , the cooperative has been supported by the National University of Rwanda ( NUR ) and the PEARL . The cooperative has improved coffee quality and penetrated the speciality market . = = History = = = = = Origins = = = Rwandans have been growing coffee since colonial times , but until 1999 the product was classed below Grade C , making it unsalable on the global markets . The farmers did not have the means to wash and prepare their coffee cherries to specifications in a timely manner . Buyers paid US $ 0 @.@ 33 per kilogram , a price that kept the farmers poor . In 1999 , 220 coffee growers formed an association in the Maraba district ( part of the former Butare Province ) to tackle this problem . Many of these farmers had lost family members during the 1994 genocide , while others had husbands in prison , accused of participating in the killings and due to face trial in the traditional gacaca courts . They named the association Abahuzamugambi , a Kinyarwanda word for people who work together to achieve a goal . The farmers hoped that by forming the association , they would increase revenue by selling directly to exporters in Kigali instead of through an intermediary transport company . They divided their profits and used them to buy tools , fertilisers and seeds to increase yields . In 2000 , the mayor of Maraba requested development aid from the National University of Rwanda ( UNR ) , based in nearby Butare ; the following year UNR helped found the Partnership for Enhancing Agriculture in Rwanda through Linkages ( PEARL ) . Several entities supported the PEARL project : USAID , Michigan State University , Texas A & M University and various Rwandan bodies including UNR , the national agricultural research institute ( ISAR ) and the Kigali Institute of Science , Technology and Management ( KIST ) . PEARL started working with Abahuzamugambi in February 2001 to improve the coffee quality to standards required by the specialty coffee market in the United States . The coffee farmers of Maraba first needed a washing station to remove sugar from the coating of the coffee bean , under the skin . If this sugar is not removed within 12 hours of picking , the flavour of the coffee is impaired . They built the first station in July 2001 in the Cyarumbo sector , close to the main road , with funding from UNR , the Office des Cultures Industrielles du Rwanda ( OCIR @-@ Café ) , ACDI / VOCA , and the Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda ( ISAR ) . The opening was late in the harvest season , so only 200 kilograms ( 441 lb ) of that year 's harvest were suitable for washing . However , the results were reasonably good , and the station was upgraded to allow more coffee to be processed in 2002 . To bring mineral water from Mount Huye to the upgraded station , ACDI / VOCA helped fund a pipeline , which opened in March 2002 . A new certification system was introduced for the 2002 harvest to ensure that beans brought to the station were of suitable quality . Around half of the Abahuzamugambi membership attained the certification , which allowed the cooperative to look for serious buyers in the specialty markets of Europe and North America . = = = International acceptance = = = PEARL brought a specialty coffee expert to Rwanda , who put them in touch with a seller , Louisiana @-@ based Community Coffee , to help market Maraba . They sent samples to Louisiana , and in June 2002 a representative from Community visited Maraba . Rwandan president Paul Kagame was also present , as the government placed great importance on the project . Community purchased an 18 @,@ 000 kilogram ( 40 @,@ 000 lb ) container of Maraba beans at the above @-@ average rate of US $ 3 per kilogram . The beans were transported to Louisiana , where they were roasted and blended into one of the company 's gourmet coffees . This was the first direct contract between an American roaster and an African coffee cooperative . Comic Relief also took an interest in Maraba . The 2001 Red Nose Day campaign had brought in £ 55 million for projects in the UK and Africa , some of which they pledged to the Association des Veuves du Genocide ( AVEGA ) , an association of widows of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide . The charity discovered that many of the Maraba smallholders were also members of AVEGA and could thus provide funding and support . They contacted Union Coffee Roasters ( UCR ) , a British roasting company , whose representatives visited Maraba in 2002 with officials from the Fairtrade Labelling Organisation ( FLO ) . This group inspected the Maraba site and granted certification , making Maraba coffee the first Rwandan cooperative to gain Fairtrade status . UCR described the coffee as containing " sparkling citrus flavours complemented by deep , sweet chocolate notes " and bought all the remaining produce from the 2002 harvest . UCR distributed its Maraba Coffee in early 2003 via Sainsbury 's supermarkets , which sold the product in all 350 of its stores in the run up to that year 's Red Nose Day . In 2003 , the Abahuzamugambi Cooperative made US $ 35 @,@ 000 in net profits . Of this , 70 percent was divided among the farmers at US $ 0 @.@ 75 per kilogram provided , an amount more than three times that paid to other coffee growers in Rwanda and sufficient to pay for health care and education services which were not previously affordable . The remaining 30 percent was invested back into the cooperative and spent on buying calcium carbonate , an agricultural lime used to reduce acidity in the soil caused by run off of minerals during rainfall . = = = Recent years : independence and coffee beer = = = Beginning in 2003 , PEARL deemed the operation self @-@ sufficient and reduced financial support for the Abahuzamugambi Cooperative . The cooperative provided its growers with loans that helped improve living standards and allowed for livestock investments , affordable medical insurance , and education . A cooperative bank was opened in the village in March , enabling farmers to maintain and manage their own funds locally , rather than having to trek the long distance to Butare . In late 2004 , London @-@ based Meantime Brewing began offering a coffee beer made out of beans grown in Maraba . The drink is intended as an alcoholic iced cappucino or digestif . The head brewer tasted coffees from around the world but decided that the hints of vanilla and chocolate in Maraba coffee made it more suitable than the nutty and bitter coffees from South America . The original beer had an alcohol content of 4 percent and the same caffeine content as coffee , and was described as having a " silky , velvety character " . It is sold in larger branches of Sainsbury 's and in some pubs and clubs . The beverage was one of only two Fairtrade beers available on the UK market until 2006 , when a reduction in the proportion of coffee and an increased alcohol content ( now 6 percent ) cost it its Fairtrade status . It is still made from Maraba beans . It is the only coffee beer available in the British Isles , and it won the Gold medal for the coffee @-@ flavoured beer category at the 2006 Beer World Cup . In 2006 , the Swedish Minister for Development Co @-@ operation and Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs , Carin Jamtin , visited Maraba to extend cooperation between Sweden and Rwanda and expose Maraba coffee to the Swedish specialty market . In July 2006 , a telecentre was opened in Maraba under the coordination of PEARL . USAID , NUR and Washington State University ( WSU ) Extension 's Center to Bridge the Digital Divide ( CBDD ) provided funding and resources . Three WSU students spent six weeks in Rwanda helping to set up the centre and train the local staff , who now operate it . = = Geography and climate = = Maraba coffee is grown in the south of Rwanda at coordinates 2 ° 35 ′ S 29 ° 40 ′ E , roughly 12 kilometres ( 7 mi ) from Butare and 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) from the capital , Kigali . The project began in the Maraba District of Butare Province , but these entities were replaced under local government organisation in 2006 , and the area is now part of Huye District in the Southern Province . The area is very hilly , due to its proximity to the Western Rift Valley and the montane Nyungwe Forest , and features rich volcanic soils . The coffee is grown at altitudes between 1 @,@ 700 and 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 5 @,@ 577 – 6 @,@ 889 ft ) above sea level , often on steep hillsides with terrace farming . The area experiences an average of 115 centimetres ( 45 in ) of rainfall annually . The majority of this falls during the rainy season of March to May , the major coffee harvesting season . The high altitude lowers the temperature slightly to an average of about 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . There is little seasonal variation . = = Production cycle = = The main harvesting season for coffee in Rwanda is during the major rainy season , running from March to the end of May . At harvest time , farmers spend most of the day picking cherries by hand . In the evening , they carry them in traditional baskets woven from banana leaves to the washing station , which may be several hours away . Technicians hand @-@ sort the beans to pick out the best cherries , those with a deep red colour , and return the remainder to the grower to be sold on to markets outside the Maraba process at a lower price . The technicians pay the grower US $ 0 @.@ 10 per kilogram . This money accumulates , and the association pays it each fortnight into farmers ' bank accounts . The technicians start the washing process immediately , since delay can cause fermentation of the sugary coating surrounding the bean and ruination of the coffee flavour . The beans are first thrown into a deep tank . The best cherries sink to the bottom and pass through a machine that removes their skin . The technicians remove any floating cherries and process them in the same way as the others for the cooperative to sell on the domestic market for less than specialty @-@ coffee price . The beans are fed through one of the cooperative 's three de @-@ skinning and selection machines to remove their skins and most of the sugary coating before running the individual beans through a vibrating colander . The colander separates the very highest quality Grade A beans from those labeled Grade B ; the two grades are sent separately down the hill in a water chute with a 1 percent gradient . This process allows for further separation of beans based on quality , with around 15 tanks available at the bottom for capture of the different types . The beans are kept submerged , two days for the best and 15 – 20 hours for the lesser beans , which causes a small amount of fermentation to convert the remainder of the sugar without significantly impairing the flavour . The technicians wash the beans several times to remove the remains of the skin and coating and put them out on shaded racks to dry . Cooperative employees turn the beans regularly as technicians spot and remove bad beans . A longer drying process of up to two weeks in the sun follows ( with provision for quick covering in the event of rain ) , again with constant turning . This last process reduces the water content of the bean from 40 percent to 12 percent . The technicians then move the beans to the technical centre in nearby Kizi . Certain machines , housed in a warehouse up the side of the hill , remove the parchment skins from the beans . Employees take the beans into the adjacent laboratory for the final quality control process – hand sorting – which is carried out by several experienced women . The beans are bagged and labeled according to their quality , and stored in the compound 's warehouse to await sale . = = Products and customers = = As of 2006 , Maraba produces 80 short tons ( 73 @,@ 000 kg ) of export @-@ quality coffee per year , of which 40 tons go to roasters and sellers in the United Kingdom and 40 tons to the United States . The coffee appears in the following products : Maraba Bourbon coffee , produced by Union Coffee for Sainsbury 's and other UK @-@ based outlets . " New Orleans Jazz " Blend and Hotel blend , two Community Coffee brands containing a blend of Maraba and other coffees . As of 2006 , Community are considering launching Maraba as a single origin brand . Café de Maraba , the brand produced by Rwanda Roasters and sold in upmarket shops in Rwanda , including all Total petrol stations and the Intercontinental Hotel . Meantime Coffee , the beer produced by Meantime Breweries of London . Intelligentsia have used the coffee in various blends in 2005 , due to their shipment arriving late , but intends also to launch it as a single @-@ origin brand in the future .
= William Howe , 5th Viscount Howe = General William Howe , 5th Viscount Howe , KB , PC ( 10 August 1729 – 12 July 1814 ) was a British Army officer who rose to become Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of British forces during the American War of Independence . Howe was one of three brothers who had distinguished military careers . Having joined the army in 1746 , Howe saw extensive service in the War of the Austrian Succession and Seven Years ' War . He became known for his role in the capture of Quebec in 1759 when he led a British force to capture the cliffs at Anse @-@ au @-@ Foulon , allowing James Wolfe to land his army and engage the French in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . Howe also participated in the campaigns to take Louisbourg , Belle Île and Havana . He was appointed Lieutenant @-@ Governor of the Isle of Wight , a post he would hold until 1795 . Howe was sent to North America in March 1775 , arriving in May after the American War of Independence broke out . After leading British troops to a costly victory in the Battle of Bunker Hill , Howe took command of all British forces in America from Thomas Gage in September of that year . Howe 's record in North America was marked by the successful capture of both New York City and Philadelphia . However , poor British campaign planning for 1777 contributed to the failure of John Burgoyne 's Saratoga campaign , which played a major role in the entry of France into the war . Howe 's role in developing those plans and the degree to which he was responsible for British failures that year ( despite his personal success at Philadelphia ) have both been subjects of contemporary and historic debate . He resigned his post as Commander in Chief , North America , in 1778 , and returned to England , where he was at times active in the defence of the British Isles . He served for many years in Parliament , and was knighted after his successes in 1776 . He inherited the Viscountcy of Howe upon the death of his brother Richard in 1799 . He married , but had no children , and the viscountcy was extinguished with his death in 1814 . = = Early life and career = = William Howe was born in England , the third son of Emanuel Howe , 2nd Viscount Howe and Charlotte , the daughter of Sophia von Kielmansegg , Countess of Leinster and Darlington , an acknowledged illegitimate half @-@ sister of King George I. His mother was a regular in the courts of George II and George III . This connection with the crown may have improved the careers of all four sons , but all were also very capable officers . His father was a politician , who served as Governor of Barbados where he died in 1735 . William 's eldest brother , General George Howe , was killed just before the 1758 Battle of Carillon at Fort Ticonderoga . Another brother , Admiral Richard Howe , rose to become one of Britain 's leading naval commanders . A third brother , Thomas , commanded ships for the East India Company , Winchelsea in 1762 – 4 and Nottingham in 1766 , and made observations on Madeira and on the Comoro Islands . William entered the army when he was 17 by buying a cornet 's commission in the Duke of Cumberland 's Dragoons in 1746 . He then served for two years in Flanders during the War of the Austrian Succession . After the war he was transferred to the 20th Regiment of Foot , where he became a friend of James Wolfe . = = Seven Years ' War = = During the Seven Years ' War Howe 's service first brought him to America , and did much to raise his reputation . He joined the newly formed 58th ( Rutlandshire ) Regiment of Foot in February 1757 , and was promoted to lieutenant colonel in December of that year . He commanded the regiment at the Siege of Louisbourg in 1758 , leading an amphibious landing under heavy enemy fire . This action won the attackers a flanking position and earned Howe a commendation from Wolfe . Howe commanded a light infantry battalion under General Wolfe during the 1759 Siege of Quebec . He was in the Battle of Beaufort , and was chosen by Wolfe to lead the ascent from the Saint Lawrence River up to the Plains of Abraham that led to the British victory in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham on 13 September 1759 . After spending the winter in the defence of Quebec City , his regiment fought in the April 1760 Battle of Sainte @-@ Foy , and led a brigade in the capture of Montreal under Jeffery Amherst before returning to England . Howe led a brigade in the 1761 Capture of Belle Île , off the French coast , and turned down the opportunity to become military governor after its capture so that he might continue in active service . He served as adjutant general of the force that captured Havana in 1762 , playing a part in a skirmish at Guanabacoa . In 1758 , Howe was elected a member of parliament for Nottingham , succeeding to the seat vacated by his brother George 's death . His election was assisted by the influence of his mother , who campaigned on behalf of her son while he was away at war , and may very well have been undertaken because service in Parliament was seen as a common way to improve one 's prospects for advancement in the military . In 1764 he was promoted to colonel of the 46th ( South Devonshire ) Regiment of Foot , and in 1768 he was appointed lieutenant governor of the Isle of Wight . As tensions rose between Britain and the colonies in the 1770s , Howe continued to rise through the ranks , and came to be widely regarded as one of the best officers in the army . He was promoted to major general in 1772 , and in 1774 introduced new training drills for light infantry companies . In Parliament he was generally sympathetic to the American colonies . He publicly opposed the collection of legislation intended to punish the Thirteen Colonies known as Intolerable Acts , and in 1774 assured his constituents that he would resist active duty against the Americans and asserted that the entire British army could not conquer America . He also let government ministers know privately that he was prepared to serve in America as second in command to Thomas Gage , whom he knew was unpopular in government circles . In early 1775 , when King George called on him to serve , he accepted , claiming publicly that if he did not , he would suffer " the odious name of backwardness to serve my country in distress . " He sailed for America in March 1775 , accompanied by Major Generals Henry Clinton and John Burgoyne . In May 1775 his colonelcy was transferred to the 23rd Fusiliers . = = American War of Independence = = Along with fellow British Army Generals Clinton and Burgoyne , Howe arrived at Boston aboard the " H.M.S. Cerberus " on 25 May 1775 , having learned en route that war had broken out with the skirmishes at the marches to Lexington and Concord in April . It provided naval reinforcement at the Battle of Bunker Hill . He led a force of 4 @,@ 000 troops sent to reinforce the 5 @,@ 000 troops under General Thomas Gage who were besieged in the city after those battles . Gage , Howe , and Generals Clinton and Burgoyne discussed plans to break the siege . They formulated a plan to seize high ground around Boston and attack the besieging colonial militia forces , setting its execution for 18 June . However , the colonists learned of the plan and fortified the heights of Breed 's Hill and nearby Bunker Hill on the Charlestown peninsula across the Charles River from Boston on the night of 16 – 17 June , forcing the British leadership to rethink their strategy . = = = Bunker Hill and Boston = = = In a war council held early on 17 June , the generals developed a plan calling for a direct assault on the colonial fortification , and Gage gave Howe command of the operation . Despite a sense of urgency ( the colonists were still working on the fortifications at the time of the council ) , the attack , now known as the Battle of Bunker Hill , did not begin until that afternoon . With Howe personally leading the right wing of the attack , the first two assaults were firmly repulsed by the colonial defenders . Howe 's third assault gained the objective , but the cost of the day 's battle was appallingly heavy . The British casualties , more than 1 @,@ 000 killed or wounded , were the highest of any engagement in the war . Howe described it as a " success ... too dearly bought . " Although Howe exhibited courage on the battlefield , his tactics and overwhelming confidence were criticised . One subordinate wrote that Howe 's " absurd and destructive confidence " played a role in the number of casualties incurred . Although Howe was not injured in the battle , it had a pronounced effect on his spirit . According to British historian George Otto Trevelyan , the battle " exercised a permanent and most potent influence " especially on Howe 's behaviour , and that Howe 's military skills thereafter " were apt to fail him at the very moment when they were especially wanted . " Despite an outward appearance of confidence and popularity with his troops , the " genial six @-@ footer with a face some people described as ' coarse ' " , privately often exhibited a lack of self @-@ confidence , and in later campaigns became somewhat dependent on his older brother Richard ( the admiral in the Royal Navy , also on station in the Colonies ) for advice and approval . On 11 October 1775 , General Gage sailed for England , and Howe took over as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the British Army in America . British military planners in London had , with the outbreak of hostilities , begun planning a massive reinforcement of the troops in North America . Their plans , made with recommendations from Howe , called for the abandonment of Boston and the establishment of bases in New York and Newport , Rhode Island in an attempt to isolate the rebellion to New England . When orders arrived in November to execute these plans , Howe opted to remain in Boston for the winter and begin the campaign in 1776 . As a result , the remainder of the Siege of Boston was largely a stalemate . Howe never attempted a major engagement with the Continental Army , which had come under the command of Major General George Washington . He did , however , spend a fair amount of time at the gambling tables , and allegedly established a relationship with Elizabeth Lloyd Loring , the wife of Loyalist Joshua Loring , Jr . Loring apparently acquiesced to this arrangement , and was rewarded by Howe with the position of commissary of prisoners . Contemporaries and historians have criticised Howe for both his gambling and the amount of time he supposedly spent with Mrs. Loring , with some going so far as to level accusations that this behaviour interfered with his military activities ; historian John Alden does not give these ideas credence . The alleged relationship is also mentioned in The Battle of the Kegs , an American propaganda ballad written by Francis Hopkinson . In January 1776 Howe 's role as commander in chief was cemented with a promotion to full general in North America . The siege was broken in March 1776 when Continental Army Colonel Henry Knox brought heavy artillery from Fort Ticonderoga to Boston during the winter , and General Washington used them to fortify Dorchester Heights , overlooking Boston and its harbour . Howe at first planned an assault on this position , but a snowstorm interfered , and he eventually decided to withdraw from Boston . On 17 March , British troops and Loyalists evacuated the city , and sailed for Halifax , Nova Scotia . = = = New York campaign = = = Howe and his troops began to arrive outside New York Harbour and made an uncontested landing on Staten Island to the west in early July . Howe , whose orders from Lord George Germain , the Secretary of State responsible for directing the war from Westminster , were fairly clear that he should avoid conflict before the arrival of reinforcements , then waited until those reinforcements arrived in mid @-@ August , along with the naval commander , his brother Richard . This delay proved to be somewhat costly , since the Americans used this time to improve fortifications on northwestern Long Island ( at Brooklyn Heights along the East River shoreline ) and increased the size of their Continental Army with additional militia . After moving most of his army by amphibious barges across the Verazzano Narrows to southwestern Long Island without opposition , he attacked the American positions on 27 August in what became known as the Battle of Long Island . In a well @-@ executed manoeuvre , a large column led by Howe and Clinton passed around the American left flank , through the lightly guarded Jamaica Pass far to the east , ( a ridge of hills running east to west bisected the island , with a series of lower entrances that were all guarded by Continentals except inexplicably to the farthest east at Jamaica ) , catching the Patriots off @-@ guard and routing the Americans from their forward positions back into the entrenchments on Brooklyn Heights . Despite the urging of Clinton and others , Howe decided against an immediate assault on these fortifications , claiming " the Troops had for that day done handsomely enough . " He instead began siege operations , methodically advancing on the entrenched Americans . This decision allowed General Washington to successfully orchestrate a nighttime strategic withdrawal across the East River on the night of 29 – 30 August , aided by a thick morning fog . Historian George Bilias notes that had Howe attacked Brooklyn Heights , the capture of even half of Washington 's army , and possibly Washington himself , might have had a significant effect on the rebellion . Some officers , notably General Clinton , were critical of Howe 's decision not to storm the American works . Howe was knighted as a reward for his victory on Long Island . Howe and his brother Richard had , as part of their instructions , been assigned roles as peace commissioners , with limited authority to treat with the rebels . After Long Island , they pursued an attempt at reconciliation , sending the captured General John Sullivan to Philadelphia with a proposal for a peace conference . The meeting that resulted , conducted by Admiral Howe , was unsuccessful . The Howes had been given limited powers , as had the Congressional representatives , and the latter were insistent that the British recognise the recently declared colonial independence . This was not within the Howe 's powers , so the conference failed , and Howe then continued the campaign . He first landed troops on Manhattan on 15 September , and occupied New York City ( which then occupied only Lower Manhattan ) , although his advance northward on Manhattan was checked the next day at Harlem Heights . He then paused , spending nearly one month consolidating control of New York City and awaiting reinforcements . During this time he ordered the execution of Nathan Hale for espionage , and had to deal with the effects of a major fire in the city . He then attempted a landing on the mainland at Throgs Neck , intending to flank Washington 's position at Harlem Heights . However , the narrow causeway between the beach and the mainland was well @-@ defended , and he ended up withdrawing the troops . He then made a successful landing of troops at Pell 's Point in Westchester County ; Washington managed to avoid being flanked , retreating to White Plains . Howe successfully forced Washington out of the New York area in the 28 October Battle of White Plains , and then turned his attention to consolidate British hold on Manhattan . In November he attacked the remaining Continental Army stronghold in the Battle of Fort Washington , taking several thousand prisoners . Washington then retreated across New Jersey , followed by Howe 's advance forces under Charles Cornwallis . At this point , Howe prepared troops under the command of General Clinton for embarkation to occupy Newport , the other major goal of his plan . Clinton proposed that these troops instead be landed in New Jersey , either opposite Staten Island or on the Delaware River , trapping Washington or even capturing the seat of the Continental Congress , Philadelphia . Howe rejected these proposals , despatching Clinton and General Hugh , Earl Percy , two vocal critics of his leadership , to take Newport . In early December Howe came to Trenton , New Jersey to arrange the disposition of his troops for the winter . Washington had retreated all the way across the Delaware , and Howe returned to New York , believing the campaign to be ended for the season . When Washington attacked the Hessian quarters at Trenton on 26 December 1776 , Howe sent Cornwallis to reform the army in New Jersey and chase after Washington . Cornwallis was frustrated in this , with Washington gaining a second victory at Trenton and a third at Princeton . Howe recalled the army to positions much closer to New York for the winter . Howe has been criticised by contemporaries and historians for failing to decisively defeat the Continental Army during the New York campaign . Contemporaries complained that his landing in Westchester failed to trap Washington , but failed to understand that his goal in the campaign was to secure Manhattan , and not necessarily to defeat Washington . However , historian George Billias observes that Howe 's overly rigid adherence to his plans meant that he was unable to capitalise on the opportunities that arose during the campaign for a decisive action . = = = Philadelphia campaign = = = On 30 November 1776 , as Washington was retreating across New Jersey , Howe had written to Germain with plans for the 1777 campaign season . He proposed to send a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ man force up the Hudson River to capture Albany , New York , in conjunction with an expedition sent south from Province of Quebec . He again wrote to Germain on 20 December 1776 with more elaborate proposals for 1777 . These again included operations to gain control of the Hudson River , and included expanded operations from the base at Newport , and an expedition to take Philadelphia . The latter Howe saw as attractive , since Washington was then just north of the city : Howe wrote that he was " persuaded the Principal Army should act offensively [ against Philadelphia ] , where the enemy 's chief strength lies . " Germain acknowledged that this plan was particularly " well digested " , but it called for more men that Germain was prepared to provide . After the setbacks in New Jersey , Howe in mid @-@ January 1777 proposed operations against Philadelphia that included an overland expedition and a sea @-@ based attack , thinking this might lead to a decisive victory over the Continental Army . This plan was developed to the extent that in April , Howe 's army was seen constructing pontoon bridges ; Washington , lodged in his winter quarters at Morristown , New Jersey , thought they were for eventual use on the Delaware River . However , by mid @-@ May Howe had apparently abandoned the idea of an overland expedition : " I propose to invade Pennsylvania by sea ... we must probably abandon the Jersies . " When the campaign season opened in May 1777 , General Washington moved most of his army from its winter quarters in Morristown , New Jersey to a strongly fortified position in the Watchung Mountains . In June 1777 , Howe began a series of odd moves in New Jersey , apparently in an attempt to draw Washington and his army out of that position onto terrain more favourable for a general engagement . His motives for this are uncertain ; historian John Buchanan argues that Howe was determined to attempt to draw Washington into a major engagement while both were in northern New Jersey , writing that " Washington 's shift in position had whetted Howe 's appetite for a major action when , if everything went right , he would finally accomplish what he and his brother 's policies had denied him the previous year : the destruction of the Continental Army " , but that Howe 's underlying campaign goal for the season was Philadelphia . One British major wrote that " [ t ] he report circulated by those in power is that it was thought necessary to march to Hilsborough [ sic ] to offer Washington battle . " Americans like Henry Knox were perplexed but also concluded that was its purpose : " It was unaccountable that [ the British ] should stop short when they had gone only nine miles ... In the course of a day or two [ we ] discovered that they ... had come out with an intention of drawing us into the plain . " Washington had intelligence that Howe had moved without taking the heavy river @-@ crossing equipment , and was apparently not fooled at all . When Washington failed to take the bait , Howe withdrew the army to Perth Amboy , under harassment by Colonel Daniel Morgan 's elite light unit , Morgan 's Riflemen , who used their superior weapons to snipe at and harry his forces as they moved . Washington moved down to a more exposed position , assuming Howe was going to embark his army on ships . Howe then launched a lightning strike designed to cut Washington 's retreat off . This attempt was foiled by the Battle of Short Hills , which gave Washington time to retreat to a more secure position . Howe then did in fact embark his army and sailed south with his brother 's fleet . Howe maintained an effective secrecy surrounding the fleet 's destination : not only did Washington not know where it was going , neither did many British rank and file . Howe 's campaign for Philadelphia began with an amphibious landing at Head of Elk , Maryland , southwest of the city in late August . Although Howe would have preferred to make a landing on the Delaware River below Philadelphia , reports of well @-@ prepared defences dissuaded him , and the fleet spent almost an entire extra month at sea to reach Head of Elk . Howe 's army left Head of Elk early on 3 September 1777 and pushed back an advance guard of American light infantry at Cooch 's Bridge . On 11 September 1777 , Howe 's army met Washington 's near Chadds Ford along the Brandywine Creek in the Battle of Brandywine . Howe established his headquarters at the Gilpin Homestead , where it stayed until the morning of 16 September . In a reprise of earlier battles , Howe once again flanked the Continental Army position and forced Washington to retreat after inflicting heavy casualties . After two weeks of manoeuvre and engagements ( including The Battle of the Clouds , The Paoli Massacre , and an engagement at Valley Forge where Alexander Hamilton was nearly lost ) , Howe triumphantly entered the city on 26 September . The reception the British received was not quite what they had expected , however . They had been led to believe that " Friends thicker than Woods " would greet them upon their arrival ; they instead were greeted by women , children , and many deserted houses . Despite Howe 's best attempts to minimise the plundering by his army ( he authorised the execution of violators of his orders against it ) , this activity by the army had a significant negative effect on popular support . One week after Howe entered Philadelphia , on 4 October , Washington made a dawn attack on the British garrison at Germantown . He very nearly won the battle before being repulsed by late @-@ arriving reinforcements sent from the city . This forced Howe to withdraw his troops a little closer to the city , where they were also needed to help clear the American Delaware River defences , which were preventing the navy from resupplying the army . It was late November before this task was accomplished , which included a poorly executed attack on Fort Mercer by a division of Hessians . = = = Impact on Burgoyne 's campaign = = = Concomitant with Howe 's campaign , General Burgoyne led his expedition south from Montreal to capture Albany . Burgoyne 's advance was stopped in the Battles of Saratoga in September and October , and he surrendered his army on 17 October . Burgoyne 's surrender , coupled with Howe 's near defeat at Germantown , dramatically altered the strategic balance of the conflict . Support for the Continental Congress , suffering from Howe 's successful occupation of Philadelphia , was strengthened , and the victory encouraged France to enter the war against Britain . Burgoyne 's loss also further weakened the British government of Lord North . Burgoyne made his advance under the assumption that he would be met in Albany by Howe or troops sent by Howe . Burgoyne was apparently not aware that Howe 's plans had evolved as they had . Although Germain knew what Howe 's plans were , whether he communicated them to Burgoyne is unclear . Some sources claim he did while others state that Burgoyne was not notified of the changes until the campaign was well underway . Whether Germain , Howe and Burgoyne had the same expectations about the degree to which Howe was supposed to support the invasion from Quebec is also unclear . Some historians argue that Howe failed to follow instructions and essentially abandoned Burgoyne 's army , while others suggest that Burgoyne failed on his own and then tried to shift the blame to Howe and Clinton . Howe 's decision to focus his own activity on an expedition to Philadelphia may have been motivated by competition with General Burgoyne , who was given command of the northern force despite lobbying by Howe for its command to be given to Clinton . John Alden notes the jealousies among the British leaders , saying , " It is likely that [ Howe ] was as jealous of Burgoyne as Burgoyne was of him and that he was not eager to do anything which might assist his junior up the ladder of military renown . " Along the same lines historian Don Higginbotham concludes that in Howe 's view , " It [ the northern campaign ] was Burgoyne 's whole show , and consequently he [ Howe ] wanted little to do with it . With regard to Burgoyne 's army , he would do only what was required of him ( virtually nothing ) . " Howe himself wrote to Burgoyne on 17 July that he intended to stay close to Washington : " My intention is for Pennsylvania , where I expect to meet Washington , but if he goes to the northward contrary to my expectations , and you can keep him at bay , be assured I shall soon be after him to relieve you . " This suggested that Howe would follow Washington if he went north to assist in the defence of the Hudson . Howe , however , sailed from New York on 23 July . On 30 August , shortly after his arrival at Head of Elk , Howe wrote to Germain that he would be unable to assist Burgoyne , citing a lack of Loyalist support in the Philadelphia area . A small force sent north from New York by General Clinton in early October was also unable to assist Burgoyne . = = = Resignation = = = In October 1777 Howe sent his letter of resignation to London , complaining that he had been inadequately supported in that year 's campaigns . He was finally notified in April 1778 that his resignation was accepted . A grand party , known as the " Mischianza " , was thrown for the departing general on 18 May . Organized by his aides John André and Oliver De Lancey Jr . , the party featured a grand parade , fireworks , and dancing until dawn . Washington , aware that the British were planning to evacuate Philadelphia , sent the Marquis de Lafayette out with a small force on the night of the party to determine British movements . This movement was noticed by alert British troops , and Howe ordered a column out to entrap the marquis . In the Battle of Barren Hill , Lafayette escaped the trap with minimal casualties . On 24 May , the day Howe sailed for England , General Clinton took over as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of British armies in America , and made preparations for an overland march to New York . Howe arrived back in England on 1 July , where he and his brother faced censure for their actions in North America . It is likely that the resignation of both William and his brother Richard was due to their desire to hurry home to vindicate their conduct during the campaign . In 1779 Howe and his brother demanded a parliamentary inquiry into their actions . The inquiry that followed was unable to confirm any charges of impropriety or mismanagement levelled against either of them . Because of the inconclusive nature of the inquiry , attacks continued to be made against Howe in pamphlets and the press , and in 1780 he published a response to accusations levelled by Loyalist Joseph Galloway , who issued a reply that harshly criticized the general 's conduct and accused him of deliberately undermining the war effort for the benefit of the anti @-@ war Whig faction in Parliament . = = Later life = = In 1780 Howe lost in his bid to be re @-@ elected to the House of Commons . In 1782 he was named lieutenant general of the ordnance and appointed to the Privy Council . His colonelcy was transferred from the 23rd Fusiliers to the 19th Light Dragoons in 1786 . He resumed limited active duty in 1789 , when a crisis with Spain over territorial claims in northwestern North America threatened to boil over into war . The crisis was resolved , and Howe did not see further action until 1793 , when the French Revolutionary Wars involved Britain . He was promoted to full general in 1793 , and commanded Northern District from 1793 and Eastern District from 1795 . In 1795 he was also appointed governor of Berwick @-@ on @-@ Tweed . When his brother Richard died in 1799 without surviving male issue , Howe inherited the Irish titles and became the 5th Viscount Howe and Baron Clenawly . In 1803 he resigned as lieutenant general of the ordnance , citing poor health . In 1805 he was appointed governor of Plymouth , and died at Twickenham in 1814 after a long illness . He was married in 1765 to Frances Connolly , but the marriage was childless , and his titles died with him . His wife survived him by three years ; both are buried in Twickenham . = = Popular culture = = Howe appears as an antagonist in the supernatural TV series Sleepy Hollow , depicted in flashbacks by Nicholas Guest and described in the present as being notorious for his brilliant tactics and ruthless cruelty . In his historical role as the British military leader in the War for Independence , Howe was acquainted with Ichabod Crane ( Tom Mison ) before Crane defected to America ; his first major flashback appearance sees him offer Crane a chance to return to Britain if he identifies Washington 's spies in the British forces , with Crane feeling guilty that he was briefly tempted by the offer . Howe also plays a key role in the crossover episodes between Sleepy Hollow and crime drama Bones ; his body is discovered in a small American church in the present ( characters noting that he is recorded as being buried in Twickenham ) , with his skull being identified as the ' murder weapon ' in Bones episode " The Resurrection in the Remains " , and he is resurrected as a zombie @-@ like warrior in the following Sleepy Hollow episode " Dead Men Tell No Tales " , requiring Crane to destroy him with Greek fire .
= Lulworth skipper = The Lulworth skipper ( Thymelicus acteon ) is a butterfly of the Hesperiidae family . Its name is derived from Lulworth Cove in the county of Dorset , England , where the first specimens in Great Britain were collected in 1832 by English naturalist James Charles Dale . The species occurs locally across Central Europe , Asia Minor and North Africa , where its population is considered stable . Its numbers have declined in Northern Europe , leading to its European status of " vulnerable " . Its range in Britain is restricted to the south coast of Dorset , however it is locally abundant and its numbers currently are perhaps at their greatest since its discovery there . With a wingspan of 24 to 28 millimetres , females being larger than males , the Lulworth skipper is a small butterfly , the smallest member of the Thymelicus genus in Europe and among the smallest butterflies in Britain . Aside from the size difference , the sexes are distinguished by females having a distinct circle of golden marks on each forewing . Due to their likeness to the rays around the eye of a peacock 's feather , these are often known as " sun @-@ ray " markings , and they can faintly appear on males . = = Taxonomy = = The Lulworth skipper was first described by German entomologist S. A. von Rottemburg in 1775 . The butterfly was first discovered in Britain on 15 August 1832 , when specimens were taken from Lulworth Cove in Dorset by English naturalist James Charles Dale It was introduced the following year as the Lulworth skipper ( Thymelicus acteon ) , a name that has remained unchanged ; it is the only one of Britain 's vernacular butterfly names for which there has never been a proposed substitute . = = Description = = The male Lulworth skipper has a wingspan of 24 to 27 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 94 to 1 @.@ 06 in ) , and the female 25 to 28 mm . This makes it one of Britain 's smallest butterflies and , in Europe , the smallest member of the Thymelicus genus . Of Britain 's five " golden " skippers — the others being the silver @-@ spotted skipper ( Hesperia comma ) , large skipper ( Ochlodes sylvanus ) , small skipper ( Thymelicus sylvestris ) and Essex skipper ( Thymelicus lineola ) — the Lulworth is both the smallest and darkest . Beyond its small size , it is distinguished particularly by its dark , dun @-@ coloured wings that appear with tinges of olive @-@ brown ; this darkening especially apparent in males . Variations are known to occur ; in north @-@ west Africa , the uppersides of the fore and hind wing are darker , with hints of greenish or greyish brown . Similarly @-@ coloured races occur in Spain , Elba , Crete , and other Eastern Mediterranean islands . T. acteon christi , endemic to the Canary Islands , displays colour variations , with the uppersides of the fore @-@ wing showing defined yellow – orange markings . The butterfly is sexually dimorphic ; females have a distinct circle of golden marks on each forewing , often called " sun @-@ ray " markings due to their likeness to the rays around the eye of a peacock 's feather . Males sometimes have these markings , though they are noticeably fainter ( see Illustration 1 ) . = = Distribution and habitat = = The Lulworth skipper is found locally across southern and central Europe , Asia Minor and North Africa , where its population is considered stable . In northern Europe , its numbers and range have severely declined , most notably in the Netherlands where it is now extinct . This decline has led to the butterfly 's European status of " vulnerable " . Isolated populations of the species in Armenia are also threatened , although not yet included in the National Red List . It is also listed as threatened under the United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan . In Great Britain , where the butterfly reaches the northern limit of its range , its distribution is restricted to the southern coastline of the county of Dorset . Here , both the population and range have changed little in recent decades ; it is locally abundant , with the majority of colonies found on the coast between Weymouth and Swanage and on the Purbeck Ridge , a line of inland chalk hills . Two outlying colonies also exist , at Burton Bradstock and on the Isle of Portland ; the cause of the colony on Portland is unknown , but has been put down to either natural colonisation or released specimens . There is evidence to suggest that the Lulworth skipper is now more abundant in Dorset than at any other time since its discovery in 1832 . Although colonies of Lulworth skippers existed in Devon , the species has , beyond single records , not be seen in the county since the 1930s . Similarly , records of occurrences exist for Cornwall , but they have not been verified as native colonies . Habitats are primarily on unfertilised calcareous grassland ; this includes chalk download , coastal grassland and undercliffs in Britain . In all of these habits Tor @-@ grass ( Illustration 2 ) , the butterfly 's sole food plant and that on which it lays eggs , is widespread . Tall , ungrazed grass is a favoured habitat due to oviposition and larval development ; Lulworth skippers have benefited from the move away from tight grazing by sheep in the last century and recently outbreaks of myxomatosis among rabbit populations , which otherwise maintain a lower grass height . However , there is evidence to suggest that minimal grazing is not detrimental to the species , and may in fact be beneficial in that it encourages the growth of flowers that act as adult nectar sources . = = Behaviour = = = = = Life cycle = = = The females lay their eggs in rows of 5 to 6 ( although as many as 15 have been recorded ) on the flower @-@ sheath of Tor @-@ grass ( Brachypodium pinnatum ) , preferring the dead sheaths of tall plants . The care taken by females over where to lay their eggs is considered the only remarkable part of the Lulworth skipper breeding process , otherwise it is considered common . Upon hatching , the 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) long larva spins a compact cocoon on the site of the eggshell . In this , it will overwinter until around the third week of April , at which point it will eat its way out by making a small hole in the side of the sheath . The caterpillar will then search for tender Tor @-@ grass blades and feed upon them by chewing out notches from the margin . During this time , it will live separately , within a tube composed of the two edges of a blade bound by cords of silk . Fresh tubes will be made as the caterpillar grows larger . Lulworth skipper caterpillars live in the warmest zone of a grass clump , at a height of 20 to 40 centimetres ( 8 to 16 in ) . The pupal stage lasts for about two weeks , from the beginning of June onwards , until late July . It is formed inside a loose " nest " of silk and grass that is spun deep inside a tussock of tor grass . Imago begin to emerge in the early middle of July and finish emerging in the middle of September . Typically , they will live for five to ten days — the normal lifespan for a non @-@ hibernating butterfly of the Lulworth 's seasonal stage . They fly only in strong sunshine and tend to form discrete colonies , with the largest containing up to 100 @,@ 000 individuals . = = In literature = = In the novel The Return of the Native , by Thomas Hardy , a possible reference is made to Lulworth skippers in the " strange amber @-@ coloured butterflies " which " were never seen elsewhere . "
= Re Umberto @-@ class ironclad = The Re Umberto class were a group of three ironclad battleships built for the Italian Navy in the 1880s and 1890s . The ships — Re Umberto , Sicilia , and Sardegna — were built as the culmination of a major naval expansion program begun in the 1870s following Italy 's defeat at the Battle of Lissa in 1866 . The Re Umbertos incorporated several innovations over previous Italian designs , including a more efficient arrangement of the main battery , installation of wireless telegraphs , and in Sardegna , the first use of triple @-@ expansion steam engines in an Italian capital ship . Designed by Benedetto Brin , they retained the very thin armor protection and high top speeds of his earlier designs . All three ships served in the Active Squadron for the first decade of their careers , which proved to be uneventful . They were transferred to the Reserve Squadron in 1905 , and by the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 , they were serving as training ships . They provided fire support to Italian troops fighting in Libya during the conflict and took part in the seizure of several Ottoman ports , including Tripoli . During World War I , Sardegna was used as a guard ship in Venice , while Re Umberto served as a floating battery in Brindisi and Sicilia was reduced to a depot ship . All three ships survived the war and were broken up for scrap in the early 1920s . = = Design = = Starting in the 1870s , following the Italian fleet 's defeat at the Battle of Lissa , the Italians began a large naval expansion program , aimed at countering the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The Re Umberto class was the culmination of the first phase of the program , which saw ten modern ironclad battleships built ; these ships placed Italy with the third largest navy , after Great Britain and France . The three Re Umbertos were designed by Benedetto Brin , then the president of the Committee for Naval Projects . The first two ships were authorized in 1883 , and in 1885 Brin , who was now the naval minister , proposed a third vessel . = = = General characteristics and machinery = = = The three ships of the class differed slightly in their dimensions ; Re Umberto and Sicilia were the same length and width but Sardegna was longer . The ships had an overall length of 127 @.@ 6 to 130 @.@ 73 meters ( 418 @.@ 6 to 428 @.@ 9 ft ) ; all three had a beam of 23 @.@ 44 m ( 76 @.@ 9 ft ) . The three ships displaced between 13 @,@ 058 to 13 @,@ 673 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 852 to 13 @,@ 457 long tons ) normally and 14 @,@ 842 to 15 @,@ 454 t ( 14 @,@ 608 to 15 @,@ 210 long tons ; 16 @,@ 361 to 17 @,@ 035 short tons ) at full load , with Sicilia the lightest and Re Umberto the heaviest . The first two ships had a draft of 9 @.@ 29 m ( 30 @.@ 5 ft ) , while Sardegna 's longer hull gave her a reduced draft , at 8 @.@ 84 m ( 29 @.@ 0 ft ) . The ships were fitted with a single military mast with two fighting tops amidships . Sardegna was one of the first warships equipped with Marconi 's new wireless telegraph . The ships ' crews also varied in size , from 733 officers and men aboard Re Umberto , to 736 for Sicilia and 794 on Sardegna . The propulsion system for Re Umberto and Sicilia consisted of a pair of horizontal compound steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eighteen coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . These ships ' engines were manufactured by Gio . Ansaldo & C. , based on a design from Maudslay , Sons and Field . Sardegna instead received a pair of triple @-@ expansion steam engines , with the same number and type of boilers ; she was the first Italian warship to be equipped with triple expansion engines . The ships ' boilers were trunked into three funnels , with two side @-@ by @-@ side just aft of the conning tower , and the third further aft . Re Umberto 's engines produced a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) at 19 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 500 kW ) , while Sicilia made 20 @.@ 1 knots ( 37 @.@ 2 km / h ; 23 @.@ 1 mph ) from 19 @,@ 131 ihp ( 14 @,@ 266 kW ) and Sardegna reached 20 @.@ 3 knots ( 37 @.@ 6 km / h ; 23 @.@ 4 mph ) from 22 @,@ 800 ihp ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) . Specific figures for each ship 's cruising radius have not survived , but the ships of her class could steam for 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 to 11 @,@ 100 km ; 4 @,@ 600 to 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . = = = Armament and armor = = = The ships of the Re Umberto class were armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 in ( 343 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one on either end of the ship . This was more efficient than the arrangement used in previous designs , with both pairs of guns mounted in a central barbette that limited their arcs of fire . The guns were the Pattern B type manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth . These guns fired a 1 @,@ 250 @-@ pound ( 570 kg ) capped armor @-@ piercing shells with a 507 lb ( 230 kg ) brown powder charge , which produced a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 886 feet per second ( 575 m / s ) . The guns could elevate to 15 degrees and depress to -5 degrees ; elevation was controlled by hand , and loading required the guns to be elevated to 15 degrees . They carried a secondary battery of eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed singly in shielded mounts atop the upper deck , with four on each broadside . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) guns in casemates in the upper deck aboard Re Umberto , eight on each broadside . Sicilia and Sardegna both had twenty of these guns , with ten per side . These were supported by sixteen 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 43 @-@ caliber guns and ten 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , they carried five 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes in above @-@ water launchers . The torpedoes carried a 90 lb ( 41 kg ) warhead and had a range of 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) at a speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . The ships were lightly armored for their size ; the savings in weight allowed for the high top speed , which was typical for Italian capital ships of the period . This was especially true of those designed by Brin , who argued that armor technology of the time could not defeat contemporary heavy guns . The ships ' armor consisted of steel manufactured by Schneider @-@ Creusot . They were protected by belt armor that was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick , with an armored deck that was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick . Their forward conning towers were armored with 11 @.@ 8 in ( 300 mm ) of steel plate on the sides . Their main battery turrets had 4 in thick faces and the supporting barbettes had 13 @.@ 75 in ( 349 mm ) thick steel . The secondary guns had 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick gun shields . = = Construction = = = = Service history = = For their first decade in service , all three ships saw duty in the Active Squadron of the Italian fleet , though their early careers were uneventful . Re Umberto and Sardegna made visits to Britain and Germany in 1895 , the latter for the opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . The ships were involved in an international naval demonstration off Crete in 1897 before the Greco @-@ Turkish War . In 1905 , all three ships were transferred to the Reserve Squadron , having been supplanted by the more modern pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Ammiraglio di Saint Bon and Regina Margherita classes . The three ships saw significant action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , primarily conducting operations in support of Italian troops fighting in Libya . From October to December 1911 , the ships were stationed off Tripoli , where they bombarded Ottoman defenses to prepare for the initial landing and then provided fire support to Italian forces after they had seized the city . After returning to Italy for resupply , the ships were tasked with escorting troop convoys to attack other ports in Libya from June to August 1912 . After the war , Sicilia became a depot ship for the new dreadnought Giulio Cesare in Taranto , and Re Umberto became a depot ship in Genoa . After Italy entered World War I in 1915 , Sardegna was stationed in Venice as the flagship of the naval forces defending the port and Re Umberto returned to service as a floating battery in Brindisi . After the catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Caporetto in November 1917 , Sardegna was withdrawn from Venice to Brindisi , and later to Taranto . In 1918 , Re Umberto was converted into an assault ship for the planned attack on the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , but the war ended before the attack could be carried out . She was stricken in 1920 and broken up for scrap ; Sicilia and Sardegna followed in 1923 .
= Delaware Route 44 = Delaware Route 44 ( DE 44 ) is a state highway in Kent County , Delaware . It runs from DE 300 in Everetts Corner southeast to DE 8 in Pearsons Corner . The route passes through rural areas of western Kent County as well as the town of Hartly . In Hartly , it intersects DE 11 . The route was built as a state highway east of Hartly by 1924 and west of Hartly by 1932 , receiving the DE 44 designation by 1936 . = = Route description = = Delaware Route 44 heads to the southeast of DE 300 on Everetts Corner Road . It passes through a mix of woodland and farmland before reaching the town of Hartly . In Hartly , the route intersects DE 11 , where it becomes Main Street , and passes by homes . It then heads to the east out of Hartly on Hartly Road , passing through more rural areas . The route continues to its eastern terminus at DE 8 near Pearsons Corner . DE 44 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 4 @,@ 478 vehicles at the eastern terminus at DE 8 to a low of 1 @,@ 552 vehicles at the Fords Corner Road intersection northwest of Hartly . The entire length of DE 44 is part of the National Highway System . = = History = = By 1920 , what is now DE 44 existed as an unimproved county road . The road east of Hartly was improved into a state highway by 1924 . By 1932 , the portion of road west of Hartly became a state highway . DE 44 was designated by 1936 to follow its current alignment . The route has not changed since its inception . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Kent County .
= Genome @-@ wide association study = In genetic epidemiology , a genome @-@ wide association study ( GWA study , or GWAS ) , also known as whole genome association study ( WGA study , or WGAS ) , is an examination of many common genetic variants in different individuals to see if any variant is associated with a trait . GWASs typically focus on associations between single @-@ nucleotide polymorphisms ( SNPs ) and traits like major diseases . These studies compare the DNA of participants having varying phenotypes for a particular trait or disease . Participants in a GWAS study may be people with a disease ( cases ) and similar people without ( controls ) , or they may be people with different phenotypes for a particular trait , for example blood pressure . This approach is known as phenotype @-@ first , in which the participants are classified first by their clinical manifestation ( s ) , as opposed to genotype @-@ first . Each person gives a sample of DNA , from which millions of genetic variants are read using SNP arrays . If one type of the variant ( one allele ) is more frequent in people with the disease , the variant is said to be associated with the disease . The associated SNPs are then considered to mark a region of the human genome that may influence the risk of disease . In contrast to methods that specifically test one or a few genetic regions , the GWA studies investigate the entire genome . The approach is therefore said to be non @-@ candidate @-@ driven in contrast to gene @-@ specific candidate @-@ driven studies . GWA studies identify SNPs and other variants in DNA associated with a disease , but they cannot on their own specify which genes are causal . The first successful GWAS was published in 2005 . It investigated patients with age @-@ related macular degeneration and found two SNPs with significantly altered allele frequency compared to healthy controls . As of 2011 , hundreds or thousands of individuals are tested , over 1 @,@ 200 human GWA studies have examined over 200 diseases and traits , and almost 4 @,@ 000 SNP associations have been found . Several GWA studies have received criticism for omitting important quality control steps , rendering the findings invalid , but modern publications address these issues . However , the methodology itself still has opponents . = = Background = = Any two human genomes differ in millions of different ways . There are small variations in the individual nucleotides of the genomes ( SNPs ) as well as many larger variations , such as deletions , insertions and copy number variations . Any of these may cause alterations in an individual 's traits , or phenotype , which can be anything from disease risk to physical properties such as height . Around the year 2000 , prior to the introduction of GWA studies , the primary method of investigation was through inheritance studies of genetic linkage in families . This approach had proven highly useful towards single gene disorders . However , for common and complex diseases the results of genetic linkage studies proved hard to reproduce . A suggested alternative to linkage studies was the genetic association study . This study type asks if the allele of a genetic variant is found more often than expected in individuals with the phenotype of interest ( e.g. with the disease being studied ) . Early calculations on statistical power indicated that this approach could be better than linkage studies at detecting weak genetic effects . In addition to the conceptual framework several additional factors enabled the GWA studies . One was the advent of biobanks , which are repositories of human genetic material that greatly reduced the cost and difficulty of collecting sufficient numbers of biological specimens for study . Another was the International HapMap Project , which , from 2003 identified a majority of the common SNPs interrogated in a GWA study . The haploblock structure identified by HapMap project also allowed the focus on the subset of SNPs that would describe most of the variation . Also the development of the methods to genotype all these SNPs using genotyping arrays was an important prerequisite . = = Methods = = The most common approach of GWA studies is the case @-@ control setup , which compares two large groups of individuals , one healthy control group and one case group affected by a disease . All individuals in each group are genotyped for the majority of common known SNPs . The exact number of SNPs depends on the genotyping technology , but are typically one million or more . For each of these SNPs it is then investigated if the allele frequency is significantly altered between the case and the control group . In such setups , the fundamental unit for reporting effect sizes is the odds ratio . The odds ratio is the ratio of two odds , which in the context of GWA studies are the odds of disease for individuals having a specific allele and the odds of disease for individuals who do not have that same allele . When the allele frequency in the case group is much higher than in the control group , the odds ratio is higher than 1 , and vice versa for lower allele frequency . Additionally , a P @-@ value for the significance of the odds ratio is typically calculated using a simple chi @-@ squared test . Finding odds ratios that are significantly different from 1 is the objective of the GWA study because this shows that a SNP is associated with disease . There are several variations to this case @-@ control approach . A common alternative to case @-@ control GWA studies is the analysis of quantitative phenotypic data , e.g. height or biomarker concentrations or even gene expression . Likewise , alternative statistics designed for dominance or recessive penetrance patterns can be used . Calculations are typically done using bioinformatics software such as SNPTEST and PLINK , which also include support for many of these alternative statistics . Earlier GWAS focused on the effect of individual SNPs . However , the empirical evidence shows that complex interactions among two or more SNPs , epistasis , might contribute to complex diseases . Moreover , the researchers tries to integrate GWA data with other biological data such as protein protein interaction network to extract more informative results . A key step in the majority of GWA studies is the imputation of genotypes at SNPs not on the genotype chip used in the study . This process greatly increases the number of SNPs that can be tested for association , increases the power of the study , and facilitates meta @-@ analysis of GWAS across distinct cohorts . Genotype imputation is carried out by statistical methods that combine the GWAS data together with a reference panel of haplotypes . These methods take advantage of sharing of haplotypes between individuals over short stretches of sequence to impute alleles . Existing software packages for genotype imputation include IMPUTE2 and MaCH . In addition to the calculation of association , it is common to take into account any variables that could potentially confound the results . Sex and age are common examples of confounding variables . Moreover , it is also known that many genetic variations are associated with the geographical and historical populations in which the mutations first arose . Because of this association , studies must take account of the geographical and ethnical background of participants by controlling for what is called population stratification . After odds ratios and P @-@ values have been calculated for all SNPs , a common approach is to create a Manhattan plot . In the context of GWA studies , this plot shows the negative logarithm of the P @-@ value as a function of genomic location . Thus the SNPs with the most significant association stands out on the plot , usually as stacks of points because of haploblock structure . Importantly , the P @-@ value threshold for significance is corrected for multiple testing issues . The exact threshold varies by study , but the conventional threshold is 5 × 10 − 8 to be significant in the face of hundreds of thousands to millions of tested SNPs . GWA studies typically perform the first analysis in a discovery cohort , followed by validation of the most significant SNPs in an independent validation cohort . = = Results = = Attempts have been made at creating comprehensive catalogues of SNPs that have been identified from GWA studies . As of 2009 , SNPs associated with diseases are numbered in the thousands . The first GWA study , conducted in 2005 , compared 96 patients with age @-@ related macular degeneration ( ARMD ) with 50 healthy controls . It identified two SNPs with significantly altered allele frequency between the two groups . These SNPs were located in the gene encoding complement factor H , which was an unexpected finding in the research of ARMD . The findings from these first GWA studies have subsequently prompted further functional research towards therapeutical manipulation of the complement system in ARMD . Another landmark publication in the history of GWA studies was the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium ( WTCCC ) study , the largest GWA study ever conducted at the time of its publication in 2007 . The WTCCC included 14 @,@ 000 cases of seven common diseases ( ~ 2 @,@ 000 individuals for each of coronary heart disease , type 1 diabetes , type 2 diabetes , rheumatoid arthritis , Crohn 's disease , bipolar disorder , and hypertension ) and 3 @,@ 000 shared controls . This study was successful in uncovering many new disease genes underlying these diseases . Since these first landmark GWA studies , there have been two general trends . One has been towards larger and larger sample sizes . At the end of 2011 , the largest sample sizes were in the range of 200 @,@ 000 individuals . The reason is the drive towards reliably detecting risk @-@ SNPs that have smaller odds ratios and lower allele frequency . Another trend has been towards the use of more narrowly defined phenotypes , such as blood lipids , proinsulin or similar biomarkers . These are called intermediate phenotypes , and their analyses may be of value to functional research into biomarkers . A central point of debate on GWA studies has been that most of the SNP variations found by GWA studies are associated with only a small increased risk of the disease , and have only a small predictive value . The median odds ratio is 1 @.@ 33 per risk @-@ SNP , with only a few showing odds ratios above 3 @.@ 0 . These magnitudes are considered small because they do not explain much of the heritable variation . This heritable variation is known from heritability studies based on monozygotic twins . For example , it is known that 80 – 90 % of height is heritable . Of these 80 @-@ 90 % , however , the GWA studies only account for a minority . = = Clinical applications = = A challenge for future successful GWA study is to apply the findings in a way that accelerates drug and diagnostics development , including better integration of genetic studies into the drug @-@ development process and a focus on the role of genetic variation in maintaining health as a blueprint for designing new drugs and diagnostics . Several studies have looked into the use of risk @-@ SNP markers as a means of directly improving the accuracy of prognosis . Some have found that the accuracy of prognosis improves , while others report only minor benefits from this use . Generally , a problem with this direct approach is the small magnitudes of the effects observed . A small effect ultimately translates into a poor separation of cases and controls and thus only a small improvement of prognosis accuracy . An alternative application is therefore the potential for GWA studies to elucidate pathophysiology . One such success is related to identifying the genetic variant associated with response to anti @-@ hepatitis C virus treatment . For genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with Pegylated interferon @-@ alpha @-@ 2a or Pegylated interferon @-@ alpha @-@ 2b combined with ribavirin , a GWA study has shown that SNPs near the human IL28B gene , encoding interferon lambda 3 , are associated with significant differences in response to the treatment . A later report demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus . These major findings facilitated the development of personalized medicine and allowed physicians to customize medical decisions based on the patient 's genotype . The goal of elucidating pathophysiology has also led to increased interest in the association between risk @-@ SNPs and the gene expression of nearby genes , the so @-@ called expression quantitative trait loci ( eQTL ) studies . The reason is that GWAS studies identify risk @-@ SNPs , but not risk @-@ genes , and specification of genes is one step closer towards actionable drug targets . As a result , major GWA studies of 2011 typically included extensive eQTL analysis . One of the strongest eQTL effects observed for a GWA @-@ identified risk SNP is the SORT1 locus . Functional follow up studies of this locus using small interfering RNA and gene knock @-@ out mice have shed light on the metabolism of low @-@ density lipoproteins , which have important clinical implications for cardiovascular disease . = = Limitations = = GWA studies have several issues and limitations that can be taken care of through proper quality control and study setup . Lack of well defined case and control groups , insufficient sample size , control for multiple testing and control for population stratification are common problems . Particularly the statistical issue of multiple testing wherein it has been noted that " the GWA approach can be problematic because the massive number of statistical tests performed presents an unprecedented potential for false @-@ positive results " . Ignoring these correctible issues has been cited as contributing to a general sense of problems with the GWA methodology . In addition to easily correctible problems such as these , some more subtle but important issues have surfaced . A high @-@ profile GWA study that investigated individuals with very long life spans to identify SNPs associated with longevity is an example of this . The publication came under scrutiny because of a discrepancy between the type of genotyping array in the case and control group , which caused several SNPs to be falsely highlighted as associated with longevity . The study was subsequently retracted . In addition to these preventable issues , GWA studies have attracted more fundamental criticism , mainly because of their assumption that common genetic variation plays a large role in explaining the heritable variation of common disease . This aspect of GWA studies has attracted the criticism that , although it could not have been known prospectively , GWA studies were ultimately not worth the expenditure . Alternative strategies suggested involve linkage analysis . More recently , the rapidly decreasing price of complete genome sequencing have also provided a realistic alternative to genotyping array @-@ based GWA studies . It can be discussed if the use of this new technique is still referred to as a GWA study , but high @-@ throughput sequencing does have potential to side @-@ step some of the shortcomings of non @-@ sequencing GWA . = = Fine @-@ mapping = = Genotyping arrays designed for GWAS rely on linkage disequilibrium to provide coverage of the entire genome by genotyping a subset of variants . Because of this , the reported associated variants are unlikely to be the actual causal variants . Associated regions can contain hundreds of variants spanning large regions and encompassing many different genes , making the biological interpretation of GWAS loci more difficult . Fine @-@ mapping is a process to refine these lists of associated variants to a credible set most likely to include the causal variant . Fine @-@ mapping requires all variants in the associated region to have been genotyped or imputed ( dense coverage ) , very stringent quality control resulting in high @-@ quality genotypes , and large sample sizes sufficient in separating out highly correlated signals . There are several different methods to perform fine @-@ mapping , and all methods produce a posterior probability that a variant in that locus is causal . Because the requirements are often difficult to satisfy , there are still limited examples of these methods being more generally applied .
= Tropical Storm Carlos ( 2003 ) = Tropical Storm Carlos was the first of five tropical cyclones to make landfall during the 2003 Pacific hurricane season . It formed on June 26 from a tropical wave to the south of Mexico . It quickly strengthened as it approached the coast , and early on June 27 Carlos moved ashore in Oaxaca with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . The storm rapidly deteriorated to a remnant low , which persisted until dissipating on June 29 . Carlos brought heavy rainfall to portions of southern Mexico , peaking at 337 mm ( 13 @.@ 3 in ) in two locations in Guerrero . Throughout its path , the storm damaged about 30 @,@ 000 houses , with a monetary damage total of 86 @.@ 7 million pesos ( 2003 MXN , $ 8 million 2003 USD ) . At least nine people were killed throughout the country , seven due to mudslides and two from river flooding ; there was also a report of two missing fishermen . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of Carlos were from a tropical wave that exited the west coast of Africa on June 14 . The wave moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , with little evidence of its existence on satellite imagery . By June 20 it crossed Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean , later spawning an area of convection , or thunderstorms , south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) first mentioned the system in its tropical weather outlook on June 24 , by which time a low pressure center developed . Gradually , the system continued to develop due to light wind shear , with rainbands and convection located near the broad center . By early on June 26 , the disturbance had organized enough for the NHC to initiate advisories on Tropical Depression Three @-@ E , about 130 miles ( 210 km ) south @-@ southwest of Puerto Escondido , Oaxaca . Upon first being classified as a tropical cyclone , the depression had a slightly elongated circulation . An anticyclone to its north was forecast to track westward , which would allow the depression to track west @-@ northwestward and remain offshore ; however , the NHC noted uncertainty in its motion . The cloud pattern gradually organized , with warm water temperatures and lessening wind shear . At 1200 UTC on June 26 , it is estimated the depression attained tropical storm status ; upon doing so , the NHC named the storm Carlos . As it reached tropical storm intensity , Carlos began an erratic northward track toward the Mexican coast , under the influence of a trough . It quickly strengthened , developing a well @-@ defined eye feature in the center of the convection . Based on the eye , it is estimated Carlos made landfall early on June 27 with peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , about 60 miles ( 95 km ) west of Puerto Escondido , Oaxaca , or about 150 miles ( 245 km / h ) east @-@ southeast of Acapulco , Guerrero . As Carlos moved inland , it turned to the northwest in response to the anticyclone over Mexico , and it quickly weakened to tropical depression status . By 12 hours after landfall , there was little evidence of a circulation on satellite imagery . Late on June 27 , Carlos degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure area near Acapulco . The circulation turned to the southwest and emerged into the Pacific Ocean ; by 0000 UTC on June 29 , the system dissipated completely . = = Preparations and impact = = When the cyclone first formed , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Acapulco , Guerrero to Punta San Telmo , Michoacán , although initially it was forecast to remain offshore . After Carlos attained tropical storm status and when it was correctly anticipated to make landfall , the warning area was adjusted from Salina Cruz , Oaxaca to Zihuatanejo , Guerrero . Although the storm moved ashore in Oaxaca , its rainbands also affected the Mexican states of Chiapas , Tabasco , Veracruz , Puebla , and Guerrero . On the day when Carlos made landfall , it dropped heavy rainfall , with 24 ‑ hour statewide maxima of 254 mm ( 10 in ) in Río Verde , Oaxaca , and 112 mm ( 4 @.@ 42 in ) in Petatlán , Guerrero . Throughout the country , rainfall peaked at 337 mm ( 13 @.@ 3 in ) in both Marquelia and Azoyú in Guerrero . Tropical Storm Carlos affected 79 municipalities in Oaxaca with flooding or rainfall , and much of the region was declared a disaster area ; as a result , disaster funds were opened . Across the region , the combination of rainfall and strong winds downed power lines , disrupted phone service , and flooded two major highways ; additionally , the storm left widespread damage to other roads and airstrips . In northwestern Oaxaca , seven people were killed when the heavy rainfall triggered a mudslide . Mudslides were reported elsewhere in the state , and about 30 @,@ 000 homes were damaged . In one town , the flooding forced 150 families to evacuate to shelters . In Guerrero , a flooded river killed two people . Four fishermen were reported missing , possibly swept out to sea due to the storm ; the Mexican army searched offshore for several days , rescuing two of the four fishermen by four days after the storm . Overall , the storm affected about 148 @,@ 000 people , and monetary damage totaled 86 @.@ 7 million pesos ( 2003 MXN , $ 8 million 2003 USD ) .
= At the Movies ( Rugrats ) = " At the Movies " is the third episode of the animated television series Rugrats . It originally aired on the television network Nickelodeon on August 25 , 1991 , during the series ' first season . In the episode , Didi and Stu take The Rugrats to a movie theatre to see The Dummi Bears and the Land Without Smiles , but Tommy is infatuated with seeing the monster movie Reptar ! . He and the babies sneak out of the theater room to catch a showing of Reptar ! while leaving a wake of accidental mayhem and destruction as they do . " At the Movies " was written by Craig Bartlett and series co @-@ creator Paul Germain and directed by Dan Thompson . The episode introduced the characters of the Dummi Bears and Reptar . The Dummi Bears were inspired by non @-@ violent children 's characters such as the Care Bears and Disney 's Adventures of the Gummi Bears , whereas Reptar was heavily inspired by the Japanese monster Godzilla and satirized the ever growing domination of Japanese culture into children 's society . The character appeared in countless media tie @-@ ins for the series , including a cereal brand , t @-@ shirts , and video games , and would be reused in several other episodes of the series throughout its run . Author Jan Susina gave a generally positive review of " At the Movies " in the book , The Japanification of Children 's Popular Culture : From Godzilla to Miyazaki . In 1997 , it became available on the VHS Rugrats : Return of Reptar , which was nominated for Video Software Dealers Association 's Home Entertainment Award in the " Outstanding Marketing Campaign for a Major Direct @-@ to @-@ Video Release " category in 2000 . = = Plot = = Didi and Stu decide to take Tommy and co. to go see The Dummi Bears and the Land Without Smiles at West Side Octaplex . The kids really want to see their first movie Reptar , which was rated MGR : Minor Guidance Recommended . When they go to the theater and the movie starts , the kids sneak off to try to find the room showing Reptar at the theater . The first room they attempt to get into is showing a romance film , so they move on and end up accidentally creating a huge mess at the concession stand . They look in the popcorn popper , eating candy bars , and playing with the orange and grape soda dispensers , ketchup and mustard pumps , and straws . They also find hot dogs , hot dog buns , popcorn tubs , lids , napkins , and cups . They find their way up to the projection booth and finally find the room where Reptar is playing . As they are watching the film through the booth window , they fall down on some film , and they decide to ride on the projectors for fun . In the process , though , all of the projectors in the room become unraveled , and various films break so they exit the room . They soon run into Grandpa , who is getting popcorn at the concession stand and are led back into the theater . As they arrive , The Dummi Bears and the Land Without Smiles is about to reach its climax ; however , the film burns as a result of the kids ' earlier tomfoolery , and everyone leaves the Octaplex disgruntled . = = Production = = " At the Movies " was written by Craig Bartlett and Paul Germain — creator of Rugrats along with Arlene Klasky and Gábor Csupó — and directed by Dan Thompson . Germain additionally served as animation director , a role he played for all early episodes of the series . Recording sessions for the episode , located in Hollywood , California , for each actor individually took one day to complete , taking anywhere from fifteen minutes to four hours depending on the scene or role . The episode marked the first appearance of the character Reptar . Reptar was modeled visually to resemble a Tyrannosaurus rex , but his mannerisms and actions were meant to parody that of the fictional monster , Godzilla , who first appeared in the 1954 film Godzilla , released in Japan as Gojira . Though he is portrayed comically , his name was based on a child 's mispronunciation of Velociraptor , a ferocious dinosaur made iconic for its appearance in the Steven Spielberg film Jurassic Park . As noted by W. J. T. Mitchell in his book The Last Dinosaur Book , children generally begin fascination with dinosaurs between ages four and seven , while at other times during pre @-@ school and elementary school . This demographic was the general age of Rugrats ' viewers , and likely the reason behind Reptar 's species . " At the Movies " became available on the VHS release entitled Rugrats : Return of Reptar in 1997 . The release included several other Reptar themed episodes , including " Reptar 2010 " and " Reptar on Ice . " It was released both as part of a special promotional deal between Paramount Home Entertainment and Oral @-@ B and as a re @-@ promotion of Rugrats videos during the holiday season . = = Cultural impact and references = = " At the Movies " introduced characters such as Reptar and the Dummi Bears — each of whom would become recurring characters throughout the series — and marked the first time in the series that the rugrats had seen a movie . Reptar , in particular , would appear in several episodes throughout the series in different manifestations . During different episodes , he has appeared as a toyline , a focal point in a marketing campaign , cereal brands , and a character in television series . In The Rugrats Movie , released in 1998 , Reptar appears as a mechanical wagon built by Stu , voiced by rapper Busta Rhymes . In its sequel , Rugrats in Paris : The Movie , released in 2000 , the central setting is located at a vast Reptar theme park in France called " EuroReptarland , " similar to Disneyland Paris , which features a stage production with a robotic Reptar created by Stu . Reptar himself become an actual merchandising piece and became the basis of several Rugrats promotional works . Several videos , books , toylines , and clothing have been marketed by Nickelodeon , serving as both a high @-@ profit margin and a parody of the character 's fictional success in the series . Bed sheets , lamps , and a cereal brand have all become available in stores and feature Reptar . A Rugrats video game entitled Rugrats : Search for Reptar , followed Tommy looking for missing pieces of a Reptar puzzle . The game was widely successful and become a part of PlayStation 's " Greatest Hits " label in 1999 . The Dummi Bears are parodies of the Care Bears franchise , and the film they are featured in , The Land Without Smiles , is a parody of the feature length 1985 film The Care Bears Movie based on the franchise , while the title of the film is a reference to the Care Bears ' first TV special from 1983 , The Care Bears in the Land Without Feelings . The Dummi Bears ' name is a reference to the TV series Disney 's Adventures of the Gummi Bears . One scene in The Land Without Smiles details the Dummi Bears firing valentines from the clouds for all the sad , bullied and lonely , teased children in the world references a similar scene from The Care Bears Movie . = = Reception = = " At the Movies " was originally broadcast on the television network Nickelodeon on August 25 , 1991 . It was paired with the episode " Slumber Party . " In 2000 , Rugrats : Return of Reptar , in which the episode featured , was nominated for Video Software Dealers Association 's Home Entertainment Award for " Outstanding Marketing Campaign for a Major Direct @-@ to @-@ Video Release . In 2001 , Nickelodeon allowed viewers to vote for their favorite Rugrats episode on Nick.com as part of the series 10th anniversary . When the poll results were announced , " At the Movies " ranked at number 39 . The episode received a generally positive response . In the book The Japanification of Children 's Popular Culture : From Godzilla to Miyazaki , Jan Susina opted that it was " appropriate " to introduce Reptar in the episode via a television commercial , as " Throughout the series , Reptar 's power and popularity increases , so that by Rugrats in Paris a Euro @-@ Reptarland exists . " Susina also noted that his existence in the series was " one of the more unexpected " treatments of Japanese culture in " contemporary American children 's culture . "
= Phan Đình Phùng = Phan Đình Phùng ( 1847 – January 21 , 1896 ) was a Vietnamese revolutionary who led rebel armies against French colonial forces in Vietnam . He was the most prominent of the Confucian court scholars involved in anti @-@ French military campaigns in the 19th century and was cited after his death by 20th @-@ century nationalists as a national hero . He was renowned for his uncompromising will and principles — on one occasion , he refused to surrender even after the French had desecrated his ancestral tombs and had arrested and threatened to kill his family . Born into a family of mandarins from Hà Tĩnh Province , Phan continued his ancestors ' traditions by placing first in the metropolitan imperial examinations in 1877 . Phan quickly rose through the ranks under Emperor Tự Đức of the Nguyễn Dynasty , gaining a reputation for his integrity and uncompromising stance against corruption . Phan was appointed as the Imperial Censor , a position that allowed him to criticise his fellow mandarins and even the emperor . As the head of the censorate , Phan 's investigations led to the removal of many incompetent or corrupt mandarins . Upon Tự Đức 's death , Phan almost lost his life during a power struggle in the imperial court . The regent Tôn Thất Thuyết disregarded Tự Đức 's will of succession , and three emperors were deposed and killed in just over a year . Phan protested against Thuyet 's activities , was stripped of his honours and briefly jailed , before being exiled to his home province . At the time , France had just conquered Vietnam and made it a part of French Indochina . Along with Thuyet , Phan organised rebel armies as part of the Cần Vương movement , which sought to expel the French and install the boy Emperor Hàm Nghi at the head of an independent Vietnam . This campaign continued for three years until 1888 , when the French captured Hàm Nghi and exiled him to Algeria . Phan and his military assistant Cao Thắng continued their guerrilla campaign , building a network of spies , bases and small weapons factories . However , Cao Thắng was killed in the process in late 1893 . The decade @-@ long campaign eventually wore Phan down , and he died from dysentery as the French surrounded his forces . = = Court official = = Phan was born in the village of Đông Thái in the northern central coast province of Hà Tĩnh . Đông Thái was famous for producing high @-@ ranking mandarins and had been the home of senior imperial officials since the time of the Lê Dynasty . Twelve consecutive generations of the Phan family had been successful mandarinate graduates . All three of Phan 's brothers who lived to adulthood passed the imperial examinations and became mandarins . Early on , Phan indicated his distaste for the classical curriculum required of an aspiring mandarin . He nevertheless persevered with his studies , passing the regional exams in 1876 and then topping the metropolitan exams the following year . In his exam response , Phan cited Japan as an example of how an Asian country could make rapid military progress given sufficient willpower . Phan was never known for his scholarly abilities ; it was his reputation for principled integrity that led to his quick rise through the ranks under the reign of Emperor Tự Đức . He was first appointed as a district mandarin in Ninh Bình Province , where he punished a Vietnamese Roman Catholic priest , who , with the tacit support of French missionaries , had harassed local non @-@ Catholics . Amid the diplomatic controversy that followed , he avoided blaming the unpopular alliance between Vietnamese Catholics and the French on Catholicism itself , stating that the partnership had arisen out of the military and political vulnerabilities of Vietnam 's imperial government . Despite this , the Huế court eventually removed Phan from this post . Phan was transferred to the Huế court as a member of the censorate , a watchdog body that monitored the work of the mandarinate . He earned the ire of many of his colleagues , but the trust of the emperor , by revealing that the vast majority of the court mandarins were making a mockery of a royal edict to engage in regular rifle practice . Tự Đức later dispatched Phan on an inspection trip to northern Vietnam . His report led to the ousting of many officials who were deemed corrupt or incompetent , including the viceroy of the northern region . He rose to become the Ngu Su , or Imperial Censor , a position which allowed him to criticise other high officials and even the emperor for misconduct . Phan openly criticised Tôn Thất Thuyết , the foremost mandarin of the court , believing him to be rash and dishonest . Aside from his work in rooting out corruption , Phan also compiled a historical geography of Vietnam , which was published in 1883 . Despite his prominent position in the Nguyễn Dynasty , little is known about Phan 's personal stance on Vietnamese relations with France , which was in the process of colonising Vietnam . France had first invaded in 1858 , beginning the colonisation of southern Vietnam . Three provinces were ceded under the 1862 Treaty of Saigon , and a further three in 1867 to form the colony of Cochinchina . During the period , there was debate in the Huế court on the best strategy to regain the territory . One group advocated military means , while another believed in the use of diplomacy in addition to financial and religious concessions . By the time of Tự Đức 's death in 1883 , the whole of Vietnam was colonised , henceforth incorporated with Laos and Cambodia into French Indochina . Upon his death in 1883 , the childless Tự Đức had named his nephew , Kiến Phúc , as his successor , rather than Dục Đức , his most senior heir . Tự Đức had written in his will that Dục Đức was depraved and unworthy of ruling the country . However , led by Thuyet , the regents enthroned Dục Đức under the pressure of the ladies of the court . Phan protested against the violation of Tự Đức 's will of succession and refused to sanction anyone other than Kien Phuc . Lucky to escape the death penalty , Phan was stripped of his positions . Later , Dục Đức was deposed and executed by Thuyet on the grounds of ignoring court etiquette , ignoring the mourning rites for Tự Đức and having affairs with the late emperor 's consorts . Phan again protested the regents ' actions and was briefly imprisoned by Thuyet , before being exiled to his home province . = = Revolutionary career = = = = = Cần Vương = = = Phan rallied to the cause of the boy Emperor Hàm Nghi — the fourth monarch in little over a year — after an abortive royal uprising at Huế in 1885 . Thuyet and fellow regent Nguyễn Văn Tường had enthroned Hiệp Hòa after disposing of Dục Đức . However , the new emperor was wary of the regents ' behaviour and attempted to avoid their influence , leading Thuyet to organise his execution . The teenage Kiến Phúc ascended the throne , but was poisoned by his adoptive mother Học Phi — one of Tự Đức 's wives — whom he caught having intercourse with Tuong . Kien Phuc was thus replaced by his 14 @-@ year @-@ old brother Hàm Nghi . In the meantime , the French concluded that the regents were causing too much trouble and had to be disposed of . Thuyet had already decided to place Hàm Nghi at the head of the Phong Trào Cần Vuơng ( Loyalty to the Emperor Movement ) , which sought to end French rule with a royalist rebellion . Phan helped the cause by setting up bases in Hà Tĩnh and creating his own guerrilla army . Thuyet had hoped to secure support from the Qing Dynasty of China , but Phan thought that Vietnam 's best chance of effective support came from Siam . Gia Long , the founder of the Nguyễn Dynasty and great @-@ grandfather of Tự Đức , had married his sister off to the King of Siam . He had also used Siam as a base @-@ in @-@ exile during his quest for the throne in the 1780s . However , direct appeals to the Siamese government only yielded a few pack trains of firearms and ammunition . In preparation for the revolt , Thuyet had been building up an armed base at Tan So for over a year . In any case , the Cần Vương revolt started on July 5 , 1885 when Thuyet launched a surprise attack against the colonial forces after a diplomatic confrontation with the French . Thuyet took Hàm Nghi northwards to the Tan So mountain base near the border with Laos after the attack failed . The campaign was launched when the emperor issued the Can Vuong edict that had been prepared by the regent . Phan initially rallied support from his native village and set up his headquarters on Mount Vũ Quang , which overlooked the coastal French fortress at Hà Tĩnh . Phan 's organisation became a model for future insurgents . For flexibility , he divided his operational zone into twelve districts . His forces upheld military discipline and wore uniforms . Phan initially used the local scholar @-@ gentry as his military commanders . Their first notable attack targeted two nearby Catholic villages that had collaborated with French forces . Colonial troops arrived a few hours later , quickly overwhelming the rebels and forcing them to retreat to their home village , where the retribution was heavy . Phan managed to escape but his elder brother was captured by the same former viceroy of northern Vietnam who had been removed from office as a result of Phan 's critical report . The disgraced official was now a French collaborator , serving as the governor of Nghệ An Province . The strategy of attempting to pressure Phan into capitulating was a classical strategy of coercion . The French used an old friend and fellow villager to make an emotional and deeply Confucian appeal for Phan to surrender in order to save his brother , his ancestral tombs and his entire village . Phan was reported to have replied : From the time I joined with you in the Can Vuong movement , I determined to forget the question of family and village . Now I have but one tomb , a very large one , that must be defended : the land of Vietnam . I have only one brother , very important , that is in danger : more than twenty million countrymen . If I worry about my own tombs , who will worry about defending the tombs of the rest of the country ? If I save my own brother , who will save all the other brothers of the country ? There is only one way for me to die now . Phan was later reported to have simply retorted , " If anyone carves up my brother , remember to send me some of the soup " . However , he held no illusions about the prospect of successfully driving out the French , stating " It is our destiny . We accept it . " This incident and Phan 's response are often cited as one of the reasons why he was so admired by the populace and among future generations of Vietnamese anti @-@ colonialists : he adhered to the highest personal standards of patriotism . He identified with a countrywide cause , far removed from the questions of family and region . Phan 's men were well @-@ trained and disciplined , and the military inspiration behind his rebellion was derived from Cao Thang , a bandit leader who had been protected from royal forces by Phan 's brother a decade earlier . They operated in the provinces of Thanh Hóa in the north , Hà Tĩnh , Nghệ An in the centre and Quảng Bình in the south , with their strongest areas being the two central provinces . In 1887 , Phan concluded that his tactics were misguided , ordering his subordinates to cease open combat and resort to guerrilla tactics . His men built up a network of base camps , food caches , intelligence agents and peasant supply contacts . Phan traveled to the north in the hope of coordinating strategic and tactical plans with other leaders . In the meantime , Cao Thang led a force of around 1 @,@ 000 men with some 500 firearms between them . Cao Thang produced around 300 rifles by disassembling and copying 1874 @-@ model French weapons that had been captured . For the purpose of creating such replica guns , they captured Vietnamese artisans . According to French officers who later captured some of the Vietnamese copies , the weapons were proficiently reproduced . The only details in which they were regarded as being defective were in the tempering of the springs , which were improvised with umbrella spokes , and the lack of rifling in the barrels , which curtailed range and accuracy . Nevertheless , the weaponry used by Phan 's rebels was far inferior to that of their adversaries , and their inland positions were within firing range of the French Navy . The Vietnamese could not rely on China to give them material support , and other European powers such as Portugal , The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were unwilling to sell them weapons for various reasons . Thus , Phan had to explore overland routes to procure weapons from Siamese sources — using seafaring transport was impossible due to the presence of the French Navy . He instructed his followers to create a secret route from Hà Tĩnh through Laos into northeastern Siam ; one such route from Mount Vu Quang was believed to have been created around 1888 . It is unclear if Phan himself went to Thailand , but a young female supporter named Co Tam was his designated arms buyer in Tha Uthen , which boasted a substantial expatriate Vietnamese community . In 1890 , the Siamese Army transported around 1 @,@ 000 Austrian repeating @-@ rifles from Bangkok to Luang Prabang in Laos . However , it is unclear whether the weapons found their way into Vietnamese hands or whether they were related to Co Tam 's activities . = = = After Cần Vương = = = In 1888 , Hàm Nghi 's Muong bodyguard Truong Quang Ngoc betrayed him , leading to the emperor 's capture and deportation to Algeria . Phan and Cao Thang fought on in the mountainous areas of Hà Tĩnh , Nghệ An and Thanh Hóa . Another 15 bases were built along the mountain to complement the headquarters at Vu Quang . Each base had a subordinate commander leading units numbering between 100 and 500 men . The operations were funded by local villagers , who were levied with a land tax in silver and rice . Local bases were supported by nearby villages and excess funds were sent to Vu Quang . Phan 's men foraged and sold cinnamon bark to raise funds , while lowland peasants donated spare metals for the production of weapons . When Phan returned from the north in 1889 , his first order was to track down Hàm Nghi 's betrayer Ngoc . When he was found , Phan personally executed Ngoc in Tuyên Hóa . He then began a series of small @-@ unit attacks on French installations through the summer of 1890 , but these proved indecisive . The French relied mostly on district and provincial colonial units to man their perpetually increasing line of forts , which were usually commanded by a French lieutenant . In late 1890 , a French effort to move into the low @-@ lying villages and isolate the populace from the mountainous rebel bases failed . In the spring of 1892 , a major French sweep of Hà Tĩnh failed , and in August , Cao Thang seized the initiative with a bold counterattack on the provincial capital . The rebels broke into the prison and freed their compatriots , killing a large number of the Vietnamese soldiers who defended the penitentiary as members of the French colonial forces . This caused the French to intensify their efforts against Phan , and a counteroffensive was conducted throughout the remainder of 1892 , forcing the rebels to retreat back into the mountains . Two of their bases fell and steady French pressure began to break their covert resistance links with lowland villages . This compounded the problems of securing food , supplies , intelligence data and recruits . A ring of French forts continued to be erected , increasingly pinning down Phan 's men . The only notable gain for Phan 's forces during this period was the acquisition of gunpowder supplies from Siam . This enabled them to mix foreign and local powder in a 50 : 50 ratio , rather than their previous weaker mixture of 20 : 80 . Late in the year , the burden on Phan increased after the loss of two Can Vuong allies . In September , Tong Duy Tân — who led the royalists in Thanh Hóa — was captured and publicly executed . Nguyen Thien Thuat , who had been active in the northern provinces of Hưng Yên and Hải Dương , fled to Guangxi in China . The supporters of Tan and Tuat moved south and integrated into Phan 's force . In mid @-@ 1893 , Cao Thang proposed a full @-@ scale attack on the provincial seat of Nghệ An and the surrounding posts . The plan proposed to Phan included diversions to the south and the training of almost 2 @,@ 000 men in conventional military tactics . Unconvinced of its viability , Phan reluctantly approved the plan . The troops were eager , but after overpowering several small posts en route , the main force was pinned down while attacking the French fort of No on September 9 , 1893 . Along with his brother , Cao Thang was mortally wounded while leading a risky frontal attack with 150 men , and the forces retreated in disarray . Phan regarded the loss of Cao Thang as a significant one , admitting as much in delivering the eulogy and funeral oration . According to the historian David Marr , there was evidence that Phan clearly realised the advantages and limitations of prolonged resistance . Although Phan had previously stated that he was not expecting ultimate success , the guerrilla leader thought that it was important to keep pressuring the French in order to demonstrate to the populace that there was an alternative to what he felt was a defeatist attitude from the Huế court . = = = Downfall = = = Hoàng Cao Khải , the French @-@ installed viceroy of Tonkin , perceived Phan 's intent to a degree that his French masters did not . Khai was from a scholar @-@ gentry family from the same village as Phan . He became the main backer of a determined effort to crush Phan 's forces , using every means available : political , psychological and economic . By late 1894 , relatives and suspected sympathisers of the insurgents were intimidated and more resistance commanders had been killed . Communications were disrupted , and the rebel hideouts became increasingly insecure . In an attempt to force Phan to surrender , the French arrested his family and desecrated the tombs of his ancestors , publicly displaying the remains in Hà Tĩnh . Khai delivered a message to Phan via a relative . Phan sent a written reply , allowing their exchange to be studied . Khai recalled the common origins of the pair and promised Phan that he would lobby Governor @-@ General Jean Marie Antoine de Lanessan and other French officials for an amnesty in return for Phan 's surrender . Khai credited Phan with righteousness , loyalty and dedication towards the monarchy . The situation has changed and even those without intelligence or education have concluded that nothing remains to be saved . How is it that you , a man of vast understanding , do not realise this ? ... You are determined to do whatever you deem to be righteous ... All that matters indeed is giving of one 's life to one 's country . No one therefore can deter you from your goal . I have always been taught that superior men should consider the care of the people as fundamental ; who has ever heard of men who were loyal to their King but forgot the people 's aspirations ? ... As of now , hundreds of families are subject to grief ; how do you have the heart to fight on ? I venture to predict that , should you pursue your struggle , not only will the population of our village be destroyed but our entire country will be transformed into a sea of blood and a mountain of bones . According to Marr , " Phan Dinh Phung 's reply was a classic in savage understatement , utilizing standard formalism in the interest of propaganda , with deft denigration of his opponent " . Phan appealed to Vietnamese nationalist sentiment , recalling his country 's stubborn resistance to Chinese aggression . He cited defensive wars against the Han , Tang , Song , Yuan and Ming dynasties , asking why a country " a thousand times more powerful " could not annex Vietnam . Phan concluded that it was " because the destiny of our country has been willed by Heaven itself " . Phan placed the responsibility for the suffering of the people at the feet of the French , who " acted like a storm " . After analysing his own actions , Phan concluded with a thinly veiled attack on Khai and his collaborators . If our region has suffered to such an extent , it was not only from the misfortunes of war . You must realise that wherever the French go , there flock around them groups of petty men who offer plans and tricks to gain the enemy 's confidence . These persons create every kind of enmity ; they incriminate innocent persons , blaming one one day , punishing another the next . They use every expedient to squeeze the people out of their possessions . That is how hundred of misdeeds , thousands of offenses have been perpetrated . Khai 's appeal was rebutted with an appeal to history , nationalist sentiment and a demand that the blame for death and destruction lay with the colonial forces and their Vietnamese assistants . Phan raised the stakes above family and village to the entire nation and its populace . With Phan 's rebuke in his hands , Khai translated both documents into French and presented them to de Lanessan , proposing that it was time for the final " destruction of this scholar gentry rebellion " . In July 1895 , French area commanders called in 3 @,@ 000 troops to tighten the cordon around the three remaining rebel bases . The insurgents were able to execute ambushes at night , but Phan contracted dysentery and had to be carried on a stretcher whenever his unit moved . A collaborator mandarin named Nguyen Than , who had previous experience in pacification in Quảng Ngãi and Quảng Nam , was drafted in to isolate the insurgents from their supporters in the villages . Cut off from their supplies , the insurgents were left to survive by eating roots and occasional handfuls of dried corn . Their shoes were worn through and most were without blankets . Phan died of dysentery on January 21 , 1896 , and his captured followers were executed . A report submitted by the de Lanessan to the Minister of Colonies in Paris stated that " the soul of resistance to the protectorate was gone " . = = Legacy = = Phan 's remains were disturbed after his death . Ngô Đình Khả , a Catholic mandarin and father of Ngo Dinh Diem — the first President of South Vietnam — was a member of the French colonial administration . Kha had Phan 's tomb exhumed and used the remains in gunpowder used for executing revolutionaries . Phan is widely regarded by Vietnamese people as a revolutionary hero . Phan Bội Châu , regarded as the leading Vietnamese anti @-@ colonial figure of the early 20th century , strongly praised Phan in his writing , with particular emphasis on his defiance of Khai . During Phan Boi Chau 's career as a teacher , he strongly emphasised Phan 's deeds to his students . In 1941 , after returning to Vietnam after decades in exile , the Marxist revolutionary Ho Chi Minh , then using the name Nguyen Ai Quoc ( Nguyen the Patriot ) , invoked the memory of Phan in appealing to the public for support for his independence movement . Like Phan , Ho was a native of Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh . In the 1940s , Ho 's Vietminh named their self @-@ produced style of grenades in honour of Phan . Since then , Ho 's communists have portrayed themselves as the modern day incarnations of revered nationalist leaders such as Phan , Trương Định and Emperors Lê Lợi and Quang Trung , who expelled Chinese forces from Vietnam . Both North and South Vietnam had prominent thoroughfares in their capital cities ( Hanoi and Saigon , respectively ) named in Phan 's honour .
= French battleship Liberté = Liberté was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy , and the lead ship of her class . She was laid down in November 1902 , launched in April 1905 , and completed in March 1908 , over a year after the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought made ships like Liberté obsolete . After her commissioning , Liberté was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet . She served for only three and a half years ; while moored in Toulon in September 1911 , an explosion of badly degraded propellant charges detonated the forward ammunition magazines . Some 250 officers and men were killed , and the ship was totally destroyed . The wreck remained in the harbor until 1925 , when it was raised and broken up for scrap . = = Design = = Liberté was laid down at the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire shipyard in November 1902 , launched on 19 April 1905 , and completed in March 1908 . This was over a year after the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought , which rendered the pre @-@ dreadnoughts like Liberté outdated before they were completed . The ship was 133 @.@ 81 meters ( 439 ft 0 in ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 24 @.@ 26 m ( 79 ft 7 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 8 @.@ 41 m ( 27 ft 7 in ) . She displaced up to 14 @,@ 860 metric tons ( 14 @,@ 630 long tons ; 16 @,@ 380 short tons ) at full load . She had a crew of between 739 and 769 officers and enlisted men . The battleship was powered by three vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines with twenty @-@ two Belleville boilers . They were rated at 18 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 800 kW ) and provided a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 1 @,@ 800 t ( 1 @,@ 800 long tons ; 2 @,@ 000 short tons ) . Liberté 's main battery consisted of four Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 / 96 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of ten Canon de 194 mm Modèle 1902 guns ; six were mounted in single turrets , and four in casemates in the hull . She also carried thirteen 9 @-@ pounder guns and ten 3 @-@ pounders . The ship was also armed with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . The ship 's main belt was 280 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 350 mm ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower had 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) thick sides . = = Service history = = After commissioning , Liberté was assigned to the Active Squadron of the French Mediterranean Fleet . In September 1909 , Liberté , Justice , and Vérité visited the United States for the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration . The three battleships , commanded by Admiral Jules le Pord , were the first foreign contingent to arrive . On 25 September 1911 , as Liberté was moored in Toulon harbor , an accidental explosion in one of her forward ammunition magazines for the secondary guns destroyed the ship . After the initial explosion of propellant charges , the ship 's commander , Captain Louis Jaurès , tried to organize damage control teams at the stern . He sent a party forward to flood the magazines to prevent an explosion in the main magazines , but the flooding valves were located under the magazines , and the path was blocked by fires and smoke . After two failed attempts to reach the valves , the men returned to the captain , who ordered them to try again ; they were killed when the main magazines exploded shortly thereafter . The explosion hurled a 37 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 36 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 41 @-@ short @-@ ton ) chunk of armor plate from the ship into the battleship République moored some 210 m ( 690 ft ) away , which caused significant damage . The French Navy had earlier suffered a series of fatal accidents in Toulon , beginning with an explosion aboard a torpedo boat in February 1907 , in which nine men were killed . The following month , the battleship Iéna blew up , killing 107 men . An explosion aboard a gunnery training ship killed six in August 1908 , and an explosion on a cruiser killed 13 . Six more men were killed aboard the cruiser Gloire a year later , on 10 September 1911 . The explosion aboard Liberté killed some 250 officers and men . The culprit was unstable Poudre B , a nitrocellulose @-@ based propellant that was also responsible for the destruction of Iéna , and possibly the other explosions as well . The wreck remained in Toulon until 1925 , when she was raised and broken up for scrap . After the accidental explosion , the high number of victims justified state funerals with president Armand Fallières , which occurred on the following 3 October . The tragedy also raised an emotional wave of solidarity throughout France , with even small villages sending their financial support to help the families of the victims . Captain Jaurès was exonerated of responsibility for the disaster by a subsequent naval board of enquiry . He did not however hold a further sea @-@ going command .
= Ohio State Route 666 = State Route 666 ( SR 666 ) is a 14 @.@ 17 @-@ mile ( 22 @.@ 80 km ) state route that runs between Zanesville and Dresden in the US state of Ohio . Most of the route is a rural two @-@ lane highway and passes through both woodland and farmland . For much of its path , SR 666 runs generally parallel to the east of the Muskingum River . The highway was first signed in 1937 on the same alignment as today . The whole highway was paved by 1955 . = = Route description = = SR 666 begins at a traffic signal with SR 60 and SR 146 , on the northeast side of Zanesville . The route heads east as a two @-@ lane highway , before curving northeast . While passing through Zanesville the route passes woodland , with some commercial businesses . The highway makes a sharp curve due west , before another sharp curve northeast . After the second curve the route leaves Zanesville , running parallel to the Muskingum River and an Ohio Central Railroad track . The road makes a sharp curve northwest and passes under the Ohio Central Railroad track . After passing under the railroad track the route curves north @-@ northeast and the railroad track curves due east . The roadway passes through the Zanesville State Forest Nursery , followed by a curve northwest , passing through the state forest nursery again . After leaving the state forest nursery , the highway passes through farmland heading due north . The route curves northeast passing through the state forest nursery for the last time and the highway has an intersection with County Road 40 ( CR 40 ) , in rural Jefferson Township . Following this intersection , SR 666 turns due west , before curving towards the north . This section of roadway passes mostly through farmland , with wooded areas when the route is close to the river . SR 666 ends at an intersection with SR 208 near Dresden , on the east bank of the Muskingum River . SR 666 is not part of the National Highway System , a system of routes important to the nation 's economy , mobility and defense . The highway is maintained by the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) . ODOT 's 2010 annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) calculations showed that the lowest traffic levels were present on the section that is at the intersection with Washington Township Road 112 ( Bateman Road ) , where only 510 vehicles used the highway daily ; the peak traffic volume was 5 @,@ 340 vehicles AADT along a section of SR 666 near its southern terminus . = = History = = SR 666 was established in 1937 along the same alignment between Zanesville and near Dresden within Muskingum County that it utilizes today . Between 1953 and 1955 the highway was paved . The highway has not experienced any major changes to its routing since 1955 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Muskingum County .
= Aubrey Huff = Aubrey Lewis Huff III ( born December 20 , 1976 ) is an American former professional baseball player . He played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Tampa Bay Devil Rays , Houston Astros , Baltimore Orioles , Detroit Tigers , and San Francisco Giants . Huff is 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) tall and weighs 225 pounds ( 102 kg ) . He batted left @-@ handed but threw right @-@ handed . Huff attended Vernon College and the University of Miami , where he finished his career second in school batting average . He was drafted by the Devil Rays in the sixth round in 1998 . After a couple years in the minor leagues , he debuted with the Devil Rays in 2000 . His first full season in the majors came in 2001 . In 2002 , he finished tenth in the American League ( AL ) in batting average . He set a career high in 2003 with 34 home runs and batted .311 with 107 runs batted in ( RBI ) . Next season , he batted .297 with 24 home runs and 104 RBI . In 2005 , he was placed on the disabled list for the first time in his career , but he batted .261 with 22 home runs and 92 RBI . During the 2006 season , he was traded to the Astros . In 2007 , Huff signed a three @-@ year contract with the Orioles . He hit 15 home runs his first season with the Orioles , his lowest total since 2001 . In 2008 , he won the Silver Slugger Award for the designated hitter position after batting .304 with 32 home runs and a career @-@ high 108 RBI . During the 2009 season , he was traded to the Tigers . He became a free agent after the season and signed a one @-@ year deal with the Giants . He batted .290 with 26 home runs in 2010 , reached the playoffs for the first time , and won his first World Series . He signed a two @-@ year deal with the Giants in 2011 and hit 12 home runs , his lowest total since 2001 . In 2012 , he was used mostly as a pinch hitter and appeared in a career @-@ low 52 games but won his second World Series with the Giants . On January 4 , 2014 , Huff officially announced his retirement from baseball and took a position as a baseball color commentator , but in 2015 , he announced coming out of retirement at age 38 . = = Early life = = Although he was born in Marion , Ohio , Huff grew up in Mineral Wells , Texas . When he was six years old , his father , Aubrey II , was killed as an innocent bystander in a domestic dispute while working as an electrician . That left Huff 's mother Fonda in charge of raising him and his sister Angela . Growing up , Huff regularly practiced baseball in his yard , which had a batting cage with lights and a pitching machine . He said , " [ My mother bought ] it more to keep me out of trouble . " He grew up rooting for the Texas Rangers and frequently attended their games . One of his favorite players was Nolan Ryan . Huff initially attended Mineral Wells High School but then transferred to Brewer High School when his family moved to Fort Worth . Although he was selected to the All @-@ District baseball team in high school , he was better known as a basketball player . He graduated in 1995 . = = = College career = = = Huff attended Vernon College for two years and was named the Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of its baseball team in 1996 . Huff transferred to the University of Miami for his final two years of college baseball . As a junior , he tied team single @-@ game records for runs in a game ( five against Harvard University on March 28 ) and most doubles in a game ( four on May 16 against Georgia Tech ) . As a senior , Huff hit for a .412 batting average , the fourth highest single @-@ season average in school history . His .768 slugging percentage is the second highest in school history . He also hit 21 home runs ( fifth in school history ) and a school record of 95 runs batted in ( RBI ) . Baseball America , The Sporting News and the National Collegiate Baseball Writers Association named him a first @-@ team All @-@ American . Huff finished his college career with a .400 batting average ( second in school history ) and a .719 slugging percentage ( third in school history ) . In 2009 , he was inducted into the University of Miami Sports Hall of Fame . = = Minor league career = = Huff was the Tampa Bay Devil Rays ' fifth @-@ round selection in the 1998 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) draft . He spent 1998 with the Charleston RiverDogs of the single @-@ A South Atlantic League , where he batted .321 with 85 hits , 19 doubles , 13 home runs , and 54 RBI in 69 games . In 1999 , Huff played for the Orlando Rays of the double @-@ A Southern League and was named a Southern League postseason All @-@ Star . In 133 games with the Rays ( tied with three players for fourth in the league behind Brady Clark 's 138 , Brent Abernathy 's 136 , and Kurt Airoso 's 134 ) , Huff batted .301 ( eighth ) with 148 hits ( fourth , behind Abernathy 's 168 , Clark 's 165 , and Tim Giles 's 157 ) , 40 doubles ( third , behind Scott Vieira 's 44 and Abernathy 's 42 ) , 22 home runs ( tied with John Curl for second behind Javier Cardona 's 26 ) , and 78 RBI ( tied with Bry Nelson for ninth in the league ) . Huff began 2000 with the Durham Bulls of the triple @-@ A International League . In 108 games , he batted .316 ( fifth ) with 129 hits , 36 doubles ( fourth , behind Clark 's 41 , Ryan Jackson 's 38 , and José Fernández 's 37 ) , 20 home runs , and 76 RBI . He was named the International League Rookie of the Year and was named to the postseason All @-@ Star team . = = Major league career = = = = = Tampa Bay Devil Rays = = = = = = = 2000 = = = = Huff was called up by the Devil Rays at the beginning of August to be the starting third baseman after Vinny Castilla suffered an injury . He had an RBI in his debut on August 2 , a 5 – 3 loss to the Cleveland Indians . Two days later , he got his first career hit against José Mercedes in a 10 – 9 loss to the Baltimore Orioles . On August 10 , he had a season @-@ high three RBI by hitting his first career home run , a game @-@ winning three @-@ run hit against Jason Ryan in a 10 – 4 victory over the Minnesota Twins . In 39 games , Huff hit .287 with 35 hits , seven doubles , four home runs , and 14 RBI . = = = = 2001 = = = = Huff began the 2001 season with Durham but was called up on April 13 when Ariel Prieto was sent to the minors . He became the starting third baseman on May 11 when Castilla was released . On June 29 , he had three RBI in a 7 – 5 loss to the New York Yankees . Huff was moved from third base to first base on August 6 following an injury to Steve Cox . After batting .243 with 6 home runs and 33 RBI in his first 92 games , he was optioned to Durham on August 23 when Cox came off the disabled list ( DL ) . In September , he was called up to replace Greg Vaughn as the Devil Rays ' designated hitter ( DH ) . On September 19 , he had three hits and five RBI , including a game @-@ winning single against David Cone , in a 12 – 2 victory over the Boston Red Sox . He finished the season batting .248 with 102 hits , 25 doubles , eight home runs , and 45 RBI in 111 games . In 17 games at Durham , he batted .288 with 19 hits , six doubles , three home runs , and 10 RBI . = = = = 2002 = = = = Huff missed the first month of 2002 with a broken cheekbone and began the season in the minor leagues before getting called up on May 28 to replace the struggling Jason Tyner on the roster . He started for the rest of the season as a first baseman , a third baseman , or a DH . On June 9 , he hit a three @-@ run home run against Bobby Jones in a 9 – 6 loss to the San Diego Padres . He hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Félix Heredia on June 26 in a 4 – 2 victory over the Toronto Blue Jays . On July 19 , he had four hits , including a home run against Esteban Loaiza , and three RBI in an 11 – 8 loss to the Blue Jays . On August 5 , his three @-@ run home run against Jon Garland accounted for all of the Devil Rays ' scoring in a 4 – 3 loss to the Chicago White Sox . On August 18 , he had three hits and three RBI , including a home run against Jeff Suppan , as the Devil Rays defeated the Kansas City Royals 8 – 6 . He had a 17 @-@ game hitting streak from August 23 to September 10 , the second @-@ longest streak in franchise history at the time ( behind Quinton McCracken 's 18 @-@ game streak in 1998 ) and as of 2012 the third @-@ longest ( behind Jason Bartlett 's 19 @-@ game streak in 2009 ) . In 113 games , Huff finished tenth in the American League ( AL ) with a .313 batting average and had 142 hits , 25 doubles , 23 home runs , and 59 RBI . He led the Devil Rays in home runs , marking the first time a player led his team in home runs after starting the season in the minors since 1996 , when Tony Clark led the Detroit Tigers . In 32 games with Durham , he batted .325 with 41 hits , nine doubles , three home runs , and 20 RBI . = = = = 2003 = = = = On April 26 , 2003 , Huff had four hits in a 10 – 7 victory over the Baltimore Orioles . After playing mostly first and third base in April , he took over from George Lombard as the Devil Rays ' right fielder for the remainder of the season on April 29 . On May 3 , he had the first multihomer game of his career by hitting two two @-@ run home runs against Adam Bernero in an 8 – 6 victory over the Tigers . He had four hits on June 4 in a 5 – 2 victory over the Chicago Cubs . In the first game of a doubleheader on June 17 , Huff had four RBI in an 11 – 2 victory over the Yankees . On July 2 , he had all four Devil Rays ' RBI and hit a three @-@ run home run against Pedro Martínez in a 5 – 4 loss to the Red Sox . On September 3 , he hit a three @-@ run home run against Freddy García and had four RBI in a 7 – 0 victory over the Seattle Mariners . On September 6 , he stole home plate in a 7 – 4 victory over the Oakland Athletics . On September 23 , he had four hits and hit a home run against Josh Towers in an 8 – 5 loss to the Blue Jays . In 162 games ( tied for second in the AL with Miguel Tejada behind Hideki Matsui 's 163 ) , he batted .311 ( ninth ) with 47 doubles ( third behind Garret Anderson 's and Vernon Wells 's 49 ) , 34 home runs ( ninth ) , and 107 RBI ( tied for eighth with Jason Giambi ) . Huff 's single @-@ season totals in hits , doubles , home runs , and RBI have been matched by eleven players in major league history as of 2012 . He was tied for 24th in AL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) voting along with Esteban Loaiza and Jason Varitek . Defensively , he tied with Tim Salmon for the lead in errors by AL right fielders with six . = = = = 2004 = = = = In 2004 , Huff spent most of the season playing third base . On May 12 , he had five RBI , including a three @-@ run home run against Chan Ho Park , in a 9 – 8 victory over the Texas Rangers . On May 28 , he had four hits , three runs scored , and two RBI including a home run against Javier Vázquez in a 7 – 5 victory over the Yankees . Two days later , he hit two home runs against Jon Lieber and had three hits and RBI in a 7 – 6 victory over the Yankees . Four days later , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Johan Santana in a 5 – 2 victory over the Twins . On June 15 , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Brian Lawrence in a 5 – 2 victory over the San Diego Padres . On July 2 , he had three RBI and hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Carl Pavano in a 4 – 2 victory over the Florida Marlins . He saw a streak of 398 consecutive games played snapped on August 22 when he was forced to miss a game with a minor back injury . He told reporters afterwards , " You guys care more about the streak than I do . " On August 27 , he had four hits in an 8 – 7 loss to the Athletics . Four days later , he had three hits , two home runs , and four RBI in a 12 @-@ inning , 10 – 6 loss to the Orioles . He had four hits on September 23 in a 7 – 3 loss to the Yankees . Huff finished the season batting .297 with 178 hits , 27 doubles , 29 home runs , and 104 RBI in 157 games . His average , home runs , and RBI were the highest totals among Devil Rays ' players . = = = = 2005 = = = = In 2005 , Huff spent most of the year in right field . On April 18 , Huff had four RBI and hit the 100th home run of his career , a three @-@ run shot against Jaret Wright in a 19 – 8 loss to the Yankees . He had three hits and four RBI , including a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Aaron Sele , on June 3 in a 6 – 1 victory over the Mariners . After hitting 5 home runs in the first three months , Huff hit 17 home runs through the rest of the season . On July 22 , he hit the first grand slam of his career , a game @-@ winning home run against Bruce Chen in a 7 – 5 victory over the Orioles . Three days later , he had a walk @-@ off double against Curt Schilling in a 10 @-@ inning , 4 – 3 victory over the Red Sox . The next day , he hit a grand slam against Chad Bradford in a 10 – 8 loss to the Red Sox . Three days later , he had two hits and four RBI , including a three @-@ run home run against D. J. Carrasco in a 6 – 3 victory over the Royals . He was named the AL Player of the Week from July 25 to 31 after he batted .409 with two home runs and 10 RBI . On August 28 , Huff drove in all the runs for the Devil Rays with a two @-@ run home run against Jarrod Washburn in a 2 – 1 victory over the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . On September 30 , he had two hits and hit a three @-@ run home run against John Maine in a 7 – 6 loss to the Orioles . In 148 games , Huff batted .261 with 150 hits , 26 doubles , 22 home runs , and 92 RBI . = = = = 2006 = = = = For 2006 , Huff was moved back to third base . He was placed on the disabled list for the first time in his career on April 12 with a sprained left knee suffered in a collision with Nick Green the day before . On May 4 , he was activated from the DL . On May 19 , he hit his first career walk @-@ off home run against Yusmeiro Petit in a 10 @-@ inning , 5 – 4 win over the Marlins . He had three hits and three RBI on June 22 , including a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Édgar González in a 4 – 1 victory over the Arizona Diamondbacks . On July 9 , he hit a three @-@ run home run against Kris Wilson in a 6 – 5 victory over the Yankees . Through July 9 , Huff batted .283 with 65 hits , 15 doubles , 8 home runs , and 28 RBI in 63 games . = = = Houston Astros = = = On July 12 , 2006 , the Houston Astros acquired Huff from Tampa Bay for minor leaguers Mitch Talbot and Ben Zobrist . Huff was used at third base for the Astros until August 1 , when he was moved to right field following regular third baseman Morgan Ensberg 's return from the DL . In his debut with the Astros on July 13 , the first game after the All @-@ Star break , Huff had two hits , including a three @-@ run home run against Randy Messenger in a 5 – 1 victory over the Marlins . On August 9 , he had three hits , two home runs , and six RBI in a 14 – 1 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates . He hit a game @-@ winning home run against José Capellán on September 8 in a 4 – 3 victory over the Milwaukee Brewers . In 68 games with Houston , Huff batted .250 with 56 hits , 10 doubles , 13 home runs , and 38 RBI . He combined to bat .267 with 121 hits , 25 doubles , 21 home runs , and 66 RBI in 131 games in 2006 . On October 31 , he filed for free agency . = = = Baltimore Orioles = = = = = = = 2007 = = = = On January 3 , 2007 , Huff officially signed a 3 @-@ year $ 20 million contract with the Baltimore Orioles . He began the year getting most of the starts at first base , but in mid @-@ May he became the Orioles regular DH as Kevin Millar was moved to first base . On May 9 , he hit a walk @-@ off home run against Brian Stokes to account for the game 's only scoring in a 10 @-@ inning , 1 – 0 win over Tampa Bay . In a 9 – 7 loss to the Angels on June 29 , he hit for the cycle and got his 1000th hit and 200th double ( both against Kelvim Escobar ) . He is one of four Orioles to hit for the cycle ( along with Brooks Robinson , Cal Ripken , Jr . , and Félix Pie ) and the first player to do so at Oriole Park at Camden Yards . On August 3 , his three @-@ run home run against James Shields accounted for all the Orioles ' runs in a 3 – 1 victory over Tampa Bay . On August 14 , Huff had two hits and five RBI , including a grand slam against Jeff Karstens in a 12 – 0 victory over the Yankees . He had four hits on September 15 in an 8 – 3 loss to the Blue Jays . In 151 games , Huff batted .280 with 154 hits , 34 doubles , 15 home runs , and 72 RBI . = = = = 2008 = = = = Before the 2008 season , Huff switched his uniform number from 19 to 17 in honor of his former teammate Joe Kennedy , who died during the offseason . He angered fans in the offseason when he called Baltimore a " horse---- " town when compared to Tampa , but he regained fan support by the end of the year by posting one of his best seasons . He was the Orioles ' designated hitter for most of the season , although he was moved to third base at the end of August following an injury to Melvin Mora . On April 2 , he hit a two @-@ run home run against Matt Garza and a game @-@ winning two @-@ run double against Al Reyes in a 9 – 6 victory over Tampa Bay . On April 8 , he had four hits and four RBI in an 8 – 1 victory over the Rangers . On July 3 , he had three hits , three RBI , and two home runs against Kyle Davies in a 10 – 7 loss to the Royals . He was named AL Player of the Week from June 30 to July 6 after hitting .345 with three home runs and nine RBIs . On August 27 , he had three hits and three RBI , including a two @-@ run home run against Lance Broadway in an 11 – 3 victory over the White Sox . Two days later , he had two hits , including a three @-@ run home run against Andy Sonnanstine in a 10 – 9 loss to Tampa Bay . He was named the Player of the Week again from August 25 – 31 after batting .478 with two home runs and seven RBI . He hit a grand slam against Juan Rincón on September 8 in a 14 – 3 victory over Cleveland . In 154 games , Huff batted .304 with 182 hits ( tied with Nick Markakis for 10th in the league ) , 48 doubles ( tied with Markakis for third in the league behind Dustin Pedroia 's 54 and Brian Roberts 's 51 ) , 33 home runs ( tied for eighth with Jason Giambi and Josh Hamilton ) , and 108 RBI ( sixth ) . He finished 16th in AL MVP voting and was named " Most Valuable Oriole " by Baltimore sportswriters . He won the Silver Slugger Award for DH and the Edgar Martínez Award , becoming the first Oriole to win the award since Tommy Davis in 1974 . = = = = 2009 = = = = Huff moved to first base in 2009 following the departure of Millar . On April 13 , he had four hits and three RBI in a 10 – 9 victory over Texas . On April 21 , he hit two home runs and had four RBI in a 10 – 3 victory over the White Sox . He hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Phil Hughes on May 9 in a 12 – 5 victory over the Yankees . The next day , he hit a three @-@ run home run against Joba Chamberlain in a 5 – 3 loss to the Yankees . On June 17 , he had three RBI , including a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Pedro Feliciano in a 6 – 4 victory over the New York Mets . Through August 17 , Huff batted .253 with 109 hits , 24 doubles , 13 home runs , and 72 RBI in 110 games . = = = Detroit Tigers = = = On August 17 , 2009 , Huff cleared waivers and was traded to the Detroit Tigers in exchange for pitching prospect Brett Jacobson . He began his time with the Tigers as the team 's DH , but in September he only played against right @-@ handed pitchers as Marcus Thames began playing against left @-@ handed pitchers . He hit his first career pinch @-@ hit home run against Jason Frasor on September 14 , a game @-@ tying three @-@ run hit in a 10 @-@ inning , 6 – 5 victory over Toronto . In 40 games with the Tigers , Huff batted .189 with 20 hits , six doubles , two home runs , and 13 RBI . His season totals were a .241 batting average , 129 hits , 30 doubles , 15 home runs , and 85 RBI in 150 games . Following the season , Huff filed for free agency . = = = San Francisco Giants = = = = = = = 2010 = = = = On January 13 , 2010 , Huff signed a one @-@ year , $ 3 million contract with the San Francisco Giants . He spent most of the season playing first base for the Giants , although he played left field and right field when Buster Posey played first base from May 29 – June 30 and Travis Ishikawa made most of the starts at first base from July 3 – August 14 . On April 14 , Huff hit his first career inside @-@ the @-@ park home run ( his first home run with the Giants ) , a game @-@ winning hit against Charlie Morton in a 6 – 0 victory over the Pirates . On June 4 , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Zach Duke in a 6 – 4 victory over Pittsburgh . He hit two two @-@ run home runs on June 13 , including a game @-@ winning home run against Vin Mazzaro in a 6 – 2 victory over Oakland . On July 8 , he had four RBI and a two @-@ run home run against Manny Parra in a 9 – 3 victory over the Milwaukee Brewers . He hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Blake Hawksworth on August 20 in a 6 – 3 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals . On August 28 , he got his 1,500th career hit against Alex Sanabia in a 10 @-@ inning , 10 – 9 victory over the Marlins . In 157 games , Huff batted .290 with 165 hits , 35 doubles , 26 home runs , and 86 RBI while scoring 100 runs ( tied for seventh in the league with Brandon Phillips , Martín Prado , and Dan Uggla ) for the first time in his career . Huff finished seventh in the voting for the NL MVP award . Huff , in the 11th year of his career , reached the playoffs for the first time as the Giants won the NL West . In Game 4 of the NL Division Series ( NLDS ) against the Atlanta Braves , he had a ninth @-@ inning , two @-@ out , game @-@ tying RBI single against Mike Dunn in a 3 – 2 Giants ' victory . He batted .267 with four hits and one RBI in the series as the Giants defeated the Braves in four games . In Game 4 of the NL Championship Series ( NLCS ) against the Philadelphia Phillies , on October 20 , he had three hits , two runs scored , and an RBI in a 6 – 5 Giants ' victory . He batted .250 with six hits and three RBI in the series as the Giants defeated the Phillies in six games . In Game 1 of the World Series against the Texas Rangers , on October 27 , he had three hits and an RBI in an 11 – 7 Giants ' victory . In Game 4 of the series on October 31 , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Tommy Hunter in a 4 – 0 Giants ' victory . He batted .294 with five hits , a home run , and four RBI in the series , winning his first World Series as the Giants defeated the Rangers in five games to win their first World Series in 56 years . = = = = 2011 = = = = Huff filed for free agency after the 2010 season , but on November 23 , 2010 , he re @-@ signed a $ 22 million contract with the Giants for two years with a club option for 2013 . Coming off the team 's 2010 World Series success and his new contract , Huff arrived at 2011 spring training out of shape . He began 2011 in right field due to an injury to Cody Ross , but he returned to first base when Ross was activated from the disabled list on April 20 . He drew a pinch @-@ hit , game @-@ winning , bases loaded walk on April 30 against John Lannan in a 2 – 1 victory over the Washington Nationals . Three days later , he hit a game @-@ winning home run against Taylor Buchholz in a 10 @-@ inning , 7 – 6 victory over the New York Mets . He had a walk @-@ off RBI single against Brian Fuentes on May 20 in a 10 @-@ inning , 2 – 1 victory over Oakland . On June 2 , his wife 's birthday , Huff hit three home runs and drove in a career @-@ high six runs in the Giants ' 12 – 7 win over the St. Louis Cardinals . He said after the game , " [ My wife ] wanted me to hit her a homer . I hit three . Brownie points . " Those home runs accounted for a quarter of his season total , as his overall production dropped from the previous season . Compared to 2010 , his batting average dropped 44 points , his homers fell from 26 to 12 , and his walks went from 83 to 47 as he grew impatient . His On @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) dropped 215 points to .676 , last among Major League first baseman in 2011 . Giants ' manager Bruce Bochy said , " [ Huff 's ] struggles helped cause our struggles " ; the Giants failed to return to the playoffs in 2011 . = = = = 2012 = = = = In 2012 spring training , Huff competed with Brandon Belt and Brett Pill for the Giants ' first base job . Belt won the job , and Huff opened the season as the Giants ' left fielder . He had two hits and three RBI on April 13 , including a two @-@ run home run against Joel Hanrahan in a 5 – 0 victory over Pittsburgh . On April 21 , because the Giants did not have any infielders available , Huff was positioned at second base for the first time in his career in the ninth inning of a tied game against the Mets . He failed to cover second base in a potential double play situation , and the Mets went on to win the first game of the doubleheader 5 – 4 . After the game , on April 25 , Huff was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list with anxiety issues . He returned from the DL on May 7 but was used mainly as a pinch hitter for the rest of the season . On June 15 , he was placed on the DL with a sprained right knee which he suffered jumping over a dugout railing to celebrate Matt Cain 's perfect game . He returned from the DL on July 28 but was placed on it four days later with right knee tendinitis which kept him out until August 31 . In 52 games , Huff batted .192 with 15 hits , four doubles , one home run , and seven RBI . In the playoffs , Huff was used exclusively as a pinch hitter . In 10 games , he had one hit in nine at @-@ bats but won his second career World Series as the Giants swept the Tigers in four games . On November 1 , Huff 's $ 10 million club option was declined , making him a free agent . He instead earned a $ 2 million buyout . = = Legacy = = Huff ranks among the top ten in several career and single @-@ season records in the history of the Tampa Bay Rays ( Devil Rays from 1998 – 2007 ) as of 2012 . Through 2012 , he ranks third behind Carl Crawford and B. J. Upton in games played ( 799 ) , at bats ( 3 @,@ 028 ) , plate appearances ( 3 @,@ 322 ) , hits ( 870 ) , and doubles ( 172 ) . His .287 batting average ranks fourth ( behind Crawford 's .296 , Fred McGriff 's .291 , and Jason Bartlett 's .288 ) , his 128 home runs rank second ( behind Carlos Peña 's 161 ) , his 449 RBI rank third ( behind Crawford 's 592 and Peña 's 458 ) , and his 400 runs scored rank fifth . He and Delmon Young are the only Devil Rays to appear in 162 games in a season . He holds Devil Rays ' record for hits in a season and doubles in a season , both set in 2003 . His batting averages in 2002 and 2003 rank sixth and seventh , respectively ; his home run totals in 2003 and 2004 are tied for third ( with Jose Canseco 's 1999 total behind two of Peña 's totals ) and ninth , respectively ; and his RBI totals in 2003 and 2004 are fourth and tied for sixth ( with Evan Longoria 's 2010 total and McGriff 's 1999 total ) , respectively . Through the 2012 season , Huff had hit 242 career home runs , tying him for 217th all @-@ time with Dusty Baker , Sal Bando , Wally Berger , Roy Campanella , and J. D. Drew . In addition to being used as a designated hitter , he has played at five different positions in his career : first base , third base , left field , right field , and second base . = = Personal life = = On January 27 , 2007 , Huff married Barbara " Baubi " Heaton . The couple has two sons : Jayce ( born September 4 , 2008 ) and Jagger ( born September 15 , 2010 ) . During Huff 's playing days , they resided in Tampa , Florida , in the off @-@ season . Baubi Huff filed for divorce on January 31 , 2012 . Huff 's mother lives in Largo , Florida , where she teaches math . His sister , Angela , is a store manager there . As of 2015 , Huff and his family reside in Carmel Valley , San Diego . Huff has several tattoos . A noted Transformers fan , he has the logos of the Autobots and Decepticons tattooed on his shoulder blades . On his left shoulder , he also has a tattoo of a guitar with his father 's name under it in memory of his father . During the Giants ' 2010 playoff race and postseason , Huff became known for wearing a red " rally thong " , which he joked would help the team win . When he was slumping in 2011 , fans sent him thongs throughout the season in hopes of improving his performance . = = = Post @-@ playing career = = = On January 4 , 2014 , Huff officially announced his retirement from baseball and took a position as a baseball color commentator for the Pac @-@ 12 Network . On March 31 , 2014 , Huff started co @-@ hosting a morning radio show on Bay Area sports radio station 95 @.@ 7 The Game with Chris Townsend and Ric Bucher titled Bucher , Towny and Huff . Huff left the show in August 2014 . Currently , Huff is working on a comeback to baseball and hopes to join a club for MLB Spring training . Huff is an assistant baseball coach at Canyon Crest Academy in San Diego , California .
= Azteca horse = The Azteca is a horse breed from Mexico , with a subtype , called the " American Azteca " , found in the United States . They are well @-@ muscled horses that may be of any solid color , and the American Azteca may also have pinto coloration . Aztecas are known to compete in many western riding and some English riding disciplines . The Mexican registry for the original Azteca and the United States registries for the American Azteca have registration rules that vary in several key aspects , including ancestral bloodlines and requirements for physical inspections . The Azteca was first developed in Mexico in 1972 , from a blend of Andalusian , American Quarter Horse and Mexican Criollo bloodlines . From there , they spread to the United States , where American Paint Horse blood was added . = = Breed characteristics = = The three foundation breeds of the Azteca are the Andalusian ( defined by the Mexican registry as either Pura Raza Española or Lusitano ) , American Quarter Horse , and Mexican Criollo or Criollo militar . They were chosen to produce a breed that combined athletic ability with a good temperament and certain physical characteristics . Azteca stallions and geldings measure between 15 and 16 @.@ 1 hands ( 60 and 65 inches , 152 and 165 cm ) at the withers , while mares stand between 14 @.@ 3 and 16 hands ( 59 and 64 inches , 150 and 163 cm ) . The ideal height is 14 @.@ 3 – 15 @.@ 1 hands ( 59 – 61 inches , 150 – 155 cm ) . Both sexes usually weigh from 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 200 pounds ( 450 to 540 kg ) . The facial profile of the breed is straight or convex and the neck slightly arched . Overall , they are well @-@ muscled horses , with broad croup and chest , as well as long , sloping shoulders . Gaits are free and mobile , with natural collection derived from the Andalusian ancestry of the breed . The breed is found in all solid colors , although gray is most often seen . White markings are allowed on the face and lower legs by breed associations . The American Azteca registry also allows non @-@ solid pinto coloration . = = = Registration = = = According to the breed standard of the Mexican registry , Azteca horses cannot have more than 75 percent of their parentage from any one of the foundation breeds ( Andalusian , Quarter Horse and Mexican Criollo ) ; Criollo blood may be no more than 50 % , and only from unregistered mares within Mexico . Horses are classified in one of six registration categories , designated with letters A through F , depending on their parentage . Only certain crosses between the different classes are permitted . In Mexico , Azteca horses must conform to a strict phenotype standard established by the Secretaría de Agricultura , Ganadería , Desarrollo Rural , Pesca y Alimentación ( SAGARPA ) , the Mexican agriculture ministry , which requires inspection of foals at seven months for the issue of a " birth certificate " ; a foal that does not meet the breed standards may be denied registration even if both parents are registered Aztecas approved for breeding . Full registration and approval for breeding are subject to a second and more detailed inspection at age three or more , and granted only to those horses that fully satisfy the requirements of the standard . In the American Azteca registry , horses with American Paint Horse ( APHA ) breeding are also allowed . However , horses with more than 25 percent Thoroughbred blood in their pedigrees ( common in many Paints and Quarter Horses ) within four generations cannot be registered . American Aztecas have four categories of registration based on the relative degree of blood from each foundation breed , seeking an ideal blend of 3 / 8 Quarter Horse and 5 / 8 Andalusian . Unlike their Mexican counterparts , they do not have to go through physical inspections before being registered . = = History = = The Azteca was first bred in 1972 as a horse for charros , the traditional horsemen of Mexico . Antonio Ariza Cañadilla , along with others , was instrumental in the creation of the Azteca horse as the national horse of Mexico and with its official recognition by the Mexican Department of Agriculture on November 4 , 1982 . Ariza used imported Andalusians , crossed with Quarter Horses and Criollos and began to breed the foundation horses of the Azteca breed at Rancho San Antonio near Texcoco , Mexico . Early in the Azteca 's history , breeders realized the need for a unified breeding program in order to produce horses that met the required characteristics . The Azteca Horse Research Center was created at Lake Texcoco , and in partnership with breeders developed the phenotype of the breed today . The first official Azteca was a stallion named Casarejo , who was a cross between an Andalusian stallion named Ocultado and a Quarter Horse mare named Americana . He was foaled at the Centro de Reproduccion Caballar Domecq in 1972 . The Associacion Mexicana de Criadores de Caballos de Raza Azteca , or Mexican Breeders Association for the Azteca Horse , is the original breed registry and still maintains the international registry . The International Azteca Horse Association and its regional affiliates was formed in 1992 . The majority of Aztecas are found in Mexico , and the Mexican association had registered between 10 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 horses as of 2005 , according to the Texas Department of Agriculture . The Mexican registry adds approximately 1 @,@ 000 horses per year . The Azteca Horse Registry of America was formed in 1989 for registering the US portion of the breed , followed by the Azteca Horse Owners Association in 1996 as an owners association . This registry has slightly different registration and breeding rules , and is not approved by the Mexican government to register Azteca horses . The American registry , now called the American Azteca Horse International Association , allows the use of American Paint horses , which are essentially Quarter Horses with pinto coloration , if they have less than 25 percent Thoroughbred breeding . However , the US registry does not incorporate Criollo bloodlines . The Mexican registry allows only the blood of Quarter Horses , Andalusians and Criollos in its registered Aztecas . = = Uses = = Because of the breeds that make up the Azteca , they are known for their athleticism . They have been seen in competition in western riding events such as reining , cutting , team penning and roping , as well as English riding events such as dressage and other events such as polo and bullfighting . They are also used for pleasure riding .
= Gunslinger ( film ) = Gunslinger is a 1956 American western film starring Beverly Garland as Rose Hood , the widow of a slain town marshal who inherits his job . Directed by Roger Corman from a screenplay by Mark Hanna and Charles B. Griffith , the film , shot in colour , also features Allison Hayes as Erica Page , the owner of a saloon , who hires a gunslinger assassin ( John Ireland ) to kill Rose . The film began production in February 1956 , as director Corman wanted to shoot one final film in six days before a change in union contracts meant that actors were limited to working only five days a week . Filming of Gunslinger was marred by several inconveniences ; rain caused the filming location to become muddy , and the two lead actresses were both injured on set . Eventually , Gunslinger was released to mixed reviews , and , in 1993 , was featured in a fifth season episode of the movie @-@ mocking comedy television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 . = = Plot = = After her husband Scott ( William Schallert ) , the marshal of Oracle , Texas , is killed by two assailants , his widow Rose ( Beverly Garland ) is named temporary marshal . That night , Rose asks Erica Page ( Allison Hayes ) to close her saloon at 3 AM in accordance with town regulations , but Erica insists her saloon is open for business 24 hours . The women fight , but eventually Erica , who loses the fight , closes for the night . After Rose exits , Erica tells lackey Jake ( Jonathan Haze ) to hire a killer , which he does , finding a man named Cane Miro ( John Ireland ) . As Cane enters town , Rose shoots at him , mistaking him for a man she has been searching out . She apologizes . Cane tells Rose that he has come to Oracle to see town mayor Gideon Polk ( Martin Kingsley ) . Cane enters Erica 's saloon , where Polk has been telling her that she has overextended herself by buying property along a proposed railroad track . Cane confronts Polk until Erica requests he stop . Erica reveals that Rose is the woman whom she paid Cane to kill ; however , if the proposed railroad track is a success , she admits that Rose may not have to die . Rose follows Cane as he exits town . When he stops to let her catch up , they talk and eventually kiss . Jake watches and reports to Erica , who becomes irate . She demands he kill Rose immediately . Cane reminds her that they cannot change the deal they made . Cane later explains to Rose that Polk had been his commander of an artillery battery at a battle which could have been a victory but that Polk panicked and ran , depressing his men , with those who didn 't desert their positions being decimated , including Cane 's brothers , or captured like Cane himself . Rose makes Cane promise not to harm Polk , but still has Polk placed in protective custody . Cane becomes intoxicated . Erica enters his room , and Jake , who has been spying , sees the two kiss , but leaves before he sees Cane reject Erica . An embarrassed Erica orders Cane to kill Rose no matter what . When she returns to her saloon , Jake slaps her . Jake goes to Rose 's office and tells her everything he knows . Back at the saloon , Jake draws a gun on Cane , who kills him . Rose does not arrest him as Erica claims it was self @-@ defense . After receiving a letter from the Pony Express , informing her that the railroad will not be built , Erica rides into town , intending to have Cane kill Rose . Deputy Joshua Tate ( Chris Alcaide ) is killed when he confronts them . Cane goes after Polk , killing his wife when she shields him . Cane then shoots and kills Polk . Rose enters town and Erica aims at her , but Erica is shot by Cane before she can pull the trigger . Rose and Cane exchange fire . After he is shot , Cane asks if Rose loved him , and she replies that she did . Cane 's wound is fatal , and Rose rides out of Oracle , declaring she will never come back . = = Cast = = Beverly Garland ... Marshal Rose Hood John Ireland ... Cane Miro Allison Hayes ... Erica Page Martin Kingsley ... Mayor Gideon Polk Jonathan Haze ... Jake Hayes Margaret Campbell ... Felicity Polk Bruno VeSota ... Zebelon Tabb Chris Alcaide ... Deputy Joshua Tate Dick Miller ... Jimmy Tonto William Schallert ... Marshal Scott Hood Kermit Maynard ... Barfly = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Gunslinger 's screenplay was written by Mark Hanna and Charles B. Griffith , from an idea by Corman , who proposed a Western film where a sheriff is murdered while on duty , and the sheriff 's widow inherits the job . Griffith was hired when Jonathan Haze showed several of Griffith 's screenplays to Corman , with Corman being impressed enough to hire him . Griffith had written two Westerns for Corman which had not been made . " He took me out to see Three Hours to Kill [ Alfred L. Werker , 1954 ] with Dana Andrews and said to me , ' I want you to do the same picture but with a woman as the sheriff ' , " said Griffith . It was originally known as The Yellow Rose of Texas . = = = Filming = = = Gunslinger began production in February 1956 , as the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees and the film studios renegotiated for a five @-@ day work week instead of six . Director Roger Corman decided to film a low @-@ budget Western in six days before the new contract took effect , with Gene Corman providing half of the financing . Shot at the Jack Ingram Western Movie Ranch in Topanga , California , it rained for five days during the shoot . Corman had to go over schedule , taking seven days instead of six , which he recounted as the only time he had ever done so . The rain made the area muddy , causing trucks , cameras , and lighting equipment to sink . When the crew left the set , Corman did not hire a guard , telling the film 's assistant director that " anyone who 'd come out here , steal the equipment , and carry it through this mud is welcome to get it . " Due to the quick shooting schedule , the rain forced several exterior scenes to be re @-@ written to be shot inside . Other scenes were shot with a large tarp draped over the actors . Due to the fact that the rainfall was audible in the background , Corman used the film 's score and an assortment of sound effects to drown out the noise . The first scene shot was Beverly Garland and John Ireland 's love scene in a tree . The tree was home to a colony of red ants , who crawled all over the actors and repeatedly bit them . Actors were injured several times on set . One day , Allison Hayes ' horse slipped in the mud , causing her to fall off . Hayes broke her arm . While the crew waited for an ambulance to arrive , Corman shot a reel of close @-@ ups of Hayes looking left and right , with the intent of splicing them in to the final cut while using a double to shoot other scenes . When shooting wrapped , the crew all signed Hayes ' orthopedic cast . In another instance , a scene called for Garland to exit the saloon , jump on a horse , and ride out of town . When the scene was shot , Garland jumped over the horse instead of on it , so the scene had to be shot again . During the second take , she twisted her ankle running down the stairs in the saloon , but continued the scene . When Garland returned home , she thought it would feel good to put her ankle in a warm bath and did . She left it there for about an hour , but when she took it out , she found that it had swollen to twice its normal size . When she returned to the set , Corman said , " Well , we have to start shooting . " In order to fit her ankle into her boot , the crew cut the back of it and taped it to her foot . Garland was unable to walk for nearly a week after Gunslinger finished shooting , writing that " I had screwed up my ankle so bad ! " While Corman described the production of Gunslinger as " one of the worst experiences of my life " and Hayes wanted to leave the film during shooting , Garland considered Rose Hood one of her favorite roles , noting that : I think I was the first woman to play a marshal in a movie western . Roger would often cast against type in those days . I could never resist a plum role like a lady marshal in a genre that would never have considered such a gender reversal like that before . However , working with Roger was always an adventure and this film was no exception . = = Release = = = = = Reception = = = Released in October 1956 , Gunslinger has received mixed reviews from critics . The Hollywood Reporter called it " quite a startling Western " and praised the two lead actresses , saying " Miss Garland and Hayes are good as the feuding ladies from different sides of the tracks . " Variety wrote that " with such a twist to the conventional western plot , this Roger Corman production should get its share of playing time attention in the program market . " VideoHound 's Golden Movie Retriever praised Gunslinger for being a " unique western with a surprise ending . " In The Encyclopedia of Western Movies , Gunslinger was praised for exploring the potential of a woman gunfighter , and that it was " the most assured of Corman 's quartet of Westerns . " In his book Western Movies : A Guide to 5 @,@ 105 Feature Films , Michael R. Pitts said that it was an " early six day Roger Corman cheapie that is rather appealing . " Adversely , Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Verdict , gave Gunslinger a negative review , writing , " Roger Corman was responsible for a lot of smoldering cinematic cowflops over the course of his economically sound career , but Gunslinger has got to be one of the most overripe and ridiculous . " While he stated that " Beverly Garland , who plays our dispassionate Rose , and John Ireland , as the cool and callous Cane Myro , are decent enough , " he wrote that " there isn 't much to recommend in this movie , " saying that " there 's too much unresolved intrigue , too many easy answers to rotten questions , to make heads or tails of what is supposed to matter . " TV Guide gave Gunslinger two stars , and said that " it 's a strange little Corman film , made before he went wholeheartedly for horror films , and this too has a semi @-@ sense of the strange . " Film reviewer Leonard Maltin gave Gunslinger one star and a half . = = = Home video = = = Gunslinger was released on DVD by Optimum Home Entertainment on September 15 , 2008 , as part of Roger Corman : The Collection , which included five other Corman @-@ directed films : Five Guns West , The Haunted Palace , The Premature Burial , The Masque of Red Death and Wild Angels . The Mystery Science Theater 3000 episode featuring Gunslinger has been released twice : once as part of Rhino Home Video 's Mystery Science Theater 3000 Collection , Volume 6 which included three other episodes from the series , and once by Shout ! Factory as a standalone disc . = = In popular culture = = Gunslinger was featured in a fifth season episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 , a comedy television series . The show features a human and his robot creations watching bad films while providing a running commentary which mocks it . Gunslinger was the eleventh episode of the fifth season , which was broadcast on Comedy Central on October 9 , 1993 . Gunslinger was the penultimate episode for series creator and host Joel Hodgson , who left the show at the end of the next episode , Mitchell . Actor and writer Kevin Murphy , who provides the voice and puppetry of Tom Servo in the series , spoke disparagingly about the film in the book Mystery Science Theater 3000 : The Amazing Colossal Episode Guide , writing , " One of my darkest fears is that I 'll one day make my own film , my story , my direction , my own crystalline vision of something so universal , it must needs be shared with the world on the silver screen . And I make the movie , and it turns out like Gunslinger , or any other Corman film — turgid , insipid , clichéd , confusing , every opportunity for artistic expression intentionally ignored . "
= White Night riots = The White Night riots were a series of violent events sparked by an announcement of the lenient sentencing of Dan White for the assassinations of San Francisco Mayor George Moscone and of Harvey Milk , a member of the city 's Board of Supervisors who was among the first openly gay elected officials in the United States . The events took place on the night of May 21 , 1979 ( the night before what would have been Milk 's 49th birthday ) in San Francisco . Earlier that day , White had been convicted of voluntary manslaughter , the lightest possible conviction for his actions . That White was not convicted of first @-@ degree murder ( of which he was originally charged ) had so outraged the city 's gay community that it set off the most violent reaction by gay Americans since the 1969 Stonewall Riots in New York City ( which is credited as the beginning of the modern gay rights movement in the United States ) . The gay community of San Francisco had a longstanding conflict with the San Francisco Police Department . White 's status as a former police officer intensified the community 's anger at the SFPD . Initial demonstrations took place as a peaceful march through the Castro district of San Francisco . After the crowd arrived at the San Francisco City Hall , violence began . The events caused hundreds of thousands of dollars ' worth of property damage to City Hall and the surrounding area , as well as injuries to police officers and rioters . Several hours after the riot had been broken up , police made a retaliatory raid on a gay bar in San Francisco 's Castro District . Many patrons were beaten by police in riot gear . Two dozen arrests were made during the course of the raid , and several people later sued the SFPD . In the following days , gay leaders refused to apologize for the events of that night . This led to increased political power in the gay community , which culminated in the election of Mayor Dianne Feinstein to a full term , the following November . In response to a campaign promise , Feinstein appointed a pro @-@ gay Chief of Police , which increased recruitment of gay people in the police force and eased tensions . = = Background = = = = = Gay history of San Francisco = = = The American settlers who moved west toward California in the 18th and 19th centuries were largely male prospectors and miners . Events such as the California Gold Rush created a broadly male society in that region . Romantic friendships were common , and often tolerated . As San Francisco was settled the ratio of men to women remained disproportionately high , resulting in the growth of a culture that was more open @-@ minded towards homosexuality . The city 's notorious brothel district – named the Barbary Coast – earned the city a reputation as a lawless and amoral society leading to San Francisco becoming known as " Sodom by the Sea . " The end of Prohibition prompted the opening of several gay bars along North Beach . The most notable of these were the Black Cat where female impersonation shows became the main draw , and a lesbian bar known as Mona 's . During World War II , San Francisco became a major debarkation point for servicemen stationed in the Pacific Theater . The U.S. military , which was concerned about male homosexuality , had a policy of dismissing servicemen caught in known gay establishments with blue discharges . As many of these men faced ostracism from their communities and families , they chose to remain in the city . The number of men that remained was a significant factor in the creation of a homosexual community in San Francisco . = = = Gay activism in San Francisco = = = In 1951 , the California Supreme Court affirmed in Stoumen v. Reilly the right of homosexuals to assemble peacefully . To assist homosexuals with legal problems , in 1951 labor activist Harry Hay started the Mattachine Society , from his living room in Los Angeles . A few years later , Phyllis Lyon and Del Martin started the Daughters of Bilitis with six other women in San Francisco , initially to have a place to socialize without fear of harassment or arrest . Within a few years , both organizations learned of each other and grew to have similar goals : helping assimilate homosexuals into general society , working for legal reform to repeal sodomy laws , and assisting those who were arrested . Both groups were headquartered in San Francisco by 1957 . Police continued to arrest homosexuals in large numbers , routinely bringing paddy wagons to gay bars and arresting their patrons . Charges were usually dismissed but those arrested often lost their anonymity when newspapers printed their names , addresses and places of employment . Officers also notified the employer and family of the accused , causing serious damage to their reputations . In 1964 , a New Year 's Eve benefit event was held for the Council on Religion and the Homosexual . Police stood outside with large floodlights , and in an effort to intimidate took photographs of anyone entering the building . Later , several officers demanded that they be allowed inside . Three lawyers explained to them that under California law , the event was a private party and they could not enter unless they bought tickets . The lawyers were then arrested . Several ministers who were in attendance held a press conference the next morning , likening the SFPD to the Gestapo . Even the Catholic archbishop strongly condemned the actions of the police . In an attempt to reduce such harassment two officers were tasked with improving the police department 's relationship with the gay community . The Mattachine Society and Daughters of Bilitis promoted non @-@ confrontational education for homosexuals and heterosexuals , hoping to prove that homosexuals were respectable and normal . Living beyond the mostly white , middle class scope of these groups was an active community of cross @-@ dressers , hustlers , and " street queens " who worked primarily in the Tenderloin district of the city . After being denied service at Gene Compton 's Cafeteria , a few activists picketed the restaurant in 1966 . A few days later , early in the morning , the police arrived to arrest patrons in drag . A riot ensued when a drag queen threw the contents of a cup of coffee in the face of a police officer in response to the officer 's grabbing of her arm . The cafe 's plate glass windows were shattered in the melée , and then again a few days later after they had been replaced . Although three years later the Stonewall Riots would have a more significant impact , the Compton 's Cafeteria riots were among the first in American history where homosexuals and the newly forming transgender community fought against the authorities . = = = Political clout = = = San Francisco continued to grow as a haven for homosexuals . North Beach and Polk Street had been quiet neighborhoods each with a large homosexual population , but in the 1960s the growth of the Castro District outpaced either of them . Thousands of gay men migrated to San Francisco , turning the quiet Irish working @-@ class neighborhood around Castro Street into a bustling center of activity . New Yorker Harvey Milk resettled on Castro Street in 1972 , and opened Castro Camera the following year . Dissatisfied with the level of bureaucratic apathy and indifference toward the gay community , Milk decided to run for city supervisor . Through his multiple campaigns , culminating in his 1977 election , he became the political voice for the gay community , promoting himself as the " Mayor of Castro Street . " By 1977 , 25 percent of the population of San Francisco was reported to be gay . On Labor Day of 1974 , tensions between the gay community and the SFPD came to a head when a man was beaten and arrested while walking down Castro Street . Police reinforcements suddenly appeared on the street , their badge numbers hidden , and beat dozens of gay men . Of these , 14 were arrested and charged with obstructing a sidewalk . Harvey Milk dubbed them the " Castro 14 " , and a $ 1 @.@ 375 million lawsuit was filed against the police . In 1975 , after George Moscone had been elected Mayor , he appointed Charles Gain as his Chief of Police . Gain , whose conciliatory position towards African Americans had branded him as one of the most liberal law enforcement officers in the country , soon earned the ire of the police force . Gain implemented policies that proved unpopular with his staff , such as painting police cars powder blue , and barring officers from drinking on the job . His lenient policies towards gays also angered the police force . When asked what he would do if a gay police officer came out , Gain replied " I certainly think that a gay policeman could be up front about it under me . If I had a gay policeman who came out , I would support him 100 percent . " This statement sent shockwaves through the police department , and made national headlines . Made during the first week of Gain 's tenure , the remark also made Mayor Moscone extremely unpopular with the police . The two were so intensely disliked by the police that in 1977 rumors circulated about a plan by right @-@ wing police officers to assassinate Gain , and a year later similar plans formed targeting Mayor Moscone . Upon being informed of this threat , Moscone hired a bodyguard . = = = Assassinations = = = Dissatisfied with city politics , and in financial difficulty due to his failing restaurant business and low annual salary of $ 9 @,@ 600 , former police officer and Supervisor Dan White resigned from the San Francisco Board of Supervisors on November 10 , 1978 . However , after a meeting with the Police Officers ' association and the Board of Realtors , White announced that he wanted his seat back . Liberal Supervisors saw this as an opportunity to end the 6 @-@ 5 split on the Board that blocked progressive initiatives they wanted to introduce . After intense lobbying by Supervisors Milk and Silver , as well as State Assemblyman Willie Brown , Moscone announced on November 26 , 1978 , that he would not be reappointing Dan White to the seat he had vacated . The next morning White went to City Hall armed with his police .38 Smith & Wesson revolver and 10 extra cartridges in his coat pocket . To avoid the metal detector he entered the building through a basement window , and proceeded to the office of Mayor George Moscone . Following a brief argument , White shot the Mayor in the shoulder and chest , and then twice in the head . White then walked to his former office , reloading his gun , and asked Milk to join him . White then shot Milk in the wrist , shoulder and chest , and then twice in the head , execution style . Supervisor Dianne Feinstein heard the gunshots and called the police , who found Milk on his stomach , blood pouring out of his head wounds . = = Riots = = = = = Dan White verdict = = = On May 21 , 1979 , White was found guilty of the voluntary manslaughter of Mayor Moscone and Supervisor Milk . The prosecutor asked for a finding of first @-@ degree murder with " special circumstances " , which would have permitted the death penalty under the terms of a recently adopted capital punishment law in California , Proposition 7 . The " special circumstances " alleged in this case were that Mayor Moscone had been killed in order to block the appointment of someone to fill the City Supervisor seat from which Dan White had resigned , and also that multiple people were killed . White 's sentence was reduced due in part to the so @-@ called Twinkie defense , a judgment that provoked outrage in the community . The " Twinkie " defense was presented by a psychiatrist to the jury , stating that White had a diminished capacity due to depression . The copious amounts of junk food White consumed are cited as a symptom of his mental state . It has also been stated that the refined sugars present in White 's diet preceding the killings may have fueled the depression . The jury was also composed of persons whom were predominantly Roman Catholic , working @-@ class , heterosexual , and white — essentially , the same demographic in the city who felt sympathy for White . The jury heard a tape recording of White 's confession , which consisted of highly emotional ranting about the pressure he was under , and members of the jury wept in sympathy for the defendant . White represented the " old guard " of San Francisco , who were wary of the influx of minority groups into the city and represented a more conservative , traditional view that the more liberal forces in the city , like Moscone and Milk , were perceived to be eroding . The San Francisco Police Department had , in conjunction with the fire department , raised more than $ 100 @,@ 000 to defend White , which earned the anger of the gay community . He received a conviction for the least serious offense , voluntary manslaughter , and sentenced to seven years and eight months in Soledad prison . With good behavior he had the chance to be released after serving two @-@ thirds of his sentence , about five years . Upon hearing the verdict , District Attorney Joseph Freitas , Jr . , said " It was a wrong decision . The jury was overwhelmed by emotions and did not sufficiently analyze the evidence that this was deliberate , calculated murder . " In defense of his client , White 's attorney Douglas Schmidt stated that White " is filled with remorse and I think he 's in a very bad condition . " White would later confirm that the killings were premeditated . In 1984 , he told former police Inspector Frank Falzon that not only had he planned to kill Moscone and Milk , but also had plans to kill Assemblyman Willie Brown and Supervisor Carol Ruth Silver . He believed that the four politicians were attempting to block his reinstatement as Supervisor . Falzon quoted White as having said , " I was on a mission . I wanted four of them . Carol Ruth Silver , she was the biggest snake ... and Willie Brown , he was masterminding the whole thing . " = = = March through the Castro = = = When told of the verdict , Milk 's friend and activist Cleve Jones addressed an audience of about 500 people that had gathered on Castro Street , telling them of the verdict . With shouts of " Out of the bars and into the streets " Jones led a crowd down Castro street , its numbers bolstered by people emerging from each bar . The crowd circled around and marched through the Castro again , by now numbering about 1 @,@ 500 people . In a 1984 interview , Jones gave a voice to the feeling in the crowd as they began to group together on Castro Street after news of the verdict spread , stating , " The rage in people ’ s face — I saw people I ’ d known for years , and they were so furious . That to me was the scariest thing . All these people I ’ d know from the neighborhood , boys from the corner , these people I ’ d ridden the bus with , just out there , screaming for blood . " = = = Violence at City Hall = = = By the time the crowd reached City Hall its numbers had increased to over 5 @,@ 000 . Protesters shouted slogans such as " Kill Dan White ! " and " Dump Dianne ! " , a reference to Mayor Dianne Feinstein . The handful of police officers on duty at the scene were uncertain about how to deal with the situation , and the Police Department , which was unaccustomed to an angry gay crowd , was similarly uncertain of how to proceed . The protesters were convinced that the police and prosecution had conspired to avoid a severe sentence for White , although Prosecutor Thomas Norman denied this repeatedly until his death . Members of the crowd tore gilded ornamental work from the building 's wrought iron doors and then used it to break first floor windows . Several of Harvey Milk 's friends monitored and attempted to hold back the crowd , including former lover Scott Smith . A formation of police appeared on the north side of the Civic Center Plaza , and those attempting to hold back the mob sat down , grateful for the reinforcements . The officers however did not restrain themselves to holding back the crowd , and instead attacked them with night sticks . One young man kicked and smashed the window of a police car , lit a pack of matches , and set the upholstery on fire . After burning for a short time , the fuel tank exploded ; a dozen more police cars and eight other automobiles would be destroyed in a similar fashion . The photo on the front cover of the Dead Kennedys 1980 album Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables , which shows several police cars on fire , was taken that night . Several crowd members threw tear gas , which they had stolen from police vehicles . Riots began to break out , with one mob disrupting traffic . Electric trollies were disabled when their overhead wires were pulled down , and violence broke out against the police officers , who were outnumbered . Police Chief Charles Gain , standing inside City Hall , ordered officers not to attack and to simply stand their ground . Mayor Feinstein and Supervisor Carol Ruth Silver addressed the demonstrators in an attempt to defuse the situation . Mayor Feinstein said that she had received news of the verdict " with disbelief " , and Supervisor Silver stated , " Dan White has gotten away with murder . It 's as simple as that . " Silver was injured when struck by a flying object . More than 140 protesters were also injured . = = = Police retaliation = = = After nearly three hours of shouts from the angry crowd , officers moved in to quell the riot . Police reportedly covered their badges with black tape — preventing any identification — and attacked rioters . Dozens of police officers swept into the crowd , using tear gas to force protesters away from the building . Police were surprised at the resistance they faced from the protesters , who attempted to push them back using tree branches , chrome torn off city buses , and asphalt ripped from the street , as weapons . As one man ignited the last police car he shouted to a reporter " Make sure you put in the paper that I ate too many Twinkies . " Sixty officers were injured , and about two dozen arrests were made . The second stage of the violence was a police raid / riot hours later in the predominantly gay Castro neighborhood , which vandalized the Elephant Walk bar and injured many of its occupants . After order was restored at City Hall , SFPD cars carrying dozens of officers headed into the Castro District . Officers entered a gay bar called the Elephant Walk , despite their orders not to do so . They shouted " dirty cocksuckers " and " sick faggots " , shattered the large plate glass windows of the bar , and attacked patrons . After 15 minutes police withdrew from the bar and joined other officers who were indiscriminately attacking gays on the street . The incident lasted nearly two hours . When Police Chief Charles Gain heard about the unauthorized Elephant Walk raid , he immediately went to the location and ordered his men to leave . Later that night , freelance reporter Michael Weiss saw a group of police officers celebrating at a downtown bar . " We were at City Hall the day [ the killings ] happened and we were smiling then , " one officer explained . " We were there tonight and we 're still smiling . " At least 61 police officers and an estimated 100 members of the public were hospitalized in the course of the riot . A civil grand jury convened to find out who ordered the attack , but it ended inconclusively with a settlement covering personal injury claims and damages . = = = Aftermath = = = The next morning gay leaders convened in a committee room in the Civic Center . Supervisor Harry Britt , who had replaced Milk , along with the more militant gays of the Harvey Milk Democratic Club , made it clear that nobody was to apologize for the riots . Britt informed a press conference , " Harvey Milk 's people do not have anything to apologize for . Now the society is going to have to deal with us not as nice little fairies who have hairdressing salons , but as people capable of violence . We 're not going to put up with Dan Whites anymore . " Reporters were surprised that a public official would condone the violent acts of the previous night , expecting an apology from Britt . Subsequent attempts to find a gay leader who would give an apologetic statement proved unsuccessful . That evening , May 22 , would have been the 49th birthday of Harvey Milk . City officials had considered revoking the permit for a rally planned for that night , but decided against it for fear of sparking more violence . Officials stated that the rally could channel the community 's anger into something positive . Police from San Francisco and its neighboring towns were placed on alert by Mayor Feinstein , and Cleve Jones coordinated contingency plans with the police , and trained 300 monitors to keep an eye on the crowd . Approximately 20 @,@ 000 people gathered on Castro and Market streets , where the mood was " angry , but subdued . " Officers monitored the crowd from a distance , however the crowd engaged in a peaceful celebration of Milk 's life . Attendees danced to popular disco songs , drank beer , and sang a tribute to Milk . On the same night , for over three hours about a hundred people held a demonstration at Sheridan Square in Manhattan , to protest the verdict . About 20 officers observed the protest , which began at 8 pm , but no arrests were made . A candlelight vigil was planned for two days ahead , sponsored by the Coalition for Lesbian and Gay Rights and the National Gay Task Force . On October 14 , 1979 , between 75 @,@ 000 and 125 @,@ 000 people marched on Washington for gay rights . Many carried portraits of Milk , and placards honoring his legacy . The rally , something that Milk had intended to organize , was instead a tribute to his life . Dan White was released from prison on January 14 , 1984 after serving five years of a seven @-@ year , eight @-@ month sentence . On the evening following his release , 9 @,@ 000 people marched down Castro street and burned his effigy . State authorities reportedly feared an assassination attempt , and in response Scott Smith urged people not to retaliate with violence . He stated , " Harvey was against the death penalty . He was a nonviolent person . " White committed suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning on October 21 , 1985 . He connected a rubber hose to his car 's exhaust system and routed it to the interior of the vehicle , which he let fill with carbon monoxide . Mayor Feinstein said , " This latest tragedy should close a very sad chapter in this city 's history . " According to Orange County lawyer Jeff Walsworth , White had expressed remorse for the killings in February 1984 . White reportedly stated that it would always cause him inner turmoil . Inspector Falzone said the contrary , however , commenting that at no time did White express remorse in any form at the deaths of Moscone and Milk . = = Analysis = = = = = Causes = = = The community had a long history of conflict with the San Francisco Police Department . Following World War II , gay bars were subject to frequent raids and attempts by the California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control to revoke their alcohol licenses . They were accused of serving alcohol to homosexuals , a criminal act at the time . The growing political and economic power of the city 's gay community conflicted with the established but dwindling numbers of the conservative institutions , such as the police and fire departments . By 1971 , police were arresting an average of 2 @,@ 800 men per year on public sex charges ; by contrast , 63 such arrests were made in New York City , although up to a quarter of San Francisco was reported to be gay at the time . Many charges were dismissed due to entrapment , but several men were given harsh sentences . When Dan White was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter , his successful diminished capacity defense enraged the gay community . That the police and fire departments had raised money for his defense gave their anger a focus , turning it against the city government and especially the SFPD . = = = Effects on San Francisco politics = = = With the 1979 municipal elections occurring only months after the riot , prominent gay leaders feared a backlash at the polls . The elections continued without incident , and the gay community fared better than expected , wielding unprecedented influence . Although the virtually unknown gay Mayoral candidate David Scott finished third in the election , his showing was strong enough to force Mayor Feinstein into a runoff election against conservative City Supervisor Quentin Kopp . Feinstein 's promises to appoint more gay people to public office , and her heavy campaigning in the Castro , ensured that she won enough support from the gay community to give her a full term as Mayor . One of Mayor Feinstein 's first actions upon being elected was to announce the appointment of Cornelius Murphy as the new Chief of Police . Murphy declared that police cars would no longer be colored powder blue , but instead would be repainted as " macho black @-@ and @-@ whites . " This pleased the rank and file , and restored confidence in police leadership . Murphy also vowed to maintain the progressive policy towards gays that his predecessor had implemented . By 1980 , one in seven new police recruits was either gay or lesbian . In one of his last public appearances , outgoing Police Chief Charles Gain stated that he fully expected to see the day when San Francisco would have both a gay mayor and Chief of Police . By October 1985 , an organization for gay law enforcement personnel in California , the Golden State Peace Officers Association , had incorporated as a non @-@ profit organization . It was founded by Art Roth , an Oakland police officer who was present on the night of the riots . Thirty years after the announcement of Dan White 's guilty verdict , the Supreme Court of California prepared their decision on Strauss v. Horton . The case was an attempt to overturn Proposition 8 , which had added the statement " Only marriage between a man and a woman is valid or recognized in California " to Article I , section 7 @.@ 5 of the California State Constitution . This ballot initiative , which was approved in 2008 , eliminated the right of same @-@ sex couples to marry in the state . In late May 2009 , while the Court was preparing its announcement , rumors surfaced on the Internet that San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom had asked the court not to announce the decision on May 21 . They suggested that he made this request so that the announcement would not coincide with the 30th anniversary of the White Night riots . On May 26 , the court upheld the validity of Proposition 8 , but ruled that the 18 @,@ 000 marriages that had already been performed would remain valid . = = = Effects on the AIDS movement = = = Cleve Jones played a major role in the investigation of the riots , and had since become a prominent activist . He dropped out of school to work as a legislative consultant to California State Assembly Speakers Leo McCarthy and Willie Brown . He also spent time organizing political campaigns . In 1981 , while working as a consultant to the California State Assembly Health Committee , he became aware of gay men in San Francisco contracting unusual diseases , such as Kaposi 's sarcoma . The gay community was eventually seriously affected by the AIDS epidemic , and Jones became a key AIDS activist . Jones co @-@ founded the Kaposi 's Sarcoma Research & Education Foundation , which in 1982 became the San Francisco AIDS Foundation . On November 27 , 1985 , at a candlelight vigil on the anniversary of the Moscone @-@ Milk assassinations , Jones learned that 1 @,@ 000 people had died of AIDS . He proposed the creation of a quilt , in remembrance of those who had died . In 1987 , Jones , by then HIV @-@ positive himself , launched the NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt . As of 2009 , the quilt consists of over 44 @,@ 000 individual panels . In a 2004 interview , Jones said " I thought , what a perfect symbol ; what a warm , comforting , middle @-@ class , middle @-@ American , traditional @-@ family @-@ values symbol to attach to this disease that 's killing homosexuals and IV drug users and Haitian immigrants , and maybe , just maybe , we could apply those traditional family values to my family . "
= Ashita , Haru ga Kitara = " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " ( 明日、春が来たら , " Tomorrow , If Spring Comes " ) is a song by Japanese entertainer Takako Matsu from her debut album , Sora no Kagami ( 1997 ) . It was released on March 21 , 1997 , through BMG Japan as her debut single . The song was written by Yūji Sakamoto and Daisuke Hinata , while Hinata produced the song . Following the wrap @-@ up of the drama Long Vacation , she decided to give singing a try upon the suggestion of one of its directors . The track was recorded in Santa Monica , California , and is a mid @-@ tempo J @-@ pop song composed in the key of B minor . Its lyrics recite a young girl 's memories of her love for a boy in her high school days . It has been praised by critics and associated with the onset of spring in Japan , having re @-@ entered the airplay charts in Japan around that time , even years after its initial release . It has also been covered by many other artists like Namie Amuro , Masaharu Fukuyama , and Ayumi Shibata . The single peaked at number 8 on the Oricon singles chart and spent 20 weeks in the top 20 of the chart . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments exceeding 400 @,@ 000 copies . Ten years after its initial release , Matsu released a new version of the song titled " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara 97 – 07 " in March 2007 . The re @-@ release contains updated lyrics reflecting changes in the artist 's mind . By intermixing her vocals with her vocals from 10 years before , new version contrasts the two . The new version was featured on her album Cherish You ( 2007 ) and also on her compilation album Footsteps : 10th Anniversary Complete Best ( 2008 ) . As of 2014 , Matsu has performed the song on all of her concert tours as well as other events , including NHK 's Kōhaku Uta Gassen in 1997 . = = Background and release = = Growing up , Takako Matsu practiced piano and took vocal training as a child . Prior to releasing music , she acted in various television drama and plays . In 1996 , she acted in the drama Long Vacation , which became very popular in Japan . At the wrap up party of the drama , the director of the series at that time heard her perform karaoke and suggested that she try singing . Although taken aback and hesitant at first , she later agreed , as she felt it was not a chance that everyone received and because she liked singing ; she felt it might work out somehow . " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " was written by Yūji Sakamoto and Daisuke Hinata , both of whom had worked with Matsu . Sakamoto had been Tokyo Love Story 's screenwriter and Hinata had been in charge of the music of Long Vacation . Hinata provided the music and arrangement to " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " . The track was recorded at the Hyper Image Studio in Santa Monica , California , in January 1997 . Hinata himself mixed the audio while Steve Hall mastered it . Cagnet provided instrumentation to the song . The record was produced by Kozo Nagayama , who had also produced Long Vacation . Initially , another song was selected to be released as Matsu 's debut single . However , it was scrapped for unknown reasons and " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " was selected instead . Matsu debuted the song on radio on February 14 , 1997 , and the single was physically released on March 21 , 1997 through BMG Japan as an 8 cm CD single . = = Composition = = " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " is a mid @-@ tempo J @-@ pop track with a " gentle melody " , that lasts for 4 minutes and 13 seconds . According to the original score published by Doremi Music Publishing , it is composed in the key of B minor and in the common verse @-@ chorus song structure with a tempo of 110 beats per minute . The track opens with an instrumental introduction with a chord progression of Gmaj7 – F ♯ m7 – Bm . As it reaches the chorus , the progression shifts to G – A – F ♯ m – Bm7 . The same pattern is repeated throughout the song . The lyrics of the song , written from the perspective of a girl , sees her recollect the memories of her love with a member of her high school baseball team and how she hopes to meet him again " tomorrow , if spring comes " . Upon the album 's release , Yoshitake Maeda , writing for BMG Japan , commented that Sakamoto probably reminisced on his teenage years through the song . The b @-@ side of the single " Zutto ... Iyō yo " was written by Matsu and produced by Hinata . Matsu decided to give it the theme of three girls going out for a drive . However , she commented that no matter how others looked at it , it seemed as if the song is about two girls . The song opens with an " electro " introduction and utilizes a warped guitar throughout . In addition to the two songs , the single also featured the original karaoke track to " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " . An LP titled Remix Hyper Bug containing remixes of " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " by DJ Craig William — " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " ( Hyper Bug Mix ) and " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " ( Techno Dub Mix ) was released on August 21 , 1997 through BMG Victor . It also features a remix of the album track " Love Sick " , titled " Love Sick ( Deep Sick Mix ) " . = = Reception = = A reviewer for CD Journal commended " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " for being " pure " and noted that Matsu 's " unobtrusive [ and ] naked voice " is like " sitting in a sunny spot on early spring day " . Similarly , Rolling Stone Japan wrote that the song has a " heartwarming " production , which they noted has become synonymous with Takako Matsu . Another reviewer for CD Journal said that the b @-@ side , " Zutto ... Iyō yo " ' s arrangement makes it an " impressive pop song " . Since its release , " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " has often been associated with the onset of spring in Japan . The song also entered the top requests list of many FM radio stations around the same time . Since the introduction of Billboard Japan in 2010 , the song has spiked on its airplay charts during the time of spring . It was also included on the compilation True Love : Spring Memorial Songs in 2003 . In a web poll conducted in 2013 by MyNavi news asking people about their favorite spring song , " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara " was ranked at number 10 . The single debuted at number 15 on the Oricon singles chart during the week following its release in March 1997 , selling 35 @,@ 640 copies . A few weeks later , it moved to number 8 , moving 46 @,@ 400 copies , which became its peak position . The single spent nine weeks in the top 20 , including two in the top 10 , and finished at number 75 on the yearly chart , due to sales of 428 @,@ 170 copies . As of May 2014 , it has sold 431 @,@ 540 copies in Japan and has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for shipments of over 400 @,@ 000 copies . = = Live performances and covers = = In 1997 , Matsu performed the song at the 48th Kōhaku Uta Gassen in 1997 , representing the " Red " team in the event . The previous year , before her debut as a singer , she had hosted the " Red " team . This made Matsu , who was 19 at that time , the youngest person to reach that position in the event . In June of the same year , she appeared on the show Love Love Aishiteru , her first music talk show appearance , and performed the song along with a cover of Seiko Matsuda 's " Hitomi wa Diamond " ( 1983 ) . She has performed the song on all of her concert tours — from the Piece of Life ( 2001 ) through Time for Music ( 2010 ) . On the Cherish You ( 2007 ) and Time for Music concert tours , she performed the 97 – 07 version of the song . A footage of performance from the Piece of Life tour was used to promote the DVD release of the concert . Apart from the tours , she has also performed the song on various televised appearances . In 2003 , she appeared on the talk show hosted by Japanese singer Ayumi Hamasaki and performed the song and " Ashita ni Kuchizuke o " ( 2003 ) alongside Hamasaki . Three years later , Matsu sang the song on Music Fair , alongside Sukima Switch . In 2009 , Matsu performed the song on the FM802 sponsored event Radio Magic , with Yoshiyuki Sahashi directing the backing band to a crowd of about 12 @,@ 000 people . A writer for Barks wrote that Matsu 's vocals sounded " transparent " and the whole performance had a " refreshing feeling " . Oricon magazine commented that Matsu sang " cheerfully " while " running around the stage " . The same year , she performed it on the Christmas no Yakusoku 2009 ( クリスマスの約束2009 ) show organized by TBS . In 2014 , she performed the song again for NHK , at the J @-@ Pop Heisei Music Graffiti ( J @-@ POP 平成ミュージック・グラフィティー ) event . The song was covered by Hiromi Hirata as Makoto Kikuchi of The Idolmaster series as a " Special Request " song . It was later included in the album , The Idolmaster Special Spring ( 2010 ) , released through Nippon Columbia . The album peaked at number 18 on the Oricon Albums Chart . It was also covered for the spring compilation Cafe de Nagareru Sweet Jazz 20 the Best Sakura Songs , which peaked at number 39 on the Oricon albums chart . The song has also been covered by many mainstream pop artists like Namie Amuro in 1997 , for the show The Yoru mo Hippare ( THE夜もヒッパレ , " The Night of Hit Parade " ) , in 1998 by Masaharu Fukuyama for All Night Nippon , and in 2008 by Ayumi Shibata for Uta Doki ! Pop Classics ( 歌ドキッ ! 〜ポップクラシックス〜 ) . = = Track listing = = = = Personnel = = Adapted from Sora no Kagami liner notes . Takako Matsu – vocals Daisuke Hinata – keyboards , programming , mixing Bud Rizzo – guitars , bass , programming Shinnosuke Soramachi – acoustic guitar Steve Hall – mastering = = Re @-@ release = = A re @-@ recorded version of the song was released as a single to commemorate Matsu 's tenth anniversary in music industry , to digital outlets like iTunes , mora , and also in Chaku @-@ Uta format , both as ringtone and the full song on March 21 , 2007 . The new version titled , " Ashita , Haru ga Kitara 97 – 07 " ( 明日、春が来たら 97 – 07 ) was recorded at the Mouri Art Works Studio in Tokyo . Its modified lyrics penned by Yūji Sakamoto , the writer of the original song , are meant to convey the emotions of the singer ten years into her debut . In addition , Matsu 's vocals from the original version are intermixed with the new vocals to contrast the difference between the current Matsu and the Matsu of ten years ago . While talking to NHK at the time of the single 's release , Matsu commented that the new lyrics not only reflect the changes she had made over the past 10 years , but also of Yūji Sakamoto . The new version , running 4 minutes and 54 seconds , was arranged by musician and future husband Yoshiyuki Sahashi . The song was included in her eighth studio album , Cherish You ( 2007 ) . and also on Matsu 's compilation album , Footsteps : 10th Anniversary Complete Best ( 2008 ) . A TV commercial for the new track was also directed by Hiroyuki Itaya . The song was used as the ending theme to the Fuji TV drama , Matsumoto Kisaburō Ikka Monogatari : Ojisan no Daidokoro ( 松本喜三郎一家物語〜おじいさんの台所〜 , " The Story of Matsumoto Kisaburo 's Family : Grandfather 's Kitchen " ) . = = = Reception = = = While reviewing Cherish You , Takayuki Saito of HotExpress magazine noted that the track has a " novel " arrangement and Matsu 's current voice " calls out " to her " innocent " self of ten years ago . He further commented that Matsu 's voice , " full of strength " , helps the listeners realize how much she has grown over the years . CD Journal 's reviewer wrote that the lyrics of the new version are more " positive " than the original version . They further noted that the song " overflows with adventurous spirit " woven with " nostalgia and freshness " . = = = Track listing = = = = = Charts and certifications = =
= Italian ironclad Enrico Dandolo = Enrico Dandolo was the second of two Caio Duilio @-@ class ironclad turret ships built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1870s . They were fitted with the largest guns available , 17 @.@ 72 in ( 450 mm ) rifled , muzzle @-@ loading guns , and were the largest , fastest and most powerful ships of their day . Enrico Dandolo was built in La Spezia , with her keel laid in January 1873 and her hull launched in July 1878 . Construction was finally completed in April 1882 when the ship , named for the 42nd Doge of Venice , was commissioned into the Italian fleet . Enrico Dandolo spent much of her career in the Active Squadron of the Italian fleet , primarily occupied with training exercises . She was heavily modernized in 1895 – 98 , receiving a new battery of fast @-@ firing 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns in place of the old 17 @.@ 72 in guns . The ship served in the Reserve Squadron after 1905 , and then became a gunnery training ship . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , Enrico Dandolo was among the few ships of the Italian fleet to see no action . She was employed as a harbor defense ship , first in Tobruk , Libya in 1913 and then in Brindisi and Venice during World War I. The ship was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1920 . = = Design = = Enrico Dandolo was 109 @.@ 16 meters ( 358 @.@ 1 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 19 @.@ 65 m ( 64 @.@ 5 ft ) and an average draft of 8 @.@ 36 m ( 27 @.@ 4 ft ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 025 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 851 long tons ; 12 @,@ 153 short tons ) normally and up to 12 @,@ 037 t ( 11 @,@ 847 long tons ; 13 @,@ 269 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical compound steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eight coal @-@ fired , rectangular boilers . Her engines produced a top speed of 15 @.@ 6 knots ( 28 @.@ 9 km / h ; 18 @.@ 0 mph ) at 8 @,@ 045 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 999 kW ) . She could steam for 2 @,@ 875 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 324 km ; 3 @,@ 308 mi ) at a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . She had a crew of 420 officers and men , which later increased to 515 . Enrico Dandolo was armed with a main battery of four 17 @.@ 72 in ( 450 mm ) 20 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two turrets placed en echelon amidships . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried three 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . Enrico Dandolo was protected by belt armor that was 21 @.@ 5 in ( 546 mm ) thick at its strongest section , which protected the ship 's magazines and machinery spaces . Both ends of the belt were connected by transverse bulkheads that were 15 @.@ 75 in ( 400 mm ) thick . She had an armored deck that was 1 @.@ 1 to 2 in ( 28 to 51 mm ) thick . Her gun turrets were armored with 17 in ( 432 mm ) of steel plate . The ship 's bow and stern were not armored , but they were extensively subdivided into a cellular " raft " that was intended to reduce the risk of flooding . = = Service history = = Enrico Dandolo , named after Enrico Dandolo , the 42nd Doge of Venice , was laid down at La Spezia on 6 January 1873 and was launched on 10 July 1878 . Fitting @-@ out work was completed on 11 April 1882 . During the annual fleet maneuvers held in 1885 , Enrico Dandolo served as the flagship of the 1st Division of the " Western Squadron " , with Vice Admiral Martini commanding . She was joined by her sister Caio Duilio , the protected cruiser Giovanni Bausan , and a sloop . The " Western Squadron " attacked the defending " Eastern Squadron " , simulating a Franco @-@ Italian conflict , with operations conducted off Sardinia . During the following year 's fleet maneuvers , which began on 10 June , Enrico Dandolo was assigned to the " defending squadron " , along with the ironclads Palestro , Castelfidardo , and Affondatore , the protected cruiser Dogali , the torpedo cruiser Folgore , and several smaller vessels . The first half of the maneuvers tested the ability to attack and defend the Strait of Messina , and concluded in time for a fleet review by King Umberto I on the 21st . The second phase consisted of joint maneuvers with the Italian Army ; the fleet was tasked with attempting to force an amphibious landing , which it effected at San Vicenzo on 30 July , the last day of the exercises . Enrico Dandolo took part in the annual 1888 fleet maneuvers , along with the ironclads Lepanto , Italia , Caio Duilio , and San Martino , one protected cruiser , four torpedo cruisers , and numerous smaller vessels . The maneuvers consisted of close @-@ order drills and a simulated attack on and defense of La Spezia . The ship served as the flagship of the 3rd Division of the Active Squadron during the 1893 fleet maneuvers , along with the ironclad Affondatore , the torpedo cruiser Goito , and four torpedo boats . During the maneuvers , which lasted from 6 August to 5 September , the ships of the Active Squadron simulated a French attack on the Italian fleet . For the rest of the year , Enrico Dandolo was assigned to the 2nd Division of the Italian fleet , along with the protected cruiser Vesuvio and the torpedo cruiser Partenope . She was thoroughly reconstructed between 1895 and 1898 to a design created by Inspector Engineer Giacinto Pulino . The ship 's old , slow @-@ firing 17 @.@ 7 in guns were replaced with new quick @-@ firing 10 in ( 250 mm ) guns , and she received a new secondary battery to defend the ship against torpedo boats . The battery consisted of five 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns , sixteen 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 43 @-@ caliber quick @-@ firing guns , eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 20 @-@ caliber revolver cannon , and four machine guns . The main battery guns were placed in significantly smaller turrets that had 8 @.@ 8 in ( 220 mm ) of armor plating ; the lighter guns and turrets reduced the ship 's displacement to 10 @,@ 679 t ( 10 @,@ 510 long tons ; 11 @,@ 772 short tons ) normally and 11 @,@ 264 t ( 11 @,@ 086 long tons ; 12 @,@ 416 short tons ) at full load . Enrico Dandolo also received a new engine , though her performance remained the same . The ship 's crew increased to 495 . In 1901 , Enrico Dandolo was joined in the 2nd Division by the ironclads Andrea Doria and Francesco Morosini , the armored cruiser Carlo Alberto , Partenope , and three torpedo boats . She remained in service in the Active Squadron the following year , with Andrea Doria , Francesco Morosini , the three Re Umberto @-@ class ironclads , and the new pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Ammiraglio di Saint Bon . In 1905 , Enrico Dandolo was transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with the three Ruggiero di Laurias and the three Re Umbertos , three cruisers , and sixteen torpedo boats . This squadron only entered active service for two months of the year for training maneuvers , and the rest of the year was spent with reduced crews . She thereafter served in the Gunnery School as a training ship , along with the torpedo cruiser Saetta . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , Italia was assigned to the 5th Division of the Italian fleet , the ironclads Italia and Lepanto , but she saw no action during the conflict . She became the guardship at Tobruk , Libya in 1913 and was transferred to Brindisi and Venice during World War I. While stationed at Brindisi , six of her 37 mm guns were removed . She was stricken on 23 January 1920 and later broken up for scrap .
= Deusdedit of Canterbury = Deusdedit ( died c . 664 ) , perhaps originally named Frithona , Frithuwine or Frithonas , was a medieval Archbishop of Canterbury , the first native @-@ born holder of the see of Canterbury . By birth an Anglo @-@ Saxon , he became archbishop in 655 and held the office for more than nine years until his death , probably from plague . Deusdedit 's successor as archbishop was one of his priests at Canterbury . There is some controversy over the exact date of Deusdedit 's death , owing to discrepancies in the medieval written work that records his life . Little is known about his episcopate , but he was considered to be a saint after his demise . A saint 's life was written after his relics were moved from their original burial place in 1091 . = = Life = = A post @-@ Norman Conquest tradition , originating with Goscelin , gives Deusdedit 's original name as Frithona , possibly a corruption of Frithuwine . He was consecrated by Ithamar , Bishop of Rochester , on 26 March or perhaps 12 March 655 . He was the sixth archbishop after the arrival of the Gregorian missionaries , and the first to be a native of the island of Great Britain rather than an Italian , having been born a West Saxon . One reason for the long period between the Christianization of the Kentish kingdom from Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism in about 600 and the appointment of the first native archbishop may have been the need for the schools established by the Gregorian missionaries to educate the natives to a sufficiently high standard for them to take ecclesiastical office . Deusdedit probably owed his appointment to the see of Canterbury to a collaboration between Eorcenberht of Kent and Cenwalh of Wessex . The name Deusdedit means " God has given " in Latin , and had been the name of a recent pope , Deusdedit , in office from 615 to 618 ; it was the practice of many of the early medieval Saxon bishops to take an adopted name , often from recent papal names . It is unclear when Deusdedit adopted his new name , although the historian Richard Sharpe considers it likely to have been when he was consecrated as an archbishop , rather than when he entered religious life . The see of Canterbury seems at this time to have been passing through a period of comparative obscurity . During Deusdedit 's nine years as archbishop , all the new bishops in England were consecrated by Celtic or foreign bishops , with one exception : Deusdedit consecrated Damianus , Ithamar 's successor as Bishop of Rochester . Deusdedit did , however , found a nunnery in the Isle of Thanet and helped with the foundation of Medeshamstede Abbey , later Peterborough Abbey , in 657 . He was long overshadowed by Agilbert , bishop to the West Saxons , and his authority as archbishop probably did not extend past his own diocese and that of Rochester , which had traditionally been dependent on Canterbury . The Synod of Whitby , which debated whether the Northumbrian church should follow the Roman or the Celtic method of dating Easter , was held in 664 . Deusdedit does not appear to have been present , perhaps because of an outbreak of the plague prevalent in England at the time . = = Death = = Deusdedit died at some time around the Synod of Whitby , although the exact date is disputed . Bede , in the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , states that " On the fourteenth of July in the above mentioned year , when an eclipse was quickly followed by plague and during which Bishop Colman was refuted by the unanimous decision of the Catholics and returned to his own country , Deusdedit the sixth Archbishop of Canterbury died . " A solar eclipse occurred on 1 May 664 , which would appear to make the date of Deusdedit 's death 14 July 664 . But that conflicts with Bede 's own information earlier in the Historia , where he claims that Deusdedit 's predecessor , Honorius , " died on the 30th of September 653 , and after a vacancy of 18 months , Deusdedit , a West Saxon was elected to the archiepiscopal see and became the 6th Archbishop . He was consecrated by Ithamar , Bishop of Rochester , on the 26th of May , and ruled the see until his death nine years , four months , and two days later . " If this information is accurate , then Deusdedit must have died on 28 July 664 . Various methods of reconciling these discrepancies have been proposed . Frank Stenton argues that Bede began his years on 1 September ; thus the date of Honorius ' death should be considered 30 September 652 in modern reckoning . Further , Stenton argued that medieval copyists had introduced an error into the manuscripts of the Historia , and that Bede meant that the length of Deusdedit 's reign was 9 years and 7 months , rather than 9 years and 4 months as stated in the manuscripts . From this , he concludes that Deusdedit 's death occurred in the year September 663 to September 664 . This would make the year of death correct according to the eclipse , but still leave a discrepancy on the specific day of death , for which Stenton asserted the length calculations given by Bede were more correct than the actual death date given . Thus Stenton concluded that Deusdedit died on 28 October 663 . Other historians , including Richard Abels , P. Grosjean , and Alan Thacker , state that Deusdedit died on 14 July 664 . The main argument was put forward by Grosjean , who claimed that Bede had the consecration date wrong , as 26 May was Maundy Thursday in 655 , not a date that would normally have been chosen for a consecration . Grosjean argues that the best method for resolving the conflicts is to just take 14 July 664 as the date of death , and figure backwards with the length of reign given by Bede , which gives a consecration date of 12 March 655 . Thacker and Abels agree generally , although Thacker does not give a specific consecration date beyond March . Abels adds to Grosjean 's arguments Bede 's association of Deusdedit 's death with that of King Eorcenberht , which Bede gives as occurring on the same day . Bede states that the plague of 664 began soon after the eclipse on 1 May . Nothing in Bede contradicts the date of 14 July 664 for Eorcenberht ; therefore , Abels considers that date to be the best fit for the available data . The historian D. P. Kirby agrees that Deusdedit died in 664 , although he does not give a precise date within that year . Most historians state that Deusdedit died of the plague that was prevalent in England at the time . Because Bede records the death of Deusdedit shortly after he mentions the outbreak of the plague , the historian J. R. Maddicott asserts that both Deusdedit and Eorcenberht were struck suddenly with the disease and died quickly . Bede is not specific on the type of plague , but Maddicott argues that because of the time of its eruption and the way it arrived in England it was probably bubonic plague . Although Bede does not describe either Eorcenberht or Deusdedit 's symptoms he does discuss another victim of the 664 disease , who suffered from a tumour on his thigh , resembling the characteristic groin swellings of bubonic plague . = = Legacy = = Except for the bare facts of his life , little is known about Deusdedit . Deusdedit 's successor as Archbishop of Canterbury , Wighard , had been one of his clergy . Deusdedit was regarded as a saint after his death , with a feast day of 14 July , although the Bosworth Psalter , a late 10th or early 11th @-@ century psalter produced at St Augustine 's Abbey , gives a date of 15 July . His feast day is designated as a major feast day , and is included along with those of a number of other early Canterbury archbishops in the Bosworth Psalter . Deusdedit was buried in the church of St Augustine 's in Canterbury , but was translated to the new abbey church in 1091 . A hagiography , or saint 's biography , on Deusdedit was written by Goscelin after the translation of his relics , but the work was based mainly on Bede 's account ; the manuscript of the De Sancto Deusdedit Archiepiscopo survives as part of British Library manuscript ( ms ) Cotton Vespasian B.xx. Because of the late date of the Sancto , Bede 's Historia is the main source for what little is known about Deusdedit . Other than the hagiography , there is scant evidence of a cult surrounding him . His shrine survived until the dissolution of the monasteries in the 1530s . = = Note = =
= Dresden @-@ class cruiser = The Dresden class was a pair of light cruisers built for the Imperial German Navy in the early part of the 20th century . The class comprised SMS Dresden , the lead ship , and SMS Emden . Both ships were laid down in 1906 ; Dresden was launched in 1907 , and Emden followed in 1908 . They entered service in 1908 and 1909 , respectively . The design for the ships was an incremental improvement over the preceding Königsberg class , being slightly larger and slightly faster , but with the same primary armament of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns . Dresden and Emden were powered by steam turbines and triple expansion engines , respectively , as part of continued experiments with the new turbine technology . Both ships served extensively on foreign stations ; Emden was assigned to the East Asia Squadron from her commissioning , and Dresden was sent to Caribbean waters in 1913 . Dresden was due to return to Germany for periodic maintenance shortly before the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but this became impossible with the onset of hostilities . She therefore operated as a commerce raider , before linking up with Vizeadmiral Maximilian von Spee 's East Asia Squadron . Dresden thereafter participated in the Battle of Coronel in November 1914 and the Battle of the Falkland Islands the following December . She was the only German vessel to escape destruction at the latter engagement , and she remained at large for several more months . Dresden finally put into the Chilean island of Más a Tierra in March 1915 owing to worn @-@ out engines . A pair of British cruisers violated Chilean neutrality and attacked Dresden while she lay at anchor ; the Germans scuttled their ship to prevent her capture . Emden , meanwhile , had been detached from the East Asia Squadron to pursue an independent commerce raiding campaign in the Indian Ocean . She captured or sank numerous Entente vessels , including the steamer Ryazan , which was converted into the auxiliary cruiser Cormoran . In September 1914 , Emden raided Penang and caught the Russian protected cruiser Zhemchug and the French destroyer Mousquet and quickly destroyed both ships . Shortly thereafter , Emden was caught by the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney off the Cocos Islands and forced to beach after a ferocious engagement . = = Design = = The two ships of the Dresden class were ordered in the 1905 – 1906 construction program . Their design represents an incremental improvement over the earlier Königsberg class . They carried the same main battery of 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns on a slightly greater displacement . Like the Königsbergs , one ship — Dresden — was fitted with a steam turbine engine to compare its performance with the traditional triple @-@ expansion engine in an otherwise @-@ identical sister ship . All subsequent designs of German cruisers utilized turbine propulsion systems . = = = General characteristics = = = The two Dresden @-@ class cruisers were 117 @.@ 90 meters ( 386 ft 10 in ) long at the waterline and 118 @.@ 30 m ( 388 ft 1 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 50 m ( 44 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 53 m ( 18 ft 2 in ) forward . They displaced 3 @,@ 664 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 606 long tons ) as designed and up to 4 @,@ 268 t ( 4 @,@ 201 long tons ) at full combat load . Their hulls were constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames . The hulls contained thirteen watertight compartments and had a double bottom that extended for 47 percent of the length of the keel . The ships were good sea boats , but they were crank and rolled up to twenty degrees . They were also very wet at high speeds and suffered from a slight weather helm . Nevertheless , the ships turned tightly and were very maneuverable . In a hard turn , their speed fell up to 35 percent . They had a transverse metacentric height of .59 m ( 1 ft 11 in ) . Dresden and Emden had a crew of 18 officers and 343 enlisted men . They carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . = = = Machinery = = = Dresden 's propulsion system consisted of two Parsons steam turbines , designed to give 15 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 11 @,@ 185 kW ) . Emden , instead , was equipped with two triple expansion engines rated at 13 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 067 kW ) . Both ships had a top speed of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . In both vessels , the engines were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Both ships carried up to 860 metric tons ( 850 long tons ) of coal , though their ranges were slightly different , owing to their different propulsion systems . Dresden could steam for 3 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 700 km ; 4 @,@ 100 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , while Emden had a range of 3 @,@ 760 nmi ( 6 @,@ 960 km ; 4 @,@ 330 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Electrical power was supplied by three turbo @-@ generators that provided a total of 125 kilowatts at 110 volts . = = = Armament and armor = = = The ships were armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 13 @,@ 900 yd ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . The ships were also equipped with eight 5 @.@ 2 cm SK L / 55 guns with 4 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . Both ships were also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ships were protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick amidships with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick sloping armor on the sides . The deck was reduced to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) further aft and then again to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) toward the stern . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm thick shields . = = Construction = = = = Service history = = = = = Dresden = = = Dresden spent most of her career on foreign stations . After her commissioning , she visited the United States in 1909 as part of Germany 's delegation to the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration . She returned to North American waters in late 1913 , when she was stationed off the Mexican coast to protect German nationals during the Mexican Revolution . Following the rebels ' victory the following year , Dresden evacuated the former dictator Victoriano Huerta to Jamaica , where the British had granted him asylum . In need of repairs , the cruiser was scheduled to return to Germany in July 1914 , but the outbreak of World War I prevented this from taking place . Instead , Dresden operated as a commerce raider in South American waters in the Atlantic in the first months of the war before moving to the Pacific Ocean in September and thereafter joining Maximilian von Spee 's East Asia Squadron . Dresden participated in two major battles with the East Asia Squadron . The first , the Battle of Coronel , took place in November , and Dresden engaged the British cruiser HMS Glasgow . The second , the Battle of the Falkland Islands , followed in December , where British battlecruisers annihilated the German squadron ; Dresden was the only vessel to escape . She eluded her British pursuers for several more months , until she put into Más a Tierra in March 1915 . Her engines were worn out and she had almost no coal left for her boilers ; the ship 's captain contacted the local Chilean authorities to have his vessel interned for the duration of the conflict . There , she was trapped by British cruisers , including her old opponent Glasgow ; the British violated Chilean neutrality and opened fire on the ship . The Germans scuttled Dresden and the majority of the crew escaped to be interned in Chile for the duration of the war . The wreck remains in the harbor and was first surveyed in 2002 . = = = Emden = = = Following her commissioning into the fleet , Emden was assigned to the East Asia Squadron . In 1913 , Korvettenkapitän ( Corvette Captain ) Karl von Müller became the ship 's commander . At the outbreak of war , Emden was the only major German warship in Tsingtao , the main German naval base in Asia . Müller immediately began to operate as a commerce raider , and captured one ship , the Russian steamer Ryazan . Emden was thereafter ordered to rendezvous with the rest of Spee 's cruisers . She remained with the East Asia Squadron for only a few days , as Müller convinced Spee to detach Emden as an independent raider in the Indian Ocean . After arriving in the Indian Ocean in September , Emden captured several British merchantmen along the sea lanes from India to Aden . On 22 September , the ship bombarded Madras , before resuming the hunt for merchant ships . She captured several more vessels , and then raided the port of Penang . There , Emden caught the Russian protected cruiser Zhemchug in the harbor and quickly destroyed her . As Emden was departing , she encountered and sank the French destroyer Mousquet . Emden thereafter proceeded to the Cocos Islands , where Müller intended to destroy a wireless station . The Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney reacted to British wireless signals warning of the Germans ' presence . After a fierce gunnery duel , Sydney caused serious damage to Emden and forced her to beach on North Keeling island . Most of her surviving crew , including Müller , were thereafter taken into captivity . The wreck was eventually broken up in situ in the early 1950s by a Japanese salvage company , though parts of the ship remain scattered around the area .
= Green Lake ( Texas ) = Green Lake is a natural tidal lake in Calhoun County , Texas , on the Guadalupe River flood basin . Known for its greenish waters , from which its name derives , the lake is located 12 miles ( 19 km ) west of Port Lavaca and 22 miles ( 35 km ) south of Victoria on the Gulf Coastal Plain . Despite being less than 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the coast of San Antonio Bay , its waters are fresh . It is the largest natural freshwater lake entirely in Texas , covering an area of approximately 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 km ² ) . Separated from San Antonio Bay by the Guadalupe River delta around 2 @,@ 200 years ago , a wetland ecosystem supporting a wide variety of waterfowl developed along the lake shore and the Guadalupe River delta . Archaeological evidence supports claims of Karankawa settlement . An affluent 19th @-@ century agricultural community of the same name established near the lakeside in the mid @-@ 19th century , but dwindled in status , becoming virtually abandoned in the aftermath of the American Civil War . It was strategically important during the early stages of the war , due to its proximity to fresh water and the Gulf of Mexico . After reaching its low point during the Great Depression , the lakeside community modestly rebounded in 1947 following the nearby discovery of oil . A fictional lake of the same name and with a similar history is featured in the 1998 novel Holes . = = Hydrology = = Green Lake is about 13 miles ( 21 km ) in circumference and about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide . The water level is shallower near the shoreline , but is deepest towards the center of the lake several hundred feet from the shore . The bottom is generally flat and averages about 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in depth . The nearby Guadalupe River frequently floods the plain , and is the main source of fresh water renewal . The shoreline is naturally grassy and poorly drained with coastal marshes between the lake and San Antonio Bay . To improve drainage , a levee was constructed in 1967 , separating the lake from the Victoria Barge Canal , which runs along the bay 's northern and eastern shores ; cutting off several bayous from the lake . The canal begins north at an industrial plant outside Victoria and empties in San Antonio Bay in Seadrift . Hog Bayou runs along the western shore of Green Lake , through the Guadalupe Delta Wildlife Management Area to the south , before its confluence with Mission Lake . = = History = = = = = Formation = = = Green Lake formed initially as a northern inlet of San Antonio Bay . As the Guadalupe River shifted westward about 2 @,@ 500 years ago , it deposited silt , developing a delta that prograded into San Antonio Bay . Around 2 @,@ 200 years ago the delta discharge extended completely across the bay , severing the northern extension from the system , which formed present @-@ day Green Lake . Pottery and burial grounds found in the area suggest a presence of Karankawa Indians at the time of formation . Middens uncovered north of the lake contained shells from the brackish water @-@ species of rangia clams ( rangia cuneata ) . = = = Settlement = = = Wealthy cotton farmers from Kentucky established plantations and settled the fertile lands near the lake during the 1850s , establishing the town of Green Lake , Texas . First @-@ hand accounts described it as " the locality of a neighborhood characterized by [ the ] wealth and social standing of the residents . " After the American Civil War , returning residents found that their slaves , livestock and farm equipment had been taken . Most residents relocated . However , in the early 20th century , farmers returned and the town of Green Lake modestly grew to an approximate population of 300 in 1914 . At the time , much of the land in the vicinity was used for livestock grazing . The only profitable commercial uses for the lake itself included transportation of lumber and fishing . Approximately US $ 100 @,@ 000 worth of fish were caught in the lake from 1900 to 1915 . Nevertheless , the lake bed remained dry for extended periods and vegetation covered certain areas . Local residents soon began to use the bed to grow cotton . In 1917 , Texas filed a trespass to try title suit to reclaim the lake bed for the state . In Welder v. State , the Texas Court of Civil Appeals in Austin declared the lake permanent and navigable @-@ in @-@ fact , granting the bed to the state under the purview of the Texas Game , Fish and Oyster Commission ( later Texas Parks and Wildlife Department ) . Without permission from the Texas Attorney General , the Texas Land Commissioner then sold the bed to a private buyer for agricultural use in 1918 . In the 1948 case of State v. Bryan , the Texas Court of Civil Appeals in Austin upheld the sale as valid under color of law , and immune from a trespass to try title suit due to the one @-@ year statute of limitations on land sales . However , under the Texas Water Rights Adjudication Act of 1967 , Green Lake was classified as a public body of water . The Supreme Court of Texas affirmed this classification in 1988 , rejecting the argument of the bed 's then @-@ owner that it was not a lake by definition , but a natural depression flooded with surface runoff . During the Great Depression , the population of the Green Lake settlement dwindled to 25 . It remained low until the discovery of oil in 1947 . Twenty wells were constructed at the Green Lake oilfield , although as of 1984 , only one still operated . By 2000 , the population of Green Lake was 51 , the same number reported in 1970 and 1990 . = = = Civil War = = = The lake played a role in the evacuation of federal troops from Texas at the onset of the American Civil War . As Texas considered whether to secede from the United States , General David E. Twiggs , commander of federal troops in Texas negotiated with state leaders concerning the transfer of federal property . After learning of such negotiations , the United States military moved to decommission Twiggs , and replace him with Colonel Carlos Waite . Texas viewed this move as a rejection of the negotiations and proceeded to forcefully claim the federal property . Twiggs , while awaiting relief from Waite , surrendered the property on the condition that federal troops could peacefully evacuate . They were allowed to depart , but only from the Texas coast . Waite arrived and relocated troops near Green Lake , where they could await coastal departure near an adequate source of freshwater . During the stay , Fort Sumter fell under siege , and Texas grew concerned about the concentration of armed federal troops in the area . With their respective nations now at war , Texas considered the deal with Twiggs void , and began to capture federal troops to force them to either join the Confederacy or be Prisoners of War . Some of the remaining uncaptured companies elsewhere in the state attempted to flee to Green Lake . Several regiments camped by the lake later in the war , and complained about mosquitos . = = Flora and fauna = = In the area around Green Lake there are forests of pecan , black willow , cedar , American elm , hackberry and green ash . To the south , the Guadalupe Delta Wildlife Management Area serves as a wetland habitat for thousands of permanent egrets , and other birds , including the brown pelican , reddish egret , white @-@ faced ibis , wood stork , bald eagle , white @-@ tailed hawk , peregrine falcon , and the whooping crane . American alligators reside in the area as well . Redfish and trout were once the main species of fish living in the lake , until the construction of an embankment reduced their populations . A large quantity of silt is now deposited in the lake from the Guadalupe River , after the dredging of a freshwater channel that supplies farmers and the Union Carbide plant in Seadrift . The channel has negatively affected the delta ecosystem by diminishing the river 's nutritional input . = = In popular culture = = Green Lake , Texas is the setting for Louis Sachar 's 1998 novel Holes , and the 2003 film adaptation . It is described as a dry lake that had once been the largest in the state , surrounded by an affluent community . After a long drought , the lake dried up and the area became a ghost town . Juvenile delinquents were sent to Camp Green Lake to dig holes in the lakebed as punishment .
= X @-@ Men ( film series ) = The X @-@ Men film series is an American series of superhero films based on the fictional superhero team of the same name , who originally appeared in a series of comic books created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby and published by Marvel Comics . 20th Century Fox obtained the film rights to the characters in 1994 , and after numerous drafts , Bryan Singer was hired to direct X @-@ Men ( 2000 ) and its sequel , X2 ( 2003 ) , while Brett Ratner directed X @-@ Men : The Last Stand ( 2006 ) . After each film earned higher box @-@ office grosses than its predecessor , several spin @-@ off films were released , X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine ( 2009 ) , X @-@ Men : First Class ( 2011 ) and The Wolverine ( 2013 ) . X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past , a sequel to both X @-@ Men : The Last Stand and X @-@ Men : First Class , was released in 2014 . Deadpool and X @-@ Men : Apocalypse followed in 2016 . X @-@ Men , X2 , X @-@ Men : First Class , X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past and the spin @-@ offs The Wolverine and Deadpool were all met with positive reviews , with X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past as the best @-@ received film in the series . In the cases of X @-@ Men and X2 , critics especially highlighted their dark , realistic tones and subtexts dealing with discrimination and intolerance , while Deadpool was highlighted for its " faithful " interpretation of the source material and for its R rating . X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine and X @-@ Men : Apocalypse were met with mixed reviews from critics . With nine films released , the X @-@ Men film series is the seventh highest @-@ grossing film franchise of all @-@ time , having grossed over US $ 4 @.@ 3 billion worldwide . It is set to continue with the release of a third Wolverine film in 2017 . = = Films = = = = = X @-@ Men ( 2000 ) = = = The film introduces Wolverine and Rogue into the conflict between Professor Xavier 's X @-@ Men , and the Brotherhood of Mutants , led by Magneto . Magneto intends to mutate world leaders at a United Nations summit with a machine he has built , to bring about acceptance of mutantkind , but Xavier realizes this forced mutation will only result in their deaths . In 1994 , 20th Century Fox and producer Lauren Shuler Donner bought the film rights to the X @-@ Men . Andrew Kevin Walker was hired to write and James Cameron expressed interest in directing . Eventually , Bryan Singer signed on to direct in July 1996 . Although he was not a comic book fan , Singer was fascinated by the analogies of prejudice and discrimination that X @-@ Men offered . John Logan , Joss Whedon , Ed Solomon , Christopher McQuarrie and David Hayter wrote the script , with Hayter receiving sole credit . Principal photography began in September 1999 in Toronto , Canada and ended in March 2000 . The film was released on July 14 , 2000 . = = = X2 ( 2003 ) = = = In the film , Colonel William Stryker brainwashes and questions the imprisoned Magneto about Professor Xavier 's mutant @-@ locating machine , Cerebro . Stryker attacks the X @-@ Mansion , and brainwashes Xavier into locating every mutant on the planet to kill them . The X @-@ Men must team up with the Brotherhood to prevent Stryker 's worldwide genocide . Hayter and Zak Penn were hired to write their own scripts for the sequel which Singer would pick , with an aim to release the film in December 2002 . Michael Dougherty and Dan Harris were hired to re @-@ write the script in February 2002 , writing around 26 drafts and 150 on set . Principal photography began in June 2002 in Vancouver , Canada and ended in November 2002 . The film was released on May 2 , 2003 . = = = X @-@ Men : The Last Stand ( 2006 ) = = = In the film , a pharmaceutical company has developed a suppressor of the mutant gene , provoking controversy in the mutant community . Magneto declares war on the humans and retrieves his own weapon : Phoenix , who is the resurrected former X @-@ Man , Jean Grey . A final battle between the X @-@ Men ( now led by Storm ) and the Brotherhood ensues , and Wolverine must accept that in order to stop Grey , he will have to kill her . Singer initially intended to shoot the film back @-@ to @-@ back with a fourth film , though he left in 2004 to direct Superman Returns . Penn and Simon Kinberg were hired the following month . Whedon 's Astonishing X @-@ Men story " Gifted " , featuring a mutant cure was suggested for the primary story . Matthew Vaughn came on board as director in February 2005 , but left due to the rushed production schedule . Brett Ratner was later hired as director in June . Principal photography began in August 2005 in Vancouver , Canada and ended in January 2006 . The film was released on May 26 , 2006 . = = = X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine ( 2009 ) = = = The film is a prequel and a spin @-@ off focusing on the character Wolverine and his relationship with his half @-@ brother Victor Creed , as well his time with Stryker 's Team X , before and shortly after his skeleton was bonded with the indestructible metal adamantium . David Benioff was hired to write the screenplay for the spin @-@ off film Wolverine in October 2004 . Hugh Jackman became producer as well as star , and worked with Benioff on the script . Ratner was negotiated by the studio to take the helm of Wolverine after directing X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , but no agreement was made . In July 2007 , Gavin Hood was hired as director . Principal photography began in January 2008 in Queenstown , New Zealand and ended in May . The film was released on May 1 , 2009 . = = = X @-@ Men : First Class ( 2011 ) = = = The film is a prequel set primarily in 1962 during the Cuban Missile Crisis , and focuses on the relationship between Charles Xavier and Erik Lehnsherr , and the origin of their groups — the X @-@ Men and the Brotherhood , respectively . Producer Lauren Shuler Donner first thought of a prequel based on the young X @-@ Men during the production of X2 , and later producer Kinberg suggested to 20th Century Fox an adaptation of the comic @-@ book series X @-@ Men : First Class . Singer signed on to direct the film in December 2009 , however , in March 2010 it was announced that Singer would be producing instead of directing . Vaughn , who was previously attached to direct X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , became the director , and co @-@ wrote the final script with his writing partner Jane Goldman . The film superseded a planned X @-@ Men Origins : Magneto , and the Writer 's Guild of America arbitration still credited Magneto writer Sheldon Turner for the film 's story . Principal photography began in August 2010 in London , England and ended in December . The film was released on June 3 , 2011 . = = = The Wolverine ( 2013 ) = = = Set after the events of X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , the film features Wolverine heading to Japan for a reunion with a soldier named Ichirō Yashida whose life he saved years before . Wolverine must defend the man 's granddaughter Mariko Yashida from all manner of ninja and Yakuza assassins . Christopher McQuarrie , who went uncredited for his work on X @-@ Men , was hired to write the screenplay for the second Wolverine film in August 2009 . Darren Aronofsky was chosen to direct the film , though bowed out , stating the project would keep him out of the country for too long . James Mangold was later chosen to direct the film . Mark Bomback was then hired to rewrite McQuarrie 's script . Principal photography began in August 2012 in Sydney , Australia and ended in November . The film was released on July 26 , 2013 . = = = X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past ( 2014 ) = = = Set years after the events of The Wolverine , the film features the cast of the original X @-@ Men trilogy and X @-@ Men : First Class . The story , inspired by Chris Claremont and John Byrne 's X @-@ Men comic book storyline " Days of Future Past " , features Wolverine going back in time to 1973 to prevent an assassination that , if carried out , will lead to the creation of a new weapons system called the Sentinels that threatens the existence of mutants — and potentially , all of humanity . Matthew Vaughn was attached to direct the film , but left in October 2012 to focus on the film Kingsman : The Secret Service . Singer , who directed the first two X @-@ Men films and produced X @-@ Men : First Class , replaced Vaughn as the director of the film . The screenplay was written by Kinberg . Principal photography began in April 2013 in Montreal , Canada and ended in August . The film was released on May 23 , 2014 . = = = Deadpool ( 2016 ) = = = In the film , former Special Forces operative Wade Wilson is subjected to an experiment that leaves him with new abilities . He adopts the alter ego Deadpool to hunt down the man who nearly destroyed his life . In May 2000 , Marvel Studios attempted to produce a Deadpool film as part of a distribution deal with Artisan Entertainment . However , by 2004 , Marvel was developing the film with New Line Cinema . David S. Goyer was set to write and direct and courted actor Ryan Reynolds for the lead role , but lost interest within months in favor of other projects . 20th Century Fox acquired Deadpool the following year after New Line placed it in turnaround , and was considering the spin @-@ off in the development of X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine , with Reynolds being cast for the role . After the opening weekend success of X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine in May 2009 , Fox lent Deadpool out to writers with Donner acting as a producer . Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick were hired to write the script in January 2010 . Robert Rodriguez was sent a draft of the screenplay the following June , but did not pursue it , and Adam Berg emerged as a top contender to direct . In April 2011 , visual effects specialist Tim Miller was hired to direct . Principal photography began in March 2015 in Vancouver , Canada and ended in May . The film was released on February 12 , 2016 . = = = X @-@ Men : Apocalypse ( 2016 ) = = = In the film , En Sabah Nur , the first and most powerful mutant awakens after thousands of years . He is disillusioned with the world as he finds it and recruits a team of powerful mutants to cleanse mankind and create a new world order , over which he will reign . As the fate of the Earth hangs in the balance , Raven , with the help of Professor X , must lead the X @-@ Men to stop their nemesis and save mankind from destruction . In December 2013 , Singer announced the upcoming X @-@ Men film , titled X @-@ Men : Apocalypse , a sequel to X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past . Directed by Singer from a script by Simon Kinberg , Dan Harris , and Michael Dougherty , the film is said to focus on the origin of the mutants . Kinberg said that it will take place in 1983 and will complete a trilogy that began with X @-@ Men : First Class . Principal photography began in April 2015 in Montreal , Canada and ended in August . The film was released on May 27 , 2016 in North America . = = = Future = = = = = = = Untitled Wolverine film ( 2017 ) = = = = By November 2013 , 20th Century Fox had begun negotiations for the treatment for another solo film starring Wolverine with director James Mangold while Donner is attached to produce . Mangold has said that it will be inspired by other Wolverine stories from the comic books and it will be made after X @-@ Men : Apocalypse . In March 2014 , David James Kelly was hired to write the script . In April 2015 , Michael Green was hired to work on the film 's script . The film will star Hugh Jackman in his final performance as Wolverine along with Patrick Stewart as Charles Xavier / Professor X , Boyd Holbrook , Stephen Merchant , Richard E. Grant , Eriq La Salle and Elise Neal . Jackman hinted at the film being an adaptation of the Old Man Logan storyline , a status confirmed by said comic 's writer , Mark Millar . In February 2016 , Liev Schreiber was in talks to return as Victor Creed / Sabretooth , whom he played in X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine . Principal photography commenced in May 2016 for a March 3 , 2017 release . = = = = In development = = = = In October 2014 , Josh Zetumer was hired to write the screenplay for a film about the character Remy LeBeau / Gambit based on the treatment by comic @-@ book writer Chris Claremont . In June 2015 , Rupert Wyatt was hired to direct but left in September due to schedule conflicts . In November , Doug Liman was in final negotiations to direct the film . The film will star Channing Tatum in the lead role . Donner , Kinberg , Tatum and Reid Carolin are attached as producers . Kinberg said that he hopes to start filming in spring 2016 . Principal photography is scheduled to commence in late 2016 , while filming is reported to start at the beginning of Spring 2017 . In September 2015 , Kinberg said that a sequel for Deadpool was in development . By the release of Deadpool , 20th Century Fox had already greenlit the sequel , with Rheese and Wernick returning to write , and Miller being looked at to return as director . According to an Easter Egg at the end of the largely tongue in cheek first film , the character Nathan Summers / Cable will appear in the film . In May 2015 , Josh Boone was hired to direct and write a film adaptation of The New Mutants comic @-@ book series . Acting as a spin @-@ off to the X @-@ Men films , the film will be written by Boone and Knate Gwaltney , while Donner and Kinberg are attached to produce . In May 2016 , Boone confirmed the characters that will appear in the film such as Illyana Rasputin / Magik , Rahne Sinclair / Wolfsbane , Danielle " Dani " Moonstar / Mirage , Samuel " Sam " Guthrie / Cannonball , Roberto da Costa / Sunspot , and Warlock . Kinberg has stated that the film will be very loyal to the comics . Professor X is confirmed to make an appearance in the film , while filming potentially begins in early 2017 . In May 2016 , Kinberg said the next X @-@ Men film will be set in the 1990s . In May 2016 , screenwriter Simon Kinberg acknowledged the possibility of re @-@ adapting " The Dark Phoenix Saga " , which had been adapted in the original X @-@ Men trilogy films . In July 2013 , 20th Century Fox hired Jeff Wadlow to write a film adaptation of the X @-@ Men spin @-@ off comic @-@ book series X @-@ Force , with Donner attached to produce . Mark Millar , the creative consultant for 20th Century Fox 's Marvel Comics based films , stated that the film will feature five characters as protagonists . After the release of Deadpool , Reynolds felt that Deadpool would soon be in an X @-@ Force film , while Kinberg stated that there was potential for X @-@ Force to be R @-@ rated like Deadpool . Kinberg has since reportedly been working on another draft of the script . = = Recurring characters = = List indicator ( s ) This table only shows characters that have appeared in three or more films in the series . A dark grey cell indicates that the character was not in the film or that the character 's presence in the film has yet to be announced . A Y indicates a role as a younger version of the character . An O indicates a role as an older version of the character . A U indicates an uncredited role . A C indicates a cameo role . A V indicates a voice @-@ only role . An A indicates an appearance through archival footage or stills . = = Crew = = = = Home media release = = 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the first seven films on DVD , Blu @-@ ray and digital download . The first two films were also released on VHS . The films were also released on VHS , DVD and Blu @-@ ray box sets : As of May 2014 , the DVD and Blu @-@ ray sales of the first six films in the United States earned more than $ 620 million . = = Reception = = = = = Box office performance = = = The first three X @-@ Men films and Deadpool set opening records in North America : X @-@ Men had the highest July opening yet , while X2 and X @-@ Men : The Last Stand earned the fourth highest opening weekends yet and Deadpool got the largest opening weekend in February . The records for the first three films have since been surpassed . The next three X @-@ Men films after X @-@ Men : The Last Stand opened lower than their predecessor and didn 't set opening records . In North America , Deadpool is the highest @-@ grossing film in the series , and it also has the highest opening weekend . Outside North America , X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past has the highest opening weekend and is the highest @-@ grossing film in the series . Worldwide , Deadpool is the highest grossing film in the series . The X @-@ Men film series is the second highest @-@ grossing film series based on Marvel Comics characters after Marvel Cinematic Universe . In North America , it is the seventh highest @-@ grossing film franchise , having earned over $ 1 @.@ 8 billion . Worldwide , it is the seventh highest @-@ grossing film franchise of all time , having grossed over $ 4 @.@ 3 billion . = = = Critical and public response = = = Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe praised the first three X @-@ Men films as " more than a cash @-@ guzzling wham @-@ bang Hollywood franchise ... these three movies sport philosophy , ideas , a telethon @-@ load of causes , and a highly elastic us @-@ versus @-@ them allegory . " Morris praised X @-@ Men : The Last Stand for " put [ ting ] the heroes of a mighty summer blockbuster in a rare mortal position . Realism at this time of year ? How unorthodox ! " Roger Ebert gave the films mostly positive reviews , but criticized them for the amount of mutants , stating " their powers are so various and ill @-@ matched that it 's hard to keep them all on the same canvas . " The first two films were highly praised due to their cerebral tone . However , when director Bryan Singer left the series , many criticized his successor , Brett Ratner . Colin Colvert of the Star Tribune felt " Singer 's sensitivity to [ the discrimination themes ] made the first two X @-@ Men films surprisingly resonant and soulful for comic @-@ based summer extravaganzas ... Singer is adept at juggling large casts of three @-@ dimensional characters , Ratner makes shallow , unimaginative bang @-@ ups . " James Berardinelli felt , " X @-@ Men : The Last Stand isn 't as taut or satisfying as X @-@ Men 2 , but it 's better constructed and better paced than the original X @-@ Men . The differences in quality between the three are minor , however ; despite the change in directors , there seems to be a single vision . " David Denby of The New Yorker praised " the liquid beauty and the poetic fantasy of Singer 's work " , but called Ratner 's film " a crude synthesizer of comedy and action tropes . " Singer 's third film in the series , X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past was also highly praised . Alonso Duralde of The Wrap felt that " Singer keeps things moving along briskly enough that you can just go along with the ride of Superhero Stuff without getting bogged down " . The X @-@ Men films were well @-@ received by fans of the comic books , but there was criticism of the large cast , and the limited screentime for all of them . Richard George of IGN praised the depictions of Wolverine , Professor X , Magneto , Jean Grey , Storm , William Stryker , Mystique , Beast and Nightcrawler ; however , George thought many of the younger X @-@ Men characters , such as Rogue , Iceman , Pyro and Kitty Pryde were " adjectiveless teenager [ s ] " , and was disappointed by Cyclops ' characterization . He observed the filmmakers were " big fans of silent henchmen " , due to the small roles of the various villainous mutants ; such as Lady Deathstrike . Spider @-@ Man director Sam Raimi said he was a fan of the series , particularly Singer 's films . Film historian Kim Newman also tonally compared Batman Begins to Singer 's films . = = = Impact = = = Richard George of IGN stated that the success of the first X @-@ Men film paved the way for comic @-@ book film adaptations such as the Spider @-@ Man series , Fantastic Four , V for Vendetta and Singer 's Superman Returns . Chris Hewitt of Empire magazine called the first X @-@ Men film as the " catalyst " for films based on Marvel Comics characters stating " Singer ’ s 2000 movie is the catalyst for everything that ’ s come since , good and bad . Without it , there ’ s no Marvel Studios . " Comic @-@ book writer Mark Millar said that Singer 's X @-@ Men " revolutionized " superhero films . = = Tie @-@ in material = = = = = Books = = = In June 2000 , Marvel Comics published a comic book prequel to the first film , titled X @-@ Men : Beginnings , featuring the back @-@ stories of Magneto , Rogue and Wolverine . A novel adaptation for the film was also released . In 2003 , Marvel released a comic @-@ book for X2 , which contained prequels detailing Nightcrawler 's backstory and Wolverine 's time searching for Alkali Lake . Del Rey Books also published novelizations for the first three films ; the latter two were written by Chris Claremont . = = = Video games = = = In July 2000 , X @-@ Men : Mutant Academy was released for PlayStation and Game Boy Color . It shared the title fonts and costumes from the first film . The game also contains behind @-@ the @-@ scenes material from the first film . In April 2003 , X2 : Wolverine 's Revenge which served as a tie @-@ in to X2 was released for GameCube , Game Boy Advance , Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 2 and Xbox . Patrick Stewart served as the voice actor for Professor X. In May 2006 , X @-@ Men : The Official Game was released for GameCube , Game Boy Advance , Microsoft Windows , Nintendo DS , PlayStation 2 , Xbox and Xbox 360 . The story was set between X2 and X @-@ Men : The Last Stand and also explained Nightcrawler 's departure from the X @-@ Men . In May 2009 , the video game X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine based on the film of the same name was released for Microsoft Windows , Nintendo DS , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation Portable , Wii and Xbox 360 . In September 2011 X @-@ Men : Destiny was released for consoles to coincide with the X @-@ Men : First Class 's home @-@ media release , containing costumes from the latter as unlockable content . All video games were released by Activision . = = = Television series = = = In October 2015 , Marvel Television announced that two television series based on X @-@ Men characters , Legion and Hellfire are in development . Legion , based on the character David Haller , was ordered by FX for a pilot . Noah Hawley was attached to write the pilot . Produced by FX Productions and Marvel Television . Hawley will also serve as an executive producer along with Lauren Shuler Donner , Bryan Singer , Simon Kinberg , Jeph Loeb , Jim Chory and John Cameron . It is set to air in 2017 for an eight @-@ episode season . Hellfire meanwhile was in development with Fox Broadcasting Company and was to be produced by 20th Century Fox Television and Marvel Television . Set in the late 1960s , the show was supposed to follow an agent who learns that a power @-@ hungry woman with " extraordinary " abilities is working with a clandestine society of millionaires , known as the Hellfire Club to take over the world . Evan Katz , Manny Coto , Patrick McKay and JD Payne were to be credited as the co @-@ creators of the show while McKay and Payne were hired to write the pilot , based on a story by Katz , Coto , McKay and Payne . Katz and Coto were also hired to act as showrunners but left along with McKay and Payne in January 2016 to focus on 24 : Legacy . Singer , Donner , Kinberg , Loeb and Chory were also attached as executive producers for the show . It was scrapped in July 2016 .
= Ding Dong , Ding Dong = " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " is a song by English musician George Harrison , written as a New Year 's Eve singalong and released in December 1974 on his album Dark Horse . It was the album 's lead single in Britain and some other European countries , and the second single , after " Dark Horse " , in North America . A large @-@ scale production , the song incorporates aspects of Phil Spector 's Wall of Sound technique , particularly his Christmas recordings from 1963 . In addition , some Harrison biographers view " Ding Dong " as an attempt to emulate the success of two glam rock anthems from the 1973 – 74 holiday season : " Merry Xmas Everybody " by Slade , and Wizzard 's " I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday " . The song became only a minor hit in Britain and the United States , although it was a top @-@ twenty hit elsewhere in the world . Harrison took the lyrics to " Ding Dong " from engravings he found at his nineteenth @-@ century home , Friar Park , in Oxfordshire – a legacy of its eccentric founder , Sir Frank Crisp . The song 's " Ring out the old , ring in the new " refrain has invited interpretation as Harrison distancing himself from his past as a member of the Beatles , and as the singer farewelling his first marriage , to Pattie Boyd . As on much of the Dark Horse album , Harrison 's vocals on the recording were hampered by a throat condition , due partly to his having overextended himself on business projects such as his recently launched record label , Dark Horse Records . Recorded at his Friar Park studio , the track includes musical contributions from Tom Scott , Ringo Starr , Alvin Lee , Ron Wood and Jim Keltner . On release , the song met with an unfavourable response from many music critics , while others considered its musical and lyrical simplicity to be a positive factor for a contemporary pop hit . For the first time with one of his singles , Harrison made a promotional video for " Ding Dong " , which features scenes of him miming to the track at Friar Park while dressed in a variety of Beatle @-@ themed costumes . The song still receives occasional airplay over the holiday season . The video appears on the DVD in Harrison 's eight @-@ disc Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set , released in September 2014 . = = Background and composition = = George Harrison purchased the 33 @-@ acre Friar Park estate , in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames , Oxfordshire , in January 1970 , and soon afterwards composed " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " as a tribute to the property 's original owner , an eccentric Victorian lawyer and horticulturalist named Frank Crisp . Harrison included the song on his All Things Must Pass triple album , released in November 1970 , by which time he had begun incorporating into his new compositions some of the homilies and aphorisms that Crisp had inscribed around the property , 70 or more years before . A four @-@ line verse beginning " Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass " particularly resonated with Harrison , who eventually used it in his 1975 song " The Answer 's at the End " . It similarly took Harrison several years to turn two inspirational lines of verse from carvings in the house 's drawing room into song lyrics . These lines provided the repeated verse in " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " : " Ring out the old , ring in the new " – which he took from the carving to the left of the fireplace – and " Ring out the false , ring in the true " – from the one to the right . In his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison credits English poet Lord Tennyson as the original source for these lines . Authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter describe " Ding Dong " as the " quickest song " that Harrison ever wrote , in terms of time spent on the composition . The words for the song 's middle eight – " Yesterday , today was tomorrow / And tomorrow , today will be yesterday " – came from another pair of inscriptions from Crisp 's time at Friar Park . Harrison found these lines in what he called " the garden building " , carved in stone around two matching windows . The only other lyrics in " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " are the song title , repeated four times to serve as its chorus . Sung in imitation of a clock chiming , the chorus lyrics , combined with the message of those of the verse , lend the composition an obvious New Year 's theme . Harrison later described the song as " very optimistic " , and suggested : " Instead of getting stuck in a rut , everybody should try ringing out the old and ringing in the new … [ People ] sing about it , but they never apply it to their lives . " Harrison 's other singles from the early 1970s – " My Sweet Lord " , " What Is Life " , " Bangla Desh " and " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " – were similarly written very quickly . In the case of " Ding Dong " and other tracks from the Dark Horse album , however , author Simon Leng recognises this haste as an example of Harrison abandoning his careful approach to his own music over the 1973 – 74 period , while remaining a " painstaking craftsman " on his concurrent projects with Ravi Shankar and the vocal duo Splinter . Preceding this change , elements of the British media had ridiculed Harrison 's continued association with the Hare Krishna movement , and some music critics had objected to the overtly spiritual content of his 1973 album Living in the Material World . With his marriage to Pattie Boyd all but over by the summer of 1973 , Harrison now wanted to be " one of the boys , not a spotlight @-@ grabbing philosopher " , according to Leng . = = Production = = = = = Initial recording = = = Harrison recorded the rhythm track for " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " at his home studio , FPSHOT , in late November 1973 , during the first sessions for Dark Horse . Aside from himself , on acoustic guitar , the other musicians on the track were Gary Wright ( piano ) , Klaus Voormann ( bass ) , Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner ( both on drums ) – all of whom had appeared on Living in the Material World earlier in the year . The recording engineer was Phil McDonald . The sessions coincided with a period of domestic turbulence at Friar Park , with Harrison and Boyd both involved in extramarital affairs . They saw in the 1973 – 74 New Year with a party at Starr 's Tittenhurst Park mansion – which was an " absolute dud " of a night , according to their friend Chris O 'Dell , due to Harrison having openly declared his love for Starr 's wife , Maureen Starkey , a few days before . Boyd recalls that Harrison told her at the party : " Let 's have a divorce this year . " = = = Overdubbing = = = Harrison included a rough mix of " Ding Dong " on a tape he sent to Asylum Records boss David Geffen in January 1974 , shortly before travelling to India to visit Shankar and escape his unhappy domestic situation with Boyd . The purpose of the tape was to find a distributor for albums by Harrison 's future Dark Horse Records acts – Shankar Family & Friends by Shankar , and Splinter 's The Place I Love – both of which had started off as Harrison productions for the Beatles ' Apple record label . He added two songs of his own on the tape , with introductory comments about " Ding Dong " . As outlined to Geffen , Harrison went on to adopt the Wall of Sound production technique of his former collaborator , American producer Phil Spector , in his subsequent work on the track . Harrison 's musical arrangement reflects the influence of the 1963 album A Christmas Gift for You , which contained Spector @-@ produced songs by the Ronettes , the Crystals and Darlene Love , while more recently Spector had co @-@ produced the Apple Records single " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " single , by John Lennon and Yoko Ono . Some authors claim that with " Ding Dong " , Harrison set out to create a seasonal " classic " , in an attempt to match the British chart success of " Happy Xmas " and particularly of Slade 's " Merry Xmas Everybody " and Wizzard 's " I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday " – two glam rock singles that were major UK hits over the winter of 1973 – 74 . Leng cites the inclusion on the finished version of " Ding Dong " of harmonium and distorted electric guitars , similar to the Slade hit , while Harrison 's use of baritone saxophones , two drummers and tubular bells , together with a female choir , matched the arrangement on " I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday " , which was heavily influenced by Spector 's sound . Having incorporated aspects of Spector 's technique on Material World , Harrison 's aim with " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , according to Leng , was an update of the Wall of Sound that reflected " the glam rock mood of the day " . Harrison overdubbed call @-@ and @-@ response guitar riffs by Alvin Lee and Ron Wood onto the 1973 rhythm track , as well as his own slide guitars . Further overdubs included baritone and tenor saxophone parts by Tom Scott , and a second acoustic guitar , played by Mick Jones . Harrison also contributed on organ , clavinet and percussion , the last of which included tubular bells ( or chimes ) , sleigh bells and zither . Harrison 's workload ensured that he was rushing to finish Dark Horse in October 1974 before beginning his North American tour with Shankar on 2 November . Described by Leng as " growled " , Harrison 's rough @-@ sounding singing on " Ding Dong " shows the effects of a long @-@ standing throat problem . Due to a combination of overexertion and abuse , this condition worsened , leading to him contracting laryngitis as he simultaneously completed his vocals for the album in Los Angeles and rehearsed for the tour . The female backing singers on the track remain uncredited . = = Release = = In the United Kingdom , " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " was released as the lead single from Dark Horse on 6 December 1974 ( as Apple R 6002 ) . The B @-@ side was " I Don 't Care Anymore " , a non @-@ album track that Harrison recorded in a single take , specifically for the single . In the United States , where " Dark Horse " had already been issued in advance of the album , " Ding Dong " was coupled with the instrumental " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " and released two days before Christmas ( as Apple 1879 ) . Apple issued white label promotional discs to US radio stations , containing a 3 : 12 edit of the song . The single was available in a picture sleeve consisting of the song lyrics printed on an off @-@ white background , with stamped Om symbols and the FPSHOT logo . The record 's A @-@ side face label included a photo of Harrison 's new girlfriend , Olivia Arias , above the song information , whereas the UK single had Harrison 's face on both sides . On the Dark Horse LP , the two face labels similarly alternated between a picture of Harrison and one of Arias . Combined with the positioning of " Ding Dong " as the opening track on side two , this detail gave the impression that the song represented Harrison 's ushering @-@ in of his future wife and a farewell to Boyd . In the album 's inner @-@ sleeve credits , Harrison listed one of the guitarists on the track as " Ron Would if you let him " , a reference to Wood 's brief affair with Boyd before she took up with Eric Clapton . He also acknowledged Frank Crisp for having provided " spirit " on the recording . In another farewell to the past , Harrison signed the so @-@ called " Beatles Agreement " papers in New York on 19 December , further severing the four former bandmates from the group 's legal identity . Rather than the smash hit that Harrison had hoped for , " Ding Dong " was only moderately successful . The single peaked at number 38 in Britain and number 36 on America 's Billboard Hot 100 . Madinger and Easter write that the single did " remarkably well " , however , given that it was issued too late to take advantage of holiday @-@ season programming . Harrison 's single enjoyed more success internationally , climbing to number 10 in the Netherlands and number 12 in Belgium . Despite " Ding Dong " having had what author Bruce Spizer terms a " respectable " chart run in America , Apple distributor Capitol Records omitted the song from its 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison , which the company issued after Harrison had moved on to Dark Horse Records . Following Dark Horse 's CD release in 1992 , the song was unavailable in newly remastered form until the Apple Years Harrison reissues , released in September 2014 . = = Critical reception = = = = = Contemporary reviews = = = The majority of music critics were unimpressed with " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , and its release came in the wake of unfavourable reviews for the North American tour . In keeping with the song 's message , Harrison refused to celebrate the past in his concerts by pandering to nostalgia for the Beatles , and many in the mainstream music press criticised the poor state of his voice and his decision to feature Ravi Shankar so heavily in the program . In the UK , BBC DJ John Peel called " Ding Dong " " repetitive and dull " and accused Harrison of complacency , while the NME 's Bob Woffinden derided Dark Horse as " Just stuff and nonsense " , adding : " You keep looking for saving graces , for words of enthusiasm to pass on – ' Ding Dong ' , you begin to think , for all its inane lyrics , has some spirit , but it really is very slight . " Harrison 's standing there was not helped by the presence of " I Don 't Care Anymore " on the B @-@ side , due to its casual delivery and the literal message in the song title . In a more favourable review , for Melody Maker , Chris Irwin wrote of the single : " We ’ ve come to expect something with more substance than this glorified nursery rhyme from one of the most important musicians of the decade . True , it ’ s catchy with a full chunky sound to bounce it along , but with an undeniable infectiousness of the sort normally associated with chicken pox or measles ... Curiously , records of such banality have a habit of selling in their zillions and this is bound to be a biggie . Hit . " Jim Miller of Rolling Stone condemned Harrison for releasing an album with his voice blown and for his apparent disdain towards the Beatles ' legacy , and he dismissed the song as " a raspy stab at ' Auld Lang Syne ' " . Amid the scathing critique he gave Harrison 's tour and album , Jack Sheridan of Baltimore radio station WCAO cited " Ding Dong " as an example of how the former Beatle 's music had altered " so radically " . Writing in Circus Raves magazine , Michael Gross defended Harrison 's move away from the past , saying that Dark Horse matched the critically acclaimed All Things Must Pass , " surpassing it , at times , with its clarity of production and lovely songs " , and he praised " Ding Dong " , the title track and the Harrison – Ron Wood collaboration " Far East Man " as " all , simply , good songs " . While remarking on the surprisingly late release for a holiday @-@ season single , Billboard 's reviewer deemed the track to be an " Extremely listenable performance " and added : " George has a genuine hit sound to offer here that 's just right for those early January time @-@ to @-@ change resolutions . Catchy , heavily percussive production in Harrison 's uptempo guru vein … Get on it , jocks . " In the 1978 edition of The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Roy Carr and Tony Tyler dismissed the song as " meticulously @-@ played emptiness , a charmless reworking of the traditional peal o ' bells " before concluding : " A pox on it . " Writing in his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner rued that " the exquisite , painstaking arrangements " of Harrison 's earlier albums were absent from Dark Horse , and labelled " Ding Dong " " a string of greeting @-@ card clichés with trite music to match " . = = = Retrospective assessment and legacy = = = In his song review for AllMusic , Lindsay Planer writes of " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " : " While arguably simplistic , both lyrics and tune boast Harrison 's trademark optimism , especially during the affable and repeated chorus of ' Ring out the old / Ring in the new / Ring out the false / Ring in the true . ' " Harrison biographer Alan Clayson acknowledges the traditional pop merits of the song while explaining its underachievement : " With a chirpy @-@ chirpy cheapness worthy of Red Rose Speedway , ' Ding Dong , Ding Dong ' had all the credentials of a Yuletide smash but none that actually grabbed the public . " Writing for Goldmine magazine in January 2002 , Dave Thompson described it as " sweetly simplistic " and " a sterling stab at a Christmas anthem … that deserved far better than its low Top 40 chart placings in the U.S. and Britain " . In his 2010 book on Harrison for the Praeger Singer @-@ Songwriter series , Ian Inglis comments that the song had neither the " overt political message " of Lennon 's Christmas single nor the " unashamed commercialism " of Paul McCartney 's " Wonderful Christmastime " , and writes that " Ding Dong " ' s " somewhat halfhearted festive appeal " seems out of place on Dark Horse . Simon Leng views the song as an " intermittently amusing rocker " , but with the perilous state of Harrison 's voice on the recording , " Ding Dong " would have benefited from " hibernating another winter " . Author Robert Rodriguez opines that whereas Harrison 's " rough @-@ hewn " vocals on " Dark Horse " had enhanced that song , his " Father Time impression " did nothing for " Ding Dong " . Among reviews of the 2014 Apple Years reissue of Dark Horse , Paste magazine 's Robert Ham refers to the song as " a Christmas anthem … that is as infectious as McCartney 's ' Wonderful Christmastime ' and as globally minded as Lennon 's ' Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) ' " . Conversely , Paul Trynka of Classic Rock magazine singles out " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " as the one song that " embarrasses " on an album that is otherwise " packed with beautiful , small @-@ scale moments " . Trynka labels it " George 's own Frog Chorus " , with reference to McCartney 's 1984 children 's song , " We All Stand Together " , and adds : " its clunking glam evokes those horrible 70s TV shows where DJs drool over dollybirds in hotpants . " In December 1999 , while promoting his album I Wanna Be Santa Claus , Starr hosted a Christmas @-@ themed radio show for New York 's MJI Broadcasting , during which he featured " Ding Dong " along with the singles by Lennon and McCartney , as well as seasonal recordings by Spector and by a selection of Motown artists . Japanese act Hi Limits & Kenichi Kurusawa covered the song on East West Records ' Gentle Guitar Dreams Harrison tribute album , released in May 2002 . Harrison 's original still receives some airplay over the Christmas – New Year period . Unlike " Happy Xmas " , however , and , to a lesser extent , " Wonderful Christmastime " , " Ding Dong " never achieved the status of a perennial holiday classic . = = Promo clip = = Harrison compiled a 16mm colour film for " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , the first time he made a promotional clip for one of his singles . The film was little seen at the time of release ; it was first broadcast in January 1975 , on UK television , and then on the French network TF1 's show Midi Premiere in May that year . The video was issued officially on disc eight of Harrison 's Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set in September 2014 . Described as " a hoot " by Robert Rodriguez , it conveys what Harrison deemed the " comical " aspect of the song . Leng describes the clip as " sporadically amusing " and says of its content : " As the audiences at the Dark Horse Tour concerts were about to discover , the only ' old ' that he wanted to ' ring out ' was the Beatles . " Harrison appears in a range of Beatles @-@ related costumes while miming to the track . His attire in these scenes represents a chronology of periods in the band 's career – starting with the Hamburg @-@ era black leathers , followed by 1963 mop @-@ top wig and grey collarless suit , and then the iconic Sgt. Pepper uniform from 1967 . During these scenes , he plays a mix of guitars , including his famous Rickenbacker 12 @-@ string , as used in the Beatles ' 1964 film A Hard Day 's Night , and the Gibson Les Paul ( christened " Lucy " ) that Clapton had used on the recording of " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " in September 1968 . The Sgt. Pepper portion shows Harrison playing a tuba while , behind him , an Indian man plays a sitar . Harrison also re @-@ creates Lennon and Ono 's Two Virgins album cover , by appearing naked save for an acoustic guitar and a pair of furry boots . Another change of costume and instrument , to denims and dobro , supports his stated rejection during the tour of early- ' 70s era , " Bangla Desh George " . Harrison is also seen walking around the grounds of Friar Park . In these scenes , he wears scruffy , present @-@ day attire that represents " his own , new identity " , according to Leng , who likens Harrison 's appearance to the character on the cover of Jethro Tull 's Aqualung album . Harrison mimes the final choruses inside the house , filmed in close @-@ up and surrounded by a cast of " dwarfs , gnomes and other Pythonesque characters " . At the end of the clip , he is seen at the flagpole on the roof of the house , replacing a pirate standard with his yellow @-@ and @-@ red Om flag – a gesture that was the opposite of Boyd 's when she learned of Harrison 's affair with Maureen Starkey . The video was directed by Harrison and filmed by Nick Knowland . = = Personnel = = Adapted from Harrison 's original handwritten credits , as reproduced in the 2014 Dark Horse CD booklet : George Harrison – vocals , 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar , slide guitars , organ , clavinet , percussion , backing vocals Tom Scott – saxophones , horn arrangement Gary Wright – piano Klaus Voormann – bass Jim Keltner – drums Ringo Starr – drums Ron Wood – electric guitar Alvin Lee – electric guitar Mick Jones – acoustic guitar uncredited – female choir = = Chart positions = =
= Did It Again ( Kylie Minogue song ) = " Did It Again " is a song by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue , originally featured on her sixth studio album Impossible Princess ( 1997 ) . The song was released as the album 's second single on 24 November 1997 through BMG , Deconstruction and Mushroom . Minogue had written the track with Steve Anderson and Dave Seaman , and it was produced by Minogue in collaboration with Brothers in Rhythm . Backed by guitars and drum , " Did It Again " is a pop rock track in which Minogue sings about her self @-@ consciousness and self @-@ hatred . Critical response to " Did It Again " was mostly positive ; some critics praised the song 's composition and highlighted it as a career stand out track . In Australia , " Did It Again " peaked at number fifteen on the Australian Singles Chart and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In the United Kingdom , it peaked at fourteen on the UK Singles Chart . Petro Romanhi directed the song 's music video , which features four clones of Minogue in different outfits , and fighting with each other . To promote " Did It Again " , Minogue performed the track on The National Lottery Live and MTV UK . It was later included on her 1998 concert tour Intimate and Live Tour . The song was subsequently included on Minogue 's compilation albums Confide in Me ( 2002 ) , Ultimate Kylie ( 2004 ) , and Confide in Me : The Irresistible Kylie ( 2007 ) . = = Background = = In 1997 , the British media reported that she was anorexic , labelling her " Kylie Thinogue " . Minogue had been told about the rumours and , as a response , wrote the track " Did It Again " . Interviewed by Company magazine that year , she was questioned on her weight and the song , and she explained " It 's a bit of a girl 's song , with me telling myself off and never learning my lesson , particularly with men . It 's me looking myself in the eye and saying ' You fool , stop being too clever and over @-@ neurotic . ' " She had begun writing the song whilst British tabloids published rumors about her private life , and the poor reception that Impossible Princess ' lead single " Some Kind of Bliss " received . However , she re @-@ wrote the original lyrics with Anderson and Seaman and Minogue said it told a " different meaning " . The song discusses telling herself off when she does not learn from her past mistakes . She commented that " Some of the songs from Impossible Princess are close to the heart , but this song was a little voice on my shoulder . " The song was originally titled " Clever Girl ( Did It Again ) " . = = Composition = = " Did It Again " was recorded at Real World , Sarm West and DMC Studios in England , and was mixed by Alan Bremnar at Real World . Greg Bone and Anderson played the guitars , while Anderson played the drums and keyboards . Produced by Brothers in Rhythm and Minogue , " Did It Again " is a pop rock song . Michael Dwyer from Western Australia magazine commented on Minogue 's departure from dance music and bubblegum pop and her maturity since her work with Stock , Aitken and Waterman , stating " Some Kind Of Bliss and Did It Again have already proved our Kylie has more tricks up her sleeve this time than Stock , Aitken and Waterman ever dreamed of and her sixth album harbours more strings to her carefully @-@ cultivated bow . " British writer Sean Smith , author of Kylie ( 2014 ) , commented that " Did It Again " was another track , along with " I Don 't Need Anyone " , from Impossible Princess that " didn 't really sound like Kylie " . He further commented that " Did It Again " was " a blend of drums and electric guitar that might have found its way onto The Beatles ' famous Revolver album . " Reviewing her compilation album Greatest Hits 87 – 97 ( 2003 ) , Michael Paoletta from Billboard magazine viewed the composition as progressive rock . = = Critical reception = = " Did It Again " received positive reviews from most music critics . Allmusic 's Chris True , who also reviewed the parent album , highlighted it as a stand out track from her career . MacKenzie Wilson from Allmusic selected " Did It Again " as a stand out from her compilation Hits + . Jack Foley from Indielondon.co.uk called " Did it Again " one of Minogue 's " chart @-@ busters " that " continue to fill the dancefloors despite being relentlessly over @-@ played in their heyday . " Darrin Farrant from The Age said " Best of the Impossible Princess bunch was clearly Did It Again , Minogue smiling and strutting , the crowd joining her to sing every word . " Gary James from Entertainment Focus praised all her co @-@ written and self @-@ penned tracks . Avoledo from BlogCritics.org described the song as blunt , but said it is a " cunning and self @-@ aware look at celebrity without even mentioning fame . " A reviewer from Music Week magazine awarded " Did It Again " three stars out of five , stating that Minogue 's vocals " takes a stroppy edge " , but " it 's not strong enough to do much better than the modest performance of Some Kind Of Bliss . " Natasha Tripney from musicOMH said : " ' Did It Again ' reminds you of her valiant but wildly misjudged attempt to morph into Indie Kylie circa 1997 , only really serving to highlight the limitations of her voice in the process . " Michael R. Smith from Daily Vault felt the song represented the album " perfectly " and had labelled the songs as " undiscovered gems " . Smith felt the song was " another underrated song " from the Impossible Princess album and labelled it an " indie classic " . In the annual 1997 Triple J Hottest 100 list , " Did It Again " was eighty @-@ one . At the 1998 ARIA Music Awards , " Did It Again " was nominated for Single of the Year but lost to Natalie Imbruglia 's single " Torn " respectively . = = Commercial performance = = " Did It Again " entered at number twenty @-@ one on the Australian Singles Chart . The song peaked at fifteen , her highest charting and first top twenty single from Impossible Princess . The song lasted seventeen weeks in the top fifty , one of her longest spanning singles in the chart . The song was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) with shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units . In the United Kingdom , " Did It Again " entered and peaked at fourteen on the UK Singles Chart . It stayed in the top 100 for eight weeks and became highest charting single from the album alongside " Breathe " . = = Music video = = = = = Background and development = = = An accompanying music video was directed by Petro Romanhi in London , England . It was filmed over a two @-@ day period and was required to shoot each character individually . Minogue and long @-@ term collaborator and friend , William Baker , designed the clothing for each character : Sex Kylie , Cute Kylie , Indie Kylie , and Dance Kylie . Each character represented a difference appearance and persona ; Baker labelled Sex Kylie as a " drag queen " with a " bitchy " attitude and " slutty " appearance . Dance Kylie had , according to Baker , an " irritating frothiness " , while Cute Kylie had violet @-@ coloured hot pants and a bra . The original costume was blue , but quickly changed due to blue screen issues . The outfit for Indie Kylie , which was red three @-@ quarter pants with a high @-@ collar shirt , was inspired by Star Trek films that was assisted by British fashion design , Pellicano . Frances Whiting from Sunday Mail discussed the music video with Minogue , where she mentioned that the video was a " fun " way to portray her media images throughout her career . Regarding her " Indie Kylie " phase , Minogue commented " I don 't mind being labelled Indie Kylie , I 've had so many labels , but labels are a bit silly because I 'm so many things , we all are . " The concept for the video was created by Romanhi after discovering several articles and magazing in the 1980s and early @-@ mid 1990s of Minogue , along with his influence of the American film Usual Suspects , but Minogue was sceptical on the final result . In an interview with MTV Australia , Minogue revealed the video was based on her life as a celebrity , stating ; Basically we were having a laugh at a lot of the different articles that were appearing at that time in different magazines and papers , and they were talking about ' Pop Kylie , Dance Kylie , Sex Kylie ' and , you know , with every different release of a single they 'd say ' What Kylie is it now ? ' and it was just becoming a joke . So he , Pedro , cunningly picked up on that and said we should make a video with all the different Kylies , which I was more then [ sic ] happy about , because it was stating the obvious and having a laugh at the same time . = = = Synopsis = = = The characters were Sex Kylie , Cute Kylie , Indie Kylie and Dance Kylie , characters which had contributed to Minogue 's image throughout her career . Minogue commented that it took " longer than expected " because Romanhi wanted the outcome to be " precise " . Although Minogue said that " Indie Kylie " was the winner of fight , she felt " Cute Kylie " represented herself than the other three characters . The video opens with Sex Kylie singing and Cute Kylie pushes her . Indie Kylie appears and Dance kylie bumps her out of the way . Throughout the video , all four characters fight and cuss towards each other . The end finishes with Cute Kylie holding a baseball bat , declaring that she was the winner of all four of them . Despite the ending and Minogue commenting that Cute Kylie amused her the most in the video , Minogue said that Indie Kylie was the winner . = = = Reception = = = The video received positive reviews , and won the Australian Video entry at the MTV Video Music Awards in 1998 . Erika Brooks Adickman from Idolator said that " the tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek video had the pop icon acknowledging all the ways she had reinvented herself over the years " . American website BuzzFeed hosted a poll for online viewers to vote their best Kylie in the " Did It Again " video . As a result , Indie Kylie won with 36 % ( 2 @,@ 926 votes ) , Cute Kylie came second with 26 % ( 2 @,@ 083 votes ) , Dance Kylie came third with 20 % ( 1 @,@ 628 votes ) , and Sex Kylie came fourth with 18 % ( 1 @,@ 510 votes ) . During an interview Minogue gave to Jetstar Airways magazine , journalist Simon Price stated that the four different Kylies were " brilliantly " satirised in the video . Costumes from the video , along with accessories spanning Minogue 's career , became part of an exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery in Australia , during May 2005 . They were also displayed in another exhibition with the same theme in February 2007 . A still with the four Kylie 's , standing together , was drawn by Jill Lamarina and added into the comic book Female Force : Kylie Minogue , published by Bluewater Comics . Media theorist Lee Barron , author of Social Theory in Popular Culture , discussed the Impossible Princess period and further stated " The Impossible Princess phase represented a period of diminished commercial success , marking the moment in which Minogue consciously began to engage in a playful awareness of image construction and referentiality ... This was unmistakably manifest in the promotional video ' Did it Again ' , which featured four Kylies , each defined by the labels that the media created for her " . Barron felt neither of the characters in the video won , but rather " the construction of an entirely new one " and concluded " Because , although Minogue was now reflexively alluding to her identity @-@ shredded progression , ' Indie Kylie ' did not gel with the wider recording @-@ buying public , and consequently ' Indie Kylie ' was discarded for ' Camp Kylie ' " ; Camp Kylie was a media label for her efforts around the Light Years ( 2000 ) era . = = Live performances and other usage = = Minogue performed " Did It Again " on the The National Lottery Live , and performed the song alongside " Some Kind of Bliss " and " I Don 't Need Anyone " on her performance with MTV on 4 October 1997 . Minogue included the song on the set list for her 1998 concert tour Intimate and Live . The performance was recorded on 30 June and 1 July at Capitol Theatre in Sydney , and appeared on the related CD and DVD . " Did It Again " has been featured on many of Minogue 's compilation albums . Its first appearance was on her 2000 Deconstruction compilation Hits + and on her 2001 BMG greatest hits compilation album Confide in Me , a compilation consisting majority off her singles and tracks from her Deconstruction period ; Heather Phares from Allmusic praised the Impossible Princess tracks including " Did It Again " . It then appeared on her 2004 compilation albums Artist Collection and , which included most of her Impossible Princess era , and Ultimate Kylie through Parlophone . The song 's last appearance was on the first disc of Confide in Me : The Irresistible Kylie released in July 2007 by UK independent label Music Club . The Trouser Enthusiasts ' Goddess of Contortion remix and Razor n Go remix appeared on her 1998 remix compilations Mixes and Impossible Remixes . = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from both maxi @-@ single liner notes . Kylie Minogue – vocals , songwriting , vocal production Steve Anderson – songwriting , guitar , Hammond organ David Seaman – songwriting , guitar Greg Bones – guitar Alan Bremner – engineer , mixing production Paul Wright – engineer Stephane Sednaoui – photographer , designer Farrow Design – cover sleeve designer = = Formats and track listings = = = = Charts and certifications = =
= Margaret Bondfield = Margaret Grace Bondfield CH PC ( 17 March 1873 – 16 June 1953 ) was a British Labour politician , trades unionist and women 's rights activist . She became the first female cabinet minister , and the first woman to be a privy counsellor , when she was appointed Minister of Labour in the Labour government of 1929 – 31 . She had earlier become the first woman to chair the General Council of the Trades Union Congress ( TUC ) . Bondfield was born in humble circumstances and received limited formal education . After serving an apprenticeship to an embroidress she worked as a shop assistant in Brighton and London . She was shocked by the working conditions of shop staff , particularly within the " living @-@ in " system , and became an active member of the shopworkers ' union . She began to move in socialist circles , and in 1898 was appointed assistant secretary of the National Union of Shop Assistants , Warehousemen , and Clerks ( NAUSAWC ) . She was later prominent in several women 's socialist movements : she helped to found the Women 's Labour League ( WLL ) in 1906 , and was chair of the Adult Suffrage Society . Her standpoint on women 's suffrage — she favoured extending the vote to all adults regardless of gender or property , rather than the limited " on the same terms as men " agenda pursued by the militant suffragists — divided her from the militant leadership . After leaving her union post in 1908 Bondfield worked as organising secretary for the WLL and later as women 's officer for the National Union of General and Municipal Workers ( NUGMW ) . She was elected to the TUC Council in 1918 , and became its chairman in 1923 , the year she was first elected to parliament . In the short @-@ lived minority Labour government of 1924 she served as parliamentary secretary in the Ministry of Labour . Her term of cabinet office in 1929 – 31 was marked by the economic crises that beset the second Labour government . Her willingness to contemplate cuts in unemployment benefits alienated her from much of the Labour movement , although she did not follow Ramsay MacDonald into the National Government that assumed office when the Labour government fell in August 1931 . Bondfield remained active in NUGMW affairs until 1938 , and during the Second World War carried out investigations for the Women 's Group on Public Welfare . She died in 1953 ; despite her years of service to party and union , and her successes in breaking through gender boundaries , she has not been greatly honoured within the Labour movement . According to a later female cabinet minister , Barbara Castle , Bondfield 's actions in office had brought her close to betrayal of the movement . = = Childhood and family = = Margaret Bondfield , known in private life as " Maggie " , was born on 17 March 1873 in the Somerset town of Chard . She was the tenth of eleven children , and third of four daughters born to William Bondfield and his wife Ann , née Taylor , the daughter of a Congregational minister . William Bondfield worked as a lacemaker , and had a history of political activism . As a young man he had been secretary of the Chard Political Union , a centre of local radicalism that the authorities had on occasion suppressed by military force . He had also been active in the Anti @-@ Corn Law League of the 1840s . Entirely self @-@ educated , he was fascinated by science and engineering , and was the co @-@ designer of a flying machine , a prototype of the modern aircraft , that was exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851 . While Margaret was still an infant , William lost his job and was unable to find regular work . The family suffered hardship , with the threat of the workhouse a constant fear . Nevertheless , William and Ann did their best to ensure that their children were educated and prepared for life . Margaret was a clever child , whose skills at reciting poetry or playing piano pieces were often displayed at town events and Sunday School outings . Until the age of 13 she attended the local elementary school ; she then worked for a year as a pupil @-@ teacher ( she was paid three shillings a week ) in the school 's boys ' department . Local employment opportunities being scarce , she left Chard in 1887 , at the age of 14 , to begin an apprenticeship at a draper 's shop in Hove , near Brighton . = = Early career = = = = = Shop worker = = = Bondfield joined a drapery and embroidery business in Church Road , Hove , where the young apprentices were treated as family members . Relations between customers and assistants were cordial , and Bondfield 's later recollections of this period were uniformly happy . Her apprenticeship complete , she worked as a living @-@ in assistant in a succession of Brighton drapery stores , where she quickly encountered the realities of shop staff life : unsympathetic employers , very long hours , appalling living conditions and no privacy . Bondfield reported on her experiences of living @-@ in : " Overcrowded , insanitary conditions , poor and insufficient food were the main characteristics of this system , with an undertone of danger ... In some houses both natural and unnatural vices found a breeding ground " . She found some relief from this environment when she was befriended by a wealthy customer , Louisa Martindale , and her daughter Hilda . The Martindales , socially conscious liberals and advocates for women 's rights , found Bondfield a willing learner , and lent her books that began her lifelong interest in labour and social questions . Bondfield described Mrs Martindale as " a most vivid influence on my life ... she put me in the way of knowledge that has been of help to many score of my shop mates " . Bondfield 's brother Frank had established himself in London some years earlier as a printer and trades unionist , and in 1894 , having saved £ 5 , she decided to join him . She found London shopworking conditions no better than in Brighton , but through Frank her social and political circles widened . She became an active member of the National Amalgamated Union of Shop Assistants , Warehousemen , and Clerks ( NUSAWC ) , sometimes missing church on Sundays to attend union meetings . Her political and literary education was centred on the Ideal Club , where she met Bernard Shaw , and Sidney and Beatrice Webb . Under the influence of these socialist luminaries , she joined the Fabian Society and later the Independent Labour Party ( ILP ) . As a shopworker , Bondfield was expected to work between 80 and 100 hours a week for 51 weeks in the year , and might be sent out late at night to check that rival shops had closed before her employer would do so . She began to record her experiences , in a series of articles and stories that she wrote under the pseudonym " Grace Dare " , for the shopworkers ' monthly magazine The Shop Assistant . She wrote surreptitiously , at night : " I would light my half @-@ penny dip [ candle ] , hiding its glare by means of a towel and set to work on my monthly article " . In 1896 she was recruited by the Women 's Industrial Council ( WIC ) as an undercover agent , working in various shops while secretly recording every aspect of shop life . Her accounts of squalor and exploitation were published in articles under the " Grace Dare " name , in both The Shop Assistant and the Daily Chronicle newspaper , and provided the basis for a WIC report on shopworkers ' conditions published in 1898 . = = = Union official = = = In 1898 Bondfield accepted the job of assistant secretary of NUSAWC , which that year became " NAUSAWC " after amalgamating with the United Shop Assistants ' Union . From this time onward she subordinated her life to her union work and to the wider cause of socialism . She " had no vocation for wifehood or motherhood , but an urge to serve the Union ... I had ' the dear love of comrades ' " . At the time the union 's membership , at under 3 @,@ 000 , represented only a small fraction of shopworkers , and Bondfield gave priority to increasing this proportion . For months she travelled the country , distributing literature and arranging meetings when she could , with mixed outcomes in the face of apathy from shop staff , and outright opposition from shopowners . In Reading and Bristol she reported no success , although in Gloucester , she thought , " it should not be difficult to organise every shop worker " . In 1899 Bondfield was the first woman delegate to the Trades Union Annual Congress , that year held in Plymouth , where she participated in the vote that led to the formation in 1900 of the Labour Representation Committee ( LRC ) , forerunner of the Labour Party . NAUSAWC , its membership by then around 7 @,@ 000 , was one of the first unions to affiliate to the committee . In 1902 Bondfield met Mary Macarthur , some eight years her junior , who chaired the Ayr branch of NAUSAWC . Macarthur , the daughter of a wealthy Scottish draper , had held staunchly Conservative views until a works meeting in 1901 to discuss the formation of a NAUSAWC branch transformed her into an ardent trades unionist . In 1903 Macarthur moved to London where , with Bondfield 's recommendation , she became secretary of the Women 's Trade Union League . The two became close comrades @-@ in @-@ arms during the next two decades , in a range of causes affecting women . The historian Lise Sanders suggests that Bondfield 's more intimate friendships tended to be with women rather than men ; Bondfield 's biographer Mary Agnes Hamilton described Macarthur as the romance of Bondfield 's life . The year 1904 saw the passage of the Shop Hours Act , which made some provision for limiting shop opening hours . In 1907 the first steps were taken to end the Victorian " living @-@ in " practice , which at the time still affected two @-@ thirds of Britain 's 750 @,@ 000 shopworkers . Initially , living @-@ out privileges were only given to male employees ; Bondfield campaigned for equivalent rights for women shop workers , arguing that if they were to become " useful , healthy ... wives and mothers " , they needed to live " rational lives " . As part of her campaign , Bondfield advised the playwright Cicely Hamilton , whose shop @-@ based drama Diana of Dobsons appeared that year . Bondfield described the opening scene , set in a dreary , comfortless women 's dormitory over a shop , as very like the real thing . From 1904 onwards , Bondfield was increasingly occupied with the issue of women 's suffrage . In that year she travelled with Dora Montefiore of the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) to the International Congress of Women in Berlin , but she was not in sympathy with the main WSPU policy , which was to secure the vote for women on the same highly restricted basis that it was then given to men . This involved a property qualification , and thus largely excluded the working class . Bondfield saw no benefit in this policy to the women that she represented , and aligned herself with the Adult Suffrage Society ( ASS ) , which campaigned for universal adult suffrage , men and women alike , regardless of property . In 1906 she became chairman of the society and supported the Franchise and Removal of Women 's Disabilities bill , introduced to parliament by Sir Charles Dilke . This proposed full adult suffrage , and the right of women to become MPs . The bill was " talked out " in the House of Commons , but Bondfield 's support antagonised many militants in the WSPU , who considered the bill a distraction from their more limited aims . In 1907 , in the course of a public debate with Teresa Billington @-@ Greig of the Women 's Freedom League ( a breakaway group from the WSPU ) , Bondfield argued that the only way forward was a bill that enfranchised all men and all women , without qualification . She wished good luck to those fighting for a " same terms as men " suffrage bill , but " don 't let them come and tell me that they are working for my class " . The strains of her duties and constant campaigning began to undermine her health , and in 1908 she resigned her union post after ten years ' service , during which NAUSAWC membership had risen to over 20 @,@ 000 . Her departure , she said , was " alike a grief and a deliverance " . = = Women 's Labour League = = After leaving NAUSAWC , Bondfield transferred the main focus of her energies to the Women 's Labour League ( WLL ) , which she had helped to found in 1906 . The League 's principal aims were " to work for independent labour representation in connection with the Labour Party , and to obtain direct labour representation of women in Parliament and on all local bodies . " The president of the League was Margaret MacDonald , wife of the future Labour Party leader Ramsay MacDonald ; Bondfield had known the MacDonalds since the 1890s , through their joint work for the WIC . With a government suffrage reform bill pending in parliament , the WLL introduced a motion to the 1909 Labour Party conference committing the party to oppose any suffrage extension bill that did not specifically include women . However , while the party was largely sympathetic to the principle of women 's suffrage , it was unwilling to risk losing the limited reforms to male suffrage promised by the government 's bill . When Bondfield tabled the WLL motion at the Labour conference , she was persuaded by Arthur Henderson to water it down . Many suffragists reacted angrily ; the WSPU accused the WLL , and Bondfield in particular , of treachery . Fran Abrams , in a biographical essay , writes that although Bondfield " was prepared to argue loud and long for adult suffrage , ... she was not prepared to damage her relationship with the Labour Party for it " . Since the passing of the Qualification of Women Act in 1907 , women had been eligible to vote in and stand as candidates in municipal elections . Several WLL members contested the London County Council elections in 1910 ; Bondfield stood in Woolwich , unsuccessfully ( she contested the same seat in 1913 , with a similar result ) . The League was active in all types of elections , supporting and canvassing for candidates of either sex who spoke out for women 's rights . Through these activities Bondfield experienced the lives of the poorest of families , writing : " Oh ! the lonely lives of these women , hidden away at the back of a network of small , mean streets ! " Alongside her WLL duties , Bondfield maintained a range of other involvements . She spent part of 1910 in the United States , lecturing on suffrage issues with Maud Ward of the People 's Suffrage Federation ( PSF ) , and studying labour problems . At home , she worked with the Women 's Co @-@ operative Guild ( WCG ) on maternity and child welfare , and was co @-@ opted to the Parliamentary Standing Committee that piloted the introduction of state maternity benefits and other assistance to mothers . Her investigation on behalf of the WIC into the working conditions in the textile industries led her to join most of the Labour leadership in a " War against Poverty " campaign . In 1910 Bondfield accepted the chairmanship of the British section of the Women 's International Council of Socialist and Labour Organisations . Between 1908 and 1910 the WLL and the WIC co @-@ operated in a nationwide investigation of married women 's working conditions . Bondfield carried out the fieldwork in Yorkshire . The relationship between the two bodies was sometimes fractious , and when the report was due to be published , there were disagreements over how it should be handled . As a result of these and other clashes , Bondfield , MacDonald and the other League women resigned from the Council . In 1911 Bondfield assumed the role of the WLL 's Organising Secretary , and spent much of the year travelling : she formed a WLL branch in Ogmore Vale , Glamorgan , reformed the Manchester branch , and found time to advise laundrywomen engaged in a dispute in South Wales . The sudden death of Mary MacDonald in September 1911 added considerably to Bondfield 's workload ; the strain , together with internal animosities within the WLL , led her to resign her position in January 1912 . The League made strenuous efforts to retain her , and only in September did its committee reluctantly accept her departure . An attempt to re @-@ engage her in 1913 was unsuccessful , and Marion Phillips was appointed to succeed her . = = Campaigns and war = = From 1912 Bondfield was a member of the WCG 's Citizenship Subcommittee , where she worked with Margaret Llewelyn Davies investigating minimum wage rates , infant mortality and child welfare . She also assisted the Guild 's education and training programme , lecturing on " Local Government in Relation to Maternity " . Freedom from her WLL responsibilities gave her more time for political work , and in 1913 she joined the ILP 's National Administration Council . Bondfield spoke at the ILP 's mass anti @-@ war rally in Trafalgar Square rally on 2 August 1914 , organised by George Lansbury ; other speakers included Keir Hardie , Henderson , and the dockers ' leader Ben Tillett . On the outbreak of war a few days later , Bondfield joined the Union of Democratic Control that , while not pacifist , opposed the use of war as an instrument of national policy . She was also a member of the Women 's Peace Council . In March 1915 she attended a conference in Bern , Switzerland , organised by the Women 's International of Socialist and Labour Organizations , which called for a negotiated peace . Later in the war the government , concerned by Bondfield 's association with peace organisations , prevented her from travelling to similar gatherings in Sweden and the United States . Bondfield had helped Mary Macarthur to found the National Federation of Women Workers ( NFWW ) in 1906 . This organisation was dedicated to the unionisation of women , and by 1914 had more than 20 @,@ 000 members . In 1915 Bondfield became NFWW 's organising secretary . Together with Macarthur , Phillips and Susan Lawrence , she established the Central Committee for Women 's Employment , which organised relief work for the female unemployed . Bondfield 's investigations into workers ' pay revealed considerable differences between the rates paid to men and to women , even for identical work . Through the NFWW she campaigned for a £ 1 a week starting minimum wage for women , whatever the nature of the work , and for equal pay with men for equal work . Suffragist militancy having largely lapsed after the outbreak of World War I , in October 1916 a Speaker 's Conference was convened to consider the issue of women 's franchise and make proposals for postwar legislation . While Bondfield , Lansbury and other prewar campaigners pressed for universal adult suffrage , the conference recommended only a limited extension of the franchise . The subsequent Representation of the People Act , 1918 , gave the vote to women over 30 who were property owners or the wives of property owners , or were university graduates . Bondfield described the Act , which excluded almost all working @-@ class women , as " mean and inadequate ... creating fresh anomalies " . = = National prominence = = The end of the war in November 1918 saw Bondfield 's election to the General Council of the TUC , the first woman to be thus elevated . In the following months she travelled as a TUC delegate to international conferences , in Bern and later in Washington DC , where she expressed the view that the peace terms being imposed on Germany were unjust . In April 1920 she was a member of a joint TUC @-@ Labour Party mission to the Soviet Union . A few months earlier , Lansbury had visited the incipient Soviet state and had been most impressed after meeting Lenin , whom he judged to be " symbolic of a new spirit " , " the father of his people " and " their champion in the cause of social and economic freedom " . Bondfield , who also met Lenin , was more cautious . She told an NFWW conference on her return that if she were a Russian citizen she would support the Bolshevist government as currently " the only possible form of administration " . Later , she came to see communism as anti @-@ democratic and dictatorial , and voted against the application of the British Communist Party for affiliation to the Labour Party . Among various public activities , Bondfield joined the governing body of Ruskin College , the Oxford @-@ based institution founded in 1899 to provide higher education opportunities to working @-@ class men . She also became a Justice of the Peace . She first sought election to parliament in 1920 , as the Labour candidate in a by @-@ election in Northampton . She increased the Labour vote significantly , but lost by 3 @,@ 371 votes , to the Coalition Liberal candidate . At the general election of 1922 she was again adopted by Labour at Northampton and , as she had at Woolwich in 1913 , turned to Shaw for help in the campaign . He was contemptuous of the Labour leadership for not arranging a more promising seat ; nevertheless , he came and spoke for her , but her margin of defeat widened to 5 @,@ 476 . Following two years of negotiation , in 1920 the NFWW voted to merge with the National Union of General Workers and become that union 's Women 's Section . Bondfield , who supported the merger , believed that provided women could maintain their separate group identity , it was better for men and women to work together . The secretary of the new section was to have been Mary Macarthur , but she died of cancer on 1 January 1921 , the date that the merger came into effect . Bondfield was appointed in her place , and remained in the post ( with leave of absence while holding ministerial office ) until 1938 . To honour her friend , Bondfield helped to organise the Mary Macarthur Memorial Fund . She added other responsibilities to her heavy schedule : chairing the Standing Joint Committee of Industrial Women 's Organisations ( SJCIWO ) , membership of the Labour Party 's Emergency Committee on Unemployment , and chairman of the 1922 Conference of Unemployed Women . In September 1923 she became the first women to assume the chair of the TUC 's General Council . In November 1923 Stanley Baldwin 's Conservative Government fell . In the following month 's general election Bondfield was elected in Northampton with a majority of 4 @,@ 306 over her Conservative opponent . She was one of the first three women — Susan Lawrence and Dorothy Jewson were the others — to be elected as Labour MPs . In an outburst of local celebration her supporters , whom she described as " nearly crazy with joy " , paraded her around the town in a charabanc . The Labour Party had won 191 seats to the Conservatives ' 258 and the Liberals ' 158 ; with no party in possession of a parliamentary majority , the make @-@ up of the next government was in doubt for several weeks . = = Parliament and office = = = = = First Labour Government = = = The Liberal Party 's decision not to enter a coalition with the Conservatives , and Baldwin 's unwillingness to govern without a majority , led to Ramsay MacDonald 's first minority Labour government which took office in January 1924 . According to Lansbury 's biographer , Bondfield turned down the offer of a cabinet post ; instead , she became parliamentary secretary to the Minister of Labour , Tom Shaw . This appointment meant that she had to give up the TUC Council chair ; her decision to do so , immediately after becoming the first woman to achieve this honour , generated some criticism from other trade unionists . Bondfield later described her first months in government as " a strange adventure " . The difficulties of the economic situation would have created problems for the most experienced of governments , and the fledgling Labour administration was quickly in difficulties . Bondfield spent much of her time abroad ; in the autumn she travelled to Canada as the head of a delegation examining the problems of British immigrants , especially as related to the welfare of young children . When she returned to Britain in early October she found the government in its final throes . On 8 October MacDonald resigned after losing a confidence vote in the House of Commons . Labour 's chances of victory in the ensuing general election were fatally compromised by the controversy surrounding the so @-@ called Zinoviev letter , a missive purportedly sent by Grigory Zinoviev , president of the Communist International , which called on Britain 's socialists to prepare for violent revolution . The letter , published four days before polling day , generated a " Red Scare " that led to a significant swing of voters to the right , and ensured a massive Conservative victory . Bondfield lost her seat in Northampton by 971 votes . = = = Opposition = = = After her defeat , Bondfield resumed her work for NUGMW and was re @-@ elected to the TUC Council . In 1926 she supported the TUC 's decision to hold a General Strike , and also the decision to call it off after nine days . Following the resignation of Sir Patrick Hastings in June 1926 , Bondfield was adopted as the Labour candidate at Wallsend , and won the subsequent by @-@ election with a majority of over 9 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , she had accepted appointment to the Blanesburgh Committee , which the Conservative government had set up to consider reforms to the system of unemployment benefit . Her private view , that entitlement to benefits should be related to contributions , was not widely shared in the Labour Party or the TUC . When the committee made recommendations along these lines she signed the report , which became the basis of the Unemployment Insurance Act 1927 . Bondfield 's association with this legislation permanently shadowed her relationship with the Labour movement . On 29 March 1928 , when a bill came before parliament giving the vote in parliamentary elections to all men and women over 21 , she termed the measure " a tremendous social advance " , and added : " At last [ women ] are established on that equitable footing because we are human beings and part of society as a whole ... once and for all , we shall destroy the artificial barrier in the way of any women who want to get education in politics and who want to come forward and take their full share in the political life of their day " . When the bill became law , 4 million voters , most of them women , were added to the register . In the 1929 general election , held on 30 May , Bondfield easily held her Wallsend seat despite the intervention of a candidate representing unemployed workers . The overall election result left Labour as the largest party with 287 seats , but without an overall majority , and MacDonald formed his second minority administration . = = = Minister of Labour = = = When Bondfield accepted the post of Minister of Labour in the new government , she became Britain 's first woman cabinet minister , and Britain 's first woman privy counsellor . She considered the appointment " part of the great revolution in the position of women " . Her period in office was dominated by the issue of rising unemployment and the consequent increasing costs of benefit , which created a division between the government , anxious to demonstrate its financial responsibility , and the wider Labour movement whose priority was to protect the unemployed . According to the historian Robert Skidelsky : " Ministers worried about the finances of the [ unemployment ] fund ; backbenchers worried about the finances of the unemployed " . Under increasing pressure from the TUC , Bondfield introduced a bill that reversed the " Blanesburgh " restrictions on unemployment benefit introduced by the previous government , but with visible reluctance . Her handling of this issue is described by Marquand as " maladroit " , and by Skidelsky as showing " monumental tactlessness " . As the cost of unemployment benefits mounted , Bondfield 's attempts to control the fund 's deficit provoked further hostility from the TUC and political attacks from the opposition parties . In February 1931 she proposed a scheme to cut benefit and restrict entitlement , but this was rejected by the cabinet as too harsh . Instead , seeking a cross @-@ party solution , the government accepted a Liberal proposal for an independent committee , eventually set up under Sir George May , to report on how public expenditure might be reduced . With the collapse in May 1931 of Austria 's leading private bank , Kreditanstalt , and the subsequent failure of several other European banks , the sense of crisis deepened . On 30 July the May committee recommended cuts in expenditure of £ 97 million , the majority ( £ 67 million ) to be found from reductions in unemployment costs . In the ensuing weeks , ministers struggled vainly to meet these demands . Bondfield was prepared to cut general unemployment benefit , provided the most needy recipients — those on so @-@ called " transitional benefit " — were protected . No formula could be found ; by 23 August the cabinet was hopelessly split , and resigned the next day . To the outrage of the TUC and most of the Labour Party , MacDonald formed an emergency National Government with the Conservative and Liberal parties , while the bulk of the Labour Party went into opposition . Bondfield did not join the small number of Labour MPs who chose to follow MacDonald , although she expressed her " deep sympathy and admiration " for his actions . In the general election that followed on 27 October 1931 , the Labour Party lost more than three @-@ quarters of its Commons seats and was reduced to 52 members . Bondfield was defeated in Wallsend by 7 @,@ 606 votes ; Abrams observes that given the attacks on her from both right and left , " it would have been a miracle had she been re @-@ elected " . Of the former Labour cabinet members who opposed the National Government , only Lansbury kept his seat . = = Later career = = After her defeat , Bondfield returned to her NUGMW post . The TUC , suspicious of her perceived closeness to MacDonald , was cool towards her and she was not re @-@ elected to the General Council . She remained Labour 's candidate at Wallsend ; in the general election of 1935 she was again defeated . She never returned to parliament ; she was adopted as the prospective Labour candidate for Reading , but when it became obvious that the election due for 1940 would be delayed indefinitely by war , she resigned her candidacy . In 1938 , after retiring from her NUGMW post , Bondfield founded the Women 's Group on Public Welfare . She studied labour conditions in the United States and Mexico during 1938 , and toured the US and Canada after the outbreak of war in 1939 , as a lecturer for the British Information Services . Her attitude towards the war was different from her semi @-@ pacifist stance of 1914 ; she actively supported the government and , in 1941 , published a booklet , Why Labour Fights . Her main wartime activity was leading an investigation by the Hygiene Committee of the Women 's Group on Public Welfare , into the problems that arose from the large @-@ scale evacuation into the countryside of city children . The group 's findings were published in 1943 , as Our Towns : a Close @-@ up ; the report gave many people their first understanding of the extent of inner @-@ city poverty . Suggested solutions included nursery education , a minimum wage , child allowances and a national health service . The report was reprinted several times , and was instrumental in developing support for the social reforms introduced by the Labour government that took office in 1945 . Among Bondfield 's other wartime activities , in 1944 she helped to launch a national drive for the appointment of more women police officers . = = Last years , retirement and death = = Although not a candidate herself , Bondfield campaigned for Labour in the general election of July 1945 — a reporter found her instructing a meeting in Bury St Edmunds on the benefits of nationalisation . She was active in her local Labour Party , and continued to chair the Women 's Group of Public Welfare until 1948 . Her main task in these years was her autobiography , published in 1948 under the title A Life 's Work . The purpose of the book , she wrote , was not to celebrate her own achievements , instead she hoped that her experiences " may be of some service to the younger generation " . The book had an indifferent reception ; in The Observer , Harold Nicolson described it as " ill composed and badly proportioned " , with too much space devoted to inconsequential meetings while truly important events were hurried over . Nevertheless , he thought the book provided " a fine example of resolute and in the end triumphant energy " . The Manchester Guardian 's reviewer also criticised the work 's confused structure and unselective detail , but found it " a useful , direct and honest " account of Labour 's early years . Apart from her autobiography , Bondfield contributed to a collection of essays entitled What Life Has Taught Me , in which 25 public figures pondered on the lessons of life . Bondfield wrote that her religious convictions gave her " strength to meet defeat with a smile , to face success with a sense of responsibility ; to be willing to do one 's best without hope of reward [ and ] to bear misrepresentation without giving way to futile bitterness " . In March 1948 Bondfield opened the Mary Macarthur Home at Poulton @-@ le @-@ Fylde , near Blackpool in Lancashire , which provided subsidised holidays for low @-@ paid women workers . In 1949 she made a six @-@ month speaking tour of the United States , her final visit to the country ; she left convinced that America would soon adopt a national health service . Bondfield , who never married , maintained her good health and interest in life until her final illness in 1953 . She moved to a nursing home in Sanderstead , Surrey , where she died aged 80 on 16 June 1953 . At her cremation in Golders Green Crematorium the congregation sang the popular hymn " To Be a Pilgrim " . The Labour Party was fully represented ; Clement Attlee , the leader of the party and former prime minister , gave the address . = = Appraisal and legacy = = In his biographical sketch for the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , Philip Williamson depicts Bondfield as " physically short and stout ... with sparkling eyes , a firm , brisk manner , and effective , sometimes inspired , public speaking " . She had the self @-@ confidence to exist and thrive in a male @-@ dominated world , deriving inspiration from a childhood that , though materially impoverished , her obituarist has described as " of great spiritual and mental wealth " . She inherited a strong nonconformist faith , which became a key element throughout her later career , and retained her links with the Congregational Church throughout her life . After her death The Times praised her " unusually wide human sympathies ... her generous nature and real sense of humour " . Skidelsky , however , describes her unsympathetically as " a humourless and somewhat priggish person , with long black skirts and a voice that emitted a harsh cascade of sound " . Bondfield 's career was punctuated by " firsts " , in union , parliament and government spheres . Her own view of these achievements was modest : " Some woman was bound to be first . That I should be was the accident of dates and events " . Her appointment as Minister of Labour propelled her into what was , in 1929 , the hardest job in the cabinet , and in common with other ministers , her lack of experience in government left her heavily dependent on her official advisers . By temperament a realist , she based her actions in government on economic facts rather on party or sectional interests ; thus she became " caught between the opposition claims that she was soft on the unemployed , and her own backbenchers ' jibe that she had abandoned the workers " . Her stance , and her seemingly equivocal attitude towards MacDonald 's apostasy , reduced her standing in her own party for decades , so that when Barbara Castle was appointed as Minister of Labour by Harold Wilson in 1968 , she insisted that the ministry 's name be changed to " Department of Employment " , for fear of association with Bondfield 's term in office . Castle refused to contribute a preface to Fabian Society booklet celebrating Bondfield 's life , because she considered her predecessor 's actions close to political betrayal . In 2001 , a speech by Tony Blair celebrating the Labour Party 's 100 years in parliament paid tributes to many heroes of the movement 's early years ; Bondfield 's name was not mentioned . Bondfield was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by the University of Bristol , and in 1930 received the freedom of the borough from her home town of Chard , where in 2011 a plaque in her honour was fixed to the Guildhall wall . In 1948 she was appointed a Companion of Honour ( CH ) . Many years after her death , streets and apartment buildings were named after her in the London boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Barking ; she was further commemorated in her old constituency of Northampton when a hall of residence in the University of Northampton was named the Margaret Bondfield Hall . In 2014 a campaign began for a plaque on the shop in Church Street , Hove , where in 1886 – 67 Bondfield had served her apprenticeship . To mark Bondfield 's centenary in 1973 , Linda Christmas in The Guardian reviewed the progress of women in parliament since the 1930s . By 1973 , Christmas reported , only 93 women had sat in parliament ; their contributions had overall " not been stunning " . Their best numerical representation at that point had been in the 1966 general election , when 29 women ( out of 630 MPs ) had been elected . The 1979 election saw this number fall to 19 , but also saw Margaret Thatcher become Britain 's first woman prime minister . Cox and Hobley draw attention to Thatcher 's early life as a shopkeeper 's daughter , and contrast her account of those days with Bondfield 's experiences half a century earlier . Thatcher believed that the concept of service to the customer was absolute ; thus , Cox and Hobley assert , she would have had little sympathy for Bondfield 's campaigns to better shopworkers ' conditions . Despite the changes that have taken place in the retail industry since Bondfield 's day , Cox and Hobley believe that , were she alive , " she 'd still be champing at the bit , trying to coax shop assistants to join a union , and fiercely championing shopworkers ' rights to better pay and conditions " . = = Writings = = Bondfield was a prolific writer of magazine and newspaper articles . Her main publications are listed below : = = = Books = = = A Life 's Work ( autobiography ) : London , Hutchinsons 1948 . OCLC 577150779 What Life Has Taught Me ( contributor with 27 others ) : London , Odhams Press 1948 . OCLC 222888739 = = = Booklets and pamphlets = = = Socialism for Shop Assistants ( in " Pass On Pamphlets " series ) . London , Clarion Press , 1909 . OCLC 40624464 Shop Workers and the Vote ( co @-@ author with Kathryn Oliver ) . London , People 's Suffrage Federation , 1911 . OCLC 26958055 The National Care of Maternity . London , Women 's Co @-@ operative Guild , 1914 . OCLC 81111433 Labour and the League of Nations . ( co @-@ author with J. Ramsay MacDonald and Arthur Pugh ) . Bondfield 's chapter : " Great Britain 's Responsibility " . London , League of Nations Union , 1926 . OCLC 561089187 The Meaning of Trade . London , E. Benn Ltd , 1928 . OCLC 56418171 Why Labour Fights . London , 1941 . OCLC 44515437 Our Towns : A Close @-@ up ( with the Hygiene Committee of the Women 's Group on Public Welfare ) . London , Oxford University Press , 1943 . OCLC 750462348
= Strang School District No. 36 = Strang School District No. 36 , or the Strang Public School , is a historic school located in Fillmore County , Nebraska , in the village of Strang . The school is one of the two sites listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the village of Strang . The school building is a small , two @-@ story , brick public schoolhouse , which was built to replace the schoolhouse that was previously located on that site . The schoolhouse was built between 1929 and 1930 , and replaced the previous schoolhouse , which burned down in 1928 . The schoolhouse still retains all original building materials . The school served high school students from 1930 to 1951 , and still functions as a school today , serving grades K – 8 . The NRHP listing also includes a flagpole located outside the schoolhouse , and five pieces of playground equipment . = = History and education = = In October 1928 a fire destroyed the small school that had previously been located in Strang . Classes were held in two local churches and the Belle Prairie Township Hall for the remainder of that year , while the townspeople held a series of meetings to discuss the construction of a new schoolhouse . Later in 1928 , plans for the new schoolhouse were drawn up and approved , and construction on the new Strang Public School began in 1929 . The majority of the people that worked on constructing the school were local townspeople . The first classes in the new school were held in February 1930 . The schoolhouse was constructed in a " fireproof " fashion , as to prevent another accident . The new schoolhouse was constructed to hold students from first through twelfth grades , from Strang and the surrounding communities . Primary students attending classes were located on the second floor and secondary students classes were held on the first floor . Since construction , there have been no projects undertaken to refurbish or restore the original building , as to protect its historical importance . In 1951 , due to a decline in enrollment , the school reduced to serving just students in grades K through 8 , and has remained this way since . In fall of 2001 , the school had an enrollment of just eight students . By the fall of 2004 ( the last published figures available ) , that number had fallen to just five . = = Architecture = = The Strang Public School is a near perfect example of what is considered a typical twentieth @-@ century " fireproof " schoolhouse in Nebraska , and is constructed somewhat symmetrically . The school was constructed in a simplified version of the Renaissance Revival style , consisting of two stories , with a flat roof . = = = Exterior = = = The building is constructed in a rectangular shape , symmetrical on the exterior , and measures 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) by 66 feet ( 20 m ) . The approximate height measurements are not provided by the Register . Large , six over six paned windows are located in the front and the back of the building on both floors . Similar windows are also located on the south side of the building , but only on the top floor . There are no windows located on the north side . The entire exterior of the building is constructed from brick . The roof is flat and constructed of roofing cement , with a parapet located around it , with a section of a chimney that sticks out of the south end of the roof . The most prominent feature of the exterior of the building is the large , central pavilion , with a stepped gable parapet wall . = = = Interior = = = The first level of the building contains two classrooms , both of which have a cloakroom , a set of three swivel doors , and a large slate chalkboard that covers one of the walls . The first story also contains two bathrooms , four small storage closets , and a central hall , as well as a large stairwell leading up to the second floor . The second story contains three classrooms , with the same features as those downstairs , along with an office and three small storage rooms . A metal fire escape door is located in the center of the west wall of the second story . The schoolhouse also has a partial basement , which contains a large storage room , a coal room , and a disused coal furnace . = = Geography and facilities = = The Strang Public School is positioned at the intersection of Main Street and Sharon Street , on the southern edge of Strang , originally planned as a convenient location for the teachers and students coming from surrounding communities . The campus consists of the main schoolhouse , five historic pieces of playground equipment , a flagpole located in front of the building , a basketball / tennis court located north of the school building , and a large playing field west of the schoolhouse . The entire property is contained inside a 300 by 300 foot square plot of land . A flagpole is located outside the main entrance to the school building , and is included in the NRHP listing as a contributing feature . A set of gym bars , a tether ball pole , a swing set , a " slippery slide " , and a merry @-@ go @-@ round are located on the south and west sides of the property , and are all listed as contributing features . A fenced tennis and basketball court is located on the north side of the property , and a large track and playing field are located on the west side of the property , but none of these features are included in the listing . = = Significance = = Strang School District No. 36 was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 25 , 1992.Note 1 On its nomination , Strang School District No. 36 was cited as being significant under criteria C , with the statement : " as a multi @-@ story , brick , " fireproof " school building , an example of a type , period , and method of construction representative of school buildings constructed in many communities in Nebraska , particularly in Fillmore County , during the first quarter of the twentieth century " . The school 's listed year of significance was 1930 , the year it was constructed . The school is considered significant to the surrounding community by Fillmore County , due to its importance to education an historic qualities , being one of the oldest buildings in the area .
= Kylfings = The Kylfings ( Old Norse Kylfingar ; Finnic Kylfingid ; Hungarian Kölpények ; Old East Slavic Колбяги , Kolbiagi ; Byzantine Greek Κουλπίγγοι , Koulpingoi ; Arabic al @-@ Kilabiyya ) were a people of uncertain origin active in Northern Europe during the Viking Age , roughly from the late ninth century to the early twelfth century . They could be found in areas of Lapland , Russia , and the Byzantine Empire that were frequented by Scandinavian traders , raiders and mercenaries . Scholars differ on whether the Kylfings were ethnically Finnic or Norse . Also disputed is their geographic origin , with Denmark , Sweden and the Eastern Baltic all put forward as candidates . Whether the name Kylfing denotes a particular tribal , socio @-@ political , or economic grouping is also a matter of much debate . They are mentioned in Old Norse runestone inscriptions , sagas ( most notably in Egil 's Saga ) , and poetry ( such as Thorbjorn Hornklofi 's poem Haraldskvæði ) , as well as Byzantine records and Rus ' law @-@ codes . According to the sagas , the Kylfings opposed the consolidation of Norway under Harald Fairhair and participated in the pivotal late ninth century Battle of Hafrsfjord . After Harald 's victory in that battle , they are described in the sagas as having raided in Finnmark and elsewhere in northern Norway and having fought against Harald 's lieutenants such as Thorolf Kveldulfsson . = = Etymology = = The exact etymology of the word kylfing is disputed and many different theories have been put forward as to its ultimate origin . The general trend has been to trace kylfing to the Old Norse words kylfa and kolfr , but scholars disagree as to the meaning of these words as well . Cleasby notes that in Old Norse , kylfa can mean a club or cudgel . Thus the national Icelandic antiquarian Barði Guðmundsson translated Kylfing to mean " club @-@ wielders " . As Foote points out , it can also mean a smaller stick , such as a tally @-@ stick or wooden token used by merchants , and , according to Jesch , it can also mean the " highest and narrowest part " of a ship 's stem . Holm discussed the term kylfa in connection with the word hjúkolfr which means " meeting " or " guild " ; according to Holm , the second element kolfr could refer to a symbolic arrow traditionally used as a device to summon people for a meeting . These varied derivations have led to a number of interpretations . Holm offers two meanings : " archer " and " man armed with a cudgel " . A number of historians have asserted that Kylfing referred to a member of a " club in the social or Anglo @-@ American sense " , a " brotherhood " or a member of a Norse félag . In a number of minor Icelandic manuscripts on mathematics and geography , Kylfingaland is identified as Garðaríki , i.e. Kievan Rus ' , but the sources are unclear as to whether Kylfingaland is named for the Kylfings or vice versa , or whether , indeed , there is any connection at all . The Russian cognate of Kylfing is Kolbjag , following the pattern of development * kolƀing ( * kulƀing ) > * kolƀęg > kolbjag . The Kolbiagi were a group of foreign merchant @-@ venturers and mercenaries mentioned in a number of Old Russian sources . They are often mentioned together with the Varangians , a term used in Eastern Europe to describe traders and pirates of the Baltic sea . In Byzantine Greek , they were named koulpingoi and they served as a unit of the Byzantine army listed alongside the Varangian Guard , which was of Scandinavian origin . A very different derivation was put forward by the Russian scholar B. Briems . He hypothesised that Kylfingr was a direct Norse translation of the Votic self @-@ designation Vatjalaiset and Vatja ( or Vadjalaiset and Vadja ) used by the Votes , a Finnic tribe residing in Ingria , Russia . A non @-@ Norse origin was also proposed by Julius Brutzkus , who argued that both Varangian and Kylfing derived from the Turkic languages , particularly the Bulgar and Khazar languages . Brutzkus asserted that Varangian came from the Turkic root varmak ( " to walk , travel " ) while Kylfing was a Norse pronunciation of the Slavic kolbiagi , itself deriving from the Turkic phrase köl @-@ beg ( " sea @-@ king " ) ; under this interpretation the word Kylfing would be more or less synonymous with " Viking " . = = Identity = = According to Egil 's Saga , the Kylfings were trading and plundering in Finnmark around the year 900 . Thorolf Kveldulfsson , King Harald 's tax agent in northern Norway , engaged Saami scouts to monitor the Kylfings ' movements and report back to him . Countering their raids , he is reported to have killed over a hundred Kylfing marauders . Some scholars see them as Scandinavians while others consider them to have been a Finnic tribe , and assert a connection between the word Kylfing and the Finnish , Saami , and Karelian myths of Kaleva . Elsewhere they are described as a mixture of Norse and Finnish people who were employed as mercenaries and tax @-@ agents by Scandinavian rulers ; in this context Ravndal interpreted the kylfa element to refer to a " club " in the sense of organization . Arbman argues that the Kolbiagi were a separate fur @-@ trading guild . Postan et al . , on the other hand , hypothesize that Kolbiag denoted a junior participant in a Varangian trade guild , rather than a separate group . = = = Finnic peoples = = = Holm ( 1992 ) considers Egil 's saga to equate the Kylfings with the Finnic Karelians . In the 14th century , when the Swedish kings began to direct their attention northwards and encourage Swedish colonization in Norrbotten , there were regulations that the Birkarls and the Saami peoples were not to be interrupted in their traditional activities . A large part of the Karelians were under Novgorod which was included in what Icelandic sources called Kylfingaland , and thus the Kylfings could have been Baltic Finnish tribes under Novgorod . Both East Slavs and Byzantines consistently made a clear distinction between Varangians and Kylfings , and Byzantines distinguished between them in the same manner as they separated Franks from Saracens . According to Holm such separations are indicative of clear ethnic differences between the two groups . Additionally , both East Slavic and Byzantine sources explicitly associate the Varangians with Baltic region , which they called Varangia , and in Arabic , the Baltic Sea was called Bahr Varank , i.e. the " Varangian Sea " . There are no comparable connections when they mention the Kylfings . Another difference is the fact that the Byzantine sources connect the word varangoi with rhōs in order to make it clear that the rhōs @-@ varangoi and the varangoi originate in Baltic just like the rhōs , but do not establish the same associations for the koulpingoi . The Kylfings have also been identified with the Votic people . Carl Christian Rafn , Edgar V. Saks , B. Briem and Sigurður Nordal have proposed Kylfings to have been the Norse name for the Votes . The reason is that the ethnonym Vadja ( laiset ) can be associated with the word vadja ( modern Estonian vai ' ) which means " stake " , " wedge " or " staff " , which corresponds to Old Norse kolfr . Vadjalaiset would consequently be translated into Old East Norse as kolfingar , which in Old West Norse ( Old Icelandic ) would be umlauted as kylfingar . Whereas some native names were Scandinavized , as Rostov into Ráðstofa , the Norse learned of the meaning of other names and translated them , which they did at Volkhov , and in the case of some of the Dniepr rapids . The theory that the Kylfings were Votes has been opposed by Max Vasmer and Stender @-@ Petersen , whereas Holm finds it likely . Holm considers it apparent that the Varangians and the Finnic tribes were able to cooperate well , and he points to the relative ease and stability with which Finland was later integrated as a part of the Swedish kingdom . Jorma Koivulehto , a Finnish linguist , disagrees with the Vote theory and maintains that the Votic name or any other Finnic ethnonym is not etymologically connected with the name Kylfingar . Estonians have also been identified as Kylfings . = = = Scandinavians = = = Barði Guðmundsson identified the Kylfings as an East Scandinavian , possibly Swedish , tribe that infiltrated northern Norway during the late ninth century . Guðmundsson connects the Kylfings with the Germanic Heruli who were active throughout northern Europe and in Italy during the fifth and sixth centuries . According to Guðmundsson , many of these Kylfings may ultimately have emigrated to Iceland during the ninth and tenth centuries . Other scholars have assigned a Danish origin to this tribe . Some scholars have considered the Kylfings of Egil 's Saga to be a " conquering Germanic people " , or the Swedish king 's tax collectors . Holm ( 1992 ) considers such suggestions to be anachronistic because the Swedish kings lacked any interest in northern Fenno @-@ Scandia during the ninth and tenth centuries , and not even the later law of Hälsingland mentions any Swedish settlement north of Bygdeå in southern Västerbotten . Pritsak identified the Kylfings as a " professional trading and mercenary organization " that organized expeditions northward , into the Saami lands , as distinct from other Varangian and viking groups whose expeditions focussed on lands to the west and east of Scandinavia . This interpretation is supported by such historians as Stender @-@ Petersen . A number of runestones in Sweden contain the personal name Kylfingr , which may or may not be connected to the Kylfings as a group . = = = Other suggestions = = = A few historians have hypothesized that the Kylfings were a West Slavic people related to the Pomeranians . Under this interpretation , the Slavic term Kolbiag may share common origins with such place @-@ names as Kołobrzeg ( formerly Kolberg ) , a town on the Pomeranian Baltic coast , and Kolpino , a settlement near modern St. Petersburg . = = Status = = = = = Byzantine Empire = = = Eleventh @-@ century Byzantine sources refer to Kylfings ( Κουλπίγγοι , Koulpingoi ; often attested in the genitive plural Κουλπίγγων , Koulpingon ) as being among the foreigners serving as mercenaries in Constantinople , but appear to distinguish between them and the Varangians . For instance , an imperial chrysobull , an edict bearing a golden seal , issued in 1073 exempts certain monasteries from being forced to billet soldiers of specific ethne : Varangians , Rus ' , Saracens , Franks and Koulpingoi . In previous edicts issued in 1060 and 1068 the Koulpingoi had not been separately delineated . Similar edicts were issued in 1082 , 1086 , and 1088 . The edict issued by Alexios I Komnenos 1088 , for instance , reads : The whole of the above @-@ mentioned island [ of Patmos ] , as well as the monastery with all its properties , is granted exkousseia [ exemption ] from the billetting [ mitata ] of all commanders , both Roman [ Rhomaioi ] and foreign allies , that is the Rus , Varangians , Koulpingoi , Inglinoi , Frangoi , Nemitsoi , Bulgarians , Saracens , Alans , Abasgoi , the Immortals , and all other Romans and foreigners . = = = Russia and the eastern Baltic = = = The Kylfings were also active in the eastern Baltic and northern Russia . Kylfingaland may have been used to refer to Karelia ; on some runestones it has been interpreted as a synonym for Garðariki , the Old Norse name for Russia . The eleventh @-@ century Ruskaya Pravda , the law code of the Kievan Rus ' , grants certain privileges to Kylfings ( Колбяги or " Kolbiagi " ) in addition to Varangians ( " Varyagi " ) . For instance , Varangians and Kylfings were entitled to press charges with an oath without relying on any witnesses . In addition , in order to swear innocence , they needed only two witnesses , whereas a native Slav needed as many as seven . Moreover , the Varangians and the Kylfings were entitled to give shelter to a fugitive for as many as three days , whereas Slavs and others had to hand him over directly . = = = Hungary = = = A military organization called Kölpények is reported to have existed in Medieval Hungary during the tenth , eleventh and twelfth centuries . Hungarian scholars have proposed that the Kölpények were identical with the Kylfings / Kolbiagi . Hungarian sources regard the Kölpények as being of Scandinavian origin . They were hired by the early rulers of the House of Arpad , particularly Taksony of Hungary in the 950s , to serve as frontier guards . They fought with their Magyar employers alongside Sviatoslav I of Kiev against Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire . Alternatively , the Kölpények may have been of Pecheneg origin , as there was a Pecheneg tribal group called Külbej during roughly the same period . = = Austkylfur = = The skaldic poet Thorbjorn Hornklofi wrote about Austkylfur , or " East @-@ Kylfings " , in his epic poem Haraldskvæði . In some manuscripts the name was , probably erroneously , rendered auðkylfur or " rich men " . Some philologists , using the nautical meaning of the word kylfa , interpret the phrase as " eastern ships " . Others , such as F. Jonsson , interpreted Austkylfur to mean " eastern logs " , while Vigfusson believed that the phrase properly meant simply " men of the east " . Another interpretation of the term used in Haraldskvæði is the derogatory " eastern oafs " . Guðmundsson specifically identified the Austkylfur of Hornklofi 's poem with the Kylfings mentioned elsewhere in Scandinavian and Eastern European sources , and interpreted the phrase Austkylfur to mean " eastern club @-@ wielding men " . In Haraldskvæði as recorded by Snorri Sturluson in the Heimskringla , the Austrkylfur were described as being opponents of Harald Fairhair at the Battle of Hafrsfjord . As such they formed part of the force , led by Kjotve the Rich of Agder and the kings and jarls of Hordaland , Rogaland , and Telemark , that came to Hafrsfjord to fight Harald 's encroaching hegemony . The exact relationship between the Austkylfur and the anti @-@ Harald coalition is unknown . Nora Chadwick identifies the Austkylfur as the part of the force opposing Harald that came from Agder and Telemark . These districts lie further east than the other kingdoms opposing Harald 's rule . After their defeat by Harald and his army , the Kylfings ' property was plundered and their womenfolk , described as " eastern maidens " , were distributed by the victorious king among his warriors . = = Timeline = =
= Bloodbath of B @-@ R5RB = The Bloodbath of B @-@ R5RB or the Battle of B @-@ R5RB was a massive @-@ scale virtual battle fought in the MMORPG space game Eve Online , and was possibly the largest player versus player battle in history . Pitting the Clusterfuck Coalition and Russian alliances ( CFC / Rus ) against N3 and Pandemic Legion ( N3 / PL ) , the 21 @-@ hour @-@ long conflict involved over 7 @,@ 548 player characters overall and a maximum of 2 @,@ 670 players in the B @-@ R5RB system at one time . The in @-@ game cost of the losses totalled over 11 trillion InterStellar Kredit ( ISK ) , an estimated theoretical real @-@ world value of $ 300 @,@ 000 to $ 330 @,@ 000 USD . This theoretical value is derived from time cards which are purchasable for real currency and can be converted into a tradable item in @-@ game . Part of a larger conflict known as the Halloween War , the fight started after a single player controlling a space station in the star system B @-@ R5RB accidentally failed to make a scheduled in @-@ game routine maintenance payment which made the system ( a key staging area used by N3 / PL in the war ) highly vulnerable to capture . The CFC and Russian coalitions began pouring players into the system in a swift offensive , and N3 / PL moved in a large fleet of players as a response as well . A massive battle erupted in the system and numerous smaller engagements occurred throughout the game universe as players attempted to block reinforcements from joining the battle . CFC / Rus gained a clear win by inflicting heavy losses on N3 / PL and successfully capturing B @-@ R5RB . The losses totalled 576 Capital @-@ class ships including 75 Titans ( the largest ships available to players ) , along with thousands of smaller vessels . To commemorate the sheer size and cost of the battle , the game 's creators , CCP Games , erected a permanent monument in the system B @-@ R5RB named " The Titanomachy " , consisting of non @-@ salvageable capital ship wrecks . = = Background = = Eve Online is a MMORPG space game in which players engage in a variety of activities including mining , piracy , manufacturing , trading , exploration , and combat . A few dozen players form corporations ( called clans , guilds or alliances in other video games ) , and these corporations in turn can formally join in alliance with other corporations . Many of these alliances create informal coalitions to work toward common goals and fight competing alliances . The Halloween War was a conflict in the game universe which started around Halloween in late October 2013 and pitted the CFC and " Russian " coalition and their allies against the N3 and Pandemic Legion coalitions and their allies . B @-@ R5RB , located in the Immensea region , served as the staging ground for all Pandemic Legion fleets . A few days before the fighting in B @-@ R5RB , the CFC and Russian coalition suffered a decisive loss to N3 and Pandemic Legion forces in the Battle of HED @-@ GP in the Catch region , due to the N3 / PL 's " Wrecking Ball " formation of Titan and Supercarrier " supercapital " ships in the center of a huge sphere of mainly Archon carriers . = = Battle = = = = = Outbreak of conflict = = = On January 27 , 2014 ( YC 116 in @-@ game ) , the one @-@ year anniversary of the immense Battle of Asakai , player corporation " H A V O C " , a member of Nulli Secunda , which in turn is a part of the N3 / Pandemic Legion coalition , mistakenly failed to make a scheduled payment to in @-@ game security force CONCORD . This resulted in the star system B @-@ R5RB losing its sovereign status , which meant that other players could capture the system without needing to wait for the normal " reinforcement timers " ( real time waiting periods of several days designed to allow defenders to rally ) . An enemy scout discovered Nulli Secunda quietly attempting to regain control with their Territorial Control Units ( TCU ) . At around 14 : 00 UTC , with an hour remaining on the clock before Nulli Secunda could regain control , the CFC and Russian coalition sent a capital fleet to the station . RAZOR Alliance took the station , and the Russians destroyed the N3 / PL Territorial Control Unit and set up its own TCU in order to establish control . As capturing this system would enable them to trap Pandemic Legion assets , including hundreds of capital and sub @-@ capital ships , inside and prevent them from joining the war , CFC Alliance and Russian @-@ heavy coalition forces scrambled to gain control of the system , with thousands of players logging on and preparing their fleets . Manfred Sideous of Pandemic Legion claimed that the missed payment resulted from a bug , as he had enough ISK in his holding corporation wallet and had autopay checked . = = = Battle for B @-@ R5RB = = = Pandemic Legion and N3 moved to retake the system , but the Russians destroyed all Territorial Control Units anchored in the system . N3 / PL then deployed their super @-@ carrier and carrier fleet in the " Wrecking Ball " formation just off the system 's space station , a formation which had previously defeated the CFC and Russian alliance . As the conflict was a surprise and occurred on a Monday workday , CFC and Rus decided to take advantage and gain field superiority before N3 and PL could respond and so deployed their entire capital fleet to the system . Meanwhile , they deployed their sub @-@ capital fleets to N3 staging systems , including I @-@ NGI8 and GXK @-@ 7F , to delay any reinforcements . Each side then attempted to rush all available pilots into the system , and the game 's time dilation software engaged . Time dilation is a game feature created by developer CCP Games to handle heavy loads on the game server without the game lagging or disconnecting players . In time dilation , the game slows to ten percent normal speed , with each second of game time displaying as ten seconds of real time . The two sides traded Titan kills every hour , when their Doomsday weapons could fire again , and the system became filled with warp disruption bubbles , making extraction difficult . For a while neither side gained any real advantage , though CFC / Rus managed to on @-@ line their Territorial Control Units and held a slight lead in the number of enemy Titans destroyed . Throughout the engagement , related battles played out across the entire game universe as fleets tried to block reinforcements , destroy fleeing capitals and super @-@ capitals , or trap pilots attempting to enter the fray . The tide of the battle started to turn when Manfred Sideous , the initial N3 / PL fleet commander , handed control to Vince Draken , CEO of Northern Coalition . Vince Draken managed to concentrate fire on and destroy several CFC / Rus Titans , and forced some additional Russian Titans to leave the system with depleted shields and armor . However , N3 / PL overestimated their success and began to focus their attacks on the Titan belonging to Sort Dragon , the commander of all remaining Russian forces in the field . This Titan had very high damage resistance , and Sort Dragon drew upon his entire fleet to assist in repairing it , enabling it to hold out much longer than most other Titans up to that point . By the time his Titan fell , the CFC / Rus had managed to destroy five N3 / PL Titans , putting the alliance well ahead . James Carl , a member of the N3 / Pandemic Legion coalition , reported to the Associated Press that " It looks like CFC is winning , but we 're hoping now that all of our US players are online , we 'll turn the tide . " But when the US @-@ timezone players logged on and reinforcements became available , PL did not see the numbers they had expected , and the CFC blockaded adjacent systems to prevent them joining the battle . Eventually , N3 / PL could no longer destroy any Titans , and ordered a retreat . They switched their fire onto CFC / Rus 's Dreadnoughts in an attempt to take out as many ships as possible during retreat . Due to their spy network , CFC knew that N3 / PL had ordered a retreat and deployed Interdictors and Heavy Interdictors to prevent the withdrawal . N3 / PL lost several more Titans , Super Carriers , and Capitals in the extraction , with many trapped by the warp disruption bubbles strewn throughout the battle area . = = Aftermath = = Over 7 @,@ 548 unique characters participated in the overall battle , of which 6 @,@ 058 participated directly in the B @-@ R5RB system with a maximum of 2 @,@ 670 in system at the same time . These numbers included 717 unique player corporations and involved 55 unique player alliances . Joystiq called the battle potentially the largest recorded PvP battle in any game to date . The 21 @-@ hour @-@ long conflict resulted in the loss of 75 Titans , 13 Super Carriers , 370 Dreadnoughts , and 123 Carriers , along with thousands of smaller ships and innumerable fighters and drones . N3 and Pandemic Legion lost 59 Titans while the CFC and Russian coalition lost only 16 . An estimated 11 trillion ISK in assets was lost during the battle , and media outlets reported the battle as the biggest and most expensive in EVE Online 's history , estimating that the battle cost $ 300 @,@ 000 – $ 330 @,@ 000 in real @-@ world money . This estimate comes from a figure listed in the official report by CCP Games , which the report based off a theoretical conversion of pilot license extensions , or PLEX , into real @-@ world USD . While direct conversion of real currency into ISK , or vice versa , is strictly prohibited , and PLEX units are purchasable in @-@ game , additional PLEX units can be purchased for $ 20 USD , and it is from this theoretical real @-@ world value that the estimated dollar amounts lost in the battle are drawn . However , this does not mean this amount of real @-@ world money was expended , as many ships were purchased through in @-@ game currency or corporation assets . Dr. Eyjólfur Guðmundsson , an economist hired by CCP Games to oversee EVE Online 's economy , stated that " To me , as an economist , that doesn ’ t really matter . In both cases this is economical value that is created by people ’ s work , either in real life or in virtual life . They put their blood , sweat and tears into making stuff so they can have an advantage in a battle , because in this battle like in any other battle in meet worlds , in real life , it is the resources you have available . " Alexander Gianturco , who goes by the in @-@ game character The Mittani , CEO of Goonwaffe ( the largest corporation in the Goonswarm Federation alliance and hence the largest alliance in the CFC ) , reported to Polygon near the end of the battle that " As vengeance for [ the battle of ] Asakai goes , it 's somewhat ironic ; our forces lost three Titans and seven supercarriers last year in Asakai , and lost the battle . This year we 've killed 40 + hostile Titans and we have seven more hours of killing before downtime . " Also near the end of the battle , Ali Aras wrote on TheMittani.com , an Eve Online @-@ devoted website , that " The kills made here decide not only this war , but the next , and the next after that . " Aras also noted some of the economic repercussions , stating that " the price of Tritanium has been creeping upwards , anticipating the flurry of industrial production to come . " Following the Battle of B @-@ R5RB , Pandemic Legion withdrew from the Southeast theater and formed an agreement with the CFC which allowed them to evacuate billions of assets from the B @-@ R5RB system . Other N3 forces retreated in from the south , and in the following few days CFC alliances managed to capture a total of twenty three systems in the regions Immensea , Catch , Tenerifis , and Feythabolis from N3 / Pandemic Legion alliances . The CFC then withdrew from the southeast theater . In the weeks after , the Russian bloc suffered internal troubles , allowing N3 to regain all of the territory lost after B @-@ R5RB and conquer most of the Russian bloc 's territory . In the longer term , B @-@ R5RB established CFC , later re @-@ branded as The Imperium , as the predominant superpower in Eve Online , with little serious resistance challenging the coalition for the next two years . = = Commemoration = = Once the game went into downtime , developer CCP Games announced that it would create an in @-@ game monument in the B @-@ R5RB star system to commemorate the battle . " Titanomachy " was created using brand new Titan wreck models introduced with Eve Online : Rubicon 's 1 @.@ 1 release which came out immediately following the battle . CCP Games posted on the Eve Online website that they planned to install " Titanomachy " during downtime of January 31 , and were " hard at work placing the wrecks in a hauntingly beautiful arrangement . " Placed around the seventh planet in the B @-@ R5RB system , the installation is " off grid " from the space @-@ station . CCP Games stated that " Thereafter , any player who plays [ Eve Online ] can make the dangerous pilgrimage there and marvel at the scope of destruction . We expect some of the ' travel ' bloggers to do full write @-@ ups on it almost immediately and [ Eve Online ] videographers to make some moving tributes as well . "
= R.C. Pro @-@ Am = R.C. Pro @-@ Am is a racing video game developed by Rare . It was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) by Nintendo for North America in 1988 , and then in Europe on April 15 of the following year . Presented in an overhead isometric perspective , a single player races a radio @-@ controlled car around a series of tracks . The objective of each track is to qualify for the next race by placing in the top three racers . Players collect items to improve performance , and they must avoid a variety of hazards such as rain puddles and oil slicks . It is an example of a racing game which features vehicular combat , in which racers can use missiles and bombs to temporarily disable opposing vehicles . Originally titled Pro Am Racing , R.C. Pro @-@ Am was also ported to the Sega Genesis in 1992 as Championship Pro @-@ Am , an enhanced remake with enhanced graphics and additional features . R.C. Pro @-@ Am was followed by two sequels : Super R.C. Pro @-@ Am in 1991 , and R.C. Pro @-@ Am II in 1992 . Listed by video game reviewers as one of Rare 's first successful NES titles , R.C. Pro @-@ Am was well @-@ received for its visuals , sound , gameplay , and enjoyability . The game distanced itself from earlier racing titles by using an overhead , instead of a first @-@ person , perspective . Reviews have cited it as inspiration for future games such as Super Off Road , Rock n ' Roll Racing , and the Mario Kart series . It has appeared in many " top games of all time " lists and is regarded as one of the best titles in the NES library . = = Gameplay = = R.C. Pro @-@ Am is a racing video game in which a player controls a radio @-@ controlled car against three opponents around a track from an overhead isometric perspective . Players use the horizontal buttons on the control pad to steer their car left or right , and they use the other buttons to accelerate , fire weapons , and pause the game . Consisting of 24 tracks total , the goal for each racer is to qualify for the next race by finishing in the top three in the four @-@ car field . The game ends if players finish in fourth ; however , they have two continues in which they can restart the previous race , but they will lose all points accumulated up to that point . For each successful completion of a race , the player receives a trophy ; larger " High Score Trophies " , leading up to the " Super Trophy " , can also be obtained for achieving high scores . After the game ends , players can record their scores on " Top Pro @-@ Am Drivers " list , but the scores are erased when the console power is powered off . Throughout the courses , there are items on the track that players can collect by driving over them . " Tune @-@ up items " help increase the car 's performance , such as turbo acceleration , " hotter engines " for higher top speed , and " super sticky tires " for increased traction and cornering ; these additional abilities are displayed on the " track conditions " screen between races . Players can also collect weapons that can temporarily disable other vehicles : missiles take out the opposing vehicles from the front , while bombs take them out from the rear . The number of missiles and bombs carry over to the next race , and players can collect extra ammunition , represented by stars , on the track . Roll cages , which opponents can also collect , help protect cars from crash damage , stationary " zippers " give cars an extra speed boost , and " bonus letters " give players large point bonuses and the ability to drive an upgraded car if they can spell " NINTENDO " ( " CHAMPION " in the Rare Replay version ) with them . Players can upgrade from a standard truck to a faster 4 @-@ Wheeler and then to the fastest Off Roader . There are also various hazards which must be avoided : oil slicks which cause cars to spin out of control , water puddles and " rain squalls " which slow them down , pop @-@ up barriers which crash cars , and skulls which decrease ammunition . Excessive use of projectile weaponry on opponents will result in the yellow car accelerating to 127 mph , which cannot be matched by the player . The Sega Genesis port , Championship Pro @-@ Am , features some gameplay differences from the NES version of the game . In this port , players race against five other vehicles instead of three , but players must still place in the top three to move to the next track . Another feature is that race records are recorded ; players are prompted to enter their name before the game start to track high scores and race records . Finally , players try to successfully spell " CHAMPION " in order to upgrade to a new car . = = Development = = R.C. Pro @-@ Am was developed by UK @-@ based company Rare . In 1987 , the game was originally titled Pro @-@ Am Racing but was later renamed . It was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) by Nintendo in 1987 in North America , and in Europe on April 15 of the next year . It would later be ported to the Sega Genesis under the name Championship Pro @-@ Am and was released by Tradewest in 1992 . Its music was composed by David Wise , known for his work on Cobra Triangle as well as the Donkey Kong Country series . R.C. Pro @-@ Am was subject to preview coverage in the Fall 1987 issue of Nintendo Fun Club News – the company 's predecessor to its house organ Nintendo Power . It received a more in @-@ depth look into the game in the proceeding Winter 1987 issue , saying that " this game is a must for RC Car ( radio @-@ controlled ) owners " . It was featured on the cover of the magazine 's February – March 1988 issue , which also included a full walkthrough . Later , in Nintendo Power ' premiere issue in July 1988 , R.C. Pro @-@ Am was listed 6th on its " Top 30 " NES games list , and it was the top " Dealer 's Pick " . It went down to the 8th position in September 1988 , and 12th in November . = = Reception and legacy = = R.C. Pro @-@ Am was reviewed in Computer Gaming World who called it " a compelling , innovating approach to car racing video games " . Bill Kunkel found that it distanced itself from earlier racing titles such as Sega 's Enduro Racer , Nintendo 's Mach Rider , and Atari 's Pole Position by going from a more traditional first @-@ person to an isometric perspective . He also praised the game 's simplicity and controls , comparing them to that of an actual radio @-@ controlled car . He criticized the game for its lack of a two @-@ player feature and for the instruction booklet 's vagueness . He concluded by lauding its graphics and sound , saying that they " help make this the best game of its kind ever produced in any electronic game format " . Bloomberg Businessweek listed R.C. Pro @-@ Am , along with Cobra Triangle , as Rare 's most notable titles in the NES library . The game has continued to be well received by contemporary video game publications . Allgame 's Chris Couper stated that R.C. Pro @-@ Am is among the best NES games , due to its realistic nature . He commented that the game 's challenge and sounds contributed to its enjoyment level . Retro Gamer saw the game as a precursor to Codemasters ' Micro Machines , and they compared the action and variety of items to the later Mario Kart series . They hailed it as one of Rare 's best early products , stating : " Radio @-@ controlled car racing in videogame form was pretty much perfected here . " The 2009 book Vintage Games compared the game to Spy Hunter , noting that game emphasized collecting power @-@ ups and weapons and not just on racing . It added how the trend of combining racing with vehicular combat would reappear in future games such as Super Mario Kart and Rock n ' Roll Racing . Later in 2010 , as part of Rare 's 25th anniversary , the magazine said that it was Rare 's first successful NES title as well as one of the first games to combine racing and vehicular combat . Readers ranked the game 22nd in a list of their 25 favourite Rare games . More recently , in 2016 , VintageGamer.com praised R.C. Pro Am for still being enjoyable and challenging 28 years after its release . R.C. Pro @-@ Am has appeared many times on various " best games " lists over the years . A survey conducted by GamePro in 1990 ranked the game as the 10th @-@ best sports video game at that time . Game Informer put the game at number 84 on its " Top 100 Games of All Time " list in August 2001 . Paste magazine placed it as the 8th greatest NES game ever , saying that it is " way more fun than real remote @-@ control cars , which never seemed to be equipped with missile capabilities " . IGN listed the game as the 13th @-@ best NES game of all time , citing its popularity amongst players as well as good sales . Executive Editor Craig Harris said that it was one of the first games to introduce the concept of vehicular combat , inspiring other titles such as Super R.C. Pro @-@ Am , R.C. Pro @-@ Am II , and the Mario Kart series . 1UP.com listed it as the 14th best NES title , citing the game 's good graphics and gameplay elements , though it said that the difficulty level was too high . As with other retrospectives , the website staff listed the game as inspiration for future series such as Super Off Road and Rock n ' Roll Racing . In a look back at Rare as part of the company 's 25th anniversary , GamePro listed R.C. Pro @-@ Am as one of Rare 's best games , calling the release " one of Rare 's finest moments " . The NES version of R.C. Pro @-@ Am is one of the 30 games selected for the upcoming Xbox One compilation Rare Replay .
= Three Men and Adena = " Three Men and Adena " is the fifth episode of the first season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 3 , 1993 . The episode was written by executive producer Tom Fontana and directed by Martin Campbell . In the episode , Pembleton and Bayliss have a 12 @-@ hour limit to elicit a confession from Risley Tucker for the murder of 11 @-@ year @-@ old Adena Watson . The episode takes place almost entirely within the confines of the police interrogation room with the three actors . Tucker was played by actor Moses Gunn , which was his final acting role before his death in December 1993 . " Three Men and Adena " was seen by 7 @.@ 08 million households in its original broadcast , which was among the lowest @-@ rated network shows from that evening . However , the episode received positive reviews ; it is considered one of the classic Homicide episodes , and ranked number 74 in an Entertainment Weekly list of the 100 greatest television moments . Tom Fontana won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the episode 's script . = = Plot summary = = Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) and Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) prepare to interview Risley Tucker ( Moses Gunn ) , an elderly arabber . Bayliss is convinced Tucker murdered 11 @-@ year @-@ old Adena Watson , but Pembleton is less confident . Since they have already interviewed Tucker multiple times , the court will not allow him to be bothered anymore if he does not confess after this interview , and the detectives have only 12 hours to elicit a confession before Tucker walks free . Pembleton starts off acting friendly while Bayliss , who has taken the Watson case very personally , is more aggressive . Adena used to work for Tucker , taking care of his horse . Pembleton brings up Tucker 's alcoholism , but Tucker said he gave up drinking because he used to black out , insisting he hasn 't had a drink in 16 months . Tucker also insists he hadn 't seen Adena for three days before she died , but Bayliss shows him she had soot on her skirt that matched soot from Tucker 's barn , indicating she was there the day she was killed . During a moment of anger , Bayliss nearly presses Tucker 's face against a hot pipe on the wall , but Pembleton stops him . Tucker still angrily insists he did not kill her , and he agrees to submit to a polygraph test . When Bayliss leaves , Pembleton speaks to Tucker in a soft and comforting tone , trying to get Tucker to trust him . Pembleton suggests Tucker had a drink and blacked out the night he killed Adena , and he seems close to getting a confession before Tucker once again insists he is innocent . With four hours left before the deadline , Bayliss returns and says Tucker failed the polygraph test . Bayliss and Pembleton then aggressively team up on Tucker , talking quickly and intimidating him with repeated questions . They bring up a previously dropped statutory rape charge against Tucker involving a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl , then suggest he attempted to have sex with Adena and killed her because she resisted . They confront Tucker with gruesome crime scene photos of Adena and ask him if he is sure he didn 't kill her , to which a frightened and confused Tucker replies , " Not right now , I 'm not . " With less than an hour left and still without a confession , the detectives are exhausted , and Tucker turns the table on them . He claims Pembleton has the attitude of a man trying to distance himself from his African American heritage because he is ashamed to be black . Tucker also accuses Bayliss of hiding a " dark side " inside him that he is afraid to embrace . Eventually , Tucker admits he harbored pedophilic feelings for Adena , and feels shame that the " one great love of my life was an 11 @-@ year @-@ old girl " . He breaks down and cries , but still insists he did not kill her . The 12 @-@ hour time limit elapses and the detectives fail to get a confession . Tucker is released and Bayliss is miserable he was unable to close the case . Pembleton , who has a new respect for Bayliss , tries to comfort him by saying he is now convinced Tucker is the killer , but Bayliss is no longer so sure . = = Production = = " Three Men and Adena " was directed by Martin Campbell and written by Tom Fontana , executive producer of Homicide : Life on the Street . The interrogation room at the homicide division , colloquially referred to by detectives as " The Box " , is a setting that appears in almost every episode of Homicide : Life on the Street . While filming an interrogation scene there in " Gone for Goode " , the first episode of the first season , director Barry Levinson commented to Fontana that the acting from Andre Braugher and Kyle Secor was so effective , an entire episode could be filmed revolving strictly around an interrogation . The comments partially inspired Fontana to write " Three Men and Adena " . Fontana said , " I only had the courage to write that episode based on the fact that I had seen what ( Braugher and Secor ) could do in the pilot episode " . Almost the entire episode of " Three Men and Adena " takes place within the confines of the police interrogation room with Braugher , Secor and Moses Gunn , the actor who guest starred as Risley Tucker . It was Gunn 's final acting role before his death in December 1993 . Fontana acknowledged a certain amount of risk in producing such an unusual episode in only the fifth week of the show , but he said , " It was important for Barry Levinson and I to establish that we weren 't going to do the same old show every week . " " Three Men and Adena " marked the conclusion of the Adena Watson murder case , a story arc which began at the start of the first season . The Watson case was based on the real @-@ life 1988 Baltimore slaying of Latonya Kim Wallace , which is chronicled in Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , the 1991 David Simon non @-@ fiction book that served as the basis of the Homicide series . Elements of the interview in " Three Men and Adena " were incorporated from real @-@ life police interrogations in that case . The Wallace case was never solved , and Fontana insisted that the Watson case in Homicide remain unsolved as well , despite pressure from NBC for a more satisfying conclusion . Fontana said , " We never solved it because we felt that it would be a disservice to the real girl , to have this fake TV solution . Because it 's not O.K. that she died , that no one took responsibility . " The scene when Tucker admits for a moment he is not sure in his own mind that he didn 't commit the murder was inspired by a similar real @-@ life interaction Fontana found in a police interrogation transcript during his research . Fontana said , " It was so chilling ( and ) I was like , ' Oh man , how do you get there ? ' " Martin Campbell spent three days of preparation on the " Box " set , analyzing it from every angle to learn the feel of the room . Fontana comes from a playwriting background , and " Three Men and Adena " involves long lengths of dialogue in a single setting , much like a play . The actors shot about 14 pages of dialogue each day , and had a very small amount of rehearsal time before shooting . According to Fontana , Campbell never shot a scene from the same angle twice , " So the entire hour keeps changing the point of view of the camera , so that you never get tired of being in that room . " While filming the episode , Campbell would shoot single scenes with multiple pages of long dialogue , then film the scene again from another angle . Braugher said the experience felt more like staging a play than shooting a television episode , and allowed for a feeling of spontaneous human emotion in the performances . Although the dialogue in the final episode did not stray from the original script , Fontana said Campbell and the actors came up with the rhythm and pacing of the performances largely on their own , particularly during the fast @-@ paced questions when Pembleton and Bayliss team up on Tucker . The fact that Tucker goes free upholds a common theme in Homicide : Life on the Street – that life is not always fair , and that criminals sometimes get away with their crimes , a conviction that often put the show 's producers at odds with NBC executives . Fontana deliberately wrote the script so that it would remain ambiguous whether Tucker committed the murder or not . He wanted the character to have a genuine feeling of love for Adena Watson , but the strong feelings do not specifically mean he killed the girl . Braugher praised Fontana for creating such a three @-@ dimensional character in Tucker , and said , " Fontana 's genius is that we are never quite certain as to what it is that we have on our hands . " Fontana also wanted Pembleton and Bayliss to have different interpretations of the same interrogation ; Bayliss begins the interview convinced of the man 's guilt and becomes uncertain by the end , and Pembleton has the opposite experience . Multiple police departments have requested copies of " Three Men and Adena " for use in training sessions due to its accurate portrayal of the intricacies of the police interrogation process . The interrogation included several police tactics not typically featured in television dramas , including the presentation of false evidence in an attempt to get a confession . During the opening scene of the episode , Bayliss watches the music video for " Surround " , by the British band Bleach . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = In its original American broadcast on March 3 , 1993 , " Three Men and Adena " was watched by 7 @.@ 08 million households , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode received a 7 @.@ 6 rating / 12 share . It was among the lowest @-@ rated major network shows from that evening , in part due to heavy competition from ABC 's broadcast of the Sixth Annual American Comedy Awards , which was seen by 14 @.@ 7 million households . " Three Men and Adena " was also outperformed by CBS 's two @-@ hour broadcast of In the Heat of the Night , which was seen by 11 @.@ 82 million households and Fox 's Beverly Hills , 90210 , which was seen by 10 @.@ 33 million households . Also on NBC that day , the series premiere of the new Crime and Punishment fared better than Homicide , capturing 8 @.@ 47 million viewers . In the Washington , D.C.-based affiliate WRC @-@ TV 's market alone , the episode was watched by 122 @,@ 166 viewers , which locally was also the lowest rating of the evening . = = = Reviews = = = " Three Men and Adena " received positive reviews and has been described as one of the " classic episodes " of Homicide : Life on the Street . " Three Men and Adena " ranked number 74 in an Entertainment Weekly list of the 100 greatest television moments , and number 15 among the top television moments from the 1990s . It was also identified by The Baltimore Sun as one of the ten best episodes of the series . Sun writer David Zurawik said Fontana 's playwriting background was deeply infused in the episode , which he called a " landmark hour " that it " put ( three men ) and a few sticks of battle @-@ scarred , municipal @-@ green furniture and somehow managed to show us the human soul and the heart of darkness " . Additionally , " Three Men and Adena " was among a 1999 Court TV marathon of the top 15 Homicide episodes , as voted on by 20 @,@ 000 visitors to the channels website . David Bianculli of the New York Daily News said the episode " remains one of TV 's best drama hours ever " , and he ranked it the second @-@ best television episode ever made , behind the Taxi episode where Reverend Jim gets his driver 's license . Entertainment Weekly writer Bruce Fretts said the episode was " one of the most powerful prime @-@ time hours ever " and called Andre Braugher 's performance a " tour de police force " . Alex Strachan of The Vancouver Sun described " Three Men and Adena " as " one of Homicide 's finest moments " . He called the episode " claustrophobic , cynical and ultimately painful " and particularly praised the performances of Braugher and Secor , and the fact that it was not a happy ending . David P. Kalat , writer of Homicide : Life on the Street : The Unofficial Companion , described the episode as " an astonishing tour de force of writing and acting that demonstrates all of Homicide 's best qualities " . He also praised the chemistry between Braugher and Secor , particularly when they found a common voice during the interrogation . Rocky Mountain News critic Dusty Saunders said the episode was " as good as dramatic television gets " , and showed how the quality of Homicide is anchored in strong writing and acting rather than action . John Leonard , a literary and television critic , called it " the most extraordinary thing I 've ever seen in a television hour " . Leonard praised the tension , the setting and the writing , particularly when Tucker turned the tables on the detectives . He said the episode was better than such works as Ariel Dorfman 's Death and the Maiden and author Don DeLillo 's books about men in small rooms . Lon Grahnke of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called it a " relentless masterpiece " . Manuel Mendoza of The Dallas Morning News considered " Three Men and Adena " one of the best Homicide episodes and particularly praised the performance of Moses Gunn . Mendoza also said , " The claustrophobia of The Box contributes to the palpable tension . The Baltimore Sun television critic David Zurawik said the episode established The Box as " the main stage for Pembleton and the moral center of the Homicide universe " . Zurawik also said , " Stark and minimalist , the episode was musical theater as much as television , a celebration and explosion of language ; an angry , urban opera with the voices of Bayliss and Pembleton coming together and then falling back as Tucker sings a final aria of rage and contempt . " Calgary Herald writer Bruce Weir said the episode " is Homicide at its finest : brilliantly written , intensely acted and continuously surprising . " Emily Nussbaum of The New York Times called " Three Men and Adena " the standout episode of the series , and described it as " a potent showcase for the series ' smartly mordant dialogue , and its willingness to explore the cliches of TV detectives instead of merely repeating them " . Los Angeles Times writer Howard Rosenberg described it as a " mesmerizing ( and ) complex character study " , and said Gunn delivered the best guest performance of the television season . Grant Tinker , former CEO of NBC , said of the episode , " I thought it was stunning . " = = = Awards and DVD release = = = Tom Fontana won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for his " Three Men and Adena " script . It was one of two Emmys Homicide : Life on the Street received during the 45th Primetime Emmy Awards season , with Barry Levinson also winning an Emmy for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the episode " Gone for Goode " . " Three Men and Adena " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 .
= Mechanics of Oscar Pistorius ' running blades = The mechanics of the running blades used by Oscar Pistorius depend on special carbon @-@ fiber @-@ reinforced polymer prosthetics . Pistorius has double below @-@ the @-@ knee amputations and competes in both able @-@ bodied and T44 amputee athletics events . Pistorius ' eligibility to run in international able @-@ bodied events is sanctioned by the International Association of Athletics Federations ( IAAF ) . Pistorius began running in 2004 after a rugby knee injury led to rehabilitation at the University of Pretoria 's High Performance Centre with coach Ampie Louw . His first racing blades were fitted by South African prosthetist Francois Vanderwatt . Because he was unable to find suitable running blades in Pretoria , Vanderwatt ordered some to be made by a local engineer at Hanger Orthopedic Group . These quickly broke , and Vanderwatt referred Pistorius to American prosthetist and Paralympic sprinter Brian Frasure to be fitted for carbon @-@ fibre blades by Icelandic company Össur . Pistorius ' participation in able @-@ bodied international sprinting competitions in 2007 raised questions about his use of running blades , and the IAAF amended their rules to ban the use of " any technical device that incorporates springs , wheels or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device . " After initial studies , Pistorius was ruled ineligible for competitions under these IAAF rules . After further research was presented , the Court of Arbitration ( CAS ) ruled that his running prostheses were not shown to provide a net competitive advantage over biological legs . In 2012 Pistorius qualified for and competed in both the 2012 Olympic Games and the 2012 Paralympic Games using his running blades , becoming the first amputee sprinter to run in the Olympic Games . = = Pistorius ' athletics prostheses = = The blades are transtibial prostheses , meaning they replace legs and feet that are amputated below the knee ( BK ) . They were developed by medical engineer Van Phillips who incorporated Flex @-@ Foot , Inc . , in 1984 , and in 2000 sold the company to Össur which now ( in 2012 ) manufactures the blades . They are designed to store kinetic energy like a spring , allowing the wearer to jump and run effectively . Carbon fibre is actually a carbon @-@ fiber @-@ reinforced polymer , and is a strong , light @-@ weight material used in a number of applications , including sporting goods like baseball bats , car parts , helmets , sailboats , bicycles and other equipment where rigidity and high strength @-@ to @-@ weight ratio is important . The polymer used for this equipment is normally epoxy , but other polymers are also used , depending on the application , and other reinforcing fibres may also be included . In the blade manufacturing process , sheets of impregnated material are cut into square sheets and pressed onto a form to produce the final shape . From 30 to 90 sheets may be layered , depending on the expected weight of the athlete , and the mold is then autoclaved to fuse the sheets into a solid plate . This method reduces air bubbles that can cause breaks . Once the result is cooled , it is cut into the shape of the blades . The finished blade is bolted to a carbon fibre socket that is an intimate fit to each of Pistorius ' legs . These are custom made and make up the bulk of the total cost , along with the assessment and setting up of the finished prostheses . Each limb costs between $ 15 – 18 @,@ 000 USD . Pistorius has been using the same Össur blades since 2004 . He was born without fibulae and with malformed feet , and his legs were amputated about halfway between knee and ankle so he could wear prosthetic legs . He wears socks and pads which are visible above the sockets to reduce chafing and to prevent blisters , and the sockets have straps in the front that can be tightened to make the prosthesis fit more snugly . Pistorius uses custom @-@ made spike pads on the blades . Before development of the pads , his spikes were changed by roughing up the surface and applying over @-@ the @-@ counter spikes by hand , but the results using this method were inconsistent . Research was conducted in Össur ’ s Iceland lab using a pressure @-@ sensitive treadmill and film at 500 fps to measure the blade strike , and produced a spike pad which includes a midsole of two machine @-@ molded pieces of foam of different densities to cushion impact , with a carbon fibre plate on the bottom . The developers attached the pad with contact cement , which can be quickly removed with the application of heat when the spike pad needs to be changed . Because of the curved design , the blades have to be slightly longer than a runner 's biological leg and foot would be . The blades replace the hinge of an ankle with elastic compression that bends and releases the blade with every stride , so the uncompressed blade leaves the user standing on tiptoe . They are designed to move forward , so have no heel support in the back . According to Josh McHugh of Wired Magazine , " The Cheetahs seem to bounce of their own accord . It ’ s impossible to stand still on them , and difficult to move slowly . Once they get going , Cheetahs are extremely hard to control . " = = How the blades work = = In 2007 Pistorius applied to run in able @-@ bodied track meets . He was at first accepted , but questions quickly arose about whether the blades give him an unfair advantage . After initial research showed the blades did provide an advantage , the International Association of Athletics Federations ( IAAF ) changed their rules to ban the use of technical devices that provide an advantage and ruled him ineligible to compete . Pistorius challenged the ruling with additional research and was reinstated by the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) in 2008 , meaning that he can continue to run in able @-@ bodied meets as long as he uses the equipment that was studied in the research . Pistorius ' performance in the early able @-@ bodied races raised questions because of two major concerns : his pattern of running the races and his leg @-@ swing times . Most sprinters spring out of the blocks with their fastest time and slow down as the race progresses , but Pistorius ran a " negative split , " starting slowly and building up speed in the last half of the race ( though he no longer uses this pattern ) . His average time was also less in the 400m race when compared to other runners than in the 200m . Controversy about the use of the blades persists , but the research provided considerable information on how they work in application , and other research is expected to follow . Able @-@ bodied sprinters have calves and ankles that return and amplify the energy supplied by their hips and knees , while Pistorius compensates with additional work because he does not have calves and ankles with their associated tendons and muscles . An analysis published by Engineering & Technology magazine estimates that in using the blades , Pistorius must generate twice the power from his gluteal and quadriceps muscles that a normal sprinter would . Other sources also credit core abdominal muscles and a faster arm swing . His trainer estimates that about 85 percent of his power comes from his hips and the rest from his knees . This results in a gait that waddles slightly , as Pistorius swings his upper body to balance the springing action of the blades . The blades compress under his weight , then release as he moves forward , providing forward thrust from the tips as they return to their molded shape . As they spring off , he swings them slightly out to the side and throws them forward for the next stride . Pistorius is always slow in starting a race because the flexible blades do not provide thrust out of the blocks . Pistorius must begin from an awkward position , swing his leg to the outside and pop straight up from the blocks to begin running , when the preferred method is to push off with horizontal force . For the first 30 meters of a race , he keeps his head down and takes short , quick strides . As he establishes a rhythm , he can raise his head and increase his speed . While some runners jog up and down , losing energy , Pistorius directs energy forward , looking somewhat like he is rolling on wheels . He also compensates for the adjustments ankles make on the turns , breaking the curves into short , straight lines . According to his coach Ampie Louw , Pistorius may be able to use the inward lean to generate force and come out of a turn going faster . = = Research = = = = = Brüggemann study = = = To resolve questions about the blades , Pistorius was asked to take part in a series of scientific tests in November 2007 at the German Sport University Cologne with Professor of Biomechanics Peter Brüggemann and IAAF technical expert Elio Locatelli . After two days of tests , Brüggemann reported that Pistorius used about 25 percent less energy expenditure than able @-@ bodied athletes once he achieved a given speed . The study also found that he showed major differences in sprint mechanics , with significantly different maximum vertical ground return forces , and that the positive work or returned energy was close to three times higher than that of a human ankle . The energy loss in the blade during stance phase when the foot was on the ground was measured as 9 @.@ 3 percent , while that of normal ankle joint was measured at 42 @.@ 4 percent , showing a difference of more than 30 percent . Brüggemann 's analysis stated that the blades allowed lower energy consumption at the same speed , and that the energy loss in the blade is significantly less than in a human ankle at maximum speed . In December of that year , Brüggemann stated to Die Welt newspaper that Pistorius " has considerable advantages over athletes without prosthetic limbs who were tested by us . It was more than just a few percentage points . I did not expect it to be so clear . " The study was published in 2008 in Sports Technology , but later researchers stated that the analysis " did not take enough variables into consideration " . Commentators have also argued that the IAAF study did not accurately determine whether Cheetahs confer a net advantage because measuring the net advantage or disadvantage conferred on an athlete using Cheetahs is not possible given current scientific knowledge . Second , the IAAF study may not have measured Pistorius ’ s performance against appropriate controls . IAAF used five able @-@ bodied athletes , who run 400 @-@ meter races in similar times to Pistorius , as controls . However , because Pistorius was relatively new to the sport of running , he may not have trained enough to maximize his physical potential and reach his peak performance when the IAAF study was conducted . In March 2007 , approximately 9 months before the IAAF study was conducted , Pistorius ’ s coach commented that Pistorius had not trained enough to achieve an upper body commensurate with the upper bodies of most elite sprinters . To obtain the most accurate understanding of how the prostheses affect Pistorius ’ s performance , he should be compared to athletes with similar physical potential . Consequently , the IAAF study may have been flawed because it compared Pistorius , who might have the physical potential to run faster than his current times , against athletes at their peak . = = = Weyand , et al. study = = = In 2008 a team of seven researchers conducted tests at Rice University , including Peter Weyand , Hugh Herr , Rodger Kram , Matthew Bundle and Alena Grabowski . The team collected metabolic and mechanical data by indirect calorimetry and ground reaction force measurements on Pistorius ' performance during constant @-@ speed , level treadmill running , and found that the energy usage was 3 @.@ 8 percent lower than average values for elite able @-@ bodied distance runners , 6 @.@ 7 percent lower than for average distance runners and 17 percent lower than for able @-@ bodied 400m sprint runners . At sprinting speeds of 8 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 and 10 @.@ 0 m / s , Pistorius produced longer foot to ground contact times , shorter leg swing times , and lower average vertical forces than able bodied sprinters . The team concluded that running on the blades appears to be physiologically similar but mechanically different from running with biological legs . The study was published several months later in the Journal of Applied Physiology . The inconsistencies between the finding of this study and the Brüggemann study were attributed to differences in study methodology . In the study , the blades were found to have an elastic energy return of about 92 percent , whereas biological legs provide between a 93 and 95 percent return . Grabowski also stated that the prostheses reduce the amount of force Pistorius can apply to the ground when he runs , reducing his ability to propel himself forward . The shape of the blade foot is a longer lever than the human foot , providing a contact point further away from the axis of rotation than a real foot . This would allow greater torque generation when an identical amount of force is applied , but because of the springy quality of the blades , Pistorius is unable to exert the same force as an able @-@ bodied runner during push off from the ground . Kram also stated that Pistorius ' " rate of energy consumption was lower than an average person but comparable to other high @-@ caliber athletes . " The lightness and rigidity of the blade compared to muscle and bone may allow blade runners to swing their legs faster than able @-@ bodied runners . In comments on the article , Peter Weyand and biomechanist Matthew Bundle noted that the study found that Pistorius re @-@ positioned his legs 15 @.@ 7 percent faster than most world record sprinters , allowing for a 15 to 30 percent increase in sprint speed . = = = Grabowski , et al. study = = = In 2008 a research team including Alena Grabowski , Rodger Kram and Hugh Herr conducted a follow @-@ up study of single amputees with running blades which was published in Biology Letters . Each of six amputees ' affected leg performance was compared against that of their biological leg . The team measured leg swing times and force applied to the running surface on a high @-@ speed treadmill at the Biomechanics Laboratory of the Orthopedic Specialty Hospital , and also studied video of sprint runners from the Olympics and Paralympics . They found no difference in leg swing times at different speeds , and recorded leg swing times similar to that of able @-@ bodied sprinters . They also found that single running blades reduced the foot to ground force production of the tested runners by an average of 9 percent . Because force production is generally considered the most significant factor in running speed , the researchers concluded that this reduction in force limited the sprinters ' top speed . Grabowski also found that amputees typically increased their leg swing times to compensate for the lack of force . = = = Other discussion = = = Discussion continues about the relative advantage or disadvantage of using the blades . Researchers and analysts also point out that the research studies are done on level , stationary treadmills , and do not measure performance from starting blocks or on actual curved tracks . They also do not take into account differences in physiology between amputees and non @-@ amputees , who have such factors as musculature , blade height and weight and differences in blood circulation patterns due to the history of their limb loss . = = 2012 Paralympics = = A controversy over the effects of running blade length arose at the 2012 Paralympic Games , as Brazilian runner Alan Oliveira and USA runner Blake Leeper changed to longer running blades within a few months before the 2012 Paralympic Games . This led to marked improvement in their running times . Pistorius complained after the 200m race that the blades provided artificially lengthened running strides , which would be an infringement of the IPC rules , regardless of that the blades were within the allowable height limits for the athletes concerned . His complaint was supported by single @-@ leg runners including Jerome Singleton and Jack Swift , who called for the T43 double blade and T44 single blade classes to be separated in future events , as single blade runners were unable to adjust the height of the prostheses , and must always match the length of their biological leg with a running blade . The improvement in running time and the wide broadcast of the race results provided a public demonstration of how the blade length affects performance . Pistorius ' stride length was actually 9 percent longer ( 2.2m vs 2.0m ) , but Oliveira took more strides ( 99 vs 92 ) . The combination of stride length and stride rate led to a clearly unusual performance with the longer blades . Pistorius ' management issued a statement saying that Pistorius is always 1 @.@ 84 meters tall , regardless of what prostheses he wears , and that the decision to maintain this height for his running blades was an issue of fairness .
= HMS Argus ( I49 ) = HMS Argus was a British aircraft carrier that served in the Royal Navy from 1918 to 1944 . She was converted from an ocean liner that was under construction when the First World War began , and became the first example of what is now the standard pattern of aircraft carrier , with a full @-@ length flight deck that allowed wheeled aircraft to take off and land . After commissioning , the ship was heavily involved for several years in the development of the optimum design for other aircraft carriers . Argus also evaluated various types of arresting gear , general procedures needed to operate a number of aircraft in concert , and fleet tactics . The ship was too top @-@ heavy as originally built and had to be modified to improve her stability in the mid @-@ 1920s . She spent one brief deployment on the China Station in the late 1920s before being placed in reserve for budgetary reasons . Argus was recommissioned and partially modernised shortly before the Second World War and served as a training ship for deck @-@ landing practice until June 1940 . The following month she made the first of her many ferry trips to the Western Mediterranean to fly off fighters to Malta ; she was largely occupied in this task for the next two years . The ship also delivered aircraft to Murmansk in Russia , Takoradi on the Gold Coast , and Reykjavík in Iceland . By 1942 , the Royal Navy was very short of aircraft carriers and Argus was pressed into front @-@ line service despite her lack of speed and armament . In June , she participated in Operation Harpoon , providing air cover for the Malta @-@ bound convoy . In November , the ship provided air cover during Operation Torch , the invasion of French North Africa , and was lightly damaged by a bomb . After returning to the UK for repairs , Argus was used again for deck @-@ landing practice until late September 1944 . In December , she became an accommodation ship and was listed for disposal in mid @-@ 1946 . Argus was sold in late 1946 and scrapped the following year . = = Design , description and construction = = Argus had her genesis in the Admiralty 's desire during the First World War for an aircraft carrier that could fly off wheeled aircraft and land them aboard . Existing carriers could launch wheeled aircraft , but had no way to recover them as they lacked flight decks . In 1912 , the ship builder William Beardmore had proposed to the Admiralty an aircraft carrier design with a continuous , full @-@ length flight deck , but it was not accepted . As the limitations of existing carriers became more apparent , this design was dusted off and the Admiralty located two large , fast hulls suitable for conversion into an aircraft carrier . Construction of the Italian ocean liners Conte Rosso and Giulio Cesare had been suspended by William Beardmore and Company at the outbreak of the war , and both met the Admiralty 's criteria . Conte Rosso was purchased on 20 September 1916 , possibly because her machinery was more complete than that of Giulio Cesare , and the company began work on converting the ship . The initial design had two islands with the flight deck running between them . Each island contained one funnel ; a large net could be strung between them to stop out @-@ of @-@ control aircraft . The islands were connected by braces and the bridge was mounted on top of the bracing , which left a clear height of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) for the aircraft on the flight deck . Fairly early in the design process , the decision was made to delete the funnels to reduce turbulence over the flight deck . The exhaust gases were , instead , ducted aft in the space between the roof of the hangar deck and the flight deck and were enclosed by a casing through which cooler air was driven by electric fans . They normally exhausted underneath the aft end of the flight deck , but the exhaust could be vented through openings on the rear side of the hull by two large electric fans . In November 1916 , the ship 's design was tested in a wind tunnel by the National Physical Laboratory to evaluate the turbulence caused by the twin islands and the bridge over them . They were found to cause problems , but no changes were made until the ship was nearly complete . In April 1918 , Argus was ordered to be modified to a flush @-@ decked configuration after the sea trials of the carrier Furious had revealed severe turbulence problems caused by her superstructure . The ship was given a bridge underneath her flight deck , extending from side to side , and she was fitted with a retractable pilot house in the middle of the flight deck for use when not operating aircraft . Argus 's stability had been a concern from the beginning . Despite having been originally conceived as a liner with a hull designed to minimise rolling , most of the changes made to the ship during her conversion added topside weight , raising her centre of gravity . Even the addition of 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of ballast still left the ship with a very low metacentric height of only 1 @.@ 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 49 m ) lightly loaded and 3 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) at deep load . This meant that she was very steady , but heeled noticeably when turning . The ship proved to be very manoeuvrable at medium and high speeds , but steered badly at low speeds and in wind due to her large surface area . Argus had an overall length of 565 feet ( 172 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 68 feet ( 20 @.@ 7 m ) , and a draught of 23 feet 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load . She displaced 14 @,@ 450 long tons ( 14 @,@ 680 t ) at standard load and 15 @,@ 575 long tons ( 15 @,@ 825 t ) at deep load . Each of the ship 's four sets of Parsons geared steam turbines drove one propeller shaft . Steam was supplied by 12 cylindrical Scotch boilers . The turbines were designed for a total of 20 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 15 @,@ 000 kW ) , but they produced 21 @,@ 376 shaft horsepower ( 15 @,@ 940 kW ) during her sea trials in September 1918 , and gave Argus a speed of 20 @.@ 506 knots ( 37 @.@ 977 km / h ; 23 @.@ 598 mph ) . The ship carried 2 @,@ 500 long tons ( 2 @,@ 500 t ) of fuel oil , which gave her a range of 3 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 700 km ; 4 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship 's flight deck was 549 feet ( 167 @.@ 3 m ) long and her hangar was 330 feet ( 100 @.@ 6 m ) long , 48 – 68 feet ( 14 @.@ 6 – 20 @.@ 7 m ) wide , and 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high . Aircraft were transported between the hangar and the flight deck by two aircraft lifts ( elevators ) ; the forward lift measured 30 by 36 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m × 11 @.@ 0 m ) and the rear 60 by 18 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m × 5 @.@ 5 m ) . Argus was the only British carrier serving in the Second World War capable of striking down ( stowing away ) aircraft with non @-@ folding wings because of her wide lifts and tall hangar ceiling . Three fire curtains divided the hangar and another separated the hangar and the quarterdeck . She could accommodate between 15 and 18 aircraft . No arresting gear was fitted as completed . Two large cranes were positioned on the quarterdeck , beneath the rear of the flight deck . Petrol storage consisted of 8 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 36 @,@ 000 l ; 9 @,@ 600 US gal ) in 2 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 9 @.@ 1 l ; 2 @.@ 4 US gal ) tins stowed below the waterline . The ship 's crew totalled 495 officers and men . The ship was armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , two on the quarterdeck and one on each side of the hull . She was also fitted with two low @-@ angle 4 @-@ inch guns , one also on each side of the hull . The rear magazine and the torpedo warhead storage magazine were protected by a total of 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of protective plating on all sides , but the forward magazine and bomb storage rooms only had a 2 @-@ inch thick deck to protect them . Argus was laid down in 1914 by William Beardmore and Company in Dalmuir , as the Conte Rosso . She was renamed after her purchase in September 1916 and was launched on 2 December 1917 , her building having been slowed by labour shortages . The ship was commissioned on 16 September 1918 . Formally named after Argus of the 100 Eyes from Greek mythology , Argus was nicknamed the Hat Box or the Flatiron due to her flat @-@ topped appearance . = = Service history = = = = = 1918 – 1939 = = = After commissioning too late to participate in World War I , Argus was tasked to conduct deck @-@ landing trials with longitudinal arresting gear transferred from Furious . The first landing on the ship was made on 1 October 1918 by a Sopwith Ship Strutter . The same month , the ship was used in trials to evaluate the effects which an island superstructure would have on flying operations , with a canvas @-@ and @-@ wood dummy island being installed with a smoke box to simulate funnel gases . By 19 December 36 successful landings had been made by Ship Strutters and Sopwith Pups . Argus was refitted from 23 December to 21 March 1919 with modified arresting gear . The wires of the arresting gear had been lifted off the deck so they could engage the hooks on the undercarriages of the aircraft , but this prevented the use of the flight deck for any other purpose . The after lift was therefore lowered 9 inches ( 229 mm ) , which allowed aircraft to use the area when the lift was raised flush with the rest of the flight deck . Trials began in April and the lift was widened in October . Argus joined the Atlantic Fleet in January 1920 for its Spring Cruise carrying eight Ship Strutters , four Sopwith Camel fighters , two Airco DH.9As and two Fairey floatplanes . Operational experience confirmed that the aircraft should attempt to land directly onto the arresting gear lest they be blown over the side of the carrier , as happened three times during the cruise . After the ship 's return from its cruise , a conference was convened aboard Argus on 19 May to consider revised landing arrangements . It was decided that a longer system of wires was needed , and the landing well system was abandoned in favour of ramps that could be raised and lowered as needed . Powered palisades were also needed on the side of the flight deck to help retain aircraft aboard that had not engaged a wire . The revised system was successfully tested aboard the carrier Eagle later in the year and Argus ' arresting gear was modified accordingly in time for the 1921 Spring Cruise , during which the ship carried ten Parnall Panther spotter and reconnaissance aircraft and three Fairey IIIC reconnaissance aircraft . In addition , the ship 's after lift was permanently locked in the raised position and 150 long tons ( 150 t ) of ballast were added to compensate for the additional weight of the equipment high in the ship . This cruise was deemed very successful as 45 landings were made , only two of which resulted in serious accidents , an accident rate comparable to those of land @-@ based units . The time required to launch two aircraft and land one aboard was forty minutes during this cruise , primarily because the rotary engines of the time were very difficult to start . On September 1922 , Argus , equipped with Gloster Nightjar fighters , was deployed to the Dardanelles as a response to the Chanak crisis . As well as operating her own aircraft , Argus was used to fly off Bristol Fighters that had been ferried to the Dardanelles aboard the seaplane carrier Ark Royal to an airfield at Kilia on the European side of the straits . ( The aircraft could not be flown off Ark Royal since it was a seaplane carrier with no flight deck . The Bristol Fighters were transferred to Argus by crane ) . In July 1922 , Argus was inclined to evaluate her stability in light of the additional weights that had been added since her completion and it was discovered that her metacentric height had been reduced by 0 @.@ 83 feet ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) . The Director of Naval Construction proposed to fit her with a girdle at her waterline to increase her beam and thus her stability . He intended to do this under the 1923 – 1924 Naval Programme , but this was delayed several times as the ship was needed for training and when she was finally modified it was under the 1925 – 1926 Naval Programme . Girdling increased her deep displacement to 16 @,@ 750 long tons ( 17 @,@ 020 t ) and her beam to 74 feet ( 22 @.@ 6 m ) , and reduced her draught to 22 feet 10 inches ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) and her speed by a quarter of a knot . The ship was also fitted with bulk petrol storage , new four @-@ inch guns that used fixed ammunition , and new radio masts . Argus usually operated about 15 aircraft during the 1920s . This was commonly divided up between one small flight of fighters ( Gloster Nightjars or Fairey Flycatchers ) , one of spotters ( Parnall Panthers or Avro Bisons ) , and one spotter reconnaissance flight with Fairey IIIs . The ship 's hull was surveyed in 1927 and anticipated to be sound for another 15 years , and she relieved Hermes on the China Station from 1 September to 20 March 1928 . Sometime after her return , Argus was laid up at Plymouth at 14 @-@ days readiness to save money . Since she was completed before 9 December 1921 , the Washington Naval Treaty classified her as an experimental aircraft carrier and thus she did not need to be scrapped to release treaty @-@ limited tonnage for new construction . The ship was reduced to Extended Reserve ( four months readiness ) at Rosyth in September 1932 . In February 1936 , it was decided to refit the ship as a tender for Queen Bee target drones . The opportunity was taken to widen her flight deck by 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) and replace her old boilers with six new destroyer @-@ type boilers which could generate more steam than her turbines could handle . The ship was intended to have one hydro @-@ pneumatic aircraft catapult , but this was instead diverted to Ark Royal . Since Argus was now classified as a naval auxiliary , her four @-@ inch guns were removed . Her refit was completed on 30 July 1938 and she underwent sea trials the following month . = = = Second World War = = = After recommissioning , Argus served as a training carrier to allow pilots to practice their deck @-@ landing skills . She was carrying out this duty in the Gulf of Lion when the Second World War began . By April 1940 , the ship had been rearmed with two QF Mk V 4 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns on her quarterdeck , as well as three quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun mounts ; one of these was on each side of her hull and the third was on the centreline of the quarterdeck . Together with the battlecruiser Hood and six destroyers , Argus escorted Convoy US @-@ 3 , loaded with Australian and New Zealand troops , to the United Kingdom in mid @-@ June . A week later , she ferried Supermarine Walrus amphibians of 701 Squadron to Reykjavík , Iceland . Argus loaded a dozen Hawker Hurricane and two Blackburn Skua fighters of 418 Flight RAF in late July for delivery to Malta as part of Operation Hurry . Escorted by Ark Royal , three battleships , two cruisers and 10 destroyers , the ship flew them off without incident on 2 August 1940 from a point west of Sicily , although two of the Hurricanes crashed on landing . Accompanied by the battleship Valiant and escorted by two destroyers , she returned to Liverpool to load 30 Hurricanes with their wings removed . Argus sailed on 22 August and arrived at Takoradi on the Gold Coast on 5 September where her aircraft were off @-@ loaded . After her return to the United Kingdom , the ship was briefly refitted and she ferried 701 Squadron back to the United Kingdom in late October . On 11 November , Argus sailed again from Liverpool with a deck @-@ load of a dozen Hurricanes and two Skuas for delivery to Malta ( Operation White ) . She rendezvoused with Force H four days later and launched the aircraft on the morning of 17 November . Eight of the Hurricanes ran out of fuel en route due to headwinds and one Skua was forced to crash land on Sicily after it had been damaged by Italian flak . In mid @-@ December , the ship embarked six Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers of 821X Squadron for delivery to Gibraltar and another pair of Swordfish from 825 Squadron for self @-@ defence . The carrier rendezvoused with Furious and Convoy WS @-@ 5A before the combined force was discovered by the German cruiser Admiral Hipper on 25 December , but little damage was inflicted by Hipper before she was driven off by the escorts . No air strike could be flown against the German cruiser because the Swordfish were embarked in Argus with bombs that they could not carry and the torpedoes were aboard Furious . After Furious 's Skuas had flown off to search for Hipper , space was cleared to allow Argus 's Swordfish to load the torpedoes , but the Skuas could not locate Hipper because of the poor visibility . Argus delivered 821X Squadron to Gibraltar and was back in the United Kingdom by 14 January 1941 . In March , the carrier loaded a dozen Hurricane IIs and three Skuas and delivered them to Gibraltar on 29 March , where they were loaded onto Ark Royal and flown off to Malta a few days later . She returned to the United Kingdom on 11 April and loaded six replacement Swordfish as well as six Swordfish of 812 Squadron for self @-@ defence . After a brief refit , Argus sailed on 14 April for Gibraltar to transfer the replacements to Ark Royal . She arrived on 24 April and began a two @-@ week refit after the aircraft were transferred . The ship was back in the United Kingdom , loading another batch of Hurricanes bound for Gibraltar . Three Fulmars of 800X Squadron were also embarked to protect the ship against the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 Condors that patrolled the Bay of Biscay and the Eastern Atlantic . The carrier arrived on 31 May and disembarked all her aircraft , including 800X Squadron . On her return to the United Kingdom she began a refit . In late August to early September , Argus transported 24 Hurricanes of No. 151 Wing RAF to Murmansk , Russia . She then ferried a dozen Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers of 828 Squadron to Gibraltar on 30 September for eventual delivery to Malta . She was to ferry the fighters of 804 Squadron on her return trip to England , but this was cancelled . Eventually , the ship loaded some damaged aircraft and accompanied Eagle back to the United Kingdom on 20 October . Argus loaded more Hurricanes for Gibraltar and also embarked a pair of Swordfish from 818 Squadron and two Sea Hurricanes from 804X Squadron for self @-@ defence . The ship arrived on 8 November and she transferred some of her Hurricanes to Ark Royal . Two days later , the two carriers , in Operation Perpetual , sailed to the west of Sicily and flew off their 37 Hurricanes ; three of the fighters were lost en route . Ark Royal was torpedoed and sunk during the return to Gibraltar , which forced Argus to remain there to provide cover for Force H as the sole carrier available . Force H was recalled to the United Kingdom in January and Argus loaded 12 Swordfish of 812 Squadron for her own protection . Whilst in the United Kingdom , she loaded some Supermarine Spitfire fighters and returned to Gibraltar on 24 February . There , the ship transferred the Spitfires to Eagle and embarked nine Fairey Fulmar fighters of 807 Squadron . The plan for Operation Spotter I was for Argus to provide fighter cover for Eagle as she flew off the Spitfires for Malta , but the operation had to be cancelled when the long @-@ range fuel tanks of the Spitfires proved defective . The problems were not rectified until 7 March , when the 15 Spitfires were successfully flown off . During Operation Picket I , nine more Spitfires were flown off by Eagle on 21 March whilst a dozen Sea Hurricane IIBs from 804 Squadron provided air cover from Argus . The two carriers repeated the delivery on 29 March when Eagle flew off seven more Spitfires whilst 807 Squadron provided air cover from Argus . The latter ship also carried six Albacores bound for Malta as well , but the weather deteriorated over Malta and their fly @-@ off was cancelled . Another attempt to deliver the Albacores and more Spitfires was made during Operation LB . As usual , Argus provided the air cover with a dozen Fulmars from 807 Squadron and Eagle ferried the Albacores and 17 Spitfires to their take @-@ off point for Malta on 19 May . The Spitfires were flown off successfully , but the engines of the Albacores all began to overheat and they were forced to return to the carrier . Examination of the aircraft revealed that their air coolers had been set to " Winter " rather than " Summer " . One of the Fulmars was shot down by Vichy French Dewoitine D.520 fighters as it attempted to protect the crew of a Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boat that had been shot down earlier . By this time the ship 's Vickers .50 @-@ calibre machine guns had been replaced by 13 Oerlikon 20 mm light anti @-@ aircraft guns . Afterwards , the ship returned to the UK to ferry 801 Squadron to Gibraltar and delivered the unit on 7 June . Together with Eagle , Argus was tasked to provide air cover over Force H as it covered a convoy attempting to get desperately needed supplies through to Malta later in June ( Operation Harpoon ) . The carrier embarked two Fulmars from 807 Squadron , nine Swordfish from 813 Squadron and four more Swordfish from 824 Squadron to protect the convoy from submarines while Eagle loaded 20 Fulmars and Sea Hurricanes from three different squadrons . One Swordfish crashed while landing on 13 June and the wreckage was pushed over the side . Both Fulmars from 807 Squadron were shot down on 14 June by Italian bombers , but they likely shot down one Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 and one CANT Z.1007 bomber . Eagle transferred her Fulmars to Argus over the course of the battle and two more were lost later in the day . The ship was attacked multiple times by bombs and torpedoes during the battle without effect . As part of the preparations for another resupply convoy for Malta ( Operation Pedestal ) , Argus returned to the United Kingdom in late June to load reserve aircraft , including six Sea Hurricanes of 804 Squadron , for the other aircraft carriers involved in the operation and left the Clyde on 2 August for Gibraltar . The ship rendezvoused with the other carriers on 5 August for a three @-@ day training exercise to work out coordination procedures before the operation commenced and 804 Squadron was deemed not ready for combat . It was ordered to return to the UK aboard Argus . In November 1942 , Argus was assigned to the Eastern Naval Task Force that invaded Algiers , Algeria , during the Allied landings in French North Africa with 18 Supermarine Seafire IICs of 880 Squadron aboard . The ship was hit by a bomb on 10 November that killed four men . She and the escort carrier Avenger joined a convoy returning to the United Kingdom on the evening of 14 / 15 November that was spotted by the Germans . The German submarine U @-@ 155 torpedoed Avenger , right behind Argus in the convoy , later that morning . The ship was under repair for a month after she reached the United Kingdom , but she required a more thorough refit that lasted from February to May 1943 . Reclassified as an escort carrier after the completion of her refit , she was relegated to deck @-@ landing training . She was ordered to be paid off on 27 January 1944 , but this order was apparently revoked as she continued training until 27 September 1944 when the last take @-@ off was made from her deck . In March , she was ordered to be converted to an aircraft freighter around the end of the year , but this plan was also apparently cancelled . Argus became an accommodation ship at Chatham in December and she was approved for scrapping on 6 May 1946 . She was sold to Thomas W. Ward on 5 December 1946 and arrived at Inverkeithing later that month to be broken up .
= Tapestry ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) = " Tapestry " is the 15th episode of the sixth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , the 141st overall . It was originally released on February 15 , 1993 , in broadcast syndication . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship Enterprise . Ronald D. Moore was credited with writing the episode , but the basis of the story was a collaborative effort from the writing crew . " Tapestry " was directed by Les Landau , with the title coming from executive producer Michael Piller . In this episode , Q ( John de Lancie ) allows a supposedly deceased Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) to re @-@ visit a pivotal event in his youth that he since regrets . Picard changes the past , but upon returning to the present he finds that it made him the man he became . He returns once more to the past and returns it to the way it originally took place . Picard wakes up in the present , unsure if the events took place or if it was as a result of his injury . A number of previously screen used props were used , including some from the 1956 film The Ten Commandments , and from previous episodes . The white room scenes were problematic as there were concerns that the all @-@ white robe worn by de Lancie would make him appear to be a floating head on camera . While Moore was pleased with the episode , Piller was not and some fans complained that it glorified violence . " Tapestry " received Nielsen ratings of 13 @.@ 8 percent , and critics responded very positively with praise directed to the chemistry between Stewart and de Lancie . = = Plot = = During a diplomatic mission , Captain Picard is shot by terrorists and dies . He awakes to find himself in an otherwordly realm , where he is greeted by Q. Q explains that the energy blast that hit Picard destroyed his artificial heart , and that a natural heart would have survived . Picard lost his original heart during his cadet years when he was stabbed through the chest during a bar brawl , an event that he regrets and led to him becoming the disciplined and restrained man he is today . When Picard remarks that he would do things differently if he could relive that moment , Q sends Picard back in time to two days before the brawl , where he meets with fellow cadets and friends Corey Zweller and Marta Batanides . They are surprised by the personality changes in Picard . Zweller is cheated by a group of Nausicaans at a bar game , and he plans his revenge by rigging the next match . When the Nausicaans lose , they are enraged and goad Zweller . But instead of joining the fight as he did before , Picard holds Zweller back , averting tragedy but humiliating his friend . Picard then is returned to the present by Q. Instead of being the captain , Picard is now a junior lieutenant in the astrophysics department of the Enterprise . In this new life , he has led an unremarkable career doing routine work . Picard consults Commander Riker and Counselor Troi , who explain that his aversion to risk means he never distinguishes himself . Picard confronts Q , who tells him that although the bout with the Nausicaan nearly cost him his life , it also gave him a sense of his mortality . It taught him that life was too precious to squander by playing it safe . Picard realizes that his attempts to suppress and ignore the consequences of his indiscretions have resulted in him losing a part of himself . Picard then declares that he would rather die as captain of the Enterprise than live as a nobody . Q sends him back to the bar fight and events unfold as they did originally , with Picard being stabbed through the heart and laughing as he collapses to the floor . In the present , Picard awakens in sickbay , a Captain again . As Picard recovers from his injury , he wonders if his journey into the past was one of Q 's tricks or merely a dream . Nevertheless , he is grateful for the insight the experience gave him . = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = This was the first time that Ronald D. Moore wrote a Q @-@ based episode , and he was excited by the idea of giving Picard a near death experience and Q appearing to the Captain as if he were God . His plan for " Tapestry " was to follow a similar path to Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol , but with Q playing a similar role to the three ghosts in Dickens ' story . Moore envisaged three stages to the story , one where Picard is attacked and needs an artificial heart , another with Picard as a child and a third based on the USS Stargazer . He pitched the idea to executive producer Michael Piller , who wasn 't enthusiastic about the premise . The combination of that disapproval and the expected cost of filming because of the additional sets required meant that the episode had to be trimmed . Moore discussed the idea with other members of the writing staff ; they focused on the incident which caused Picard to require an artificial heart . It had previously been mentioned in the episodes " Samaritan Snare " and " Final Mission " . They compared Picard to Captain James T. Kirk , describing them as opposites in terms of development . They saw Picard being a wildchild during his time at Starfleet Academy , only to become more serious later . The reverse for true for Kirk , with the staff describing him as a " bookworm " while at the Academy and only becoming " crazy " once posted to a starship . Together , they sought for a way to support Picard 's claim in " Samaritan Snare " that he laughed when he was stabbed . Story editor René Echevarria said that " It made us all think we had really come up with the right story for the premise and tying that together , I think it 's one of the finest efforts ever . " While Moore called the episode " A Q Carol " based on the original premise , but Piller was the one to suggest " Tapestry " as he said " you have to learn to set your part of the tapestry of your life " . However the writers could not remember the source of the " white room " idea , and it was only after the episode aired that James Mooring contacted the staff . He had submitted a spec script featuring a similar idea . Producer Jeri Taylor admitted that the similarity was unintentional , and after both she and Moore spoke to Mooring , the matter was settled . Mooring was paid , and his contribution to the episode was acknowledged by the staff . There were several changes made to the script prior to filming , including the removal of Edward Jellico as the Captain of the Enterprise in Picard 's alternative future and clarification that the stabbing of Picard was not the major event in his life which Boothby described in " The First Duty " . = = = Casting and filming = = = John de Lancie returned to the series in " Tapestry " as Q , having appeared on a regular basis since his first appearance in the pilot , " Encounter at Farpoint " . He had already appeared twice during the 1992 / 93 television series as the character , both earlier in the season in " True Q " as well as the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Q @-@ Less " . De Lancie thought that the script for " Tapestry " was " terrific " , and praised the speech he got to perform at the end of the episode . Appearing for the first time in Star Trek was J.C. Brandy as Marta Batanides . She was nervous and intimidated to work with Patrick Stewart , but said that everyone on the cast and crew made her feel welcome . However , there were concerns when she first arrived on set for costume fitting as she looked quite young , and Stewart was worried about the age difference on screen . Director Les Landau requested that the hair and make @-@ up on Brandy should make her look older . Brandy said that this " worked nicely " , but they still " downplayed the sex " . She was pleased with her scenes with Stewart , as they managed to capture a " nervousness and innocence " in Picard and Marta 's relationship . The episode marked the first appearance of the Nausicaans on screen with Clint Carmichael playing the lead alien , although they had been mentioned earlier in the episode " Samaritan Snare " . The two non @-@ speaking members of the race were portrayed by stunt men Tom Morta and Dick Dimitri , they duo appeared on screen without make @-@ up in the episodes " A Fistful of Datas " and " Emergence " respectively . A significant number of previously created costumes and make @-@ up were included in the bar room scenes in " Tapestry " . There were notes from the producers not to include any Ferengi , as at that point the Federation had not yet made first contact with them . The scene featured both Anticans and Selay close to one another , despite being at war at the time that this flashback scene was set and only making peace earlier in The Next Generation in the episode " Lonely Among Us " . Several of the glasses and other props in this scene were from a collection that Paramount had stored from the 1956 Charlton Heston film , The Ten Commandments . There were problems with the audio recordings of some scenes with Stewart and Brandy , as the camera dolly was noisy which required them to re @-@ record their lines later so that they could be dubbed over the originals . Brandy was " amazed " that there was no difference she could tell in Stewart 's performance , but felt that it took away an element from her performance . The scenes with Q and Picard together on a white background were compared to those in the Warren Beatty and Buck Henry 1978 film Heaven Can Wait by producer Merri Howard and director of photography Jonathan West . These particular scenes caused some problems as there were concerns by the director of photography that Q 's white robes would not show up on camera well against the all @-@ white background . They were worried that he might appear simply as a floating head . With both de Lancie and Stewart anticipating re @-@ shoots for these scenes , they were both unhappy as they shot those appearances . However this was filmed late on the last day ; de Lancie said that it resulted in both of them looking quite tired . Some scenes were cut in order to reduce the episode down to the required length . This included a one @-@ page monologue by Marta which would have taken place on the morning after her liaison with Picard , a scene where Picard was to report to La Forge in engineering , audio mention of Dr. Selar and a mention of Scobee Hall – a reference to Dick Scobee , the commander of the Space Shuttle Challenger at the time of the destruction of the vessel . = = Themes = = Michele and Duncan Barrett describe in their book Star Trek : The Human Frontier , that " Tapestry " has " complex implications " as it demonstrates who a person is by the experiences they have had throughout their life as well as who that person truly is . They also wrote that Picard was not required to pay a price for his resurrection at the hands of Q due to " popular narrative being what it is " . In Atara Stein 's The Byronic Hero in Film , Fiction , and Television , the author describes " Tapestry " as showing a change in Q from his usual satanic stance and instead taking on the role of Picard 's guardian angel . Stein also references the alien 's increasing influence on the personal lives of the Enterprise crew , a path which Q began in the episode " Hide and Q " . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Tapestry " was originally released in broadcast syndication on February 15 , 1993 . It received Nielsen ratings of 13 @.@ 8 percent , placing it in third place in its timeslot . This was the joint second highest rating received by an episode during the sixth season , alongside the second part of " Time 's Arrow " . The only episode which had higher Nielsen Ratings during that season was " Aquiel " , which aired two weeks prior to " Tapestry " . = = = Crew and fan reception = = = While the majority of the staff were pleased with " Tapestry " , Piller felt that the premise was tired and was concerned that it was simply a take on the film It 's a Wonderful Life . He said that some scenes were " very talky " , and the direction and some performances were " flat " . Moore participated in an AOL chat in 1997 , where he described " Tapestry " as " one of the best things I wrote and one of TNG 's finest episodes " . Some fans wrote in to the staff to complain that the episode glorified violence , and was against the principles of Star Trek . Jeri Taylor admitted that the episode could be seen as violent , but it never crossed the mind of any of the staff during production . She went on to say that if they had realised that " Tapestry " could be considered to promote violence , then they would have corrected it to ensure that it wouldn 't be viewed as such . = = = Critical reception = = = Reviewers responded positively to " Tapestry " . Zack Handlen , while writing for the A.V. Club , compared " Tapestry " to the television series Quantum Leap with the older Picard jumping into the younger man 's body . He also said it had the " feel " of A Christmas Carol , and that it was a " modest episode , with a modest goal : to remind us that the we are the sum of all our parts , even the ones we aren 't very proud of . " He gave the episode a rating of " A " . In DeCandido 's review of " Tapestry " for Tor.com , he compared the episode to It 's a Wonderful Life , and called it one of the " finest hours " of the series . He praised " Tapestry " for endorsing the Q / Picard chemistry at the heart of Q episodes , and said that Stewart and de Lancie " play off each other magnificently " . He gave it a rating of 9 out of 10 . In their book The Unauthorized Trek : The Complete Next Generation , James Van Hise and Hal Schuster described the scene where Picard was stabbed through the chest as " particularly violent " , and overall said that " Tapestry " was a good story . They also described the view of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry towards religion , saying that in his world the Q Continuum aren 't gods but are instead an " evolutionary niche higher than mere mortals " . Mark Clark , in his book Star Trek FAQ 2 @.@ 0 , called Stewart 's performance " richly nuanced " and " soul searching " . Clark said that this episode was as important to Picard as the events in " The Best of Both Worlds " , " The Inner Light " and " Chain of Command " . He said that the events of " Tapestry " explored Picard 's soul . The episode has been included in " best of " lists for both specifically The Next Generation and more generally for the entire franchise . It ranked fourth in Entertainment Weekly 's list of top 10 Star Trek : The Next Generation episodes , 22nd out of the top 100 of the entire franchise in Charlie Jane Anders ' list for io9 , and 7th out of the various Star Trek episodes involving time travel by James Hunt at Den of Geek . Witney Seibold , on the website Crave Online said that " Tapestry " was the best instalment of The Next Generation , describing it as " one of the more philosophical episodes " . = = Home media and related releases = = " Tapestry " was released in the UK on a two @-@ episode VHS tape in 2003 , alongside the first part of " Birthright " . The first home media release of " Tapestry " in the United States was on the VHS box set entitled Star Trek – The Next Generation : The Q Continuum on June 18 , 1996 . It later received an individual release on August 4 , 1998 . Paramount deliberately delayed the individual release of Star Trek episodes on VHS within the United States in order to allow for the syndicated series to be shown once more in full . The inclusion of " Tapestry " in The Q Continuum boxed set ahead of the individual release of the episode was intended as an incentive to purchase the set . The episode was released as part of the Star Trek : The Next Generation season six DVD box set in the United States on December 3 , 2002 . It received a further releases on DVD as part of compilation collections of episodes . This included the The Jean @-@ Luc Picard Collection , which was released in the United States on August 3 , 2004 , also the Star Trek : Q Fan Collective , which was released in the United States on June 6 , 2006 , and later that year in the UK on September 4 . A further DVD release came as part of The Best of Star Trek : The Next Generation – Volume 2 on November 17 , 2009 , in the United States . The most recent release was the first on Blu @-@ ray disc , which took place on June 24 , 2014 ; this also added an audio commentary track for the episode for the first time . Keith DeCandido described Picard 's laugh at being stabbed in " Tapestry " as being " critical to the plot " of his non @-@ canon Star Trek novel Q & A. The novel also includes Q 's white room , and features a similar alternative universe where Picard followed a career in the sciences . A figure of Captain Picard based on " Tapestry " was released by Playmates Toys in 1996 , which was a limited edition release of 1 @,@ 701 .
= Scott Zolak = Scott David Zolak ( born December 13 , 1967 ) is a broadcaster and retired American football quarterback who played in the National Football League ( NFL ) for nine seasons . Over the course of his career , he played in 55 games for the New England Patriots and Miami Dolphins , completed 124 of 248 passes for 1 @,@ 314 yards , threw eight touchdowns and seven interceptions , and finished his career with a passer rating of 64 @.@ 8 . A graduate of Ringgold High School and the University of Maryland , Zolak was selected 84th in the 1991 NFL Draft by the New England Patriots . He did not play in 1991 , but started a few games in 1992 and had his most productive season statistically . When Drew Bledsoe was drafted in 1993 , Zolak became his backup for the next six seasons . He appeared as a replacement for Bledsoe when he was hurt , but only started three games during this time . He was released at the end of the 1998 season , and signed with the New York Jets and Miami Dolphins in 1999 , playing in one game for Miami before retiring . After his retirement , he became a sportscaster and football analyst in the New England area . = = Early life = = = = = High school = = = Zolak was born on December 13 , 1967 in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . As a child , he acted as the waterboy for the football team at Ringgold High School in Monongahela , Pennsylvania , where his father , Paul , worked as head coach and athletic director . Future NFL quarterback Joe Montana played for Ringgold during this time and gave Zolak a football , which he later rubbed for good luck before every game . When Zolak attended Ringgold High School himself , he was the team 's starting quarterback and punter , and lettered four times . Zolak also played on the Ringgold basketball team as a forward , and was a four @-@ time letterman in that sport as well . As a result of his football performance , he was invited to participate in the Big 33 Football Classic , which featured the top high school football players in Pennsylvania . = = = College = = = After graduating from high school , Zolak played college football at the University of Maryland . He sat out his freshmen year , and became the third @-@ string quarterback behind Dan Henning and Neil O 'Donnell after two quarterbacks transferred . By the end of his sophomore season , Zolak was challenging O 'Donnell for the starting job after Henning graduated . As his junior year began , in the summer of 1988 , offensive coordinator Bob Valesente said that Zolak was making tremendous strides as a quarterback , but O 'Donnell was the starting quarterback that year . Zolak 's first collegiate appearance came against West Virginia . He completed four of six passes for 28 yards , but had an interception returned for a touchdown by Bo Orlando in a 55 – 24 loss . He appeared in four games for Maryland that season . Zolak was again the backup behind O 'Donnell in 1989 . He played in eight games , completing 33 of 69 passes for 407 yards and two touchdowns . In 1990 , after O 'Donnell graduated and began his NFL career , Zolak became the starter for Maryland , and head coach Joe Krivak had high hopes for him heading into the season . In his first start as a senior , Zolak completed a school record 28 passes in 46 attempts for 303 yards and two touchdowns , including a 51 @-@ yard pass to Gene Thomas with 61 seconds left that gave Maryland the win against Virginia Tech , 20 – 13 . The following week , he once more featured in a dramatic conclusion , throwing a 59 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Gene Thomas with 2 : 27 left to beat 25th ranked West Virginia , 14 – 10 . However , he was struggling in other aspects of his game . In an October game against Georgia Tech , Zolak was sacked 10 times . In four games , he had been sacked 23 times and had a pass intercepted 12 times . By the end of the season , as Maryland was preparing to face Louisiana Tech in the 1990 Independence Bowl , he had thrown 225 completed passes in 418 attempts for 2 @,@ 589 yards and 10 touchdowns . The teams tied , 34 – 34 , in Zolak 's final collegiate appearance . At the time of his graduation , he ranked fifth in school history with 270 pass completions , seventh with 3 @,@ 124 career passing yards , and second with 2 @,@ 589 passing yards in a season . He was also named Atlantic Coast Conference Offensive Player of the Week four times . = = Professional career = = = = = New England Patriots = = = With the 84th pick in the fourth round of the 1991 NFL Draft , Zolak was selected by the New England Patriots . Scouting reports noted that his size and arm strength were great for the NFL , though there were concerns about his accuracy . Upon drafting him , Patriots Vice President of Player Operations Joe Mendes agreed that his size and arm would translate to the NFL , and he was not worried about any accuracy issues . His drafting led to a shakeup with the Patriots ' current quarterbacks , as Marc Wilson announced his retirement and longtime starting quarterback Steve Grogan was released . Zolak agreed on a contract with the Patriots in July , and was the second @-@ to @-@ last person to hold out after Leonard Russell . Zolak spent the 1991 season as the third @-@ string quarterback , behind Hugh Millen and Tom Hodson , and did not take the field . At the start of the 1992 season , Zolak also looked unlikely to appear , being behind Hodson and Millen on the depth chart . Millen started the first five games before being injured , and then Hodson became the starter . In early November , Zolak made his professional debut in the fourth quarter against the New Orleans Saints . Relieving Hodson , he completed five of nine passes and threw an interception as the Patriots lost , 31 – 14 . The next week , Zolak made his first career start when the still winless Patriots faced the Indianapolis Colts . He completed 20 of 29 passes for 261 yards , two touchdowns , and an interception in the Patriots ' first win of the season , 37 – 34 . As a result of his performance , he was named the American Football Conference ( AFC ) Player of the Week . The next week , Zolak led his team to their second victory of the season against the New York Jets . He completed seven of 16 passes for 102 yards , getting help from Jon Vaughn who had 110 rushing yards , and the Patriots won , 24 – 3 . However , the following week 's performance against the Atlanta Falcons was less impressive . He completed nine of 16 passes for 58 yards and two interceptions in the Patriots ' losing effort , and he said it felt like he was " on a desert island by myself . " After Zolak 's performance against Atlanta , he lost the starting job , and Millen again filled that role . However , Millen suffered a shoulder injury against the Colts , and after Zolak played part of the game against Indianapolis , he again became the starter for the game against the Kansas City Chiefs . Zolak injured his ankle at the end of the third quarter , making the appearance against Kansas City his last for the season as Jeff Carlson took over quarterbacking duties . Zolak finished the season with 52 pass completions in 100 attempts , 561 yards , two touchdowns , four interceptions , and a quarterback rating of 58 @.@ 8 . In 1993 , the Patriots and new head coach Bill Parcells were looking to improve the quarterback spot on their roster . They signed Scott Secules , and attempted to sign Steve Beuerlein , but the latter deal did not happen . They also gave Hugh Millen permission to seek a trade . In April , Millen was traded to the Dallas Cowboys , and the Patriots chose Drew Bledsoe with the first pick in the 1993 NFL Draft . During the offseason , Carlson was released , leaving Secules , Zolak , Bledsoe , and Hodson to compete for the three spots on the roster . By the end of the preseason , Bledsoe had won the starting job and Hodson had been cut , with Secules as the backup and Zolak as the third @-@ string quarterback . Zolak saw playing time in three games in 1993 , and threw two incomplete passes . He became a restricted free agent in the offseason , but re @-@ signed with the Patriots for three years . As Secules was released during preseason , Zolak was set as Bledsoe 's backup as the 1994 season began . As was the case in the 1993 season , he did not make a starting appearance , as Bledsoe played the full 16 games , however Zolak did see action in every game , primarily as the holder for extra point and field goal attempts . Over the course of the season , he completed five of eight passes for 28 yards in the two games in which he saw time at quarterback . The 1995 season was similar , with Bledsoe starting and Zolak backing him up . In September , Bledsoe separated his left shoulder in a game and sat out a week to heal , allowing Zolak to make his first start since 1992 . On October 1 , 1995 , Zolak took the field against the Atlanta Falcons , and completed 24 of 45 passes for 252 yards and a touchdown , though the Patriots lost the game , 30 – 17 . Although Bledsoe 's doctors wanted him to sit out another week , he refused and played the next week 's game against the Denver Broncos . This again relegated Zolak to the backup position , where he remained for the rest of the season . He finished the season with 28 completed passes in 49 attempts for 282 yards , a touchdown , and a quarterback rating of 80 @.@ 5 . The 1996 season began well for Zolak , whose contract was extended through 1998 . However , to remain with the Patriots , Zolak took a $ 250 @,@ 000 pay cut to work around the salary cap . While he appeared set to keep his backup job heading into training camp , he faced tough competition from Jay Barker . While Zolak welcomed the challenge , his status as the backup quarterback began to seem uncertain a few weeks into training camp . By the end of training camp , Barker had been cut , and Zolak 's quarterback job was safe . He took the role of emergency quarterback throughout the 1996 season , with Bledsoe taking nearly all the snaps and Tom Tupa serving as the backup upon his signing . Zolak played in three games , completing one pass for five yards . He saw some playing time in the playoffs against the Pittsburgh Steelers , but did not play in Super Bowl XXXI . Parcells ordered Zolak to lose weight , which Zolak did throughout much of the season . The 1997 season was more of the same for Zolak , backing up Bledsoe , though the Patriots did have a new coach in Pete Carroll . As training camp ended , Zolak gained significantly more playing time during drills and the preseason matchups then he had under Parcells . As the regular season came and went , however , he had minimal playing time . Zolak saw action in four games , completing six of nine passes for 67 yards and two touchdowns , giving him a quarterback rating of 128 @.@ 2 . With Zolak coming to the final year of his contract in 1998 , he sat in his usual spot on the depth chart , in between starter Bledsoe and third stringer Tupa . He saw playing time in three games during the first three months of the season in relief of Bledsoe . His most significant appearance during this time came against the Atlanta Falcons on November 8 , 1998 , where he completed three of ten passes for 33 yards and an interception in a 41 – 10 loss . Near the end of the month , Bledsoe was sidelined with an injury and was questionable for the final November game . Bledsoe played in three more games , but his injury kept him from playing in the final two , giving Zolak his first starting appearance since 1995 . Zolak 's first start came against the San Francisco 49ers on December 20 . He completed 14 of 30 passes for 205 yards , two touchdowns and two interceptions and won the game , 24 – 21 . He faced the New York Jets the following week , completing 14 of 31 passes for 127 yards and a touchdown , but lost the game 31 – 10 . Zolak finished the season with his most productive totals since 1992 . He played in six games and started two , completed 32 of 75 passes for 371 yards , three touchdowns , 3 interceptions , and had a passer rating of 61 @.@ 8 . Zolak 's last appearance for the Patriots occurred in the playoffs , as Bledsoe was still injured , against the Jacksonville Jaguars . He completed 21 of 44 passes as the Jaguars eliminated the Patriots from playoff contention in a 25 – 10 loss . He became an unrestricted free agent after the season ended , but was not asked back by the Patriots , ending his tenure there . = = = Miami Dolphins = = = After leaving the Patriots , Zolak was signed to a one @-@ year contract by the New York Jets . With Vinny Testaverde considered the starter , Zolak was competing against Ray Lucas for a backup job . He was the second @-@ string quarterback as training camp began , but his competition increased when the Jets signed Rick Mirer and left three quarterbacks to battle for two open spots on the team . Two days after acquiring Mirer from the Green Bay Packers , the Jets released Zolak . In October , Zolak was signed to a one @-@ year deal by the Miami Dolphins to serve as the backup quarterback behind Damon Huard and Jim Druckenmiller . He was later made the backup behind Huard , and made his only appearance of the season on November 21 , failing to complete a pass in four attempts against the Patriots . As the 1999 season wrapped up , the Dolphins signed Zolak to a contract extension , keeping him on the team for another year . Despite the retirement of Dan Marino , the Dolphins cut Zolak in May 2000 . Zolak trained for the Detroit Lions during the summer after they lost Mike Tomczak for the season , but instead he signed on as a host for Patriots Gameday alongside Bob Lobel in August , ending his professional football career . His career ended after an unfortunate accident shagging fly balls at a charity softball event . = = Life after football = = Zolak resides in Massachusetts with his wife Amy and his three children ( Hadley , Samantha , and Brody ) . His daughter , Samantha , was diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes , and Zolak has since been investigating causes of the disease . After retirement , Zolak became a co @-@ host of a morning sports radio talk show on Rhode Island sportstalk station " The Score " ( WSKO / 790 & WSKO @-@ FM / 99 @.@ 7 ) until the show was canceled in 2008 . He was also a football analyst for the CBS College Sports Network , as well as on the New England sports program Out of Bounds on the Comcast channel hosted by Gregg Murphy . In addition , Scott was a frequent guest host on The Big Show on WEEI in Boston before joining Gary Tanguay for the midday slot on " The Sports Hub " 98.5FM WBZ @-@ FM , which covers the Boston area . Zolak is currently co @-@ host of " Zolak and Bertrand " on " The Sports Hub " with Marc " Beetle " Bertrand . For the 2008 NFL season , Zolak joined WCVB ( ABC Boston ) as the station 's Patriots analyst and also appeared on " SportsCenter 5 OT " on Sundays with Mike Lynch . The previous year , he had worked with Lynch covering high school games . In September 2010 , the United Football League announced that Zolak would do color commentary during live games on the New England Sports Network . Zolak also contributes to " Patriots All Access " , part of the New England Patriots ' website . On August 8 , 2012 , Zolak was named the new color analyst for Patriots radio broadcasts joining Gil Santos and replacing Gino Cappelletti . During a game versus the New Orleans Saints on October 13 , 2013 , Zolak 's unbridled reaction to a comeback game @-@ winning Patriots touchdown pass from Tom Brady to Kenbrell Thompkins alongside play @-@ by @-@ play announcer and broadcast partner Bob Socci went viral . He and Socci were the Patriots radio broadcasting team for the team 's fourth Super Bowl win in Super Bowl XLIX against the Seattle Seahawks ( Santos and Cappelletti had been the broadcasters for the first three . )
= James McCune Smith = James McCune Smith ( April 18 , 1813 – November 17 , 1865 ) was an American physician , apothecary , abolitionist , and author . He is the first African American to hold a medical degree and graduated at the top in his class at the University of Glasgow , Scotland . He was the first African American to run a pharmacy in the United States . In addition to practicing as a doctor for nearly 20 years at the Colored Orphan Asylum in Manhattan , Smith was a public intellectual : he contributed articles to medical journals , participated in learned societies , and wrote numerous essays and articles drawing from his medical and statistical training . He used his training in medicine and statistics to refute common misconceptions about race , intelligence , medicine , and society in general . Invited as a founding member of the New York Statistics Society in 1852 , which promoted a new science , he was elected as a member in 1854 of the recently founded American Geographic Society . But , he was never admitted to the American Medical Association or local medical associations . He has been most well known for his leadership as an abolitionist ; a member of the American Anti @-@ Slavery Society , with Frederick Douglass he helped start the National Council of Colored People in 1853 , the first permanent national organization for blacks . Douglass said that Smith was " the single most important influence on his life . " Smith was one of the Committee of Thirteen , who organized in 1850 in New York City to resist the newly passed Fugitive Slave Law by aiding fugitive slaves through the Underground Railroad . Other leading abolitionist activists were among his friends and colleagues . From the 1840s , he lectured on race and abolitionism and wrote numerous articles to refute racist ideas about black capacities . Both Smith and his wife were of mixed @-@ race African and European ancestry . As he became economically successful , he built a house in a good neighborhood ; in the 1860 census he and his family were classified in that neighborhood as white , whereas in 1850 they were classified as mulatto . He served for nearly 20 years as the doctor at the Colored Orphan Asylum in New York but , after it was burned down in July 1863 by a mob in the New York Draft Riots , in which nearly 100 blacks were killed , Smith moved his family and practice out to Brooklyn for safety . The parents stressed education for their children . In the 1870 census , his widow and children continued to be classified as white . To escape racial discrimination , his children passed into white society : the four surviving sons married white spouses ; his unmarried daughter lived with a brother . They worked as teachers , a lawyer , and business people . Smith 's unique achievements as a pioneering African @-@ American doctor were rediscovered by twentieth @-@ century historians . They were relearned by his descendants in the twenty @-@ first century when a three @-@ times @-@ great @-@ granddaughter took a history class and found his name in her grandmother 's family bible . In 2010 , several Smith descendants commissioned a new tombstone for his grave in Brooklyn . They gathered to honor him and their African @-@ American ancestry . = = Early life and education = = Smith was born free in 1813 in New York City ( New York state had passed gradual abolition in 1799 ; children of slave mothers were born free but had to serve an indenture until early adulthood . ) His mother , believed to be Lavinia Smith , achieved her freedom later in life ; she said she was a " self @-@ emancipated woman . " She was born into slavery South Carolina and had been brought to New York as a slave . His father was Samuel Smith , a white merchant and his mother 's master , who had brought her with him to New York from South Carolina . The boy grew up only with his mother . As an adult , James Smith alluded to other white ancestry through his mother 's family , saying he had kin in the South , some of whom were slaveholders and others slaves . Smith attended the African Free School ( AFS ) # 2 on Mulberry Street in Manhattan , where he was described as an " exceptionally bright student " . He was among numerous boys who went on to have brilliant careers , some of whom he worked with in the abolitionist cause . In the course of his studies , Smith was tutored by Rev. Peter Williams , Jr . , a graduate of the African Free School who had been ordained in 1826 as the second African @-@ American priest in the Episcopal Church . ( Williams had founded St. Philip 's African Church in New York City . ) Upon graduation , Smith applied to Columbia University and Geneva Medical College in New York State , but was denied admission due to racial discrimination . Williams encouraged Smith to attend the University of Glasgow in Scotland . He and abolitionist benefactors of the AFS provided Smith with money for his trip overseas and his education . Smith kept a journal of his sea voyage that expressed his sense of mission . After arriving in Liverpool and walking along the waterfront , he thought , " I am free ! " Through abolitionist connections , he was welcomed there by members of the London Agency Anti @-@ Slavery Society . According to the historian Thomas M. Morgan , Smith enjoyed the relative racial tolerance in Scotland and England , which officially abolished slavery in 1833 . ( New York had finally abolished all slavery in 1826 . ) He studied and graduated at the top of his class . He obtained a bachelor 's degree in 1835 , a master 's degree in 1836 , and a medical degree in 1837 . He also completed an internship in Paris . = = Marriage and family = = After his return to New York and getting established , in the early 1840s Smith married Malvina Barnet ( c.1825 - ) , a free woman of color who was a graduate of the Rutger Female Institute . They had eleven children and five survived to adulthood . The name of one of the children is unknown : Frederick Douglass ( d . 1854 ) , not to be confused with Frederick Douglass Peter Williams ( d . 1854 ) Mary S. James W. ( born 1845 ) became a teacher ; he married and had an independent household by 1870 . Henry M. ( 1847 - d. before 1859 ) Amy G. ( c.1848 @-@ 1849 - d . December 1849 ) Mary ( also called Maude ) , born c.1855 @-@ 56 ; never married ; became a teacher and was living with her widowed brother Donald in 1900 in Queens . ( Note : In the 1900 census , her birth was reported as September 1842 , but this is not consistent with her age in the 1860 and 1870 censuses , and she did not appear in the 1850 census . ) Donald ( born 1858 ) became a lawyer , married and was a widower by 1900 , living in Queens . His household included his older sister Maude and two siblings of his late wife : his widowed brother @-@ in @-@ law Edward , a physician born in England , and sister @-@ in @-@ law Emma Callaghan , an unmarried teacher . John M. ( born February 1860 ) worked in Florida in an orange grove in the 1880s , per the Florida 1885 census . He married in 1888 , and their three children were born in Florida . By 1900 had returned with his family to Brooklyn , where he worked as a printer . Guy B. , born 1862 , first worked as a seaman . By 1900 , he was married with several children and worked as a salesman . His youngest daughter was named Antoinette . In 1850 , the senior Smith 's household included four older women : Lavinia Smith , age 67 ( his mother : b. c.1783 - d. bet.1860 @-@ 1870 ) , born in South Carolina and listed first as head of household ; Sarah Williams , 57 ; Amelia Jones , 47 ; and Mary Hewlitt , 53 , who were likely relatives or friends . By then Smith and his wife Malvina had three children : James , Henry and Amy . Each member of the household was classified as mulatto ( or of mixed ancestry ) , and all but Lavinia Smith were born in New York . They lived in a mixed neighborhood in the Fifth Ward ; in the census , nearly all other neighbors on the page were classified as white ; many were immigrants from England , Ireland , and France . By 1860 , Smith was doing very well ; he had moved to Leonard Street within the Fifth Ward and had a mansion built by white workmen . His total real property was worth $ 25 @,@ 000 . His household included a live @-@ in servant , Catherine Grelis from Ireland . Listed as a separate household at his address were Sara D. Williams , 57 , and Mary Hertell ( should be Hewlitt , as above ) , 50 . ( These were likely the same Sara and Mary as in the 1850 census , although their ages did not change . ) No one on this census page had a racial designation . By the conventions of the time , this means that they were classified as white by the census enumerator ; totals of white persons only are given at the bottom of the page . After the 1863 draft riots , Smith and his family were among prominent blacks who left New York and moved to Brooklyn , then still a separate city . He no longer felt safe in his old neighborhood . In the 1870 census , Malvina and her four children were living in Ward 15 , Brooklyn . All were listed as white . James W. Smith , who had married a white woman , was living in a separate household and working as a teacher ; he was also classified as white . The Smith children still at home were Maud , 15 ; Donald , 12 ; John , 10 ; and Guy , 8 ; all were attending school . Five Smith children survived to adulthood : James , Maud , Donald , John and Guy . The men married white spouses , but Maud never married . All were classified as white from 1860 on . = = Career = = = = = Medicine = = = When he returned to New York City in 1837 with his degrees , Smith was greeted as a hero by the black community . He said at a gathering , " I have striven to obtain education , at every sacrifice and every hazard , and to apply such education to the good of our common country . " He was the first university @-@ trained African @-@ American physician in the United States . During his practice of 25 years , he was also the first black to have articles published in American medical journals , but he was never admitted to the American Medical Association or local ones . He established his practice in Lower Manhattan in general surgery and medicine , treating both black and white patients . He also started a school in the evenings , teaching children . He established what has been called the first black @-@ owned and operated pharmacy in the United States , located at 93 West Broadway ( near Foley Square today ) . His friends and activists gathered in the back room of the pharmacy to discuss issues related to their work in abolitionism . In 1846 , Smith was appointed as the only doctor of the Colored Orphan Asylum ( also known as the Free Negro Orphan Asylum ) , at 44th Street and Fifth Avenue . ( Before that time , the directors had depended on pro bono services of doctors . ) He worked there for nearly 20 years . The asylum was founded in 1836 by Anna and Hannah Shotwell and Mary Murray , Quaker philanthropists in New York . Trying to protect the children , Smith regularly gave vaccinations for smallpox . Leading causes of death were infectious diseases : measles ( for which there was no vaccine ) , smallpox and tuberculosis ( for which there was no antibiotic at the time ) . In addition to caring for orphans , the home sometimes boarded children temporarily when their parents were unable to support them , as jobs were scarce for free blacks in New York . Waves of immigration from Ireland and Germany in the 1840s and 1850s meant there were many new immigrants competing for work . Smith was always working for the asylum . In July 1852 , he presented the trustees with 5 @,@ 000 acres provided by his friend Gerrit Smith , a wealthy white abolitionist . The land was to be held in trust and later sold for benefit of the orphans . In July 1863 , during the three @-@ day New York Draft Riots , in which most participants were ethnic Irish , rioters attacked and burned down the orphan asylum . The children were saved by the staff and Union troops in the city . During its nearly 30 years , the orphan asylum had admitted 1310 children , and typically had about 200 in residence at a time . After the riots , Smith moved his family and business out of Manhattan , as did other prominent blacks . Numerous buildings were destroyed in their old neighborhoods , and estimates were that 100 blacks were killed in the rioting . No longer feeling safe in the lower Fourth Ward , the Smiths moved to Williamsburg , Brooklyn . = = = Abolitionist movement = = = While in Scotland , Smith joined the Glasgow Emancipation Society and met people in the Scottish and English abolitionist movement . In 1833 Great Britain abolished slavery . When Smith returned to New York , he quickly joined the American Anti @-@ Slavery Society and worked for the cause in the United States . He worked effectively with both black and white abolitionists , for instance maintaining a friendship and correspondence with Gerrit Smith that spanned the years from 1846 @-@ 1865 . Publishing articles quickly brought him to the attention of the national abolitionist movement . His " Destiny of the People of Color " , " Freedom and Slavery for Africans " , and " A lecture on the Haytien Revolution ; with a note on Toussaint L 'Ouverture " , established him as a new force in the field . He directed the Colored People 's Educational Movement ( to the Memory of Abraham Lincoln ) . In 1850 as a member of the Committee of Thirteen , Smith was one of the key organizers of resistance in New York City to the newly passed Fugitive Slave Act , which required states to aid federal law enforcement in capturing escaped slaves . As did similar groups in Boston , his committee aided fugitive slaves to escape capture and helped connect them to people of the Underground Railroad and other escape routes . During the mid @-@ 1850s , Smith worked with Frederick Douglass to establish the National Council of Colored People , one of the first permanent black national organizations , beginning with a three @-@ day convention in Rochester , New York . At the Convention in Rochester , he and Frederick Douglass emphasized the importance of education for their race and urged the founding of more schools for black youth . Smith wanted choices available for both industrial and classical education . Douglass valued his rational approach and said that Smith was " the single most important influence on his life . " Smith tempered the more radical people in the abolitionist movement and insisted on arguing from facts and analysis . He wrote a regular column in Douglass ' paper , published under the pseudonym , ' Communipaw.' Opposing the emigration of American free blacks to other countries , Smith believed that native @-@ born Americans had the right to live in the United States and a claim by their labor and birth to their land . He gathered supporters to go to Albany and testify to the state legislature against proposed plans to support the American Colonization Society , which had supported sending free blacks to the colony of Liberia in Africa . Smith contributed money to revive the Weekly Anglo @-@ African in 1861 , as an anti @-@ emigrationist newspaper . His own writings were important for refuting commonly held racist assumptions of the time , as noted below . Smith was also a prominent leader in the battle for the civil rights of the northern black minority . In the mid @-@ 1850s , he joined James W.C. Pennington and other black leaders in establishing the Legal Rights Association ( LRA ) in New York City . A pioneering minority @-@ rights association , the LRA waged a nearly ten @-@ year campaign against segregated public transportation in New York City . This organization successfully defeated segregation in New York and served as a model for later rights organizations , including the National Equal Rights League and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) . = = = Professional associations and writings = = = Smith was a prolific writer and essayist . The historian John Stauffer of Harvard University says : " He was one of the leaders within the movement to abolish slavery , and he was one of the most original and innovative writers of his time . " In 1840 he wrote the first case report by a black doctor , which his associate John Watson read at a meeting of the New York Medical and Surgical Society . ( It acknowledged Smith was qualified , but would not admit him because of racial discrimination . ) Soon after , Smith published an article in the New York Journal of Medicine , the first by a black doctor in the US . He drew from his medical training to discredit popular ideas about differences among the races . In 1843 he gave a lecture series , Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Races , to demonstrate the failings of phrenology , which was a so @-@ called scientific practice of the time that was applied in a way to draw racist conclusions and attribute negative characteristics to ethnic Africans . He rejected the practice of homeopathy , an alternative to the scientific medicine being taught in universities . Although he had a successful medical career , he was not admitted to the American Medical Association or local associations because of racial discrimination . At Glasgow , Smith had been trained in the emerging science of statistics . He published numerous articles applying his statistical training . For example , he used statistics to refute the arguments of slave owners , who wrote that blacks were inferior and that slaves were better off than free blacks or white urban laborers . To do this , he drew up statistical tables of data from the census . When John C. Calhoun , then US Secretary of State and former US Senator from South Carolina , claimed that freedom was bad for blacks , and that the 1840 U.S. Census showed that blacks in the North had high rates of insanity and mortality , Smith responded with a masterful paper . In " A Dissertation on the Influence of Climate on Longevity " ( 1846 ) , published in Hunt 's Merchants ' Magazine , Smith analyzed the census both to refute Calhoun 's conclusions and to show the correct way to analyze data . He showed that blacks in the North lived longer than slaves , attended church more , and were achieving scholastically at a rate similar to whites . As Smith started publishing , his work was quickly accepted by newer scientific organizations : in 1852 Smith was invited to be a founding member of the New York Statistics Institute . In 1854 he was elected as a member by the American Geographical Society ( founded in New York in 1851 by top scientists as well as wealthy amateurs interested in exploration ) . The Society recognized him by giving him an award for one of his articles . He also joined the New @-@ York Historical Society . Among numerous other works supporting abolitionism and dealing with issues related to race , Smith is well known for his introduction to Frederick Douglass ' second autobiography , My Bondage and My Freedom ( 1855 ) . It expressed the new independence in African @-@ American accounts of slavery , compared to earlier works , which had to seek approval for authentication from white abolitionists , as readers rejected some harsh accounts of conditions under slavery . Smith wrote : ... the worst of our institutions , in its worst aspect , cannot keep down energy , truthfulness , and earnest struggle for the right . In 1859 he published an article using scientific findings and analysis to refute the former president Thomas Jefferson 's theories of race , as expressed in his well @-@ known Notes on the State of Virginia ( 1785 ) . Dr. Vanessa Northington Gamble , a medical doctor and historian at George Washington University , in 2010 noted , " As early as 1859 , Dr. McCune Smith said that race was not biological but was a social category . " He also commented on the positive ways that ethnic Africans would influence US culture and society , in music , dance , food , and other elements . His collected essays , speeches and letters have been published as The Works of James McCune Smith : Black Intellectual and Abolitionist ( 2006 ) , edited by John Stauffer . = = = Later years = = = In 1863 Smith was appointed as professor of anthropology at Wilberforce College , Ohio . It was founded in a collaboration between the African Methodist Episcopal Church ( AME Church ) and the Methodist Church of Cincinnati as a college for students of color before the American Civil War . By 1860 , it had numerous mixed @-@ race students from the South , whose tuition was paid by their wealthy white planter fathers . The war caused the withdrawal of most southern students , threatening survival of the school . In 1863 the college was purchased by the AME Church and established as the first African American @-@ owned and operated college in the United States . At the time , Smith was too ill to take the position . He died two years later on November 17 , 1865 of congestive heart failure on Long Island , New York at the age of 52 . This was nineteen days before ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States , which abolished slavery throughout the country . He was buried at Cypress Hills Cemetery , in Brooklyn . Smith was survived by his widow , Malvina , and five children . In 1870 the Smiths were again all classified as white on the census . James Smith Jr. had married a white woman and had children . His siblings also would marry white spouses and have families . Because of trying to escape racial prejudice , it appeared that they did not pass on the stories about their father 's achievements , as later generations did not learn of them . It was not until the twenty @-@ first century that a connection was made again , and his descendants learned of some of their African @-@ American ancestors . = = Legacy and honors = = Gradually Smith 's achievements were forgotten within the family , as his sons worked to escape racial prejudice in New York and did not discuss their African @-@ American ancestry . = = Works = = Smith , James McCune ( 1841 ) . A Lecture on the Haytien Revolutions . New York : D. Fanshaw . OCLC 16788188 . Smith , James McCune ( 1843 ) . The Destiny of the People of Color . New York : s.n. OCLC 27872624 . Smith , James McCune ( 1846 ) . A Dissertation on the Influence of Climate on Longevity . Office of Merchants ' Magazine ( New York ) . OCLC 34227767 . Smith , James McCune ( 1860 ) . Ira Aldridge . New York : Arno Press ; The New York Times . OCLC 35129946 . Smith , James McCune ( 2006 ) . Stauffer , John , ed . The Works of James McCune Smith : Black Intellectual and Abolitionist . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 530961 @-@ 8 .
= St James ' Church , Stretham = St James ' Church , Stretham , is an active Anglican church in the village of Stretham , Cambridgeshire , England . Founded in the 12th century , it was heavily restored by the architect J. P. St Aubyn in 1876 . English Heritage , a body responsible for preserving historical sites in the United Kingdom , assessed the church a Grade II * listed building . The turret clock on the east face of the tower was also made in 1876 , by JB Joyce & Co of Whitchurch , Shropshire , and still keeps good time . The church has a ring of six bells hung for change ringing . Regular ringing resumed at the church in June 2011 after several years ' silence . St James ' is one of eight churches in the Ely Team Ministry . = = History = = St James ' Church stands in the centre of the small village of Stretham , which has a population of 1 @,@ 685 . The village lies 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) south @-@ south @-@ west of Ely in Cambridgeshire , England , about 119 kilometres ( 74 mi ) by road from London . The earliest written record of this still active church is in the Liber Eliensis , a 12th @-@ century history of the Isle of Ely . In 1137 , during Bishop Nigel 's ( c . 1100 – 1169 ) time , Anglo @-@ Saxon conspirators were said to have met in Stretham church . Fragments of the east chancel are known to be from about the 12th century , corroborating the record of the church 's existence in that period . Lancelot Ridley ( d . 1576 ) , appointed one of the first Six Preachers of Canterbury Cathedral in 1541 and a rector of Stretham from 1560 , was buried in the parish . Mark Ridley ( 1560 – 1624 ) , one of Lancelot 's sons , became the physician to the Tsar of Russia . In 1751 , Francis Blomefield , in his Collectanea Cantabrigiensia , recorded St James ' as having a square tower , with four bells and a clock . The north aisle was leaded and there was a chantry chapel at the east end with a screen . He concludes this to be the Chancel of the Resurrection . At this time , the south aisle , nave and chancel were also recorded as leaded . The church was restored very heavily in 1876 by the architect J. P. St Aubyn at a cost of £ 4 @,@ 400 ( equivalent to £ 373 @,@ 274 in 2016 ) . The north and south transepts were added at this time as well as the whole south aisle of the nave , the chancel , a clerestory and a new porch . St James ' Church , Stretham , is an historic building protected by Acts of Parliament . Originally , the church was listed Grade A in a publicly available register on 5 February 1952 until a resurvey and regrading by the English Heritage on 19 August 1988 . Since then , it is listed as a Grade II * building , which makes the church particularly important to the country 's heritage and warrants every effort to preserve it . The church records are kept in the County Records Office , Cambridge . Since 1990 , St James ' Church has had an ecumenical agreement with the Stretham Methodists . St James ' is part of the Ely Team Ministry , a group of eight churches : St Mary 's , Ely ; St Peter 's , Ely ; St Leonard 's , Little Downham ; St Michael and All Angels , Chettisham ; St George 's , Little Thetford ; St James , Stretham ; Holy Cross , Stuntney ; St Peter 's , Prickwillow . The Prickwillow church was closed for worship in 2008 ; it is part of the parish of St Mary 's , Ely . = = Architecture = = = = = Exterior = = = The building is mainly 14th century although the east wall of the chancel contains remnants of 12th @-@ century material , including two clamped buttresses . The ashlar @-@ faced tower is 14th century with angled buttresses north and south . The west window has three lights with flowing tracery . The clock on the east face of the tower , dated 1876 , is by JB Joyce & Co of Whitchurch , Shropshire , the oldest firm of tower clockmakers in the world ; it is wound weekly by the churchwardens . The east wall of the chancery has one window with five lights ( stained glass panels ) with tracery above in a Gothic style . The church floodlighting is supported by funds from the National Lottery church floodlighting trust = = = Interior = = = There is a lowered sill on the southeast window of the chancel for a three @-@ seat ( sedilia ) ; a cabinet ( aumbry ) is along the east of the north wall with an arched tomb recess to the west of it with an inscribed tomb lid which commemorates Nicholas de Kyngestone , late 13th @-@ century rector . A 1440 oak screen to the chancel is very finely carved . Lying in the chancel is a black marble slab that dates back to 1667 ; it is a memorial , commemorating Anne Brunsell , sister of Sir Christopher Wren and wife of the rector of the time . The pipe rack organ , built in 1886 by J W Walker and sons of London , is in a chamber built onto the south wall of the chancery . Paddy Benson of Norman & Beard , carried out a reconstruction and enlargement of the organ in 1907 at a cost of £ 350 ( equivalent to £ 33 @,@ 392 in 2016 ) ; it was converted to electric blowing sometime after 1937 . = = Bells = = Until 1952 , the church had a ring of five bells hung for change ringing ; and at this time , a sixth bell was added and one bell was recast , replacing a 1727 bell by Henry Penn of Peterborough . The oldest bell as of 2010 , is the 840 @-@ millimetre ( 33 in ) 360 @-@ kilogram ( 790 lb ) number four bell of 1796 by Joseph Eayre ; the newest are of 1951 by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough . This set of six bells are rung from a first @-@ floor ringing chamber above the recently constructed servery and toilets . According to Canon K W H Felstead 's records , now maintained by the Central Council of Church Bell Ringers , there have been 78 peals rung at St James ' Church , Stretham , since 1952 . = = Rectors = = Records before 1523 have not been confirmed ; they have been checked ( other than minor spelling differences ) with the painted board in the south @-@ west corner of the nave
= Ammonia fuming = Ammonia fuming is a wood finishing process that darkens wood and brings out the grain pattern . It consists of exposing the wood to fumes from a strong aqueous solution of ammonium hydroxide which reacts with the tannins in the wood . The process works best on white oak because of the high tannin content of this wood . Fumed oak is also called smoked oak . Other species may also be fumed but usually will not darken as much as white oak . The introduction of the process is usually associated with the American furniture maker Gustav Stickley at the beginning of the twentieth century , but fuming was certainly known in Europe some time before this . = = Process = = The wood to be fumed is placed in a sealed chamber with all the surfaces to be fumed exposed to freely circulating air . A large shallow container of ammonium hydroxide solution is placed on the floor of the chamber and the chamber is sealed . If the chamber is large or the fuming is to be done for a long time then more than one container may be provided or the ammonia may be replenished during the process . The fuming time depends on the amount of darkening required , the size of the chamber , and the strength of the ammonia used . It is usual to oil the wood after fuming to fully bring out the effect . = = Advantages and disadvantages = = Fuming has an advantage over staining in that it does not obscure the grain , it just darkens it . Unlike staining , there is no possibility of blotches or runs . Fuming is also colourfast . Fuming has the disadvantage that it is not a very precise process . Different batches of wood will react to fuming differently . For this reason wood that is to be fumed for a particular project is often taken from the same tree . Even so , boards from the same tree , and even different regions of the same board , can have a noticeably different colour . Where a consistent colour is important , staining or dyeing may be better options . Fuming has some inconvenient safety issues . The solution of ammonium hydroxide used is much stronger ( 26 % to 30 % ) than in household ammonia and is corrosive . The fuming must be done in an enclosed sealed chamber . Ammonia splashes can burn skin and the fumes can cause burns to eyes and lungs . Operators need to wear gas masks , gloves and eye protection . The darkening of the colour relies on the ammonia reacting with tannins in the wood . The process is most usually applied to white oak as this wood has a high tannin content . Red oak may turn greenish rather than deep brown . Other species may not darken so noticeably as white oak , or at all , depending on the tannin content . The effect of fuming can be enhanced in non @-@ tannic woods by applying a coat of tannic acid to the surface before fuming . = = History = = Fuming was an accidental discovery in England after it was noticed that oak boards stored in a stable had darkened . This was caused by the ammonia fumes from the horse urine reacting with the wood . At the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries fuming became popular with furniture makers in the Arts and Crafts movement . The technique was introduced to the US by Gustav Stickley in 1901 and a manufacturing technique was perfected in the mission style furniture line of the Stickley family business . Stickley also described a method of fuming the wooden architecture of an entire room by setting down bowls of ammonia within the room and completely sealing it . This method was not very practical and quite dangerous for the person placing the ammonia without the personal protective equipment available to modern workers . Stickley was quickly followed by other American Arts and Crafts furniture makers such as Charles Limbert and the Roycroft community .
= Castleshaw Roman fort = Castleshaw Roman fort was a castellum in the Roman province of Britannia . Although there is no evidence to substantiate the claim , it has been suggested that Castleshaw Roman fort is the site of Rigodunum , a Brigantian settlement . The remains of the fort are located on Castle Hill on the eastern side of Castleshaw Valley at the foot of Standedge but overlooking the valley . The hill is on the edge of Castleshaw in Greater Manchester . The fort was constructed in c . AD 79 , but fell out of use at some time during the 90s . It was replaced by a smaller fortlet , built in c . 105 , around which a civilian settlement grew . It may have served as a logistical and administrative centre , although it was abandoned in the 120s . The site has been the subject of antiquarian and archaeological investigation since the 18th century , but the civilian settlement lay undiscovered until the 1990s . The fort , fortlet , and civilian settlement are all protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument , recognising its importance as a " nationally important " archaeological site or historic building , and protecting it against unauthorised change . = = Location = = The fort and fortlet at Castleshaw are situated on a step of Grindslow shale on the eastern side of Castleshaw Valley below Standedge , part of the Pennine ridge in northern England . From the site there are clear views up and down the valley , although it is overshadowed by higher ground on all sides . It is remote and exposed and lies along the Deva Victrix ( Chester ) to Eboracum ( York ) Roman road . The road crosses the Pennines at Standedge where the area dips and narrows , creating a traversable pass which would have been guarded by the Castleshaw fort . The nearest forts are Mamucium ( Manchester ) 16 miles ( 26 km ) to the west and one at Slack 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the east , both on the line of the Roman road . There was also possibly a fortlet or signal station at Worlow , between Slack and Castleshaw . The later fortlet is on the same site as the fort ( grid reference SD99880965 ) . = = History = = = = = Roman = = = The fort at Castleshaw , constructed from turf and timber , was built around 79 and guarded the York to Chester Roman road . Due to the site 's protected status as a Scheduled Ancient Monument it has not been possible to excavate the fort , however previous trenches have demonstrated that the fort had two phases to its construction . The location of the fort 's granary , stables , the principia ( headquarters ) , the praetorium ( commander 's tent ) , and six long narrow buildings which are possibly workshops or storerooms are all known . The fort was small , would probably have been home to around 500 soldiers of an auxiliary cohort , and fell out of use during the mid AD 90s . Rather than allow the defences to fall into potentially hostile hands or be used against Rome , the fort was slighted . The fort was replaced by a fortlet , also built using turf and timber , in AD 105 . Although the fortlet was built on the same site as the fort , it did not use the same foundation trenches . There were two construction phases of the fortlet , the second – dating to c . 120 – featured gates , an oven , a well , a granary , a hypocaust a workshop , barracks , a commanders house , a courtyard building , and possibly a latrine . The barracks were built to accommodate 48 soldiers and even with administrative staff and officers , the garrison of the fortlet would have numbered less than 100 . The first phase was laid out along the same lines as the second phase . The fortlet defences – as with most other fortlets – were designed to withstand attacks from brigands or hold off an enemy until reinforcements from the main army could arrive rather than withstand a determined attack . A civilian settlement or vicus grew around the fortlet in the early 2nd century . It probably would have been home to those who benefited from trade with the garrison or hangers on of the soldiers . Since it is unlikely that a garrison of under 100 could have supported a vicus , it has been suggested that the fortlet was a commissary fortlet , one which was the administrative and logistical centre of part of the Roman army . With soldiers regularly arriving to collect pay and orders , a vicus could have been supported . The fortlet fell out of use in the mid 120s . The fort and fortlet of Castleshaw were superseded by the neighbouring forts at Manchester and Slack . The vicus was abandoned around the same time as the fortlet fell out of use . According to Ptolemy , there was a polis called Rigodunum belonging to the Brigantes near the position of Castleshaw . Rigodunum means " royal fort " . Although it has been suggested that Castleshaw is the location of the Brigantine settlement , there is no evidence to support this . Stamps on two tegulae , produced at the Roman tilery at Grimescar Wood near Huddersfield , suggest the fortlet was supplied by the Cohors III Bracaraugustanorum from Pannonia , maybe even garrisoned by them at one stage . Similar stamps have been found in the forts at Manchester , Slack , and Ebchester , indicating these forts were linked . = = = Post @-@ Roman = = = After being abandoned by the Romans , Castleshaw was rediscovered by antiquarian Thomas Percival in 1752 . The remains were in good enough condition for him to draw a plan and he commented that he was " pleased to find a double Roman camp " . He also remarked that the Roman road from Manchester running east to the Pennines was " the finest remain of a Roman road in England that I ever saw " . The site has suffered damage from ploughing in the 18th and 19th centuries as it is situated in one of the best draining areas of the valley . In 1897 , a local antiquarian and poet , Ammon Wrigley , dug several trenches on the site . He did not record the results of his digging and unrecorded digs continued on and off until 1907 . In 1907 , the site was bought for the purpose of organised excavation and survey which continued from 1907 to 1908 under the supervision of Francis Bruton who had recently been involved with the excavation of Mamucium . The spoil heaps from the 1907 – 08 dig were never levelled , leaving a series of misleading modern earthworks on the interior of the site . Under the supervision of the University of Manchester , further excavation was undertaken on the site in 1957 – 61 and 1963 – 64 . Between 1984 and 1988 , Greater Manchester Archaeological Unit undertook excavations and restoration of the site . A group led by Professor Barri Jones – an expert on Roman Britain – was set up to co @-@ ordinate the work . North West Water , then the owners of the site , ensured the area would not be used for agriculture . In an attempt to make the site accessible to the public , the outline of the fort and fortlet was marked out in low mounds and an education centre was set up nearby . The area beyond the fort was investigated for the first time in 1995 – 96 ; archaeologists were searching for a civilian settlement or vicus associated with the fort . Surveys revealed a settlement triangular in shape and to the south of the fort . The vicus is listed as a Scheduled Ancient Monument with the fort and fortlet . = = Layout = = The fort was rectangular in shape and had sides of 115 metres ( 377 ft ) and 100 metres ( 330 ft ) , covering an area of approximately 1 @.@ 2 hectares ( 3 @.@ 0 acres ) . The fortlet was built over the south of the fort , making it difficult to discover what lay beneath . It has been possible to however to ascertain that barrack buildings lay on the east side of the fort , a granary on the north , and the principia and praetorium to the south west . The fortlet was rectangular , with sides of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) by 40 metres ( 130 ft ) , and covered 1 @,@ 950 square metres ( 0 @.@ 48 acres ) . It was originally thought to be surrounded by a single Punic ditch but investigation revealed there to be two Punic ditches separated by a 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide berm . The inner ditch was 3 @.@ 9 metres ( 13 ft ) wide and 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) deep while the outer ditch was 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) wide and 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) deep . A Punic ditch is a defensive v @-@ shaped ditch with one side much steeper than the other ; the ditches surrounding the fortlet had an outer face at 27 degrees and the inner face at 69 degrees . The rampart behind the ditches only survives to 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) at its highest point . It was built from turf on top of sandy clay with a rubble foundation . The fortlet ramparts to the south lay on top of the slighted fort ramparts . Whether corner towers were a feature of the fortlet is unknown , no evidence remains aside from a single posthole , although only the north and east corners survive in good condition . There were two gateways , one to the north and one to the south . A civilian settlement is located to the south of the fortlet 's defences . The extent of the vicus is uncertain , however , test pits have indicated that it probably extends 12 metres ( 39 ft ) west to east and between 25 metres ( 82 ft ) and 35 metres ( 115 ft ) to south .
= Nick Mitchell = Nicholas Cole " Nick " Mitchell ( born November 9 , 1982 ) is an American retired professional wrestler who is best known for his work in World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) as Mitch of the Spirit Squad on the Raw brand . Before starting a wrestling career , Mitchell played football for the Beaumont Drillers while at Blinn College . After not being accepted for a National Football League combine , Mitchell focused on a career in wrestling . Mitchell took part of the fourth season of the reality series Tough Enough , a televised competition that would award the winner a WWE contract . Despite not winning , he signed a developmental contract with WWE , and was assigned to their developmental territory , Deep South Wrestling , where he wrestled as " Big Time " Nick Mitchell . He was later moved Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) where he joined the Spirit Squad faction . After the Spirit Squad were called up to the Raw roster , they debuted in January 2006 , and won the World Tag Team Championship three months later . Following the split of the team , Mitchell was released from his WWE contract in May 2007 . Following his release , Mitchell began a career in mixed martial arts . = = American football career = = In high school , Mitchell played four years of varsity football , on both sides of the ball . He received a full scholarship to Northwestern State University of the Southland Conference , but was expelled for fighting during his freshman season . After attending Blinn College in Bryan , Texas for two semesters , Mitchell joined the Beaumont Drillers of the National Indoor Football League in 2003 . After a season with them , he attended a National Football League combine , but was told to go home after officials found out he had been expelled from college for fighting . = = Professional wrestling career = = = = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = = = = = = Tough Enough and developmental territories ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = = = Mitchell took part in the fourth season of World Wrestling Entertainment 's reality series Tough Enough in 2004 . He was the first to be eliminated . Despite not winning , he was still signed to a WWE developmental contract and assigned to the company 's developmental territory , Deep South Wrestling . Several other competitors from Tough Enough were also signed , including Daniel Puder , Mike Mizanin , and Marty Wright , but near the end of 2006 , Mitchell and Mizanin were the only two left on the main WWE roster . He began wrestling under the name " Big Time " Nick Mitchell , and competed against wrestlers including Kid Kash and Johnny Parisi . He later suffered a knee injury , and although it was feared that he had torn his ACL , he was moved to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) where he joined The Spirit Squad . Within days of his debut , the Squad was called up to the main WWE roster . = = = = The Spirit Squad ( 2006 ) = = = = As part of The Spirit Squad , a group consisting of five wrestlers who used the in @-@ ring personas of male cheerleaders , he adopted the name Mitch . As a result of his ACL injury , his ability to wrestle was curtailed and Mitch spent the first few months of his time in the Spirit Squad in a non @-@ wrestling role . On January 23 , 2006 , they had their WWE television debut as a group , appearing on Raw and helping Jonathan Coachman win a Royal Rumble qualifying match against Jerry " The King " Lawler by performing cheers for Coachman and distracting Lawler . They later became a part of the ongoing scripted feud between WWE chairman Vince McMahon and Shawn Michaels . The villainous McMahon brought in the Squad to attack Michaels on numerous occasions , including placing them in multiple handicap matches . They also wrestled in the tag team division , and on April 3 , on Raw , won the World Tag Team Championship when Kenny and Mikey defeated Big Show and Kane , with outside help from the other three Squad members as they attacked The Big Show in order to gain the advantage . After winning the championship , all five members of the team were recognized as the champions , allowing any combination of them to defend the championship . Three weeks later , McMahon scheduled another handicap match , with The Spirit Squad facing Michaels . The match never started , however ; instead The Spirit Squad attacked Michaels , ripping apart his ring attire and , as part of the storyline , shattering his knee with a steel chair . McMahon then called Triple H to the ring to attack Michaels with a sledgehammer ; however , Kenny snatched the sledgehammer away , disrespecting Triple H , which led to him attacking the group . Triple H and Michaels revived D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) , since their teased reunion in 2002 , and as a team began a feud with the Spirit Squad . DX played various sophomoric pranks on the team and the McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) , as well as defeating The Spirit Squad in handicap matches at Vengeance and a clean sweep in an elimination handicap match at Saturday Night 's Main Event . During their feud with DX and their alignment with McMahon , the team also wrestled other teams in Raw 's tag division over their World Tag Team Championship . The group successfully defended the tag team championship against the teams of Jim Duggan and Eugene , Charlie Haas and Viscera , and Snitsky and Val Venis . They then entered a lengthy feud with The Highlanders , whom they eventually defeated to retain the title at Unforgiven . The Squad as a whole later began a losing streak with separate members losing singles matches to Ric Flair on consecutive episodes of Raw . After two consecutive losses to the debuting Cryme Tyme , Kenny attacked Mikey on the October 23 episode of Raw and announced that he was going to defeat Flair . Kenny was successful , despite Flair attempting to even the odds by bringing other WWE Legends , Dusty Rhodes , Sgt. Slaughter , and " Rowdy " Roddy Piper , to the ring with him . It was then announced that Flair and a legend , selected by interactive voting , would wrestle the team for the World Tag Team Championship at the Cyber Sunday pay @-@ per @-@ view in early November . The fans chose Piper , and he and Flair defeated Kenny and Mikey to win the championship . The group was " killed off " on the November 27 Raw after they were defeated in a five @-@ on @-@ three match by Flair and DX . Later that night , in a backstage segment , DX placed all members into a crate stamped " OVW , Louisville , Kentucky " , a reference to the developmental territory from which the Squad had come . Mitchell was released from his WWE contract on May 15 , 2007 . = = Mixed martial arts = = After being released by WWE , Mitchell began training for a career in mixed martial arts ( MMA ) under Rocky Long , a former mixed martial artist . He made his MMA debut on April 9 , 2010 , losing to Derek Lewis via second round technical knockout . Mitchell was set to fight again on December 11 , 2010 , but pulled out at the last minute due to an injury . = = Personal life = = He graduated from The Woodlands High School in 2001 . Mitchell played four years of varsity American football in high school , and received a full scholarship to Northwestern State University . During his freshman season , however , he was expelled for getting into a fight . Mitchell then spent two semesters at Blinn College in Bryan , Texas . In 2007 he and his girlfriend , Torrie Wilson , started a business together , called " Officially Jaded " , a fashion boutique . The couple began dating in mid @-@ 2006 . Mitchell has since said that he feels that he was prevented from becoming successful in WWE when he began dating Wilson , as he " was a young , fresh meat WWE guy who ' didn 't deserve ' the most beautiful diva " . The couple separated in 2011 . As a professional wrestler , Mitchell suffered numerous injuries , including damaging a disc in his neck and injuring his knee , as well as breaking his nose three times within one month . = = In wrestling = = Nicknames " Big Time " = = Mixed martial arts record = = = = Championships and accomplishments = = World Wrestling Entertainment World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with The Spirit Squad
= Kala ( album ) = Kala is the second studio album by English @-@ Sri Lankan recording artist M.I.A. , released on 8 August 2007 by XL Recordings . The album features musical styles including dance music and makes extensive use of South Asian music such as that of the urumee , a drum used in gaana music native to Tamil Nadu , India . It was mainly written and produced by M.I.A. and Switch , and features contributions from Timbaland , Diplo , Afrikan Boy and The Wilcannia Mob . M.I.A. named the album after her mother , in contrast to her first album Arular , which was named after her father , and stated that her mother 's struggles in life are a major theme of the recording . She began recording the album in early 2006 and worked on the tracks in various locations around the world , including India , Jamaica , Australia , Liberia and Trinidad . Planned sessions in the United States failed to occur , after M.I.A. was refused a long @-@ term work visa to enter the country . Kala was ranked as one of the best albums of the year by several publications . It reached number eighteen on the Billboard 200 chart and topped the magazine 's Top Electronic Albums chart . In the United Kingdom it reached number thirty @-@ nine on the UK Albums Chart . Kala spawned the singles " Bird Flu " , " Boyz " , " Jimmy " and " Paper Planes " . As of 2013 the album had sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US . = = Composition and recording = = M.I.A. ( Mathangi " Maya " Arulpragasam ) had released her debut album Arular in 2005 , which achieved critical acclaim and sold 130 @,@ 000 copies . Plans for a second album were first revealed when she spoke later that year of her intention to work with American producer Timbaland . At one point it was anticipated that he would produce the bulk of the album . However , she was unable to gain a long @-@ term work visa to enter the US , reportedly due to her family 's connections with guerrillas in Sri Lanka . This led to conflicts between the two artists ' schedules and meant that Timbaland 's involvement was restricted to a poorly received guest verse on the track " Come Around " . M.I.A. instead opted to record the album at a variety of locations around the world , beginning by travelling to India following the last date of her Arular Tour in Japan in February 2006 . She initially travelled to India to meet A. R. Rahman , but found it hard to communicate her ideas to him and the planned musical collaboration did not take place . Rahman did , however , provide M.I.A. with a number of contacts and allow her to use his studio , where 22 members of drumming group The Tapes were recorded for Kala . Producer Switch , who had initially travelled to India purely to engineer the planned sessions , ultimately became involved in the composition of several tracks for the album . A visit to Angola to work with DJ Znobia was cancelled after Znobia was involved in a car accident , but M.I.A. was able to record in Trinidad , Liberia , Jamaica and Australia . She and Switch relied heavily on Logic Pro , a digital audio workstation produced by Apple , and were able to capture vocals and background sounds outside the traditional studio environment , using a microphone and a Macbook Pro . The album features guest vocals from Afrikan Boy , The Wilcannia Mob , and Timbaland , and further collaborations with Switch , Blaqstarr , Morganics and Diplo . She likened the process of recording the album to " making a big old marble cake with lots of different countries and influences . Then you slice it up and call each slice a song " . = = Music and lyrics = = Kala is named after M.I.A. ' s mother , in contrast to her previous album , Arular , which was named after her father . She contends that Arular was a " masculine " album , but that Kala " is about my mum and her struggle – how do you work , feed your children , nurture them and give them the power of information ? " She further summed the album up as " shapes , colours , Africa , street , power , bitch , nu world , and brave . " According to Dominic Horner of The Independent , the album 's music may not be appropriately described exclusively as either dance or world music , but it is a mixture of the two . Music critic Robert Christgau characterised its music as an " eclectic world @-@ underclass dance amalgam " , and Jonathan Brown of the Irish Independent cited Kala as a proper introduction to " world fusion " , a genre that " blends sounds from across the globe which wouldn 't – and some say shouldn 't – be put together . " By contrast , NPR 's Oliver Wang argued that , rather than a " so @-@ called world music fusion " attempt , Kala is " agitated , propulsive pop " informed by international sounds . Music journalist Jody Rosen called it " an agitprop dance record " that reappropriates hip hop in an international setting with beatbox riddims , " playground " rhymes , unconventional samples , and gunshot sounds . The tracks " Boyz " and " Bird Flu " use urumee drums , a signature instrument of Gaana , a Tamil genre of music , with which M.I.A. was familiar from her time spent living in Sri Lanka . She later worked on these tracks in Trinidad , where she absorbed influences from the country 's love of soca music . The lyrics of " Boyz " deal with the artist 's time in Jamaica , and reference Jamaican dance moves . The song " Hussel " began as an image in M.I.A. ' s head of refugees being smuggled in boats , which she expressed musically by imagining how " if they banged that beat on the side of a boat , what would it sound like ? That 's why it 's all echo @-@ y and submarine @-@ y " . The sounds on the intro were recorded from Keralan [ sic ] fishermen chanting as they pull their fishing boats into the water . " World Town " used instrumentation from the temple music she recalled waking up to as a child in Sri Lanka . After playing the track to children in Liberia , she expressed a desire to record a video for the song there . M.I.A. ' s " flat , unaffected vocals and delivery of lyrics " on some songs drew comparisons to British post @-@ punk bands such as Delta 5 and The Slits . She says it " was just what was happening to me naturally ... I wanted it to be difficult and raw and not get into it so much " . Afrikan Boy , an exponent of grime , a UK @-@ based genre of urban music , provided vocals on the song " Hussel " . M.I.A. opted to work with him because she felt that he seemed comfortable with his identity as a " real immigrant " and because his background was different to that of most MCs in the genre . She had originally planned to include " Mango Pickle Down River " — her remix of The Wilcannia Mob 's song " Down River " — on a mix @-@ tape , but chose to include it on the album because she felt it was rare to hear the " aboriginal voice " in recorded music , and described opening track " Bamboo Banga " as having a " bamboo @-@ stick beat , house @-@ y feel " . The song " Jimmy " was included as a tribute to her mother and is M.I.A. ' s version of an old Bollywood film track to which she used to dance at parties as a child . Despite the involvement of Baltimore club musician Blaqstarr , " The Turn " turned out to be the album 's only ballad , and the track has been described as the least like club music . " 20 Dollar " was written about the relative ease of buying AK @-@ 47s in war @-@ torn Liberia . " XR2 " recalls part of the artist 's life growing up with rave music in early 1990s London , while the song " Paper Planes " jokingly plays on M.I.A. ' s problems with visas and certain perceptions of immigrants . = = Release and artwork = = In April 2007 Rolling Stone reported that Kala would be released on 26 June of that year . After being delayed for unknown reasons , the album was eventually released by XL Recordings on 8 August 2007 in Japan and on 20 August in the UK , and by Interscope Records on 21 August in the United States . The Japanese edition featured three extra tracks not included on the versions released in other countries . Following the unexpected commercial success of " Paper Planes " , Kala was re @-@ issued in the United Kingdom in October 2008 . A 4 November 2008 US re @-@ release was announced , but as of late 2009 the album had not been re @-@ issued in the United States . The album 's packaging includes photographs taken by M.I.A. and others in Liberia and Jamaica . The cover artwork to Kala , designed by Steve Loveridge , features neon fractal patterns and repeated slogans , including " Fight On ! Fight On ! Fight On ! " , which surrounds her image on the front cover . The cover was considered garish , prompting The Village Voice to comment " Maybe one day [ she 'll ] make an album cover that it doesn 't hurt to look at " . Additional graphics for the album were provided by English fashion designer Carri Mundane ( also known as Cassette Playa ) and Steve Loveridge . The album 's artwork was inspired by African art , " from dictator fashion to old stickers on the back of cars , " which M.I.A hoped , like her artwork extended " Okley Run " clothing range , would capture " a 3 @-@ D sense , the shapes , the prints , the sound , film , technology , politics , economics " of a certain time . = = Promotion = = M.I.A. began her promotion of the new album with a live appearance at Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Preston in May 2007 , where she performed six songs from Kala . In July she began the full KALA Tour with dates in the United States before going on to play a number of festivals in Europe and America . After dates in Asia , she returned to America for a series of shows in October and November , before ending the year with concerts in the UK . The tour continued during the first half of 2008 under the banner of the People Vs . Money Tour with further dates in North America , although the planned European leg of the tour was eventually cancelled . The first track from the album to be made available to the public was " Bird Flu " , which was made available as a downloadable promotional single on 13 November 2006 . The first official single to be lifted from the album , " Boyz " , was released on 11 June 2007 . The second single was " Jimmy " , which was released on 1 October 2007 . The EP Paper Planes - Homeland Security Remixes EP , featuring various mixes of " Paper Planes " , was released digitally on 11 February 2008 and physically three weeks later . A new physical single version was released in the UK on 13 October 2008 . Also in October 2008 , How Many Votes Fix Mix EP was released , containing a remix of " Boyz " with Jay @-@ Z and the tracks " Shells " and " Far Far " . = = Critical reception = = Kala received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 87 , based on 37 reviews . In the Los Angeles Times , Ann Powers wrote that Kala succeeded at embodying disenfranchised characters in the dissonant Third World with " truly multi @-@ vocal " music whose " every sound signified something different , driving the music 's meaning into some new corner " . Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club said the music ventured far enough where it served as both a party album and a progressive aural assault , while AllMusic 's Andy Kellman felt that Kala was better for intensifying Arular 's qualities and " mixing cultures with respectful irreverence " . Barry Walters of Spin credited M.I.A. with evoking both the social demands and percussive sounds of the Third World , while finding the album relevant at a time when " more Americans than ever feel like outsiders in their own country " . Writing for MSN Music , Robert Christgau said although the lyrics were " cannier politically " than Arular , the music was more decisive in embodying the imagination and recreation of " an unbowed international underclass that proves how smart it is just by stating its business , which includes taking your money " . He later said that he had " pressed " the editors of Rolling Stone to let him give Kala four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars in his review for the magazine , wishing he " had the foresight to fight for five " because the album " kept growing on me till I even dug the Timbaland remnant [ ' Come Around ' ] " . In a less enthusiastic review , Jonathan Keefe from Slant Magazine believed Kala was less successful than Arular because it lacked its predecessor 's immediate hooks and clever pop sensibility . Pitchfork Media critic Mark Pytlik said because most of M.I.A. ' s lyrics gave the impression they were written " in the service of the rhythms " , her allusions sounded more " rewarding " than what she literally wrote . Andy Gill of The Independent found her lyrics unfocused in their arguments on money and social concerns , remarking that the gun references on " World Town " and " Paper Planes " blemished " an otherwise fine album " . In The Guardian , Alexis Petridis wrote that Kala was still a " unique " listen in spite of occasionally tuneless songs . Writing for NME , Alex Miller acknowledged that the record 's music polarised opinion , claiming that some members of the magazine 's staff had " fed several copies [ of the album ] into the shredder claiming aural abuse " , although others went on to praise the album for its innovation and referred to it as M.I.A. ' s masterpiece . At the end of 2007 , Kala was named one of the year 's best albums in critics ' lists , including rankings at number eight ( Stylus Magazine ) , number seven ( NME ) , number six ( Paste , The A.V. Club and Entertainment Weekly ) , number four ( The Guardian and Drowned in Sound ) , and number three ( Pitchfork Media ) . The album was also listed at number three on The Village Voice 's 35th annual Pazz & Jop poll . Blender and Rolling Stone both named Kala as their number one album of 2007 . " Boyz " was number nine and " Shells " number sixty @-@ seven on the same magazine 's list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 and 2008 respectively . The album was nominated for the 2007 Shortlist Music Prize . In 2009 NME placed the album at number seventy @-@ two in its list of the 100 greatest records of the decade , and Rolling Stone ranked it as the ninth best album of the same period . Christgau named it the decade 's best album in his ballot for the magazine . In 2012 , Rolling Stone ranked it at number 393 in a revised edition of their " Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " issue . = = Commercial performance = = Kala debuted at number eighteen on the US Billboard 200 , selling 29 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It failed to rise above this position but still significantly outperformed the peak position of 190 attained by M.I.A. ' s previous album . It also topped the Top Electronic Albums chart . The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 5 March 2010 , and by September 2013 , it had sold 559 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The album debuted at number thirty @-@ nine on the UK Albums Chart , and again did not rise above this position , although as in the US this represented an improvement on the chart performance of Arular , which had peaked at number ninety @-@ eight . The album was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on 30 January 2009 , denoting sales in excess of 60 @,@ 000 copies within the United Kingdom . In Canada , Kala was certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . The album also reached the top forty in a number of other countries , including Belgium , Finland , Ireland , Japan , Norway and Sweden . = = Track listing = = Notes ^ a signifies an additional producer " Bamboo Banga " incorporates elements of " Roadrunner " written by Jonathan Richman and " Kaattukkuyilu " , written and performed by Ilaiyaraaja from the film Thalapathi . " Bird Flu " incorporates elements of " Thirvizha Na Vantha " written and performed by R. P. Patnaik from the film Jayam . " Jimmy " incorporates elements of " Jimmy Jimmy Jimmy Aaja " written by Bappi Lahiri from the film Disco Dancer . " Mango Pickle Down River " is remixed from the original recording " Down River " by The Wilcannia Mob . " 20 Dollar " incorporates elements of " Where Is My Mind ? " by the Pixies . " World Town " incorporates elements of " Hands Up , Thumbs Down " written by Blaqstarr . " Paper Planes " incorporates elements of " Straight to Hell " by The Clash . = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of the expanded edition of Kala . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= About a Girl ( Sugababes song ) = " About a Girl " is a song by English girl group Sugababes from their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 ( 2010 ) . RedOne produced the song and wrote it in collaboration with Makeba Riddick . It is an uptempo Europop and house song with a dance @-@ inspired middle eight . The song was released on 8 November 2009 in the United Kingdom and Ireland , as the album 's second single . " About a Girl " is the first single to feature vocals by band member Jade Ewen , following the departure of Keisha Buchanan in September 2009 . Critical response to the song was mixed . Some critics praised it as a standout track from Sweet 7 , although other criticised it as unoriginal and generic . The song peaked at number eight on the UK Singles Chart , number four on the Scottish Singles Chart , and inside the top twenty on the Irish Singles Chart . It additionally charted in Poland and Slovakia . The music video for the song was filmed in September 2009 amid the group 's controversial line @-@ up change . It was directed by Martin Weisz and filmed at Vasquez Rocks , near Los Angeles . The video has a Kill Bill theme , and features stunt doubles fighting businessmen in a caravan . The Sugababes performed the song on GMTV , at Children in Need , and at the UK Asian Music Awards . = = Development and composition = = The Sugababes travelled to the United States in April 2009 , to commence work on their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 . They signed a contract with Jay @-@ Z 's label , Roc Nation , resulting in collaborations with high @-@ profile producers . In late April 2009 , the Sugababes revealed that they were working with Nadir Khayat , known by his stage name RedOne , on two songs . " About a Girl " was written and produced by RedOne , who wrote the song in collaboration with Makeba Riddick . The song was recorded at Henson Studios in Los Angeles , California . It was mixed by Robert Orton . " About a Girl " is an uptempo Europop and house song . NME 's Alex Denney described it as a " slice of future @-@ house " . The song contains club synthesizers and a middle eight with a " 90s dance @-@ inspired " feel . Nick Levine of Digital Spy noted that it is a departure from the group 's previous sounds . The lyrical content makes references to Louboutins and apple pie , the latter of which is sung by group member Amelle Berrabah during the bridge in a " gravelly " style . According to Fraser McAlphine from BBC , " About a Girl " rivals " Get Sexy " in terms of the overall noise levels . = = Release = = In August 2009 , " About a Girl " was confirmed for release as the second single from Sweet 7 . The first version of the song , featuring Buchanan 's vocals , premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 6 September 2009 . During the single release interval between " Get Sexy " and " About a Girl " , Buchanan controversially left the group . As a result of the group line @-@ up change , " About a Girl " was re @-@ recorded to feature the vocals of new member Jade Ewen in replacement of former member Buchanan 's . The new version of the song was released as a digital download on 8 November 2009 and a CD single the following day . = = Critical reception = = " About a Girl " received mixed reviews from critics . Levine from Digital Spy described the song as a " europoppy club pumper with an ear @-@ snagging chorus " . He suggested it was the group 's most infectious single since " About You Now " , but called it characterless along with the album 's other tracks . Fraser McAlpine of BBC regarded the song as a " dancefloor @-@ friendly tune with an insistent chorus that echoes around your head " , and compared it to the group 's music from previous years . Jon O 'Brien of Allmusic described " About a Girl " as a " gloriously sassy uptempo Lady Gaga @-@ esque number that stands up next to the best of their back catalog " , and named it the " one saving grace " from the album . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian admitted that although Sweet 7 was significantly Americanised , the track " escaped with some quirky Britishness intact " . The Independent critic Andy Gill criticised the song as a " generic disco stomper " and regarded it as " vacuous " . = = Chart performance = = " About a Girl " debuted on the 21 November 2009 issue of the UK Singles Chart at number eight , becoming the fourth @-@ highest debut during that week . It lasted eight weeks on the chart . The song has sold 125 @,@ 000 copies in the UK , ranking as the group 's thirteenth best @-@ selling UK single . Group member Berrabah commented upon their satisfaction with the song 's performance in the UK , saying : " We didn ’ t do any promotion for the new single and it still came in at number eight . We are over the moon with that and our record label is as well . " The single debuted and peaked at number four on the Scottish Singles Chart , and was the second @-@ highest debut for that week . It reached number 14 on the Irish Singles Chart . The single peaked at number 22 on the Polish Dance Top 50 chart . " About a Girl " charted at number 43 on the Croatian Airplay Radio Chart , and number 69 on the Slovakian Singles Chart . The single 's performance throughout Europe allowed it to chart on the European Hot 100 Singles chart , where it reached number 28 . = = Music video = = The music video for " About a Girl " was directed by Martin Weisz . Inspired by a Kill Bill theme , the video was filmed at Vasquez Rocks , near Los Angeles , California on 22 September 2009 , one day following the announcement that Buchanan was replaced by Ewen . Ewen had not met the remaining members of the Sugababes until two days before the video shoot for " About a Girl " . Stunt doubles were used to portray the Sugababes members as they were unsure if the band would be together by the time of the song 's release . The video begins with two businessmen in a caravan discussing a job . After the conversation has ended , a vehicle driven by the stunt doubles arrives in the desert . They leave the vehicle while group member Heidi Range sings her verse as she dances around it . All three members of the group begin dancing during the chorus while a stunt double enters the caravan with a red briefcase . Following this , Berrabah sings her verse of the song while her stunt double is talking to the businessman . Sugababes begin dancing again while the stunt double attacks the businessman , who is drop @-@ kicked out of the caravan . Another businessman begins attacking her , although he too loses the fight . Ewen 's stunt double begins fighting with another man outside of the caravan , and he also is defeated . Later in the video , the businessmen are seen tied together on the ground and the stunt double throws the briefcase , which turns out to be a jack in the box . At the end of the video , the stunt doubles re @-@ enter the vehicle and drive out of the desert . David Balls of Digital Spy commended the video , describing it as an " action @-@ packed affair that 's nearly as dramatic as the group 's own history " and praising its " plenty of slick dance moves and provocative pouting thrown in for good measure " . Chris Johnson of Daily Mail noted the group 's " sexy studded leather outfits " . = = Live performances = = Following Buchanan 's departure from the group , promotion for " About a Girl " was halted when Berrabah was admitted to a private health clinic in Europe citing " nervous exhaustion " ; this led to the cancellation of a scheduled appearance on German TV . The Sugababes were scheduled to headline the Scottish Royal Variety Performance , although this was cancelled due to " a number of legal issues to be finalised " . Following Berrabah 's return from the clinic , " About a Girl " was performed live for the first time by the new line @-@ up on GMTV . An acoustic version of the song was performed live on 11 November 2009 on Radio 1 from Maida Vale Studios . Sugababes also performed the song on 21 November 2009 for Children in Need , an annual British charity appeal organised by the BBC . In March 2010 , the band performed a " Desi " remix of the song at the UK Asian Music Awards . = = Track listing = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of Sweet 7 . = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= Vangjel Meksi = Vangjel Meksi ( 1770 – 1821 ) was an Albanian physician , writer , and translator . One @-@ time personal physician to Ali Pasha , the 19th @-@ century Albanian ruler of the Pashalik of Yanina , Meksi produced the first translation of the New Testament into Albanian with the help and sponsorship of the British and Foreign Bible Society ( BFBS ) . Meksi did not live to see his work 's publication however , which was supervised by Gregory IV of Athens . As a member of Filiki Etaireia , a secret society whose purpose was to establish an independent Greek state , Meksi joined the Greeks in the Siege of Tripolitsa during their war of independence against the Ottoman Empire and died shortly afterwards . As well as its value to Albanian Christians , who could for the first time read the Gospels in their own language , Meksi 's work advanced the study of written Albanian , and in particular informed the work of 19th @-@ century linguists and philologists such as Joseph Ritter von Xylander , August Schleicher , and Johann Georg von Hahn . Their studies of the Albanian language were significantly influenced by Meksi 's Bible translation . = = Early life = = Meksi was born in 1770 in Labovë , a village near Gjirokastër , a member of Meksi family and pursued secondary studies in Ioannina , then an important Ottoman provincial center ( now in Greece ) . His first employment was as a folk physician to the court of Ali Pasha , the Albanian ruler of the Pashalik of Yanina , a position he held until 1803 . Armed with a letter of recommendation from Ali Pasha , Meksi was admitted to the University of Naples in Italy , where he studied medicine under Dr. Nicola Acuto and practiced in a hospital administered by the parish of San Giovanni a Carbonara . After completing his studies in 1808 , Meksi returned to Yanina and once again served in Ali Pasha 's court , this time as one of his four physicians . His colleagues were Dr. Metaxa , ( degree in medicine from the University of Paris ) , Dr. Saqeralliu ( degree in medicine from the University of Vienna ) , and Dr. Loukas Vagias , ( brother of Thanasis Vagias , with a degree in medicine from Leipzig University ) . = = Philological activity = = After falling out of favor with Ali Pasha , for reasons unknown , Meksi left the court in 1810 to travel around Europe . During a brief stay in Venice he began to develop an interest in the Albanian alphabet and grammar . He published two translations into Albanian during 1814 , both now lost , one of which was a religious work by Abbé Claude Fleury ( 1640 – 1723 ) . Meksi also wrote a grammar of the Albanian language in Albanian . It too has been lost , but it is mentioned in many letters reporting Meksi 's work as an Albanian philologist written by Robert Pinkerton to his superiors at the British and Foreign Bible Society ( BFBS ) , which subsequently sponsored the translation of the New Testament into Albanian . The work must have been written before 1819 and may be either the first Albanian grammar or the second , after that of Jani Evstrat Vithkuqari ; it is not known which was published first . In this period Meksi also created a new Albanian alphabet , rationalizing and consolidating the many different pre @-@ existing alphabets , employing a mix of Greek and Latin characters . Using his new alphabet , he wrote a book called Orthography of the Albanian language , ( Albanian : Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe ) . = = Translation of the New Testament = = Pinkerton , who in 1816 was the BFBS 's representative in Moscow , had met that year with a community of Albanians in Vienna , then capital of the Austrian Empire . They assured him that a translation of the New Testament into Albanian was indeed possible . In a letter to his superiors at the BFBS , dated August 28 , 1816 , Pinkerton wrote that the Albanian nation occupied a large part of the ancient Illyria , that they spoke a language completely different from Slavic , Turkish , Greek , or Latin , and that for the Albanian Orthodox the mass was recited in Greek , a language that believers and even some of the priests did not understand . According to Pinkerton , the translation could be done by one or more Albanians from the Ionian islands under the supervision of an Albanian bishop . In 1819 , apparently with the blessing of his superiors at the BFBS , Pinkerton met with Meksi ( referring him as Evangelos Mexicos ) in Istanbul . Meksi , who was then a teacher in Serres , had been recommended to Pinkerton because of his Albanian grammar book . Pinkerton also relates in one of his letters to the BFBS that Meksi was well regarded by the Albanian community , the Greek Orthodox Church , and by Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople . Gregory , according to Pinkerton , also offered to find two suitable clergymen to assist Meksi in his endeavor . Lastly , Pinkerton recommended that the Greek alphabet be used as the most suitable for the Albanian language . On October 19 , 1819 , Pinkerton and Meksi concluded a contract to translate the New Testament into Albanian on behalf of the society . It was agreed that the Bible would have to be translated into the Albanian dialect of Yanina . Meksi completed the work in two years , ten months earlier than the contract 's deadline . Early in 1821 Mr. Leeves of the BFBS visited Thessaloniki to supervise the translation . On February 8 , 1821 he wrote that the work had been completed , and that the only outstanding task was a final review by a competent person , who had already been assigned to the task . In 1822 the revised manuscript was sent to Malta to be printed , and in 1823 Leeves sent from Malta to the representative of the society in Corfu the first copy of a printed New Testament in Albanian . Meanwhile , the New Testament had had a final revision performed by the Archimandrite of Euboea , Grigor Gjirokastriti , an Albanian who subsequently became Archbishop Gregory IV of Athens . Archimandrite Grigor had recommended that the Bible be printed in a large typeface in two columns , one in Albanian and the other in modern Greek , because Albanians would rather read modern Greek than Koine . On March 16 , 1824 Mr. Lowndes , the BFBS 's secretary in Corfu , sent a letter to the society in which he mentioned that the sum paid to Meksi for his work was 6 @,@ 000 piastras and that Archimandrite Grigor was paid 60 crowns . On September 5 , 1824 the Saint Matthew 's Gospel was published in Albanian . According to Lowndes ' letters , the Albanian community of Missolonghi was extremely excited when mass was said with a piece from Saint Matthew , as since its translation they had been impatient to hear it in Albanian . In July 1827 the form in which the first 500 copies of the New Testament were to be bound was decided in London . The entire edition amounted to 2 @,@ 000 copies . Although Gjirokastriti 's edition of the New Testament was written in Albanian , it used the Greek alphabet . It is not known which alphabet Meksi used in his own manuscript . The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople was not against the work of Meksi or the Bible Society at that time . On the contrary , for the translation the British missionaries successfully appealed to Gregory V and enlisted the help of an Orthodox bishop , Gjirokastriti , for the final edition of the New Testament in Albanian . = = Greek War of Independence = = Meksi was a member of the Filiki Etaireia , a secret society whose purpose was to overthrow Ottoman rule over the Balkans and to establish an independent Greek state . When the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821 , after his translation had been completed , Meksi joined the Greeks in the Siege of Tripolitsa . Despite suffering from a serious bout of pneumonia , he continued to work as a physician during the war . He is also said to have taken part in the negotiations leading to an agreement proposed by Theodoros Kolokotronis that permitted the Albanians who were defending Tripolitsa to leave unharmed , an arrangement that helped the Greeks to capture the town from the Turks . = = Legacy = = Meksi did not live to see the 1827 publication of his translation of the New Testament ; he had died a bachelor six years earlier , at the age of about 51 . The first publication of a Bible translation from Greek to a modern Balkanic language , it ran to 2 @,@ 000 copies , a huge number for the time . It preceded the modern Bulgarian version by two years and the Romanian translation by twenty . A second edition was published in 1858 in Athens , but as it had not been revised by any native speakers of Albanian it was full of errors . Meksi 's work was important for the development of written Albanian , and his endeavors strengthened the conviction that a stable Albanian alphabet had to be created . His translation served as the basis for Joseph Ritter von Xylander 's studies of the Albanian language , which definitively refuted the thesis that the language had a Tatar origin . Von Xylander concluded that Albanian had an Indo @-@ European root . Two other international scholars also studied the Albanian language mainly based on Meksi 's translation of the New Testament : August Schleicher , who stated that his knowledge of the conjugation of Albanian verbs was based on Meksi 's work , and Johann Georg von Hahn an Austrian diplomat , philologist , and specialist in Albanian history , language , and culture , who translated the Bible into Gheg Albanian with the help of Kostandin Kristoforidhi .
= Paul Des Jardien = Paul Raymond " Shorty " Des Jardien ( August 24 , 1893 – March 7 , 1956 ) was an American football , baseball and basketball player . He played for the University of Chicago where he was selected as the first @-@ team All @-@ American center in both 1913 and 1914 and also pitched a no @-@ hitter for the baseball team . He later played professional baseball for the Cleveland Indians and professional football for the Cleveland Indians ( 1916 ) , Hammond Pros ( 1919 ) , Chicago Tigers ( 1920 ) and Minneapolis Marines ( 1922 ) . He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1955 . = = Early years and college = = Des Jardien was born in Coffeyville , Kansas and moved to Chicago as a child . He attended Chicago 's Wendell Phillips Academy High School before enrolling at the University of Chicago , where he played on the Chicago Maroons ' football , baseball , basketball , and track and field teams . He earned 12 varsity letters , played on Western Conference championship teams in both football and baseball , and became known as one of the best all @-@ around athletes ever produced by the University of Chicago . While attending the University of Chicago , Des Jardien was 6 feet , 5 inches tall and weighed 190 pounds ; his teammates called him " Shorty . " In baseball Des Jardien was a pitcher , but also played at first and third base . The University of Chicago Magazine wrote : " Des Jardien at third base fields well , and adds strength by his spirit . All in all , the tall young man is one of the most excellent athletes Chicago has had in years . " In May 1914 he threw a no @-@ hitters and struck out 14 Iowa Hawkeyes batters in a game . Des Jardien gained his greatest fame playing at the center position for Amos Alonzo Stagg 's Chicago Maroons football teams from 1912 to 1914 . Des Jardien played at the center position on both offense and defense , was considered " the mainstay of his team on defense , " and was also known for his ability as a long punter . During Des Jardien 's three years as Chicago 's center , the Maroons compiled a record of 17 – 3 – 1 , including an undefeated 7 – 0 record and Western Conference championship in 1913 . After his sophomore year in 1912 , Des Jardien was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ Western player . Stagg praised Des Jardien as a " spectacular " player and " as flashy a center as I have seen in many years . " In naming Des Jardien to his All @-@ Western team in 1912 , E.C. Patterson in Collier 's wrote : " Des Jardien is not great of bulk , at least not horizontally . He is tall and rangy and remarkably active . His usefulness is accentuated when it is seen that some of Coach Stagg 's forward pass tricks center around him . " In his junior and senior years of 1913 and 1914 , Des Jardien was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ American . He was also chosen by his teammates as the captain of the 1914 football team . In 1914 Walter Camp wrote about Des Jardien , calling him " [ ... ] the best center in the country — steady , reliable , absolutely dependable for his share of line work on attack , and a power on defense . " = = Professional baseball and Asian tour = = The New York Times reported in January 1915 that Des Jardien had agreed to play professional baseball for the Chicago Cubs upon graduating from the University of Chicago in June 1915 . According to the report , Des Jardien declined to sign a contract with the Cubs to avoid endangering his amateur status . The report described Des Jardien as one of the best pitchers in the Western Conference , a right @-@ hander with a good curve ball . Instead of playing Major League Baseball in the summer of 1915 , Des Jardien traveled to Asia with the University of Chicago baseball team . The team played 15 games , winning 12 , while traveling to the West Coast of the United States . It sailed from San Francisco on the SS Mongolia and arrived in Honolulu , Hawaii in early September 1915 , spending ten days there and playing games against teams from the U.S. Army and the St. Louis Athletic Club and teams made up of Chinese and Portuguese players . The team next sailed to Japan . On September 24 , 1915 , the Chicago squad played a double header in front of a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 people in Tokyo . Des Jardien pitched both games , defeating Waseda 5 – 3 and the Keio University 4 – 1 . Des Jardien hit a home run and struck out 11 batters in the game against the Keio . Des Jardien served as an assistant coach for the University of Chicago 's basketball , baseball and track teams upon returning from Japan in January 1916 . In early May 1916 Des Jardien signed to play Major League Baseball with the Cleveland Indians . Indians manager Lee Fohl said at the time , " I think I will make him a good pitcher . He already has learned to put more on his fast ball while his control is almost perfect . " He made his debut on May 20 , 1916 , pitching one inning and allowing one hit , one base on balls , and two earned runs . Des Jardien did not pitch another game in Major League Baseball . In the summer of 1917 , Des Jardien played semi @-@ professional baseball with the Mohawks in the Chicago League . = = Professional football and World War I = = In September 1916 Des Jardien was hired as the football coach at Oberlin College . With almost every veteran player missing from the football team due to a fraternity expulsion , Des Jardiens ' 1916 Oberlin team failed to win a game for the first time in the program 's history and scored only 13 points throughout the season . That year , Des Jardien also played for Peggy Parratt 's Cleveland Indians football team in their first and only season as a professional football team . Parratt built a team of all @-@ stars around Des Jardien . The Indians lost two games to Jim Thorpe 's Canton Bulldogs , played the Massillon Tigers to a scoreless tie , and closed the season with three wins against the Columbus Panhandles , Detroit Heralds and Toledo Maroons . Des Jardien also reportedly played professional football for the Canton Bulldogs and Fort Wayne Friars . During the 1916 – 17 basketball season he played professional basketball with the Pine Village , Indiana team . Des Jardien served in the United States Army during World War I. In the fall of 1917 he played on an Army football team at Fort Sheridan that included a number of former All @-@ Americans including Albert Benbrook , Ernest Allmendinger , James B. Craig and Dolly Gray . In 1918 he was placed in charge of a German prison camp in Paris . After returning from France , Des Jardien played professional football for the Hammond Pros in 1919 . In December 1919 , P.J. Parduhn , president of the Hammond football team , was arrested on a charge of issuing bogus checks , after a complaint was lodged by Des Jardien and Milt Ghee . They dropped the charges when Parduhn agreed to make good on the payment . After the end of the football season that month , Des Jardien signed to play professional basketball with the Red Crowns team from Whiting , Indiana . The Red Crowns were backed by Standard Oil and were considered the fastest team west of Buffalo . Des Jardien 's presence was expected to draw crowds from throughout the Midwest . In 1920 he played for the Chicago Tigers in the inaugural season of the National Football League , then known as the APFA . Des Jardien played in all eight games for the 1920 Tigers , including seven as the starting center . The Tigers compiled a record of 2 – 5 – 1 in 1920 and Des Jardien was selected as a second @-@ team All @-@ APFA player . In October 1922 Des Jardien signed to play semi @-@ professional football for the Ironwood Legion team from Ironwood in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . In an October 1922 game against Bessemer , Des Jardien kicked punts of 50 , 55 and 65 yards . He also appeared in one game for the Minneapolis Marines in the 1922 NFL season . = = Later years = = After retiring from athletics , Des Jardien worked as a manufacturing executive in Los Angeles . He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in July 1955 . He died at his home in Monrovia , California in 1956 from a cerebral thrombosis and was buried at the Forest Lawn Cemetery . Des Jardien was posthumously inducted into the University of Chicago Hall of Fame in 2006 . = = Head coaching record = =
= Forest raven = The forest raven ( Corvus tasmanicus , also commonly known as the Tasmanian raven ) is a passerine bird in the family Corvidae native to Tasmania and parts of southern Victoria , such as Wilsons Promontory and Portland . Populations are also found in parts of New South Wales , including Dorrigo and Armidale . Measuring 50 – 53 cm ( 20 – 21 in ) in length , it has all @-@ black plumage , beak and legs . As with the other two species of raven in Australia , its black feathers have grey bases . Adults have white irises ; younger birds have dark brown and then hazel irises with an inner blue rim . New South Wales populations are recognised as a separate subspecies C. tasmanicus boreus , but appear to be nested within the Tasmanian subspecies genetically . The forest raven lives in a wide variety of habitats in Tasmania but is restricted to more closed forest on mainland Australia . Breeding takes place in spring and summer , occurring later in Tasmania than in New South Wales . The nest is a bowl @-@ shaped structure of sticks sited high in a tree . An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder , it eats a wide variety of plant and animal material , as well as food waste from urban areas and roadkill . It has been blamed for killing lambs and poultry and raiding orchards in Tasmania , and is unprotected under Tasmanian legislation . The forest raven is sedentary , with pairs generally bonding for life and establishing permanent territories . = = Taxonomy and naming = = John Latham described the " South @-@ Seas raven " in 1781 , with loose throat feathers and found in " the Friendly Isles " in the South Seas , but did not give a binomial name . Although " the Friendly Isles " refers to Tonga , the specimen resembles what is now known as the forest raven and was collected by ships ' surgeon William Anderson on the third voyage of James Cook in January 1777 . Tasked as the expedition 's naturalist , Anderson collected many bird specimens but had died of tuberculosis in 1778 before the return home . Many collection localities were incorrect , and notes were lost or pieced together many years later . German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin gave the species the name Corvus australis in the 13th edition of Systema naturae in 1788 . Since Australia was settled by Europeans , all species of crows and ravens have been colloquially known as crows by the general population and are difficult to distinguish . In his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia , John Gould noted a single species of corvid in Australia , Corvus australis , which he called the white @-@ eyed crow . He used Gmelin 's 1788 name , which took precedence by virtue of its age over Vigors and Horsfield 's description . In 1912 Scottish naturalist William Robert Ogilvie @-@ Grant clarified the species as C. coronoides ( raven , and incorporating little and Australian ravens ) and C. cecilae ( Torresian crow ) . Subsequently , French @-@ American ornithologist Charles Vaurie acted as First Revisor under Article 24 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) Code and discarded C. australis as a junior homonym — in 1788 , Gmelin had used the same binomial name to describe the black nunbird — to preserve the stability of the name . This has been followed by later authors . Gregory Mathews described the forest raven as a distinct subspecies — Corvus marianae tasmanicus — of the Australian raven in 1912 , its species name derived from Tasmania , the type locality . Rowley raised the forest raven to species rank in 1970 , noting there were no intermediate forms between it and the little raven ( its closest relative ) and that it was clearly larger with a much more massive bill . He described a second subspecies — Corvus tasmanicus boreus — the same year , observing that C. tasmanicus from Tasmania and southern Victoria has a very short tail compared with individuals from the northern New South Wales population . Rowley gave the species name forest raven in 1970 . The term " crow " is colloquially applied to any or all species of Australian corvid . Preliminary genetic analysis of the genus using mitochondrial DNA showed the three raven species to belong to one lineage and the two crows to another , and that the two lineages are not closely related . The genetic separation between species is small and there was a suggestion the forest raven may be conspecific with the Australian raven . Subsequent multigene analysis using nuclear DNA by Jønsson and colleagues in 2012 clarified that the forest and little raven are each other 's closest relative . The northern subspecies boreus turned out to be nested in the Tasmanian tasmanicus , indicating the populations separated very recently . It is still recognised as a distinct subspecies by the International Ornithological Committee . Ian Rowley proposed that the common ancestor of the five species diverged into a tropical crow and temperate raven sometime after entering Australia from the north . The raven diverged into the ancestor of the forest and little ravens in the east and Australian raven in the west . As the climate was cooler and dryer , the aridity of central Australia split them entirely as the habitat between became inhospitable . Furthermore , the eastern diverged into nomadic little ravens and , in forested refuges , forest ravens . As the climate eventually became warmer , the western ravens spread eastwards and outcompeted forest ravens on mainland Australia , as evidenced by the forest raven being only found in closed forest refuges on the mainland but in a wider variety of habitats in Tasmania . = = Description = = The largest of the Australian corvids , the adult forest raven is 50 – 53 cm ( 20 – 21 in ) in length with a wingspan between 91 – 113 cm ( 36 – 44 in ) and weight of approximately 650 g ( 1 @.@ 43 lb ) . There is no seasonal variation in plumage , which is entirely glossy black with a blue or green sheen visible on the upperparts . The wings are long and broad , with the largest of its ten primary feathers ( usually the seventh but occasionally the eighth ) almost reaching the end of the tail when at rest . The tail is rounded or wedge @-@ shaped . It is quite short in Tasmanian populations but longer in northern New South Wales . The beak is a similar shape to that of the little raven , though more massive and heavy @-@ set . The upper mandible , including the nares and nasal groove , is covered with bristles . The mouth and tongue are black , as are the powerful legs and feet . The tibia is fully feathered and the tarsus is long . Sexes have identical plumage ; the male is generally larger , but there is considerable overlap in size between individuals . The forest raven can be distinguished from the two species of crow occurring in Australia by the grey base of the feathers , which is white in the latter species . The demarcation between pale and black regions on the feather is gradual in the ravens and sharply delineated in the crows . Feather bases are not normally visible when observing birds in the field , but can sometimes be seen on a windy day if the feathers are ruffled . The three species of raven are more heavily set with a broader chest than the two crow species , with the forest raven the stockiest of all . Relative size is only useful when two species can be seen side by side , as the overlap in size is large and the difference in size small . In Tasmania , the forest raven could be confused with the black currawong , though the latter species has more slender wings with white markings , a longer tail and a very different call . Juveniles ( birds up to a year old ) have a shorter , shallower bill , which is dark grey with some pink at the base . The gape is pink . The plumage is softer and fluffier and often has a brown tint . It generally lacks the glossy sheen of adult birds , though a blue @-@ purple sheen can be seen sometimes on mantle and shoulders plumage . Birds between one and two years old closely resemble adults but retain juvenile feathers on wings and tail and have smaller bills . Birds between two and three years have adult plumage but lack the adult eye colour . Eye colour varies with age : nestlings up to four months old have blue @-@ grey eyes , juveniles aged from four to fourteen months have brown eyes , and immature birds have hazel eyes with blue eyerings around the pupil until age two years and ten months . = = = Vocalization = = = The call is considered the most reliable means of identification in areas where the forest raven 's range overlaps with other corvids . It is a deep and husky " korr @-@ korr @-@ korr @-@ korr " with a similarly drawn out last note to the Australian raven . It can also utter a barking alarm call . The calls of juveniles have a higher pitch than those of adult birds . Mated pairs greet each other with a specific return @-@ home call ; a long extended descending call , and characteristic flapping flight with reduced @-@ amplitude wingbeats . = = Distribution and habitat = = The only member of the corvid family that has a permanent population in Tasmania , the forest raven is the most widely distributed bird species in the state . There are three populations in southern Victoria : from the vicinity of Lakes Entrance west across Gippsland to Wilsons Promontory , the Otway Ranges from 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) west of Torquay to Port Campbell , and lastly in the Grampians and Millicent Plain extending into south @-@ east South Australia . Isolated records suggest the latter two populations may actually be continuous . There are two disjunct populations in northern New South Wales . A coastal population is found from Tea Gardens north to Yuraygir National Park , while a more montane population is found along the Great Dividing Range and New England Tableland from Tenterfield and Glen Innes in the north to Gloucester Tops in the south . The gap between the two populations is around 70 km ( 43 mi ) , shrinking to 30 km ( 19 mi ) at Dorrigo . The forest raven inhabits a wide range of habitat within Tasmania such as woods , open interrupted forest , mountains , coastal areas , farmland and town and city fringes . A survey of Mount Wellington found it to be one of the few birds that remained in open and marshland habitat at higher elevations over the winter . On mainland Australia it appears to be more confined to forests : wet and dry sclerophyll forest and cool temperate rainforest , as well as pine plantations in Victoria . Populations in Victoria and New South Wales are possibly expanding , with the species more evident in towns such as Forster @-@ Tuncurry and Port Macquarie , and along segments of the Oxley Highway between Wauchope and Walcha , and Thunderbolts Way between Gloucester and Nowendoc , most likely due to roadkill from increased vehicular traffic . It is unclear whether records since the 1970s in areas where the forest raven was unknown are the result of range expansion or improved field observations and identification . Forest ravens fly from Tasmania and the mainland to islands well offshore in Bass Strait and may even traverse the strait entirely . First recorded on King Island in Bass Strait in 1979 , the forest raven has become more numerous and flocks of several hundred birds were recorded by 1997 . The island was previously inhabited by little ravens . = = = Conservation = = = Its large range and abundance means the bird is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List ; some decrease has been noted but it is of insufficient size or duration to change classification . The populations of northern New South Wales have been classified as Near Threatened in 2000 by Garnett and Crowley and were estimated at the time to number about 10 @,@ 000 breeding pairs . = = Behaviour = = Sedentary and territorial , the forest raven is similar in breeding and feeding habits to the Australian raven . A single breeding pair and their brood occupy a territory of variable size — areas of 40 to 400 ha ( 99 to 988 acres ) have been recorded — and remains there year @-@ round , though groups of ravens may enter this area to forage . In northern New South Wales , forest ravens have been recorded nesting near Australian ravens and Torresian crows . They were observed warding off the Australian ravens but to a degree permitting the crows to pass through their territories . Forest ravens will defend their territory by chasing and mobbing intruding birds of prey as large as wedge @-@ tailed eagles and white @-@ bellied sea eagles . Agonistic displays to ward off potential intruders include flying to a high perch and calling loudly with head extended and hackles raised . Forest ravens will give their wings a flick on the upward wingbeat when flying to the perch and may continue flicking their wings after landing . Subadult and nonbreeding forest ravens form flocks that move around , though they may use the same roosting site for a few months at a time . Forest ravens generally walk when moving around on the ground , though do hop when hurrying , such as when trying to avoid an oncoming car on a road . = = = Feeding = = = The forest raven is an omnivore , though it eats more meat than smaller corvids . Its diet includes a wide range of foods such as insects , carrion , fruit , grain and earthworms . It has been known to attack and eat birds as large as the little penguin , though many birds and mammals are already dead when encountered . In general , a significant proportion of its food appears to come from habitats in or near water . Forest ravens observed on the beach at Wilson 's Promontory would glean the sand and turn over or disturb pieces of seaweed and debris for insect prey . They have also been reported taking crabs from sandbars and raiding seabird colonies for eggs and young . Forest ravens forage in pairs or groups of up to ten birds , though they may gather in much larger numbers if there is an abundant food source , such as a large carcass , rubbish or insect swarm . The species is attracted to areas where people have discarded excess food , such as rubbish tips , picnic grounds , parks , gardens and roads . Forest ravens sometimes forage in mixed @-@ species flocks with Torresian crows , little and Australian ravens . In these situations , the more abundant species may exclude the less abundant . In Tasmania , forest ravens have been recorded foraging with Pacific and silver gulls , and black currawongs . Foraging takes place in the early morning or late afternoon ; birds rest in the hotter part of the day . Food is taken mainly from the ground , birds either finding objects while walking along and looking , and turning over objects with their bills as they go . Forest ravens often fly 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) above the ground over marshland , heath or beaches looking for food . Nests of various birds , including domestic chickens and burrowing seabirds have been raided for eggs and young . Forest ravens have been observed attempting to raid the nest of ospreys on the New South Wales north coast . Forest ravens cache food items for later consumption , generally using trees to evade other scavengers . Field observations in Nambucca showed that they built stick @-@ like platforms 30 – 40 cm ( 12 – 16 in ) in diameter high in the canopies of trees as places to store and eat food . They were recorded storing food in tree forks 10 – 20 m ( 33 – 66 ft ) above the ground and within the folds of the bark of paperbark trees . In another field study , a forest raven stole a cape barren goose egg and hid it in a grassy tussock to consume later . Alongside Australian ravens , forest ravens have been blamed for damaging orchards and killing lambs and poultry . This is not supported by fieldwork . They most often scavenge for afterbirth and newborn lamb faeces , which are highly nutritious . They are thought to have a beneficial role in cleaning up carcasses and consuming insect pests . Forest ravens prey on the larvae of the pasture beetle Scitala sericans . The beetle can damage pastures and is an agricultural pest ; the raven may uproot plants when digging out the grubs . = = = Breeding = = = Forest ravens breed after at least three years , and form monogamous pairs . Birds breed later in Tasmania than mainland Australia , though the species has been little @-@ studied . Eggs have been recorded from July to September and nestlings in September and October in New South Wales , while nestlings have been noted from September to December in Victoria . In Tasmania , the breeding season appears to take place from August to January . Forest ravens generally nest in forks in tall trees , usually eucalypts , below the canopy line . They have been recorded nesting on the ground on some Bass Strait Islands . Breeding success rates were impacted severely by droughts in New South Wales . The nest is a bowl @-@ shaped structure of twigs lined with available materials such as leaves , wool , grass , bark , feathers , or occasionally horse manure or hair from cattle . The sticks are generally 4 – 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 55 in ) thick . Nests are sometimes renovated from previous years . A clutch can comprise up to six eggs , though usually four or five are laid . Measuring 45 by 31 mm ( 1 3 ⁄ 4 × 1 1 ⁄ 4 in ) , eggs are green @-@ cream and splotched with brown and grey markings . Eggs are laid every one to two days . Eggs are quite variable , and thus which Australian corvid laid them cannot be reliably identified . Incubation of the eggs is done solely by the female . The chicks are altricial and nidicolous ; that is , they are born helpless , naked and blind , and remain in the nest for an extended period . Both parents feed the young . = = = Parasites = = = The mite Knemidocoptes intermedius has been isolated from the forest raven . Infestation results in crusty ( hyperkeratotic ) grey lesions around their tibiotarsal joints , the mites living in tunnels under the skin . The channel @-@ billed cuckoo ( Scythrops novaehollandiae ) has been recorded as a brood parasite . = = Relationship with humans = = Like the Australian raven on mainland Australia , the Forest raven in Tasmania has a history of being shot or poisoned — generally by farmers as it is perceived to be a threat to livestock and orchard crops . It is not protected under Tasmania 's Nature Conservation Act 2002 and no permit is required if landowners seek to kill them . Larger numbers of forest ravens ( alongside swamp harriers and brown falcons ) were killed in 1958 as rabbit populations dwindled due to myxomatosis and predatory birds were thought to have turned their attention to poultry and livestock . Studies on corvids elsewhere in Australia showed that the killing of healthy lambs was rare , but that sick animals were predisposed to being attacked , and hence their poor reputation was unjustified . Forest ravens may do more good than harm by preying on insects and removing carrion . Despite their fondness for roadkill , forest ravens are rarely hit by vehicles .
= ToeJam & Earl III : Mission to Earth = ToeJam & Earl III : Mission to Earth is an action video game released for the Xbox on October 23 , 2002 . Developed by ToeJam & Earl Productions and Visual Concepts , and published by Sega and Microsoft , it is the third installment in the ToeJam & Earl series . Players assume the role of one of three extraterrestrial protagonists : ToeJam and Earl , who starred in the series ' first two games , and Latisha , a new character . While using power @-@ ups to combat enemies , players seek to collect the twelve " Sacred Albums of Funk " and defeat the antagonistic " Anti @-@ Funk " . The original two ToeJam & Earl games were a key Sega Genesis franchise , but development of a third game was prevented by the poor North American commercial performance of the console 's successor , the Sega Saturn . Versions of ToeJam & Earl III developed at different times for the Nintendo 64 and Dreamcast were canceled , but the latter was completed for the Xbox . On release , the game met with poor sales and mixed reviews ; while certain critics found its gameplay innovative , its humor , soundtrack and graphics were variously praised and derided . Opinions of the game 's overall enjoyability and longevity were also mixed . = = Synopsis = = ToeJam & Earl III follows the extraterrestrial protagonists ToeJam and Earl , who starred in the series ' previous games , and a new female character named Latisha . ToeJam is three @-@ legged and red ; Earl is overweight and orange . Both characters have been considered parodies of American hip @-@ hop and urban culture . Latisha has been variously described as " feisty " and " brimming with attitude " by critics . The three characters journey to Earth , in order to retrieve the stolen twelve Sacred Albums of Funk and return them to Lamont the Funkopotamus . Levels take place on terrains that represent Earth 's ecosystems . The game 's ultimate antagonist is the Anti @-@ Funk , whose defeat will " save the world from all that is unfunky " . The " funk " has been described as a parody of Star Wars ' the Force , with the Anti @-@ Funk being the dark side . = = Gameplay = = The game has been called both a platform game and an action @-@ adventure game . GameSpot asserts that it combines elements of ToeJam & Earl and its platformer sequel , ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron , while GameNOW and Electronic Gaming Monthly liken it to the former game . The game features both single- and two @-@ player modes ; in both , players control one of the three protagonists . ToeJam moves quickly and jumps high , but has weak attacks ; Earl is tougher and has more powerful attacks , but is slow and jumps lower than ToeJam ; Latisha ranks between the two in terms of athleticism , and gains additional power @-@ ups later in the game . In the game 's two @-@ player mode , the camera moves between single and split @-@ screen as players maneuver their characters away from each other . Characters can share power @-@ ups when in close proximity . The game 's randomly generated levels are connected together by hubs . Additional levels can be downloaded from Xbox Live . Level exploration is based around collecting items : the player searches for the Sacred Albums of Funk , and for keys that grant access to more levels . Enemies include rabbit ninja , a " demented chicken " , and " psycho cheerleaders " , which the player combats with Funk @-@ Fu and Funk Notes . Funk Notes are projectiles that render enemies " funkified " , or harmless ; more powerful than Funk @-@ Fu , they require the player to gather ammunition . The player may also find wrapped presents , which contain power @-@ ups such as rocket skates , spring shoes and food ; these variously grant greater defensive abilities , access to certain areas , and additional health . Another power @-@ up involves a simple rhythm game , and leaves nearby enemies " funkified " if the player successfully copies on @-@ screen rhythms . = = Development = = ToeJam & Earl and its sequel ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkatron together formed one of the Mega Drive 's main series . However , creator Greg Johnson said that installments for the console 's Mega @-@ CD or 32X add @-@ ons were never planned , and though rumors of a new game persisted throughout the commercial life of the Sega Saturn console , that system 's poor performance in North America prevented development of a sequel . Johnson and programmer Mark Voorsanger regained the rights to ToeJam and Earl in 1995 , and in November 1998 made an agreement with GT Interactive to publish a new game in the franchise for the Nintendo 64 . Johnson and Voorsanger conducted research to determine whether series fans preferred the original ToeJam & Earl or its sequel ; the former emerged as the clear favorite . In April 1999 , however , it was reported that the deal with GT Interactive had fallen through ; the publisher had decided that the series ' previous game was not an encouraging success commercially , particularly in Europe . GT Interactive 's restructuring and the Nintendo 64 's declining commercial performance were also believed to be factors by commentators . It was reported the following month that the developer was planning to create the game for Sony 's PlayStation 2 , perhaps to coincide with the console 's release . Ultimately , however , the developer became involved with Sega 's Dreamcast through Visual Concepts — a Sega developer in charge of third @-@ party game development . Johnson and Voorsanger began development of the third game with the intention to re @-@ make ToeJam & Earl ; according to Johnson , the game would include the same elements as the first game , but with improved graphics . However , this notion was curtailed by Visual Concepts , who felt that the result would be too old @-@ fashioned , and too niche in appeal . Johnson later said that he was unsure , at the time , whether to cater to fans who wanted a remake of the original or attempt to capture a new audience . Visual Concepts assisted with the development process , as ToeJam & Earl Productions was struggling with the game 's technical demands . Johnson and Voorsanger indicated the development of a new character with the game 's working title , " ToeJam , Earl , and Latisha " . Lisa Lopes was nearly signed to provide Latisha 's voice acting , but disagreements over fees caused the deal to fail . Actress Sherrie Jackson provided the character 's voice instead . The game was previewed at E3 in 2001 , but Sega subsequently ceased its support of the Dreamcast due to poor commercial performance . Once again , Johnson 's preferred format was the PlayStation 2 or Nintendo GameCube , but the developer ultimately ported the game to Microsoft 's Xbox because of its technical simplicity , as well as free advertising offered to Sega by Microsoft . Promotional copies of the game portrayed the Anti @-@ Funk as a disembodied head reminiscent of a Ku Klux Klan mask — an anti @-@ racism statement , according to Johnson . Sega vetoed this , however , and the character was changed to a skull design for the game 's retail release . In September 2013 an unreleased Dreamcast version of ToeJam & Earl III : Mission to Earth was found on a Katana Development Kit . Sega was asked to approve its release , but no response was ever received . The creators of this series , Greg Johnson and Mark Voorsanger , agreed to a community release . The prototype is now available for downloading online . = = Reception = = According to GamaSutra , ToeJam & Earl III was met with mixed to positive reviews , while IGN asserts that the game was " thrashed soundly by critics " . Computer and Video Games lauded its " superb sense of humour and the kind of offbeat gameplay that shows up every other identikit shooter , stealth ' em up and extreme sports title as imagination @-@ devoid shams . " PC World praised the game 's " laugh out loud " humor , and acclaimed the two @-@ player mode as " damned good fun " . GameNOW and Electronic Gaming Monthly praised the game 's power @-@ ups , whose strategic element the former enjoyed , and two @-@ player mode . However , GameNOW derided the game 's hip @-@ hop dialogue , and Electronic Gaming Monthly found it repetitive ; the latter also believed that Latisha was an unnecessary addition . Game Informer found the hip @-@ hop theme to be embarrassingly dated , and likened the game to In Living Color and The Fresh Prince of Bel Air . The reviewer also believed that its randomly generated levels necessitated " simple and arbitrary " mission goals . EuroGamer praised the game 's graphics , camera angles and mini @-@ games , but complained about unfair enemies , annoying character accents and an arbitrary mix of musical genres . The reviewer believed that " [ the game , ] in the final analysis [ , ] is just not good enough to warrant spending £ 40 . " IGN gave it a " passable " verdict : the reviewer felt that the game 's brief initial appeal quickly gave way to repetition . He had a mixed opinion of its graphics , with praise given to the character animations , but criticism to perceived poor draw distance . GameSpot deemed the game " mediocre " . The reviewer noted that " the humor almost always falls flat " , and that " ToeJam 's speech [ ... ] is filled with stupid double entendres " . The website found the soundtrack to be dated , and called the game 's audio " a serious disappointment " . The Guardian praised the originality of the characters , and the " crisply defined textures and realistic lighting " ; the paper deemed the game " a treat for the eyes " . However , the reviewers decided that the game was merely average overall , and noted its limited longevity . The Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal wrote of the game : " It 's all right , but probably most useful for certain parents to force on kids . " The Sydney Morning Herald described the game as " an average platform game that masks its conventional gameplay with over @-@ stimulating graphics " . The Daily Mirror called it " anarchic , fun , hilarious and very cool " . Entertainment Weekly wrote that " TJ & E is fun -- but forgettable fun . Still , its promise of downloadable content , and sheer silliness , brings some whimsy to the funk @-@ starved Xbox . "
= Hymns for the Amusement of Children = Hymns for the Amusement of Children ( 1771 ) was the final work completed by English poet Christopher Smart . It was completed while Smart was imprisoned for outstanding debt at the King 's Bench Prison , and the work is his final exploration of religion . Although Smart spent a large portion of his life in and out of debt , he was unable to survive his time in the prison and died soon after completing the Hymns . Smart 's Hymns are one of the first works of hymns dedicated to children , and they are intended to teach Christian virtues . Unlike some of the other works produced by Smart after his release from a mental asylum , such as A Song to David or Hymns and Spiritual Songs , this work was a success and went into many immediate editions . Part of the success of this work lies in the simplicity and accessibility of the text . However , Smart died before he ever saw the proceeds of the work and never learned of the book 's success . = = Background = = Smart was released from asylum in 1763 and published two religious works , A Song to David and Hymn and Spiritual Songs , soon after . These were quickly attacked by critics that declared Smart was still " mad " and subsequently failed to become popular . Smart continued to work on religious works as he struggled to publish and support himself . However , he quickly fell into debt and , on 20 April 1770 , he was arrested and sent to Debtors ' prison . On January 11 , 1771 , he was recommended to the King 's Bench Prison . Although he was in prison , Charles Burney purchased the " Rules " ( allowing him some freedom ) in order to help make Smart 's final weeks peaceful although pathetic . In his final letter , written to Rev. Mr. Jackson , Smart begged for three shillings in order to purchase food . Soon after , Smart died , May 20 , 1771 , from either liver failure or pneumonia , after completing his final work , Hymns , for the Amusement of Children . It is unknown how many poems published in the Hymns were written before Smart was imprisoned or during his final days , but at least one , titled " Against Despair " was produced during this time . A different version of the poem was published after his death in the Gentleman 's Magazine . This version included a note claiming , " Extempore by the late C. Smart , in the King 's @-@ Bench , " which verifies that he was writing hymns throughout this time , or , at least , editing them to create a better version . Although five editions of the Hymns were published in the 18th century , only one edition was published before Smart died . This edition was published by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Thomas Carnan , and was announced in the Public Advertiser 27 December 1770 . However , this edition did not list Smart as the author . It is possible that there was a sixth edition of the Hymns , but that has since " disappeared " ; there is also a possible pirated edition produced by Thomas Walker . Although the work made it as far as Boston , Massachusetts , as shown by an advertisement for selling the work in 1795 , no Boston editions have been found , but such editions could exist in addition to the Philadelphia , Pennsylvania edition . Smart 's first children 's hymn was " A Morning Hymn , for all the little good boys and girls " in the Lilliputian Magazine in 1751 . During this time , there were only two models for him to base his children 's hymns on : the works of Isaac Watts and of Charles Wesley . Watts 's work attempted to amuse children while Wesley 's attempted to simplify morality for them . It is possible that Smart 's Hymns were not modelled on Watts 's or Wesley 's actual hymns or songs , but instead after a note in Watts 's work the Divine Songs which says : A Slight Specimen of Moral Songs , such as I wish some happy and condescending genius would undertake for the use of children , and perform much better ... The sense and subjects might be borrow 'd plentifully from the Proverbs of Solomon , from all the common appearances of nature , from all the occurrences in the civil life , both in city and country : ( which would also afford matter for other Divine Songs . ) Here the language and measures should be easy and flowing with chearfulness , and without the solemnities of religion , or the sacred names of God and holy things ; that children might find delight and profit together . The work was dedicated " to his Royal Highness Prince Frederick , Bishop of Osnabrug , these hymns , composed for his amusement , are , with all due Submission and Respect , humbly inscribed to him , as the best of Bishops , by his Royal Highness 's Most Obedient and Devoted Servant , Christopher Smart . " Although the prince , the second son of King George III , was only seven at the time , Smart was given special permission to dedicate the work to the boy through the intervention with the royal family by either Richard Dalton or the King 's Chaplain , William Mason . = = Hymns for the Amusement of Children = = In essence , the Hymns for the Amusement of Children is intended to teach children the specific virtues that make up the subject matter of the work . While trying to accomplish this goal , Smart emphasizes the joy of creation and Christ 's sacrifice that allowed for future salvation . However , he didn 't just try to spread joy , but structured his poems to treat valuable lessons about morality ; his subjects begin with the three Theological Virtues ( Faith , Hope , and Charity ) , then the four Cardinal Virtues ( Prudence , Justice , Temperance , and Fortitude ) and adds Mercy . The next six hymns deal with Christian duties and are followed by ten hymns on the Gospels . The final works introduce the miscellaneous Christian virtues that were necessary to complete Christopher 's original self @-@ proclaimed " plan to make good girls and boys . " All but three of the hymns were provided with a corresponding woodblock illustration . The original illustrations either represented the scene of the hymn or a symbolic representation of the hymn . However , later editions of the work sometimes included illustrations that did not match the corresponding hymn , which was the fault of " a general deterioration of standards in book production " . With such possibilities , it is hard to justify an exact relationship between any particular hymn and illustration . There are thirty @-@ nine hymns included in Hymns for the Amusement of Children : = = = Mirth = = = Besides the hymns that are " expected " in a book of hymns , Arthur Sherbo points out that the collection contains hymns " on learning and on ' good @-@ nature to animals ' . " In particular , he emphasizes Hymn XXV " Mirth " as " showing anew the love for flowers that is a recurring characteristic of his poetry " as it reads : If you are merry sing away , And touch the organs sweet ; This is the Lord 's triumphant day , Ye children in the gall 'ries gay , Shout from each goodly seat . It shall be May to @-@ morrow 's morn , A field then let us run , And deck us in the blooming thorn , Soon as the cock begins to warn , And long before the sun . I give the praise to Christ alone , My pinks already shew ; And my streak 'd roses fully blown , The sweetness of the Lord make known , And to his glory grow . To Sherbo , this poem is " a good example of the artless quality " of the whole collection of Hymns . = = = Long @-@ Suffering of God = = = According to Moira Dearnley , Hymn XXIX " Long @-@ Suffering of God " is " one of the more pathetic poems in Hymns for the Amusement of Children . " As a poem , it " restates Smart 's certainty that the long @-@ suffering God will eventually bestow his grace upon the barren human soul " as it reads : Thus man goes on from year to year , And bears no fruit at all ; But gracious God , still unsevere , Bids show 'rs of blessing fall . The beams of mercy , dews of grace , Our Saviour still supplies- Ha ! ha ! the soul regains her place , And sweetens all the skies . This final poem fittingly ends in " manic exultation " and shows " that for Smart , presentiments of the grace and mercy of God were inseparable from madness . " = = = The Conclusion of the Matter = = = Smart 's final poem of the work , XXXIX " The Conclusion of the Matter " , demonstrates to Neil Curry that the " joy and optimism of [ Smart ] are unwavering . " Smart " does not look back , he looks forward and the sequence ends on a note of triumph " as it reads : Fear God - obey his just decrees , And do it hand , and heart , and knees ; For after all our utmost care There 's nought like penitence and prayer . Then weigh the balance in your mind , Look forward , not one glance behind ; Let no foul fiend retard your pace , Hosanna ! Thou hast won the race . However , as Curry claims , " in this world Smart himself had won nothing . " Instead , Curry believes what Christopher Hunter stated about his uncle : " I trust he is now at peace ; it was not his portion here . " = = Critical response = = Although he wrote his second set of hymns , Hymns for the Amusement of Children , for a younger audience , Smart cares more about emphasizing the need for children to be moral instead of " innocent " . These works have been seen as possibly too complicated for " amusement " because they employ ambiguities and complicated theological concepts . In particular , Mark Booth questions " why , in this carefully polished writing .... are the lines sometimes relatively hard to read for their paraphrasable sense ? " Arthur Sherbo disagreed with this sentiment strongly and claims the Hymns " are more than mere hack work , tossed off with speed and indifference . They were written when Smart was in prison and despairing of rescue . Into these poems , some of them of a bare simplicity and naiveté that have few equals in literature of merit anywhere ... " However , he does admit some of the argument when he claims that " Generosity " , along with a handful other hymns , was " not so simple and surely proved too much for the children for whom they were bought . " Not all critics agree that the work is too complex for children , and some , like Marcus Walsh and Karina Williamson , view that the works would have fit the appropriate level for children in the 18th century , especially with the short length of each hymn and a small illustration of the scene proceeding each one . This is not to say that the works are " simple " , because many words are complex , but , as Donald Davie explains , there is a " naiveté " in the work that allow them to be understood . In particular , Moira Dearnley claims that the hymns contain a " high @-@ spirited delight in the day @-@ to @-@ day life of children , the joy that characterizes the best the Hymns for the Amusement of Children . "
= Armament of the Iowa @-@ class battleship = The armament of the Iowa @-@ class battleships underwent a massive development since the first Iowa @-@ class ship was laid down in June 1940 . Owing to the continual development of the weaponry aboard these battleships they remain the most heavily armed gunships the United States has ever put to sea . In their World War II configuration , each of the Iowa @-@ class battleships had a main battery of 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns that could hit targets nearly 20 statute miles ( 32 km ) away with a variety of artillery shells designed for anti @-@ ship or bombardment work . The secondary battery of 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns could hit targets nearly 9 statute miles ( 14 km ) away with solid projectiles or proximity fuzed shells , and were equally adept in an anti @-@ aircraft role and for damaging smaller ships . Each of the four battleships carried a wide array of 20 mm and 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns for defense against enemy aircraft . When reactivated and modernized in the 1980s each battleship retained the original battery of nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns , but the secondary battery on each battleship was reduced from ten twin @-@ gun mounts and twenty guns to six twin @-@ gun mounts with 12 guns to allow for the installation of two platforms for the Tomahawk missiles . Each battleship also received four Harpoon missile magazines , Phalanx anti @-@ aircraft / anti @-@ missile Gatling gun systems , and electronic warfare suites . When required ( duty in the Persian Gulf in particular ) up to twelve single mount M2 Browning 50 caliber machine guns and four 35 mm Bushmaster cannon were installed to provide close range defense against small surface craft . = = Main battery = = = = = Turrets = = = The primary armament of an Iowa @-@ class battleship consisted of nine breech @-@ loading 16 inch ( 406 mm ) / 50 @-@ caliber Mark 7 naval guns , which were housed in three 3 @-@ gun turrets : two forward and one aft in a configuration known as " 2 @-@ A @-@ 1 " . The guns were 66 feet ( 20 m ) long ( 50 times their 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) bore , or 50 calibers , from breechface to muzzle ) . About 43 feet ( 13 m ) protruded from the gun house . Each gun weighed about 239 @,@ 000 pounds ( 108 000 kg ) without the breech , or 267 @,@ 900 pounds with the breech . They fired projectiles weighing from 1 @,@ 900 to 2 @,@ 700 pounds ( 860 to 1 @,@ 220 kg ) at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 690 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) ( 1834 @.@ 1 mph ) to a maximum range of 42 @,@ 345 yards ( 38 @,@ 720 m ) ( 24 @.@ 06 mi ) using an armor @-@ piercing shell . Each gun rested within an armored turret , but only the top of the turret protruded above the main deck . The turret extended either four decks ( Turrets 1 and 3 ) or five decks ( Turret 2 ) down . The lower spaces contained the equipment required to rotate the turret and to elevate the guns attached to each turret . At the bottom of the turret were rooms which were used for handling the projectiles and storing the powder bags used to fire them . All of the compartments within the turrets were separated by flameproof bulkheads to prevent any flame or lethal gas from spreading throughout the turret . Each turret required a crew of 77 — 94 men to operate . The turrets were not actually attached to the ship , but sat on rollers , which meant that if the ship were to capsize the turrets would fall out . Each turret cost US $ 1 @.@ 4 million , but this number did not include the cost of the guns themselves . The turrets were " three @-@ gun , " not " triple , " because each barrel could be elevated and fired independently . The ship could fire any combination of its guns , including a broadside of all nine . The guns could be elevated from − 5 ° to + 45 ° , moving at up to 12 ° per second . The turrets could be rotated about 300 ° at a rate of about four degrees per second and can even be fired back beyond the beam , which is sometimes called " over the shoulder . " The guns were never fired horizontally forward ( in the 1980s refit , a satellite up @-@ link antenna was mounted at the bow ) . To distinguish between the rounds fired from different battleships the Iowa class used dye bags which allowed artillery observers to determine which rounds had been fired by which ship . Iowa , New Jersey , Missouri , and Wisconsin were assigned the colors orange , blue , red and green , respectively . Within each turret , a red stripe on the interior wall , inches from the railing , marked the boundary of the barrel 's recoil , warning the crew to keep back . When brought into service during World War II the guns had a barrel life of roughly 290 rounds , limited in large part by the Nitrated @-@ Cellulose ( NC ) propellant . After World War II the Navy switched to smokeless Powder Diphenylamine ( SPD ) , a cooler @-@ burning propellant , which increased the barrel life from 290 to about 350 rounds . This was increased further by the introduction of a titanium dioxide and wax compound known as " Swedish Additive " on New Jersey for her tour in Vietnam , and later used on all four Iowa 's when they were reactivated in the 1980s . These measures were further augmented by the addition of polyurethane jackets , which were placed over the powder bags to reduce gaseous erosion during the firing of the guns . These measures greatly prolonged barrel life , and ultimately resulted in a shift from measuring barrel life in Equivalent Service Rounds ( ESR ) to measuring barrel life in Fatigue Equivalent Rounds ( FER ) . After the guns were fired , each rifle barrel had to be cleaned . Unlike small caliber guns which can be field @-@ stripped , the guns aboard an Iowa @-@ class battleship could not be disassembled , so the gunners mates assigned the job of cleaning the rifles required a full day or more to ensure that the barrels were correctly and adequately cleaned . To clean the rifles , a bore brush was lifted by two sailors and inserted into the gun barrel , where it was pulled through the rifle with the same equipment used to load the shells . Within the turret , crewmen checked to ensure that the breech fittings were properly cleaned and lubricated , while sailors outside the turret scraped off soot , and painted over flash burns left from the explosive expulsion of the 16 @-@ inch shells from the gun barrels . = = = Fire control = = = The early main battery fire control consisted of the Fire Control Tower , two Mark 38 Gun Fire Control Systems ( GFCS ) , and fire control equipment located in two of the three turrets . As modernized in the 1980s , each turret carried a DR @-@ 810 radar that measured the muzzle velocity of each gun , which made it easier to predict the velocity of succeeding shots . Together with the Mark 160 FCS and better propellant consistency , the improvements created the most accurate battleship @-@ caliber guns ever made . = = = = Fire control tower = = = = The fire control tower ( pictured ) was the Gunnery Officer 's heavily armored battle station , and it was accessible to the Captain 's heavily armored battle station , the Battle Bridge . It was equipped with periscopes poking through the armor , and control consoles showing the status of the ship 's weapons ( director bearings , turret bearings , gun 's loaded status , Fire Control ( FC ) Radar displays , ... ) . With the radar 's displays , the Gunnery Officer could determine what Spots ( aim corrections ) were needed by watching the fall of shot around the target . = = = = Mark 38 gun fire control system = = = = The major components of the Mk38 Gun Fire Control System ( GFCS ) were the Director , Plotting Room , and interconnecting data transmission equipment . Two systems , forward and aft , were each complete and independent . Their plotting rooms were isolated to protect against battle damage propagating from one to the other . = = = = = Director = = = = = The forward Mk38 Director ( pictured ) was situated on top of the fire control tower . The director was equipped with optical sights , optical Mark 45 Rangefinder ( the long thin boxes sticking out each side ) , and a Mark 13 Fire Control Radar antenna ( the rectangular shape sitting on top ) . The purpose of the director was to track the target 's present bearing and range . This could be done optically by the men inside using the sights and Rangefinder , or electronically with the radar . ( The FC radar was the preferred method . ) The present position of the target was called the Line @-@ Of @-@ Sight ( LOS ) , and it was continuously sent down to the Mk 8 Rangekeeper in the plotting room by Synchro transmitters . Also , when not using the radar 's display to determine Spots , the director was the optical spotting station . = = = = = Plotting room = = = = = The forward main battery plotting room was located below the waterline and inside the armored belt . It housed the forward system 's Mark 8 Rangekeeper , Mark 41 Stable Vertical , Mk13 FC Radar controls and displays , Parallax Correctors , Fire Control Switchboard , battle telephone switchboard , battery status indicators , assistant Gunnery Officers , and Fire Control Technicians ( FTs ) . The Mk8 Rangekeeper was an electromechanical analog computer whose function was to continuously calculate the gun 's bearing and elevation , Line @-@ Of @-@ Fire ( LOF ) , to hit a future position of the target . It did this by automatically receiving information from the director ( LOS ) , the FC Radar ( range ) , the ship 's gyrocompass ( true ship 's course ) , the ship 's Pitometer log ( ship 's speed ) , the Stable Vertical ( ship 's roll and pitch ) , and the ship 's anemometer ( relative wind speed and direction ) . Also , before the surface action started , the FTs made manual inputs for the average initial velocity of the projectiles fired out of the battery 's gun barrels , and air density . With all this information , the Rangekeeper calculated the relative motion between the ship and the target . It then could calculate an offset angle and change of range between the target 's present position ( LOS ) and future position at the end of the projectile 's time of flight . To this bearing and range offset , it added corrections for gravity , wind , Magnus Effect of the spinning projectile , earth 's curvature , and coriolis effect . The result was the turret 's bearing and elevation orders ( LOF ) . During the surface action , range and deflection Spots and target altitude ( not zero during Gun Fire Support ) were manually entered . The Mk 41 Stable Vertical ( also called Gun Director ) was a vertical seeking gyroscope . Its function was to establish and maintain a stable earth vertical with its associated horizontal plane . With the horizontal plane established , the Mk 41 continuously measured the angles between the deck and the horizontal plane . These deck angles were continuously transmitted to the Rangekeeper so that it could keep the guns correctly elevated as the ship rolled and pitched . Mounted waist high on its side were the battery 's firing keys . ( see picture ) The left key was the Salvo Signal Key , and it sounded the Salvo Buzzer in each of the turrets to warn the gun crews that the guns were about to fire . The center key ( with bumps on its handle for tactile identification ) was the Automatic Firing Key . When this key was held closed , the Mk 41 was enabled to automatically fire the guns whenever the ship 's deck was parallel the horizontal plane . Also , if the sea state was such that the turrets ' elevation power drives could not keep up with the ship 's motion , the guns could be held at a fixed elevation , and the MK 41 could again automatically fire the guns as described . The right key was the Hand Firing Key . It bypassed the Mk 41 , and fired the guns directly . The Mk 13 FC Radar supplied present target range , and it showed the fall of shot around the target so the Gunnery Officer could correct the system 's aim with range and deflection spots put into the Rangekeeper . It could also automatically track the target by controlling the director 's bearing power drive . Because of radar , Fire Control systems are able to track and fire at targets at a greater range and with increased accuracy during the day , night , or inclement weather . This was demonstrated in November 1942 when the battleship USS Washington engaged the Imperial Japanese Navy battlecruiser Kirishima at a range of 18 @,@ 500 yards ( 16 @,@ 900 m ) at night . The engagement left Kirishima in flames , and she was ultimately scuttled by her crew . This capability gave the United States Navy a major advantage in World War II , as the Japanese did not develop radar or automated fire control to the level of the US Navy and were at a significant disadvantage . See also The Battle of Surigao Strait ( 25 October 1944 ) during the WWII Leyte Gulf landings . The Parallax Correctors were needed because the turrets were located hundreds of feet from the director . There was one for each turret , and each had the turret / director distance manually set in . They automatically received Relative Target Bearing ( bearing from own ship 's bow ) , and Target Range . They corrected the bearing order for each turret so that all rounds fired in a salvo converged on the same point . The Fire Control Switchboard configured the battery . With it , the Gunnery Officer could mix and match the three turrets to the two GFCSs . He could have the turrets all controlled by the forward system , all controlled by the aft system , or split the battery to shoot at two targets . The assistant Gunnery Officers and Fire Control Technicians operated the equipment , talked to the turrets and ship 's command by sound @-@ powered telephone , and watched the Rangekeeper 's dials and system status indicators for problems . If a problem arose , they could correct the problem , or reconfigure the system to mitigate its effect . = = = = Turret fire control systems = = = = Turrets 2 & 3 had optical rangefinders and ballistics computers . ( The rangefinders are the boxes on the turret 's rear corners ) . If in a surface action the GFCSs were damaged , the Turret Officer could turn the Auto @-@ Local rotary switch to Local and continue the action using the turret 's fire control equipment . = = = Ammunition = = = The large caliber guns were designed to fire two different 16 @-@ inch shells : an armor @-@ piercing round for anti @-@ ship and anti @-@ structure work and a high explosive round designed for use against unarmored targets and shore bombardment . A third type of ammunition for delivering tactical nuclear warheads was developed subsequently . The Mk . 8 APC ( Armor @-@ Piercing , Capped ) shell weighed 2 @,@ 700 lb ( 1225 kg ) and was designed to penetrate the hardened steel armor carried by foreign battleships . At 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 km ) the Mk . 8 could penetrate 20 inches ( 500 mm ) of steel armor plate . At the same range , the Mk . 8 could penetrate 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) of reinforced concrete . For unarmored targets and shore bombardment , the 1 @,@ 900 lb ( 862 kg ) Mk . 13 HC ( High @-@ Capacity — referring to the large bursting charge ) shell was available . The Mk . 13 shell would create a crater 50 feet ( 15 m ) wide and 20 feet ( 6 m ) deep upon impact and detonation , and could defoliate trees 400 yards ( 360 m ) from the point of impact . The final type of ammunition developed for the Iowa class were " Katie " shells . These shells were born from the concept of nuclear deterrence that had begun to shape the United States armed forces as the Cold War began . To compete with the Air Force and the Army , which had developed nuclear bombs and nuclear shells for use on the battlefield , the US Navy began a top @-@ secret program to develop Mk . 23 nuclear naval shells with an estimated yield of 15 to 20 kilotons . These shells were designed to be launched from the best seaborne artillery platform available , which at the time were the four ships of the Iowa class . The shells entered development around 1953 , and were reportedly ready by 1956 ; however , it is not known whether they were ever actually deployed on the Iowa @-@ class battleships because the US Navy does not confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weapons aboard its ships . In 1991 the US unilaterally withdrew its nuclear artillery shells from service , and Russia responded in kind in 1992 . The US removed around 1 @,@ 300 nuclear shells from Europe and reportedly dismantled its last shells by 2003 . = = Secondary battery = = The secondary battery was a dual @-@ purpose weapon system ; it was designed to defend the ship from either surface or airborne threats . The original secondary battery consisted of 10 Mark 28 , Mod 2 twin gun mounts , and four Mark 37 Gun Fire Control Systems . At first , this battery 's effectiveness against aircraft diminished as planes became faster , but this changed toward the end of World War II through a combination of an upgrade to the Mk37 System and the development of the VT ( Variable Time ) proximity fuze . In preparation for the reactivations in the 1960s and 1980s , the battery was updated to the latest gun and fire control system modifications . In the 1968 upgrade to the USS New Jersey for service off Vietnam , three Mark 56 Gun Fire Control Systems were installed , two on either side just forward of the aft stack , and one between the aft mast and the aft Mk 38 Director tower . This increased New Jersey 's anti @-@ aircraft capability , because the Mk 56 system could track and shoot at faster planes . In the 1980s modernization , the Mk 56 GFCSs and four mounts were removed to make room for missiles , leaving the Secondary battery with four Mk 37 GFCSs and six twin mounts on all the Iowa class . By the time of the Gulf War the secondary battery was largely relegated to shore bombardment and littoral defense . Since each battleship carried a small detachment of Marines aboard , the Marines would man one of the 5 @-@ inch gun mounts . = = = Mark 28 , Mod 2 mounts = = = Each Mk 28 Mod 2 Mount carried two Mark 12 , 5in / 38cal gun assemblies , electric @-@ hydraulic drives for bearing and elevation , optical sights , automatic fuze setter , automatic sight setter , and an upper handling room . Each armored twin mount weighed 170 @,@ 635 lb ( 77 @,@ 399 kg ) . The mount had a crew of 13 , not including the ammunition movers in the upper handling room and magazines , drawn from the sailors and Marines serving aboard the ship . = = = = Mark 12 gun assembly = = = = The Mk12 Gun Assembly ( pictured ) was a semi @-@ automatic , power rammed , vertical sliding @-@ wedge breech block type gun . Since this gun assembly fired semi @-@ fixed ammunition , ( pictured ) each round was delivered to the guns in two pieces . Each gun , in this twin mount , had its own projectile hoist and powder case hoist from the upper handling room . The electric @-@ hydraulic projectile hoist would deliver a projectile next to the projectile man with the nose down and waist high . The electric @-@ hydraulic powder case hoist poked the case through a powder scuttle in the gun room 's deck just next to the powder man 's feet . At the load command , the powder man would slip a primer protector off the end of the powder case , extract the case from the scuttle , and lift it into the gun 's rammer tray . Meanwhile , the projectile man would pull a projectile out of the hoist , and place it in the rammer tray in front of the powder case . Then , as he turned to get the next projectile out of the hoist , the projectile man would pull down on the rammer lever . This caused the power rammer to ram the projectile and powder case into the chamber . As the powder case cleared the top of the breechblock , the block would rise to seal the chamber . The gun was ready to fire . The case combination primer in the base of the powder case could be fired either electrically or by percussion . Electrical firing was the preferred method because the firing circuit could be energized by firing keys down in the plotting room when firing salvos at surface targets , or up in the director when firing at air targets . Percussion firing could be executed by the Pointer ( man controlling elevation ) by pushing a foot treadle . When the gun fired , the recoil 's rearward motion returned the rammer lever to the up position , and the rammer would drive back to the rear of the rammer tray . During counter @-@ recoil , the breechblock was automatically lowered and the spent powder case was ejected from the chamber . When the gun returned to battery , a blast of compressed air was sent down the bore to clean it out . The gun was ready to be reloaded . = = = = Electric @-@ hydraulic drives = = = = The electric @-@ hydraulic drives powered the mount 's motion . The three modes of drive operation were automatic , local , and manual . In automatic , the drives would follow the bearing and elevation orders of the fire control system . In local , the drives would follow the motion of the trainer 's and pointer 's hand wheels . ( This is similar to power steering on a car . ) Manual was direct gear linkage from the hand wheels to move the mount with no power assist . = = = = Sights = = = = The periscopic sights ( the boxes on the side of the mount ) allowed the trainer and pointer to see the target from inside the armored enclosure . Each sight had movable prisms that allowed its line of sight to be moved relative to the barrel 's bore axis . These prisms could be controlled by the fire control system when the mount was in Automatic , or by the mount 's sight setter operator when the mount was in Local . Local control was not the preferred combat method , but it could be used if the fire control systems were damaged . The mount captain was trained in aiming and correcting the fall of shot . = = = = Upper handling room = = = = The upper handling room was just below the visible part of the mount . It was armored and reinforced to support the weight of the mount . A person standing in the upper handling room could look up and see the bottom of the gun mount inside the training circle on which the mount rotated . Hanging from the mount , and rotating with it , was the equipment used to pass ammunition up to the mount . This included the lower ends of the projectile and powder case hoists . In the center of the room there was a vertical tube that also turned with the mount . This tube enclosed the electrical power and control cables going up to the mount . Around the perimeter of the upper handling room were the ready service ammunition racks welded to the bulkheads . Close by , either in a corner of the handling room or in an adjoining compartment was the upper end of an ammunition hoist from the magazine . The responsibility of the men stationed in the upper handling room was to shuttle 30 to 40 projectiles and 30 to 40 powder cases per minute from the ready service racks to the hoists while avoiding the equipment rotating with the mount . During quiet spells , they would replenish the ready service racks with ammunition from the magazines . = = = Mark 37 gun fire control system = = = The Mark 37 Gun Fire Control System ( GFCS ) was the primary Fire Control System for the Secondary Battery . There were four Mk37 GFCSs on board ; one forward above the navigation bridge , two amidships on either side of the forward stack , and one aft between the aft Mk38 Director and Turret three . The major components of the Mk 37 GFCS were the Mk 37 Director , and the equipment in the plotting room . = = = = Mark 37 director = = = = The function of the Mark 37 director ( pictured ) was to track the present position of the target in bearing , elevation , and range . To do this , it had optical sights ( the rectangular widows on the front ) , an optical rangefinder ( the tubes sticking out each side ) , and Fire Control Radar antennas . On the MK 37 Director pictured , the rectangular antenna is for the Mark 12 FC radar , and the parabolic antenna on the left is for the Mk 22 FC radar . They were part of an upgrade to improve tracking of aircraft . The Director Officer also had a Slew Sight that he could use to quickly point the director towards a new target . = = = = Plotting room = = = = The secondary battery plotting rooms were down below the waterline and inside the armor belt . They contained four complete sets of fire control equipment needed to aim and shoot at four targets . Each set included a Mark 1A computer , a Mark 6 Stable Element , FC Radar controls and displays , Parallax correctors , a switchboard , and crew to operate it all . The Mark 1A Fire Control Computer ( pictured ) was an electro @-@ mechanical analog ballistic computer . Its function was to automatically aim the guns so that a fired projectile would collide with the target . This was the same function as the main battery 's Mk 8 Rangekeeper above except that some of the targets the Mark 1A had to deal with also moved in elevation — and much faster . For a surface target , the Secondary Battery 's Fire Control problem is the same as the Main Battery 's with the same type inputs and outputs . The major difference between the two computers was their ballistics calculations . The amount of gun elevation needed to project a 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) shell 9 nmi ( 17 km ) is different than the elevation needed to project a 16 @-@ inch shell the same distance . The ballistics calculations in these mechanical analog computers were performed by mechanisms like differential gears , levers , and small rods riding on the surface of three @-@ dimensional cams . These mechanical adders , multipliers , and table lookup devices were handmade at the factory , and were buried deep in the workings of the computer . It was not possible to change a computer 's ballistics at sea until the advent of fast digital computers . The anti @-@ aircraft fire control problem was more complicated because it had the additional requirement of tracking the target in elevation and making target predictions in three dimensions . The outputs of the Mk 1A were the same ( gun bearing and elevation ) , except fuze time was added . The fuze time was needed because the ideal of directly hitting the fast moving aircraft with the projectile was impractical . With fuze time set into the shell , it was hoped that it would explode near enough to the target to destroy it with the shock wave and shrapnel . Towards the end of World War II , the invention of the VT proximity fuze eliminated the need to use the fuze time calculation and its possible error . This greatly increased the odds of destroying an air target . The function of the Mk 6 Stable Element ( pictured ) in this fire control system was the same as the function of the Mk 41 Stable Vertical in the main battery system above . It was a vertical seeking gyroscope that supplied the system with a stable up direction on a rolling and pitching ship . In surface mode , it replaced the director 's elevation signal . It also had the surface mode firing keys . The Fire @-@ control radar used on the Mk 37 GFCS has evolved . In the 1930s , the Mk 37 Director did not have a radar antenna . Then in September 1941 , the rectangular Mk 4 Fire @-@ control radar antenna was mounted on top . Soon aircraft flew faster , and in c1944 to increase speed and accuracy the Mk 4 was replaced by a combination of the Mk 12 ( rectangular antenna ) and Mk 22 ( parabolic antenna ) radars . ( pictured ) Finally , the circular SPG 25 antenna was mounted on top as seen in the USS Wisconsin photo at the top of this article . ( Look at the Mk 37 Director just above the bridge . ) = = Anti @-@ aircraft batteries = = Since they were designed to escort the US fleet of fast attack aircraft carriers , the Iowa @-@ class battleships were all intended to carry a fearsome array of anti @-@ aircraft guns to protect US aircraft carriers from Japanese fighters and dive bombers . This array included up to 20 quad 40 mm mounts and 49 single 20 mm mounts . In the 1968 USS New Jersey re @-@ activation for service off Vietnam , the 20 mm and 40 mm batteries were removed . In the 1980s re @-@ activation , all the ships with 20 mm and 40 mm batteries had them removed , and four Phalanx CIWS mounts were added to all . = = = Oerlikon 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns = = = The Oerlikon 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun was one of the most heavily produced anti @-@ aircraft guns of the Second World War ; the US alone manufactured a total of 124 @,@ 735 of these guns . When activated in 1941 these guns replaced the 0 @.@ 50 " / 90 ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning MG on a one @-@ for @-@ one basis . The Oerlikon 20 mm AA gun remained the primary anti @-@ aircraft weapon of the United States Navy until the introduction of the 40 mm Bofors AA gun in 1943 . These guns were air @-@ cooled and used a gas blowback recoil system . Unlike other automatic guns employed during World War II the barrel of the 20 mm Oerlikon gun did not recoil , the breechblock never locked against the breech and actually moved forward when the gun fired . This weapon lacked a counter @-@ recoil brake , as the force of the counter @-@ recoil was checked by the explosion of the next round of ammunition . Between December 1941 and September 1944 , 32 % of all Japanese aircraft downed were credited to this weapon , with the high point being 48 @.@ 3 % for the second half of 1942 . In 1943 the revolutionary Mark 14 Gun Sight was introduced which made these guns even more effective ; however , the 20 mm guns were found to be ineffective against the Japanese Kamikaze attacks used during the latter half of World War II . They were subsequently phased out in favor of the heavier 40 mm Bofors AA guns . = = = Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns = = = Arguably the best light anti @-@ aircraft weapon of World War II , the Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun was used on almost every major warship in the US and UK fleet during World War II from about 1943 to 1945 . Although a descendant of German and Swedish designs , the Bofors mounts used by the US Navy during World War II had been heavily " Americanized " to bring the guns up to the standards placed on them by the US Navy . This resulted in a guns system set to English standards ( now known as the Standard System ) with interchangeable ammunition , which simplified the logistics situation for World War II . When coupled with electric @-@ hydraulic drives for greater speed and the Mark 51 Director ( pictured ) for improved accuracy , the Bofors 40 mm gun became a fearsome adversary , accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircraft shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945 . When the Iowa @-@ class battleships were launched in 1943 and 1944 they carried twenty quad Bofors 40 mm gun mounts , which they used for defense against enemy aircraft . These heavy guns were also employed in the protection of allied aircraft carriers operating in the Pacific Theater of World War II . These guns remained on the battleships Iowa , Missouri , and Wisconsin from the time they were commissioned until they were reactivated for service in the 1980s . As each battleship arrived for modernization during the early and mid @-@ 1980s the Bofors mounts that remained aboard were removed due in large part to the ineffectiveness of such manually aimed weapons against modern day jet fighters and enemy missiles . The replacement for the Bofors guns was the US Navy 's Phalanx Close @-@ in weapon system ( CIWS ) . = = = Phalanx CIWS = = = During their modernization in the 1980s , each Iowa @-@ class battleship was equipped with four of the US Navy 's Phalanx CIWS mounts , two of which sat just behind the bridge and two which were forward and outboard of the after ship 's funnel . Iowa , New Jersey , and Missouri were equipped with the Block 0 version of the Phalanx , while Wisconsin received the first operational Block 1 version in 1988 . Developed as the final line of defense ( terminal defense or point defense ) against anti @-@ ship missiles , the Phalanx Close in Weapon System ( CIWS , pronounced " sea @-@ whiz " ) is the anti @-@ aircraft / anti @-@ missile gun currently in use in the US Navy . Due to their distinctive shape , they have been nicknamed " R2D2s " , in reference to the droid R2 @-@ D2 from the Star Wars universe . Designed in the early 1970s by General Dynamics , and currently produced by Raytheon , the Phalanx CIWS mount utilizes a 20 mm M61 Vulcan Gatling gun to destroy enemy missiles and aircraft that manage to escape anti @-@ missile and anti @-@ aircraft missiles fired from friendly ships . The Phalanx guns worked by using a search radar and a tracking radar to follow targets that approached within 1 to 1 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) . When a target was within this range the CIWS mount moved to track the target while simultaneously evaluating the target against several preset criteria to determine the next course of action . Depending on whether the target criteria were met , the Phalanx mount automatically engaged the incoming target if it was judged to be hostile in nature , or the system recommended that the Phalanx operator engage the target . Phalanx CIWS mounts were used by Missouri and Wisconsin during the 1991 Gulf War ; Wisconsin alone fired 5 @,@ 200 20 mm Phalanx CIWS rounds . Missouri also received Phalanx fire during a " friendly fire " incident in which the Oliver Hazard Perry @-@ class guided missile frigate USS Jarrett mistook chaff fired by Missouri for a legitimate target and shot at Missouri . Rounds from this attack struck the ship in the bulkhead above the famed " surrender deck " and bounced off the armor , one round penetrated the forward funnel and passed completely through it , and another round penetrated a bulkhead and embedded in an interior passageway of the ship . = = Missiles = = During the modernization in the 1980s , three important weapons were added to the Iowa @-@ class battleships . The first was the CIWS anti @-@ aircraft / anti @-@ missile system discussed above . The other two were missiles for use against both land and sea targets . At one point the NATO Sea Sparrow was to be installed on the reactivated battleships ; however , it was determined that the system could not withstand the over @-@ pressure effects when the main battery was fired . = = = Tomahawk land attack missile = = = The BGM @-@ 109 Tomahawk Land Attack Missile ( TLAM ) was first introduced in the 1970s , and entered service with the United States in 1983 . Designed as a long @-@ range , all @-@ weather , subsonic cruise missile , the Tomahawk was capable of reaching targets at a much greater range than the 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns on the Iowa @-@ class ships . When added to the battleships in the 1980s the Tomahawk became the longest @-@ ranged weapon carried by the battleships . Owing to the original 1938 design of the battleships , the Tomahawk missiles could not be fitted to the Iowa @-@ class unless the battleships were physically rebuilt in such a way as to accommodate the missile mounts that would be needed to store and launch the Tomahawks . This realization prompted the removal of the anti @-@ aircraft guns previously installed on the Iowas and the removal of four of each of the battleships ' ten 5 " / 38 DP mounts . The mid and aft end of the battleships were then rebuilt to accommodate the missile magazines . This resulted in the construction of two separate platforms , one located between the first and second funnel and one located behind the second funnel , to which MK @-@ 143 Armored Box Launcher ( ABL ) canisters could be attached . Each Armored Box Launcher carried four missiles , and each of the battleships was outfitted with eight canisters , enabling the Iowa @-@ class to carry and fire a total of 32 Tomahawk missiles . The type of Tomahawk carried by the battleships varied , as there were three basic configurations for the Tomahawk : the Anti @-@ Ship Missile ( TASM ) , the Land @-@ Attack Missile @-@ Conventional ( TLAM @-@ C ) , and the Land @-@ Attack Missile @-@ Nuclear ( TLAM @-@ N ) . Each version was similar in appearance and used the same airframe body and launcher . The conventional Tomahawk missile could carry a 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) explosive warhead or submunitions which used the missile body to reach their destination . The nuclear variant carried a 200 kt W80 nuclear warhead . The TLAM could be equipped with an inertial and terrain contour matching ( TERCOM ) radar guidance package to find and destroy its target . The TERCOM radar used a stored map reference to compare with the actual terrain to determine the missile 's position . If necessary , a course correction was then made to place the missile on course to the target . Terminal guidance in the target area was provided by the optical Digital Scene Matching Area Correlation ( DSMAC ) system , which compared a stored image of target with the actual target image . The firing weight of the Tomahawk was 2 @,@ 650 lb ( 1 @,@ 200 kg ) plus a 550 lb ( 250 kg ) booster . It had a cruising speed of 0 @.@ 5 Mach and an attack speed of 0 @.@ 75 Mach . The anti @-@ ship version of the Tomahawk had an operating range of 250 nmi ( 460 km ) and a maximum range of 470 nmi ( 870 km ) , while the conventional land attack missile version had a maximum range of 675 nmi ( 1 @,@ 250 km ) and TLAM @-@ N had maximum range of 1 @,@ 500 nmi ( 2 @,@ 800 km ) . During the 1991 Gulf War , USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin used ABL launchers to fire Tomahawk missiles at Iraqi targets during Operation Desert Storm . Wisconsin served as the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile ( TLAM ) strike commander for the Persian Gulf , directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of Operation Desert Storm and fired a total of 24 of her own TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign . = = = Harpoon anti @-@ ship missile = = = For protection against enemy ships , the Iowa class was outfitted with the Harpoon Weapons System . The system consisted of four Mk 141 " shock @-@ hardened " quad cell launchers designed to carry and fire the McDonnell Douglas RGM @-@ 84 Harpoon anti @-@ ship missile . Each Harpoon was placed in one of four Mk 141 launchers located alongside the aft stack ; eight per side , in two pods of four . The weight of the Harpoon at firing was 1 @,@ 530 lb ( 690 kg ) , which included a booster weighing about 362 lb ( 164 kg ) . The cruising speed was 0 @.@ 87 Mach and the maximum range was 64 nmi ( 119 km ) in Range and Bearing Launch mode and 85 nmi ( 157 km ) in Bearing Only Launch mode . When an Iowa class battleship fired a Harpoon Missile , a booster propelled the missile away from the ship ; after approximately 5 miles ( 8 km ) , the booster dropped away . After the booster was discarded a turbojet engine ignited and propelled the missile to the target . The stabilizing and actuator fins , which helped to guide the missile to its target , were stored folded in the canister and sprang into position after launching . These fins directed the missile to the target through inputs from the AN / SWG @-@ 1 Harpoon Fire Control System . The battleships carried and used the RGM / UGM @-@ 84 variants of the Harpoon Missile , which was designed to be fired by surface ships . The version used a solid @-@ fueled rocket booster in an A / B44G @-@ 2 or -3 booster section , which was discarded after burn @-@ out . The maximum range was around 140 kilometres ( 76 nmi ) . After launch , the missile was guided towards the target location as determined by the ship using a three @-@ axis Attitude Reference Assembly ( ATA ) in an AN / DSQ @-@ 44 guidance section . The ATA was less accurate than a full @-@ fledged inertial system , but good enough for Harpoon 's range . For stabilization and control , the AGM @-@ 84A had four fixed cruciform wings ( 3x BSU @-@ 42 / B , 1x BSU @-@ 43 / B ) and four movable BSU @-@ 44 / B tail fins . The missile flew at a low cruise altitude and at a predetermined distance from the expected target position , its AN / DSQ @-@ 28 J @-@ band active radar seeker in the nose was activated to acquire and lock on the target . The radar switch @-@ on distance could be set to lower or higher values , the former requiring a more precisely @-@ known target location but reducing the risk to be defeated by enemy Electronic Counter Measures ( ECM ) . An alternative launch mode was called Bearing @-@ Only Launch ( BOL ) . In this mode , the missile was launched in the general direction of the target , and its radar activated from the beginning to scan for the target in a + / - 45 ° sector in front of the flight path . Once a target was located and the seeker locked the xGM @-@ 84A missile climbed rapidly to about 1800 m before diving on the target in what was known as a " pop @-@ up maneuver " . The 221 kg ( 488 lb ) WDU @-@ 18 / B penetrating blast @-@ fragmentation warhead ( in the WAU @-@ 3 ( V ) / B warhead section ) was triggered by a time @-@ delayed impact fuze . When no target was acquired after radar activation , the Harpoon would self @-@ destruct .
= Paleontology = Paleontology or palaeontology ( / ˌpeɪlɪɒnˈtɒlədʒi / , / ˌpeɪlɪənˈtɒlədʒi / or / ˌpælɪɒnˈtɒlədʒi / , / ˌpælɪənˈtɒlədʒi / ) is the scientific study of life that existed prior to , and sometimes including , the start of the Holocene Epoch ( roughly 11 @,@ 700 years before present ) . It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms ' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments ( their paleoecology ) . Paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC . The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuvier 's work on comparative anatomy , and developed rapidly in the 19th century . The term itself originates from Greek παλαιός , palaios , i.e. " old , ancient " , ὄν , on ( gen. ontos ) , i.e. " being , creature " and λόγος , logos , i.e. " speech , thought , study " . Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology , but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of anatomically modern humans . It now uses techniques drawn from a wide range of sciences , including biochemistry , mathematics , and engineering . Use of all these techniques has enabled paleontologists to discover much of the evolutionary history of life , almost all the way back to when Earth became capable of supporting life , about 3 @,@ 800 million years ago . As knowledge has increased , paleontology has developed specialised sub @-@ divisions , some of which focus on different types of fossil organisms while others study ecology and environmental history , such as ancient climates . Body fossils and trace fossils are the principal types of evidence about ancient life , and geochemical evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave body fossils . Estimating the dates of these remains is essential but difficult : sometimes adjacent rock layers allow radiometric dating , which provides absolute dates that are accurate to within 0 @.@ 5 % , but more often paleontologists have to rely on relative dating by solving the " jigsaw puzzles " of biostratigraphy . Classifying ancient organisms is also difficult , as many do not fit well into the Linnean taxonomy that is commonly used for classifying living organisms , and paleontologists more often use cladistics to draw up evolutionary " family trees " . The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics , which investigates how closely organisms are related by measuring how similar the DNA is in their genomes . Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged , but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend . = = Overview = = The simplest definition is " the study of ancient life " . Paleontology seeks information about several aspects of past organisms : " their identity and origin , their environment and evolution , and what they can tell us about the Earth 's organic and inorganic past " . = = = A historical science = = = Paleontology is one of the historical sciences , along with archaeology , geology , astronomy , cosmology , philology and history itself . This means that it aims to describe phenomena of the past and reconstruct their causes . Hence it has three main elements : description of the phenomena ; developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change ; and applying those theories to specific facts . When trying to explain past phenomena , paleontologists and other historical scientists often construct a set of hypotheses about the causes and then look for a smoking gun , a piece of evidence that indicates that one hypothesis is a better explanation than others . Sometimes the smoking gun is discovered by a fortunate accident during other research . For example , the discovery by Luis Alvarez and Walter Alvarez of an iridium @-@ rich layer at the Cretaceous – Tertiary boundary made asteroid impact and volcanism the most favored explanations for the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event . The other main type of science is experimental science , which is often said to work by conducting experiments to disprove hypotheses about the workings and causes of natural phenomena – note that this approach cannot confirm a hypothesis is correct , since some later experiment may disprove it . However , when confronted with totally unexpected phenomena , such as the first evidence for invisible radiation , experimental scientists often use the same approach as historical scientists : construct a set of hypotheses about the causes and then look for a " smoking gun " . = = = Related sciences = = = Paleontology lies on the boundary between biology and geology since paleontology focuses on the record of past life but its main source of evidence is fossils , which are found in rocks . For historical reasons paleontology is part of the geology departments of many universities , because in the 19th century and early 20th century geology departments found paleontological evidence important for estimating the ages of rocks while biology departments showed little interest . Paleontology also has some overlap with archaeology , which primarily works with objects made by humans and with human remains , while paleontologists are interested in the characteristics and evolution of humans as organisms . When dealing with evidence about humans , archaeologists and paleontologists may work together – for example paleontologists might identify animal or plant fossils around an archaeological site , to discover what the people who lived there ate ; or they might analyze the climate at the time when the site was inhabited by humans . In addition paleontology often uses techniques derived from other sciences , including biology , osteology , ecology , chemistry , physics and mathematics . For example , geochemical signatures from rocks may help to discover when life first arose on Earth , and analyses of carbon isotope ratios may help to identify climate changes and even to explain major transitions such as the Permian – Triassic extinction event . A relatively recent discipline , molecular phylogenetics , often helps by using comparisons of different modern organisms ' DNA and RNA to re @-@ construct evolutionary " family trees " ; it has also been used to estimate the dates of important evolutionary developments , although this approach is controversial because of doubts about the reliability of the " molecular clock " . Techniques developed in engineering have been used to analyse how ancient organisms might have worked , for example how fast Tyrannosaurus could move and how powerful its bite was . It is relatively commonplace to study fossils using X @-@ ray microtomography A combination of paleontology , biology , and archaeology , paleoneurology is the study of endocranial casts ( or endocasts ) of species related to humans to learn about the evolution of human brains . Paleontology even contributes to astrobiology , the investigation of possible life on other planets , by developing models of how life may have arisen and by providing techniques for detecting evidence of life . = = = Subdivisions = = = As knowledge has increased , paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions . Vertebrate paleontology concentrates on fossils of vertebrates , from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals . Invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of invertebrates such as molluscs , arthropods , annelid worms and echinoderms . Paleobotany focuses on the study of fossil plants , but traditionally includes the study of fossil algae and fungi . Palynology , the study of pollen and spores produced by land plants and protists , straddles the border between paleontology and botany , as it deals with both living and fossil organisms . Micropaleontology deals with all microscopic fossil organisms , regardless of the group to which they belong . Instead of focusing on individual organisms , paleoecology examines the interactions between different organisms , such as their places in food chains , and the two @-@ way interaction between organisms and their environment . One example is the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria , which hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems . This also caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere . Together , these were a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells , from which all multicellular organisms are built . Paleoclimatology , although sometimes treated as part of paleoecology , focuses more on the history of Earth 's climate and the mechanisms that have changed it – which have sometimes included evolutionary developments , for example the rapid expansion of land plants in the Devonian period removed more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , reducing the greenhouse effect and thus helping to cause an ice age in the Carboniferous period . Biostratigraphy , the use of fossils to work out the chronological order in which rocks were formed , is useful to both paleontologists and geologists . Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms , and is also linked to geology , which explains how Earth 's geography has changed over time . = = = Body fossils = = = Fossils of organisms ' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence . The most common types are wood , bones , and shells . Fossilisation is a rare event , and most fossils are destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed . Hence the fossil record is very incomplete , increasingly so further back in time . Despite this , it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life 's history . There are also biases in the fossil record : different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms . Further , only the parts of organisms that were already mineralised are usually preserved , such as the shells of molluscs . Since most animal species are soft @-@ bodied , they decay before they can become fossilised . As a result , although there are 30 @-@ plus phyla of living animals , two @-@ thirds have never been found as fossils . Occasionally , unusual environments may preserve soft tissues . These lagerstätten allow paleontologists to examine the internal anatomy of animals that in other sediments are represented only by shells , spines , claws , etc . – if they are preserved at all . However , even lagerstätten present an incomplete picture of life at the time . The majority of organisms living at the time are probably not represented because lagerstätten are restricted to a narrow range of environments , e.g. where soft @-@ bodied organisms can be preserved very quickly by events such as mudslides ; and the exceptional events that cause quick burial make it difficult to study the normal environments of the animals . The sparseness of the fossil record means that organisms are expected to exist long before and after they are found in the fossil record – this is known as the Signor @-@ Lipps effect . = = = Trace fossils = = = Trace fossils consist mainly of tracks and burrows , but also include coprolites ( fossil feces ) and marks left by feeding . Trace fossils are particularly significant because they represent a data source that is not limited to animals with easily fossilised hard parts , and they reflect organisms ' behaviours . Also many traces date from significantly earlier than the body fossils of animals that are thought to have been capable of making them . Whilst exact assignment of trace fossils to their makers is generally impossible , traces may for example provide the earliest physical evidence of the appearance of moderately complex animals ( comparable to earthworms ) . = = = Geochemical observations = = = Geochemical observations may help to deduce the global level of biological activity , or the affinity of certain fossils . For example , geochemical features of rocks may reveal when life first arose on Earth , and may provide evidence of the presence of eukaryotic cells , the type from which all multicellular organisms are built . Analyses of carbon isotope ratios may help to explain major transitions such as the Permian – Triassic extinction event . = = Classifying ancient organisms = = Naming groups of organisms in a way that is clear and widely agreed is important , as some disputes in paleontology have been based just on misunderstandings over names . Linnean taxonomy is commonly used for classifying living organisms , but runs into difficulties when dealing with newly discovered organisms that are significantly different from known ones . For example : it is hard to decide at what level to place a new higher @-@ level grouping , e.g. genus or family or order ; this is important since the Linnean rules for naming groups are tied to their levels , and hence if a group is moved to a different level it must be renamed . Paleontologists generally use approaches based on cladistics , a technique for working out the evolutionary " family tree " of a set of organisms . It works by the logic that , if groups B and C have more similarities to each other than either has to group A , then B and C are more closely related to each other than either is to A. Characters that are compared may be anatomical , such as the presence of a notochord , or molecular , by comparing sequences of DNA or proteins . The result of a successful analysis is a hierarchy of clades – groups that share a common ancestor . Ideally the " family tree " has only two branches leading from each node ( " junction " ) , but sometimes there is too little information to achieve this and paleontologists have to make do with junctions that have several branches . The cladistic technique is sometimes fallible , as some features , such as wings or camera eyes , evolved more than once , convergently – this must be taken into account in analyses . Evolutionary developmental biology , commonly abbreviated to " Evo Devo " , also helps paleontologists to produce " family trees " , and understand fossils . For example , the embryological development of some modern brachiopods suggests that brachiopods may be descendants of the halkieriids , which became extinct in the Cambrian period . = = Estimating the dates of organisms = = Paleontology seeks to map out how living things have changed through time . A substantial hurdle to this aim is the difficulty of working out how old fossils are . Beds that preserve fossils typically lack the radioactive elements needed for radiometric dating . This technique is our only means of giving rocks greater than about 50 million years old an absolute age , and can be accurate to within 0 @.@ 5 % or better . Although radiometric dating requires very careful laboratory work , its basic principle is simple : the rates at which various radioactive elements decay are known , and so the ratio of the radioactive element to the element into which it decays shows how long ago the radioactive element was incorporated into the rock . Radioactive elements are common only in rocks with a volcanic origin , and so the only fossil @-@ bearing rocks that can be dated radiometrically are a few volcanic ash layers . Consequently , paleontologists must usually rely on stratigraphy to date fossils . Stratigraphy is the science of deciphering the " layer @-@ cake " that is the sedimentary record , and has been compared to a jigsaw puzzle . Rocks normally form relatively horizontal layers , with each layer younger than the one underneath it . If a fossil is found between two layers whose ages are known , the fossil 's age must lie between the two known ages . Because rock sequences are not continuous , but may be broken up by faults or periods of erosion , it is very difficult to match up rock beds that are not directly next to one another . However , fossils of species that survived for a relatively short time can be used to link up isolated rocks : this technique is called biostratigraphy . For instance , the conodont Eoplacognathus pseudoplanus has a short range in the Middle Ordovician period . If rocks of unknown age are found to have traces of E. pseudoplanus , they must have a mid @-@ Ordovician age . Such index fossils must be distinctive , be globally distributed and have a short time range to be useful . However , misleading results are produced if the index fossils turn out to have longer fossil ranges than first thought . Stratigraphy and biostratigraphy can in general provide only relative dating ( A was before B ) , which is often sufficient for studying evolution . However , this is difficult for some time periods , because of the problems involved in matching up rocks of the same age across different continents . Family @-@ tree relationships may also help to narrow down the date when lineages first appeared . For instance , if fossils of B or C date to X million years ago and the calculated " family tree " says A was an ancestor of B and C , then A must have evolved more than X million years ago . It is also possible to estimate how long ago two living clades diverged – i.e. approximately how long ago their last common ancestor must have lived – by assuming that DNA mutations accumulate at a constant rate . These " molecular clocks " , however , are fallible , and provide only a very approximate timing : for example , they are not sufficiently precise and reliable for estimating when the groups that feature in the Cambrian explosion first evolved , and estimates produced by different techniques may vary by a factor of two . = = Overview of the history of life = = The evolutionary history of life stretches back to over 3 @,@ 000 million years ago , possibly as far as 3 @,@ 800 million years ago . Earth formed about 4 @,@ 570 million years ago and , after a collision that formed the Moon about 40 million years later , may have cooled quickly enough to have oceans and an atmosphere about 4 @,@ 440 million years ago . However , there is evidence on the Moon of a Late Heavy Bombardment from 4 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 800 million years ago . If , as seems likely , such a bombardment struck Earth at the same time , the first atmosphere and oceans may have been stripped away . The oldest clear evidence of life on Earth dates to 3 @,@ 000 million years ago , although there have been reports , often disputed , of fossil bacteria from 3 @,@ 400 million years ago and of geochemical evidence for the presence of life 3 @,@ 800 million years ago . Some scientists have proposed that life on Earth was " seeded " from elsewhere , but most research concentrates on various explanations of how life could have arisen independently on Earth . For about 2 @,@ 000 million years microbial mats , multi @-@ layered colonies of different types of bacteria , were the dominant life on Earth . The evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis enabled them to play the major role in the oxygenation of the atmosphere from about 2 @,@ 400 million years ago . This change in the atmosphere increased their effectiveness as nurseries of evolution . While eukaryotes , cells with complex internal structures , may have been present earlier , their evolution speeded up when they acquired the ability to transform oxygen from a poison to a powerful source of energy in their metabolism . This innovation may have come from primitive eukaryotes capturing oxygen @-@ powered bacteria as endosymbionts and transforming them into organelles called mitochondria . The earliest evidence of complex eukaryotes with organelles such as mitochondria , dates from 1 @,@ 850 million years ago . Multicellular life is composed only of eukaryotic cells , and the earliest evidence for it is the Francevillian Group Fossils from 2 @,@ 100 million years ago , although specialisation of cells for different functions first appears between 1 @,@ 430 million years ago ( a possible fungus ) and 1 @,@ 200 million years ago ( a probable red alga ) . Sexual reproduction may be a prerequisite for specialisation of cells , as an asexual multicellular organism might be at risk of being taken over by rogue cells that retain the ability to reproduce . The earliest known animals are cnidarians from about 580 million years ago , but these are so modern @-@ looking that the earliest animals must have appeared before then . Early fossils of animals are rare because they did not develop mineralised hard parts that fossilise easily until about 548 million years ago . The earliest modern @-@ looking bilaterian animals appear in the Early Cambrian , along with several " weird wonders " that bear little obvious resemblance to any modern animals . There is a long @-@ running debate about whether this Cambrian explosion was truly a very rapid period of evolutionary experimentation ; alternative views are that modern @-@ looking animals began evolving earlier but fossils of their precursors have not yet been found , or that the " weird wonders " are evolutionary " aunts " and " cousins " of modern groups . Vertebrates remained an obscure group until the first fish with jaws appeared in the Late Ordovician . The spread of life from water to land required organisms to solve several problems , including protection against drying out and supporting themselves against gravity . The earliest evidence of land plants and land invertebrates date back to about 476 million years ago and 490 million years ago respectively . The lineage that produced land vertebrates evolved later but very rapidly between 370 million years ago and 360 million years ago ; recent discoveries have overturned earlier ideas about the history and driving forces behind their evolution . Land plants were so successful that they caused an ecological crisis in the Late Devonian , until the evolution and spread of fungi that could digest dead wood . During the Permian period synapsids , including the ancestors of mammals , may have dominated land environments , but the Permian – Triassic extinction event 251 million years ago came very close to wiping out complex life . The extinctions were apparently fairly sudden , at least among vertebrates . During the slow recovery from this catastrophe a previously obscure group , archosaurs , became the most abundant and diverse terrestrial vertebrates . One archosaur group , the dinosaurs , were the dominant land vertebrates for the rest of the Mesozoic , and birds evolved from one group of dinosaurs . During this time mammals ' ancestors survived only as small , mainly nocturnal insectivores , but this apparent set @-@ back may have accelerated the development of mammalian traits such as endothermy and hair . After the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event 65 million years ago killed off the non @-@ avian dinosaurs – birds are the only surviving dinosaurs – mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity , and some took to the air and the sea . Fossil evidence indicates that flowering plants appeared and rapidly diversified in the Early Cretaceous , between 130 million years ago and 90 million years ago . Their rapid rise to dominance of terrestrial ecosystems is thought to have been propelled by coevolution with pollinating insects . Social insects appeared around the same time and , although they account for only small parts of the insect " family tree " , now form over 50 % of the total mass of all insects . Humans evolved from a lineage of upright @-@ walking apes whose earliest fossils date from over 6 million years ago . Although early members of this lineage had chimp @-@ sized brains , about 25 % as big as modern humans ' , there are signs of a steady increase in brain size after about 3 million years ago . There is a long @-@ running debate about whether modern humans are descendants of a single small population in Africa , which then migrated all over the world less than 200 @,@ 000 years ago and replaced previous hominine species , or arose worldwide at the same time as a result of interbreeding . = = = Mass extinctions = = = Life on earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since 542 million years ago . Although they are disasters at the time , mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on earth . When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another , it is rarely because the new dominant group is " superior " to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one . The fossil record appears to show that the rate of extinction is slowing down , with both the gaps between mass extinctions becoming longer and the average and background rates of extinction decreasing . However , it is not certain whether the actual rate of extinction has altered , since both of these observations could be explained in several ways : The oceans may have become more hospitable to life over the last 500 million years and less vulnerable to mass extinctions : dissolved oxygen became more widespread and penetrated to greater depths ; the development of life on land reduced the run @-@ off of nutrients and hence the risk of eutrophication and anoxic events ; marine ecosystems became more diversified so that food chains were less likely to be disrupted . Reasonably complete fossils are very rare , most extinct organisms are represented only by partial fossils , and complete fossils are rarest in the oldest rocks . So paleontologists have mistakenly assigned parts of the same organism to different genera , which were often defined solely to accommodate these finds – the story of Anomalocaris is an example of this . The risk of this mistake is higher for older fossils because these are often unlike parts of any living organism . Many " superfluous " genera are represented by fragments that are not found again , and these " superfluous " genera appear to become extinct very quickly . Biodiversity in the fossil record , which is " the number of distinct genera alive at any given time ; that is , those whose first occurrence predates and whose last occurrence postdates that time " shows a different trend : a fairly swift rise from 542 to 400 million years ago , a slight decline from 400 to 200 million years ago , in which the devastating Permian – Triassic extinction event is an important factor , and a swift rise from 200 million years ago to the present . = = History of paleontology = = Although paleontology became established around 1800 , earlier thinkers had noticed aspects of the fossil record . The ancient Greek philosopher Xenophanes ( 570 – 480 BC ) concluded from fossil sea shells that some areas of land were once under water . During the Middle Ages the Persian naturalist Ibn Sina , known as Avicenna in Europe , discussed fossils and proposed a theory of petrifying fluids on which Albert of Saxony elaborated in the 14th century . The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) proposed a theory of climate change based on the presence of petrified bamboo in regions that in his time were too dry for bamboo . In early modern Europe , the systematic study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in natural philosophy that occurred during the Age of Reason . In the Italian Renaissance , Leonardo Da Vinci made various significant contributions to the field as well designed numerous fossils . At the end of the 18th century Georges Cuvier 's work established comparative anatomy as a scientific discipline and , by proving that some fossil animals resembled no living ones , demonstrated that animals could become extinct , leading to the emergence of paleontology . The expanding knowledge of the fossil record also played an increasing role in the development of geology , particularly stratigraphy . The first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organised with the growth of geologic societies and museums and an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists . Interest increased for reasons that were not purely scientific , as geology and paleontology helped industrialists to find and exploit natural resources such as coal . This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth and to progress in the definition of the geologic time scale , largely based on fossil evidence . In 1822 Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blanville , editor of Journal de Physique , coined the word " palaeontology " to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils . As knowledge of life 's history continued to improve , it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life . This encouraged early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species . After Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859 , much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths , including human evolution , and evolutionary theory . The last half of the 19th century saw a tremendous expansion in paleontological activity , especially in North America . The trend continued in the 20th century with additional regions of the Earth being opened to systematic fossil collection . Fossils found in China near the end of the 20th century have been particularly important as they have provided new information about the earliest evolution of animals , early fish , dinosaurs and the evolution of birds . The last few decades of the 20th century saw a renewed interest in mass extinctions and their role in the evolution of life on Earth . There was also a renewed interest in the Cambrian explosion that apparently saw the development of the body plans of most animal phyla . The discovery of fossils of the Ediacaran biota and developments in paleobiology extended knowledge about the history of life back far before the Cambrian . Increasing awareness of Gregor Mendel 's pioneering work in genetics led first to the development of population genetics and then in the mid @-@ 20th century to the modern evolutionary synthesis , which explains evolution as the outcome of events such as mutations and horizontal gene transfer , which provide genetic variation , with genetic drift and natural selection driving changes in this variation over time . Within the next few years the role and operation of DNA in genetic inheritance were discovered , leading to what is now known as the " Central Dogma " of molecular biology . In the 1960s molecular phylogenetics , the investigation of evolutionary " family trees " by techniques derived from biochemistry , began to make an impact , particularly when it was proposed that the human lineage had diverged from apes much more recently than was generally thought at the time . Although this early study compared proteins from apes and humans , most molecular phylogenetics research is now based on comparisons of RNA and DNA .
= Iowa Highway 173 = Iowa Highway 173 ( Iowa 173 ) is a 14 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 23 km ) state highway in western Iowa . It begins at Iowa 83 northwest of Atlantic and ends at Iowa 44 in Kimballton . Iowa 173 connects Elk Horn and Kimballton , two small towns with tributes to their residents ' Danish heritage . From its intersection with Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) north to Iowa 44 , Iowa 173 is designated as part of the Western Skies Scenic Byway . Designated in 1930 , the highway was originally a spur route into Elk Horn from Kimballton . The route was lengthened to its current extent in 1980 . = = Route description = = Iowa 173 begins at an intersection with Iowa 83 three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) northwest of Atlantic . It heads north through rural Cass County and intersects Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) at a partial cloverleaf interchange . Just north of the Interstate Highway , the route enters Shelby County . Further north , Iowa 173 passes through Elk Horn along Main Street where an authentic Danish windmill greets visitors to the Iowa welcome center . North of Elk Horn , the highway curves to the west along the Shelby – Audubon county line and then back to the north . It continues north for three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) until it reaches Kimballton , where it also runs along Main Street . Near its northern end at Iowa 44 , Iowa 173 passes a replica of The Little Mermaid , a tribute to the town 's Danish heritage . The section of Iowa 173 from I @-@ 80 north to Iowa 44 is part of the 140 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 230 km ) Western Skies Scenic Byway . = = History = = Iowa 173 was designated in 1930 along a dirt road as a 3 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) spur route from Iowa 7 near Kimballton south to Elk Horn . The road was graveled in late 1932 , and it was paved in 1956 . In 1980 , Iowa 173 was lengthened significantly to the south . The new 11 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 18 km ) section of the route was paved when it was designated . Since its extension , the route has not undergone any changes . = = Major intersections = =
= Peresvet @-@ class battleship = The Peresvet class was a group of three pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy around the end of the 19th century . Peresvet and Pobeda were transferred to the Pacific Squadron upon completion and based at Port Arthur from 1901 and 1903 , respectively . All three ships were lost by the Russians in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 ; Peresvet and Pobeda participated in the Battles of Port Arthur and the Yellow Sea and were sunk during the Siege of Port Arthur . Oslyabya , the third ship , sailed to the Far East with the Second Pacific Squadron to relieve the Russian forces blockaded in Port Arthur and was sunk at the Battle of Tsushima with the loss of over half her crew . Peresvet and Pobeda were salvaged after the Japanese captured Port Arthur and incorporated into the Imperial Japanese Navy . Peresvet was sold back to the Russians during World War I , as the two countries were by now allies , and sank after hitting German mines in the Mediterranean in early 1917 while Pobeda , renamed Suwo , remained instead in Japanese service and participated in the Battle of Tsingtao in late 1914 . She became a gunnery training ship in 1917 . The ship was disarmed in 1922 to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and probably scrapped around that time . = = Design and description = = After the humiliating Russian defeat during the Crimean War of 1854 – 55 , General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich understood that Russia would never be able to outbuild Britain or France , but still needed a maritime strategy that could defend Russia , give the fleet a useful role in peacetime and act as a deterrent . He decided that a guerre de course ( commerce @-@ raiding ) strategy was Russia 's only effective means of attacking the British Empire or France if war broke out and built a series of fast , long @-@ range , armored cruisers like Rossia and Rurik to implement his strategy . The British responded by building the second @-@ class battleships of the Centurion class to defeat the cruisers and the Russians countered with the three ships of the Peresvet class that were designed to support their armored cruisers . This role placed a premium on high speed and long range at the expense of heavy armament and armor . As was common with Russian ships of the time , changes were made while the ships were under construction . The most important was the revision of the secondary armament from eight 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) and five 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 119 mm ) guns to eleven 6 @-@ inch guns and additional light guns . Only two ships were originally planned , but a third was ordered to keep the Baltic Works shipyard busy until a new design could be prepared . Ironically , it was completed before the second ship , despite having been laid down over three years later . The Peresvet @-@ class ships were 434 feet 5 inches ( 132 @.@ 4 m ) long overall , with a beam of 71 feet 6 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . Designed to displace 12 @,@ 674 long tons ( 12 @,@ 877 t ) , they were 500 – 1 @,@ 700 long tons ( 510 – 1 @,@ 730 t ) overweight and actually displaced 13 @,@ 320 – 14 @,@ 408 long tons ( 13 @,@ 534 – 14 @,@ 639 t ) . To reduce biofouling , the hulls of the first two ships were sheathed with wood and copper , but this was eliminated in Pobeda to reduce weight . The vessels had a partial double bottom and the hull was divided by 10 watertight transverse bulkheads ; a centerline bulkhead divided the forward engine rooms . Each crew consisted of 27 officers and 744 enlisted men . The ships were powered by three vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam generated by 30 Belleville boilers . The engines were rated at 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 813 kW ) , using forced draft , and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . All three ships slightly exceeded their specifications and reached top speeds of 18 @.@ 3 – 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 33 @.@ 9 – 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 1 – 21 @.@ 3 mph ) from 14 @,@ 532 – 15 @,@ 578 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 837 – 11 @,@ 617 kW ) during their sea trials . They carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 060 long tons ( 2 @,@ 090 t ) of coal which allowed them to steam for 6 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 500 km ; 7 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Their electrical equipment consisted of four steam @-@ driven dynamos with a total capacity of 555 kilowatts ( 744 hp ) . = = = Armament = = = The ships ' main battery consisted of four 45 @-@ caliber , 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns mounted in electrically powered twin @-@ gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . These guns had major development problems as they proved to be too weak to use a full @-@ strength charge of propellant and had to be reworked and the charge reduced . The guns in Peresvet and Oslyabya were the original model and could be elevated to a maximum of + 35 ° , while the reinforced guns used in Pobeda could only elevate to a maximum of + 25 ° . The guns were designed to fire once every 40 seconds , but in service they fired at half that rate . The ships carried 75 rounds for each gun . The older guns fired a 496 @-@ pound ( 225 @.@ 2 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 270 ft / s ( 692 m / s ) while Pobeda 's newer ones may have reached a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 790 m / s ) . At an elevation of + 6 ° , the gun had a range of 8 @,@ 760 yards ( 8 @,@ 010 m ) . The secondary armament of the Peresvet @-@ class ships consisted of eleven 45 @-@ caliber , 6 @-@ inch Canet Model 1891 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , 10 mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and one underneath the forecastle as a bow chaser . Each gun was provided with 220 rounds . They fired shells that weighed 91 pounds ( 41 @.@ 4 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 792 @.@ 5 m / s ) . They had a range of 12 @,@ 602 yards ( 11 @,@ 523 m ) when fired at an elevation of + 20 ° . Smaller guns were carried for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . These included 20 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Model 1891 guns . Of these guns , eight were mounted in embrasures in the hull , four on the main deck , four on the battery deck and the last four at the corners of the superstructure on the forecastle deck . The ships carried 300 rounds for each gun . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 830 ft / s ( 862 m / s ) with its 10 @.@ 8 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 91 kg ) shells . It had a range of about 8 @,@ 606 yards ( 7 @,@ 869 m ) at an elevation of + 20 ° . The smaller guns included twenty QF 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns in hull embrasures and on the superstructure . Each gun had 810 rounds provided . They fired a 3 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell . Eight 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns were positioned between the 47 @-@ millimeter guns on the forecastle deck . They fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 540 ft / s ( 470 m / s ) . The Peresvet class had five 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , three of which were above water , one in the bow and one pair of broadside tubes , and two broadside underwater tubes . The ships carried a total of 12 torpedoes . They also carried 45 mines to be laid to protect their anchorage in remote areas . The ships were fitted with Liuzhol stadiametric rangefinders that used the angle between two vertical points on an enemy ship , usually the waterline and the crow 's nest , to estimate the range . The gunnery officer consulted his references to get the range and calculated the proper elevation and deflection required to hit the target . He transmitted his commands via a Geisler electro @-@ mechanical fire @-@ control transmission system to each gun or turret . Oslyabya and the rest of the Second Pacific Squadron were also fitted with Perepelkin telescopic sights for their guns , but their crews were not trained in how to use them . = = = Protection = = = The first two ships used Harvey armor for most of their armored vertical surfaces except for the gun turrets and their support tubes , which were made from Krupp armor . Pobeda , however , used Krupp armor for all of her heavy vertical armor . Over the machinery spaces , the maximum thickness of their waterline armor belt was 9 inches ( 229 mm ) which reduced to 7 inches ( 178 mm ) abreast the magazines . The belt tapered to a thickness of 5 inches ( 127 mm ) over the machinery spaces and 4 inches ( 102 mm ) over the magazines . The belt covered 312 feet ( 95 @.@ 1 m ) of the ships ' length and was 7 feet 9 inches ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high , of which the upper 36 inches ( 914 @.@ 4 mm ) was intended to be above the waterline , but the ships were significantly overweight . So much of the belt was submerged that Peresvet only had 14 inches ( 356 mm ) of armor exposed at normal load ; at full load the effect was even greater and the belt was completely submerged . Oslyabya was even more overweight and only had 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of her belt armor showing at normal load . The belt in both ships terminated in 7 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads , leaving the ends of the ships unprotected . The transverse bulkheads of the waterline belt in Pobeda were eliminated as the belt was extended to the ends of the ship with 4 @-@ inch armor plates . Above the waterline belt in all three ships was a shorter strake of armor that protected the middle of the ships . It was 188 feet ( 57 @.@ 3 m ) long and 4 inches thick . The ends of the upper belt were closed off by 4 @-@ inch angled transverse bulkheads . The sides of the gun turrets were 9 inches thick and 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) of armor protected their roofs ; their supporting tubes were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick . The face of the casemates for the 6 @-@ inch guns was five inches thick and their rears were protected by 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) armor plates . The casemates at each end of the ships were protected by 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads . Bulkheads 0 @.@ 75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick separated the 75 @-@ millimeter gun positions . Peresvet had two conning towers , each with sides 6 inches thick , but the other two ships only had a forward conning tower with 9 @-@ inch sides . A communications tube 3 inches thick connected each conning tower to the armored deck in all three ships . The flat part of the deck in the central armored citadel consisted of a 1 @.@ 46 @-@ inch ( 37 mm ) plate over the normal 0 @.@ 75 @-@ inch structural steel deck plate ; the sloped portion connected to the lower edge of the waterline belt and was 2 @.@ 5 inches thick . Outside the citadel the armored deck consisted of 2 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 57 mm ) plates laid over the 1 inch ( 25 mm ) deck plating . On the first two ships the deck armor consisted of mild steel ; in Pobeda it was a chrome @-@ nickel steel alloy . = = Ships = = = = Careers = = Peresvet , named after Alexander Peresvet , a Russian monk who fought at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 , and Pobeda ( Victory ) were sent to the Far East almost immediately after entering service in 1901 and 1903 respectively . Peresvet became flagship of the squadron 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky , upon her arrival . During the Battle of Port Arthur on the second day of the war , Peresvet was not hit , but Pobeda was hit once amidships , sustaining little damage but losing two men killed and four wounded . The latter struck a mine during the squadron 's sortie on 13 April and she was under repair for almost two months . Both ships had some of their anti @-@ torpedo boat guns and secondary armament removed during the summer to bolster the defenses of the port . They participated in the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August ; Pobeda was only lightly damaged by 11 large @-@ caliber hits , but Peresvet was hit 39 times and suffered a considerable amount of flooding . More guns were landed after the squadron 's return to Port Arthur , but the Imperial Japanese Army captured the hills overlooking the harbor in November and they allowed the Army 's 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) siege guns to fire directly at the Russian ships . Pobeda and Peresvet were hit many times and Pobeda sank on 7 December 1904 from the accumulated damage . Peresvet was scuttled in shallow water on that same day . Construction of Oslyabya , named after Radion Oslyabya , another monk who fought at the Battle of Kulikovo , was greatly delayed , and the ship was en route to the Far East when the Russo @-@ Japanese War began in February 1904 . She was ordered home and assigned to the Second Pacific Squadron that was intended to relieve the forces in Port Arthur . The ship served as the flagship of Rear Admiral Baron Dmitry von Fölkersam , second @-@ in @-@ command of the squadron , but he died two days before the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 . Oslyabya led the Second Division of the squadron during the battle and was the target of numerous Japanese ships during the early part of the battle . Many of the hits on the ship were along the waterline and caused extensive flooding . Efforts to counteract the resulting list destroyed her remaining stability and she sank just over an hour after the Japanese opened fire , the first modern battleship to be sunk solely by gunfire . Sources differ on the exact number of casualties , but the lowest figure given is 471 . = = = In Japanese service = = = Peresvet and Pobeda were raised , repaired , and rearmed by the Japanese . They were incorporated into the Imperial Japanese Navy as Sagami and Suwo , respectively , and reclassified as first @-@ class coastal defense ships . After the beginning of World War I , Sagami was sold to Russia in March 1916 and arrived in Vladivostok on 3 April 1916 , where she resumed her former name of Peresvet . The ship was intended to serve with the Russian Arctic flotilla and was en route to the Arctic when she struck two mines off Port Said , Egypt on 4 January 1917 . The mines had been laid by the German submarine SM U @-@ 73 and Peresvet sank with the loss of 167 lives after catching fire . During World War I , Suwo served as the flagship for the Japanese squadron during the Battle of Tsingtao from 27 August to 7 November 1914 . The ship served as flagship of the Second Squadron of the Second Fleet in 1915 – 16 before becoming a gunnery training ship for the rest of the war . In April 1922 , in compliance with the Washington Naval Treaty , Suwo was disarmed at the Kure Naval Arsenal . While her armor was being removed , the ship capsized on 13 July . She was probably scrapped in 1922 – 23 , but at least one source suggests she was refloated and hulked , serving until being broken up at Kure in 1946 .
= Colin Hannah = Air Marshal Sir Colin Thomas Hannah , KCMG , KCVO , KBE , CB ( 22 December 1914 – 22 May 1978 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) and a Governor of Queensland . Born in Western Australia , he was a member of the Militia before joining the RAAF in 1935 . After graduating as a pilot , Hannah served in Nos. 22 and 23 Squadrons from 1936 to 1939 . During the early years of World War II , he was the RAAF 's Deputy Director of Armament . He then saw action in the South West Pacific as commander of No. 6 Squadron and , later , No. 71 Wing , operating Bristol Beaufort bombers . By 1944 , he had risen to the rank of group captain , and at the end of the war was in charge of Western Area Command in Perth . Hannah commanded RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland , in 1949 – 50 , and saw service during the Malayan Emergency as senior air staff officer at RAF Far East Air Force Headquarters , Singapore , from 1956 to 1959 . His other post @-@ war appointments included Deputy Chief of the Air Staff from 1961 to 1965 , Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Operational Command from 1965 to 1967 , and AOC Support Command from 1968 to 1969 . In January 1970 , he was promoted to air marshal and became Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) , the RAAF 's senior position . Knighted in 1971 , Hannah concluded his three @-@ year appointment as CAS a year early , in March 1972 , to become Governor of Queensland . He attracted controversy in this role after making comments critical of the Federal government of the day , and the British government refused to agree to his term being extended . Hannah retired in March 1977 , and died the following year . = = Early career = = Born on 22 December 1914 in Menzies , Western Australia , Hannah was the son of Thomas Howard Hannah , a public servant who later became a magistrate in Perth , and his wife Johanna . Hannah attended the Hale School , leaving with a Junior Certificate in 1930 . He served with an Australian Militia unit , the 8th Field Artillery Brigade , from February 1933 , and became a clerk in the Crown Law Department of the State Public Service later that year . Hannah joined the Royal Australian Air Force on 15 January 1935 as an air cadet at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria . After graduating from No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , he obtained his commission as a pilot officer in July 1936 . His first posting was to No. 22 Squadron at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales . Promoted to flying officer , he was appointed adjutant with the newly formed No. 23 Squadron at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , in May 1937 . Hannah accompanied the squadron , which operated Hawker Demons and Avro Ansons , to its new location at the recently opened RAAF Station Pearce , Western Australia , in March 1938 . On 5 January 1939 , he married Patricia Gordon at Claremont ; the couple had a daughter . Having specialised as an instructor , he then served on the staff of No. 1 FTS , Point Cook . = = World War II = = Promoted to flight lieutenant , Hannah was posted to Britain in July 1939 to undertake a Royal Air Force armaments training course , which he had barely begun when war was declared on 3 September . He completed the course , and returned to Australia in March 1940 . After brief postings to No. 1 Armament School , Point Cook , and Station Headquarters Laverton , he was assigned to Air Force Headquarters , Melbourne , in May . He was made an acting squadron leader in September 1940 and became Deputy Director of Armament the next year . In April 1942 , Hannah was promoted to temporary wing commander . He undertook a general reconnaissance course the following May . In November 1943 , Hannah was appointed commanding officer of No. 6 Squadron at Milne Bay , Papua , flying Bristol Beaufort light bombers . During a familiarisation flight he came under friendly fire from anti @-@ aircraft guns on Kiriwina Island , but avoided serious injury . He was raised to temporary group captain in December , and assumed command of No. 71 Wing the following month . The Beauforts of No. 6 Squadron and No. 71 Wing took part in a series of major attacks on Rabaul , bombing and strafing airfields , infrastructure and shipping ; this continued until February 1944 , when the Japanese withdrew their aircraft from Rabaul . The same month , Hannah fell ill and had to be repatriated to Australia . After six weeks recuperation at Laverton , he returned to No. 6 Squadron , based on Goodenough Island . From March to August , the squadron was mainly involved in convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine duties . In September 1944 , Hannah was appointed senior air staff officer ( SASO ) at Headquarters Western Area Command , Perth . He took over control of the formation from Air Commodore Raymond Brownell in July 1945 , following Brownell 's departure to command No. 11 Group in the Dutch East Indies . = = Post @-@ war RAAF career = = = = = Rise to Chief of the Air Staff = = = Hannah handed over command of Western Area in October 1946 , and was posted to Britain . Over the next two years , he undertook study at RAF Staff College , Andover , and served as SASO at RAAF Overseas Headquarters in London . Returning to Australia , in May 1949 he assumed command of RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland . From August 1950 , he also held temporary command of the base 's Avro Lincoln heavy bomber formation , No. 82 Wing . Promoted to substantive group captain in October 1950 , Hannah was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1951 New Year Honours , in particular for his " exceptional ability " as SASO at RAAF Overseas Headquarters . In September that year , he was made Director of Personnel Services ; his position became Director @-@ General of Personnel in July 1952 . As aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Elizabeth II , Hannah was heavily involved in planning the RAAF 's part in the 1954 Royal Tour of Australia . He was raised to Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the Queen 's Birthday Honours that June . In 1955 , Hannah attended the Imperial Defence College in London , and was promoted to air commodore . He was posted to Singapore as SASO , RAF Far East Air Force Headquarters , in January 1956 , handling counter @-@ insurgency operations during the Malayan Emergency . Hannah 's " distinguished service " during the conflict was recognised with his appointment as a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in June 1959 . As Director @-@ General of Plans and Policy from March 1959 , he was responsible for commencing the Department of Air 's relocation from Melbourne to Canberra . In December 1961 , Hannah was appointed Deputy Chief of the Air Staff , receiving promotion to acting air vice marshal in May 1962 ; the rank was made substantive in January 1963 . He was later described by his staff officer in this role as " brusque " and " impersonal " though not unsympathetic , his " uncommunicative " manner stemming from a preference to " do his own research , think out the substance of his project submissions , dictate to his stenographer , then amend to his own satisfaction " , rather than delegate . Hannah served as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Operational Command ( now Air Command ) from February 1965 to December 1967 , during which time the RAAF 's fighter squadrons completed their conversion from the CAC Sabre to the supersonic Dassault Mirage III . His tenure also saw the deployment of the first Australian helicopters to Vietnam , eight UH @-@ 1 Iroquois of No. 9 Squadron that departed Sydney in May 1966 . Hannah 's next appointment was as AOC Support Command , responsible for training and maintenance in the Air Force . Throughout his career to this point he was noted for his energy and drive . = = = Chief of the Air Staff = = = Hannah was promoted to air marshal on 1 January 1970 , and succeeded Air Marshal Sir Alister Murdoch as Chief of the Air Staff . Murdoch had earlier recommended Hannah , known to be a strong advocate for Australian participation in the Vietnam War , for the position of Commander Australian Forces Vietnam when it came up for rotation at the end of 1969 ; the post went to an Army officer , and the Federal government ordered the withdrawal of the RAAF presence in Vietnam during Hannah 's tour as CAS . In March 1970 , the Minister for Defence , Malcolm Fraser , commissioned a review of naval air power . Hannah fundamentally disagreed with any suggestion that the Royal Australian Navy should operate land @-@ based aircraft , claiming that he was arguing not from a partisan perspective but to ensure that Australia 's limited defence resources were not spread across three services . Confidential RAAF papers from the time declared that its goal was always to " avoid giving the Navy the opportunity to establish a land @-@ based air force " . Two years later , Hannah responded favourably to a recommendation from the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee , Admiral Sir Victor Smith , to use the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ delivered F @-@ 111 bomber for maritime support , among other roles . In the 1971 New Year Honours , Hannah was raised to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) . His tour as CAS coincided with the RAAF 's Golden Jubilee , celebrated in March and April that year . He personally organised a fly @-@ past of two US Air Force F @-@ 111s at air shows marking the occasion , generating favourable coverage to counteract the poor publicity surrounding the type 's long @-@ delayed entry into Australian service . He was also involved in two controversial decisions the same year . Firstly , he was a member of the committee to choose an Air Force memorial to be located on ANZAC Parade , Canberra . The selected design was an abstract sculpture that , according to official RAAF historian Alan Stephens , reflected " the selection panel 's comprehensive failure to understand the nature of air force service " . Secondly , Hannah commissioned a replacement for the Air Force 's winter uniform , traditionally a shade " somewhere between royal and navy blue " that had been personally chosen by the RAAF 's first CAS , Wing Commander ( later Air Marshal Sir ) Richard Williams , to distinguish it from the lighter Royal Air Force colour . Hannah publicly debuted the uniform that he approved , an all @-@ purpose middle @-@ blue suit , at a Point Cook graduation parade on 8 December 1971 . It was the object of much adverse comment in the ensuing years ; personnel complained of being mistaken for bus , train and postal employees . One of Hannah 's successors as CAS , Air Marshal Errol McCormack , ordered that the uniform revert to Williams ' original colour and style commencing in 2000 . = = Governor = = Hannah 's planned three @-@ year term as Chief of the Air Staff was cut short by some ten months when he accepted an offer to serve as Governor of Queensland , becoming the first officer in the RAAF to receive a vice @-@ regal appointment . The announcement was made in January 1972 , and he took office on 21 March . He succeeded Sir Alan Mansfield . Hannah did not have a strong connection with Queensland at the time of his appointment , and had only lived in the state during his period as commander of RAAF Station Amberley between 1949 and 1951 . He claimed not to have actively sought the governorship , and was criticised for failing to consult with senior colleagues before making his decision to retire early from his position as head of the Air Force . He was replaced as CAS by his deputy , Air Vice Marshal ( later Air Marshal Sir ) Charles Read . Described when he took office as " a man with the flexibility of mind and ability to mix with people , so necessary for a Governor " , Hannah was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( KCMG ) and a Knight and Deputy Prior of the Venerable Order of Saint John in September 1972 . His term as Governor was relatively uneventful until 1975 . In October that year , he created controversy at a Brisbane Chamber of Commerce luncheon by criticising the " fumbling ineptitude " of Prime Minister Gough Whitlam 's Federal Labor government for placing Australia in " its present economic state " . Vice @-@ regal appointees in Australia were expected to remain above politics , but Hannah declared that he would be " guilty of sheltering behind convention , of denying my heritage and failing in my regard for the people of Queensland " if he did not speak his mind . The incident occurred in the midst of a constitutional crisis and , according to military historian Chris Coulthard @-@ Clark , was " widely seen as a blatant intervention in the national political arena " . The Federal government responded by advising the Queen to revoke Hannah 's dormant commission to serve in place of the Governor @-@ General if required ; at the time Hannah was the second in line to serve as Governor @-@ General , after the Governor of New South Wales . Following his succession in November 1975 , Liberal Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser attempted to have the dormant commission reinstated , but the British government refused to recommend this to the Queen , citing lack of impartiality on Hannah 's part . Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke @-@ Petersen made it known that he planned to extend the Governor 's term , but the British government also refused to agree to this . Bjelke @-@ Petersen was prepared to pursue the matter , but Hannah declined to let his name be put forward again . On 9 October 1976 , Hannah dedicated a memorial at Cairns to commemorate the crews of RAAF Catalina flying boats who lost their lives in the South West Pacific during World War II . His vice @-@ regal appointment lapsed on 20 March 1977 , and he was succeeded the next month by Commodore Sir James Ramsay . = = Retirement and death = = Hannah retired following completion of his term as Governor of Queensland . He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( KCVO ) in August 1977 ( backdated to March ) as part of Queen Elizabeth II 's Silver Jubilee visit to Australia . Hannah died of a heart attack on 22 May 1978 at his home in Surfers Paradise , Queensland . He was given a state funeral and cremated ; his wife and daughter survived him . Hannah Community Park , straddling the suburbs of Fadden and Gowrie in Canberra , was established in his honour in 2002 .
= Belgrade = Belgrade ( / ˈbɛlɡreɪd / ; Serbian : Beograd / Београд ; Serbian pronunciation : [ beǒɡrad ] ; names in other languages ) is the capital and largest city of Serbia . It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers , where the Pannonian Plain meets the Balkans . Its name translates to " White city " . The city proper has a population of 1 @.@ 23 million , while over 1 @.@ 65 million people live within the administrative limits . One of the most important prehistoric cultures of Europe , the Vinča culture , evolved within the Belgrade area in the 6th millennium BC . In antiquity , Thraco @-@ Dacians inhabited the region , and after 279 BC Celts conquered the city , naming it Singidūn . It was conquered by the Romans during the reign of Augustus , and awarded city rights in the mid @-@ 2nd century . It was settled by the Slavs in the 520s , and changed hands several times between the Byzantine Empire , Frankish Empire , Bulgarian Empire and Kingdom of Hungary before it became the capital of Serbian king Stephen Dragutin ( 1282 – 1316 ) . In 1521 , Belgrade was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and became the seat of the Sanjak of Smederevo . It frequently passed from Ottoman to Habsburg rule , which saw the destruction of most of the city during the Austro @-@ Ottoman wars . Belgrade was again named the capital of Serbia in 1841 . Northern Belgrade remained the southernmost Habsburg post until 1918 , when the city was reunited . As a strategic location , the city was battled over in 115 wars and razed to the ground 44 times . Belgrade was the capital of Yugoslavia ( in various forms of governments ) from its creation in 1918 , to its final dissolution in 2006 . Belgrade has a special administrative status within Serbia and it is one of five statistical regions of Serbia . Its metropolitan territory is divided into 17 municipalities , each with its own local council . It covers 3 @.@ 6 % of Serbia 's territory , and 22 @.@ 5 % of the country 's population lives in the city . Belgrade has been awarded many titles , and is classified as a Beta- global city . = = Geography = = Belgrade lies 116 @.@ 75 metres ( 383 @.@ 0 ft ) above sea level and is located at the confluence of the Danube and Sava rivers . The historical core of Belgrade , Kalemegdan , lies on the right banks of both rivers . Since the 19th century , the city has been expanding to the south and east ; after World War II , Novi Beograd ( New Belgrade ) was built on the left bank of the Sava river , connecting Belgrade with Zemun . Smaller , chiefly residential communities across the Danube , like Krnjača , Kotež and Borča , also merged with the city , while Pančevo , a heavily industrialized satellite city , remains a separate town . The city has an urban area of 360 square kilometres ( 140 sq mi ) , while together with its metropolitan area it covers 3 @,@ 223 km2 ( 1 @,@ 244 sq mi ) . Throughout history , Belgrade has been a crossroads between the West and the Orient . On the right bank of the Sava , central Belgrade has a hilly terrain , while the highest point of Belgrade proper is Torlak hill at 303 m ( 994 ft ) . The mountains of Avala ( 511 m ( 1 @,@ 677 ft ) ) and Kosmaj ( 628 m ( 2 @,@ 060 ft ) ) lie south of the city . Across the Sava and Danube , the land is mostly flat , consisting of alluvial plains and loessial plateaus . = = = Climate = = = Belgrade lies in the humid subtropical ( Cfa ) climate zone , with four seasons and uniformly spread precipitation . Monthly averages range from 1 @.@ 4 ° C ( 34 @.@ 5 ° F ) in January to 23 @.@ 0 ° C ( 73 @.@ 4 ° F ) in July , with an annual mean of 12 @.@ 5 ° C ( 54 @.@ 5 ° F ) . There are , on average , 31 days a year when the temperature is above 30 ° C , and 95 days when the temperature is above 25 ° C. Belgrade receives about 690 millimetres ( 27 in ) of precipitation a year , with late spring being wettest . The average annual number of sunny hours is 2 @,@ 112 . The highest officially recorded temperature in Belgrade was + 43 @.@ 6 ° C ( 110 @.@ 5 ° F ) on 24 July 2007 , while on the other end , the lowest temperature was − 26 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 15 ° F ) on 10 January 1893 . = = History = = = = = Prehistory = = = Chipped stone tools found at Zemun show that the area around Belgrade was inhabited by nomadic foragers in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic eras . Some of these tools belong to the Mousterian industry , which are associated with Neanderthals rather than modern humans . Aurignacian and Gravettian tools have also been discovered there , indicating occupation between 50 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 years ago . The first farming people to settle in the region are associated with the Neolithic Starčevo culture , which flourished between 6200 and 5200 BC . There are several Starčevo sites in and around Belgrade , including the eponymous site of Starčevo . The Starčevo culture was succeeded by the Vinča culture ( 5500 – 4500 BC ) , a more sophisticated farming culture that grew out of the earlier Starčevo settlements which is also named for a site in the Belgrade region ( Vinča @-@ Belo Brdo ) . The Vinča culture is known for its very large settlements , one of the earliest settlements by continuous habitation and some of the largest in prehistoric Europe ; anthropomorphic figurines such as the Lady of Vinča ; the earliest known copper metallurgy in Europe ; a proto @-@ writing form developed prior to the Sumerians and Minoans , known as the Old European script , dating back to around 5300 BC . = = = Ancient city = = = Evidence of early knowledge about Belgrade 's geographical location comes from ancient myths and legends . The rock overlooking the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers has been identified as one of the place in the story of Jason and the Argonauts . The Paleo @-@ Balkan tribes of Thracians and Dacians ruled this area prior to the Roman conquest . Belgrade was inhabited by a Thraco @-@ Dacian tribe Singi ; after the Celtic invasion in 279 BC , the Scordisci took the city , naming it " Singidūn " ( dūn , fortress ) . In 34 – 33 BC the Roman army led by Silanus reached Belgrade . It became the romanized Singidunum in the 1st century AD , and by the mid @-@ 2nd century , the city was proclaimed a municipium by the Roman authorities , evolving into a full @-@ fledged colonia ( highest city class ) by the end of the century . Apart from the first Christian Emperor of Rome who was born in the territory of modern Serbia in Naissus — Constantine I known as Constantine the Great — another early Roman Emperor was born in Singidunum : Flavius Iovianus ( Jovian ) , the restorer of Christianity . Jovian reestablished Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire , ending the brief revival of traditional Roman religions under his predecessor Julian the Apostate . In 395 AD , the site passed to the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire . Across the Sava from Singidunum was the Celtic city of Taurunum ( Zemun ) ; the two were connected with a bridge throughout Roman and Byzantine times . = = = Middle Ages = = = In 442 , the area was ravaged by Attila the Hun . In 471 , it was taken by Theodoric the Great , who continued into Greece . As the Ostrogoths left for Italy , the Gepids took over the city . In 539 it was retaken by the Byzantines . In 577 , some 100 @,@ 000 Slavs poured into Thrace and Illyricum , pillaging cities and settling down . The Avars under Bayan I conquered the whole region by 582 . According to Byzantine chronicle De Administrando Imperio , the White Serbs had stopped in Belgrade on their way back home , asking the strategos for lands ; they received provinces in the west , towards the Adriatic , which they would rule as subjects to Heraclius ( 610 – 641 ) . In 829 Khan Omurtag was able to add Singidunum and its environs to the First Bulgarian Empire . The first record of the name Belograd appeared on April , 16th , 878 , in a Papal letter to Bulgarian ruler Boris I. Later , this name appeared in several variants : Alba Graeca ( Greek city ) , Griechisch Wiessenburg ( Greek white castle ) , Nandor Alba ( City of the Bulgarians ) , Nandor Fejervar ( The white castle of the Bulgarians ) - still named like this in the Hungarian transltation of the city , Castelbianco ( White Castle ) , Alba Bulgarica ( Bulgarian City ) . For about four centuries , the city remained a battleground between the Byzantine Empire , the Kingdom of Hungary and the Bulgarian Empire . Basil II ( 976 – 1025 ) installed a garrison in Belgrade . The city hosted the armies of the First and the Second Crusade ; while passing through during the Third Crusade , Frederick Barbarossa and his 190 @,@ 000 crusaders saw Belgrade in ruins . Stefan Dragutin ( r . 1276 – 1282 ) received Belgrade from his father @-@ in @-@ law , Stephen V of Hungary in 1284 ; it served as the capital of the Kingdom of Syrmia , and Dragutin is regarded as the first Serbian king to rule over Belgrade as a vassal to the Kingdom of Hungary . Following the battles at Maritsa ( 1371 ) and Kosovo field ( 1389 ) , Serbia began to crumble as the Ottoman Empire conquered its southern territory . The north resisted through the Serbian Despotate , which had Belgrade as its capital . The city flourished under Stefan Lazarević , son of Serbian prince Lazar Hrebeljanović . Lazarević built a castle with a citadel and towers , of which only the Despot 's tower and west wall remain . He also refortified the city 's ancient walls , allowing the Despotate to resist the Ottomans for almost 70 years . During this time , Belgrade was a haven for many Balkan peoples fleeing Ottoman rule , and is thought to have had a population of 40 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 people . In 1427 , Stefan 's successor Đurađ Branković had to return Belgrade to the Hungarian king , and Smederevo became the new capital . Although the Ottomans captured most of the Serbian Despotate , Belgrade , known as Nándorfehérvár in Hungarian , was unsuccessfully besieged in 1440 and 1456 . As the city presented an obstacle to the Ottoman advance into Hungary and further , over 100 @,@ 000 Ottoman soldiers besieged it in 1456 , in which the Christian army successfully defended it . The noon bell ordered by Pope Callixtus III commemorates the victory throughout the Christian world to this day . = = = Ottoman conquest and Austrian invasions = = = Seven decades after the initial siege , on 28 August 1521 , the fort was finally captured by Ottoman Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent and his 250 @,@ 000 soldiers ; subsequently , most of the city was razed to the ground and its entire Orthodox Christian population was deported to Istanbul , to an area that has since become known as the Belgrade forest . Belgrade was made the seat of the district ( Sanjak ) , becoming the second largest Ottoman town in Europe at over 100 @,@ 000 people , surpassed only by Constantinople . Ottoman rule also introduced Ottoman architecture , including numerous mosques , increasing the city 's Oriental influences . In 1594 , a major Serb rebellion was crushed by the Ottomans . Later , Grand vizier Sinan Pasha ordered the relics of Saint Sava to be publicly torched on the Vračar plateau ; in the 20th century , the Temple of Saint Sava was built to commemorate this event . Occupied by the Habsburgs three times ( 1688 – 1690 , 1717 – 1739 , 1789 – 1791 ) , headed by the Holy Roman Princes Maximilian of Bavaria and Eugene of Savoy , and field marshal Baron Ernst Gideon von Laudon respectively , Belgrade was quickly recaptured by the Ottomans and substantially razed each time . During this period , the city was affected by the two Great Serbian Migrations , in which hundreds of thousands of Serbs , led by two Serbian Patriarchs , retreated together with the Austrians into the Habsburg Empire , settling in today 's Vojvodina and Slavonia . = = = Capital of independent Serbia = = = During the First Serbian Uprising , the Serbian revolutionaries held the city from 8 January 1807 until 1813 , when it was retaken by the Ottomans . After the Second Serbian Uprising in 1815 , Serbia reached semi @-@ independence , which was formally recognized by the Porte in 1830 . In 1841 , Prince Mihailo Obrenović moved the capital from Kragujevac to Belgrade . In May 1868 , Prince Mihailo was assassinated with his cousin Anka Konstantinović while riding in a carriage through the park of his country residence With the Principality 's full independence in 1878 , and its transformation into the Kingdom of Serbia in 1882 , Belgrade once again became a key city in the Balkans , and developed rapidly . Nevertheless , conditions in Serbia as a whole remained those of an overwhelmingly agrarian country , even with the opening of a railway to Niš , Serbia 's second city , and in 1900 the capital had only 70 @,@ 000 inhabitants ( at the time Serbia numbered 1 @.@ 5 million ) . Yet by 1905 the population had grown to more than 80 @,@ 000 , and by the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , it had surpassed the 100 @,@ 000 citizens , not counting Zemun which then belonged to Austria @-@ Hungary . The first @-@ ever projection of motion pictures in the Balkans and Central Europe was held in Belgrade , in June 1896 by Andre Carr , a representative of the Lumière brothers . He shot the first motion pictures of Belgrade in the next year ; however , they have not been preserved . = = = World War I and the Interbellum = = = The First World War began on 28 July 1914 when Austria @-@ Hungary declared war on Serbia . Most of the subsequent Balkan offensives occurred near Belgrade . Austro @-@ Hungarian monitors shelled Belgrade on 29 July 1914 , and it was taken by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army under General Oskar Potiorek on 30 November . On 15 December , it was re @-@ taken by Serbian troops under Marshal Radomir Putnik . After a prolonged battle which destroyed much of the city , between 6 and 9 October 1915 , Belgrade fell to German and Austro @-@ Hungarian troops commanded by Field Marshal August von Mackensen on 9 October 1915 . The city was liberated by Serbian and French troops on 1 November 1918 , under the command of Marshal Louis Franchet d 'Espérey of France and Crown Prince Alexander of Serbia . Since Belgrade was decimated as the front @-@ line city , Subotica overtook the title of the largest city in the Kingdom for a short while . After the war , Belgrade became the capital of the new Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929 . The Kingdom was split into banovinas , and Belgrade , together with Zemun and Pančevo , formed a separate administrative unit . During this period , the city experienced fast growth and significant modernisation . Belgrade 's population grew to 239 @,@ 000 by 1931 ( incorporating the town of Zemun , formerly in Austria @-@ Hungary ) , and 320 @,@ 000 by 1940 . The population growth rate between 1921 and 1948 averaged 4 @.@ 08 % a year . In 1927 , Belgrade 's first airport opened , and in 1929 , its first radio station began broadcasting . The Pančevo Bridge , which crosses the Danube , was opened in 1935 , while " King Alexander Bridge " over the Sava was opened in 1934 . On 3 September 1939 the first Belgrade Grand Prix , the last Grand Prix motor racing race before the outbreak of World War II , was held around the Belgrade Fortress and was followed by 80 @,@ 000 spectators . The winner was Tazio Nuvolari . = = = World War II = = = On 25 March 1941 , the government of regent Crown Prince Paul signed the Tripartite Pact , joining the Axis powers in an effort to stay out of the Second World War and keep Yugoslavia neutral during the conflict . This was immediately followed by mass protests in Belgrade and a military coup d 'état led by Air Force commander General Dušan Simović , who proclaimed King Peter II to be of age to rule the realm . Consequently , the city was heavily bombed by the Luftwaffe on 6 April 1941 , killing up to 24 @,@ 000 people . Yugoslavia was then invaded by German , Italian , Hungarian , and Bulgarian forces . Belgrade was occupied by the German Army later the same month and Belgrade became the seat of the puppet Nedić regime , headed by General Milan Nedić . During the summer and fall of 1941 , in reprisal for guerrilla attacks , the Germans carried out several massacres of Belgrade citizens ; in particular , members of the Jewish community were subject to mass shootings at the order of General Franz Böhme , the German Military Governor of Serbia . Böhme rigorously enforced the rule that for every German killed , 100 Serbs or Jews would be shot . The resistance movement in Belgrade was led by Major Žarko Todorović from 1941 until his arrest in 1943 . Just like Rotterdam , which was devastated twice , by both German and Allied bombing , Belgrade was bombed once more during World War II , this time by the Allies on 16 April 1944 , killing at least 1 @,@ 100 people . This bombing fell on the Orthodox Christian Easter . Most of the city remained under German occupation until 20 October 1944 , when it was liberated by the Red Army and the Communist Yugoslav Partisans . On 29 November 1945 , Marshal Josip Broz Tito proclaimed the Federal People 's Republic of Yugoslavia in Belgrade ( later to be renamed to Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 7 April 1963 ) . Higher estimates from the former secret police place the victim count of political persecutions in Belgrade at 10 @,@ 000 . = = = After World War II = = = During the post @-@ war period , Belgrade grew rapidly as the capital of the renewed Yugoslavia , developing as a major industrial center . In 1948 , construction of New Belgrade started . In 1958 , Belgrade 's first television station began broadcasting . In 1961 , the conference of Non @-@ Aligned Countries was held in Belgrade under Tito 's chairmanship . In 1962 , Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport was built . In 1968 , major student protests led to several street clashes between students and the police . In 1960 , architect Svetislav Tisa Milosavljević died there of natural causes . = = = Breakup of Yugoslavia = = = On 9 March 1991 , massive demonstrations led by Vuk Drašković were held in the city against Slobodan Milošević . According to various media outlets , there were between 100 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 people on the streets . Two people were killed , 203 injured and 108 arrested during the protests , and later that day tanks were deployed onto the streets to restore order . Further protests were held in Belgrade from November 1996 to February 1997 against the same government after alleged electoral fraud at local elections . These protests brought Zoran Đinđić to power , the first mayor of Belgrade since World War II who did not belong to the League of Communists of Yugoslavia or its later offshoot , the Socialist Party of Serbia . In 1999 , during the Kosovo War , NATO bombings caused substantial damage to the city . Among the sites bombed were the buildings of several ministries , the RTS building , which killed 16 technicians , several hospitals , the Hotel Jugoslavija , the Central Committee building , the Avala Tower , and the Chinese embassy . Several of these buildings have been left in their bombed states to serve as a memorial for the bombings . After the 2000 presidential elections , Belgrade was the site of major public protests , with over half a million people on the streets . These demonstrations resulted in the ousting of president Milošević . = = = In modern Serbia = = = In 2015 , an agreement was reached with Eagle Hills ( a UAE company ) on the Belgrade Waterfront deal , for the construction of a new part of the city on currently undeveloped wasteland by the riverside . This project , officially started in September 2015 and is the biggest construction project in Europe , will cost at least 3 @.@ 5 billion euros . = = Administration = = Belgrade is a separate territorial unit in Serbia , with its own autonomous city authority . The City Assembly of Belgrade has 110 members , elected on four @-@ year terms . A 13 @-@ member City Council , elected by the Assembly and presided over by the mayor and his deputy , has the control and supervision of the City Administration , which manages day @-@ to @-@ day administrative affairs . It is divided into 14 Secretariats , each having a specific portfolio such as traffic or health care , and several professional services , agencies and institutes . The 2014 Belgrade local elections were won by the Serbian Progressive Party , which formed a wide ruling coalition with the Socialist Party of Serbia and Democratic Party of Serbia . These elections ended the long @-@ time rule of the Democratic Party , which elected mayors from 2004 to 2013 . The Mayor of Belgrade is Siniša Mali , a political independent affiliated with the Serbian Progressive Party . The city 's budget for 2013 was 82 @.@ 8 billion dinars ( approximately $ 1 billion US dollars ) . As the capital city of Serbia , Belgrade hosts many governmental institutions including the National Assembly and Government of Serbia , as well as 75 diplomatic missions . = = = Municipalities = = = The city is divided into 17 municipalities . Previously , they were classified into 10 " urban " ( lying completely or partially within borders of the city proper ) and 7 " suburban " municipalities , whose centres are smaller towns . With the new 2010 City statute , they were all given equal status , with the proviso that suburban ones ( except Surčin ) have certain autonomous powers , chiefly related with construction , infrastructure and public utilities . Most of the municipalities are situated on the southern side of the Danube and Sava rivers , in the Šumadija region . Three municipalities ( Zemun , Novi Beograd , and Surčin ) , are on the northern bank of the Sava , in the Syrmia region , and the municipality of Palilula , spanning the Danube , is in both the Šumadija and Banat regions . = = Demographics = = According to the 2011 census , the city has a population of 1 @,@ 166 @,@ 763 , while the urban area of Belgrade ( with adjacent urban settlements of Borča , Ovča , and Surčin included ) has 1 @,@ 233 @,@ 796 inhabitants , and the population of the metropolitan area ( the administrative area of the City of Belgrade ) stands at 1 @,@ 659 @,@ 440 people . The main population groups according to nationality in the city municipality of Belgrade are : Serbs ( 1 @,@ 505 @,@ 448 ) , Roma ( 27 @,@ 325 ) , Montenegrins ( 9 @,@ 902 ) , Yugoslavs ( 8 @,@ 061 ) , Croats ( 7 @,@ 752 ) , Macedonians ( 6 @,@ 970 ) , and Muslims by nationality ( 3 @,@ 996 ) . Belgrade is home to many ethnicities from all over the former Yugoslavia . Many people came to the city as economic migrants from smaller towns and the countryside , while hundreds of thousands arrived as refugees from Croatia , Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina and Kosovo , as a result of the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s . Between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 Chinese are estimated to live in Belgrade ; they began immigrating in the mid @-@ 1990s . Block 70 in New Belgrade is known colloquially as the Chinese quarter . Many Middle Easterners , mainly from Syria , Iran , Jordan and Iraq , arrived in order to pursue their studies during the 1970s and 1980s , and have remained in the city . In 2007 , a group of Iraqi Kurdish families stayed in UN Barracks in New Belgrade . Although there are several historic religious communities in Belgrade , the religious makeup of the city is relatively homogenous . The Serbian Orthodox community is by far the largest , with 1 @,@ 429 @,@ 170 adherents . There are also 3 @,@ 996 Muslims , 16 @,@ 305 Roman Catholics , and 3 @,@ 796 Protestants . There once was a significant Jewish community in Belgrade , but following the World War II Nazi occupation of the city , and subsequent Jewish emigration , their numbers have fallen to 2 @,@ 200 from over 10 @,@ 000 . The largest settlements in Belgrade region are : = = Economy = = Belgrade is the financial centre of Serbia and Southeast Europe with total 17 @.@ 000 @.@ 000 m ² office space , and is home to the country 's central bank . Currently , over 600 @,@ 000 people are employed in 120 @,@ 286 companies , 22 @,@ 600 enterprises and 50 @,@ 000 shops . City of Belgrade owns 267 @.@ 147 m ² office space available for rent . With 6 @,@ 924 companies in the IT sector ( 2013 data ) , Belgrade is one of the information technology centers in this part of Europe , with strong growth . Microsoft Development Center located in Belgrade was at the time of its establishment fifth such center in the world . Many world IT companies choose Belgrade as regional or European center such as Asus , Intel , Dell , Huawei , NCR etc . What brought companies like Microsoft in the first place was a large pool of talented engineers and mathematicians in a lower wage country and these major investments had in 2015 generated over € 678 @.@ 3 million in Serbia 's exports . New Belgrade is the main business district in the country . It offers a range of facilities such as hotels , congress halls ( Sava Centar ) , class A and class B office buildings , sporting facilities ( Belgrade Arena ) , shopping malls ( Ušće and Delta City ) and business parks ( Airport City Belgrade ) . Currently , over 1 @.@ 2 million square meters of land is under construction in New Belgrade and the estimated value of construction in the next two and half years is over 1 @.@ 5 billion Euros . The Belgrade Stock Exchange is also located in New Belgrade . Currently , the Belgrade Stock Exchange is a full member of Federation of Euro @-@ Asian Stock Exchanges ( FEAS ) and an associate member of Federation of European Securities Exchanges ( FESE ) . As of December 2014 , it has a market capitalization of € 6 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 9 billion ) . Serbia overcame the problems of inflation in the mid @-@ 1990s , and Belgrade has been growing strongly ever since . As of 2009 , over 40 % of Serbia 's GDP is generated by the city , which also has 31 @.@ 4 % of Serbia 's employed population . The city of Belgrade 's 2014 nominal GDP is estimated at 16 @.@ 97 USD , which amounts to 859 @,@ 329 RSD ( $ 10 @,@ 086 ) per capita . GDP at purchasing power parity is estimated at $ 36 @.@ 1 Billion USD , which is $ 21 @,@ 461 per capita in terms of purchasing power parity . In September 2013 , the average monthly net salary in Belgrade was 53 @,@ 564 RSD ( $ 635 ) , while gross salary was 73 @,@ 970 RSD ( $ 877 ) . In the annual Economist Intelligence Unit survey in 2013 , Belgrade ranked 86th most expensive among 131 world cities . According to the Eurostat methodology , and contrasting sharply to the Balkan region , 66 @.@ 2 % of the city 's households owned a computer in 2012 . According to the same survey , 60 @.@ 5 % of households have an internet connection ; 90 @.@ 4 % at least one mobile phone , and 71 @.@ 7 % cable television. these figures are above those of the regional capitals such as Sofia , Bucharest and Athens . = = Culture = = Belgrade hosts many annual international cultural events , including the Film Festival , Theatre Festival , Summer Festival , Music Festival , Book Fair , Eurovision Song Contest 2008 , and the Beer Fest . The Nobel Prize winning author Ivo Andrić wrote his most famous work , The Bridge on the Drina , in Belgrade . Other prominent Belgrade authors include Branislav Nušić , Miloš Crnjanski , Borislav Pekić , Milorad Pavić and Meša Selimović . Internationally Belgrade prominent artist : Marina Abramović and Milovan Destil Marković . Most of Serbia 's film industry is based in Belgrade . FEST is an annual film festival that held since 1971 , and , through 2013 , had been attended by four million people and had presented almost 4 @,@ 000 films . The city was one of the main centers of the Yugoslav New Wave in the 1980s : VIS Idoli , Ekatarina Velika , Šarlo Akrobata and Električni Orgazam were all from Belgrade . Other notable Belgrade rock acts include Riblja Čorba , Bajaga i Instruktori and Partibrejkers . Today , it is the center of the Serbian hip hop scene , with acts such as Beogradski Sindikat , Škabo , Marčelo , and most of the Bassivity Music stable hailing from or living in the city . There are numerous theatres , the most prominent of which are National Theatre , Theatre on Terazije , Yugoslav Drama Theatre , Zvezdara Theatre , and Atelier 212 . The Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts is also based in Belgrade , as well as the National Library of Serbia . Other major libraries include the Belgrade City Library and the Belgrade University Library . Belgrade 's two opera houses are : National Theatre and Madlenianum Opera House . There are many foreign cultural institutions in Belgrade , including the Spanish Instituto Cervantes , the German Goethe @-@ Institut and the French Institut français , which are all located in the central pedestrian area of Knez Mihailova Street . Other cultural centers in Belgrade are American Corner , Austrian Cultural Forum , British Council , Chinese Confucius Institute , Canadian Cultural Center , Hellenic Foundation for Culture , Italian Istituto Italiano di Cultura , Iranian Culture Center , Azerbaijani Culture Center and Russian Center for Science and Culture . European Union National Institutes for Culture operates a cluster of cultural centres from the EU . Following the victory of Serbia 's representative Marija Šerifović at the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 , Belgrade hosted the Contest in 2008 . = = = Museums = = = The most prominent museum in Belgrade is the National Museum , founded in 1844 and currently closed for reconstruction . The Museum houses a collection of more than 400 @,@ 000 exhibits , ( over 5600 paintings and 8400 drawings and prints , including many foreign masters like Bosch , Juan de Flandes , Titian , Tintoretto , Rubens , Van Dyck , Cézanne , G.B.Tiepolo , Renoir , Monet , Lautrec , Matisse , Picasso , Gauguin , Chagall , Van Gogh , Mondrian etc . , and also the famous Miroslav 's Gospel . The Ethnographic Museum , established in 1901 , contains more than 150 @,@ 000 items showcasing the rural and urban culture of the Balkans , particularly the countries of former Yugoslavia . The Museum of Contemporary Art was the first Contemporary art museum in Europe founded in 1958 and has a collection of around 35 @,@ 000 works including Roy Lichtenstein , Andy Warhol , Joan Miró , David Hockney , Ivan Meštrović and others since 1900 . The Museum is currently closed due to renovation . The Military Museum houses a wide range of more than 25 @,@ 000 military exhibits dating as far back as to the Roman period , as well as parts of a F @-@ 117 stealth aircraft shot down by the Serbian army . The Museum of Aviation in Belgrade has more than 200 aircraft , of which about 50 are on display , and a few of which are the only surviving examples of their type , such as the Fiat G.50. This museum also displays parts of shot down US and NATO aircraft , such as the F @-@ 117 and F @-@ 16 The Nikola Tesla Museum , founded in 1952 , preserves the personal items of Nikola Tesla , the inventor after whom the Tesla unit was named . It holds around 160 @,@ 000 original documents and around 5 @,@ 700 personal other items including his urne . The last of the major Belgrade museums is the Museum of Vuk and Dositej , which showcases the lives , work and legacy of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić and Dositej Obradović , the 19th century reformer of the Serbian literary language and the first Serbian Minister of Education , respectively . Belgrade also houses the Museum of African Art , founded in 1977 , which has the large collection of art from West Africa . With around 95 @,@ 000 copies of national and international films , the Yugoslav Film Archive is the largest in the region and among the 10 largest archives in the world . The institution also operates the Museum of Yugoslav Film Archive , with movie theatre and exhibition hall . The archive 's long @-@ standing storage problems were finally solved in 2007 , when a new modern depository was opened . The Yugoslav Film Archive also exhibits original Charlie Chaplin 's stick and one of the first movies by Auguste and Louis Lumière . The Belgrade City Museum moved into a new building in downtown in 2006 . The Museum hosts a range of collections covering the history of urban life since prehistory . The Museum of Yugoslav History has collection from Yugoslav era . Beside paintings , the most valuable are Moon rocks donated by Apollo 11 crew Neil Armstrong , Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins while visiting Belgrade in 1969 and from mission Apollo 17 donated by Richard Nixon in 1971 . Museum also houses Joseph Stalin 's sabre with 260 brilliants and diamonds , donated by Stalin himself . Museum of Science and Technology moved to the building of the first city 's power plant in Dorćol in 2005 . = = = Architecture = = = Belgrade has wildly varying architecture , from the center of Zemun , typical of a Central European town , to the more modern architecture and spacious layout of New Belgrade . The oldest architecture is found in Kalemegdan Park . Outside of Kalemegdan , the oldest buildings date only from the 18th century , due to its geographic position and frequent wars and destructions . The oldest public structure in Belgrade is a nondescript Turkish türbe , while the oldest house is a modest clay house on Dorćol , from late 18th century . Western influence began in the 19th century , when the city completely transformed from an oriental town to the contemporary architecture of the time , with influences from neoclassicism , romanticism , and academic art . Serbian architects took over the development from the foreign builders in the late 19th century , producing the National Theatre , Old Palace , Cathedral Church and later , in the early 20th century , the National Assembly and National Museum , influenced by art nouveau . Elements of Neo @-@ Byzantine architecture are present in buildings such as Vuk 's Foundation , old Post Office in Kosovska street , and sacral architecture , such as St. Mark 's Church ( based on the Gračanica monastery ) , and the Temple of Saint Sava . Architectural styles in Belgrade : During the period of Communist rule , much housing was built quickly and cheaply for the huge influx of people fleeing the countryside following World War II , sometimes resulting in the brutalist architecture of the blokovi ( blocks ) of New Belgrade ; a socrealism trend briefly ruled , resulting in buildings like the Trade Union Hall . However , in the mid @-@ 1950s , the modernist trends took over , and still dominate the Belgrade architecture . Belgrade has the second oldest sewer system in Europe . = = = Tourism = = = The historic areas and buildings of Belgrade are among the city 's premier attractions . They include Skadarlija , the National Museum and adjacent National Theatre , Zemun , Nikola Pašić Square , Terazije , Students ' Square , the Kalemegdan Fortress , Knez Mihailova Street , the Parliament , the Church of Saint Sava , and the Old Palace . On top of this , there are many parks , monuments , museums , cafés , restaurants and shops on both sides of the river . The hilltop Avala Monument and Avala Tower offer views over the city . Elite neighborhood of Dedinje is situated near the Topčider and Košutnjak parks . The beli dvor ( White Palace ) , house of royal family Karađorđević , is open for visitors . The palace has many valuable artworks . Nearby , Josip Broz Tito 's mausoleum , called The House of Flowers , documents the life of the former Yugoslav president . Ada Ciganlija is a former island on the Sava River , and Belgrade 's biggest sports and recreational complex . Today it is connected with the right bank of the Sava via two causeways , creating an artificial lake . It is the most popular destination for Belgraders during the city 's hot summers . There are 7 kilometres ( 4 miles ) of long beaches and sports facilities for various sports including golf , football , basketball , volleyball , rugby union , baseball , and tennis . During summer there are between 200 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 bathers daily . Extreme sports are available , such as bungee jumping , water skiing , and paintballing . There are numerous tracks on the island , where it is possible to ride a bike , go for a walk , or go jogging . Apart from Ada , Belgrade has total of 16 islands on the rivers , many still unused . Among them , the Great War Island , at the confluence of Sava , stands out as an oasis of unshattered wildlife ( especially birds ) . These areas , along with nearby Small War Island , are protected by the city 's government as a nature preserve . Tourist income in 2012 amounted to nearly 500 million euros ; in 2013 , Belgrade was visited by 660 @,@ 000 registered tourists , of which 520 @,@ 000 were foreign . Of those , more than 70 @,@ 000 arrived by 550 river cruisers . In 2013 , growth of foreign tourists was recorded 24 % . = = = Nightlife = = = Belgrade has a reputation for offering a vibrant nightlife ; many clubs that are open until dawn can be found throughout the city . The most recognizable nightlife features of Belgrade are the barges ( splav ) , spread along the banks of the Sava and Danube Rivers . Many weekend visitors — particularly from Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , Croatia and Slovenia — prefer Belgrade nightlife to that of their own capitals , due to a perceived friendly atmosphere , plentiful clubs and bars , cheap drinks , the lack of language difficulties , and the lack of restrictive night life regulation . Famous alternative clubs include Akademija and the KST ( Klub Studenata Tehnike ) , located in the basement of the University of Belgrade Faculty of Electrical Engineering . One of the most famous sites for alternative cultural happenings in the city is the SKC ( Student Cultural Centre ) , located right across from Belgrade 's highrise landmark , the Beograđanka . Concerts featuring famous local and foreign bands are often held at the center . SKC is also the site of various art exhibitions , as well as public debates and discussions . A more traditional Serbian nightlife experience , accompanied by traditional music known as Starogradska ( roughly translated as Old Town Music ) , typical of northern Serbia 's urban environments , is most prominent in Skadarlija , the city 's old bohemian neighborhood where the poets and artists of Belgrade gathered in the 19th and early 20th centuries . Skadar Street ( the centre of Skadarlija ) and the surrounding neighbourhood are lined with some of Belgrade 's best and oldest traditional restaurants ( called kafanas in Serbian ) , which date back to that period . At one end of the neighbourhood stands Belgrade 's oldest beer brewery , founded in the first half of the 19th century . One of the city 's oldest kafanas is the Znak pitanja ( " ? " ) . The Times reported that Europe 's best nightlife can be found in Belgrade . In the Lonely Planet " 1000 Ultimate Experiences " guide of 2009 , Belgrade was placed at the 1st spot among the top 10 party cities in the world . = = = Sport = = = There are approximately one @-@ thousand sports facilities in Belgrade , many of which are capable of serving all levels of sporting events . Belgrade has hosted several major sporting events recently , including Eurobasket 2005 , the 2005 European Volleyball Championship , the 2006 European Water Polo Championship , the European Youth Olympic Festival 2007 , and the 2009 Summer Universiade . The city is home to Serbia 's two biggest and most successful football clubs , Red Star Belgrade and Partizan Belgrade . Red Star won the 1991 UEFA Champions League ( European Cup ) . The two major stadiums in Belgrade are the Marakana ( Red Star Stadium ) and the Partizan Stadium . The rivalry between Red Star and Partizan is one of the fiercest in world football . According to the European Arenas Association , the Belgrade Arena is the largest European indoor arena with capacity of 25 @,@ 000 . It is used for major sporting events and large concerts . In May 2008 it was the venue for the 53rd Eurovision Song Contest . The Pionir Hall is the main venue of basketball clubs KK Partizan , European champion of 1992 and KK Crvena zvezda . In recent years , Belgrade has also given rise to several world @-@ class tennis players such as Ana Ivanović , Jelena Janković and Novak Đoković . Ivanović and Đoković are the first female and male Serbian players , respectively , to win Grand Slam singles titles . The Serbian national team won the 2010 Davis Cup , beating the French team in the finals played in the Belgrade Arena . = = = Fashion = = = Since 1996 , biannual ( autumn / winter and spring / summer seasons ) fashion weeks are held citywide . Numerous Serbian and international designers and fashion brands have their shows on the fashion week . Belgrade Fashion Week is on the list of 40 most significant fashion weeks in the world . = = Media = = Belgrade is the most important media hub in Serbia . The city is home to the main headquarters of the national broadcaster Radio Television Serbia ( RTS ) , which is a public service broadcaster . The most popular commercial broadcaster is RTV Pink , a Serbian media multinational , known for its popular entertainment programs . One of the most popular commercial broadcaster is B92 , another media company , which has its own TV station , radio station , and music and book publishing arms , as well as the most popular website on the Serbian internet . Other TV stations broadcasting from Belgrade include 1Prva ( formerly Fox televizija ) , Nova , N1 and others which only cover the greater Belgrade municipal area , such as Studio B. High @-@ circulation daily newspapers published in Belgrade include Politika , Blic , Alo ! , Kurir and Danas . There are 2 sporting dailies , Sportski žurnal and Sport , and one economic daily , Privredni pregled . A new free distribution daily , 24 sata , was founded in the autumn of 2006 . Also , Serbian editions of the world @-@ famous magazines such as Playboy , Cosmopolitan , Elle , National Geographic , Men 's Health , The Best Shop , Grazia and others have their headquarters based in the city . = = Education = = Belgrade has two state universities and several private institutions of higher education . The University of Belgrade , founded in 1808 as the " Great School " , is the oldest institution of higher learning in Serbia . Having developed with the city in the 19th century , quite a few University buildings are a constituent part of Belgrade 's architecture and cultural heritage . With enrollment of nearly 90 @,@ 000 students , the University is one of the Europe 's largest . There are also 195 primary ( elementary ) schools and 85 secondary schools . Of the primary schools , there are 162 regular , 14 special , 15 art , and 4 adult schools . The secondary school system has 51 vocational schools , 21 gymnasiums , 8 art schools and 5 special schools . The 230 @,@ 000 pupils are managed by 22 @,@ 000 employees in over 500 buildings , covering around 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 m ² . = = Transportation = = Belgrade has an extensive public transport system based on buses ( 118 urban lines and more than 300 suburban lines ) , trams ( 12 lines ) , and trolleybuses ( 8 lines ) . It is run by GSP Beograd and SP Lasta , in cooperation with private companies on various bus routes . The BusPlus ticketing system based on contactless smart cards began operating in February 2012 . Belgrade also has a commuter rail network , Beovoz , now run by the city government . The main railway station connects Belgrade with other European capitals and many towns in Serbia . Travel by coach is also popular , and the capital is well @-@ served with daily connections to every town in Serbia and to many other European destinations through the central bus station . The city is placed along the Pan @-@ European corridors X and VII . The motorway system provides for easy access to Novi Sad and Budapest , in the north ; Niš to the south ; and Zagreb , to the west . Situated at the confluence of two major rivers , the Danube and the Sava , Belgrade has 7 bridges — the two main ones are Branko 's bridge and the Gazela Bridge , both of which connect the core of the city to New Belgrade . With the city 's expansion and a substantial increase in the number of vehicles , congestion has become a major problem ; this is expected to be alleviated by the construction of a bypass connecting the E70 and E75 motorways . Further , an " inner magistral semi @-@ ring " is planned , including a new Ada Bridge across the Sava river , which is expected to ease commuting within the city and unload the Gazela and Branko 's bridge . The Port of Belgrade is on the Danube , and allows the city to receive goods by river . The city is also served by Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) west of the city centre , near Surčin . At its peak in 1986 , almost 3 million passengers travelled through the airport , though that number dwindled to a trickle in the 1990s . Following renewed growth in 2000 , the number of passengers reached approximately 2 million in 2004 and 2005 , over 2 @.@ 6 million passengers in 2008 , reaching over 3 million passengers . All @-@ time peak , with over 4 million passengers , was accomplished in 2014 , when Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport became the second fastest growing major airport in Europe . Beovoz is the suburban / commuter railway network that provides mass @-@ transit services in the city , similar to Paris ' RER and Toronto 's GO Transit . The main usage of today 's system is to connect the suburbs with the city centre . Beovoz is operated by Serbian Railways . Belgrade suburban railway system connects suburbs and nearby cities to the west , north and south of the city . It began operation in 1992 and currently has 5 lines with 41 stations divided in two zones . Belgrade was one of the last big European capitals and cities with over a million people to have no metro / subway or other rapid transit system . The Belgrade Metro is considered the third most important project in the country , after work on roads and railways . The two projects of highest priority are the Belgrade bypass and the Pan @-@ European Corridor X. = = International cooperation and honours = = List of Belgrade 's sister and twin cities : Ljubljana , Slovenia , since 2010 Chicago , USA , since 2005 Coventry , UK , since 1957 Other friendships and cooperations , protocols , memorandums : Some of the city 's municipalities are also twinned to small cities or districts of other big cities ; for details see their respective articles . Belgrade has received various domestic and international honors , including the French Légion d 'honneur ( proclaimed 21 December 1920 ; Belgrade is one of four cities outside France , alongside Liège , Luxembourg and Volgograd , to receive this honour ) , the Czechoslovak War Cross ( awarded 8 October 1925 ) , the Yugoslavian Order of the Karađorđe 's Star ( awarded 18 May 1939 ) and the Yugoslavian Order of the People 's Hero ( proclaimed on 20 October 1974 , the 30th anniversary of the overthrow of Nazi German occupation during World War II ) . All of these decorations were received for the war efforts during the World War I and World War II . In 2006 , Financial Times ' magazine Foreign Direct Investment awarded Belgrade the title of City of the Future of Southern Europe .
= Iowa Highway 85 = Iowa Highway 85 ( Iowa 85 ) is a short state highway in east @-@ central Iowa . The route begins at the eastern city limit of Montezuma and ends at Iowa 21 east of Deep River . Created in 1920 as a spur route connecting What Cheer to Primary Road No. 2 , it is an original route in the Iowa primary highway system . In the early 1930s , the route was extended north to Deep River and west to Montezuma . By the end of the decade , Iowa 21 had taken over the north – south portion of the route . Except for both endpoints shifting slightly , Iowa 85 has largely stayed the same since the 1930s . = = Route description = = Iowa 85 begins at the eastern city limit of Montezuma . It heads east through the rolling farmland of Poweshiek County . Near the midpoint of the route , it intersects County Road V18 ( CR V18 ) . As it approaches Deep River , the route briefly curves to the north @-@ northeast before turning to the southeast . The terrain becomes hillier as the route crosses a creek leading to the eponymous river just north of Deep River . On the south side of Deep River , Iowa 85 turns back to the east . It ends one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) east of Deep River at an intersection with Iowa 21 . = = History = = Primary Road No. 85 was created in 1920 with the advent of Iowa 's primary highway system . At the time , it was a short spur route connecting What Cheer to Primary Road No. 2 in Keokuk County . In 1931 , Iowa 85 was significantly lengthened north to Deep River and west to US 63 in Montezuma . In 1939 , the route was shortened to its east – west section between Montezuma and Deep River as Iowa 21 was extended and it supplanted Iowa 85 south of Deep River . Iowa 85 was paved in the mid @-@ 1950s ; until then , the highway had been a gravel road . In the early 1960s , Iowa 21 was straightened through Keokuk County near Guernsey and Deep River . This caused the eastern end of Iowa 85 to move east back to the point where it had turned into an east – west route in the 1930s . The route would remain this way for nearly thirty years . In 1994 , the westernmost one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Iowa 85 was turned over to the City of Montezuma . The route now begins at the eastern city limits . Along US 63 , signs at the former intersection of Iowa 85 now say " To Iowa 85 " . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Poweshiek County .
= Malouma = Malouma Mint El Meidah ( Arabic : المعلومة منت الميداح , also simply Maalouma or Malouma ; born October 1 , 1960 ) is a Mauritanian singer , songwriter and politician . Raised in the south @-@ west of the country by parents versed in traditional Mauritanian music , she first performed when she was twelve , soon featuring in solo concerts . Her first song " Habibi Habeytou " harshly criticized the way in which women were treated by their husbands . Though an immediate success , it caused an outcry from the traditional ruling classes . After being forced into marriage while still a teenager , Malouma had to give up singing until 1986 . She developed her own style combining traditional music with blues , jazz , and electro . Appearing on television with songs addressing highly controversial topics such as conjugal life , poverty and inequality , she was censored in Mauritania in the early 1990s but began to perform abroad by the end of the decade . After the ban was finally lifted , she relaunched her singing and recording career , gaining popularity , particularly among the younger generation . Her fourth album , Knou ( 2014 ) , includes lyrics expressing her views on human rights and women 's place in society . Alongside her singing , Malouma has also fought to safeguard her country 's music , urging the government to create a music school , forming her own foundation in support of musical heritage , and in 2014 creating her own music festival . She has also been active in politics since the 1990s , when she began to campaign for more democracy . She was elected a senator in 2007 , the first politician in her caste , but was arrested the following year after a coup d 'état . When elections were again held in 2009 , she became a senator for the opposition Ech @-@ Choura party where she was given special responsibilities for the environment . This led in 2011 to her appointment as the IUCN 's Goodwill Ambassador for Central and West Africa . In December 2014 , she announced she was moving from the opposition to join the ruling party , the Union for the Republic , where she felt she could be more effective in contributing to the country 's progress . Her work has been recognized by the French , who decorated her as a Knight of the Legion of Honor , and the Americans , whose ambassador to Mauritania named her a Mauritanian Woman of Courage . = = Early life = = Malouma Mint Moktar Ould Meidah was born in Mederdra in the Trarza Region of south @-@ western Mauritania , on October 1 , 1960 , the year the country gained independence from France . Born into a griot family , she grew up in the small desert village of Charatt , just south of Mederdra in West Africa . Her father , Mokhtar Ould Meidah , was a celebrated singer , tidinet player and poet while her grandfather , Mohamed Yahya Ould Boubane , is remembered as a talented writer and tidinet virtuoso . Her mother also came from a family of well @-@ known traditional singers . She taught her daughter to play the ardin , a ten @-@ stringed harp traditionally played by women , when she was six . Malouma commenced her education at elementary school in 1965 in Mederdra . She qualified as an elementary school teacher in 1974 in Rosso . According to the traditions of her country , those of the Meidah family are required to carry on the art of their ancestors . As a result , she had to give up her aspirations to teach . Members of each caste are allowed only to marry other members of society within the same caste and the entire society is divided by castes politically , economically , and culturally . Movement outside of a particular caste is forbidden . She learned to play the traditional stringed instruments only women play , especially the ardin harp , and was taught traditional Mauritanian music by her father , who enjoyed an eclectic mix of music . As a result , she grew up listening to classical western works such as Beethoven , Chopin , Mozart , Vivaldi and Wagner , as well as the music of traditional Berber , Egyptian , Lebanese and Senegalese artists . She often accompanied her parents who sang traditional griots . Malouma began singing as a child , first performed on the stage when she was twelve and began appearing in solo concerts with a traditional repertoire by age fifteen . In addition to her father 's guidance , she was inspired by other traditional artists including Oum Kalthoum , Abdel Halim Hafez , Fairouz , Dimi and Sabah . As she matured , she increasingly became interested in blues music , which appealed to her as it bore a resemblance to the traditional music she knew . Malouma wrote her first song , " Habibi Habeytou " ( My beloved , I loved him ) when she was sixteen . It was a song protesting the tradition of men turning their wives out of their homes to marry younger women . It brought her instant recognition , but created a backlash , causing physical attacks from the established Muslim community . Soon after she wrote it , her family moved to Nouakchott , the capital , to help her launch her music career , but in the strongly traditional society , Malouma was forced to marry , abandoning singing until the late 1980s . She was later accused by her father of ruining his reputation . In addition to the criticisms stemming from her songs , she had disgraced her family by divorcing twice : her first husband had been forced upon her , while the second came from a noble family , who would not allow her to sing . Yet after hearing one of her songs , her father commented : " You have created something new and I find it touching . Unfortunately , I will not live long enough to be able to protect you . " = = Music career = = = = = Background = = = Malouma 's first major appearance was in 1986 , when she revealed her fusion style , combining traditional interpretations with more modern developments including blues , jazz , and electro . Her early songs " Habibi habeytou " , " Cyam ezzaman tijri " and " Awdhu billah " , which openly addressed love , conjugal life and the inequalities between men and women , contrasted strongly with what was considered acceptable in her home country . Nevertheless , they had strong popular appeal , especially for young women . Malouma carefully developed her approach , blending traditional themes with the rich repertoire and instrumentation of modern popular music . Typically , her compositions are based on the traditions of classical Arab poets , such as Al @-@ Mutanabbi and Antarah ibn Shaddad , whose verses cover political criticism , personal sacrifice and support for the weak and oppressed . She has also drawn on traditional Mauritanian themes , modernizing both the lyrics and musical presentation . From the beginning , Malouma sang in a variety of languages , including traditional Arabic , Hassania ( Mauritanian Arabic ) , French and Wolof . By singing in various languages , she sought to air her message to a broader audience . It was not long before she appeared on television together with her sister , Emienh , and her brother , Arafat , an instrumentalist . Their style was controversial , especially after the release of her song " Habibi Habeytou " and a 1988 appearance at the Carthage Festival in Tunis , as she addressed social issues , such as poverty , inequality and disease which were not generally acceptable in Mauritania . Her participation in the Carthage event led to her subsequent appearance on Arab satellite channels , giving her greater exposure . Malouma became nationally known and was a sought after performer until a 1991 song about freedom of speech . After being censored for writing songs promoting women 's rights and challenging apartheid , she was banned from appearing on television and radio , holding concerts , and was even denied a permanent address . She did not perform anywhere for a lengthy period but in the late 1990s she began to sing in other African countries , in Europe , and in the United States . While she won audiences among the people , Malouma was persecuted by both the moral authorities and authoritarian governments , her music being completely banned until 2003 when a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 successfully called on President Ould Taya to cancel her censorship . Some restrictions still remained until the overthrow of the Ould Taya regime in 2005 . The traditional griots are songs of praise , but Malouma used her voice to speak out against child marriages , racial and ethnic discrimination , slavery and other divisive issues facing a country at the crossroads of the Arab world and Africa . She also sang about illiteracy , HIV / AIDS awareness and in support of children 's vaccinations . = = = Albums and bands = = = Malouma 's first album , Desert of Eden was released by Shanachie Records in 1998 . When it was produced , she felt that the traditional elements were taken out during production , resulting in " bland electronic pop " , though it received good reviews from JazzTimes . In the early 2000s , she began working with a group called the Sahel Hawl Blues made up of ten young Mauritian musicians of different ethnic origins ( Moor , Fula , Toucouleur , Sonike , Wolof and Haratin ) , demonstrating her desire to overcome racial differences . In so doing , she was also able to extend music based on the traditional string instruments of the Moors to include the beat of the djembe , the darbouka , and the bendir frame drum . Led by Hadradmy Ould Meidah , the group supported her desire to modernize traditional music , making it more accessible to the wider world . They toured with her in 2004 and 2005 and worked with her on her second album , Dunya ( Life ) , which sought to reclaim her musical heritage . Produced by Marabi Records in 2003 , the album contained twelve songs which blended harps , lutes and skin drums with electric guitar and bass , and traditional genres like serbat , which usually focuses on a single minor chord , with jazz . Malouma 's album , Nour ( Light ) , was released in France on 8 March 2007 in celebration of International Women 's Day . Produced by Marabi / Harmonia Mundi , it featured a broad mix of music from lullabies to dance music . Malouma 's singing was supported by a group of fifteen studio musicians on a variety of electronic and traditional instruments . Reviews were mixed , but the CD ranked as number 14 on the World Music Charts Europe by September 2007 . After a hiatus from music to focus on politics , Malouma relaunched her musical career on October 5 , 2014 . Dressed in a blue toga , she presented her new album , Knou , at a special event , appearing on stage for the first time since her election seven years earlier . She chose to call it " Knou " , which is the name of a dance usually performed by women in western Mauritania . The album focused on traditional dancing melodies , but bridged generations by adding modern twists . Weaving jazz , rock and reggae rhythms , into the traditional songs , it was well received . = = = Music festivals = = = Music festival appearances have been a large part of Malouma 's career . The first time she participated in an international festival was in Carthage , Tunisia in 1988 ; her performance proved to be highly successful . Malouma returned to the stage in August 2003 , appearing at the Festival des Musiques Métisses in Angoulême , France , combining traditional Moorish music with a more modern approach in numbers from her album Dunya . She was not only selected as " artiste de l 'année " ( artist of the year ) but was nicknamed " Diva des Sables " ( Diva of the Sands ) . Her success continued in October of the same year at the World Music Expo in Seville , Spain , where she was selected by the jury as a featured performer . One of the highlights of Angoulême 's Festival des Musiques Métisses was her nostalgic rendering of " Mreïmida " . The song proved equally popular in Mauritania at the 2004 Nouakchott Festival of Nomadic Music . She was finally permitted to take part after her ban had been lifted . She appeared there with another female Mauritanian star , Dimi Mint Abba , and was accompanied by the French pianist Jean @-@ Philippe Rykiel on a synthesizer . Malouma toured in the United States in 2005 with appearances in Ann Arbor , Michigan , Chicago , Illinois , Boston and Cambridge , Massachusetts , Lafayette , Louisiana ( for the Festival International de Louisiane ) , before finishing in New York City . Two years later , Malouma participated in the 32nd Paléo Festival in Nyon , Switzerland , which focused on musicians from North Africa . She also appeared in the 2010 edition of the Førde International Folk Music Festival , held in Førde , Norway under the theme of " freedom and oppression " . At the 2012 Festival International des Arts de l ’ Ahaggar in Abalessa , Algeria , she was chosen as one of the three artists to perform in the grand finale , receiving acclaim for the balance of instrumentals and vocals , the composition , and her two back @-@ up vocalists . Her 2013 performance at the World of Music , Arts and Dance Festival ( WOMAD ) , held in Wiltshire , England included a " Taste The World " event where performers not only sang , but prepared a dish from their country . Malouma 's lamb @-@ filled pancakes were a highlight of the festival presenting an up @-@ front and personal encounter with the musician for the audience . Her second stage appearance at the event also brought praise for her rock @-@ star performance embracing modern music . In 2014 , Malouma participated in the Meeting of the Arts of the Arab World , a festival in Montpellier , France , as well as at the Parisian Festival Rhizomes . = = Politics = = Malouma , officially Malouma Meidah , first became politically active as a member of the opposition party in 1992 , speaking out against dictatorships and in favor of democratization . In 2007 , in what was widely considered the first freely held and fair election in the country , she was elected to the Senate of Mauritania , as one of the six women senators in a legislature of 56 members . She was the first person from the musician iggawen caste to serve in politics . Shortly after she was elected , a coup d 'état took place in Mauritania in 2008 and deposed the first democratically @-@ elected head of state , Sidi Mohamed Ould Cheikh Abdallahi . Because she had written songs criticizing the coup , Malouma was arrested and over a thousand cassettes and CDs of her recordings were seized . After the coup , the leader , Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz , allowed elections to proceed with only minor delays . He was elected president in July 2009 and the Senate elections in which one @-@ third of the members faced re @-@ election also were held . The parliamentary opposition group , called " Ech @-@ Choura " , of which Malouma was a member and served as the First Secretary , constituted 12 members of the 56 @-@ member Senate after the 2009 election . She also served on the Parliamentary Group for the Environment and as 2nd Secretary of the Committee on Foreign Affairs , Defence and Armed Forces . Malouma announced in April 2014 that she no longer felt she could keep up her political fight for democracy , although she would continue to support cultural and environmental causes . Even so , her Knou lyrics included allusions to her favorite political causes : equality and rights for all , women 's place in society , and education for the young , all under threat , as well as environmental protection . Referring to her political role as a senator for the opposition party Assembly of Democratic Forces , in August 2014 she commented : " I use my presence and speaking time in the chamber to extend the effect of my texts and my songs . Whenever I run into ministers or important personalities , I tell them what the people expect of them . " She has also continued to speak out about issues such as Palestine and the Iraqi War in her songs . At a press conference on December 16 , 2014 , Malouma announced she was leaving the opposition and joining the ruling party , the Union for the Republic , on the grounds that she could participate more effectively in building Mauritania by standing behind the policies of the current leader Aziz . = = Environment and culture = = In addition to her work in her music career and political activism , Malouma is involved in both environmental protection and cultural preservation projects . = = = Environmental activism = = = Malouma Mediah was involved in a project in 2009 , to relocate 9 @,@ 000 slum @-@ dwelling families from the outskirts of the city into inner city neighborhoods . She insisted that for health reasons , improvements would first have to be made to the infrastructure . In August 2011 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature appointed Malouma as Goodwill Ambassador for Central and West Africa . The position required her to raise awareness of environmental problems with a view to introducing sustainable solutions . On her appointment she commented : " I am delighted at the confidence that IUCN just placed in me . I am deeply honored . I will do my best to fulfill this great responsibility . " In September 2012 , she performed in a concert given during the 2012 IUCN World Conservation Congress held on Jeju Island , South Korea . = = = Cultural preservation = = = As a result of the Mauritanian caste system , the development of traditional music in Mauritania has been supported by just a few families , threatened by a closed culture in which there are limited opportunities for support . As families have no means of preserving their music , or recording it , their creations are often forgotten owing to the absence of family members interested in ensuring their survival . The situation has been compounded by rules forbidding their support from outside the family environment . Concerned that the musical traditions of the country were vanishing , in 2006 , Malouma urged the government to create a school to preserve the country 's music heritage , even introducing a measure to Parliament . In 2011 , she created the Malouma Foundation in support of the preservation of the national musical heritage . The foundation aims to protect and preserve the Arab , African , and Berber roots of music in Mauritania and , to that end , is collecting and storing music from throughout the country to both preserve it and make it available for other uses , including education . Long concerned that the Moorish music traditions of her country were being replaced by the Malian and Moroccan music preferred by younger people , in 2014 , she created a Mauritanian Music Festival . When she produced Nour in 2007 , Malouma collaborated with the painter , Sidi Yahia , hoping to create visual images to illustrate the songs in the album . Eleven paintings resulted from the joint venture and Malouma and Yahia presented cultural discussions about their works titled " Regarder la musique , écouter la peinture ? " ( Watch the music , listen to the painting ? ) In 2013 a month @-@ long exhibit was presented to showcase the paintings and the music which inspired them at a gallery in Nouakchott . In 2015 , after receiving a grant from the Arab Culture Fund , Malouma convinced musicians to collaborate with artists when recording their music . The project aimed at collecting music from six artists and producing an album of their works . Malouma has continued to press for the establishment of a music school , though it would require overcoming taboos on family restrictions in regard to musical legacy . = = Awards and recognition = = Malouma was selected in 2003 by the jury as one of the World Music Expo ( WOMEX ) showcase artists and two years later she was selected by BBC musicologist Charlie Gillett , for his 2005 selected compilation Favorite Sounds of the World CD . That same year , N 'Diaye Cheikh , a Mauritanian filmmaker , produced a documentary about her , entitled Malouma , diva des sables ( Malouma , Diva of the Sands ) with Mosaic Films , which won Best Documentary at the Festival international du film de quartier ( FIFQ ; Dakar , Senegal ) and a 2007 Prize of Distinction from Festival International de Programmes Audiovisuels ( FIPA ) , held in Biarritz , France . She was a runner @-@ up for the Middle East and North Africa in the 2008 BBC Radio 3 Awards for World Music . The griot @-@ artist community of Mauritania has also acclaimed her by calling her the " first true composer in Mauritania " . Malouma was decorated in 2013 as a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor by the French ambassador , Hervé Besancenot , acting on behalf of President Nicholas Sarkozy of France . On January 20 , 2015 , Malouma , Mauritania 's " singer of the people and Senator " , was honored by the American ambassador , Larry André , at a lunch attended by notable leaders , especially women , from the country 's civil society . Presenting Malouma with the Mauritanian Woman of Courage award , the ambassador noted her " exceptional courage and leadership in advocating human rights , women , gender equality and harmony amongst the cultural traditions of Mauritania " . = = Selected works = = 1998 , Desert of Eden ( album ) , a mix of West @-@ African and Arabic @-@ Berber sounds , released in the West 2003 , Dunya ( Life ) , 12 @-@ track album , recorded on the Marabi label in Nouakchott ; a mix of blues , rock , and traditional melodies from southern Mauritanian and Indo @-@ Pakistani , all sung in Hassaniya Arabic 2007 , Nour ( Light ) , 12 @-@ track album , recorded on the Marabi label during her stay in Angloulême in 2003 with the support of festival organizer Christian Mousset ; a collection of dance beats featuring electric guitars but without the traditional instruments of the Moors 2008 , Malouma received accolades for her blues song " Yarab " on the album Desert Blues 3 — Entre Dunes Et Savanes released by Network Medien 2009 , Malouma was a featured composer and vocalist on two songs , " Missy Nouakchott " and " Sable Émouvant " on the 2009 Ping Kong album by DuOud 2014 , Knou ( album ) , a collection of ethno @-@ pop tunes woven through with traditional tidinit lute and ardin harp instruments
= Gery Chico = Gery J. Chico ( / ˈɡɛri ˈtʃiːkoʊ / GERR @-@ ee CHEE @-@ koh ; born August 24 , 1956 ) is a Chicago lawyer , public official , former Democratic primary candidate for United States Senate , and former candidate for Mayor of Chicago . Chico served as the Chief of Staff to Mayor Richard M. Daley from 1992 to 1995 , and board president of the Chicago Public Schools from 1995 to 2001 . He was named Outstanding School Board President by the Illinois State Board of Education in 1997 . From 2007 to 2010 , he was board president of the Chicago Park District , and in 2010 he was board president of the City Colleges of Chicago . On June 7 , 2011 , Chico was named Chairman of the Illinois State Board of Education by Illinois Governor Pat Quinn . = = Early life and education = = Gery Chico was born on August 24 , 1956 , to a Mexican @-@ American father , Jesse , and a Greek @-@ Lithuanian mother , Jacqueline ( née Kopulos ) . With his two younger brothers , he grew up in Chicago 's McKinley Park neighborhood . His mother also worked as a secretary at the University of Illinois at Chicago College of Dentistry . Chico attended a now @-@ closed parochial school , Our Lady of Good Counsel Catholic Elementary School at 35th and Hermitage , where he headed the altar boys and patrol boys , and also played baseball for two years . A hip injury kept him in a wheelchair during his freshman year at Thomas Kelly High School . Chico pursued a pre @-@ medical degree at the University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , but after his sophomore year he transferred to the University of Illinois at Chicago . A political science major , he volunteered in the 11th Ward . He later secured an externship in the city 's Department of Planning during his senior year , and he worked there from 1977 to 1980 . He received his bachelor 's degree in 1978 . From 1980 to 1987 , he worked for the City Council Finance Committee . Finance Committee chair Alderman Edward M. Burke promoted Chico to research manager , and he became senior research assistant for the Department of Planning and Economic Development . At that time , he took night classes at the Loyola University Chicago School of Law . He earned his law degree in 1985 and became a member of the Loyola Law Review . Chico has been married twice ; his first wife was Jeryl Minow , with whom he had three daughters . He is currently married to Sunny Penedo Chico , who has a son and daughter from a previous marriage . A former U.S. Department of Education employee , Sunny runs a consulting firm that focuses on , among others , tutoring services and curriculum advice . = = Legal career = = = = = Sidley & Austin = = = Chico began working as an associate of the Chicago @-@ based law firm Sidley Austin in 1987 , and served as General Counsel to the Chicago Development Council , a real estate development association . He left the firm in 1991 to become the Deputy Chief of Staff for Mayor Richard M. Daley , but he later returned as partner in 1995 and 1996 , leading the firm 's practice related to state and local government . = = = Altheimer & Gray = = = In 1996 Chico left Sidley & Austin to become a senior partner of Altheimer & Gray . Oscar D ’ Angelo , a friend of Richard M. Daley and a former Altheimer partner , suggested to the firm ’ s managing partner that the firm hire Chico . In 2000 , just four years later , at age 44 , Chico became chairman of Altheimer . In 2002 , the firm gave hundreds of thousands of dollars to Governor Rod Blagojevich and Attorney General Lisa Madigan 's campaigns . In 2003 , while Chico was chairman and simultaneously running for the US Senate , Altheimer became insolvent and dissolved . Some partners blamed the bankruptcy on poor management by Chico , while an attorney who sat on two financial committees blamed an economic downturn . Chico also served as Special Counsel to Arnstein & Lehr in 2003 and 2004 . = = = Chico & Nunes = = = In 2004 , Chico , along with Planning Department colleague Marcus Nunes , formed the general practice law firm Chico & Nunes , which lobbies for clients seeking government business . = = Chief of Staff to Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley = = In 1991 Chico was a Deputy Chief of Staff for Mayor Richard M. Daley . He coordinated efforts to drain freight tunnels that were flooded with water from the Chicago River . Chico was later promoted to Chief of Staff , a position he held from 1992 to 1995 . As part of his duties , he oversaw the completion of the International Terminal of O 'Hare International Airport , preparations for the 1994 FIFA World Cup , and the construction of new schools . Along with Budget Director Paul Vallas , Chico helped add 1 @,@ 000 officers to the police force and improved neighborhoods throughout the city through a program called Neighborhoods Alive . = = Chicago Public Schools board = = In 1995 , the Illinois state legislature passed the Chicago School Reform Act , which gave the Mayor of Chicago unprecedented new control over Chicago Public Schools . Daley asked Chico to become the CEO , but Chico declined because he was resuming his law career . Chico instead recommended that Daley appoint colleague Paul Vallas as CEO , and Chico was named chairman of the School Reform Board of Trustees . In 1997 Chico was named Outstanding School Board President by the Illinois State Board of Education for his reforms in education and fiscal policies . Chico was responsible for efforts to preserve and restore hundreds of murals in the public schools , which had been commissioned by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Progressive and New Deal eras . They had since been hidden under layers of dirt and paint . Under his administration , CPS appointed an Arts Education Task Force and a Bureau of Cultural Arts . = = 2004 campaign for U.S. Senate = = In 2004 , Chico ran for the Democratic nomination to succeed retiring Republican U.S. Senator Peter Fitzgerald . He was the first Democrat to declare his candidacy , doing so on July 30 , 2002 , during a rally with Hispanic leaders . His Senate committee preferences included education , transportation , and foreign relations . He also criticized the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act and the No Child Left Behind Act , but supported gay marriage , abortion rights , stem cell research , the death penalty , and universal healthcare . Chico was the only candidate who supported gay marriage out of all seven Democrats and eight Republicans . Then @-@ State Senator Barack Obama ultimately won the nomination over six other candidates including Chico . = = Chicago Park District board = = In October 2007 , Mayor Daley appointed Chico as president of the Chicago Park District Board of Commissioners . Chico supported the construction of a new soccer field in Lincoln Park despite opposition from local residents . In 2010 , he stepped down . = = City Colleges of Chicago board = = In March 2010 , Mayor Daley nominated Chico as chairman of the board of trustees of the City Colleges of Chicago and the board elected Chico chairman . Along with Chancellor Cheryl Hyman , Chico reformed the City Colleges budget by laying off 225 employees , removing unfilled jobs , and reducing executive spending to increase spending on technology and training for students . Furthermore , Chico and Hyman reduced taxation on property for two straight years , and cancelled nursing programs . He resigned 8 months later to run for Mayor of Chicago . = = 2011 campaign for Mayor of Chicago = = On September 27 , 2010 , Chico announced that he would run for mayor of Chicago in 2011 . He was one of six candidates on the ballot . Chico raised $ 4 @.@ 4 million in campaign funds . Chico pledged to hire 2 @,@ 000 police officers but did not offer specifics on how he would raise the funds . He opposed making the school board an elected body , and he favored extending the school day and school year . Chico picked up endorsements from unions that represented , among others , police officers , firefighters , laborers , painters , operating engineers , iron workers , roofers , and sheet metal workers . Rahm Emanuel was considered to be the leading candidate before the election . Chico was considered " the rival with the best chance of forcing him into a runoff " . During the election on February 22 , Emanuel 's 55 % support dwarfed Chico 's 24 % support . Chico won in 10 of Chicago 's 50 wards , while Emanuel won 40 . The campaign 's communications director claimed that controversy over Emanuel 's eligibility to run for mayor may have diverted the focus of the press away from the other candidates . After the election , Chico remained involved in the runoff elections for other city offices , endorsing a candidate for 25th Ward alderman . = = State Board of Education = = Chico was named chairman of the Illinois State Board of Education in June , 2011 . His confirmation was delayed as a result of questions regarding his ties to the Save @-@ A @-@ Life Foundation , a failed charity that was undergoing investigation by Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan ’ s office .
= Battle of the Notch = The Battle of the Notch was an engagement between United States and North Korean forces early in the Korean War on August 2 , 1950 in southern South Korea . The fight ended in a victory for the United States after North Korean forces attempting to assault the US position were blocked and repelled repeatedly , suffering heavy casualties . Reeling from the Hadong Ambush and being driven from the city of Chinju , the US Army 's 19th Infantry Regiment , 24th Infantry Division scrambled to protect the pass into Masan , the final South Korean city before the Naktong River , where the UN was holding its Pusan Perimeter in place . North Korean and US forces unexpectedly ran into one another and a confused battle ensued . American forces were better equipped with heavy weapons and armor thanks to newly arrived equipment in the country , and their better ground during the battle allowed them to repel North Korean advances . The North Korean force eventually withdrew after several unsuccessful attacks , having suffered heavy casualties . As it was disengaging from Masan , US Air Force aircraft caught the North Korean truck columns as they were retreating , inflicting significant damage on them and producing further casualties . This fight , with a number of smaller engagements in the region , effectively stopped the North Korean offensive on the southern flank of the Pusan Perimeter . It also gave both sides a reprieve from the fighting to resupply and re @-@ enforce before engaging in the Battle of Pusan Perimeter shortly after . = = Background = = = = = Outbreak of war = = = Following the outbreak of the Korean War after the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States subsequently committed ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army , which was headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th Infantry Division was ordered into South Korea . The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow follow on forces to arrive . The division was consequently alone for several weeks as it attempted to delay the North Koreans , making time for the 7th Infantry Division , 25th Infantry Division , 1st Cavalry Division , and other Eighth Army supporting units to move into position . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , during the first battle between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , 24th Infantry Division soldiers were repeatedly defeated and forced south by the North Korean force 's superior numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry Division were systematically pushed south in battles around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th Infantry Division made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , being almost completely destroyed but delaying North Korean forces from advancing until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region , with new UN units arriving every day . = = = North Korean advance = = = With Taejon captured , North Korean forces began the effort of surrounding the Pusan Perimeter from all sides in an attempt to envelop it . The North Korean 4th Infantry Division and the North Korean 6th Infantry Division advanced south in a wide maneuver . The two divisions were coordinating to envelop the UN 's left flank and were extremely spread out . They advanced on UN positions pushing back US and South Korean forces repeatedly . Forces of the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment , newly arrived in the country , were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27 , leaving open a pass to the Pusan area . Soon after , Chinju to the west was taken , pushing back the 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to the Pusan open for North Korean forces . Reeling from the loss , UN planners hastily moved reserve forces to the southwest to repel North Korean advances . Several US infantry regiments as well as the command post of the 24th Infantry Division moved to establish new positions to prevent North Korean forces from advancing from Chinju . American forces moved to defend the city of Masan , the last key city before the North Koreans reached the perimeter . Located in the mountainous region along South Korea 's southern coast , Masan was accessible by two routes from the west . Major General John H. Church , the 24th Infantry Division 's commander , emplaced the 19th Infantry Regiment and the 27th Infantry Regiment in the area to defend Masan . Eventually , the 27th set up along the southern entrance while the 19th Infantry covered the north , in a pass known as " The Notch , " southwest of Chungam @-@ ni . The entire 19th Infantry Regiment , reeling from the fight at Chinju and attempting to hold back North Korean advances , fell back to the Notch . = = Battle = = The 1st Battalion , 19th Infantry was assigned to hold the Notch and the high ground on the right flank , to the northwest . Republic of Korea troops led by Colonel Min would hold the high ground to the southwest of the Notch . Meanwhile , 2nd Battalion , 19th Infantry withdrew to reserve positions at the northern base of the pass . During the evening of July 31 , 1st Battalion , 29th Infantry also arrived in the region . More importantly , A Company of the 8072nd Medium Tank Battalion , armed with M4 Sherman medium tanks rebuilt in Japan , arrived at Masan , some of the first heavy armor the UN had in the war . One platoon of A Company 's tanks went to the 27th Infantry in the south while the 19th Infantry in the north got the other half . This put the force of the 19th Infantry and supporting units at 2 @,@ 335 under the command of Colonel Ned D. Moore , excluding the South Korean forces . The number of North Korean forces committed to the region is not known , however later research suggests that the North Korean 6th Division committed at least a battalion to the fight , and it is likely that an entire regiment was ordered to advance on the Notch and Masan . This would put the range of North Korean forces involved in the battle between 500 and 2 @,@ 000 . = = = Attack = = = At 06 : 45 on August 2 , C Company , 1st Battalion , 19th Infantry began to move out from its positions on a reconnaissance patrol supported by tanks and armored cars . Before the armored column left the lines , it ran head @-@ on into a North Korean attack starting on the Notch , as mortar fire and three heavy machine guns opened up on it from 200 yards ( 180 m ) below the crest of the pass . The road before the pass erupted into a frantic and confused struggle , C Company in the lead was struck with machine gun fire , killing most of its 1st Platoon before the men could disembark from their trucks . American soldiers who dove for cover in the ditches along the road found North Korean soldiers already in cover there . The lead M4 was struck with mortar fire and destroyed , while anti @-@ tank weapons set at least one American truck on fire . During this fight , advancing North Korean troops captured at least a few of the surprised American soldiers , using them as human shields when advancing up the high ground where the rest of the UN force was firing down at them . In the end , the initial ambush cost the Americans about 30 casualties . C Company overcame several North Korean attempts to cut them off before withdrawing back to the American lines . American forces were quick to counter the attack . M20 recoilless rifles destroyed the machine gun positions , and American mortars began firing on any North Korean positions they could locate . However , North Korean forces were quick to advance up the Notch , to the crest of the hill that made up the pass . There , the discovered B Company , 19th Infantry , encamped . The 19th Infantry was apparently not prepared for combat , as North Korean forces were able to hit the American force and drive it off the hill , killing several of the American soldiers with bayonets . At about 12 : 00 , B Company was driven from the crest of the Notch , and further confusion erupted when US Air Force aircraft accidentally strafed the retreating B Company . Neighboring positions also mistakenly attacked B Company , which retreated with 12 killed . South Korean forces , meanwhile , had emplaced in the wrong position , a mile too far south , and were not in contact with 19th Infantry . The South Korean forces were subsequently hit with friendly and enemy fire , and in the confusion the 19th Infantry attempted to block the South Koreans from advancing , thinking them enemy forces . North Korean snipers were able to infiltrate the rear of the position and kill five UN soldiers with shots to the back of the head . However American forces repelled several advances on the right flank . The M4 Shermans gave the American force a superiority in armor over the North Koreans for the first time , and were crucial in pushing back each attempted North Korean advance . North Korean infantry , unsupported by armor of their own , suffered heavy casualties from the American forces in their positions on the high ground . = = = North Korean withdrawal = = = Fighting at the Notch continued through the afternoon , but , the attack still unsuccessful , the North Korean troops withdrew suddenly in the mid @-@ afternoon , allowing American forces to recover most of the casualties and vehicles from the Notch . In the meantime , they set up roadblocks to prevent further North Korean attacks from moving down the road . North Korean forces disengaged from the fight without attempting to flank the Americans , and by nightfall they were out of the region . In the meantime , the 27th Infantry Regiment surprised a large column of North Korean forces advancing on the south road and captured many trucks of supplies . During the North Koreans ' retreat from the two roads , US Air Force planes mounted an airstrike against the North Koreans and inflicted heavy casualties . = = Aftermath = = The American forces reported 57 killed , 37 wounded , 17 missing and 6 captured , for a total of 117 casualties from the 19th and 29th Infantry Regiments . This number was far lighter than casualties for other unit actions of similar size so far in the war . North Korean casualties are unknown but believed to be far heavier than the American force . Actions in the Notch , as well as attacks on the region for the next few days are known to have largely destroyed the North Korean 6th Division , and over 50 percent of its force became casualties in the fighting . The fight was one of the first victories for American forces in repelling the North Korean advance . In stopping the North Korean advance at the Notch and around Masan , the UN forces were able to halt the progress of the North Korean 4th and 6th Divisions , grounding their flanking moves to a halt and forcing them to withdraw to rebuild and re @-@ supply . In the meantime , the American forces along the perimeter were being reinforced by heavier infantry and armor formations every day . The North Korean defeat and retreat around the Masan region allowed both sides several critical days of reprieve from battle . This would end when the North Korean force began its final offensive on the UN forces in its coordinated assault on the Pusan Perimeter .
= Laika = Laika ( Russian : Лайка ; c . 1954 – November 3 , 1957 ) was a Soviet space dog who became one of the first animals in space , and the first animal to orbit the Earth . Laika , a stray dog from the streets of Moscow , was selected to be the occupant of the Soviet spacecraft Sputnik 2 that was launched into outer space on November 3 , 1957 . Little was known about the impact of spaceflight on living creatures at the time of Laika 's mission , and the technology to de @-@ orbit had not yet been developed , and therefore Laika 's survival was not expected . Some scientists believed humans would be unable to survive the launch or the conditions of outer space , so engineers viewed flights by animals as a necessary precursor to human missions . The experiment aimed to prove that a living passenger could survive being launched into orbit and endure micro @-@ gravity , paving the way for human spaceflight and providing scientists with some of the first data on how living organisms react to spaceflight environments . Laika died within hours from overheating , possibly caused by a failure of the central R @-@ 7 sustainer to separate from the payload . The true cause and time of her death were not made public until 2002 ; instead , it was widely reported that she died when her oxygen ran out on day six or , as the Soviet government initially claimed , she was euthanised prior to oxygen depletion . On April 11 , 2008 , Russian officials unveiled a monument to Laika . A small monument in her honour was built near the military research facility in Moscow that prepared Laika 's flight to space . It features a dog standing on top of a rocket . She also appears on the Monument to the Conquerors of Space in Moscow . = = Sputnik 2 = = After the success of Sputnik 1 in October 1957 , Nikita Khrushchev , the Soviet leader , wanted a spacecraft launched on November 7 , 1957 , the 40th anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution . Construction had already started on a more sophisticated satellite , but it would not be ready until December ; this satellite would later become Sputnik 3 . Meeting the November deadline meant building a new craft . Khrushchev specifically wanted his engineers to deliver a " space spectacular " , a mission that would repeat the triumph of Sputnik 1 , stunning the world with Soviet prowess . Planners settled on an orbital flight with a dog . Soviet rocket engineers had long intended a canine orbit before attempting human spaceflight ; since 1951 , they had lofted 12 dogs into sub @-@ orbital space on ballistic flights , working gradually toward an orbital mission set for some time in 1958 . To satisfy Khrushchev 's demands , they expedited the orbital canine flight for the November launch . According to Russian sources , the official decision to launch Sputnik 2 was made on October 10 or 12 , leaving less than four weeks to design and build the spacecraft . Sputnik 2 , therefore , was something of a rush job , with most elements of the spacecraft being constructed from rough sketches . Aside from the primary mission of sending a living passenger into space , Sputnik 2 also contained instrumentation for measuring solar radiation and cosmic rays . The craft was equipped with a life @-@ support system consisting of an oxygen generator and devices to avoid oxygen poisoning and to absorb carbon dioxide . A fan , designed to activate whenever the cabin temperature exceeded 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) , was added to keep the dog cool . Enough food ( in a gelatinous form ) was provided for a seven @-@ day flight , and the dog was fitted with a bag to collect waste . A harness was designed to be fitted to the dog , and there were chains to restrict her movements to standing , sitting , or lying down ; there was no room to turn around in the cabin . An electrocardiogram monitored heart rate and further instrumentation tracked respiration rate , maximum arterial pressure , and the dog 's movements . = = Training = = Laika was found as a stray wandering the streets of Moscow . Soviet scientists chose to use Moscow strays since they assumed that such animals had already learned to endure conditions of extreme cold and hunger . This specimen was an eleven @-@ pound mongrel female , approximately three years old . Another account reported that she weighed about 6 kg ( 13 lb ) . Soviet personnel gave her several names and nicknames , among them Kudryavka ( Russian for Little Curly ) , Zhuchka ( Little Bug ) , and Limonchik ( Little Lemon ) . Laika , the Russian name for several breeds of dogs similar to the husky , was the name popularized around the world . The American press dubbed her Muttnik ( mutt + suffix -nik ) as a pun on Sputnik , or referred to her as Curly . Her true pedigree is unknown , although it is generally accepted that she was part husky or other Nordic breed , and possibly part terrier . NASA refers to Laika as a " part @-@ Samoyed terrier . " A Russian magazine described her temperament as phlegmatic , saying that she did not quarrel with other dogs . Vladimir Yazdovsky , who led the program of test dogs used on rockets , in a later publication wrote that “ Laika was quiet and charming ” . The Soviet Union and United States had previously sent animals only on sub @-@ orbital flights . Three dogs were trained for the Sputnik 2 flight : Albina , Mushka , and Laika . Soviet space @-@ life scientists Vladimir Yazdovsky and Oleg Gazenko trained the dogs . To adapt the dogs to the confines of the tiny cabin of Sputnik 2 , they were kept in progressively smaller cages for periods of up to 20 days . The extensive close confinement caused them to stop urinating or defecating , made them restless , and caused their general condition to deteriorate . Laxatives did not improve their condition , and the researchers found that only long periods of training proved effective . The dogs were placed in centrifuges that simulated the acceleration of a rocket launch and were placed in machines that simulated the noises of the spacecraft . This caused their pulses to double and their blood pressure to increase by 30 – 65 torr . The dogs were trained to eat a special high @-@ nutrition gel that would be their food in space . Before the launch , one of the scientists took Laika home to play with his children . In a book chronicling the story of Soviet space medicine , Dr. Vladimir Yazdovsky wrote , " Laika was quiet and charming ... I wanted to do something nice for her : She had so little time left to live . " = = Preflight preparations = = Vladimir Yazdovsky made the final selection of dogs and their designated roles . Laika was to be the " flight dog " — a sacrifice to science on a one @-@ way mission to space . Albina , who had already flown twice on a high @-@ altitude test rocket , was to act as Laika 's backup . The third dog Mushka was a " control dog " — she was to stay on the ground and be used to test instrumentation and life support . Before leaving for the Baikonur Cosmodrome , Yazdovsky and Gazenko conducted surgery on the dogs - they routed the cables from the transmitters to the sensors that would measure breathing , pulse , and blood pressure . Because the existing airstrip at Turatam near the cosmodrome was small , the dogs and crew had to be first flown aboard a Tu @-@ 104 plane to Tashkent . From there , a smaller and lighter Il @-@ 14 plane took them to Turatam . Training of dogs continued upon arrival ; one after another they were placed in the capsules to get familiar with the feeding system . According to a NASA document , Laika was placed in the capsule of the satellite on October 31 , 1957 — three days before the start of the mission . At that time of year the temperatures at the launch site were extremely cold , and a hose connected to a heater was used to keep her container warm . Two assistants were assigned to keep a constant watch on Laika before launch . Just prior to liftoff on November 3 , 1957 from Baikonur Cosmodrome , Laika 's fur was sponged in a weak alcohol solution and carefully groomed , while iodine was painted onto the areas where sensors would be placed to monitor her bodily functions . One of the technicians preparing the capsule before final liftoff states that " after placing Laika in the container and before closing the hatch , we kissed her nose and wished her bon voyage , knowing that she would not survive the flight . " = = Voyage = = The exact time of the liftoff varies from source to source and is mentioned as 05 : 30 : 42 Moscow Time or 07 : 22 Moscow Time . At peak acceleration Laika 's respiration increased to between three and four times the pre @-@ launch rate . The sensors showed her heart rate was 103 beats / min before launch and increased to 240 beats / min during the early acceleration . After reaching orbit , Sputnik 2 's nose cone was jettisoned successfully ; however the " Block A " core did not separate as planned , preventing the thermal control system from operating correctly . Some of the thermal insulation tore loose , raising the cabin temperature to 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) . After three hours of weightlessness , Laika 's pulse rate had settled back to 102 beats / min , three times longer than it had taken during earlier ground tests , an indication of the stress she was under . The early telemetry indicated that Laika was agitated but eating her food . After approximately five to seven hours into the flight , no further signs of life were received from the spacecraft . The Soviet scientists had planned to euthanize Laika with a poisoned serving of food . For many years , the Soviet Union gave conflicting statements that she had died either from asphyxia , when the batteries failed , or that she had been euthanized . Many rumors circulated about the exact manner of her death . In 1999 , several Russian sources reported that Laika had died when the cabin overheated on the fourth orbit . In October 2002 , Dimitri Malashenkov , one of the scientists behind the Sputnik 2 mission , revealed that Laika had died by the fourth circuit of flight from overheating . According to a paper he presented to the World Space Congress in Houston , Texas , " It turned out that it was practically impossible to create a reliable temperature control system in such limited time constraints . " Over five months later , after 2 @,@ 570 orbits , Sputnik 2 — including Laika 's remains — disintegrated during re @-@ entry on April 14 , 1958 . = = Ethics of animal testing = = Due to the overshadowing issue of the Soviet vs. U.S. Space Race , the ethical issues raised by this experiment went largely unaddressed for some time . As newspaper clippings from 1957 show , the press was initially focused on reporting the political perspective , while the health and retrieval — or lack thereof — of Laika only became an issue later . Sputnik 2 was not designed to be retrievable , and Laika had always been intended to die . The mission sparked a debate across the globe on the mistreatment of animals and animal testing in general to advance science . In the United Kingdom , the National Canine Defence League called on all dog owners to observe a minute 's silence , while the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( RSPCA ) received protests even before Radio Moscow had finished announcing the launch . Animal rights groups at the time called on members of the public to protest at Soviet embassies . Others demonstrated outside the United Nations in New York ; nevertheless , laboratory researchers in the U.S. offered some support for the Soviets , at least before the news of Laika 's death . In the Soviet Union , there was less controversy . Neither the media , books in the following years , nor the public openly questioned the decision to send a dog into space . It was not until 1998 , after the collapse of the Soviet regime , that Oleg Gazenko , one of the scientists responsible for sending Laika into space , expressed regret for allowing her to die : Work with animals is a source of suffering to all of us . We treat them like babies who cannot speak . The more time passes , the more I 'm sorry about it . We shouldn 't have done it ... We did not learn enough from this mission to justify the death of the dog . In other Warsaw Pact countries , open criticism of the Soviet space program was difficult because of political censorship ; however , there were notable cases of criticism in Polish scientific circles . A Polish scientific periodical , " Kto , Kiedy , Dlaczego " , published in 1958 , discussed the mission of Sputnik 2 . In the periodical 's section dedicated to astronautics , Krzysztof Boruń described the Sputnik 2 mission as " regrettable " and criticized not bringing Laika back to Earth alive as " undoubtedly a great loss for science " . = = Legacy = = Laika is memorialized in the form of a statue and plaque at Star City , Russia , the Russian Cosmonaut training facility . Created in 1997 , Laika is positioned behind the cosmonauts with her ears erect . The Monument to the Conquerors of Space , constructed in 1964 , also includes Laika . On April 11 , 2008 at the military research facility where staff had been responsible for readying Laika for the flight , officials unveiled a monument of her poised on top of a space rocket . Future space missions carrying dogs would be designed to be recovered . Four other dogs died in Soviet space missions : Bars and Lisichka were killed when their R @-@ 7 rocket exploded shortly after launch on July 28 , 1960 ; Pchyolka and Mushka died when Korabl @-@ Sputnik 3 was purposely destroyed with an explosive charge to prevent foreign powers from inspecting the capsule after a wayward atmospheric reentry trajectory on December 1 , 1960 .
= Devil 's Due ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) = " Devil 's Due " is the 13th episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , originally aired on February 4 , 1991 in broadcast syndication in the United States . Based on an episode written by William Douglas Lansford for the planned Star Trek : Phase II ( 1978 ) television series , it was adapted for The Next Generation by Philip Lazebnik and directed by Tom Benko . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship USS Enterprise @-@ D. In " Devil 's Due " , the crew of the Enterprise confront an individual claiming to be Ardra ( Marta DuBois ) , a mythological entity from the planet Ventax II . She claims that the planet , and the orbiting Enterprise , are her legal property due to an agreement signed a thousand years earlier . Together , Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) and the crew reveal Ardra to be a con artist , leading to her arrest by the Ventaxian authorities . Numerous changes were made from the original Phase II script , with only the general theme of the episode remaining . Originally pitched for use during season three , following changes made it was added to season four . Critical reception of the episode has been mixed , with it generally being thought to be very reminiscent of Star Trek : The Original Series . = = Plot = = The USS Enterprise receives a distress call from Dr. Howard Clarke ( Paul Lambert ) , the leader of a Federation scientific delegation on Ventax II , where the population is in a state of panic because they are convinced that their world will soon end . After the Enterprise arrives , they rescue Dr. Clarke who brings them up to date : a thousand years ago , according to Ventaxian history , the population entered a Faustian deal with Ardra , their mythology 's devil . In exchange for ending wars and restoring the ecological balance , and improving their heavily polluted planet , the population would become the personal slaves of Ardra a thousand years later . As the millennium is about to come to a close , the planet has recently begun experiencing mild earthquakes as well as seeing images of Ardra in the skies . These were said to be signs of her arrival . As Captain Picard and Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) discuss the matter with the Ventaxian leader ( Marcelo Tubert ) , a woman appears in the chamber , announcing herself as Ardra . She proves her identity by starting an earthquake at will , and transforming into both the Christian and then the Klingon devil . Ardra states that she has come to claim the planet . Picard is instantly suspicious and orders Data to examine the contract that supposedly was signed by Ardra and the leaders of the planet a thousand years ago . Picard returns to the Enterprise afterwards , and Ardra appears on the bridge sitting in the Captain 's chair . Security Chief Worf ( Michael Dorn ) tries to remove her without success , Data returns just then and confirms the language of the contract as well as Ardra 's claim to the planet , including anything in orbit , including the Enterprise . Later , in a meeting with the senior staff , Picard expresses his belief that she is a con @-@ artist and points out that all of her " powers " can be recreated with theatrically delivered technology . After the meeting , Picard goes to bed for the evening . As Picard sleeps , Ardra appears and tries to seduce him but he rejects her . She transports him to the planet dressed in his pyjamas . Data comes to collect Picard by shuttle after Worf is unable to transport him back the normal way . When Picard and Data attempt to return to the Enterprise , the ship disappears . Not knowing what to do , they return to the planet . Citing old legal precedent , Picard calls for a Ventaxian arbitration hearing , which Ardra agrees to as long as Data acts as the arbitrator , as he will act with impartiality , to which Picard agrees . During the course of the hearing , Chief Engineer La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) and Clarke discover that Ardra has a cloaked ship nearby , that she is indeed using technology to simulate magic , and that she is a known criminal . Picard has an away team led by Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) take control of Ardra 's ship , giving Picard control of Ardra 's " powers " . He demonstrates the fraud and she is taken into custody by local authorities . Picard explains to the leader of the planet that the people themselves improved their planet gradually through hard work and dedication . = = Production = = The episode was originally developed from a premise for the cancelled Star Trek : Phase II , although it underwent significant changes . It first appeared in a memo dated August 16 , 1977 , as part of a status update for the cancelled series . The only other episode of Phase II to be redeveloped for The Next Generation was " The Child " from season two . In the original version , the Enterprise visits Naterra and meets the planet 's leader , Zxolar , who is concerned that Captain Kirk is an alien called Komether who is due to return within twenty days to destroy their world . Zxolar suddenly collapses and Doctor McCoy tries to help him but an energy surrounds the doctor 's head and he runs at a wall and disappears . The landing party search for McCoy but to no avail and Zxolar is beamed to the Enterprise . Doctor Chapel attempts to help him but the energy appears around her and she passes out . Xon and Kirk discuss the energy and realise it wants Zxolar to die as it has attacked anyone who helps him . The pair beam back down the planet to investigate the palace they met Zxolar in and discover an archive which shows them the original agreement made by six philosophers , including a much younger Zxolar , and Komether a thousand years earlier . They note one of the philosophers is Zxolar and the Komether is the energy being which attacked the two doctors . As in the later version used on Star Trek : The Next Generation , the agreement was that the being would correct the pollution of the planet in return for ownership of the planet a thousand years later . Xon and Kirk decide to move Zxolan to a life support table and ask for other volunteers as it is apparent that Komether will attack them as they attempt to save him . Scotty , Sulu and Chekov all volunteer as well , and the alien disables each of them as they move Zxolar . It is only because of Xon 's strength as he is being attacked that they manage to attach Zxolar to a life support machine and his life signs immediately improve . Zxolar tells Kirk about the contract , who retrieves it from the planet 's surface and challenges it . Komethar appears and agrees to a trial with the Enterprise 's computer acting as an impartial judge . Kirk realises that Komethar was created by the six philosophers and so as the last remaining , Zxolar is in control of it . Zxolar manages to defeat the creature using his will and releases the stunned crewmen . He finds that McCoy was trapped in the wall itself and releases him too , the Enterprise departing shortly thereafter . The story was once again brought up during a story pitch for season three of Next Generation , and it was modified by several staff writers . Michael Piller made several changes , including making the devil character female . Marta DuBois was cast as Ardra , after Stella Stevens and Adrienne Barbeau were also considered . Paul Lambert had previously appeared in the episode " When the Bough Breaks " as a member of the Aldean race . This episode illustrates Arthur C. Clarke 's Third Law : " any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic . " = = Reception and home media = = Several reviewers re @-@ watched Star Trek : The Next Generation after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido watched the episode for Tor.com , and thought that Marta DuBois ' performance was " the only reason why this episode is in any way watchable . Barely " . He thought that the episode felt more similar to an original series story than a normal Next Generation story , and that was due to the episode 's origins . He said " overall , it ’ s just dumb " and gave it a score of two out of ten . Zack Handlen thought more positively of the episode when he reviewed it for the A.V. Club . He did think that Captain Picard was pretending to be Captain Kirk for most of the episode and that it didn 't have any real drama but that it was " silly , goofy fun for the most part " . He thought the episode was " cute " and gave it an overall score of B + . Robert Blackman was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Costumes for a Series for his work in this episode . It was instead awarded to Bill Hargate for his work on the Murphy Brown episode " Eldin Imitates Life " . Blackman would go on to win the award for the following two years for the episodes " Cost of Living " and " Time 's Arrow , Part II " . The episode was first released on VHS cassette on May 21 , 1996 . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season four DVD box set , released in the United States on September 3 , 2002 . The first Blu Ray release was in the United Kingdom on July 29 , 2013 , followed by the United States on July 30 .
= Lemmings ( video game ) = Lemmings is a puzzle @-@ platformer video game originally developed by DMA Design and first published by Psygnosis for the Amiga , Atari ST and PC in 1991 . The game was programmed by Mike Dailly and David Jones , and was inspired by a simple animation that Dailly created while experimenting with Deluxe Paint . The objective of the game is to guide a group of anthropomorphised lemmings through a number of obstacles to a designated exit . To save the required number of lemmings to win , one must determine how to assign a limited number of eight different skills to specific lemmings that allow the selected lemming to alter the landscape , to affect the behaviour of other lemmings , or to clear obstacles to create a safe passage for the rest of the lemmings . Lemmings was one of the best @-@ received video games of the early 1990s . It was the second highest rated game in the history of Amstrad Action , and was considered the eighth greatest game of all time by Next Generation in 1996 . Lemmings is also one of the most widely ported video games , and is estimated to have sold over 15 million copies between its various ports . The popularity of the game also led to the creation of several sequels , remakes and spin @-@ offs , and has also inspired similar games . = = Gameplay = = Lemmings is divided into a number of levels , grouped into four difficulty categories . Each level begins with a trap door opening from above , releasing a steady line of lemmings who all follow each other . Levels include a variety of obstacles that prevent lemmings from reaching the exit , such as large drops , booby traps and pools of lava . The goal is to guide at least a certain percentage of the green @-@ haired , blue @-@ robed lemmings from the entrance to the exit by clearing or creating a safe passage through the landscape for the lemmings to use . Unless assigned a special task , each lemming will walk in one direction ignoring any other lemming in its way ( except " Blockers " ) , falling off any edges and turning around if they hit an obstacle they cannot pass . A lemming can die in a number of ways : falling from a great height , falling into water or lava , disappearing off the top , bottom or side of the level map , being caught in a trap or fire , or being assigned the Bomber skill . Every level has a time limit ; if the clock counts down to zero , the level automatically ends . To successfully complete the level , the player must assign specific skills to certain lemmings . Which skills and how many uses of each are available to the player varies from level to level , and the player must assign the skills carefully to successfully guide the lemmings . There are eight skills that can be assigned : ' Climbers ' climb vertically though fall down if they hit an overhang . ' Floaters ' use a parachute to fall safely from heights . ' Bombers ' explode after a five @-@ second timer , destroying themselves and any destructible landscape in close proximity , though not damaging other Lemmings or traps . ' Blockers ' stand still and prevent other Lemmings from passing ; Lemmings that hit a Blocker simply reverse direction . ' Builders ' build a stairway of 12 steps . ' Bashers ' , ' Miners ' and ' Diggers ' dig horizontally , diagonally downwards or directly downwards respectively . While the player is able to paws ( wordplay in the game ) the game to inspect the level and status of the lemmings , skills can only be assigned in real @-@ time . Lemmings are initially released at a rate predetermined by the level ( from 1 to 99 ) . The player can increase the rate as desired to a maximum of 99 , and later decrease it down to , but not lower than , the initial rate . The player also has the option to " nuke " all the remaining lemmings on the screen , converting them to Bombers . This option can be used to abort a level when in a no @-@ win situation , remove any Blockers that remain after the remaining lemmings have been rescued , or end a level quickly once the required percentage of saved lemmings has been reached . The four difficulty groups – " Fun " , " Tricky " , " Taxing " and " Mayhem " – are used to organise the levels to reflect their overall difficulty . This rating reflects several factors , including the number of obstacles the player has to surpass , the limitation on the number of types of skills available to assign , the time limit , the minimum rate of lemming release , and the percentage of lemmings that must be saved . = = = Two @-@ player mode = = = The original Lemmings also has 20 two @-@ player levels . This took advantage of the Amiga 's ability to support two mice simultaneously , and the Atari 's ability to support a mouse and a joystick simultaneously . Each player is presented with their own view of the same map ( on a vertically split screen ) , can only give orders to their own lemmings ( green or blue ) , and had their own base . The goal is to get more lemmings ( regardless of colour ) into one 's own base than the other player . Gameplay cycles through the 20 levels until neither player gets any lemmings home . = = Development = = Mike Dailly , the first employee of DMA Design and one of the programmers for Lemmings , provided a detailed history of the development of the game entitled " The Lemmings Story " in 2006 . David Jones , founder of DMA Design , has also commented on the development and success of Lemmings . The inspiration for gameplay came as a result of a simple animated character sprite in an 8 × 8 pixel box created by Dailly using Deluxe Paint as part of development for Walker , then envisioned as a sequel to Blood Money . Dailly was able to quickly produce an animated graphic showing his creations moving endlessly , with additional graphical improvements made by Gary Timmons and other members of the DMA Design team to help remove the stiffness in the animation . One member , Russell Kay , observed that " There 's a game in that ! " , and later coined the term " lemmings " for these creations , according to Dailly . Allowing the creatures to move across the landscape was based on a Salamander weapon concept for Blood Money and demonstrated with the animations . Levels were designed based on a Deluxe Paint interface , which allowed several of the members to design levels , resulting in " hundreds of levels " . There were several internal iterations of the levels , each designer challenging the others . Dailly pointed out that David Jones " used to try and beat us , and after proudly stabbing a finger at the screen and saying ' There ! Beat that ! ' , we 'd calmly point out a totally new way of getting around all his traps , and doing it in a much simpler method . ' Oh ... ' , he 'd mutter , and scramble off to try and fix it . " They also sent internally tested levels to Psygnosis , getting back the results of their testing via fax . While most were solved quickly , Dailly commented that " Every now and again though , the fax would be covered in scribbles with the time and comments crossed out again and again ; this is what we were striving for while we were designing the levels , and it gave us all a warm fuzzy feeling inside . " Each of the designers had a somewhat different style in their levels : Dailly 's levels often had titles containing clues to what to do ( such as " It 's Hero Time " , suggesting that one lemming had to be separated from the crowd ) and generally required the player to perform several actions at once ; Gary Timmons 's levels were minimalistic , with popular culture references in the titles , and Scott Johnston 's ( whose mother was the first voice of the lemmings ) levels were generally tightly packed . Dailly was also responsible for the " custom " levels based on other Psygnosis and Reflections Interactive Amiga games , such as Shadow of the Beast , Menace , Awesome and Shadow of the Beast II . These " crossover " levels also used music from those games , though in ports these levels have been removed or altered to remove such references . After they developed most of the hard levels , they then created several simple levels either by copying the existing ones or creating new layouts ; as Dailly states , " This I believe is where many games fall down today , they do not spend the time making a good learning curve . " Timmons is credited with the official drawings of the lemmings , as necessitated by the need of Psygnosis for box cover artwork . Music was originally created by Brian Johnston ( Scott 's younger brother ) , who sampled bits of copyrighted music . This had been common practice , but at that point there was a growing awareness of music copyright . Psygnosis asked Tim Wright to replace the offending tracks , who often used arrangements and reworkings of classical and traditional music to avoid copyright problems . Music tracks in the game include : " Galop Infernal " from Orpheus in the Underworld ( the music by Offenbach often used for the can @-@ can ) , " Rondo alla Turca " from Mozart 's Piano Sonata No. 11 , " Dance of the Reed Flutes " from Tchaikovsky 's Nutcracker Suite , " Dance of the Little Swans " from Tchaikovsky 's Swan Lake , " Ten Lemmings " ( a track that uses melodies from traditional song " Ten Green Bottles " ) , Chopin 's Piano Sonata No. 2 ( the part used as funeral march ) , Wagner 's " Bridal Chorus " ( popularly known as " Here Comes the Bride " ) , " London Bridge is Falling Down " , the English folk tune " Forest Green " ( adapted into the hymn " All Beautiful the March of Days " ) , the carol " O Little Town of Bethlehem " mixed with the melody from the film The Good , the Bad and the Ugly , " She 'll Be Coming ' Round the Mountain " and " ( How Much Is ) That Doggie in the Window ? " . The two @-@ player option was inspired by then @-@ current games Populous and Stunt Car Racer . DMA Design initially wanted to use a null @-@ modem connection between two machines to allow competitive play , but ended up using the ability of the Amiga to have two mouse pointer devices usable at the same time and thus created the split @-@ screen mode . = = Ports and remakes = = The popularity of the game on the Amiga led to its rapid porting to many other platforms , and it is regarded as one of the most widely ported video games . Within a year of its release , the game had been ported to Atari ST , Sinclair Spectrum , PC and SNES . David Jones stated that after porting the game to 20 systems , he stopped keeping count of additional ports . Other commercial ports of the original game include 3DO , Acorn Archimedes , Apple II , Apple Macintosh , CDTV , Commodore 64 , NES , Sega Master System and Genesis , TurboGrafx @-@ 16 , Philips CD @-@ i and Sharp X68000 . In early 2006 , Sony released a remake of Lemmings for the PlayStation Portable , developed by Team17 . It features all 120 levels from the original game , 36 brand new levels as well as DataPack support ( similar to the Extra Track system featured in Wipeout Pure ) , and a user level editor . Every level in the game is a pre @-@ rendered 3D landscape , although their gameplay is still 2D and remains faithful to the original game . User levels can be constructed from pre @-@ rendered objects and distributed by uploading them to a PlayStation @-@ specific Lemmings online community . The soundtrack also marks the final video game score created by longtime composer Tim Follin after he announced his retirement from the industry in mid @-@ 2005 . In October 2006 the game was ported by developer Rusty Nutz for the PlayStation 2 with use of the EyeToy . The basic change in the concept is that the player must stretch and use his / her limbs in the recorded picture to aid the lemmings . In 2007 , Team17 produced a similar remake of Lemmings for the Sony PlayStation 3 for download through the PlayStation Network . The game has the similar graphical improvements as the PSP title , as well as on @-@ line scoreboards and additional levels developed for high @-@ definition display , but lacks the ability to create and share levels as the PSP version offers . = = = Expansions = = = Lemmings received some expansion packs following its launch . Oh No ! More Lemmings , originally released for the Amiga in 1991 both as a data disk or standalone game , added five varying difficulties — Tame , Crazy , Wild , Wicked and Havoc — each with 20 new levels . The game also features enhanced graphics and altered sound effects . The expansion was also ported to Acorn Archimedes , Atari ST , DOS , Macintosh , and Sam Coupé , and the levels were made available with the Game Boy Color , Microsoft Windows , PlayStation and Sega Genesis versions of Lemmings . Oh No ! More Lemmings received generally positive reviews . Dan Slingsby of CU Amiga found the game addictive , calling the puzzles " ingenious " , and Peter Lee of Amiga Action praised the quality and difficulty of the levels ; Stuart Campbell of Amiga Power was disappointed by the lack of fixes from the original game , and Ed Ricketts of ST Format criticised the difficulty gradient of the levels and the price of the expansion , but both ultimately gave positive reviews nonetheless . Christmas Lemmings , also known as Holiday Lemmings , was also released as a series of short games released between 1991 and 1994 . The gameplay remains unchanged from the base game , which is not required . First released as Xmas Lemmings as two four @-@ level demos in 1991 and 1992 , there were two later full retail releases on the Amiga and Atari ST in 1993 and 1994 , both with an additional 32 levels . The games were well @-@ received ; Rob Mead of Amiga Format described it as " funny , frustrating and incredibly addictive " , despite being disappointed by the number of levels , and Will Greenwald of PC Magazine ranked it among the best Christmas video games in 2014 . = = Reception = = The original sales for Lemmings on the Amiga topped 55 @,@ 000 copies on the first day of sales ; in comparison , Menace sold 20 @,@ 000 copies and Blood Money sold 40 @,@ 000 copies cumulatively . With all the ports included , it has been estimated that over 15 million copies of Lemmings have been sold between 1991 and 2006 . At the time of its first release , Lemmings received several high scores from gaming magazines , with only the level of graphics and sound receiving some small amount of criticism . David Sears of Compute ! , in his review of Lemmings for the PC , stated that " perhaps Psygnosis has tapped into the human instinct for survival in formulating this perfect blend of puzzle , strategy , and action . " Amiga Computing stated that " Lemmings is absolutely brilliant . Psygnosis have managed to produce a game that is not only totally original , but also features the kind of addicting gameplay that will keep the player coming back for more time and time again . " A review from the Australian Commodore and Amiga Review ( ACAR ) stated that " above all , the concept is simple , and the game is a lot of fun . " Computer Gaming World stated that " Not since Tetris has this reviewer been so addicted to , or completely fascinated with , a series of challenging puzzles ... follow the crowd and get Lemmings " . In 1992 the magazine named it its Action Game of the Year . The game was reviewed in 1991 in Dragon by Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser in " The Role of Computers " column . The reviewers gave the game 5 out of 5 stars . The Lessers reviewed the MacIntosh version of the game in 1993 in Dragon , also giving that version 5 stars . In 1994 Electronic Gaming Monthly complimented the Lynx version 's large number of options and password feature , and remarked , " Lemmings has always been a good strategy game , and the Lynx version continues the tradition . " The following year they reviewed the CD @-@ i version , criticising that it has nothing but the obligatory full motion video intro to set it apart from the numerous ports of the game that had already been released over the past four years . GamePro made the same criticisms , commenting that " this former 16 @-@ bit puzzler isn 't going anywhere new on the CD @-@ i . " Next Generation 's review of the 3DO version assessed that " If you 've played any version , you 've played this one , too , but if you haven 't tried it , this is one of the better ones , and it 's still one game that 's addictive as hell . " In 1996 , Next Generation declared it the 8th greatest game of all time , and " second only to Tetris " in the puzzle genre . In 2004 , readers of Retro Gamer voted Lemmings as the 21st top retro game , with the editors calling it " perhaps Psygnosis ’ finest hour and a turning point in the puzzle genre . " Lemmings for the PSP was warmly received , with a 76 / 100 average rating at Metacritic . According to the review by GameSpot , " Lemmings is a game @-@ design classic that is as compelling now in its newest iteration on the PlayStation Portable as it was 15 years ago . " Eurogamer complained that the game was the otherwise bare port of the game to yet another system . The PSN version 's inability to create levels or play competitively online resulted in the game receiving mediocre reviews , with an averaged Metacritic score of 59 / 100 . = = Legacy = = Lemmings inspired several sequels , including the Christmas Lemmings short games that were released between 1991 and 1994 , and the 1991 expansion Oh No ! More Lemmings . Stand @-@ alone sequels were Lemmings 2 : The Tribes ( 1993 ) , All New World of Lemmings ( 1994 ) , 3D Lemmings ( 1995 ) and Lemmings Revolution ( 2000 ) . Two spin @-@ off games were also made , both in 1996 ; Lemmings Paintball and The Adventures of Lomax . Numerous clones of Lemmings were made . One of the first was The Humans , released for the Amiga in 1992 . General game concepts have been included in the open source Pingus , where the player is required to safely guide penguins across landscapes using a similar array of tools . Other similar games include Clones . In 2010 , it was announced that Lemmings would be ported to the iOS operating system by developer Mobile 1UP . On 29 June 2010 , Mobile 1UP reported that Sony Computer Entertainment Europe had presented them with a cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter , forcing them to halt development of the port . In April 2011 , Mobile 1UP has released a re @-@ worked version of the work done in 2010 with a prehistoric setting ( new artwork , sfx , music , levels ) under the name Caveman , available for the iOS and webOS platforms . Brutal Deluxe , the developer who did the porting of the Apple IIgs version of Lemmings , has released the games ' source code . Lemmings has also been called a predecessor of the modern real @-@ time strategy ( RTS ) video game genre . A 1991 Amiga Power article claimed that Lemmings " was the first major game to introduce the ' indirect @-@ control ' concept , " an element that is now common in many RTS games . Lemmings ' introduction of RTS elements has been noted by fantasy author Terry Pratchett ; in his novel Interesting Times , an army of golems is controlled in a fashion reminiscent of the Lemmings user interface . When readers asked if this was deliberate , Pratchett responded : " Merely because the red army can fight , dig , march and climb and is controlled by little icons ? Can 't imagine how anyone thought that ... Not only did I wipe Lemmings from my hard disk , I overwrote it so 's I couldn 't get it back . " Yannick LeJacq of Kotaku , commenting on the 2014 game MouseCraft which incorporates elements of Lemmings and Tetris , speculated that games like Lemmings would not be very successful in the current gaming market , as the pace of the game is far too slow to satisfy most players . = = Computational Complexity = = In 2004 , Graham Cormode proved that decide whether it is possible to complete a level of Lemmings is NP @-@ complete . Later , Graham showed that it 's PSPACE @-@ complete to find the maximal possible number of lemmings saved in a level of Lemmings . Note that these two questions are different , since one asks for saving any number of lemmings that 's more than the minimal amount required to pass the level , while the other asks for saving as many as possible . Clearly , the later is harder than the former .
= Matt Leto = Matt Leto ( born December 1 , 1983 ) , gamertag Zyos , is a former American professional player of the first @-@ person shooter video games Halo : Combat Evolved and Halo 2 . Zyos spent a year in his late teens accumulating video game records , and for a while was the holder of the most records . After dropping out of DigiPen Institute of Technology , Leto pursued a career in professional gaming . Leto won the 2003 and 2004 World Cyber Games , and was signed to become a professional game player that same year . He remained champion until he was defeated in 2005 , and was known for his quiet , patient style of play , and his skill in one @-@ on @-@ one matches . In 2006 he retired from professional gaming . He is currently working as a real estate agent in Texas . = = Early life and career = = Leto played his first video game at the age of five , playing Super Mario Bros. In his early teens he played and won local video game competitions . At the age of 17 , he broke the world record for points scored in the video game Crazy Taxi , and when Twin Galaxies , which records video game records , wanted more proof , he recorded a video of beating his own record . He then spent the next year focused on breaking video game records and eventually broke 742 of them . He had the highest number of records ever achieved until Tom Duncan surpassed him . Originally Zyos was interested in going to DigiPen Institute of Technology to learn how to create video games , but found it intense and that it was not his passion . Having dropped out of college , he later left his job at an ice cream shop at age 19 and began pursuing a career in professional gaming . In late 2002 Leto competed at AGP1 , his first video game tournament , and though his team placed fifth , he ranked second individually out of three hundred players . = = Professional career = = = = = 2003 = = = In the fall of 2003 , Leto was recruited to play professionally for Major League Gaming ( MLG ) at the age of 19 . That year , he was part of the four man team " Dream Team " . He won the top prize at the World Cyber Games 2003 held in Seoul , South Korea , winning $ 20 @,@ 000 . It was at that point that Zyos decided he could play video games as his career . That year , Zyos earned $ 30 @,@ 000 from professional gaming . He also signed an endorsement deal with ActiVision that placed an endorsing quote on an Xbox shooter game titled Greg Hasting 's Tournament Paintball . = = = 2004 = = = In 2004 , GameSpot described Leto as the " number one Halo player in the United States " . Leto came in second at the 2004 Dallas Midwestern Regional Tournament in the " Halo Free For All " category , and first in the N @-@ Gage Competition playing Tony Hawk . As part of Team FFA competing in Major League Gaming tournaments , he helped defeat Shoot to Kill in an upset victory in Chicago , and then also Atlanta . Later in the MLG tournament series he was part of the Florida Jackalopes and were defeated in New York by Team Domination . At the MLG San Francisco tournament Zyos agreed to split the prize money with his final competitor " Mighty " before the final game , and claimed to do so in order to make his opponent less hungry for victory . Leto participated in the World Cyber Games 2004 in San Francisco . In preparation for the World Cyber games , Zyos traveled for the two weeks prior to practice playing against his competitors . At the opening ceremony of the games , Leto was player representative , having been the previous year 's champion , and called on players to have good sportsmanship . In the final game , Leto led early 13 – 5 , but his opponent rallied to 13 – 10 before Zyos was able to also rally and defeat him . Zyos thus won the Gold medal for the second year in a row , defeating Canadian Nelson Triana 2 – 0 in the " best out of three " format . He said that his second victory was more important than his first , since he is now the third person to win two years in a row . = = = 2005 = = = At the Game Riot Conference in 2005 , amateur players had a chance to play against Zyos to win prizes ; Leto viewed the touring gaming exposition as a chance to build his reputation . In 2005 , Zyos did paid endorsements and had a managing team . He also came in third at the Major League Games Competition as part of team Str8 Rippin . That team went on to defeat rivals " Team3D " in Philadelphia . Later that summer , he joined Team " Trademark Gamers " , and later the " IGS Monglers " . On September 13 , 2005 Zyos was defeated by the Ogre twins in the third game of the World Cyber Games ' United States Finals . Leto attributed his loss to his weakness in two @-@ on @-@ two play , and stated his desire to continue playing one on one . In October 2005 , Zyos competed and won the DigitalLife Tournament Series Halo 2 tournament , defeating " PdgfProxa " in the final match . = = = 2006 = = = Leto competed professionally in Halo 2 and Project Gotham Racing 3 at the World Series of Video Games in July 2006 at the Gaylord Texan Resort & Convention Center . He was also invited to attend the Championship Gaming Series that year . Following his defeat , he considered playing another first @-@ person shooter or a future Halo game . In September of that year he visited the Cyber World Games and attendees had the opportunity to be taught how to play Halo 2 . He was a part of team XiT Woundz , thought to be one of the top four Major League Gaming teams in 2006 . The team was defeated by teams " eX " and MoBDeep , and ultimately placed seventh . Following the defeats , Zyos exited his hotel where he was staying for the tournament and has not returned to professional gaming . His retirement was called the ninth most important event in professional gaming that year by Major League Gaming . = = Technique = = Zyos studied his opponent 's style of play in order to find weaknesses . He also practiced four to five hours to day , and the week before a tournament for ten . He stated that most of the stress of competing is mental , though physical fitness helps in tournaments that can last 16 hours per day . Talents he has suggested players need include quick reflexes , concentration , and the ability to play under pressure . The transition from Halo to Halo 2 was a mixed bag for Zyos , since he called it an " easier game " , but tournaments started being more focused on two @-@ on @-@ two . Once Halo 2 was released , Leto began to focus almost exclusively on it and did not play the original at all . While on Team Str8 Rippin in 2005 , Leto stated that their style was unique , since any team member might take on any role in their attack formation . They were also patient , content to wait their enemies out and force the opposing team to attack when Str8 Rippin is ahead . Zyos insisted upon his teammates being silent and not trash @-@ talking during matches in order to maintain focus .
= You Never Give Me Your Money = " You Never Give Me Your Money " is a song by the Beatles , appearing on their 1969 album Abbey Road . It was written by Paul McCartney ( though credited to Lennon – McCartney ) and documented the financial and personal difficulties facing the band . The track is the first track of the medley on side two of Abbey Road and was recorded in stages between May and August 1969 . The song was the first one to be recorded for the medley , which was conceived by McCartney and producer George Martin as a finale for the Beatles ' career . The backing track was recorded at Olympic Sound Studios in Barnes , London , but the remainder of overdubs occurred at Abbey Road Studios . Musically , the song is made up of a suite of various segments , ranging from a piano ballad at the beginning through to guitar arpeggios at the end . = = Background = = The song was written by McCartney when he was staying with new wife Linda in New York in March 1969 , shortly after the Get Back sessions that ultimately resulted in Let It Be . John Lennon and McCartney were at risk of losing overall control of Northern Songs , the company that published their songs , after ATV Music bought a majority share . McCartney had been largely responsible for the group 's direction and projects since the death of manager Brian Epstein in 1967 , but began to realise that the group dynamic of the Beatles was coming to an end . He was particularly unhappy at the others wanting to draft in manager Allen Klein to help sort out their finances . McCartney later said that the song was written with Klein in mind , saying " it 's basically a song about no faith in the person " . He added that the line " One sweet dream , pack up the bags , get in the limousine " was based on his trips in the country with Linda to get away from the tense atmosphere with the Beatles , though author Walter Everett thought the line was also a nostalgic look at the Beatles ' touring years , which had ended in 1966 . The musical structure came from several song fragments , beginning with a piano ballad and moving to a number of different styles , including boogie @-@ woogie piano , arpeggiated guitars and nursery rhyme . Beatles author Ian MacDonald speculated that the guitar arpeggios at the end of the track were influenced by " I Want You ( She 's So Heavy ) " and the middle section of " Here Comes the Sun " , and the overall structure was inspired by Lennon 's " Happiness Is a Warm Gun " from the previous year 's The Beatles , which also joined unrelated song fragments together . Realising that Abbey Road could be the group 's last album , McCartney and Martin decided to combine various portions of tracks into a medley , which would act as a climactic finale of the group 's career . McCartney later said that the idea of a song suite was inspired by Keith West 's " Excerpt from A Teenage Opera " . Some musical segments of " You Never Give Me Your Money " were reused for the " Golden Slumbers " / " Carry That Weight " portion of the medley , including the opening verses and later guitar arpeggios . = = Recording = = The basic backing track was recorded at Olympic Sound Studios in Barnes on 6 May 1969 . Recording started at 3pm and went on until 4am the next morning . McCartney sang lead and played piano , Lennon played an Epiphone Casino guitar , George Harrison played a Fender Telecaster guitar fed through a Leslie speaker , and Ringo Starr played drums . The group recorded 36 takes , selecting take 30 as the best , which was made into a rough stereo mix . The basic structure of the song as it appeared on Abbey Road had not been worked out at this stage , and the original recording ran onto a loose jam session , ending up as a fast rock @-@ and @-@ roll instrumental towards the end . The track was completed in Abbey Road Studios . McCartney overdubbed a lead vocal onto the basic track on 1 July , and further vocals and sound effects were added on 15 July . On 30 July , a reduction mix was made of the original eight track tape , so further overdubs could be made , and a rough mix of the Abbey Road medley was put together . The cross @-@ fade from " You Never Give Me Your Money " into the next track , " Sun King " , proved to be problematic , and the group made several attempts before deciding to merge the songs via an organ note . McCartney completed the instrumental overdubs the next day , on 31 July , by adding a bass guitar part and additional piano overdubs , including some punched @-@ in honky @-@ tonk piano in place of the original . The final recording session occurred on 5 August , when McCartney made a number of tape loops at Abbey Road , including bells , birds , bubbles and chirping crickets . Martin mixed the track into stereo on 13 August , and made 11 attempts at a final mix , combining the tape loops with the cross @-@ fade into " Sun King " , replacing the earlier organ note . He made another attempt at a final mix on 21 August , and this was used for the finished master . = = Personnel = = According to Ian MacDonald : Paul McCartney – lead and backing vocals , piano , bass , wind chimes , tape loops John Lennon – guitar , backing vocal George Harrison – guitar , backing vocal Ringo Starr – drums , tambourine = = Covers = = The track has been used on some albums featuring Beatles ' songs covered by other artists . In 2009 , Nine Below Zero with Glenn Tilbrook covered the song on Abbey Road Now ! , a CD of Abbey Road covers accompanying the October 2009 issue of Mojo magazine .
= Jarlsberg Tunnel = The Jarlsberg Tunnel ( Norwegian : Jarlsbergtunnelen ) is a 1 @,@ 750 @-@ meter ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) long double track railway tunnel which runs through Frodeåsen in Tønsberg , Norway . Located on the Vestfold Line , the tunnel was built as part of the 7 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometer ( 4 @.@ 8 mi ) double @-@ track high @-@ speed segment from Barkåker to Tønsberg . It is located just north of Tønsberg Station and runs between Frodegata and Tomsbakken . Most of the tunnel is blasted , although 223 meters ( 732 ft ) is in a concrete culvert . Planning of the tunnel started in the late 1990s . Several railway interest groups advised against building the isolated segment of upgraded track without a complete plan for upgrading the entire line . Construction started in April 2009 and the new section and the tunnel opened on 7 November 2011 . It was the fourth segment of the Vestfold Line to be upgraded . = = Specifications = = The Jarlsberg Tunnel runs roughly north – south through Frodeåsen , a hill just north of the town center of Tønsberg . The northern entrance is located at Tomsbakken , beside County Road 35 and the southern entrance is located at Frodegata in the town center . Just south of the tunnel lies Tønsberg Station . The tunnel is 1 @,@ 750 meters ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) long , of which 1 @,@ 560 meters ( 5 @,@ 120 ft ) is blasted through bedrock and 223 meters ( 732 ft ) is concrete culvert . The portal on the Tønsberg side is 73 meters ( 240 ft ) long . The Jarlsberg Tunnel constitutes the southernmost part of the 7 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 8 mi ) double @-@ track segment of the Vestfold Line between Barkåker and Tønsberg . It is electrified at 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC , has an NSI @-@ 63 signaling system and is dimensioned for 200 kilometers per hour ( 120 mph ) . The crosscut serves as an emergency exit . The railway tunnel crosses 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 0 meters ( 8 ft 2 in to 9 ft 10 in ) above the Frodeåsen Tunnel , a twin @-@ tube tunnel of County Road 300 . The tunnel 's single crosscut serves as an emergency exit . The line is owned and maintained by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . = = History = = The Vestfold Line opened in 1881 as a narrow @-@ gauge railway . Although later converted to standard gauge and electrified , the line retains poor capacity and many curves . The only previous tunnel north of Larvik is the 288 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 945 ft ) Smørstein Tunnel , which was completed in 1921 . In the early 1990s , work started on increasing speed , capacity and reliability by building shorter sections of double @-@ track with higher permitted speeds . During this period , there was very little investment funding for railways ; thus the Vestfold Line was split into a series of small segments , each which was planned individually . Between 1995 and 2003 , three sections with a combined length of 23 kilometers ( 14 mi ) were opened . The segment between Barkåker and Tønsberg was the fourth section of the line to be upgraded . When later projects are completed , it will allow travel time from Tønsberg to Oslo to be reduced from 90 to 60 minutes . Initial planning of the segment between Barkåker and Tønsberg considered 13 different initial route proposals . However , no analysis for possible rights @-@ of @-@ way south of Tønsberg or north of Barkåker were considered . In September 1999 , the government presented their proposal for National Transport Plan 2002 – 11 , which included three segments on the Vestfold Line : Holm – Nykirke , Barkåker – Tønsberg and Farriseidet – Porsgrunn . When Parliament passed the plan in February 2001 , the Barkåker – Tønsberg segment was prioritized second on the Vestfold Line , after a new passing loop at Nykirke . National Transport Plan 2002 – 11 proposed that construction start in 2005 , but by November 2002 , the National Rail Administration delayed the plans , following investment cuts by Bondevik 's Second Cabinet . In response , Minister of Transport Torild Skogsholm stated that she was considering financing the project as a public – private partnership paid through a surcharge on tickets fares . The route will give a time saving of between three and four minutes for trains heading north of Tønsberg , but two minutes of these will be saved by changing the direction the trains run through the loop through town . Thus , passengers traveling southwards from Tønsberg experience a two @-@ minute increase in travel time . The plan to make an isolated investment in the Barkåker – Tønsberg section was criticized by several pro @-@ railway interest organizations , including Norsk Bane , For Jernbane , the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature as well as the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) — who operates the train service . All recommended that the National Rail Administration place the investments on hold until more of the Vestfold Line was planned . NSB 's Tom Ingulstad called the plans " troublesome " and stated that the trains would have nearly no time or reliability @-@ gains from the investment . If the authority instead had built more double track in connection with the existing segment at Sande , trains could more efficiently catch up any delays before reaching Drammen . Long @-@ term plans for the line imply that the line will need to allow a through speed of at least 250 kilometers per hour ( 160 mph ) and be built so trains do not need to stop or slow down at all stations . The National Rail Administration had at the time of construction not made any plans for a route south of Tønsberg ; estimates from Norsk Bane show that Tønsberg will not be able to allow high through speeds and that a new through line would have be built with a different right @-@ of @-@ way , entirely avoiding the Jarlsberg Tunnel . Alternatively , the route would have to feature slow speeds or large encroachments on the local environment . By binding the Vestfold Line to run via Barkåker , it is not possible to build a high @-@ speed line with stations serving population centers such as Horten , Åsgårdstrand and Eik . For Jernbane advised against building the Barkåker – Tønsberg segment and instead recommended that the authorities wait until the entire Vestfold Line was planned . Following the appointment of Stoltenberg 's Second Cabinet in 2005 , the government started working with longer projects and increased funding . The go @-@ ahead for the project was given by Minister of Transport Liv Signe Navarsete on 31 March 2008 , with the entire project from Barkåker to Tønsberg estimated to cost 1 @.@ 37 billion Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . The main civil engineering advisor for the project was Norconsult . Six bids were issued to building the main segment , which included the tunnel and 2 @.@ 6 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) from Tomsbakken to Barkåker Industrial Park . The bidders were a joint venture between Reinertsen and Leonard Nilsen , Veidekke , Skanska , Hæhre Entreprenør , NCC and Mika . The contract was awarded on 5 March 2009 to Reinertsen / Leonard Nilsen , who had the lowest bid , NOK 377 @.@ 9 million , NOK 158 million less than the most expensive , from Mika . The joint venture was structured so Leonard Nilsen built the tunnel and Reinertsen the above @-@ ground section . Construction of the project started on 16 March 2009 ; work on the tunnel started in April and the first blasting began on 11 May . Construction ran from a crosscut in the center of the tunnel and outwards ; average speed was 35 to 40 meters ( 115 to 131 ft ) per week . Work on casting the concrete portals started on 18 September . For four weeks , starting in January 2010 , blasting was performed above the Frodeåsen Tunnel , and on each occasion that the 100 or so blasts were executed , the road was closed for safety reasons . Following a public naming competition , the National Rail Administration announced on 5 February 2010 that the tunnel be known as the Jarlsberg Tunnel . The first breakthrough of the tunnel was achieved on 30 June 2010 . The second and final breakthrough took place on 1 September . Construction proceeded without any injuries and nearly without any complications . The tunneling resulted in 235 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 231 @,@ 000 long tons ; 259 @,@ 000 short tons ) of earthwork , which was used to build the above @-@ ground section north of the tunnel . The last concrete casting was laid on 20 January 2011 . Laying of the track was performed by Wiebe , signaling was installed by Norsk Jernbanedrift , Structon Rail installed the overhead wire , and YIT installed the power supply and telecommunications systems . The tunnel has the NSI @-@ 63 relay @-@ based signaling system , although it is scheduled to be replaced by European Rail Traffic Management System shortly after 2015 . The last six weeks before opening , the Vestfold Line was closed to allow the new and old sections to be connected . This was the most hectic part of construction , as it saw the tracks south of the tunnel be rearranged to allow trains to operate the opposite direction through the loop in Tønsberg . The work was performed by Reinertsen and took 100 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours . The tunnel and the segment Barkåker – Tønsberg opened on schedule on 7 November 2011 . The segment cost NOK 1 @.@ 5 billion , which was within budget . However , at the time of the opening , double track was still not laid from the tunnel to Tønsberg Station . Previously , trains crossed each other at the passing loop at the closed Barkåker Station , with one train having to wait for the other . With the competition of the new segment , trains could pass at any point between Tønsberg and Barkåker , allowing increased reliability . However , the signaling system was not installed at the time of opening , so the tunnel remained only operated with single track , although a temporary signaling system allowed it to be used as a passing loop . If used as such , speed was limited to 70 kilometers per hour ( 43 mph ) .
= Un @-@ American Graffiti = " Un @-@ American Graffiti " is the sixteenth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the sixtieth episode overall . Written by Robert Hull and directed by John T. Kretchmer , the episode premiered on The CW on May 1 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica is hired by an Arab couple who own a Middle Eastern restaurant because their restaurant has recently had the word " terrorist " spray @-@ painted on it . Meanwhile , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) , as acting Sheriff , looks into underage drinking regulations in local bars after the case of a drunk 19 @-@ year @-@ old getting hit by a car comes to Keith 's attention , eventually finding that Veronica is handing out convincing fake IDs to her fellow students . In addition , Veronica attends a birthday party run by Logan ( Jason Dohring ) for his new girlfriend Parker ( Julie Gonzalo ) . " Un @-@ American Graffiti " was the first episode of the series not to be part of a larger story arc . This was a change that had been decided upon midway through the season , and series creator Thomas thought that this would make the series more accessible to new viewers . In addition , the episode aired after a two @-@ month hiatus , during which period Thomas created the idea for season four taking place in the FBI Academy . In its original broadcast , the episode garnered 2 @.@ 35 million viewers and generally negative reviews from television critics , with many criticizing the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week as cliché and moralistic . Eric Goldman of IGN compared the episode negatively to an after school special , while Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , disliked the portrayal of Rashad . = = Plot synopsis = = Logan invites Veronica to Parker ’ s birthday party . A woman ( Carole Raphaelle Davis ) comes into Mars Investigations and says that her restaurant was vandalized . Veronica stakes out the restaurant before the owner ’ s husband ( Anthony Azizi ) comes out and berates her to leave . However , while they are speaking , a group of troublemakers appear and shoot paintballs at Veronica and the married couple . The husband acquiesces to allow Veronica to investigate both incidents further . Keith , as acting Sheriff , is called in to look into a case involving a 19 @-@ year @-@ old who was hit while returning home drunk from a bar using an obviously fake ID . Veronica tracks down the family of the car that was used in the paintball incident and finds that it is under the control of a group of young people . Keith ’ s underlings state that the bars are actually good at keeping out minors . Veronica reviews security cameras at the restaurant and tracks a person down to be a Jewish man with whom the restaurant owner ’ s daughter has been having an affair . An employee named Nasir ( Haaz Sleiman ) has taken explicit photos of the two , and Amira ’ s father will disown her if the father finds out . Veronica goes to a photo @-@ developing store and retrieves the photos , but one is stuck in the printer and Nasir gets it . Amira ’ s father shows up at her door and angrily berates her and fires Veronica , although she says that her real employer is his wife . Keith catches Wallace and Piz , out for a night on the town , in a bar , discovering that they have high @-@ quality fake IDs from Veronica , leading Keith to reprimand her . Veronica discovers the true vandal after tracking a piece of bait . The vandal ’ s name is Derrick ( Cole Williams ) , who vandalized after seeing Nasir distributing a piece of anti @-@ American propaganda at a mall . Both owners want to meet Derrick before pressing charges . Keith sends Piz ( Chris Lowell ) and Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) with clearly fake IDs into a bar as a test of his subordinates . He finds that the deputy does not check closely and resents Keith as well . Due to this fact , Keith fires the people who disobeyed his orders . The two restaurant owners meet with Derrick , who does not react politely to them . However , they decide not to turn in Derrick . The husband / father has an awakening about Amira as well and forgives her , turning in Nasir to the police for an expired visa . At Parker ’ s party , Mac ( Tina Majorino ) reconnects with Max ( Adam Rose ) , and Veronica shows mild jealousy when Piz shows her his new fling . Logan gets Parker a romantic cake . In order to escape from a awkward suitor whom Logan introduces her to , Veronica asks Piz to pretend to be her boyfriend . Afterwards , Wallace informs her that Piz does have a crush on her . Veronica realizes that she has not realized this because of her preoccupation with her breakup with Logan . She talks to Piz on the porch at the party , and he suddenly kisses her . Piz retreats to the elevator , but Veronica appears and kisses him back . The elevator opens , revealing Logan . = = Production = = " Un @-@ American Graffiti " was written by Robert Hull and directed by John T. Kretchmer , marking Hull 's second and final writing credit ( after " Show Me the Monkey " ) and Kretchmer 's fourteenth and final directing credit for the series . " Un @-@ American Graffiti " introduces a romantic storyline between Mac ( Tina Majorino ) and Max ( Adam Rose ) . Max had appeared in two previous episodes — as a suspect in " Hi , Infidelity " and as the main client in " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " . From the very beginning of his appearances , Max was planned to begin a romantic relationship with Mac . Rose was roommates with the other main love interest for her , Bronson Pope ( Michael Mitchell ) . When Rose received the call that he would be appearing in more episodes for a romantic storyline with Mac , Rose stated , " But I thought that 's what my roommate was doing . " " Un @-@ American Graffiti " is the first episode of Veronica Mars not to be part of a broader story arc in the form of a mystery that Veronica solves over several episodes . The crew 's plan at the beginning of the season was to have the two @-@ part murder mystery of Hearst 's basketball coach , encapsulated in " Postgame Mortem " and " Mars , Bars " , to stretch over the rest of the season beginning with this episode , but this idea was changed around the airing of " Spit & Eggs " . Series creator Rob Thomas gave two rationales for the creative change . The first was that he believed that the story arcs alienated new or casual viewers , meaning that the change would solve the series ' low Nielsen ratings , while the other reason was that he noticed that after the first season , the show had garnered the most narrative criticism about the story arcs . On trying the new narrative structure , Thomas stated , " It seems like a good time to do it — a good fun test balloon . Try it over five [ episodes ] and see how fans and non @-@ fans react . " However , Thomas also commented that the show would continue to exhibit a degree of serialization through Veronica 's romantic and personal life . In addition , the new story formula was a way to have episodes focus on Veronica 's personal life instead of devoting most of the episode time to advancing rushed mysteries . The episode also features the first kiss of the characters of Piz ( Chris Lowell ) and Veronica , creating a love triangle between the two and Logan ( Jason Dohring ) that would last for the rest of the series and the Veronica Mars movie , dividing fans into " Team Logan " and " Team Piz " , depending on which relationship they preferred . The song " Rally " by alternative rock band Phoenix plays during Veronica and Piz 's kiss . Thomas highlighted the scene in Veronica returns home to find Keith reading classified ads as one of his favorite moments between the father / daughter pair in the season , stating that they both fulfilled the writers ' initial vision for the scene and that Kristen Bell in particular interpreted her lines well . The episode was the first to air after nearly a two @-@ month hiatus , during which Thomas came up for the idea for season four to take place in the FBI Academy . Possibly done as a last @-@ resort attempt to save the show from cancellation , the series was very much on the brink of cancellation at this point in production . Prior to the airing of " Un @-@ American Graffiti " , Enrico Colantoni stated that The CW had seen the filmed first ten pages and reacted negatively . However , Thomas denied this testimony and commented that The CW had not yet seen the FBI pitch and would on May 2 , the day after the series ' return , a statement that was confirmed to be true by a representative for the network . Prior to the episode 's airing , information was released stating that middle school students would be involved in the episode , leading BuddyTV to speculate that Logan 's young friend from " Postgame Mortem " would make an appearance . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = In its original broadcast , " Un @-@ American Graffiti " received 2 @.@ 35 million viewers , ranking 95th of 98 in the weekly rankings . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Papa 's Cabin " , which garnered 2 @.@ 66 million viewers . = = = Reviews = = = " Un @-@ American Graffiti " received generally negative reviews from television critics , with many criticizing the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week as cliché and moralistic and opining that it was not a strong start for the show 's new episode formula . Eric Goldman of IGN graded the episode a 7 @.@ 0 out of 10 , indicating that it was " good " . He was very critical of the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week and Keith 's plotline as Sheriff , comparing them both negatively to an after school special . He disliked what he considered to be the cliché storyline and stereotyped characters of the restaurant plot , particularly the trope of the disapproving Arab @-@ American father and the plotline ending with a speech about the American dream , concluding that " even Veronica pointing out this cliché didn 't make it less so . " While opining that Logan 's actions were out of character , the reviewer was more positive towards the budding relationships of Veronica and Piz and Mac and Max . Television Without Pity graded the episode a " C " , with the reviewer stating that it was the only episode of the series that they did not like . Reviewer Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching ? , was very negative towards the episode . While stating that it was very preachy and generally boring , particularly in the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week , he believed that the episode was just a fluke because he had already been sent the next episode , " Debasement Tapes " , which he enjoyed . While being less critical of the episode 's other subplots , he concluded that " this wasn 't exactly [ a ] triumphant return . " Kelly West of Cinema Blend was mixed towards the episode . While calling the new formula " a breath of fresh air , " she was not entirely pleased with the final scene featuring Piz and Veronica 's kiss , opining that the location and the fact that Veronica ran after Piz and kissed him back were not in keeping with Veronica 's character . Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club was also critical of the case of the week and the episode in general . While admiring the show 's decision to address the controversial issue of Islamophobia in the United States , he did not like the show 's characterization of Rashad , the father , noting inconsistencies about whether his storyline was one of redemption or not . " There are three seemingly equal interpretations : that Veronica Mars writers believe that the cartoon is worth ruining someone 's life over ; that Rashad is a complex character who can be petty and vindictive ; or , it 's just a bunch of stuff that happens and there is no moral . "
= Silicon nitride = Silicon nitride is a chemical compound of the elements silicon and nitrogen , with the formula Si 3N 4 . It is a white , high @-@ melting @-@ point solid that is relatively chemically inert , being attacked by dilute HF and hot H 2SO 4 . It is very hard ( 8 @.@ 5 on the mohs scale ) . It is the most thermodynamically stable of the silicon nitrides . Hence , Si 3N 4 is the most commercially important of the silicon nitrides and is generally understood as what is being referred to where the term " silicon nitride " is used . = = Production = = The material is prepared by heating powdered silicon between 1300 ° C and 1400 ° C in an atmosphere of nitrogen : 3 Si + 2 N 2 → Si 3N 4 The silicon sample weight increases progressively due to the chemical combination of silicon and nitrogen . Without an iron catalyst , the reaction is complete after several hours ( ~ 7 ) , when no further weight increase due to nitrogen absorption ( per gram of silicon ) is detected . In addition to Si 3N 4 , several other silicon nitride phases ( with chemical formulas corresponding to varying degrees of nitridation / Si oxidation state ) have been reported in the literature , for example , the gaseous disilicon mononitride ( Si 2N ) ; silicon mononitride ( SiN ) , and silicon sesquinitride ( Si 2N 3 ) , each of which are stoichiometric phases . As with other refractories , the products obtained in these high @-@ temperature syntheses depends on the reaction conditions ( e.g. time , temperature , and starting materials including the reactants and container materials ) , as well as the mode of purification . However , the existence of the sesquinitride has since come into question . It can also be prepared by diimide route : SiCl 4 + 6 NH 3 → Si ( NH ) 2 + 4 NH 4Cl ( s ) at 0 ° C 3 Si ( NH ) 2 → Si 3N 4 + N 2 + 3 H 2 ( g ) at 1000 ° C Carbothermal reduction of silicon dioxide in nitrogen atmosphere at 1400 – 1450 ° C has also been examined : 3 SiO 2 + 6 C + 2 N 2 → Si 3N 4 + 6 CO The nitridation of silicon powder was developed in the 1950s , following the " rediscovery " of silicon nitride and was the first large @-@ scale method for powder production . However , use of low @-@ purity raw silicon caused contamination of silicon nitride by silicates and iron . The diimide decomposition results in amorphous silicon nitride , which needs further annealing under nitrogen at 1400 – 1500 ° C to convert it to crystalline powder ; this is now the second @-@ most important route for commercial production . The carbothermal reduction was the earliest used method for silicon nitride production and is now considered as the most @-@ cost @-@ effective industrial route to high @-@ purity silicon nitride powder . Electronic @-@ grade silicon nitride films are formed using chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) , or one of its variants , such as plasma @-@ enhanced chemical vapor deposition ( PECVD ) : 3 SiH 4 ( g ) + 4 NH 3 ( g ) → Si 3N 4 ( s ) + 12 H 2 ( g ) 3 SiCl 4 ( g ) + 4 NH 3 ( g ) → Si 3N 4 ( s ) + 12 HCl ( g ) 3 SiCl 2H 2 ( g ) + 4 NH 3 ( g ) → Si 3N 4 ( s ) + 6 HCl ( g ) + 6 H 2 ( g ) For deposition of silicon nitride layers on semiconductor ( usually silicon ) substrates , two methods are used : Low pressure chemical vapor deposition ( LPCVD ) technology , which works at rather high temperature and is done either in a vertical or in a horizontal tube furnace , or Plasma @-@ enhanced chemical vapor deposition ( PECVD ) technology , which works at rather low temperature and vacuum conditions . The lattice constants of silicon nitride and silicon are different . Therefore , tension or stress can occur , depending on the deposition process . Especially when using PECVD technology this tension can be reduced by adjusting deposition parameters . Silicon nitride nanowires can also be produced by sol @-@ gel method using carbothermal reduction followed by nitridation of silica gel , which contains ultrafine carbon particles . The particles can be produced by decomposition of dextrose in the temperature range 1200 – 1350 ° C. The possible synthesis reactions are : SiO 2 ( s ) + C ( s ) → SiO ( g ) + CO ( g ) and 3 SiO ( g ) + 2 N 2 ( g ) + 3 CO ( g ) → Si 3N 4 ( s ) + 3 CO 2 ( g ) or 3 SiO ( g ) + 2 N 2 ( g ) + 3 C ( s ) → Si 3N 4 ( s ) + 3 CO ( g ) . = = Processing = = Silicon nitride is difficult to produce as a bulk material — it cannot be heated over 1850 ° C , which is well below its melting point , due to dissociation to silicon and nitrogen . Therefore , application of conventional hot press sintering techniques is problematic . Bonding of silicon nitride powders can be achieved at lower temperatures through adding additional materials ( sintering aids or " binders " ) which commonly induce a degree of liquid phase sintering . A cleaner alternative is to use spark plasma sintering where heating is conducted very rapidly ( seconds ) by passing pulses of electric current through the compacted powder . Dense silicon nitride compacts have been obtained by this techniques at temperatures 1500 – 1700 ° C. = = Crystal structure and properties = = There exist three crystallographic structures of silicon nitride ( Si 3N 4 ) , designated as α , β and γ phases . The α and β phases are the most common forms of Si 3N 4 , and can be produced under normal pressure condition . The γ phase can only be synthesized under high pressures and temperatures and has a hardness of 35 GPa . The α- and β @-@ Si 3N 4 have trigonal ( Pearson symbol hP28 , space group P31c , No. 159 ) and hexagonal ( hP14 , P63 , No. 173 ) structures , respectively , which are built up by corner @-@ sharing SiN 4 tetrahedra . They can be regarded as consisting of layers of silicon and nitrogen atoms in the sequence ABAB ... or ABCDABCD ... in β @-@ Si 3N 4 and α @-@ Si 3N 4 , respectively . The AB layer is the same in the α and β phases , and the CD layer in the α phase is related to AB by a c @-@ glide plane . The Si 3N 4 tetrahedra in β @-@ Si 3N 4 are interconnected in such a way that tunnels are formed , running parallel with the c axis of the unit cell . Due to the c @-@ glide plane that relates AB to CD , the α structure contains cavities instead of tunnels . The cubic γ @-@ Si 3N 4 is often designated as c modification in the literature , in analogy with the cubic modification of boron nitride ( c @-@ BN ) . It has a spinel @-@ type structure in which two silicon atoms each coordinate six nitrogen atoms octahedrally , and one silicon atom coordinates four nitrogen atoms tetrahedrally . The longer stacking sequence results in the α @-@ phase having higher hardness than the β @-@ phase . However , the α @-@ phase is chemically unstable compared with the β @-@ phase . At high temperatures when a liquid phase is present , the α @-@ phase always transforms into the β @-@ phase . Therefore , β @-@ Si 3N 4 is the major form used in Si 3N 4 ceramics . = = Applications = = In general , the main issue with applications of silicon nitride has not been technical performance , but cost . As the cost has come down , the number of production applications is accelerating . = = = Automobile industry = = = One of the major applications of sintered silicon nitride is in automobile industry as a material for engine parts . Those include , in diesel engines , glowplugs for faster start @-@ up ; precombustion chambers ( swirl chambers ) for lower emissions , faster start @-@ up and lower noise ; turbocharger for reduced engine lag and emissions . In spark @-@ ignition engines , silicon nitride is used for rocker arm pads for lower wear , turbocharger for lower inertia and less engine lag , and in exhaust gas control valves for increased acceleration . As examples of production levels , there is an estimated more than 300 @,@ 000 sintered silicon nitride turbochargers made annually . = = = Bearings = = = Silicon nitride bearings are both full ceramic bearings and ceramic hybrid bearings with balls in ceramics and races in steel . Silicon nitride ceramics have good shock resistance compared to other ceramics . Therefore , ball bearings made of silicon nitride ceramic are used in performance bearings . A representative example is use of silicon nitride bearings in the main engines of the NASA 's Space Shuttle . Since silicon nitride ball bearings are harder than metal , this reduces contact with the bearing track . This results in 80 % less friction , 3 to 10 times longer lifetime , 80 % higher speed , 60 % less weight , the ability to operate with lubrication starvation , higher corrosion resistance and higher operation temperature , as compared to traditional metal bearings . Silicon nitride balls weigh 79 % less than tungsten carbide balls . Silicon nitride ball bearings can be found in high end automotive bearings , industrial bearings , wind turbines , motorsports , bicycles , rollerblades and skateboards . Silicon nitride bearings are especially useful in applications where corrosion , electric or magnetic fields prohibit the use of metals . For example , in tidal flow meters , where seawater attack is a problem , or in electric field seekers . Si3N4 was first demonstrated as a superior bearing in 1972 but did not reach production until nearly 1990 because of challenges associated with reducing the cost . Since 1990 , the cost has been reduced substantially as production volume has increased . Although Si 3N 4 bearings are still 2 – 5 times more expensive than the best steel bearings , their superior performance and life are justifying rapid adoption . Around 15 – 20 million Si 3N 4 bearing balls were produced in the U.S. in 1996 for machine tools and many other applications . Growth is estimated at 40 % per year , but could be even higher if ceramic bearings are selected for consumer applications such as in @-@ line skates and computer disk drives . = = = High @-@ temperature material = = = Silicon nitride has long been used in high @-@ temperature applications . In particular , it was identified as one of the few monolithic ceramic materials capable of surviving the severe thermal shock and thermal gradients generated in hydrogen / oxygen rocket engines . To demonstrate this capability in a complex configuration , NASA scientists used advanced rapid prototyping technology to fabricate a one @-@ inch @-@ diameter , single @-@ piece combustion chamber / nozzle ( thruster ) component . The thruster was hot @-@ fire tested with hydrogen / oxygen propellant and survived five cycles including a 5 @-@ minute cycle to a 1320 ° C material temperature . In 2010 silicon nitride was used as the main material in the thrusters of the JAXA space probe Akatsuki . = = = Medical = = = Silicon nitride has many orthopedic applications . The material is also an alternative to PEEK ( polyether ether ketone ) and titanium , which are used for spinal fusion devices . It is silicon nitride ’ s hydrophilic , microtextured surface that contributes to the materials strength , durability and reliability compared to PEEK and titanium . = = = Metal working and cutting tools = = = The first major application of Si 3N 4 was abrasive and cutting tools . Bulk , monolithic silicon nitride is used as a material for cutting tools , due to its hardness , thermal stability , and resistance to wear . It is especially recommended for high speed machining of cast iron . Hot hardness , fracture toughness and thermal shock resistance mean that sintered silicon nitride can cut cast iron , hard steel and nickel based alloys with surface speeds up to 25 times quicker than those obtained with conventional materials such as tungsten carbide . The use of Si 3N 4 cutting tools has had a dramatic effect on manufacturing output . For example , face milling of gray cast iron with silicon nitride inserts doubled the cutting speed , increased tool life from one part to six parts per edge , and reduced the average cost of inserts by 50 % , as compared to traditional tungsten carbide tools . = = = Electronics = = = Silicon nitride is often used as an insulator and chemical barrier in manufacturing integrated circuits , to electrically isolate different structures or as an etch mask in bulk micromachining . As a passivation layer for microchips , it is superior to silicon dioxide , as it is a significantly better diffusion barrier against water molecules and sodium ions , two major sources of corrosion and instability in microelectronics . It is also used as a dielectric between polysilicon layers in capacitors in analog chips . Silicon nitride deposited by LPCVD contains up to 8 % hydrogen . It also experiences strong tensile stress , which may crack films thicker than 200 nm . However , it has higher resistivity and dielectric strength than most insulators commonly available in microfabrication ( 1016 Ω · cm and 10 MV / cm , respectively ) . Not only silicon nitride , but also various ternary compounds of silicon , nitrogen and hydrogen ( SiNxHy ) are used insulating layers . They are plasma deposited using the following reactions : 2 SiH 4 ( g ) + N 2 ( g ) → 2 SiNH ( s ) + 3 H 2 ( g ) SiH 4 ( g ) + NH 3 ( g ) → SiNH ( s ) + 3 H 2 ( g ) These SiNH films have much less tensile stress , but worse electrical properties ( resistivity 106 to 1015 Ω · cm , and dielectric strength 1 to 5 MV / cm ) . Silicon nitride is also used in xerographic process as one of the layer of the photo drum . Silicon nitride is also used as an ignition source for domestic gas appliances . Because of its good elastic properties , silicon nitride , along with silicon and silicon oxide , is the most popular material for cantilevers — the sensing elements of atomic force microscopes . = = History = = The first reported preparation was in 1857 by Henri Etienne Sainte @-@ Claire Deville and Friedrich Wöhler . In their method , silicon was heated in a crucible placed inside another crucible packed with carbon to reduce permeation of oxygen to the inner crucible . They reported a product they termed silicon nitride but without specifying its chemical composition . Paul Schuetzenberger first reported a product with the composition of the tetranitride , Si 3N 4 , in 1879 that was obtained by heating silicon with brasque ( a paste made by mixing charcoal , coal , or coke with clay which is then used to line crucibles ) in a blast furnace . In 1910 , Ludwig Weiss and Theodor Engelhardt heated silicon under pure nitrogen to produce Si 3N 4 . E. Friederich and L. Sittig made Si3N4 in 1925 via carbothermal reduction under nitrogen , that is , by heating silica , carbon , and nitrogen at 1250 – 1300 ° C. Silicon nitride remained merely a chemical curiosity for decades before it was used in commercial applications . From 1948 to 1952 , the Carborundum Company , Niagara Falls , New York , applied for several patents on the manufacture and application of silicon nitride . By 1958 Haynes ( Union Carbide ) silicon nitride was in commercial production for thermocouple tubes , rocket nozzles , and boats and crucibles for melting metals . British work on silicon nitride , started in 1953 , was aimed at high @-@ temperature parts of gas turbines and resulted in the development of reaction @-@ bonded silicon nitride and hot @-@ pressed silicon nitride . In 1971 , the Advanced Research Project Agency of the US Department of Defense placed a US $ 17 million contract with Ford and Westinghouse for two ceramic gas turbines . Even though the properties of silicon nitride were well known , its natural occurrence was discovered only in the 1990s , as tiny inclusions ( about 2 µm × 0 @.@ 5 µm in size ) in meteorites . The mineral was named nierite after a pioneer of mass spectrometry , Alfred O. C. Nier . This mineral might have been detected earlier , again exclusively in meteorites , by Soviet geologists .
= Resident Evil 6 = Resident Evil 6 ( Japanese : バイオハザード6 , Hepburn : Baiohazādo Shikkusu ) is an action @-@ adventure third @-@ person shooter video game developed and published by Capcom . The ninth main instalment of the Resident Evil series , it was first released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on 2 October 2012 , and for Microsoft Windows on 22 March 2013 . It was re @-@ released for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One with all downloadable content on 29 March 2016 . The story is told from the perspectives of Chris Redfield , a former member and founder of the Bio @-@ terrorism Security Assessment Alliance ( BSAA ) traumatised by a failed operation ; Leon S. Kennedy , a Raccoon City survivor and agent for the US government ; Jake Muller , an illegitimate son of Albert Wesker and associate of Sherry Birkin ; and Ada Wong , a freelance agent framed for the bio @-@ terrorist attacks by the antagonistic corporation Neo @-@ Umbrella . They must all confront the force behind a massive bio @-@ terrorist attack with the newly developed C @-@ virus in cities across the world . Gameplay is centred around their four interwoven storylines , in which each player @-@ character has unique abilities and styles . The game was first conceptualised in 2009 , with full development commencing the following year under Resident Evil 4 producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi . Resident Evil 6 had a development staff of more than 600 , making it Capcom 's largest production to date . The developers define the game 's genre as " dramatic horror " , although promotional materials for the Japanese version still classify the game as survival horror . The game received mixed reviews from critics upon release ; some reviewers praised the game 's storyline and themes , however the four interwoven campaigns were criticised , as well as the game 's departure from the survival @-@ horror genre . Despite the criticisms , it was a financial success ; with over 6 million copies sold , it currently stands as Capcom 's second best @-@ selling game . A sequel , Resident Evil 7 : Biohazard , is set to be released in January 2017 @,@ = = Gameplay = = Resident Evil 6 allows players to select between four scenarios with interwoven storylines . Each scenario follows one of four main protagonists : Leon S. Kennedy , Chris Redfield , Jake Muller and Ada Wong . The player @-@ characters from each scenario will have their own partners whom are controlled by either artificial intelligence ( AI ) or another player via local or online multiplayer . In addition , each scenario features a different play @-@ style ; for example , some player @-@ characters are more vulnerable to attacks whereas others are more resilient . Each central character has unique abilities , which vary from increased reload times and carrying more ammunition . Resident Evil 6 presents new innovations and gameplay mechanics such as rolling in any direction and running whilst shooting and sliding . The game also features a four @-@ player co @-@ operative mode . When playing in single player mode , the player can allow another player to join in online at any time . While performing certain actions , quick time events may occur , in which the player must follow onscreen prompts by pressing buttons or manipulating joysticks within a limited amount of time . A new feature comes in the form of tablets ; players may consume them in order to recover health , and more can be produced by mixing herbs . If one player runs out of health , that player will have a short time to try to defend themselves while their partners attempt to revive them . If any non @-@ AI players are killed , gameplay will resume at the last checkpoint . The game features several primary enemies , including zombies and the newly introduced J 'avo . Unlike zombies , J 'avo are able to interact with each other to plan an attack , use weapons , and heal themselves . Certain enemies drop skill points when killed , which can be picked up and spent on upgrades such as increased weapon effectiveness or specific ammunition drops . The campaigns feature a " Lone Wolf " ability which allows the player to remove their artificial intelligence companion character . Players can equip three of these upgrades which apply to all campaigns . The game also features a stamina bar ; which depletes once the player performs melee attacks , or uses a " quickshot " — which involves shooting a zombie with a headshot instantly . The overall gameplay of Resident Evil 6 is twice as long as its predecessor , Resident Evil 5 . The game features two new modes . " Mercenaries " mode involves players fighting for survival against hordes of enemies . In the PC version , the Mercenaries mode features an exclusive sub @-@ mode named " No Mercy " , which involves the cast from Left 4 Dead 2 fighting a total number of 300 enemies against a timer . " Agent Hunt " mode allows players to take control of random enemies in other people 's online sessions , however it is only unlocked after the player clears the three main campaigns . The longer the player stays in another online session , the more points they will earn . = = Plot = = On 24 December 2012 , Jake Muller , a mercenary of the fictional South @-@ Slavic Edonian Liberation Army and son of late bio @-@ terrorist Albert Wesker , flees from the authorities during a bio @-@ terrorist attack . He partners with Division of Security Operations ( DSO ) agent and Raccoon City survivor Sherry Birkin , who was sent to Edonia to ensure that Jake escapes safely from the country so his blood can be tested for anti @-@ bodies for the newly developed C @-@ Virus . At the same time , Bio @-@ terrorism Security Assessment Alliance ( BSAA ) Captain Chris Redfield and his team , including sniper Piers Nivans and demolitions expert Finn Macauley fight against rebels infected with the C @-@ Virus ( referred to as " J 'avo " ) . However , they are attacked by the leader of Neo @-@ Umbrella , who refers to herself as Ada Wong and kills most of the BSAA members using a device that injects them with the C @-@ virus turning them into monsters , except Chris and Piers . The aftermath causes Chris to go into self @-@ imposed exile , being afflicted with post @-@ traumatic amnesia . Meanwhile , Sherry and Jake 's extraction from Edonia by the BSAA is sabotaged , forcing the pair to crash into the mountains , eventually leading to their capture by Ada . On 29 June 2013 , US President Adam Benford has decided to officially reveal the truth behind the 1998 Raccoon City incident and the United States government 's dealings with Umbrella , believing that it will curb the current resurgence in bio @-@ terrorist activity . By the President ’ s side is his friend , DSO agent and Raccoon City survivor Leon S. Kennedy and United States Secret Service agent Helena Harper , but when the venue becomes host to another bio @-@ terrorist attack , Leon is forced to face the infected and mutated President , and kill him . Along the way , the two encounter Ada , and Helena then discloses to Leon that she was blackmailed by National Security Advisor Derek C. Simmons , into aiding the assassination of Benford . She also discloses Simmons 's affiliation with Neo @-@ Umbrella . Leon and Helena then decide to pursue Simmons into Lanshiang , China while faking their deaths with aid from Ingrid Hunnigan . Meanwhile , Jake and Sherry manage to escape captivity in Lanshiang after being held captive for six months . At the same time , Chris returns to duty in the BSAA with Piers and a new team , arriving in Lanshiang under the threat of a bio @-@ terrorist attack . Chris recovers from his amnesia and seeks revenge against Ada , resulting in casualties for his squad . Chris and Piers confront Ada , until Leon intervenes . After being informed by Leon , Chris and Piers pursue Ada to an aircraft carrier , destroying cruise missiles laden with the C @-@ virus . Leon , Helena , Sherry , and Jake confront Simmons over his involvement with the outbreaks , where Sherry covertly hands Jake 's medical data to Leon in case of their captivity . Leon and Helena corner Simmons , who has been infected by a J 'avo , where he confesses to having killed the President to keep him from disclosing the truth behind Raccoon City , which would have led to the US losing its authority . The two temporarily defeat a mutated Simmons while Sherry and Jake are captured once again . While attempting to leave the city , Leon and Helena are warned by Chris that a missile has been launched , however they are too late to stop it . Leon discloses Jake 's real identity to Chris and has him rescue Jake and Sherry in a remote oil platform . With the assistance of Ada , Leon and Helena finally kill Simmons . In the oil platform , Chris and Piers head underground , managing to free Jake and Sherry from captivity before preventing a large @-@ scale attack from the location . Heavily wounded , and in a desperate attempt to save Chris , Piers injects himself with a sample of the C @-@ virus to help turn the tide of the battle , temporarily defeating Haos before evacuating . Aware that the mutation would worsen , Piers sacrifices himself by pushing Chris to an escape pod . After Chris ' pod is launched , Haos makes one last attempt to kill Chris but is killed himself by a powerful lightning charge from Piers , which ensures Chris ' escape and the destruction of the Neo @-@ Umbrella base . In Ada 's story , it is revealed that the Ada Wong that interacted with Chris and Piers was actually a doppelgänger created by Simmons , a scientist named Carla Radames , and that the real Ada Wong was aiding Leon and Sherry while destroying the Neo @-@ Umbrella lab in Langshiang . Although presumed dead after being shot by one of Simmons ' soldiers , Carla attempts a final attack against the real Ada , after having injected herself with a powerful dose of the C @-@ virus , but is killed . After aiding Leon and Helena in their battle with Simmons , Ada reaches the lab where her clone was developed and destroys everything . She then receives a call from someone , accepting a new assignment . Meanwhile , Leon and Helena are cleared for duty ; Chris remains with the BSAA in command of a new squad , overcoming his guilt ; and Sherry continues her duty as a DSO agent , while Jake starts a new life fighting zombies in an underdeveloped country with his real identity covered up by the BSAA . = = Development and release = = The game was first conceptualised soon after the release of Resident Evil 5 , and began full development in 2010 . Resident Evil 5 producer Jun Takeuchi said that he considered a " completely new system " for Resident Evil 6 , but later ruled out his involvement with the game . In March 2009 , co @-@ producer Masachika Kawata stated that the new instalment was not decided upon , but admitted that it could take Capcom four to eight years to develop . Kawata later claimed that the new game will be drastically different from its predecessors . The game was directed by Eiichiro Sasaki , who also directed the Resident Evil Outbreak series . When development of the game first begun , producer Yoshiaki Hirabayashi wanted to revolve the game around the " ultimate horror entertainment " , bearing in mind that the team considered the upcoming Resident Evil 6 to be the flagship title of the horror genre . In a February 2012 interview , Hirabayashi stated that he went to lengths to balance " all of the things people love " about the series , so the team focused to orientate gameplay around horror themes . In March 2012 , Capcom admitted that the survival @-@ horror market was too small for Resident Evil , and issued a statement that the development team would instead choose to orientate the gameplay around the action genre . The development of the game was led by Hiroyuki Kobayashi , who was stated by Capcom to be aiming to " deliver the most impressive Resident Evil title ever both in terms of scope and production values " . Capcom also asserted that the game was meant to take an approach to " evolve " the series . The staff wanted to give the game a new setting with Sasaki wishing to place it in China . While the country of Edonia was not modelled from any country in Europe , it was given an Eastern European theme . According to Famitsu , the character of Jake Muller was designed to be " someone today ’ s young people can empathize with " . The game had a development staff of more than 600 , making it Capcom 's largest production to date . The decision to bring back zombies into Resident Evil 6 was made by Kobayashi , who felt that they were a popular component for the franchise , as well as complying per fans ' requests . Hirabayashi admitted that the game had radically changed at the end of the development cycle , due to the new concepts it introduced to the series . On 21 August 2012 , Resident Evil 6 went gold and initiated its online service . An official trailer was released on 19 January 2012 . At a Microsoft press briefing at E3 2012 , the first gameplay demonstration was shown , depicting Leon and Helena fighting hordes of zombies in China . A playable demo of Resident Evil 6 was scheduled for release on the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Marketplace on 5 September 2012 . Capcom later announced that the demo would become available for both Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 owners on 18 September 2012 . Early access to the demo was included with Dragon 's Dogma . As a result of criticism of the first demo , Capcom brought a different version of the demo to the 2012 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , modifying various parts of its gameplay . Originally scheduled to be released on 20 November 2012 , the game 's release date was pushed forward to 2 October 2012 . Prior to the game 's launch , several copies of the game were stolen and went on sales in Poland . Resident Evil 6 was also contained in Biohazard Anniversary Package , a special edition for Resident Evil 's seventeenth anniversary , that was released in Japan on 22 March 2013 , alongside the release of the PC version . Resident Evil 6 was re @-@ released on PlayStation 4 and Xbox One which included graphical enhancements and all DLC on 29 March 2016 . = = = Downloadable content = = = In response to a public backlash over classifying on @-@ disc content as downloadable content ( DLC ) , Capcom released a patch in December 2012 free of charge . The patch included new camera controls , a new difficulty mode named " No Hope " , an option to play Ada 's campaign without having to complete the other three , and the addition of an online co @-@ op partner for Ada 's campaign simply called " Agent " . Unlike any other character in the game , Agent cannot interact with doors and treasure chests ; he also disappears when cutscenes are triggered . On 18 December 2012 , a new multiplayer ( DLC ) was released with three new multiplayer modes : " Predator " , " Survivors " and " Onslaught " . Predator mode is a series of quick fire rounds with up to six players who take turns as the fearsome Ustanak and have full access to its weapons . The other players in " Predator " mode must avoid capture and being killed by the Ustanak . Human players score points for successful attacks , but also lose points for being caught and / or taken down . This match type is over once all have played as the Ustanak , with the participant with the most points crowned as the winner . Survivors mode is Resident Evil 's take on the classic solo and team based deathmatch mode . Survivors is available for 2 @-@ 6 players . Onslaught is a two player mode where each must clear waves of oncoming enemies . The twist comes when a player completes a combo chain as this will send enemies over to their opponent ’ s screen . On 4 April 2013 , a Left 4 Dead 2 crossover DLC was released for the PC version , adding the main characters and two monsters from Left 4 Dead 2 to the PC @-@ exclusive The Mercenaries : No Mercy mode in Resident Evil 6 . Various weapons , characters , and monsters from Resident Evil 6 have also been added as optionally @-@ downloadable replacement skins on the PC version of Left 4 Dead 2 . = = Reception = = The game received mixed reviews upon release . The PlayStation 3 version holds an aggregate score 74 % from Metacritic , the PC version hold scores of 69 % , whereas the Xbox 360 version hold a score of 67 % . The game 's storyline , themes , graphics , and artificial intelligence were praised by critics . A reviewer from Game Informer stated that despite the game did not " hold back " the decadent experience from being an " unhinged flaming rollercoaster ride " . A reviewer from the Official Xbox Magazine concluded stated that the game was an accomplished shooter " on the whole " , and a fittingly " thunderous " send @-@ off for Resident Evil , while also praising the length and variety of the game . GameTrailers noted the shift away from the style and tone of past games in the series , yet still praised the overall direction , stating that despite the " old identity stripped away " , the game presented itself as a " massive " action game . Richard George of IGN was favourable toward the technical and artistic design of the game , stating that the game was among Capcom ’ s greatest successes with an " incredibly strong " world , lighting , and creature designs . Ryan McCaffrey of IGN also noted the new enemies as " some of the best " designs and concepts in the history of the franchise . Hollander Cooper of GamesRadar praised the improvements to the controls over its predecessor , stating that the game had an emphasis placed on fluidity and movement , although noted that the cover system " never seems to work right " . The Escapist also praised the improved AI companion that " does a decent job of backing you up and taking the fight to the enemy rather than just standing by " , however also disliked the cover system , calling it " the most forgettable new feature of the game " . The game 's four campaigns received criticism from reviewers . Simon Parkin from Eurogamer was divided over the campaigns , citing Leon 's campaign as the strongest and " the closest we get to the series ' survival horror roots " , along with Ada 's as having " diverse flavour " . However , Parkin criticised the other two campaigns , stating that Jake 's campaign " rarely delights " while citing that Chris ' was a " second @-@ rate third @-@ person sprint " with " idiotic " cutscene dialogue . A reviewer from Edge also felt that the campaigns noticeably contrasted in quality more than others . Similarly , Kevin VanOrd from GameSpot concluded that the game 's campaigns is the ultimate test of patience for " even the most dedicated " , while Destructoid cited Resident Evil 6 as not only a " step back " for the series due to the game 's new and unconventional features , but a " step back for commonplace , unassuming action @-@ shooters " . In an interview with the Official PlayStation Blog , Resident Evil 6 executive producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi responded to fan criticism shortly after release , noting the creative differences with fans . He stated " the fans and us as creators are the two parents [ ... ] and just like real parents , you ’ re not always going to agree on what is best for raising that child , " going on to say , " we want to make sure that what we do pleases them but the initial reaction might not always be positive . We do listen to the fans but we can ’ t be beholden to them at every turn or I don ’ t think we ’ ll ever make progress in terms of the series ’ development " . While Capcom has dubbed the game as a " dramatic horror " , several critics instead noted the game 's departure from the survival horror genre compared to previous instalments . Reviewers from GameSpot and GamesRadar noted that the game was no longer considered a survival horror . Destructoid asserted that Capcom had " abandoned any pretense " of the survival horror genre . Many reviewers listed the game 's genre simply as a third @-@ person action shooter . After the game 's release , Capcom 's Masachika Kawata considered the possibility of rebooting the franchise back to its " classic horror roots " . = = = Sales = = = In May 2012 , Capcom announced they expected the game to sell 7 million copies by the end of the 2012 fiscal year , however the company lowered their expectations to 6 million due to the game 's mixed reception . Upon release , Capcom announced that it had shipped 4 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , setting a new record for the company . In October 2012 , the game sold 806 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . According to Capcom , sales weakened following the strong start , with the company admitting that the game would not meet their goals , and consequently lowered their financial projections for the fiscal year as a result . The game had sold 4 @.@ 9 million copies by April 2013 , and , by October the same year , had sold 5 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide , becoming one of Capcom 's best @-@ selling video games . Despite the slow start and mixed reviews , Resident Evil 6 became Capcom 's second best @-@ selling title as of 30 September 2015 , with a lifetime sales of 6 @.@ 3 million copies worldwide . In February 2013 , Capcom issued in a statement that the game suffered from poor sales due to various development challenges and " inadequate organisational collaboration " across the company .
= Ehime Maru and USS Greeneville collision = The Ehime Maru and USS Greeneville collision was a ship collision between the United States Navy ( USN ) Los Angeles @-@ class submarine USS Greeneville ( SSN @-@ 772 ) and the Japanese fishery high school training ship Ehime Maru ( えひめ丸 ) from Ehime Prefecture on 9 February 2001 , about 9 nautical miles ( 17 km ) off the south coast of Oahu , Hawaii , United States . In a demonstration for some VIP civilian visitors , Greeneville performed an emergency ballast blow surfacing maneuver . As the submarine shot to the surface , she struck Ehime Maru . Within 10 minutes of the collision , Ehime Maru sank . Nine of her crewmembers were killed , including four high school students . Many Japanese , including government officials , were concerned over news that civilians were present in Greeneville 's control room at the time of the accident . Some expressed anger because of a perception that the submarine did not try to assist Ehime Maru 's survivors and that the submarine 's captain , Commander Scott Waddle , did not apologize immediately afterwards . The Navy conducted a public court of inquiry , placed blame on Waddle and other members of Greeneville 's crew , and dealt non @-@ judicial punishment or administrative disciplinary action to the captain and some crew members . After Commander Waddle had faced the Naval Board of Inquiry , it was decided that a full court @-@ martial would be unnecessary , and he was forced to retire and given an honorable discharge . In response to requests from the families of Ehime Maru 's victims and the government of Japan , the USN raised Ehime Maru from the ocean floor in October 2001 and moved her to shallow water near Oahu . Once there , Navy and Japanese divers located and retrieved the remains of eight of the nine victims from the wreck . Ehime Maru was then moved back out to sea and scuttled in deep water . The Navy compensated the government of Ehime Prefecture , Ehime Maru 's survivors , and victims ' family members for the accident . Waddle traveled to Japan in December 2002 to apologize to the ship 's survivors and victims ' families . The accident renewed calls by many in Japan for the United States to make more effort in reducing crimes and accidents involving U.S. military personnel who injure or kill Japanese citizens . In response to the accident , the Navy changed its policies regarding civilian visits to its ships . = = Incident = = = = = Prelude = = = On 10 January 2001 , Ehime Maru , a Japanese fishing trawler owned by the government of Ehime Prefecture , 191 feet ( 58 m ) in length and measuring 741 gross tons , departed from Uwajima Fisheries High School , a secondary school in Uwajima , Ehime Prefecture , Japan . The ship , captained by Hisao Ōnishi , headed for Hawaii on a planned 74 @-@ day voyage to train high school students who were interested in pursuing careers as fishermen . A total of 35 people were on board Ehime Maru : 20 crewmembers , 13 students , and two teachers . The ship 's curriculum included long @-@ line tuna fishing , maritime navigation , marine engineering , and oceanography . The ship docked at Honolulu Harbor on 8 February . On 9 February , the USS Greeneville , a U.S. Navy nuclear @-@ powered attack submarine , prepared to depart Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , to conduct a public relations mission under the USN 's Distinguished Visitor Embarkation ( DVE ) program . The program took civilians , members of Congress , journalists , and other " opinion makers " for rides on nuclear submarines to demonstrate the submarines ' capabilities ; its goal was to demonstrate the need to maintain a fleet of nuclear @-@ powered submarines . Greeneville had previously participated in several DVE missions , carrying notable civilians like Tipper Gore and James Cameron . For this mission , Greeneville was to carry 16 civilian DVs , including 14 CEOs and a sportswriter and his wife . The CEOs were in Hawaii to support a fundraising effort to restore the retired battleship Missouri . This DVE visit had originally been arranged by retired Admiral Richard C. Macke . Accompanying the DV civilians on the mission was Navy Captain Robert L. Brandhuber , Chief of Staff for Rear Admiral Albert H. Konetzni Jr . , the commander of the submarine component of the United States Pacific Fleet , abbreviated as COMSUBPAC . The captain of the Greeneville , Commander Scott Waddle , was considered a rising star in the U.S. Navy at the time and had led the submarine through several trips under the Distinguished Visitors ' Program . Before departing on the mission , Commander Waddle was informed that the ship 's Analog Video Signal Display Unit ( AVSDU ) was inoperative . The AVSDU was an analog video monitor , located forward of the submarine 's periscope in the control room , that displayed information from the sub 's three sonar stacks and screens . The monitor helped communicate sonar information to the officer of the deck . Waddle decided to continue with the mission without attempting to repair the monitor , believing that it was not a crucial piece of equipment . Greeneville departed Pearl Harbor on time at 08 : 00 local time ( HST ) with a crew of 106 in addition to the 16 DV passengers and Chief of Staff Brandhuber . As the submarine transited the ship channel from Pearl Harbor , Waddle noticed that the weather was " hazier than normal " , but he thought that the haze would burn off shortly . Greeneville reached its dive point south of Oahu ( 21 ° 6 ′ N 157 ° 55 ′ W ) slightly later than scheduled , at 10 : 17 , and submerged . The DVs were scheduled to be served lunch in two sittings , the first from 10 : 30 to 11 : 30 and the second from 11 : 30 to 12 : 30 . After lunch , the submarine was to display its operational abilities and then return the DVs to Pearl Harbor for a reception that was scheduled to begin at 14 : 30 . The lunch service ran late , and other Greeneville officers repeatedly reminded Waddle that the submarine needed to begin its demonstration maneuvers or it would be late back to port . Finally , at 13 : 10 , Waddle entered the submarine 's control room and prepared to execute the demonstration . Fifteen of the 16 DVs and Brandhuber entered the control room to observe the maneuvers . Meanwhile , at 12 : 00 , Ehime Maru had departed Honolulu harbor en route to fishing grounds about 300 nautical miles ( 560 km ) south ( 14 ° N 156 ° W ) of Oahu . By 12 : 50 , the ship was proceeding at 11 knots ( 13 mph ; 20 km / h ) about 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ) south of Oahu and was nearing the area where Greeneville was conducting the DV cruise . Three crewmen were on duty in Greeneville 's sonar room . At 12 : 30 , the submarine 's sonar operators detected a surface vessel in the vicinity and designated the contact as " Sierra 12 " ( S @-@ 12 ) . A few minutes later , they detected a second vessel about 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ) away , which was designated as " Sierra 13 " ( S @-@ 13 ) . S @-@ 13 was Ehime Maru . Also tracking the sonar contacts in the control room was Patrick Seacrest , Greeneville 's sole fire control technician on duty at the time . Seacrest was responsible for " determining the course , speed , and range of surface and submerged vessels ( or targets ) potentially posing a threat to the submarine . " At 12 : 58 , Seacrest designated the track of S @-@ 13 as heading away from Greeneville 's location . Beginning at 13 : 00 , Seacrest elected to discontinue updating the Contact Evaluation Plot ( CEP ) in the control room . The CEP is a " labor intensive " paper display that plots ship data and contact information for reference by control room personnel . Seacrest stated that one of the reasons that he decided to stop updating the CEP was that the DV guests were standing between his watchstation and the CEP . = = = Collision = = = Before beginning the maneuvers , Waddle checked the submarine 's sonar contacts and noted that there were several surface vessels in the vicinity , but none closer than 7 nautical miles ( 13 km ) away . Ehime Maru was one of these vessels . The civilians were spread throughout the control room , with three on the periscope platform and others in front of the fire control station , restricting free access to some of the displays . According to several crewmembers , Waddle , when informed that equipment preparations would further delay the start of the demonstration maneuvers , " seemed frustrated that he couldn 't start the maneuvers right away . " For 15 minutes , beginning at 13 : 15 , 46 minutes after the scheduled time , Greeneville performed a series of drastic maneuvers , including high @-@ speed , full @-@ rudder , 35 @-@ degree turns side to side , as well as rapid up @-@ and @-@ down movements . Waddle personally directed the maneuvers . According to Waddle , the DVs " were loving it . " Waddle adds , " I could barely suppress a smile as I watched the expressions of joy and amazement on the faces of our distinguished visitors . " During the maneuvers , several civilians in the sonar room conversed with the sonar technicians , who were at the same time trying to keep track of any sonar contacts in the vicinity . As the high @-@ speed maneuvers finished at 13 : 30 , Waddle called for Greeneville to perform an emergency dive ( called an " emergency deep " ) followed by an emergency main ballast blow , a maneuver that brings the submarine from a depth of about 400 feet ( 120 m ) to the surface in a few seconds by using high @-@ pressure air to force the water out of the ship 's ballast tanks as quickly as possible . The rise is so rapid that the submarine 's bow rises high out of the water upon surfacing . Before executing this maneuver , the submarine was required to go to periscope depth to check for ships or dangerous obstacles on the surface . After completing the high @-@ speed maneuvers , standing orders called for the submarine to hold a steady course for three minutes to reestablish sonar contact , which had been disrupted by the high speed maneuvers , with any vessels in the area . In this case , however , Waddle ordered the submarine to change course and go to periscope depth after holding the steady course for only 90 seconds . As Greeneville ascended to periscope depth , Waddle checked the sonar displays and the fire control station monitors , but reported later that he heard and saw nothing to suggest that the previously detected vessels in the area were now any closer to the submarine 's position than had been reported before the submarine began the high speed maneuvers . Because the AVSDU was not working , Greeneville 's executive officer , Lieutenant Commander Gerald K. Pfeifer , entered the sonar room and observed the contacts on the sonar screens . Pfeifer then stood in the doorway between the sonar and control rooms , but did not communicate any updated sonar information to Waddle in the control room . At 13 : 34 , sonar gained a new contact , designated S @-@ 14 . Because Greeneville had not maintained a steady , slow course for a sufficient amount of time , the sonar data available to the sonar operators did not show accurate information on Ehime Maru 's range or bearing . At 13 : 38 , Greeneville reached periscope depth ( about 60 feet ( 18 m ) below the surface ) . At this time , Ehime Maru was about 2 @,@ 315 yards ( 2 @.@ 117 km ) or 1 @.@ 14 nautical miles ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) away from the submarine and heading in her direction . Although sonar data began to more accurately depict Ehime Maru 's true range and bearing at this point , this was not evident to the sonar operators . Lieutenant , Junior Grade Michael J. Coen , the officer of the deck , conducted a periscope search of the area and sighted no nearby ships . Since waves were washing over the periscope , Waddle ordered the submarine to go up another few feet . Waddle then looked through the periscope at the area where sonar had previously reported surface contacts . Although Ehime Maru was at this point heading toward Greeneville 's location , Waddle failed to see the ship . Regulations mandated that Waddle conduct a three @-@ minute , 360 @-@ degree periscope scan before executing the emergency main ballast blow maneuver . Waddle , however , aware that they were still behind schedule , conducted a 66- to 80 @-@ second , 360 @-@ degree scan , noted that the haze was still present , and saw no ships in the vicinity . At the end of his scan , Waddle announced to the control room crew , " I hold no visual contacts . " Waddle later explained how he conducted his periscope search : I swept the scope in low power , went to high power , looked , then panned to the right , saw the island [ Oahu ] ... I can only see the mountain peak , I can 't see the mountains ... because of this white haze ... Then I could see an airplane taking off . ... I panned to the right where I thought I would see [ S @-@ 13 ] the Ehime Maru . I looked over at the remote repeater [ own @-@ ship 's data ] and I saw the numbers and [ thought ] that looks right . That 's where the guy is . Didn 't see him . Then went to low power and then turned to the right . I think ... the Ehime Maru was perhaps further to the right , and as I swept in low power ... missed her . And that 's the only explanation that I can think of as to why I missed the vessel . Meanwhile , Seacrest was monitoring the ship 's fire control console , which graphically displayed the relative position , bearing , and speed of any sonar contacts in the area . Seacrest had been monitoring three contacts on his screens , S @-@ 12 , S @-@ 13 ( Ehime Maru ) , and S @-@ 14 . Absorbed in trying to get a clearer picture on S @-@ 14 's location , Seacrest failed to report the bearing and range of S @-@ 13 ( Ehime Maru ) to Waddle during Waddle 's periscope search , which Seacrest 's monitors now showed was about 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) away and closing . During Waddle 's periscope search , Seacrest was busy operating other control room instruments and did not actively monitor his fire control displays . After the periscope search was over , and hearing Waddle 's report of no visual contacts , Seacrest decided that his information for S @-@ 13 was incorrect and manually respotted the S @-@ 13 contact on his screen to a distance of 9 @,@ 000 yards ( 8 @.@ 2 km ) away . After completing the emergency dive at about 13 : 40 , Waddle invited two of the civilian guests , John Hall , one of the CEOs , and Jack Clary , the sportswriter , to operate the controls for the emergency main ballast blow . One of them sat in the helmsman 's chair and the other stood at the high @-@ pressure air valve levers , under close supervision by Greeneville crewmen . After the two civilians had taken their positions , at 13 : 42 : 25 Waddle ordered the maneuver executed , and they threw the control levers as instructed . The submarine began its rapid ascent toward the surface . At 13 : 43 : 15 , the rapidly ascending Greeneville surfaced directly under Ehime Maru ( 21 ° 05 @.@ 5 ′ N 157 ° 49 @.@ 1 ′ W ) , and the submarine 's rudder sliced Ehime Maru 's hull from starboard to port . Personnel aboard Ehime Maru heard two loud noises and felt the ship shudder from two severe impacts . Ehime Maru 's bridge crew looked aft and saw the submarine broach the water next to their ship . Within five seconds Ehime Maru lost power and began to sink . As Waddle watched through Greeneville 's periscope , Ehime Maru stood almost vertically on its stern and sank in about five minutes as the fishing ship 's crewmembers scrambled to abandon ship . = = = Emergency response = = = At 13 : 48 , Greeneville radioed a distress call to COMSUBPAC at Pearl Harbor for assistance . COMSUBPAC notified the local United States Coast Guard ( USCG ) unit at 13 : 55 which began a search @-@ and @-@ rescue effort . The submarine maneuvered towards Ehime Maru 's survivors to attempt a rescue . Weather conditions were unhelpful : 15- to 20 @-@ knot winds , which , in turn , were producing waves of 8 to 12 feet . Due to these rough seas , the submarine 's main deck hatches could not be opened ; the only outside access was through the top of the sail via its access trunk . Greeneville , moreover , was still low in the water because it normally took 30 minutes to pump out the remaining water in the ballast tanks after an emergency blow . As the heavy , partially submerged submarine bobbed in the ocean , it also displaced large waves that , in Waddle 's opinion , threatened to capsize the life rafts in which Ehime Maru 's survivors were gathering . Waddle decided that it would be safer to stand off the submarine from the group of survivors and wait for assistance to arrive . Ehime Maru 's survivors , many of them struggling in the diesel fuel released from their sinking ship , were able to gather on several life rafts that had deployed automatically as their ship sank . A USCG helicopter arrived at 14 : 27 , noted the survivors in the life rafts , and began searching for any survivors who might still be in the water . At 14 : 31 and 14 : 44 respectively , a USCG rigid @-@ hulled inflatable boat and patrol boat arrived and administered first aid to the survivors in the rafts . Media helicopters also arrived during the rescue operation , and the incident was quickly reported on by major news organizations . The USCG rescued 26 from Ehime Maru 's crew and took them to Oahu for medical treatment . Only one of the survivors had a serious injury , a broken clavicle ; he was hospitalized for five days . Nine other crewmembers were missing , including four 17 @-@ year @-@ old high school students and two teachers . None of the nine missing were seen by any of the survivors , Greeneville crewmembers , or USCG personnel after the ship sank . Captain Ōnishi stated that the nine missing crewmembers were probably in the ship 's galley and engine rooms when the ship sank . USCG and USN aircraft and ships searched the ocean around Ehime Maru 's last location continuously for 22 days , until 2 March . Two Japanese civilian vessels also joined in the search . No remains of any of the missing crewmembers were discovered . = = Immediate aftermath = = Shortly after the incident occurred , Japanese Prime Minister Yoshirō Mori was informed of the accident as he was playing golf in Japan . Acknowledging the message , Mori resumed his round of golf , ending it an hour and a half after the first message , an action for which he was later heavily criticized , owing in part to the use of stock photographs taken the previous summer showing Mori enjoying his round of golf . Since the collision involved a commercial vessel , the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) had jurisdiction to conduct the investigation into the accident . An NTSB official , along with several USN and USCG officers , questioned Waddle and Pfeifer about the incident as soon as Greeneville moored at Pearl Harbor . That same day , Admiral Konetzni removed Waddle as captain of Greeneville and reassigned him to his staff pending the outcome of the accident investigation . Two days after the sinking , on 11 February , U.S. President George W. Bush apologized for the accident on national television , stating , " I want to reiterate what I said to the prime minister of Japan : I 'm deeply sorry about the accident that took place ; our nation is sorry . " Secretary of State Colin Powell and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld also publicly apologized . The U.S. ambassador to Japan , Tom Foley , personally apologized to both Prime Minister Mori and to the Emperor of Japan . The public apologies to the Japanese from the highest American officials stirred resentment among American veterans of the Pacific War and their families , as well as among Asian victims of Imperial Japanese aggression and occupation . Richard Cohen wrote a column in the Washington Post , saying " We 've Apologized Enough to Japan . " , denounced the " hypocrisy " of Japan 's recent gestures of compensation and remorse to some of its World War II victims , which he said were offered " grudgingly " , while noting that the U.S. had apologized profusely over the accidental collision . On 11 February , during an " extremely emotional exchange " , the commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet , Admiral Thomas B. Fargo , personally apologized to families of the Ehime Maru 's victims , who had arrived in Hawaii the day before . Several of the family members asked that Ehime Maru be raised from the ocean floor . Waddle had asked to accompany Fargo to apologize to the victims ' families as well , but the COMSUBPAC public affairs office told him that he could not . The next day , the family members were taken by boat to view the accident site . The perceived lack of remorse by Waddle , plus reports in the Japanese media that Greeneville had made no effort to assist Ehime Maru 's survivors as they waited for almost one hour for rescue angered many Japanese citizens , especially the family members of the missing . One Japanese family member publicly referred to Waddle as , " the most terrible criminal of them all . " Another family member , referring to Waddle said , " If you 're a man , you should fall on your knees and ask for our pardon ! " In response , Waddle delivered letters of apology to the Japanese consulate in Hawaii for delivery to the victims ' families during the last week of February . Japanese government officials publicly expressed concern over the reports that civilians had been at Greeneville 's controls during the collision . Japan 's foreign minister , Yōhei Kōno , complained that U.S. officials had not provided details on the civilians ' involvement , stating , " I cannot help but say it is an extremely grave situation if it were the case that the participation of civilians in the submarine 's surfacing maneuver led to the accident . " = = Damage to Greeneville = = Greeneville suffered some damage in the collision . Beginning at the 31 @-@ foot ( 9 m ) mark on the submarine 's rudder , surface tiles had been sheared off , exposing bare metal , and there were several dents on the rudder 's leading edge , one of which had punctured the metal skin . A 24 @-@ foot ( 7 m ) section of acoustic hull surface treatment tiles below the sail had been sheared off as well . Greeneville was repaired in a drydock at Pearl Harbor at a cost of US $ 2 million . After the repairs were completed on 18 April 2002 , the submarine returned to operational status . = = Court of inquiry convenes = = In addition to the NTSB investigation , the USN also initiated their own investigation on 10 February . USN Admiral Charles Griffiths was assigned to direct the investigation . Griffiths ' team completed a preliminary inquiry report and submitted it to Admiral Fargo on 16 February . The following day , Fargo announced that the USN would convene a court of inquiry , the USN 's highest form of administrative hearing . A USN court of inquiry is similar to a grand jury investigation in civil court . The court has subpoena power and provides legal safeguards for the affected parties , such as the right to be represented by counsel . The court is a military investigative process and as such has no judge . Instead , a panel of three admirals make up the court and make a report based on the evidence presented in the inquiry . Testimony and other evidence presented in the court can later be used in court @-@ martial proceedings . The inquiry panel into the accident consisted of Vice Admiral John B. Nathman and Rear Admirals Paul F. Sullivan and David M. Stone . At Fargo 's invitation the Japan Maritime Self @-@ Defense Force ( JMSDF ) sent Rear Admiral Isamu Ozawa to participate in the inquiry as a non @-@ voting adviser . The three named " affected " parties of the inquiry were Waddle , Pfeifer , and Coen , who were present in the hearing room throughout the inquiry . Commander Mark Patton , a classmate of Waddle 's at the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis , Md . 20 years ago , was quoted as saying " The general opinion on the waterfront was that it was important that he stand up and take responsibility . We wanted to see that happen . It was important for the public to see that happen . And he did that very well . " The court of inquiry began on 5 March 2001 . Representing Waddle as counsel was Charles Gittins , who arrived in Hawaii on 4 March . Family members of the Ehime Maru victims were seated directly behind Waddle in the hearing room and throughout the inquiry frequently reacted very emotionally and vocally to evidence presented during the hearings . The court called numerous witnesses , including Griffiths , Brandhuber , and Ōnishi . Ōnishi testified that large waves swept him overboard and far from his sinking ship , preventing him from assisting the rest of Ehime Maru 's crew as they clung to the sinking ship . Afterwards , Waddle approached Ōnishi and apologized for the accident . Waddle also apologized to several groups of Ehime Maru family members on 8 and 16 March . One of them , Naoko Nakata , wife of one of the missing crewmembers , asked Waddle to " please tell the truth in court . " Shortly thereafter , Waddle also apologized again during an interview with a Japanese television network . Admiral Albert H. Konetzni testified during the inquiry that Waddle and his crew had rushed into Greeneville 's final maneuvers without taking enough time to ensure that no other vessels were in the vicinity . In a statement that was widely reported in the media , Konetzni looked at Waddle and said , " I 'd like to go over there and punch him for not taking more time . " Seacrest was given testimonial immunity in exchange for his testimony . Pfeifer and Coen submitted unsworn statements to the court and , therefore , did not have to face cross @-@ examination . Waddle requested immunity in exchange for his offer to testify , but Fargo denied the request , stating that Waddle 's testimony was not " essential " in determining the facts of the case . In spite of the denial of immunity , Waddle elected to testify for the court . Waddle stated later that he felt he needed to testify because he had promised some of the Ehime Maru family members that he would do so , he had heard that Greeneville 's crew expected him to , and he wanted to get his side of the story into the record . After hearing testimony from 31 witnesses , the court completed its hearings on 20 March . None of the civilian DVs were asked to testify . The inquiry report was submitted to Fargo on 20 April . = = Findings of the court = = The court made several findings , including that Waddle failed to take positive action in response to the non @-@ availability of the AVSDU , nine of the 13 watchstations in and around the control room were manned by substitute personnel , and that one of the sonar operators was unqualified to stand watch . The court also issued numerous opinions , including that the accident was caused by " a series and combination of individual negligence ( s ) onboard Greeneville , " " artificial urgency " by Waddle to rush the submarine through its demonstration schedule as it began to run late , failure to follow standard procedures , the abbreviated periscope search , distractions and obstruction caused by the presence of the civilian guests , crew training deficiencies , overconfidence and complacency , and Waddle 's not paying enough attention to ship contact information . The court found that , although Brandhuber was the senior officer present on Greeneville , Waddle as captain was solely responsible for the safe navigation of the submarine . The inquiry report went into great detail on the purpose and rules surrounding the USN 's DVE program . The court recommended against court @-@ martial for the officers involved because of an absence of any " criminal intent or deliberate misconduct . " Instead , the court recommended non @-@ judicial punishment for Waddle and Seacrest and administrative action for Brandhuber , Pfeifer , Coen , Greeneville 's chief of the boat Douglas Coffman , and sonar supervisor Edward McGiboney . The court recommended that the USN DVE program continue . Relatives of Ehime Maru 's crewmembers were angry that none of the USN personnel involved would face court @-@ martial and that Waddle could remain in the USN and would retain his retirement pension . Ryosuke Terata , father of one of the missing students , said with regard to Waddle , " If ( he were ) in Japan , he would be fired and indicted on charges such as professional negligence resulting in death . " On 23 April , Waddle received an admiral 's mast ( a form of USN non @-@ judicial punishment ) from Fargo at the USN Pacific Fleet headquarters in Pearl Harbor . Fargo pronounced Waddle guilty of dereliction of duty and improper hazarding of a vessel . He fined Waddle a half @-@ month 's pay for two months ( fine delayed for six months , and waived after the six months with good behavior ) , gave him a verbal reprimand , and " made clear that [ Waddle 's ] resignation was expected . " Coen also received an admiral 's mast in which he was " counseled for failing to execute his duties to ensure the safe navigation of the ship and to properly supervise watch personnel in the control room . " Seacrest was admonished at a captain 's mast , and Brandhuber , Pfeifer , Coffman , and McGiboney received formal administrative admonishments . The masts and administrative admonishments were documented and placed in the servicemembers ' military records , perhaps affecting their future chances for promotions and assignments . Waddle , who had been working at a Navy desk job since being relieved of command , formally retired from the USN on 1 October 2001 . Waddle did receive interviews from several private corporations who " put more value in the way Waddle handled himself during the grueling , 12 @-@ day court of inquiry than they did in any sort of blame for the collision . " . After 10 months of unemployment , Waddle worked as a project manager for an energy firm in North Carolina and , in July 2004 , started his own business as a consultant , executive coach , and public speaker . = = Salvage and recovery = = On 16 February , the USN Supervisor of Salvage and Diving ( SUPSALV ) and Submarine Development Squadron 5 ( SUBDEVRON 5 ) , using the Scorpio remotely piloted underwater vehicle ( ROV ) , located Ehime Maru in 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) of water on the ocean bottom ( 21 ° 04 @.@ 95 ′ N 157 ° 49 @.@ 58 ′ W ) . Over the next two weeks , the USN used the Scorpio and the Deep Drone ROVs to search the ocean bottom around Ehime Maru for the remains of any of her missing crewmembers , without success . After assessing the technical feasibility and environmental impact of raising Ehime Maru from the ocean bottom , the U.S. government , in June 2001 , decided to proceed with recovering the ship from the ocean floor . The USN contracted the Dutch company Smit International and Crowley Maritime Corp. , headquartered in Washington state , to salvage the wreck of Ehime Maru . After consultation between the contractors , representatives from the Japanese government , and U.S. government officials , the decision was made not to raise Ehime Maru all the way to the surface but to lift and carry it underwater to shallow water near Oahu . Once there , divers could enter the ship . The operation would be the first to lift something of that size from such a depth . USN Rear Admiral William Klemm directed the recovery operation . Using the Phoenix III ROV , contractors , beginning on 20 July 2001 , first removed Ehime Maru 's mast and other items on the ship 's decks that could interfere with the lifting operation . Assisted by technical experts from Japan , including one from the company that built Ehime Maru , the Rockwater II contract diving support vessel prepared the ship for lifting beginning the first week of August . After some difficulty , Ehime Maru was lifted off the ocean floor by Rockwater II on 5 October and slowly moved to a location closer to shore . On 14 October the wreck was set down in 115 ft ( 35 m ) of water one statute mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Honolulu International Airport 's reef runway . On 15 October , the first team of divers from Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit ONE ( MDSU ONE ) began assessing the sunken vessel . Working in low- to zero @-@ visibility conditions , 66 MDSU ONE and 30 Japanese JMSDF divers from the submarine rescue ship ARS Chihaya conducted 526 dives over 29 days , searching the wreck . Ōnishi , relatives of some of the missing crewmembers , and several Japanese government officials observed the operation from the dive support ships . The divers recovered the bodies of eight of the nine missing crewmembers , many personal effects , and several items unique to the ship , such as its nameplate , bell , anchors , and helm . After the recovery was complete , on 25 November , Ehime Maru was lifted , towed back out to sea suspended about 90 feet ( 27 m ) below the towing barge , and scuttled in 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) of water 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ) south of Barbers Point . The event was witnessed by three of Ehime Maru 's victims ' families on board Chihaya . The total cost of the salvage operations was about $ 60 million . = = Compensation = = On 10 April 2002 , the USN signed an agreement to pay the Ehime Prefectural Government US $ 11 @.@ 47 million in compensation for the sinking of Ehime Maru . Some $ 8 @.@ 87 million was to help pay to replace the ship , and the remainder was to pay for counseling and financial aid for the survivors as well as to pay for a memorial ceremony for the victims . On 14 November 2002 , the USN agreed to pay $ 13 @.@ 9 million in compensation to 33 of the 35 families of victims or injured survivors . The remaining two family members accepted a $ 2 @.@ 6 million settlement from the USN on 31 January 2003 . Before accepting the settlement , the two family members had asked for face @-@ to @-@ face apologies from the USN and Waddle , a full investigation into the collision , a reasonable compensation offer , and a promise from the USN to help prevent similar accidents in the future . Masumi Terata , whose teenage son Yusuke died in the accident , said that she was happy that the settlement was behind them , but added that , " My true feeling is that if possible , I want to see my son one more time . " = = Waddle 's trip to Japan = = On 14 December 2002 , Waddle , accompanied by Charles Gittins , traveled to Japan to apologize personally to the victims ' families . On 15 December , Waddle visited the Ehime Maru memorial at Uwajima Fisheries High School and placed a wreath of white lilies before a monument to the dead , bowed in silence and then read the victims ' names aloud . No local officials were present during Waddle 's visit , citing statements from some victims ' families that they did not want Waddle to visit . Later that day , Waddle met with some of the families of the victims and with some of the survivors . The next day , in Tokyo , Waddle met with Masumi Terata . Speaking of her meeting with Waddle , Terata stated , " I am first and foremost the family member of a victim and Mr. Waddle is first and foremost a victimizer . But when I saw Mr. Waddle as a person who was crying and apologizing , I thought he was apologizing from the heart . " In a press conference on 17 December , Gittins criticized the USN for their continued insistence that Waddle not come to Japan to visit the victims ' families . Said Gittins , " For the life of me , I cannot understand why the Navy did not want Scott to come meet with the families and do what is morally right and what is understood in Japanese culture to be the right thing to do . " Gittins added that he had received emails from the USN as recently as the week before urging Waddle not to make the trip . Gittins stated that the reason that it took two years for Waddle to make the trip to Japan was because Waddle was forbidden to do so while he was still in the USN and because of financial constraints and fear of litigation after his retirement . = = Effect on Japanese – American relations = = After the sinking of Ehime Maru , many Japanese , including government officials , questioned why civilians were allowed in Greeneville 's control room during maneuvers that could place other , uninvolved , vessels at risk . Also , the Japanese expressed concern that the United States Navy did not immediately take full responsibility for the accident , appeared at first to try to conceal information about the DVE program , and did not court martial Waddle or have him personally apologize immediately after the accident . The subsequent effort by the U.S. government to retrieve the victims ' remains from the sunken wreck , numerous apologies from U.S. government representatives and Waddle , and the compensation paid to the Ehime government and to the victims ' families appear to have assuaged much of the anger directed toward the U.S. government and military . Many Japanese , both government and private citizens , however , continue to call for the U.S. government to make more effort to reduce or eliminate serious accidents and crimes involving U.S. military personnel . Although the United States and Japan have been strong allies since the end of World War II , the accident involving Ehime Maru showed that the relationship is not always completely harmonious , especially with regard to incidents in which U.S. military personnel or assets injure or kill Japanese citizens or damage their property . In response to crimes committed by U.S. servicemembers against Japanese citizens , such as the 1995 Okinawan rape incident , Japanese citizens and some Japanese government officials have questioned the equality of the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan and the issue of responsibility and accountability by the U.S. government concerning the actions of its military members in Japan . In addition , the Japanese have questioned the U.S. commitment to safe operations of its military assets in light of several accidents , including aircraft crashes and other ship collisions that have injured or killed Japanese citizens . = = Later events = = Acting on a request from the Japanese government , the state of Hawaii established a non @-@ profit group , the Ehime Maru Memorial Association , on 11 November 2001 , to coordinate the activities of placing an Ehime Maru memorial at a site in Hawaii . The monument to the ship was completed on 9 February 2002 , at Kakaako Waterfront Park near Honolulu . Each year since the accident , memorial ceremonies have been held on 9 February at Uwajima Fisheries High School in Ehime and at the Ehime Maru monument in Hawaii . Shipbuilders in Imabari , Ehime Prefecture , began construction on a new Ehime Maru on 17 April 2002 . Upon completion , the new ship sailed to Hawaii , arriving on 17 June 2003 . In a ceremony at the Ehime Maru monument , the principal of Uwajima Fishery at the time of the disaster , Kazumitsu Joko ( 上甲一光 Jōkō Kazumitsu ) , read a message from Moriyuki Kato , the governor of Ehime Prefecture , addressed to the Hawaiian people . The message stated , in part , " Since the Ehime Maru tragic accident two years ago , the people of Hawaii have shown compassion and warm support . " The NTSB released its report on the accident on 19 October 2005 . The NTSB report largely confirmed the USN 's inquiry findings , including that Waddle was primarily responsible for the collision . The NTSB report , however , was more critical of the distractions caused by the DV civilians on Greeneville that contributed to the accident . The report concluded that the USN had recognized the " detrimental operating conditions " aboard Greeneville and had taken " additional measures to address the safety of operations " on submarines , including additional restrictions on DVE visitors . = = = Books = = = Strauch , Barry ( 2004 ) . Investigating Human Error : Incidents , Accidents , and Complex Systems . Ashgate Pub Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 7546 @-@ 4122 @-@ 8 . Waddle , Scott ; Ken Abraham ( 2003 ) . The Right Thing . Brentwood , Tennessee : Integrity Publishers . ISBN 1 @-@ 59145 @-@ 036 @-@ 5 . = = = Web = = =
= I Luv This Shit = " I Luv This Shit " ( clean version titled " I Luv This " ) is a song by American recording artist August Alsina . It features a guest appearance American rapper Trinidad James . It was released on February 19 , 2013 by Def Jam Recordings as the first single from Alsina 's debut EP Downtown : Life Under the Gun ( 2013 ) , and was included on his first studio album , Testimony ( 2014 ) . " I Luv This Shit " is an R & B song about partying with alcohol and drugs . Two remixes — one featuring Birdman and another featuring Trey Songz and Chris Brown — were released . The song was well received by music critics , and peaked at number fifty @-@ one on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number fifteen on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . It was promoted by a Motion Family @-@ directed music video and performances on The Wendy Williams Show , 106 & Park and The Arsenio Hall Show . = = Background and composition = = " I Luv This Shit " was written by August Alsina , The Exclusives ( Sean McMillion and Ralph Jeanty ) , Samuel Irving III , Christine Massa , and Trinidad James and was produced by Knucklehead . It was recorded by McMillion and Cody Sciara at Goldie 's Playhouse and Zac Recording Studios in Atlanta , Georgia , and mixed by Jaycen Joshua with assistance from Trehy Harris at Larrabee Sound Studios , North Hollywood . Vocals were produced by The Exclusives . Knucklehead told Vibe in 2014 that he created the song 's beat and knew it would be successful , stating : " I just knew what [ Alsina 's ] voice was gonna do over my beat . And that beat didn 't sound like [ any ] thing else at the time that was out ... When I made the beat , I called him immediately after I finished it . " After playing the beat to Alsina and The Exclusives , they recorded the song in one hour . It is an R & B song instrumented by guitar , synthesizer , synth @-@ horns and a heavy bassline . The production was compared by Spin 's Brandon Soderberg to the work of The @-@ Dream . It revolves around about partying with alcohol and drugs with the central hook " I love this shit " , and references the vodka Ciroc , yet there is an element of sorrow to Alsina 's vocals . James ' verse contemplates human nature , according to Gregory Adams of Exclaim ! . " I Luv This Shit " was originally recorded for Alsina 's mixtape The Product 2 ( 2013 ) , and was included on his debut EP Downtown : Life Under the Gun ( 2013 ) . It was also a bonus track on his first studio album , Testimony ( 2014 ) . = = Release = = " I Luv This Shit " was released as a digital download by Def Jam Recordings on February 19 , 2013 in Canada and the United States . A remix of the song , titled " I Luv This Shit ( G @-@ Mix ) " , was made available for streaming in May 2013 and features Birdman . The single impacted rhythmic contemporary radio in the United States on September 3 , 2013 . Trey Songz and Chris Brown appeared on another remix of " I Luv This Shit " ; it was released for digital download by Def Jam on October 4 , 2013 in the US . Songz and Brown wrote their verses of the remix . Alsina 's vocals for the remix were recorded by Macmillion at Upper Class Studios , Atlanta . Songz ' vocals were recorded by Anthony Daniels at Premier Studios in New York City and Brown 's were recorded by Brian Springer at Glenwood Studios in Burbank , California . = = Reception = = AllMusic 's Andy Kellman picked " I Luv This Shit " as one of the best tracks from both Downtown and Testimony . Gregory Adams of Exclaim ! praised Alsina 's " velvety " vocal delivery on the song . Brandon Soderberg from Spin called it " one of the more mazy and rewarding radio R & B songs in quite some time " , but was unimpressed with the Songz and Brown remix 's shift from partying to sexual intercourse , particularly the rewriting of the hook as " She loves this shit " or " You love this shit " . A panel of writers for Complex placed " I Luv This Shit " at number thirty @-@ three on its list of the 50 Best Songs of 2013 ; Claire Lobenfeld disapproved of James ' verse but lauded the " quivering beauty " of Alsina 's voice . At the 2014 BET Awards , " I Luv This Shit " won the award for Viewer 's Choice and was nominated for the award of Best Collaboration , losing to " Drunk in Love " by Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z. " I Luv This Shit " topped the Mainstream R & B / Hip @-@ Hop chart for two weeks in October 2013 , becoming the first R & B artist to reach number one with a debut single since Jeremih with " Birthday Sex " in 2009 . On the main Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , it reached number fifteen , and peaked at number nineteen on the Rhythmic chart . It spent three weeks atop the US Heatseekers Songs in October and November 2013 , then peaked at number fifty @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 . On March 6 , 2014 the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified " I Luv This Shit " gold for shipping 500 @,@ 000 copies . The certification was updated to platinum ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) on October 2 , 2014 . = = Music video and live performances = = The music video for " I Luv This Shit " was filmed in Atlanta in January 2013 and directed by Motion Family . Alsina sleeps with two women , then James delivers his verse while a woman dances next to him . At the end of the song Alsina and James go to a strip club , where the two women see each other and engage in an argument while Alsina laughs . Alsina performed " I Luv This Shit " on The Wendy Williams Show on October 28 , 2013 . For the New Year 's Eve 2013 special of 106 & Park , titled 106 & Party , he performed the remix of the song with Songz and the remix of " Numb " . On April 1 , 2014 Alsina was interviewed and performed a medley of " Make It Home " and " I Luv This Shit " on late @-@ night talk show The Arsenio Hall Show . At the 2014 BET Awards , Alsina performed " Kissin ' on My Tattoos " before transitioning into " I Luv This Shit " . Songz and Brown joined him and sang their verses of the remix . Songz finished the performance with " Na Na " . = = Charts = =
= SM U @-@ 4 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) = SM U @-@ 4 or U @-@ IV was a U @-@ 3 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) before and during the First World War . The submarine was built as part of a plan to evaluate foreign submarine designs , and was the second of two boats of the class built by Germaniawerft of Kiel , Germany . U @-@ 4 was authorized in 1906 , begun in March 1907 , launched in November 1908 , and towed from Kiel to Pola in April 1909 . The double @-@ hulled submarine was just under 139 feet ( 42 m ) long and displaced between 240 and 300 tonnes ( 260 and 330 short tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . The design of the submarine had poor diving qualities and several modifications to U @-@ 4 's diving planes and fins occurred in her first years in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Her armament , as built , consisted of two bow torpedo tubes with a supply of three torpedoes , but was supplemented with a deck gun , the first of which was added in 1915 . The boat was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in August 1909 , and served as a training boat — sometimes making as many as ten cruises a month — through the beginning of the First World War in 1914 . At the start of that conflict , she was one of only four operational submarines in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy U @-@ boat fleet . Over the first year of the war , U @-@ 4 made several unsuccessful attacks on warships and captured several smaller vessels as prizes . In July 1915 , she scored what Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 calls her greatest success when she torpedoed and sank the Italian armored cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi , the largest ship hit by U @-@ 4 during the war . In mid @-@ May 1917 , U @-@ 4 was a participant in a raid on the Otranto Barrage which precipitated the Battle of Otranto Straits . In a separate action that same month , U @-@ 4 sank her second largest ship , the Italian troopship Perseo . She scored her final success in July 1917 with the sinking of a French tug . In total , U @-@ 4 sank twelve ships totaling over 18 @,@ 000 gross register tons ( GRT ) . She survived the war as Austria @-@ Hungary 's longest serving submarine , was ceded to France as a war reparation , and scrapped in 1920 . = = Design and construction = = U @-@ 4 was built as part of a plan by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to competitively evaluate foreign submarine designs from Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy authorized the construction of U @-@ 4 ( and sister ship , U @-@ 3 ) in 1906 by Germaniawerft of Kiel , Germany . U @-@ 4 was laid down on 12 March 1907 and launched on 20 November 1908 . After completion , she was towed via Gibraltar to Pola , where she arrived on 19 April 1909 . U @-@ 4 's design was an improved version of Germaniawerft 's design for the Imperial German Navy 's first U @-@ boat , U @-@ 1 , and featured a double hull with internal saddle tanks . The Germaniawerft engineers refined the design 's hull shape through extensive model trials . U @-@ 4 was 138 feet 9 inches ( 42 m ) long by 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 81 m ) . She displaced 240 tonnes ( 260 short tons ) surfaced and 300 tonnes ( 330 short tons ) submerged . She was armed with two bow 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , and was designed to carry up to three torpedoes . = = Early career = = After U @-@ 4 's arrival at Pola in April 1909 , she was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 29 August 1909 as SM U @-@ 4 . During the evaluation of the U @-@ 3 class conducted by the Navy , the class ' poor diving and handling characteristics were noted . To alleviate the diving problems , U @-@ 4 's fins were changed in size and shape several times , and eventually , the front diving planes were removed and a stationary stern flap was affixed to the hull . U @-@ 4 served as a training boat between 1910 and 1914 and made as many as ten cruises per month in that capacity . = = World War I = = = = = 1914 – 1916 = = = At the beginning of World War I , she was one of only four operational submarines in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . On 27 September 1914 , U @-@ 4 began operating reconnaissance cruises out of the naval base at Cattaro under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Hermann Jüstel . U @-@ 4 attacked the cruiser Waldeck @-@ Rousseau on 17 October , but the French vessel escaped without serious damage . In late November , U @-@ 4 seized the 13 GRT Albanian sailing vessel Fiore del Mar as a prize off Montenegro . U @-@ 4 received her first radio set the following month . U @-@ 4 's next success was the capture of three Montenegrin boats on 19 February 1915 . Rudolph Singule , who was to become U @-@ 4 's most successful commander , assumed command of the boat in April 1915 . Around the same time , the boat was equipped with a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick firing ( QF ) deck gun . On 24 May , in the Gulf of Drin , U @-@ 4 unsuccessfully attacked an Italian Lombardia @-@ class cruiser , but on 9 June , Singule spotted the British cruiser Dublin escorting a convoy along the Montenegrin coast . Despite a screen of six destroyers , U @-@ 4 was able to torpedo Dublin off San Giovanni de Medua . Twelve men on Dublin died in the attack , but the cruiser made her way safely , albeit damaged , back to port . On 18 July , U @-@ 4 chanced upon an Italian squadron of ships shelling the railroads at Dubrovnik . Singule selected the Italian armored cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi as a target and torpedoed her . Giuseppe Garibaldi — at 7 @,@ 234 GRT , the largest ship sunk by U @-@ 4 — sank with a loss of 53 men ; 525 men survived . Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 calls the sinking of Giuseppe Garibaldi as U @-@ 4 's greatest success . In August , she was sent out to search for her missing sister ship , U @-@ 3 , which was overdue , having been sunk on 13 August by the French destroyer Bisson . In November , U @-@ 4 made an unsuccessful attack on a British Topaze @-@ class cruiser . In early December , U @-@ 4 dispatched two small Albanian vessels in the Gulf of Drin . The 10 GRT sailing vessel Papagallo was sunk , and the Gjovadje was taken as a prize . New periscopes and a new gyrocompass were installed on U @-@ 4 later in the month . On 3 January 1916 , operating again near the Gulf of Drin , Singule and U @-@ 4 seized another Albanian sailing vessel , Halil , and sank two smaller boats . In early February , U @-@ 4 sank the 475 GRT French patrol vessel Jean Bart 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ) southwest of Cape Laghi , off Durazzo . Just five days later , U @-@ 4 made an unsuccessful attack on a British Birmingham @-@ class cruiser . Over 26 and 27 March , U @-@ 4 participated in a search for the lost Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine U @-@ 24 . Three days later , U @-@ 4 sank the British schooner John Pritchard Of Carnar with explosive charges off the island of Antipaxos . In July , U @-@ 4 was outfitted with a new 66 mm / 26 ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck gun , which equaled the main gun planned for the U @-@ 20 class , under construction at the time . On 2 August , U @-@ 4 missed an Italian Nino Bixio @-@ class cruiser in a torpedo attack , and three days later , was missed by two torpedoes in an attack by an enemy submarine . A week later , U @-@ 4 successfully torpedoed and sank the Italian schooner Ponte Maria off Brindisi and weathered another unsuccessful enemy submarine attack . Two days later , on 14 August , U @-@ 4 closed out her busy month of August by attacking the British steamer Inverbervie off Cape Nau . Some two months later , U @-@ 4 sank the Italian tanker Margaretha at position 40 ° 1 ′ N 17 ° 44 ′ E. Margaretha , originally the J.M.Lennard & Sons ship Atilla , went down without any reported loss of life on 13 October . = = = 1917 – 1918 = = = In early May 1917 , U @-@ 4 sank the steamer Perseo — the second largest ship sunk by the boat — in the Ionian Sea . Although Perseo was serving as an Italian troop transport at the time , there are no reports of casualties in the 4 May attack . In mid @-@ May 1917 , U @-@ 4 participated in a support role in a raid on the Otranto Barrage that precipitated the Battle of Otranto Straits . On the night of 14 / 15 May , the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers Helgoland , Saida , and Novara attacked the drifters that deployed the anti @-@ submarine nets that formed part of the Barrage , sinking 14 , damaging 5 , and taking 72 prisoners . Destroyers Csepel and Balaton were sent to simultaneously attack Italian transports shuttling between Italy and Valona , and sank an Italian destroyer and a munitions ship . U @-@ 4 , which was posted near Valona , was a part of a force of three U @-@ boats intended to intercept British and Italian ships responding to the attacks ; the other two were the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 27 ( assigned to patrol between Brindisi and Cattaro ) and the German UC @-@ 25 ( assigned to mine Brindisi ) . A squadron of British cruisers and Italian and French destroyers joined the battle against the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers on 15 May . Several ships on each side were damaged by the time the engagement was broken off . As a result of the attacks the drifter line of the Barrage was moved farther south and maintained only during the day , a success for the Central Powers . U @-@ 4 did not take any offensive action during the raid and ensuing battle . On 30 May at Corfu , U @-@ 4 torpedoed and sank the French passenger steamer SS Italia , in operation by the French Navy as an armed boarding ship . On 19 June , U @-@ 4 scored a triple victory when she sank the French steamers Edouarde Corbière and Cefira and the Greek ship Kerkyra off Taranto . U @-@ 4 sank what would be her final ship on 12 July , when she torpedoed the French tug Berthilde off Cape Stilo . In September , U @-@ 4 received a new bulwark on her conning tower . U @-@ 4 arrived at Pola for the final time on 1 November 1918 and was there at the war 's end . She was ceded to France as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 . U @-@ 4 was the longest serving Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine , and sank a total of 18 @,@ 264 GRT enemy shipping during the war .
= Herschel Greer Stadium = Herschel Greer Stadium is a former minor league baseball park located in Nashville , Tennessee , on the grounds of Fort Negley , an American Civil War fortification , approximately two miles ( 3 km ) south of the city 's downtown district . It can currently seat 10 @,@ 300 people . Built in 1978 to house the Nashville Sounds , an expansion franchise of the Double @-@ A Southern League , the stadium played host to the club until 2014 . In 1985 , the Sounds transitioned into a Triple @-@ A franchise , competing first in the American Association and later the Pacific Coast League . Amidst the Sounds ' 37 @-@ season run , Greer simultaneously hosted two professional baseball clubs in 1993 and 1994 , acting as a temporary home to a displaced Southern League franchise known during that period as the Nashville Xpress . The stadium has also seen occasional use as a field for college baseball and charity events . The stadium is best recognized by its distinctive guitar @-@ shaped scoreboard , which displays the line score across the neck . It has been the site of three minor league all @-@ star games , eight no @-@ hit games , including one perfect game , and a 24 @-@ inning game which tied the record for the longest game in PCL history . The subject of numerous upgrades and repairs to maintain its functionality , Greer became one of the oldest stadiums used by a Triple @-@ A team , and it now falls well below professional baseball 's standards for a stadium at that class level . For over a decade , the Sounds attempted to secure agreements with the Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County for a new ballpark to replace Greer , eventually resulting in the construction of First Tennessee Park , which became the Sounds ' new home in 2015 . Greer Stadium has been closed and unused since the end of the 2014 baseball season , and virtually abandoned since the Sounds ' offices were moved to the new facility in early 2015 . Its future has not been officially determined , but a 2016 demolition has been proposed by the Metropolitan Nashville government . = = History = = = = = 1977 – 1979 = = = When Larry Schmittou decided to bring professional baseball back to Nashville in the late 1970s , he knew he would have to build a new ballpark for his team . He negotiated a lease with the city for a plot of land at the foot of St. Cloud Hill on the grounds of Fort Negley , an American Civil War fortification , approximately two miles ( three km ) south of downtown . At the time , this was the site of a city @-@ owned softball complex that the city planned to relocate . The city was prepared to lease him the land , but Schmittou would be responsible for building the stadium , paying the property taxes , and paying the city a portion of the team 's total revenue . The projected construction cost of the stadium was between US $ 300 @,@ 000 and $ 500 @,@ 000 ; but the actual cost was over $ 1 million . Schmittou looked to local suppliers to donate construction materials , took out a $ 30 @,@ 000 loan from a bank , and even mortgaged his own home to help pay for the ballpark . Country music star Conway Twitty helped Schmittou bring in fellow stars Jerry Reed , Richard Sterban , and Cal Smith as well as other members of the Nashville community as team shareholders . The stadium was posthumously named for Herschel Lynn Greer , a prominent Nashville businessman and the first president of the Nashville Vols baseball team , whose family donated $ 25 @,@ 000 for stadium construction . The home opener for Greer 's first tenants , the Southern League 's Nashville Sounds , Double @-@ A affiliate of the Cincinnati Reds , was scheduled for April 25 , 1978 . Construction was underway , but Schmittou knew the ballpark would not be ready by that date . The team requested to open the season with road games and had to swap a series with the Chattanooga Lookouts in order to have more time to complete the stadium . Even with this extra time , the ballpark was still behind schedule . The original sod arrived dead , and by the time the replacement grass had arrived , the crew hired to lay the sod had left . General manager Farrell Owens organized a volunteer crew to lay the sod by calling a local radio station to announce the team was having a " sod party " . A group of approximately 50 people came out to lay and roll the sod the day before the scheduled opening game . The Sounds ' home opener , scheduled for April 25 , was rained out and pushed back to April 26 . After playing their first ten games away from home , and with tractors and grading machines still preparing the field on game day , the Sounds played their first home game at Herschel Greer Stadium on April 26 , 1978 . The 12 – 4 victory against the Savannah Braves was witnessed by a sellout crowd of 8 @,@ 156 spectators . Southern League president Billy Hitchcock was on hand to witness the event , and Conway Twitty threw out the first pitch . Though the stadium was opened on time , the late sod was not the only issue on opening day . The stadium 's seats , which had previously been installed in Atlanta 's Fulton County Stadium , arrived just in time . Construction of the backstop was still being completed on opening day . Players for both the Sounds and the visiting Braves had concerns about the safety of playing on the quickly installed infield , initially refusing to even play on the surface . Left fielders complained about the extra @-@ steep slope in left field that prevented them from seeing home plate . Only two women 's restrooms and one men 's restroom were functioning ; a few portable toilets were also available . Initially , Greer was capable of seating 7 @,@ 200 spectators , but was expanded to 8 @,@ 800 by the end of the inaugural season . Theater @-@ type seats with back support and armrests accounted for 3 @,@ 000 of the stadium 's seats ; bleacher seats made up the remainder . The press box included two radio broadcast booths and an organ booth . There were locker rooms for two teams , which each accommodated 25 people , as well as a locker room for umpires . The field measured 330 feet ( 100 m ) down the left and right field lines , 375 feet ( 114 m ) to left- and right @-@ center fields , and 405 feet ( 123 m ) to center field . Bullpens are located in foul territory in the outfield , with the home team occupying the third base dugout , and the visitors occupying the first base dugout . Eight lighting grids atop steel poles 100 feet ( 30 m ) high provided illumination for night games . Amenities for customers at the park included two men 's and women 's restrooms and seven concession stands . With the addition of 5 @,@ 000 permanent seats , Greer 's seating capacity was increased to 13 @,@ 000 for the 1979 season . Improvements to the playing field included new irrigation and drainage systems which raised the field 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above its previous elevation . = = = 1980 – 1989 = = = Prior to the 1981 season , Greer underwent a number of renovations including the addition of over 1 @,@ 200 box seats and over 1 @,@ 000 new general admission seats . Two wooden general admission seating areas were replaced by 2 @,@ 000 contoured seats . The original backstop which consisted of several steel poles was upgraded to a steel cable system , eliminating most of the poles . Other stadium upgrades included two new dugouts , three entrance and exit ramps , a new sound system , doubling the size of the reader panel on the scoreboard , and enlarging the ticket booth . From February through mid @-@ summer 1984 , major renovations and additions were made to the stadium . A full @-@ service restaurant , The Hall of Fame Stadium Club , and a mini @-@ roof , to cover the last five rows of the reserved seating section and the main concourse , were built . A new press box included accommodations for members of the media , 2 separate booths for home and visiting radio broadcasts , and 2 separate booths for home and visiting television broadcasts . Ten sky boxes were built adjacent the press box ; by 1989 , the number of sky boxes had increased to 18 . On July 2 , 1984 , Schmittou purchased the Triple @-@ A Evansville Triplets of the American Association . The team moved from Evansville to Nashville for the 1985 season , upon which the Triplets ' legacy was retired and the franchise adopted the Sounds ' name and history , effectively elevating the organization from Double @-@ A to Triple @-@ A. The Double @-@ A Southern League franchise was moved to Huntsville , Alabama , where the team began play as the Huntsville Stars at the hastily constructed Joe W. Davis Stadium . To prepare for the move to Triple @-@ A , renovations continued prior to the 1985 season with the addition of 1 @,@ 200 box seats , which replaced some of the reserved grandstand seating , as well as more seating past the right field foul pole . A 4 @-@ line scoreboard 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high replaced the stadium 's original , which was relocated to far left field to serve as an out @-@ of @-@ town scoreboard , providing scores for American League , National League , and American Association baseball games . Schmittou wanted " to put Nashville in contention for a future major league team . " Along with this goal , the need for more seating , and a desire to make Greer a more attractive ballpark , significant renovations began after the 1987 season . The number of box seats was increased by 40 % , the clubhouse and umpire facilities were upgraded , and the dugouts were entirely rebuilt . The new dugouts took up slightly more room than the previous ones , resulting in a minor contraction of the field 's dimensions : 327 feet ( 100 m ) down the left and right field lines , 371 feet ( 113 m ) to left and right @-@ center fields , and 400 feet ( 120 m ) to center field . The stadium 's main concourse entrance was redesigned to incorporate the stonemasonry of the adjacent Fort Negley . This expansion brought Greer 's total seating capacity up to 18 @,@ 000 . = = = 1990 – 1999 = = = In 1990 , Major League Baseball team owners met to demand that minor league owners improve their ballparks in order to meet their desired standards . Greer had already fallen behind other parks when it came to the quality of the field and clubhouse , and it also lacked a weight room and batting cages . Following his failed bid to secure an MLB team for Nashville in the 1993 Major League Baseball expansion process ( Nashville was one of ten cities considered , but was eliminated from contention very early in the process ; the two new franchises were eventually awarded to Denver and Miami ) , Schmittou focused on scaling @-@ back his proposed MLB stadium into a new Triple @-@ A facility for the Sounds . At a time when other Triple @-@ A cities were building new , relatively luxurious ballparks , Schmittou was unable to convince mayor Phil Bredesen or the Metro Council to pay for such a new park . He considered moving the team to a surrounding county , and even tried , unsuccessfully , to get the Metro Council to pass a referendum to let taxpayers vote on a temporary tax increase to pay off a proposed $ 40 million stadium in three years . In the end , Schmittou elected to keep the Sounds at Greer but make significant improvements to the stadium . Greer 's distinctive guitar @-@ shaped scoreboard was installed behind the left @-@ center field wall prior to the 1993 season . Another addition in 1993 was that of a second team to play at Greer . From 1993 to 1994 , the ballpark simultaneously served as the home field for the Sounds and the Nashville Xpress , the Double @-@ A affiliate of the Minnesota Twins which played in the Southern League . This came about when Charlotte , North Carolina acquired a Triple @-@ A expansion franchise in 1993 , leaving the city 's Double @-@ A team , the Charlotte Knights , without a home . Sounds President Larry Schmittou offered Greer Stadium as a temporary home for the team . In order to accommodate another club at Greer , the Xpress scheduled its home games during the Sounds ' road trips . This marked the first time since the New York Mets and Yankees shared Shea Stadium in 1975 that two teams shared a facility . Baseball America ranked the dual Nashville teams as number one on its list of the " top ten happenings in minor league baseball . " In April 1994 , Michael Jordan 's foray into minor league baseball attracted 16 @,@ 842 fans to Greer to see the Xpress face his team , the Birmingham Barons , for the first time that season . In 1995 , the Xpress relocated to Wilmington , North Carolina and became the Port City Roosters . Over $ 200 @,@ 000 was spent on renovations in the fall and winter before the 1995 season . The home clubhouse and weight room were remodeled , aisles behind the dugouts were resurfaced to reduce slippery areas , and the entire playing field was re @-@ sodded . This was the first replacement and upgrading of the field since the original sod was laid in 1978 . First , all of the old grass was stripped from the field . Then , the grounds crew installed a new drainage system . Four trenches were dug and laid with 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) of drainage pipe to carry water away from the field and beyond the center field wall . A layer of gravel was laid over the pipe , and a 4 @-@ to @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 10 to 15 cm ) layer of sand was placed above the gravel . After raising the level of the infield dirt and brick warning track to the same height of the new field , 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 9 @,@ 300 m ² ) of Tifton 419 Bermuda Grass was installed on the field and edged into a baseball diamond configuration . Larry Schmittou sold his majority interest in the Sounds to Al Gordon , president of AmeriSports Companies LLC , before the 1997 season . The new ownership group refurbished every area of the stadium , including the concession stands , bathrooms , concourse , stadium exterior , home clubhouse ( a visitor 's clubhouse had been built under the third base bleachers for the 1996 season ) , and parking lots . Several sections of bleachers in left field past third base were removed and replaced by tents and a group picnic area . This brought the seating capacity to 11 @,@ 500 . Following the 1997 season , the American Association was dissolved , and the Sounds became a member of the Pacific Coast League . As a result , Greer became the second @-@ easternmost stadium in PCL history behind the Indianapolis Indians ' Bush Stadium when the team played in the PCL from 1964 to 1968 . Greer was the easternmost active PCL stadium from 1998 to 2014 . As consumer preferences changed and in an effort to attract larger groups to the ballpark , in the late 1990s , Greer Stadium 's fixed @-@ seating capacity was reduced to 10 @,@ 300 by eliminating the bleacher sections along the third base side and beyond right field , and constructing three party decks in their places . As a result , the general admission area became confined only to the existing bleachers behind the reserved seating along the first base line in right field . A fourth party area was created by repurposing unused space atop the grandstands behind home plate . Another deck was constructed behind the right @-@ field foul pole , which , at times , featured a rentable hot tub . = = = 2000 – 2009 = = = The aging Greer Stadium was not meant to last longer than 30 years , and was the subject of many renovations in the early 2000s to meet minimum Triple @-@ A standards . In 2003 , the Sounds proposed a new stadium to be built with a mix of public and private funds at the corner of 1st Avenue South and Gateway Boulevard ( now Korean Veterans Boulevard ) in Downtown Nashville on the former site of the city 's thermal transfer energy plant , targeting an opening date in April 2006 . After two years of the Sounds lobbying for the new park and threatening to leave town ( either for the suburbs or a new city altogether ) , Mayor Bill Purcell agreed to support preliminary plans for the stadium on October 25 , 2005 , and the Nashville Metro Council approved the new stadium on February 7 , 2006 , due in part to the Sounds securing construction financing through a consortium of banks and avoiding taxpayer expense . It was to be called First Tennessee Field . Opening day at the proposed new venue was repeatedly pushed back , eventually to as late as April 2009 . However , the Sounds and private developers Struever Brothers , Eccles , & Rouse were unable to finalize financing and design plans for the new stadium by the April 15 , 2007 , deadline set by the Metro Council . As a result , the First Tennessee Field construction project was canceled and the Sounds remained at Greer with an uncertain future . Following the dissolution of the plans for the new ballpark , and prior to the 2008 season , more than $ 1 million in upgrades and repairs were made to Greer Stadium . The improvements , which included a new clubhouse for the Sounds and visiting teams beyond the center field wall , improved field lighting , and improvements to restrooms , walkways , and seating , were made in order to keep the stadium functional for another three to five years . MFP Baseball , which purchased the Sounds in early 2009 , invested over $ 2 million to make repairs and upgrades to the aging stadium 's playing field , restrooms , concession stands , scoreboard , sound system , and seating . The infield was re @-@ sodded and leveled , protective railing was installed along the edge of the field , and the backstop netting was replaced . The entire concourse and guitar scoreboard were repainted , broken seats were replaced , and Sluggers Sports Bar & Grill was remodeled . A permanent concert stage and a family fun zone were constructed by the concourse entrance . = = = 2010 – present = = = In 2011 , MFP Baseball and the Mayor 's Office began working toward a new stadium , with the city identifying three potential sites for construction , and recruiting stadium @-@ builder Populous to study each . The three sites were an area on the north end of The Gulch , the site of Nashville 's first ballpark ( Sulphur Dell ) , and various areas directly adjacent to Nissan Stadium and the eastern terminus of the John Seigenthaler Pedestrian Bridge . The Sounds still preferred the Thermal site due to its proximity to the city 's entertainment and central business districts , but the city was not willing to make a second attempt at a stadium in that location ( Ascend Amphitheater was eventually built there ) . Mayor Karl Dean preferred the Sulphur Dell site , in an attempt to bolster economic growth on downtown 's sluggish North side , while incorporating the ballpark into the surrounding neighborhoods . In late summer 2013 , the Sounds and the Nashville Metropolitan Government reached an agreement to build a new $ 37 million downtown ballpark at Sulphur Dell . Construction on First Tennessee Park began after necessary land @-@ swaps with the State of Tennessee , and the new ballpark opened in time for the start of the 2015 season . Knowing that the 2014 season would be the team 's 37th and final campaign at the old ballpark , the Sounds launched the " Last Cheer At Greer " , a season @-@ long celebration of the stadium that included nods to its history and promotional giveaways to commemorate the closing . On August 27 , 2014 , the Sounds hosted their final game at Greer Stadium : an 8 – 5 loss to the Sacramento River Cats . In his only plate appearance of the evening , Nashville catcher Lucas May struck out swinging with a full count and the bases loaded to end the game . Announced attendance at the game was a standing @-@ room @-@ only crowd of 11 @,@ 067 , the first sellout since 2010 , and the largest crowd since 2007 . As of May 2016 , the plans for preserving or redeveloping Greer Stadium have yet to be determined . The land on which Greer sits is currently owned by the Metro Parks department of Nashville 's government . Mayor Dean expressed interest in converting the facility to a community sporting complex or a new city park , but , nearing the end of his term , ultimately deferred the decision to the next mayor ( Megan Barry , elected 2015 ) . In February 2015 , The Tennessean reported on a few potential future uses for the stadium . These included a new home stadium for the United Soccer League 's Harrisburg City Islanders who , at one point , sought to relocate to the Nashville area , a Music City Rodeo , a Kroger grocery store , or a neighborhood park . Metro officials expect a one @-@ year public outreach and planning process before deciding what to do with the facility . Metropolitan Director of Parks Tommy Lynch has recommended that the stadium be demolished due to the potential costs for any renovation , including the removal of asbestos . The department asked Mayor Barry for $ 800 @,@ 000 to fund the demolition of the concourse and seating bowl so as to expand the green space at the property which could then be sold to private developers . Belmont University would like to turn the property into an indoor tennis facility . = = Notable events = = = = = All @-@ Star Games = = = The Southern League All @-@ Star Game was held twice at Greer Stadium , once in 1979 and again in 1983 . In 1979 , the All @-@ Star team competed against the major league Atlanta Braves . The All @-@ Stars defeated the Braves by a score of five to two . When the game returned to Nashville in 1983 , the All @-@ Star squad played against the hosting Nashville Sounds . The Sounds lost to the All @-@ Stars by a score of three runs to two . Greer played host to the Triple @-@ A All @-@ Star Game on July 14 , 1994 . Before a crowd of 11 @,@ 601 , and live television and radio audiences , the team of National League @-@ affiliated ( NL ) All @-@ Stars defeated the team of American League @-@ affiliated ( AL ) All @-@ Stars by a score of eight runs to five . Brad Woodall ( NL – Richmond Braves ) was the winning pitcher , Gary Buckels ( NL – Louisville Redbirds ) earned a save , and Kirt Ojala ( AL – Columbus Clippers ) was the losing pitcher . The " Stars of Stars " , or Most Valuable Players , were Luis Lopez ( International League – Richmond ) , Paul Faries ( PCL – Phoenix Firebirds ) , and Ray Durham ( American Association – Nashville ) . = = = Major league exhibitions = = = On April 16 , 1981 , the New York Yankees made a stop in Nashville to play an exhibition game against the Sounds . The 10 – 1 Yankees victory was played in front of a standing @-@ room only crowd of 17 @,@ 318 spectators . Some Yankees present at the game included owner George Steinbrenner , coach Yogi Berra , and players Reggie Jackson , Bucky Dent , Lou Piniella , Bobby Murcer , Goose Gossage , Tommy John , and Johnny Oates . The Yankees returned for another game against the Sounds on April 28 , 1983 . Former Sound Don Mattingly , as well as Yankees manager Billy Martin and pitcher Goose Gossage were in attendance . The Sounds , who trailed the Yankees , 4 – 0 , going into the bottom of the ninth inning , scored five runs to beat the Yankees , 5 – 4 , before a crowd of 13 @,@ 641 . The St. Louis Cardinals and Toronto Blue Jays played an exhibition game at Greer on April 3 , 1983 . Tennessee Governor Lamar Alexander was in attendance to watch the teams , which included players Ozzie Smith , George Hendrick , Rafael Santana , Keith Hernandez , Alfredo Griffin , former Sounds outfielder Willie McGee , and manager Bobby Cox . The Blue Jays defeated the Cardinals , 7 – 6 , before a crowd of 13 @,@ 742 . On April 4 – 5 , 1987 , the Cincinnati Reds ( managed by Pete Rose ) and Montreal Expos played a two @-@ game exhibition series at Greer . The first game ended with an 8 – 8 tie in the eleventh inning , but the Reds defeated the Expos , by a score of 5 – 3 , in the second game of the series . Three major league exhibitions were to take place at Greer prior to the 1988 season . On April 1 , the Cincinnati Reds were scheduled to play against the Chicago White Sox , but the game was rained out . The White Sox were defeated by the Cleveland Indians , 8 – 6 , on April 2 . On April 3 , the Pittsburgh Pirates won over the Indians by a score of 3 – 2 . The Cincinnati Reds visited Nashville to play against the Sounds on April 23 , 1990 . A crowd of 14 @,@ 012 witnessed the Reds defeat Nashville , 3 – 0 . The Reds returned April 6 , 1991 , to face the Cleveland Indians , resulting in a 4 – 3 Cincinnati victory in 10 innings . In March 1996 , Greer hosted eight major league teams competing in five games in what was billed as the Nashville Baseball Classic . On March 28 , the Chicago White Sox defeated the Texas Rangers by a score of 4 – 3 . The Cleveland Indians won over the St. Louis Cardinals , 9 @-@ 3 , in a second game played the same day . March 29 's doubleheader saw the White Sox defeat the Montreal Expos , 9 – 5 , and the Detroit Tigers beat the Cincinnati Reds , 7 – 4 . On March 31 , the Expos won over the Kansas City Royals , 3 – 1 . = = = No @-@ hitters and perfect games = = = Greer Stadium has been the setting for eight no @-@ hit games , including one perfect game . The first took place on May 16 , 1981 , when Jeff Cornell , of the visiting Jacksonville Suns , pitched a 4 – 0 no @-@ hit game against the Sounds . The second no @-@ hitter at Greer was Jim Deshaies ' 5 – 1 win over the Columbus Astros on May 4 , 1984 . In the second inning , Deshaies walked three batters and hit another , accounting for the only Astros run of the game , part of a seven @-@ inning doubleheader . The third , a 6 – 0 win over the Oklahoma City 89ers , was thrown by Nashville 's Bryan Kelly on July 17 , 1985 . In a rare occurrence , the Sounds and the Indianapolis Indians exchanged no @-@ hitters on back @-@ to @-@ back nights ( August 6 and August 7 , 1988 ) . First , Indianapolis ' Randy Johnson and Pat Pacillo combined for a no @-@ hit loss against the Sounds , a 1 – 0 Nashville win . Nashville won when Lenny Harris walked to first base , stole second base and third base , and then came home , scoring on a groundout . The next night , Nashville 's Jack Armstrong registered a no @-@ hit game against the Indians , a 4 – 0 Sounds victory . This was the first time in American Association history that teams played in back @-@ to @-@ back no @-@ hit games . On April 7 , 2003 , John Wasdin tossed a perfect game at Greer in a 4 – 0 win over the Albuquerque Isotopes . This was only the second nine @-@ inning perfect complete game in the 100 @-@ year history of the PCL . Wasdin threw 100 pitches , striking out 15 batters . Later in the year , on August 2 , Colorado Springs Sky Sox pitchers Chris Gissell ( 7 innings pitched ( IP ) ) and Jesús Sánchez ( 2 IP ) combined for a no @-@ hit 3 – 0 win against Nashville . The most recent no @-@ hit effort at Greer took place on July 15 , 2006 , when Nashville pitchers Carlos Villanueva ( 6 IP ) , Mike Meyers ( 2 IP ) , and Alec Zumwalt ( 1 IP ) combined on a 2 – 0 win over the Memphis Redbirds . = = = 24 @-@ Inning game = = = On May 5 – 6 , 2006 , Greer was the site of a game which tied the record for the longest game , in terms of innings played , in PCL history . The Sounds and the New Orleans Zephyrs competed in a 24 @-@ inning game , played over the course of two days , which lasted a total of eight hours and seven minutes . New Orleans defeated Nashville by a score of five runs to four . The record was originally set on June 8 , 1909 in a game between the San Francisco Seals and Oakland Oaks . A few years later , on September 10 , 1911 , the record was tied by a contest between the Sacramento Solons and Portland Beavers . Seven PCL records were broken in the game , and three were tied . = = Other events = = In 1979 and 1980 , Greer Stadium was the home of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics ( NAIA ) World Series . The Lipscomb Bisons of Nashville 's Lipscomb University won the 1979 series , and the Grand Canyon Antelopes of Grand Canyon University won in 1980 . In the early 1980s , Greer served as the home field for the Father Ryan High School football team . Father Ryan returned to playing at Greer from 2006 through 2008 , before moving to a new school athletic complex for the 2009 season . Depending on the Sounds ' schedule , some of the school 's home games were held at the visiting school 's field ( with Father Ryan designated as the home team ) or at other unused local high school fields . In the football configuration , the field runs along the first base line . Until the 2011 opening of E. S. Rose Park , the Belmont Bruins baseball team played the majority of its season at Greer . When the Sounds ' home schedule prohibited its use , Belmont 's games were played at Nashville 's Shelby Park . Greer was the site of the City of Hope Celebrity Softball Challenge from 1991 to 2014 . Two teams of country music stars participated in the game , from which proceeds go toward research and treatment of cancer and other life @-@ threatening diseases . Past participants include Vince Gill , Carrie Underwood , Brad Paisley , Billy Ray Cyrus , Sara Evans , Montgomery Gentry , and Phil Vassar . As of the 2008 event , more than $ 1 @.@ 5 million had been raised . In 2015 , the game relocated to First Tennessee Park . From 2001 to 2011 , Greer was home to the Jeff Fisher & Friends Charity Softball Game . Tennessee Titans head coach Jeff Fisher and players from the team , past and present , competed in order to benefit local charities . Titans participants included Vince Young , Steve McNair , Eddie George , Frank Wycheck , Rob Bironas , and Keith Bulluck , among others . Tomáš Vokoun and head coach Barry Trotz of the National Hockey League 's Nashville Predators have also taken part . The Oak Ridge Boys , of which Sounds ' minority shareholder Richard Sterban was a member , were photographed standing in the seats along Greer 's left field line for the cover of their 1989 album , American Dreams . In 2002 , the music video for Steve Earle 's " Some Dreams " , a song featured in the motion picture The Rookie , was filmed at Greer . The video , intercut with clips from the film , shows Earle and his band performing the song on the empty ballpark 's field . = = Scoreboard = = Greer 's distinctive guitar @-@ shaped scoreboard was manufactured by the Fairtron Corporation and installed by the Joslin Sign Company prior to the 1993 season at a cost of $ 400 @,@ 000 . It was originally conceived as the centerpiece for a proposed major league ballpark in Nashville sought after by owner Larry Schmittou as a part of the 1993 Major League Baseball expansion . It is painted black with red , yellow , and white trim , and is located behind the outfield wall in left @-@ center field . The line score is displayed on the guitar 's neck , while the ball / strike / out count , the batter 's uniform number , and the hit / error indicator are all situated on the headstock . Six small advertising signs represent the tuning keys . The body of the guitar currently features only an LED display board for displaying messages . Initially , the scoreboard featured two matrix message boards : a low @-@ resolution RGB color board on the left which featured advertising and animations , and a white @-@ light monochromatic board on the right , which primarily featured statistical information and other text @-@ based messages . The monochrome board was replaced by an orange @-@ tinted LED display board in 2009 which served both purposes , while the color board was deactivated and covered with advertising signage . The Greer Stadium scoreboard has never had the ability to display video or any kind of high @-@ resolution images . Between the two boards are an analog clock and a current temperature display . As of 2014 , the temperature display is no longer active . Around the boards are four large spaces for advertising ; the two on top are static , and the two on bottom rotate between three images each ( the rotating spaces have been covered with static signage since 2009 ) . High @-@ tension nets cover the electronic sections to protect them from home run balls . Above the board is a circular advertising space . This space originally displayed the team 's guitar @-@ swinger logo , and at times has displayed other Sounds logos . Originally , when a home run was hit , the guitar @-@ swinger logo would light up and perimeter lights around the entire scoreboard would begin flashing ; it was also capable of shooting fireworks after each Sounds home run . By the mid @-@ 2000s , the scoreboard had fallen into a state of disrepair and obsolescence , and was only marginally functional . Many of the lights were no longer able to be lit , and replacement parts were becoming hard to find . When MFP Baseball purchased the team in late 2008 , the organization made minor renovations to the scoreboard , rendering it once again fully functional , although not to its original specifications . It was also repainted black , red , yellow , and white over its original red , white , and blue color scheme to reflect the team 's present colors . The entire scoreboard measures 115 @.@ 6 feet ( 35 @.@ 2 m ) across , 53 feet ( 16 m ) high , and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) deep . Individual components of the guitar are as follows : 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) body , 36 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) neck , and 19 @.@ 6 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 0 m ) tuning key section . It is installed approximately 80 feet ( 24 m ) above the ground . It takes 243 @,@ 155 watts to power its 8 @,@ 179 total lamps , which are connected to 64 @,@ 169 feet ( 19 @,@ 559 m ) of wire . The entire display weighs 35 @,@ 825 pounds ( 16 @,@ 250 kg ) . As of 2013 , due to leaks in its exterior , the scoreboard 's functionality can be crippled for a period of time following a rainstorm , rendering many of its electronic features dark . Greer Stadium 's guitar scoreboard was not moved to First Tennessee Park , and remains standing . The Sounds organization installed a modern version at the new venue , capable of displaying high @-@ definition video . The first design renderings of First Tennessee Park did not feature a guitar scoreboard . On April 22 , 2014 , at the announcement of First Tennessee 's naming rights agreement , Sounds owner Frank Ward told The Tennessean : " The guitar scoreboard at Greer is staying at Greer . At some point in time we will share what our new scoreboard will look like , but it 's too early in the process . We 're trying to figure it out as we speak . " Two months later , on June 20 , 2014 , Ward announced that a new guitar scoreboard would indeed be constructed , citing overwhelming demand from the community . Greer Stadium 's original scoreboard was a black , non @-@ descript , rectangular unit with a two line reader panel . In 1985 , it was moved to beside the left field foul pole to make room for a new rectangular 4 @-@ line scoreboard 10 feet ( 3 m ) high with a fully animated reader panel . The original unit was then used as an out @-@ of @-@ town scoreboard , displaying the scores of other baseball games . When the guitar display was installed in 1993 , the original scoreboard was removed and replaced by the second scoreboard , which became the new out @-@ of @-@ town board . From 2008 to 2014 , the out @-@ of @-@ town scoreboard was not used to display scores ; instead it was used only as a support for additional advertising signage . = = Facilities = = Seating at the ballpark includes fixed stadium seats , general admission bleachers , some with contoured seats , and eighteen skyboxes located on the third floor . As of 2014 , total seating capacity is 10 @,@ 300 . Games can be watched from one of four picnic areas — one behind home plate , one on the third base line , one in the third base stands , and one beyond the right field wall . A rentable hot tub deck is located in the right field corner . There is a concert stage and family fun zone located on The Plaza inside the concourse entrance . Several concession stands and cart vendors are located on the concourse . The stadium was home to a full @-@ service restaurant called Sluggers Sports Bar and Grill , which was located on the fourth floor and closed when the Sounds vacated Greer . The restaurant and bar was open during all Sounds home dates , and games could be viewed from the restaurant via windows overlooking the field . = = Ground rules = = The following ground rules apply to baseball games played at Greer Stadium : Any thrown ball hitting any portion of the fence or screen behind home plate is in play . Any thrown ball hitting the dugout railing , netting , or foundation and rebounding onto the field is in play . Any fairly batted or thrown ball that goes into the dugout or dugout camera well or strikes equipment on the dugout steps is out of play . Any fairly batted or thrown ball stuck in the pads behind home plate or in foul territory is in play . Both bullpens are in play . Pitchers in the bullpen must allow opposing players to attempt to make a catch or play when the ball is in or near the bullpen . Players may lean on the tarp by the third base line , but may not use it as a source of elevation . Any batted ball hitting a foul pole above the fence line is a home run . Any ball striking the upper section ( above the yellow line ) of the two @-@ tiered outfield wall on the fly is a home run , regardless of whether or not the ball re @-@ enters the playing field . Any bouncing ball striking the upper section of the wall is a ground rule double , regardless of whether or not the ball re @-@ enters the playing field Any ball hitting the center field batter 's eye at any height remains in play .
= Cannon = A cannon ( plural : cannon or cannons ) is any piece of artillery that uses gunpowder or other usually explosive @-@ based propellants to launch a projectile . Cannon vary in calibre , range , mobility , rate of fire , angle of fire , and firepower ; different forms of cannon combine and balance these attributes in varying degrees , depending on their intended use on the battlefield . The word cannon is derived from several languages , in which the original definition can usually be translated as tube , cane , or reed . In the modern era , the term cannon has fallen into decline , replaced by " guns " or " artillery " if not a more specific term such as " mortar " or " howitzer " , except for in the field of aerial warfare , where it is often used as shorthand for autocannon . First invented in China , cannon were among the earliest forms of gunpowder artillery , and over time replaced siege engines — among other forms of ageing weaponry — on the battlefield . In the Middle East , the first use of the hand cannon is argued to be during the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut between the Mamluks and Mongols . The first cannon in Europe were in use in Iberia by the mid @-@ 13th century . It was during this period , the Middle Ages , that cannon became standardized , and more effective in both the anti @-@ infantry and siege roles . After the Middle Ages most large cannon were abandoned in favour of greater numbers of lighter , more maneuverable pieces . In addition , new technologies and tactics were developed , making most defences obsolete ; this led to the construction of star forts , specifically designed to withstand artillery bombardment though these too ( along with the Martello Tower ) would find themselves rendered obsolete when explosive and armour piercing rounds made even these types of fortifications vulnerable . Cannon also transformed naval warfare in the early modern period , as European navies took advantage of their firepower . As rifling became commonplace , the accuracy and destructive power of cannon was significantly increased , and they became deadlier than ever , both to infantry who belatedly had to adopt different tactics , and to ships , which had to be armoured . In World War I , the majority of combat fatalities were caused by artillery ; they were also used widely in World War II . Most modern cannon are similar to those used in the Second World War , although the importance of the larger calibre weapons has declined with the development of missiles . Cannon was widely known as the earliest form of a gun and artillery , before early firearms were invented . = = Etymology and terminology = = Cannon is derived from the Old Italian word cannone , meaning " large tube " , which came from Latin canna , in turn originating from the Greek κάννα ( kanna ) , " reed " , and then generalized to mean any hollow tube @-@ like object ; cognate with Akkadian term qanu and Hebrew qāneh , meaning " tube " or " reed " . The word has been used to refer to a gun since 1326 in Italy , and 1418 in England . Both Cannons and Cannon are correct and in common usage , with one or the other having preference in different parts of the English @-@ speaking world . Cannons is more common in North America and Australia , while cannon as plural is more common in the United Kingdom . = = Cannon materials , parts , and terms = = Cannon in general have the form of a truncated cone with an internal cylindrical bore for holding an explosive charge and a projectile . The thickest , strongest , and closed part of the cone is located near the explosive charge . As any explosive charge will dissipate in all directions equally , the thickest portion of the cannon is useful for containing and directing this force . The backward motion of the cannon as its projectile leaves the bore is termed its recoil and the effectiveness of the cannon can be measured in terms of how much this response can be diminished , though obviously diminishing recoil through increasing the overall mass of the cannon means decreased mobility . Field artillery cannon in Europe and the Americas were initially made most often of bronze , though later forms were constructed of cast iron and eventually steel . Bronze has several characteristics that made it preferable as a construction material : although it is relatively expensive , does not always alloy well , and can result in a final product that is " spongy about the bore " , bronze is more flexible than iron and therefore less prone to bursting when exposed to high pressure ; cast iron cannon are less expensive and more durable generally than bronze and withstand being fired more times without deteriorating . However , cast iron cannon have a tendency to burst without having shown any previous weakness or wear , and this makes them more dangerous to operate . The older and more @-@ stable forms of cannon were muzzle @-@ loading as opposed to breech @-@ loading — in order to be used they had to have their ordnance packed down the bore through the muzzle rather than inserted through the breech . The following terms refer to the components or aspects of a classical western cannon ( c . 1850 ) as illustrated here . In what follows , the words near , close , and behind will refer to those parts towards the thick , closed end of the piece , and far , front , in front of , and before to the thinner , open end . = = = Negative spaces = = = Bore : The hollow cylinder bored down the centre of the cannon , including the base of the bore or bottom of the bore , the nearest end of the bore into which the ordnance ( wadding , shot , etc . ) gets packed . The diameter of the bore represents the cannon 's calibre . Chamber : The cylindrical , conical , or spherical recess at the nearest end of the bottom of the bore into which the gunpowder is packed . Vent : A thin tube on the near end of the cannon connecting the explosive charge inside with an ignition source outside and often filled with a length of fuse ; always located near the breech . Sometimes called the fuse hole or the touch hole . On the top of the vent on the outside of the cannon is a flat circular space called the vent field where the charge is lit . If the cannon is bronze , it will often have a vent piece made of copper screwed into the length of the vent . = = = Solid spaces = = = The main body of a cannon consists of three basic extensions : the foremost and the longest is called the chase , the middle portion is the reinforce , and the closest and briefest portion is the cascabel or cascable . The chase : Simply the entire conical part of the cannon in front of the reinforce . It is the longest portion of the cannon , and includes the following elements : The neck : the narrowest part of the chase , always located near the foremost end of the piece . The muzzle : the portion of the chase forward of the neck . It includes the following : The swell of the muzzle refers to the slight swell in the diameter of the piece at the very end of the chase . It is often chamfered on the inside to make loading the cannon easier . In some guns , this element is replaced with a wide ring and is called a muzzle band . The face is the flat vertical plane at the foremost edge of the muzzle ( and of the entire piece ) . The muzzle mouldings are the tiered rings which connect the face with the rest of the muzzle , the first of which is called the lip and the second the fillet The muzzle astragal and fillets are a series of three narrow rings running around the outside of the chase just behind the neck . Sometimes also collectively called the chase ring . The chase astragal and fillets : these are a second series of such rings located at the near end of the chase . The chase girdle : this is the brief length of the chase between the chase astragal and fillets and the reinforce . The reinforce : This portion of the piece is frequently divided into a first reinforce and a second reinforce , but in any case is marked as separate from the chase by the presence of a narrow circular reinforce ring or band at its foremost end . The span of the reinforce also includes the following : The trunnions are located at the foremost end of the reinforce just behind the reinforce ring . They consist of two cylinders perpendicular to the bore and below it which are used to mount the cannon on its carriage . The rimbases are short broad rings located at the union of the trunnions and the cannon which provide support to the carriage attachment . The reinforce band is only present if the cannon has two reinforces , and it divides the first reinforce from the second . The breech refers to the mass of solid metal behind the bottom of the bore extending to the base of the breech and including the base ring ; it also generally refers to the end of the cannon opposite the muzzle , i.e. , the location where the explosion of the gunpowder begins as opposed to the opening through which the pressurized gas escapes . The base ring forms a ring at the widest part of the entire cannon at the nearest end of the reinforce just before the cascabel . The cascabel : This is that portion of the cannon behind the reinforce ( s ) and behind the base ring . It includes the following : The knob which is the small spherical terminus of the piece ; The neck , a short , narrow piece of metal holding out the knob ; and The fillet , the tiered disk connecting the neck of the cascabel to the base of the breech . The base of the breech is the metal disk that forms the most forward part of the cascabel and rests against the breech itself , right next to the base ring . To pack a muzzle @-@ loading cannon , first gunpowder is poured down the bore . This is followed by a layer of wadding ( often nothing more than paper ) , and then the cannonball itself . A certain amount of windage allows the ball to fit down the bore , though the greater the windage the less efficient the propulsion of the ball when the gunpowder is ignited . To fire the cannon , the fuse located in the vent is lit , quickly burning down to the gunpowder , which then explodes violently , propelling wadding and ball down the bore and out of the muzzle . A small portion of exploding gas also escapes through the vent , but this does not dramatically affect the total force exerted on the ball . Any large , smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading gun — used before the advent of breech @-@ loading , rifled guns — may be referred to as a cannon , though once standardized names were assigned to different @-@ sized cannon , the term specifically referred to a gun designed to fire a 42 @-@ pound ( 19 kg ) shot , as distinct from a demi @-@ cannon – 32 pounds ( 15 kg ) , culverin – 18 pounds ( 8 @.@ 2 kg ) , or demi @-@ culverin – 9 pounds ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) . Gun specifically refers to a type of cannon that fires projectiles at high speeds , and usually at relatively low angles ; they have been used in warships , and as field artillery . The term cannon is also used for autocannon , a modern repeating weapon firing explosive projectiles . Cannon have been used extensively in fighter aircraft since World War II , and in place of machine guns on land vehicles . = = History = = = = = Development in China = = = The invention of the cannon , driven by gunpowder , was first developed in China and later spread to the Islamic world and Europe . Like small arms , cannon are a descendant of the fire lance , a gunpowder @-@ filled tube attached to the end of a spear and used as a flamethrower in China . Shrapnel was sometimes placed in the barrel , so that it would fly out along with the flames . The first documented battlefield use of fire lances took place in 1132 when Chen Gui used them to defend De 'an from attack by the Jurchen Jin . Eventually , the paper and bamboo of which fire lance barrels were originally constructed came to be replaced by metal . It has been disputed at which point flame @-@ projecting cannon were abandoned in favour of missile @-@ projecting ones , as words meaning either incendiary or explosive are commonly translated as gunpowder . The earliest known depiction of a gun is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan , dating to the 12th century that portrays a figure carrying a vase @-@ shaped bombard , firing flames and a ball . The oldest surviving gun , known as the Heilongjiang hand cannon and dated to no later than 1290 , is 34 cm long with a muzzle bore diameter of 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) . The second oldest , dated to 1332 is 35 @.@ 3 cm long , a muzzle bore diameter of 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 in ) and weighs 6 @.@ 94 kg ; both are made of bronze . The earliest known illustration of a cannon is dated to 1326 . In his 1341 poem , The Iron Cannon Affair , one of the first accounts of the use of gunpowder artillery in China , Xian Zhang wrote that a cannonball fired from an eruptor could " pierce the heart or belly when it strikes a man or horse , and can even transfix several persons at once . " Joseph Needham suggests that the proto @-@ shells described in the Huolongjing may be among the first of their kind . The weapon was later taken up by both the Mongol conquerors and the Koreans . Chinese soldiers fighting under the Mongols appear to have used hand cannon in Manchurian battles during 1288 , a date deduced from archaeological findings at battle sites . The Ming Chinese also mounted over 3 @,@ 000 cast bronze and iron cannon on the Great Wall of China , to defend against the Mongols . Cannon were used by Ming dynasty forces at the Battle of Lake Poyang . Ming dynasty era ships had bronze cannon . One shipwreck in Shandong had a cannon dated to 1377 and an anchor dated to 1372 . From the 13th to 15th centuries cannon armed Chinese ships also travelled throughout Southeast Asia . In the 1593 Siege of Pyongyang , 40 @,@ 000 Ming troops deployed a variety of cannon to bombard an equally large Japanese army . Despite both forces having similar numbers , the Japanese were easily defeated due to the Ming cannon . Throughout the Seven Year War in Korea , the Chinese @-@ Korean coalition used artillery widely , in both land and naval battles , including on the Turtle Ships of Yi Sun @-@ sin . = = = Islamic world = = = Arabic manuscripts dated from the 14th century document the use of the hand cannon , a forerunner of the handgun , in the Arabic world . Ahmad Y. al @-@ Hassan argues that these manuscripts are copies of earlier manuscripts and reported on hand @-@ held cannon being used by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 . Al @-@ Hassan also interprets Ibn Khaldun as reporting cannon being used as siege machines by the Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf at the siege of Sijilmasa in 1274 . Other historians urge caution regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204 – 1324 period as late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder , naft , that they used for an earlier incendiary naphtha . The Mamluks had certainly acquired siege cannon by the 1360s , and possibly as early as 1320 . Sixty @-@ eight super @-@ sized bombards referred to as Great Turkish Bombards were used by Mehmed II to capture Constantinople in 1453 . Orban , a Hungarian cannon engineer , is credited with introducing the cannon from Central Europe to the Ottomans . These cannon could fire heavy stone balls a mile , and the sound of their blast could reportedly be heard from a distance of 10 miles ( 16 km ) . Shkodran historian Marin Barleti discusses Turkish bombards at length in his book De obsidione Scodrensi ( 1504 ) , describing the 1478 – 79 siege of Shkodra in which eleven bombards and two mortars were employed . The similar Dardanelles Guns ( for the location ) were created by Munir Ali in 1464 and were still in use during the Anglo @-@ Turkish War ( 1807 – 1809 ) . These were cast in bronze into two parts , the chase ( the barrel ) and the breech , which combined weighed 18 @.@ 4 tonnes . The two parts were screwed together using levers to facilitate moving it . Fathullah Shirazi , a Persian @-@ Indian who worked for Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire , developed a volley gun in the 16th century . = = = Medieval Europe = = = In Europe , one of the first mentions of gunpowder use appears in a passage found in Roger Bacon 's Opus Maius and Opus Tertium in what has been interpreted as being firecrackers . In the early 20th century , a British artillery officer proposed that another work tentatively attributed to Bacon , Epistola de Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae , et de Nullitate Magiae contained an encrypted formula for gunpowder . These claims have been disputed by historians of science . In any case , the formula claimed to have been decrypted is not useful for firearms use or even firecrackers , burning slowly and producing mostly smoke . The first confirmed use of cannon in Europe was in southern Iberia , by the Moors , in the Siege of Cordoba in 1280 . By this time , hand guns were probably in use , as scopettieri — " gun bearers " — were mentioned in conjunction with crossbowmen , in 1281 . In Iberia , the " first artillery @-@ masters on the Peninsula " were enlisted , at around the same time . The first metal cannon was the pot @-@ de @-@ fer . Loaded with an arrow @-@ like bolt that was probably wrapped in leather to allow greater thrusting power , it was set off through a touch hole with a heated wire . This weapon , and others similar , were used by both the French and English during the Hundred Years ' War , when cannon saw their first real use on the European battlefield . While still a relatively rarely @-@ used weapon , cannon were employed in increasing numbers during the war . The Battle of Arnemuiden , fought on 23 September 1338 , was the first naval battle using artillery , as the English ship Christofer had three cannon and one hand gun . " Ribaldis " , which shot large arrows and simplistic grapeshot , were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts during preparations for the Battle of Crécy , between 1345 and 1346 . The Florentine Giovanni Villani recounts their destructiveness , indicating that by the end of the battle , " the whole plain was covered by men struck down by arrows and cannon balls . " Similar cannon were also used at the Siege of Calais , in the same year , although it was not until the 1380s that the " ribaudekin " clearly became mounted on wheels . A small bronze cannon unearthed in Loshult , Scania in southern Sweden is considered to be one of the earliest surviving European guns . It dates from the early @-@ mid 14th century , and is currently in the Swedish History Museum in Stockholm . They were used in Russia around 1380 , though they were used only in sieges , often by the defenders . Large cannon known as bombards ranged from three to five feet in length and were used by Dubrovnik and Kotor in defence in the later 14th century . The first bombards were made of iron , but bronze was quickly recognized as being stronger and capable of propelling stones weighing as much as a hundred pounds ( 45 kg ) . Byzantine strategists did not have the money to invest in this technology . Around the same period , the Byzantine Empire began to accumulate its own cannon to face the Ottoman threat , starting with medium @-@ sized cannon 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) long and of 10 in calibre . The first definite use of artillery in the region was against the Ottoman siege of Constantinople , in 1396 , forcing the Ottomans to withdraw . They acquired their own cannon , and laid siege to the Byzantine capital again , in 1422 , using " falcons " , which were short but wide cannon . By 1453 , the Ottomans used 68 Hungarian @-@ made cannon for the 55 @-@ day bombardment of the walls of Constantinople , " hurling the pieces everywhere and killing those who happened to be nearby . " The largest of their cannon was the Great Turkish Bombard , which required an operating crew of 200 men and 70 oxen , and 10 @,@ 000 men to transport it . Gunpowder made the formerly devastating Greek fire obsolete , and with the final fall of Constantinople — which was protected by what were once the strongest walls in Europe — on 29 May 1453 , " it was the end of an era in more ways than one . " = = = Early modern period = = = By the 16th century , cannon were made in a great variety of lengths and bore diameters , but the general rule was that the longer the barrel , the longer the range . Some cannon made during this time had barrels exceeding 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in length , and could weigh up to 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) . Consequently , large amounts of gunpowder were needed , to allow them to fire stone balls several hundred yards . By mid @-@ century , European monarchs began to classify cannon to reduce the confusion . Henry II of France opted for six sizes of cannon , but others settled for more ; the Spanish used twelve sizes , and the English sixteen . Better powder had been developed by this time as well . Instead of the finely ground powder used by the first bombards , powder was replaced by a " corned " variety of coarse grains . This coarse powder had pockets of air between grains , allowing fire to travel through and ignite the entire charge quickly and uniformly . The end of the Middle Ages saw the construction of larger , more powerful cannon , as well their spread throughout the world . As they were not effective at breaching the newer fortifications resulting from the development of cannon , siege engines — such as siege towers and trebuchets — became less widely used . However , wooden " battery @-@ towers " took on a similar role as siege towers in the gunpowder age — such as that used at siege of Kazan in 1552 , which could hold ten large @-@ calibre cannon , in addition to 50 lighter pieces . Another notable effect of cannon on warfare during this period was the change in conventional fortifications . Niccolò Machiavelli wrote , " There is no wall , whatever its thickness that artillery will not destroy in only a few days . " Although castles were not immediately made obsolete by cannon , their use and importance on the battlefield rapidly declined . Instead of majestic towers and merlons , the walls of new fortresses were thick , angled , and sloped , while towers became low and stout ; increasing use was also made of earth and brick in breastworks and redoubts . These new defences became known as " star forts " , after their characteristic shape which attempted to force any advance toward it directly into the firing line of the guns . A few of these featured cannon batteries , such as the Tudors ' Device Forts , in England . Star forts soon replaced castles in Europe , and , eventually , those in the Americas , as well . By the end of the 15th century , several technological advancements made cannon more mobile . Wheeled gun carriages and trunnions became common , and the invention of the limber further facilitated transportation . As a result , field artillery became more viable , and began to see more widespread use , often alongside the larger cannon intended for sieges . Better gunpowder , cast @-@ iron projectiles ( replacing stone ) , and the standardization of calibres meant that even relatively light cannon could be deadly . In The Art of War , Niccolò Machiavelli observed that " It is true that the arquebuses and the small artillery do much more harm than the heavy artillery . " This was the case at Flodden , in 1513 : the English field guns outfired the Scottish siege artillery , firing two or three times as many rounds . Despite the increased maneuverability , however , cannon were still the slowest component of the army : a heavy English cannon required 23 horses to transport , while a culverin needed nine . Even with this many animals pulling , they still moved at a walking pace . Due to their relatively slow speed , and lack of organization , and undeveloped tactics , the combination of pike and shot still dominated the battlefields of Europe . Innovations continued , notably the German invention of the mortar , a thick @-@ walled , short @-@ barrelled gun that blasted shot upward at a steep angle . Mortars were useful for sieges , as they could hit targets behind walls or other defences . This cannon found more use with the Dutch , who learned to shoot bombs filled with powder from them . Setting the bomb fuse was a problem . " Single firing " was first used to ignite the fuse , where the bomb was placed with the fuse down against the cannon 's propellant . This often resulted in the fuse being blown into the bomb , causing it to blow up as it left the mortar . Because of this , " double firing " was tried where the gunner lit the fuse and then the touch hole . This , however , required considerable skill and timing , and was especially dangerous if the gun misfired , leaving a lighted bomb in the barrel . Not until 1650 was it accidentally discovered that double @-@ lighting was superfluous as the heat of firing would light the fuse . Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden emphasized the use of light cannon and mobility in his army , and created new formations and tactics that revolutionized artillery . He discontinued using all 12 pounder — or heavier — cannon as field artillery , preferring , instead , to use cannon that could be manned by only a few men . One obsolete type of gun , the " leatheren " was replaced by 4 pounder and 9 pounder demi @-@ culverins . These could be operated by three men , and pulled by only two horses . Adolphus 's army was also the first to use a cartridge that contained both powder and shot which sped up reloading , increasing the rate of fire . Finally , against infantry he pioneered the use of canister shot - essentially a tin can filled with musket balls . Until then there was no more than one cannon for every thousand infantrymen on the battlefield but Gustavus Adolphus increased the number of cannon sixfold . Each regiment was assigned two pieces , though he often arranged then into batteries instead of distributing them piecemeal . He used these batteries to break his opponent 's infantry line , while his cavalry would outflank their heavy guns . At the Battle of Breitenfeld , in 1631 , Adolphus proved the effectiveness of the changes made to his army , by defeating Johann Tserclaes , Count of Tilly . Although severely outnumbered , the Swedes were able to fire between three and five times as many volleys of artillery , and their infantry 's linear formations helped ensure they didn 't lose any ground . Battered by cannon fire , and low on morale , Tilly 's men broke ranks and fled . In England cannon were being used to besiege various fortified buildings during the English Civil War . Nathaniel Nye is recorded as testing a Birmingham cannon in 1643 and experimenting with a saker in 1645 . From 1645 he was the master gunner to the Parliamentarian garrison at Evesham and in 1646 he successfully directed the artillery at the Siege of Worcester , detailing his experiences and in his 1647 book The Art of Gunnery . Believing that war was as much a science as an art , his explanations focused on triangulation , arithmetic , theoretical mathematics , and cartography as well as practical considerations such as the ideal specification for gunpowder or slow matches . His book acknowledged mathematicians such as Robert Recorde and Marcus Jordanus as well as earlier military writers on artillery such as Niccolò Tartaglia and Thomas Malthus . Around this time also came the idea of aiming the cannon to hit a target . Gunners controlled the range of their cannon by measuring the angle of elevation , using a " gunner 's quadrant . " Cannon did not have sights , therefore , even with measuring tools , aiming was still largely guesswork . In the latter half of the 17th century , the French engineer Vauban introduced a more systematic and scientific approach to attacking gunpowder fortresses , in a time when many field commanders " were notorious dunces in siegecraft . " Careful sapping forward , supported by enfilading ricochet fire , was a key feature of this system , and it even allowed Vauban to calculate the length of time a siege would take . He was also a prolific builder of star forts , and did much to popularize the idea of " depth in defence " in the face of cannon . These principles were followed into the mid @-@ 19th century , when changes in armaments necessitated greater depth defence than Vauban had provided for . It was only in the years prior to World War I that new works began to break radically away from his designs . = = = 18th and 19th centuries = = = The lower tier of 17th @-@ century English ships of the line were usually equipped with demi @-@ cannon , guns that fired a 32 pounds ( 15 kg ) solid shot , and could weigh up to 3 @,@ 400 pounds ( 1 @,@ 500 kg ) . Demi @-@ cannon were capable of firing these heavy metal balls with such force that they could penetrate more than a metre of solid oak , from a distance of 90 m ( 300 ft ) , and could dismast even the largest ships at close range . Full cannon fired a 42 lb ( 19 kg ) shot , but were discontinued by the 18th century , as they were too unwieldy . By the end of the 18th century , principles long adopted in Europe specified the characteristics of the Royal Navy 's cannon , as well as the acceptable defects , and their severity . The United States Navy tested guns by measuring them , firing them two or three times — termed " proof by powder " — and using pressurized water to detect leaks . The carronade was adopted by the Royal Navy in 1779 ; the lower muzzle velocity of the round shot when fired from this cannon was intended to create more wooden splinters when hitting the structure of an enemy vessel , as they were believed to be more deadly than the ball by itself . The carronade was much shorter , and weighed between a third to a quarter of the equivalent long gun ; for example , a 32 pounder carronade weighed less than a ton , compared with a 32 pounder long gun , which weighed over 3 tons . The guns were , therefore , easier to handle , and also required less than half as much gunpowder , allowing fewer men to crew them . Carronades were manufactured in the usual naval gun calibres , but were not counted in a ship of the line 's rated number of guns . As a result , the classification of Royal Navy vessels in this period can be misleading , as they often carried more cannon than were listed . In the 1810s and 1820s , greater emphasis was placed on the accuracy of long @-@ range gunfire , and less on the weight of a broadside . The carronade , although initially very successful and widely adopted , disappeared from the Royal Navy in the 1850s after the development of wrought @-@ iron @-@ jacketed steel cannon by William George Armstrong and Joseph Whitworth . Nevertheless , carronades were used in the American Civil War . Western cannon during the 19th century became larger , more destructive , more accurate , and could fire at longer range . One example is the American 3 in ( 76 mm ) wrought @-@ iron , muzzle @-@ loading rifle , or Griffen gun ( usually called the 3 @-@ inch Ordnance Rifle ) , used during the American Civil War , which had an effective range of over 1 @.@ 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) . Another is the smoothbore 12 pounder Napoleon , which originated in France in 1853 and was widely used by both sides in the American Civil War . This cannon was renowned for its sturdiness , reliability , firepower , flexibility , relatively light weight , and range of 1 @,@ 700 m ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) . Cannon were crucial in Napoleon Bonaparte 's rise to power , and continued to play an important role in his army in later years . During the French Revolution , the unpopularity of the Directory led to riots and rebellions . When over 25 @,@ 000 royalists led by General Danican assaulted Paris , Paul François Jean Nicolas , vicomte de Barras was appointed to defend the capital ; outnumbered five to one and disorganized , the Republicans were desperate . When Napoleon arrived , he reorganized the defences but realized that without cannon the city could not be held . He ordered Joachim Murat to bring the guns from the Sablons artillery park ; the Major and his cavalry fought their way to the recently captured cannon , and brought them back to Napoleon . When Danican 's poorly trained men attacked , on 13 Vendémiaire , 1795 — 5 October 1795 , in the calendar used in France at the time — Napoleon ordered his cannon to fire grapeshot into the mob , an act that became known as the " whiff of grapeshot " . The slaughter effectively ended the threat to the new government , while , at the same time , made Bonaparte a famous — and popular — public figure . Among the first generals to recognize that artillery was not being used to its full potential , Napoleon often massed his cannon into batteries and introduced several changes into the French artillery , improving it significantly and making it among the finest in Europe . Such tactics were successfully used by the French , for example , at the Battle of Friedland , when sixty @-@ six guns fired a total of 3 @,@ 000 roundshot and 500 rounds of grapeshot , inflicting severe casualties to the Russian forces , whose losses numbered over 20 @,@ 000 killed and wounded , in total . At the Battle of Waterloo — Napoleon 's final battle — the French army had many more artillery pieces than either the British or Prussians . As the battlefield was muddy , recoil caused cannons to bury themselves into the ground after firing , resulting in slow rates of fire , as more effort was required to move them back into an adequate firing position ; also , roundshot did not ricochet with as much force from the wet earth . Despite the drawbacks , sustained artillery fire proved deadly during the engagement , especially during the French cavalry attack . The British infantry , having formed infantry squares , took heavy losses from the French guns , while their own cannon fired at the cuirassiers and lancers , when they fell back to regroup . Eventually , the French ceased their assault , after taking heavy losses from the British cannon and musket fire . The practice of rifling — casting spiralling lines inside the cannon 's barrel — was applied to artillery more frequently by 1855 , as it gave cannon projectiles gyroscopic stability , which improved their accuracy . One of the earliest rifled cannon was the breech @-@ loading Armstrong Gun — also invented by William George Armstrong — which boasted significantly improved range , accuracy , and power than earlier weapons . The projectile fired from the Armstrong gun could reportedly pierce through a ship 's side , and explode inside the enemy vessel , causing increased damage , and casualties . The British military adopted the Armstrong gun , and was impressed ; the Duke of Cambridge even declared that it " could do everything but speak . " Despite being significantly more advanced than its predecessors , the Armstrong gun was rejected soon after its integration , in favour of the muzzle @-@ loading pieces that had been in use before . While both types of gun were effective against wooden ships , neither had the capability to pierce the armour of ironclads ; due to reports of slight problems with the breeches of the Armstrong gun , and their higher cost , the older muzzle @-@ loaders were selected to remain in service instead . Realizing that iron was more difficult to pierce with breech @-@ loaded cannon , Armstrong designed rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns , which proved successful ; The Times reported : " even the fondest believers in the invulnerability of our present ironclads were obliged to confess that against such artillery , at such ranges , their plates and sides were almost as penetrable as wooden ships . " The superior cannon of the Western world brought them tremendous advantages in warfare . For example , in the Opium War in China , during the 19th century , British battleships bombarded the coastal areas and fortifications from afar , safe from the reach of the Chinese cannon . Similarly , the shortest war in recorded history , the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War of 1896 , was brought to a swift conclusion by shelling from British cruisers . The cynical attitude toward recruited infantry in the face of ever more powerful field artillery is the source of the term cannon fodder , first used by François @-@ René de Chateaubriand , in 1814 ; however , the concept of regarding soldiers as nothing more than " food for powder " was mentioned by William Shakespeare as early as 1598 , in Henry IV , Part 1 . = = = 20th and 21st centuries = = = Cannon in the 20th and 21st centuries are usually divided into sub @-@ categories and given separate names . Some of the most widely used types of modern cannon are howitzers , mortars , guns , and autocannon , although a few superguns — extremely large , custom @-@ designed cannon — have also been constructed . Nuclear artillery was experimented with , but was abandoned as impractical . Modern artillery is used in a variety of roles , depending on its type . According to NATO , the general role of artillery is to provide fire support , which is defined as " the application of fire , coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces to destroy , neutralize , or suppress the enemy . " When referring to cannon , the term gun is often used incorrectly . In military usage , a gun is a cannon with a high muzzle velocity and a flat trajectory , useful for hitting the sides of targets such as walls , as opposed to howitzers or mortars , which have lower muzzle velocities , and fire indirectly , lobbing shells up and over obstacles to hit the target from above . By the early 20th century , infantry weapons had become more powerful , forcing most artillery away from the front lines . Despite the change to indirect fire , cannon proved highly effective during World War I , directly or indirectly causing over 75 % of casualties . The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers , as they were more suited at hitting targets in trenches . Furthermore , their shells carried more explosives than those of guns , and caused considerably less barrel wear . The German army had the advantage here as they began the war with many more howitzers than the French . World War I also saw the use of the Paris Gun , the longest @-@ ranged gun ever fired . This 200 mm ( 8 in ) calibre gun was used by the Germans against Paris and could hit targets more than 122 km ( 76 mi ) away . The Second World War sparked new developments in cannon technology . Among them were sabot rounds , hollow @-@ charge projectiles , and proximity fuses , all of which increased the effectiveness of cannon against specific target . The proximity fuse emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944 . Used to great effect in anti @-@ aircraft projectiles , proximity fuses were fielded in both the European and Pacific Theatres of Operations ; they were particularly useful against V @-@ 1 flying bombs and kamikaze planes . Although widely used in naval warfare , and in anti @-@ air guns , both the British and Americans feared unexploded proximity fuses would be reverse engineered leading to them limiting its use in continental battles . During the Battle of the Bulge , however , the fuses became known as the American artillery 's " Christmas present " for the German army because of their effectiveness against German personnel in the open , when they frequently dispersed attacks . Anti @-@ tank guns were also tremendously improved during the war : in 1939 , the British used primarily 2 pounder and 6 pounder guns . By the end of the war , 17 pounders had proven much more effective against German tanks , and 32 pounders had entered development . Meanwhile , German tanks were continuously upgraded with better main guns , in addition to other improvements . For example , the Panzer III was originally designed with a 37 mm gun , but was mass @-@ produced with a 50 mm cannon . To counter the threat of the Russian T @-@ 34s , another , more powerful 50 mm gun was introduced , only to give way to a larger 75 mm cannon , which was in a fixed mount as the StuG III , the most @-@ produced German World War II armoured fighting vehicle of any type . Despite the improved guns , production of the Panzer III was ended in 1943 , as the tank still could not match the T @-@ 34 , and was replaced by the Panzer IV and Panther tanks . In 1944 , the 8 @.@ 8 cm KwK 43 and many variations , entered service with the Wehrmacht , and was used as both a tank main gun , and as the PaK 43 anti @-@ tank gun . One of the most powerful guns to see service in World War II , it was capable of destroying any Allied tank at very long ranges . Despite being designed to fire at trajectories with a steep angle of descent , howitzers can be fired directly , as was done by the 11th Marine Regiment at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir , during the Korean War . Two field batteries fired directly upon a battalion of Chinese infantry ; the Marines were forced to brace themselves against their howitzers , as they had no time to dig them in . The Chinese infantry took heavy casualties , and were forced to retreat . The tendency to create larger calibre cannon during the World Wars has reversed since . The United States Army , for example , sought a lighter , more versatile howitzer , to replace their ageing pieces . As it could be towed , the M198 was selected to be the successor to the World War II – era cannon used at the time , and entered service in 1979 . Still in use today , the M198 is , in turn , being slowly replaced by the M777 Ultralightweight howitzer , which weighs nearly half as much and can be more easily moved . Although land @-@ based artillery such as the M198 are powerful , long @-@ ranged , and accurate , naval guns have not been neglected , despite being much smaller than in the past , and , in some cases , having been replaced by cruise missiles . However , the Zumwalt @-@ class destroyer 's planned armament includes the Advanced Gun System ( AGS ) , a pair of 155 mm guns , which fire the Long Range Land @-@ Attack Projectile . The warhead , which weighs 24 pounds ( 11 kg ) , has a circular error of probability of 50 m ( 160 ft ) , and will be mounted on a rocket , to increase the effective range to 100 nmi ( 190 km ) , further than that of the Paris Gun . The AGS 's barrels will be water cooled , and will fire 10 rounds per minute , per gun . The combined firepower from both turrets will give a Zumwalt @-@ class destroyer the firepower equivalent to 18 conventional M198 howitzers . The reason for the re @-@ integration of cannon as a main armament in United States Navy ships is because satellite @-@ guided munitions fired from a gun are less expensive than a cruise missile but have a similar guidance capability . = = = = Autocannon = = = = Autocannons have an automatic firing mode , similar to that of a machine gun . They have mechanisms to automatically load their ammunition , and therefore have a higher rate of fire than artillery , often approaching , or , in the case of rotary autocannons , even surpassing the firing rate of a machine gun . While there is no minimum bore for autocannons , they are generally larger than machine guns , typically 20 mm or greater since World War II and are usually capable of using explosive ammunition even if it isn 't always used . Machine guns in contrast are usually too small to use explosive ammunition . Most nations use rapid @-@ fire cannon on light vehicles , replacing a more powerful , but heavier , tank gun . A typical autocannon is the 25 mm " Bushmaster " chain gun , mounted on the LAV @-@ 25 and M2 Bradley armored vehicles . Autocannons may be capable of a very high rate of fire , but ammunition is heavy and bulky , limiting the amount carried . For this reason , both the 25 mm Bushmaster and the 30 mm RARDEN are deliberately designed with relatively low rates of fire . The typical rate of fire for a modern autocannon ranges from 90 to 1 @,@ 800 rounds per minute . Systems with multiple barrels , such as a rotary autocannon , can have rates of fire of more than several thousand rounds per minute . The fastest of these is the GSh @-@ 6 @-@ 23 , which has a rate of fire of over 10 @,@ 000 rounds per minute . Autocannons are often found in aircraft , where they replaced machine guns and as shipboard anti @-@ aircraft weapons , as they provide greater destructive power than machine guns . = = = = Aircraft use = = = = The first documented installation of a cannon on an aircraft was on the Voisin Canon in 1911 , displayed at the Paris Exposition that year . By World War I , all of the major powers were experimenting with aircraft mounted cannon ; however their low rate of fire and great size and weight precluded any of them from being anything other than experimental . The most successful ( or least unsuccessful ) was the SPAD 12 Ca.1 with a single 37mm Puteaux mounted to fire between the cylinder banks and through the propeller boss of the aircraft 's Hispano @-@ Suiza 8C . The pilot ( by necessity an ace ) had to manually reload each round . The first autocannon were developed during World War I as anti @-@ aircraft guns , and one of these - the Coventry Ordnance Works " COW 37 mm gun " was installed in an aircraft but the war ended before it could be given a field trial and never became standard equipment in a production aircraft . Later trials had it fixed at a steep angle upwards in both the Vickers Type 161 and the Westland C.O.W. Gun Fighter , an idea that would return later . During this period autocannons became available and several fighters of the German Luftwaffe and the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service were fitted with 20mm cannon . They continued to be installed as an adjunct to machine guns rather than as a replacement , as the rate of fire was still too low and the complete installation too heavy . There was a some debate in the RAF as to whether the greater number of possible rounds being fired from a machine gun , or a smaller number of explosive rounds from a cannon was preferable . Improvements during the war in regards to rate of fire allowed the cannon to displace the machine gun almost entirely . The cannon was more effective against armour so they were increasingly used during the course of World War II , and newer fighters such as the Hawker Tempest usually carried two or four versus the six .50 Browning machine guns for US aircraft or eight to twelve M1919 Browning machine guns on British aircraft . The Hispano @-@ Suiza HS.404 , Oerlikon 20 mm cannon , MG FF , and their numerous variants became among the most widely used autocannon in the war. cannon , as with machine guns , were generally fixed to fire forwards ( mounted in the wings , in the nose or fuselage , or in a pannier under either ) ; or were mounted in gun turrets on heavier aircraft . Both the Germans and Japanese mounted cannon to fire upwards and forwards for use against heavy bombers , with the Germans calling guns so @-@ installed Schräge Musik . Schräge Musik derives from the German colloquialism for Jazz Music ( the German word schräg literally means slanted or oblique ) Preceding the Vietnam War the high speeds aircraft were attaining led to a move to remove the cannon due to the mistaken belief that they would be useless in a dogfight , but combat experience during the Vietnam War showed conclusively that despite advances in missiles , there was still a need for them . Nearly all modern fighter aircraft are armed with an autocannon and they are also commonly found on ground @-@ attack aircraft . One of the most powerful examples is the 30mm GAU @-@ 8 / A Avenger Gatling @-@ type rotary cannon , mounted exclusively on the Fairchild Republic A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II . The Lockheed AC @-@ 130 gunship ( a converted transport ) can carry a 105mm howitzer as well as a variety of autocannons ranging up to 40mm . Both are used in the close air support role . = = Operation = = In the 1770s , cannon operation worked as follows : each cannon would be manned by two gunners , six soldiers , and four officers of artillery . The right gunner was to prime the piece and load it with powder , and the left gunner would fetch the powder from the magazine and be ready to fire the cannon at the officer 's command . On each side of the cannon , three soldiers stood , to ram and sponge the cannon , and hold the ladle . The second soldier on the left tasked with providing 50 bullets . Before loading , the cannon would be cleaned with a wet sponge to extinguish any smouldering material from the last shot . Fresh powder could be set off prematurely by lingering ignition sources . The powder was added , followed by wadding of paper or hay , and the ball was placed in and rammed down . After ramming , the cannon would be aimed with the elevation set using a quadrant and a plummet . At 45 degrees , the ball had the utmost range : about ten times the gun 's level range . Any angle above a horizontal line was called random @-@ shot . Wet sponges were used to cool the pieces every ten or twelve rounds . During the Napoleonic Wars , a British gun team consisted of five gunners to aim it , clean the bore with a damp sponge to quench any remaining embers before a fresh charge was introduced , and another to load the gun with a bag of powder and then the projectile . The fourth gunner pressed his thumb on the vent hole , to prevent a draught that might fan a flame . The charge loaded , the fourth would prick the bagged charge through the vent hole , and fill the vent with powder . On command , the fifth gunner would fire the piece with a slowmatch . When a cannon had to be abandoned such as in a retreat or surrender , the touch hole of the cannon would be plugged flush with an iron spike , disabling the cannon ( at least until metal boring tools could be used to remove the plug ) . This was called " spiking the cannon " . A gun was said to be honeycombed when the surface of the bore had cavities , or holes in it , caused either by corrosion or casting defects . = = Deceptive use = = Historically , logs or poles have been used as decoys to mislead the enemy as to the strength of an emplacement . The " Quaker gun trick " was used by Colonel William Washington 's Continentals , during the American Revolutionary War ; in 1780 , approximately 100 Loyalists surrendered to them , rather than face bombardment . During the American Civil War , Quaker guns were also used by the Confederates , to compensate for their shortage of artillery . The decoy cannon were painted black at the " muzzle " , and positioned behind fortifications to delay Union attacks on those positions . On occasion , real gun carriages were used to complete the deception . = = In popular culture = = = = = Music = = = Cannon sounds have sometimes been used in classical pieces with a military theme . Giuseppe Sarti is believed to be the first composer to orchestrate real cannon in a musical work . His Te Deum celebrates the Russian victory at Ochakov ( 1789 ) with the firing of a real cannon and the use of fireworks , to heighten the martial effect of the music . One of the best known examples of such a piece is another Russian work , Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky 's 1812 Overture . The overture is properly performed using an artillery section together with the orchestra , resulting in noise levels requiring musicians to wear ear protection . The cannon fire simulates Russian artillery bombardments of the Battle of Borodino , a critical battle in Napoleon 's invasion of Russia , whose defeat the piece celebrates . When the overture was first performed , the cannon were fired by an electric current triggered by the conductor . However , the overture was not recorded with real cannon fire until Mercury Records and conductor Antal Doráti 's 1958 recording of the Minnesota Orchestra . Cannon fire is also frequently used annually in presentations of the 1812 on the American Independence Day , a tradition started by Arthur Fiedler of the Boston Pops in 1974 . The hard rock band AC / DC also used cannon in their song " For Those About to Rock ( We Salute You ) " , and in live shows replica Napoleonic cannon and pyrotechnics were used to perform the piece . = = = Film and television = = = In the 1961 film The Guns of Navarone In the 2000 film Chicken Run , Rocky is a rooster who is fired into the air by a cannon as part of a circus act . In the 2003 television series Survivor : Pearl Islands , the tribes transport their own cannon through a jungle course for their first challenge . = = Restoration = = Cannon recovered from the sea are often extensively damaged from exposure to salt water ; because of this , electrolytic reduction treatment is required to forestall the process of corrosion . The cannon is then washed in deionized water to remove the electrolyte , and is treated in tannic acid , which prevents further rust and gives the metal a bluish @-@ black colour . After this process , cannon on display may be protected from oxygen and moisture by a wax sealant . A coat of polyurethane may also be painted over the wax sealant , to prevent the wax @-@ coated cannon from attracting dust in outdoor displays . Recently archaeologists say six cannon recovered from a river in Panama that could have belonged to legendary pirate Henry Morgan are being studied and could eventually be displayed after going through a restoration process .
= Guitar Hero II = Guitar Hero II is a music rhythm game developed by Harmonix , published by Activision and distributed by RedOctane . It is the second installment in the Guitar Hero series and is the sequel to Guitar Hero . It was first released for the PlayStation 2 in November 2006 , and then for the Xbox 360 in April 2007 , with additional content not originally in the PlayStation 2 version . Like in the original Guitar Hero , the player uses a peripheral in the shape of a solid @-@ body electric guitar to simulate playing rock music as notes scroll towards the player . Most of the gameplay from the original game remains intact , and provides new modes and note combinations . The game features more than 40 popular licensed songs , many of them cover versions recorded for the game , spanning five decades ( from the 1960s to the 2000s ) . The PlayStation 2 version of Guitar Hero II can be purchased individually or in a bundle that packages the game with a cherry red Gibson SG guitar controller . The Xbox 360 version of the game is offered in a bundle that packages the game with a white Gibson Explorer guitar controller . Since its release , Guitar Hero II has been met with both critical and commercial success , helping the Guitar Hero series become a cultural phenomenon . As of December 1 , 2007 , the game has sold 3 @.@ 1 million copies . It has spawned the " expansion " title Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s for the PlayStation 2 . A sequel , Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , was released in 2007 . = = Development = = The surprise success of Guitar Hero readily led to the development of a sequel for the game . According to developer John Tam , the team felt they " hit the sweet spot " of genres and decades within the set list and wanted to maintain that for the sequel . The costs of obtaining licensing rights for music from " big bands " such as AC / DC , Led Zeppelin , Van Halen , and Metallica , in addition to the lack of understanding of how the music would be used prevented these groups from being used in Guitar Hero . However , Tam notes that with the success of Guitar Hero , " They understand that we 're not going to embarrass their music , we 're going to actually pay homage to their music and get it to the point where people are going to fall in love with their music and understand their music in a totally different way than they 've ever experienced it before . " They also had requests by artists to include master tracks within the game . In addition to working more directly with artists , RedOctane and Activision worked with various musical instrument and equipment companies to provide in @-@ game product placement . Such vendors include BOSS Effectors , DW Drums , Eden Bass Amplification , EMG , Epiphone , Ernie Ball Strings , Gibson Guitar Corporation , Guitar Center , Hofner , Kramer , Krank , Line 6 , Mesa Boogie , MusicMan Basses , Orange Amplifiers , Randall Amplifiers , Roland , Vans and the Vans Warped Tour , VHT , and Zildjian . Guitar Hero II was originally announced for the PlayStation 2 on April 17 , 2006 . A demo version of the PlayStation 2 version of Guitar Hero II was released with issue # 110 of Official PlayStation Magazine on October 5 , 2006 . Features of the demo included four playable songs on four difficulty levels for single player and co @-@ op modes . Demo releases do not feature the ability to flip the notes for left @-@ handed players . Demo versions feature the songs " Shout at the Devil " , " You Really Got Me " , " Strutter " and " YYZ " . The retail game was released for the PlayStation 2 on November 7 , 2006 in North America , November 15 , 2006 in Australia , and November 24 , 2006 in Europe . It was released as both a stand @-@ alone game , and as a bundle containing the game with a cherry Gibson SG guitar controller . = = = Xbox 360 version = = = When Activision purchased RedOctane in 2006 , the company expressed strong interest in bringing the Guitar Hero series to " every significant new format " in order to take advantage of the next generation of consoles . The Xbox 360 version was announced on September 27 , 2006 at Microsoft 's X06 . Dusty Welch of RedOctane stated that the Xbox 360 " provides an incredible platform for facilitating downloadable content " due to the integrated hard drive on the console . The Xbox 360 version of the game included 10 exclusive songs and additional content available for purchase through the Xbox Live Marketplace . The Xbox 360 version was released on April 3 , 2007 in North America and Australia , and then on April 6 , 2007 in Europe ( only as a bundle containing the game and a wired Gibson X @-@ Plorer guitar controller ) . It was released as a stand @-@ alone game for the Xbox 360 in the UK on January 25 , 2008 . = = Gameplay = = Gameplay is based on the successful formula created for the first Guitar Hero game ; the player may use the guitar peripheral to play scrolling notes by holding the corresponding fret button on the guitar neck and simultaneously pressing the strum bar . Alternatively , one can play with the DualShock 2 or Xbox 360 controller by using four shoulder buttons and a face button , mapped to specific fret keys . Several changes have been made to the gameplay mechanics for Guitar Hero II : hammer @-@ on and pull @-@ off functionality has been improved , and three note chords have been introduced , scored as triple points if played correctly . There are additional statistics available for a song upon completion , and the scores achieved in either Quick Play or Career mode are saved to the same in @-@ game high @-@ score list . The handedness of the guitar can now be toggled from the Pause menu when playing a song ( previously , this was only available from the game 's main menu ) . For the Xbox 360 version , scores can also be compared with other players through Xbox Live via the Leaderboard feature , and there are 50 Achievements that can be earned in the game . = = = Career mode = = = In Career mode , players create a band name and select a guitarist from among the available characters . Eight characters , each representing a unique genre of rock music - are available from the start of the game : Eddie Knox , Axel Steel , Casey Lynch , Lars Ümlaüt , Izzy Sparks , Judy Nails , Johnny Napalm , and Pandora . Additional characters can also be purchased , allowing them to be used in later sessions . Only the lead guitar is available to be played in the Career mode . Over the course of the Career mode the band plays at eight available venues . The venue system from the original game has been altered slightly and has the band traveling geographically from town to town in order to play at the next arena . The venues are Nilbog High School , The Rat Cellar Pub , The Blackout Bar , The RedOctane Club , the Rock City Theater , the Vans Warped Tour , Harmonix Arena and Stonehenge . The venues feature lighting and pyrotechnics that are synchronized with the music . Not all songs in the main setlist are available from the start . Once a song is unlocked for play within Career Mode , it becomes available for play in all other modes . When working through Career Mode at a specific difficulty level , the next tier of songs is unlocked once the required number of songs on the current tier ( 3 @-@ 5 , depending on difficulty and console ) are completed . Additionally , the encore song for a particular tier is only made available once its requirements are completed . On the Easy difficulty setting , there are no encores available , but the next tier will be unlocked immediately after completing the required songs in the previous tier . Successful completion of a song on Medium or higher difficulty during Career mode will earn the player in @-@ game cash . Higher difficulty levels and better scoring performances are rewarded with more cash . In @-@ game money can be used at The Store to buy various items . Some items are available only after completing all songs at higher difficulty levels or 5 @-@ star performances . Within The Store , the player can purchase new Gibson guitars , guitar finishes , three additional characters , alternate outfits for the eight characters available from the start , bonus songs , and videos . For unknown reasons , the bonus videos are absent from the PAL version of the game . Within the Xbox 360 version , there is also an option to access the Guitar Hero II content on the Xbox Live Marketplace . = = = Multiplayer = = = There are three different multiplayer modes available : Cooperative One player plays lead guitar while another plays either bass guitar or rhythm guitar , depending on the song . Both players share a score , rock meter , star power meter , and streak multiplier . Cooperative mode is the only multiplayer mode in which a song can be failed . Star power can only be activated by both players simultaneously . Face @-@ Off This is the same multiplayer mode as featured in the original game , though in Guitar Hero II both players can select their own level of difficulty . In this mode , players alternate between playing sections of the selected song . The scores are weighted so that a player who hits fewer notes on Easy difficulty may not necessarily lose against an opponent on Expert difficulty who hits more notes . Pro Face @-@ Off Players play the full lead guitar track on the same difficulty . For the PlayStation 2 mode , this is available upon completion of any career level , while for the Xbox 360 version , the mode is unlocked after completing the career mode at Easy level or higher . The score system is identical as the song could be played alone , but songs cannot be failed in this mode . Although , online multiplayer was not available at the release of Guitar Hero II for the Xbox 360 , RedOctane has stated that they hope to be able provide this later once they are able to work out the technical issues . = = = Practice mode = = = Practice mode is a new addition to the game , allowing a player to practice certain sections of a song ( " Verse 2 , " " Chorus , " " Bridge 3 , " " Gtr Solo 4 , " etc . ) on different difficulties and instruments . Practice mode gives the player the ability to toggle the speed of the notes ( Full Speed , Slow , Slower and Slowest ) and does not stop a song no matter how many mistakes are made . Players can play the bass guitar lines on most songs . On others , a rhythm guitar line is available instead . = = Soundtrack = = Both the PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 versions of Guitar Hero II feature the same core 64 playable songs ( 40 licensed , 24 bonus songs ) . Among the featured tracks are " You Really Got Me " by Van Halen , " Sweet Child O ' Mine " by Guns N ' Roses , " Girlfriend " by Matthew Sweet , " Woman " by Wolfmother , " War Pigs " by Black Sabbath , and " Free Bird " by Lynyrd Skynyrd . The Xbox 360 version of the game contains 10 exclusive tracks not included in the PlayStation 2 version , including " Billion Dollar Babies " by Alice Cooper , " Rock and Roll , Hoochie Koo " by Rick Derringer , and " The Trooper " by Iron Maiden . Additionally , the Xbox 360 version allows for downloadable songs to be purchased on the Xbox Live Marketplace . The Xbox 360 version also features a reorganized set list that provides a more balanced progression in difficulty . Most of the songs featured in the main set list are cover versions , with the exception of " Stop ! " , " Possum Kingdom " , " Dead ! " , and " John the Fisherman " ; these four are based on master recordings . The unlockable bonus songs are all master recordings , including some specifically arranged for use within Guitar Hero II . Cover songs are credited on screen with the phrase " as made famous by " ( for example , " Heart @-@ Shaped Box , as made famous by Nirvana " ) , while the original songs are credited with " as performed by " ( for example , " John the Fisherman , as performed by Primus " ) . RedOctane stated that the Xbox 360 version of Guitar Hero II " planned to feature more downloadable content than any other 360 title " utilizing the Xbox Live Marketplace , including many of the songs from the original Guitar Hero a week after the release of the game . Four such packs have been released since April 11 , 2007 . Additionally , two packs featuring new content to the Guitar Hero series have also been released , including songs from My Chemical Romance , Protest the Hero , Trivium , and Atreyu . There have also been individual track downloads featuring songs from bands Los Rodríguez , Pleymo , and Soilwork . = = Featured instruments = = Guitar Hero II features many popular real world Gibson , Epiphone , and Kramer guitars , including the Gibson Les Paul , Gibson SG , Gibson Flying V , ( these three being the only ones available from the start ) Gibson Sonex 180 and Gibson Explorer . Oddities such as the double necked Gibson EDS @-@ 1275 and unusual looking Gibson Corvus also make an appearance . Several available finishes are also recognizable from popular guitarists , including Zakk Wylde 's bullseye Les Paul . As play progresses , several custom shaped guitars become available , although some are notable in the real world such as the USA and Battle Axe ( a similar looking bass is played by Gene Simmons , and the guitar was played by John Christ of Samhain / Danzig fame ) . Basses , such as the Music Man StingRay , Gibson Thunderbird , and the Höfner bass ( as made famous by Paul McCartney , the bassist for the Beatles ) are also available for co @-@ op play . The band itself plays with Orange amps and DW drum kits , along with more in @-@ game endorsements . When the player passes each set of songs in career mode , his / her band is rewarded with money and equipment endorsements , including Ernie Ball strings , Boss effects , Line 6 guitar amplifiers , VHT amplifiers , Mesa Boogie amplifiers , and Roland keyboards . These products then appear on stage while the band plays the ensuing setlists . = = Reception = = The PlayStation 2 version of Guitar Hero II was critically acclaimed . It received a 10 / 10 review in the December 2006 issue of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine and was awarded the Game of the Month award . The game received a rating of 9 @.@ 5 / 10 from IGN , ranking higher than the original game in the series and amongst IGN 's highest rated PlayStation 2 games ever . IGN would later include it on their 2007 list of " The Top 100 Games of All Time " at # 49 . GameSpot reviewed the PlayStation 2 version with a rating of 8 @.@ 7 / 10 , and the Xbox 360 version 8 @.@ 9 , both slightly lower than its predecessor . Game Informer gave it a 9 / 10 , while its " second opinion " rating was better , at 9 @.@ 25 / 10 . According to Game Rankings , the average critic score of Guitar Hero II is 93 % , making it the 9th best reviewed game of 2006 . The Australian video game talk show Good Game 's two reviewers gave the game a 9 / 10 and 10 / 10 . The Xbox 360 version has earned similarly positive reviews and slightly higher scores with a 9 @.@ 5 / 10 in the March issue of Official Xbox Magazine , a 4 @.@ 75 / 5 from GamePro , a 9 @.@ 5 / 10 from Play Magazine a 9 @.@ 6 / 10 from IGN , and a perfect score of 5 / 5 from Got @-@ Next . As of April 3 , 2007 , the Game Rankings score is 94 % . The popular G4 television show X @-@ Play gave both versions of the game a 5 / 5 . Additionally , the Australian Xbox Magazine has also awarded the game , for the first time , an 11 / 10 , in a reference to This Is Spinal Tap . Hyper 's Daniel Wilks commends the game for its " huge number of tracks " but criticises it for " some really average covers " . Common praise for the game by critics is aimed at the new multiplayer and practice modes . Common critiques concern the song list , which includes more hard rock and metal than the previous game , deeming it less accessible to casual players . Other common critiques concern the quality of the covers . The downloadable song packs for the Xbox 360 version have been criticized for being too pricey . The price was seen by many fans of the series as being far too expensive and was met with resistance and angst with a large number of people pledging to boycott the content . Microsoft 's Xbox Live Director of Programming , Major Nelson , defending the pricing and release scheme , and attributed the high cost of the content to " licensing issues " on the Xbox 360 platform , as all contracts drawn up for songs from the original game had to be rewritten , since they are playable on an additional console . In 1UP.com 's review for the Xbox 360 version of the game , the downloadable song packs are noted as a " mixed blessing " ; praise is given for retooling the songs with better gameplay elements such as the inclusion of co @-@ op modes , but the fact that the songs come in pricey packs of three " defeats much of the appeal " . In an interview with RedOctane president Kai Huang , Huang stated that the decision to pack the songs in three was made to keep the cost of the tracks down . Though Huang felt the pricing was fair , he noted afterward " we do listen to the fans and take any feedback we receive seriously . " = = = Sales = = = In December 2006 , Guitar Hero II for PlayStation 2 was the second best @-@ selling video game of the month , selling 805 @,@ 200 units . It was outsold only by Gears of War for Xbox 360 , which sold 815 @,@ 700 units . It was the fifth best @-@ selling video game of the fiscal year of 2006 , with 1 @.@ 3 million copies sold . It was also the third best @-@ selling game for the PlayStation 2 , behind Madden NFL 07 and Kingdom Hearts II . Total sales of the game during 2006 were $ 200 million . On July 12 , 2007 , Dusty Welch of RedOctane stated that there have been over 300 @,@ 000 downloads of the music packs until that point and that the prices were " very attractive and desirable for consumers . " On September 11 , 2007 , Activision reported that with over 650 @,@ 000 downloads , the music packs qualified as " multi @-@ platinum " under RIAA 's definitions . = = Technical issues = = No official statement from RedOctane or Activision were made about the discs or the game itself having any issues , but players have reported songs freezing or skipping , causing the audio to be unsynchronized ; unusually long loading screens ; and menus that freeze or lock up entirely causing the game to crash . The RedOctane Support Center Answer Guide states , " We ’ re already in the process of looking into this and testing to replicate the experience . We ’ ll notify everyone with our results shortly , and will have a positive resolution if need be . " Two models of the X @-@ Plorer controller were released for the Xbox 360 version of the game : model numbers 95055 and 95065 . Of the two versions , the 95055 has an RJ @-@ 11 jack for effect pedals near the controller cord and is subject to having an unresponsive whammy bar . RedOctane later responded , saying that they " isolated this issue to two model numbers that can be found on the guitar 's packaging " . Customers are able to exchange these models for new models . On April 13 , 2007 , Activision revealed that the issue was not a problem with the hardware , and that the guitars were not defective . The cause of the problem was anti @-@ cheat protection software , and Activision released a patch on Xbox Live on April 14 , 2007 to remedy it . However , this patch may have caused some unintended side effects . Starting on April 16 , 2007 , numerous users began reporting lockups and failures of their system after downloading and installing this patch . RedOctane stated , " We 're aware of the problem and we 're looking into it . " Numerous game players have also reported problems with static shocks to the X @-@ Plorer guitars causing various fret buttons ( usually the green one ) to permanently malfunction . Multiple exchanges of guitars have not solved the problem , as exchanged guitars also exhibit the problem . To date , RedOctane has not solved the problem , and has refused to extend warranties to replacement guitars , time limiting the warranty back to the original date of purchase .
= Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802 = The Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802 ( 42 Geo III c.73 ) , sometimes known as the Factory Act 1802 , was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom designed to improve conditions for apprentices working in cotton mills . The Act was introduced by Sir Robert Peel , who had become concerned in the issue after an 1784 outbreak of a " malignant fever " at one of his cotton mills , which he later blamed on ' gross mismanagement ' by his subordinates . The Act required that cotton mills and factories be properly ventilated and basic requirements on cleanliness be met . Apprentices in these premises were to be given a basic education and to attend a religious service at least once a month . They were to be provided with clothing and their working hours were limited to no more than twelve hours a day ( excluding meal breaks ) ; they were not to work at night . The Act was not effectively enforced , and did not address the working conditions of ' free children ' ( children working in mills who were not apprentices ) who rapidly came to heavily outnumber the apprentices . Regulating the way masters treated their apprentices was a recognised responsibility of Parliament and hence the Act itself was non @-@ contentious , but coming between employer and employee to specify on what terms a man might sell his labour ( or that of his child ) was highly contentious . Hence it was not until 1819 that an Act to limit the hours of work ( and set a minimum age ) for ' free children ' working in cotton mills was piloted through Parliament by Peel and his son Robert ( the future Prime Minister ) . Strictly speaking , it is Peel 's Cotton Mills and Factories Act of 1819 which ( although also ineffective for want of a means of proper enforcement ) paved the way for subsequent Factory Acts that would regulate the industry and set up effective means of regulation ; but it is Peel 's Act of 1802 which first recognised by legislation the evils of child labour in cotton mills that the Factory Acts addressed . = = Background = = During the early Industrial Revolution in the United Kingdom , cotton mills were water @-@ powered , and therefore sprang up where water power was available . When , as was often the case , there was no ready source of labour in the neighbourhood , the workforce had to be imported . A cheap and importable source of labour was ' parish apprentices ' ( pauper children , whose parish was supposed to see them trained to a trade or occupation ) ; millowners would reach agreement with distant parishes to employ , house and feed their apprentices . . In 1800 there were 20 @,@ 000 apprentices working in cotton mills , . The apprentices were vulnerable to maltreatment by bad masters , to industrial accidents , to ill @-@ health from their work , ill @-@ health from overwork , and ill @-@ health from contagious diseases such as smallpox , typhoid and typhus which were then widespread . The enclosed conditions ( to reduce the frequency of thread breakage , cotton mills were usually very warm and as draught @-@ free as possible ) and close contact within mills and factories allowed contagious diseases such as typhus and smallpox to spread rapidly . Typhoid ( like cholera , which did not reach Europe until after the Napoleonic wars ) is spread not by poor working conditions but by poor sanitation , but sanitation in mills and the settlements round them often was poor . In about 1780 a water @-@ powered cotton mill was built for Robert Peel on the River Irwell near Radcliffe ; the mill employed child labour bought from workhouses in Birmingham and London . Children were unpaid and bound apprentice until they were 21 . They boarded on an upper floor of the building , and were locked in . Shifts were typically 10 – 10 @.@ 5 hours in length ( i.e. 12 hours after allowing for meal breaks ) , and the apprentices ' hot bunked ' : a child who had just finished his shift would sleep in a bed only just vacated by a child now just starting his shift . Peel himself admitted that conditions at the mill were " very bad " . In 1784 it was brought to the attention of the magistrates of the Salford Hundred that an outbreak of " low , putrid fever , of a contagious nature " had " prevailed many months in the cotton mills and among the poor , in the township of Radcliffe " . The doctors of Manchester , led by Dr Thomas Percival were commissioned to investigate the cause of the fever and to recommend how to prevent its spread . They could not identify the cause , and their recommendations were largely driven by the contemporary view that fevers were spread by putrid atmospheres and hence were to be combatted by removing smells and improving ventilation : Windows and doors should be left open every night and during the lunch break : when the mill was running as many windows as possible were to be left open . ( Natural ventilation was poor because there were too few opening lights in the mill windows , and they were all at the same height ( too high ) . The stoves currently used for heating did not give much airflow . Chimneys should be built in each work room and turf fires lit in them to give better ventilation and combat contagion by their " strong , penetrating , and pungent " smoke . Rooms should be swept daily and floors washed with lime water once a week . The walls and ceilings should also be whitewashed two or three times a year . The apartments should be fumigated weekly with tobacco . Privies should be washed daily and ventilated to ensure that the smell did not permeate to the work rooms . Rancid oil used to lubricate machinery should be replaced with purer oil . To prevent contagion and to preserve health , all employees should be involved in keeping the factory clean . Children should bathe occasionally . The clothes of those infected with fever should be washed in cold water , then in hot and be left to fumigate before being worn again . Those who died of fever should be wrapped promptly in cloth and those in the vicinity advised to smoke tobacco to avoid infection . The last recommendation expressed a much wider concern about the welfare of mill children : We earnestly recommend a longer recess from labour at noon , and a more early dismission from it in the evening , to all those who work in the cotton mills : but we deem this indulgence essential to the present health , and future capacity for labour , of those who are under the age of fourteen ; for the active recreations of childhood and youth are necessary to the growth , vigour , and the right conformation of the human body . And we cannot excuse ourselves , on the present occasion , from suggesting to you , who are the guardians of the public weal , this further very important consideration , that the rising generation should not be debarred from all opportunities of instruction at the only season of life in which they can be properly improved . As a result of this report the magistrates decided not to allow parish apprentices to be indentured to cotton mills where they worked at night or more than ten hours in the day . Conditions at the Radcliffe mill were improved ; in 1795 John Aikin 's A Description of the Country from thirty to forty miles round Manchester said of Peel 's mills " The peculiar healthiness of @-@ the people employed may be imputed partly to the judicious and humane regulations put in practice by Mr. Peel , and partly to the salubrity of the air and climate . " = = = Peel introduces his Bill = = = In 1795 , the medical men of Manchester ( with Percival playing a leading part ) formed the Manchester Board of Health , which promptly investigated the employment of children in Manchester factories , taking evidence from ( amongst others ) Peel now MP for Tamworth . The Board concluded : It appears that the children and others who work in the large cotton factories , are peculiarly disposed to be affected by the contagion of fever , and that when such infection is received , it is rapidly propagated , not only amongst those who are crowded together in the same apartments , but in the families and neighbourhoods to which they belong . The large factories are generally injurious to the constitution of those employed in them , even where no particular diseases prevail , from the close confinement which is enjoined , from the debilitating effects of hot or impure air , and from the want of the active exercises which nature points out as essential in childhood and youth to invigorate the system , and to fit our species for the employments and for the duties of manhood . The untimely labour of the night , and the protracted labour of the day , with respect to children , not only tends to diminish future expectations as to the general sum of life and industry , by impairing the strength and destroying the vital stamina of the rising generation , but it too often gives encouragement to idleness , extravagance and profligacy in the parents , who , contrary to the order of nature , subsist by the oppression of their offspring . It appears that the children employed in factories are generally debarred from all opportunities of education , and from moral or religious instruction . From the excellent regulations which subsist in several cotton factories , it appears that many of these evils may be in a considerable degree obviated ; we are therefore warranted by experience , and are assured , we shall have the support of the liberal proprietors of these factories in proposing an application for parliamentary aid ( if other methods appear not likely to effect the purpose ) to establish a general system of laws for the wise , humane and equal government of all such works . " Peel ( presumably one of the liberal proprietors with excellent regulations who assured his support ) introduced his Bill in 1802 . In doing so Peel said that he was convinced of the existence of gross mismanagement in his own factories , and having no time to set them in order himself , was getting an Act of Parliament passed to do it for him but ( given his dealings with the Manchester Board of Health ) this may well have been a pleasantry , rather than the whole truth . . In 1816 Peel introduced a further Factory Bill ; his explanation to the consequent Select Committee of the need for further legislation included this account of the origins of the 1802 Act : The house in which I have a concern gave employment at one time to near one thousand children of this description . Having other pursuits , it was not often in my power to visit the factories , but whenever such visits were made , I was struck with the uniform appearance of bad health , and , in many cases , stinted growth of the children ; the hours of labour were regulated by the interest of the overseer , whose remuneration depending on the quantity of the work done , he was often induced to make the poor children work excessive hours , and to stop their complaints by trifling bribes Finding our own factories under such management , and learning that the like practices prevailed in other parts of the kingdom where similar machinery was in use , the children being much over @-@ worked , and often little or no regard paid to cleanliness and ventilation of the buildings ; having the assistance of Dr Percival and other eminent medical gentlemen of Manchester , together with some distinguished characters both in and out of Parliament , I brought in a Bill in the 42nd year of the King , for the regulation of such parish apprentices . The hours of work allowed by that Bill being fewer in number than those formerly practised , a visible improvement in the health and general appearance of the children soon became evident , and since the complete operation of the Act contagious diseases have rarely occurred The Act met little opposition in Parliament , although there was discussion as to whether it should be extended to all manufactories and all workers . The amendment was dismissed as the Act only served to ensure education for apprentices not to improve conditions in factories . = = Provisions = = Under the Act , regulations and rules came into force on 2 December 1802 and applied to all mills and factories employing three or more apprentices ( unless the total workforce was less than twenty ) . It stated that all mills and factories should be cleaned at least twice yearly with quicklime and water ; this included ceilings and walls . There was a requirement that the buildings have sufficient windows and openings for ventilation . Each apprentice was to be given two sets of clothing , suitable linen , stockings , hats , and shoes , and a new set each year thereafter . Working hours were limited to 12 hours a day , excluding the time taken for breaks . Apprentices were no longer permitted to work during the night ( between 9 pm and 6 am ) . A grace period was provided to allow factories time to adjust , but all night @-@ time working by apprentices was to be discontinued by June 1804 . All apprentices were to be educated in reading , writing and arithmetic for the first four years of their apprenticeship . The Act specified that this should be done every working day within usual working hours but did not state how much time should be set aside for it . Educational classes should be held in a part of the mill or factory designed for the purpose . Every Sunday , for one hour , apprentices were to be taught the Christian religion ; every other Sunday , a divine service should be held in the factory , and every month the apprentices should visit a church . They should be prepared for confirmation in the Church of England between the ages of 14 and 18 and must be examined by a clergyman at least once a year . Male and female apprentices were to sleep separately and not more than two per bed . Local magistrates had to appoint two inspectors known as visitors to ensure that factories and mills were complying with the Act ; one was to be a clergyman and the other a Justice of the Peace , neither to have any connection with the mill or factory . The visitors had the power to impose fines for non @-@ compliance and the authority to visit at any time of the day to inspect the premises . The Act was to be displayed in two places in the factory . Owners who refused to comply with any part of the Act could be fined between £ 2 and £ 5 . = = Effect of the Act = = The Act required magistrates to appoint visitors , whom it empowered to inspect mills and report on their findings , but it did not require them to exercise their powers . Consequently , unless local magistrates were particularly interested in the issue , the Act was poorly enforced . Where factories were inspected , the visitors were amateurs ( as indeed they were ) in comparison to the paid Factory Inspectorate set up by the 1833 Act . Furthermore , the Act applied only to apprentices , and not to ' free children ' whose fathers ' right to dispose of their children 's labour on whatever terms they chose were unaffected by the Act . Improvements in the generation of rotary motion by steam engines made steam @-@ powered cotton mills a practical proposition ; they were already operating in Manchester in 1795 , using free children drawn from the local population . The great advantage parish apprentices had had was that they were tied to the mill , no matter how remote the mill had to be to avail itself of water power . If the mill no longer had to be remote , it became a problem that the mill was tied to the apprentices . Apprentices had to be housed clothed and fed whether or not the mill could sell what they produced ; they were in competition with free children whose wages would fall if the mill went on short time ( and might not reflect the full cost of housing clothing and feeding them , since that was incurred whether they were working or not ) and who could be discharged if sick , injured or otherwise incapable of work . Consequently , the use of free children came to predominate : the Act became largely a dead letter within its limited scope , and inapplicable to most factory children . In 1819 , when Peel introduced a Bill to introduce an eleven @-@ hour day for all children under 16 working in cotton mills , a Lords Committee heard evidence from a Bolton magistrate who had investigated 29 local cotton mills ; 20 had no apprentices but employed a total of 550 children under 14 ; the other nine mills employed a total of 98 apprentices , and a total of 350 children under 14 . Apprentices were mostly found in the larger mills , which had somewhat better conditions ; some even worked a 12 @-@ hour day or less ( the Grant brothers ' mill at Tottington worked an 11 @.@ 5 hour day : " This establishment has perfect ventilation ; all the apprentices , and in fact all the children , are healthy , happy , clean , and well clothed ; proper and daily attention is paid to their instruction ; and they regularly attend divine worship on Sundays . " ) : in other mills children worked up to 15 hours a day in bad conditions ( e.g. Gortons and Roberts ' Elton mill : " Most filthy ; no ventilation ; the apprentices and other children ragged , puny , not half clothed , and seemingly not half fed ; no instruction of any sort ; no human beings can be more wretched " ) . Although the Act was largely ineffective , it has been seen as the first piece of Health & Safety legislation , leading the way to subsequent regulations covering industrial workplaces ; its requirement for factory walls to be whitewashed continued to be a legal requirement until the Factories Act 1961 . Opinions differ as to the deeper significance of the Act . Some scholars have linked the Act to a move away from laissez @-@ faire capitalism , or see it as marking the point where the state began to recognise its responsibility for very poor children , and to address the conditions in which they were living ; it has also been seen as presaging subsequent legislation regarding the health of towns . Others see it as at heart one of the last manifestations of the old Elizabethan Poor Law , which directed that destitute children should be apprenticed in a trade ; ( more accurately of the Statute of Artificers of 1562 which set up systems for regulating apprenticeships ) : during Parliamentary debates on the Bill that interpretation was successfully urged against any attempt to widen its applicability .
= U.S. Route 322 in New Jersey = U.S. Route 322 ( US 322 ) is a U.S. highway running from Cleveland , Ohio east to Atlantic City , New Jersey . The easternmost segment of the route in New Jersey runs 62 @.@ 64 miles ( 100 @.@ 81 km ) from the Commodore Barry Bridge over the Delaware River in Logan Township , Gloucester County , where it continues southeast to Atlantic Avenue and Pacific Avenue in Atlantic City , Atlantic County . The portion of the route between the Commodore Barry Bridge and Route 42 is mostly a two @-@ lane undivided road that is concurrently signed with County Route 536 , passing through Mullica Hill and Glassboro . From Williamstown , US 322 follows the Black Horse Pike , a four @-@ lane road , southeast to Atlantic City . In Hamilton Township , Atlantic County , US 322 forms a concurrency with U.S. Route 40 , continuing with that route all the way to Atlantic City . US 322 intersects several major roads including U.S. Route 130 and Interstate 295 in Logan Township , the New Jersey Turnpike in Woolwich Township , Route 55 in Harrison Township , Route 42 in Williamstown , Route 50 and U.S. Route 40 in Hamilton Township , the Garden State Parkway in Egg Harbor Township , and U.S. Route 9 in Pleasantville . East of Williamstown , US 322 follows the Black Horse Pike , a turnpike between Camden and Atlantic City that was created in 1855 . Pre @-@ 1927 Route 18S was designated along the portion of the current route east of McKee City in 1923 , with the US 40 designation along this portion following in 1926 . In 1927 , Route 18S became Route 48 and Route 42 was designated along the road between Williamstown and McKee City . US 322 was extended to New Jersey in 1936 , running from a ferry dock on the Delaware River in Bridgeport east to Williamstown , where it followed Route 42 and U.S. Route 40 / Route 48 to Atlantic City . In 1938 , Route 55 was legislated along US 40 / US 322 in Atlantic City while in 1939 , US 322 between the ferry dock and Route 44 ( now US 130 ) became Route S44 and the route between there and Route 42 became Route 51 . In 1953 , the state highway designations were removed from US 322 . After the Commodore Barry Bridge opened in 1974 , the old approach to the ferry dock became Route 324 . In 1960 , a freeway was proposed for US 322 in Gloucester County , running from the site of the Commodore Barry Bridge to Williamstown . This $ 59 @.@ 6 million proposal was canceled by the 1970s due to diversion of funds to mass transit . Subsequent proposals for freeways in 1983 and 1995 also failed . A bypass of Mullica Hill was completed in 2012 for US 322 in order to relieve traffic through that town ; the former alignment is now unsigned US 322 Bus . = = Route description = = = = = Gloucester County = = = US 322 enters New Jersey from Chester , Pennsylvania on the Commodore Barry Bridge over the Delaware River . Upon entering New Jersey , the highway runs concurrently with County Route 536 . The road heads southeast into swampy areas of Logan Township as a five @-@ lane road maintained by the Delaware River Port Authority , eventually becoming a six @-@ lane divided highway as it passes over the access road to Route 324 and comes to the westbound toll plaza for the bridge . A short distance later , US 322 has a cloverleaf interchange with U.S. Route 130 and continues south through the community of Bridgeport as it narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road known as Swedesboro @-@ Bridgeport Road . It continues through rural areas of farms and woods prior to an interchange with Interstate 295 , at which point the road widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway . After I @-@ 295 , US 322 makes a turn to the east and crosses into Woolwich Township , narrowing back into a two @-@ lane undivided road with no name . Here , the route crosses County Route 551 prior to an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike . Past the New Jersey Turnpike , US 322 starts to curve southeast and crosses into Harrison Township , where it passes suburban neighborhoods as Bridgeport @-@ Mullica Hill Road and jurisdiction of the road is transferred to Gloucester County . It continues into Mullica Hill , where it intersects Route 45 and unsigned US 322 Bus . At this point , CR 536 turns south along with US 322 Bus . / Route 45 and US 322 heads along the Mullica Hill Bypass concurrent with unsigned CR 536A , running southeast through wooded areas with some farm fields . At the end of the bypass , the route intersects US 322 Bus . / CR 536 again and turns east onto Mullica Hill Road , again becoming concurrent with CR 536 . US 322 continues through a mix of woods , farms , and homes , passing through Richwood . The route interchanges with Route 55 where state jurisdiction resumes . At the interchange , US 322 is briefly a four @-@ lane road , before entering Glassboro . In Glassboro , the route becomes Best Avenue , passing residential areas prior to bisecting the campus of Rowan University , where it comes to a roundabout at Rowan Boulevard . A short distance later , US 322 crosses County Route 553 before coming to Route 47 . Here , it turns south to form a concurrency with that route on three @-@ lane Delsea Drive , passing more homes and businesses . US 322 splits from Route 47 by heading east on High Street , a two @-@ lane road , and enters wooded areas with some development and farmland . After exiting Glassboro for Monroe Township , US 322 continues east and crosses County Route 555 prior to reaching Williamstown , where the road passes residential and business development . Here , US 322 turns north , while County Route 536 splits from the route by continuing southeast on Main Street . A short distance after the split , US 322 intersects Route 42 ( Black Horse Pike ) and turns southeast onto it . At this intersection , County Route 536 Spur continues to the north . On the Black Horse Pike , a four @-@ lane divided highway line with businesses , the route soon crosses County Route 536 before leaving the Williamstown area and becoming a four @-@ lane undivided road . US 322 continues southeast through predominantly forested areas with occasional development , intersecting County Route 538 . In 2006 , an average of 10 @,@ 615 vehicles used the road annually in Gloucester County . = = = Atlantic County = = = Entering Folsom in Atlantic County , US 322 passes a couple lakes and some wooded residences before coming to an interchange with Route 54 , where the route has a median . Past this interchange , the road continues southeast through heavily forested areas to an intersection with the southern terminus of Route 73 ( signed as County Route 561 Spur ) . After this intersection , US 322 turns south and enters Hamilton Township , where it encounters County Route 559 at a traffic circle that has been modified to have US 322 run through it . After passing more woods and a clearing for farms , the road widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway and has an interchange with Route 50 . A short while after , the route enters a residential and commercial area , passing by Atlantic Cape Community College before heading to the south of the Hamilton Mall . Here , US 322 intersects U.S. Route 40 , which merges onto the Black Horse Pike . The two routes continue to the southeast through business areas , meeting County Route 575 and a ramp to the Atlantic City Expressway . CR 575 turns east to form a concurrency with US 40 / US 322 . The road enters Egg Harbor Township , with CR 575 splitting from US 40 / US 322 by turning to the south . The route passes more wooded residential and commercial areas , as well as the Storybook Land amusement park , before intersecting County Route 563 . US 40 / US 322 forms a concurrency with that route and passes through a business district that includes the Harbor Square shopping center . CR 563 splits from the road by continuing southeast and the Black Horse Pike heads east interchange with the Garden State Parkway . The only direct ramp present is between the Black Horse Pike westbound and the Garden State Parkway northbound , with all other movements provided by CR 563 . Past here , US 40 / US 322 continues east past more businesses , crossing County Route 651 before entering Pleasantville . In Pleasantville , the road crosses U.S. Route 9 , where the name changes to Verona Avenue . Upon crossing County Route 585 , the Black Horse Pike continues past residences as an undivided road , crossing back into Egg Harbor Township . The road passes more businesses , closely paralleling the Atlantic City Expressway before entering Atlantic City . Here , the name becomes Albany Avenue and it comes to a pair of ramps that provide access to and from the Black Horse Pike eastbound and the Atlantic City Expressway westbound . US 40 / US 322 enters marshland , crossing the Great Thorofare onto Great Island before passing over the Beach Thorofare . Past this bridge , the road passes between businesses to the west and the closed Bader Field airport and the abandoned Bernie Robbins Stadium to the east . US 40 / US 322 crosses the Inside Thorofare on a drawbridge and continues as a county maintained road to its end at Atlantic Avenue and Pacific Avenue , one block from the boardwalk . In 2006 , an average of 6 @,@ 910 vehicles used the road daily in Atlantic County . = = History = = = = = Before 1953 = = = What is now U.S. Route 322 east of the Route 42 junction was established in 1855 as the Black Horse Pike , a turnpike that ran from Camden to Atlantic City via Blackwoodtown . In 1923 , the portion of present US 322 along the US 40 concurrency was designated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 18S , a route that was built to connect Penns Grove to Atlantic City . As a result of the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , U.S. Route 40 was also signed along the alignment Route 18S . A year later , in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the current alignment of US 322 through New Jersey was designated as a part of Route 42 between Williamstown and McKee City , while Route 48 replaced the Route 18S designation along the portion between McKee City and Atlantic City . The portion of US 40 / US 322 in Atlantic City was legislated as Route 55 in 1938 . In 1936 , US 322 was extended into New Jersey , running from a ferry dock on the Delaware River in Bridgeport and continuing east from there through Mullica Hill and Glassboro to Williamstown , where it followed Route 42 to McKee City and U.S. Route 40 / Route 48 to Atlantic City . In 1939 , the portion of US 322 between the ferry dock and Route 44 ( now U.S. Route 130 ) was legislated as Route S44 , a spur of Route 44 , while the route between there and Route 42 in Williamstown was legislated as Route 51 . It is also this section between Bridgeport and Williamstown that was not in state highway jurisdiction at the time . = = = 1953 to present = = = In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , several state highways concurrent with US 322 were removed , including Route S44 , Route 51 , Route 42 , Route 48 , and Route 55 . The section of US 322 between former US 130 and Route 42 became state highway jurisdiction in 1955 after a state takeover . This portion was also designated as part of County Route 536 with the creation of the 500 @-@ series county routes in 1952 . When the Commodore Barry Bridge opened in 1974 and replaced the ferry across the Delaware River , US 322 was moved to the new bridge approach and the former piece of the route to the ferry dock became Route 324 . In the 1960s , plans started forming for a freeway along the US 322 corridor in Gloucester County . A parkway had been planned in 1932 to run from Bridgeport east to the planned Camden @-@ Atlantic City Parkway as part of a network of such roads proposed for the Philadelphia area ; however , it was never built . The freeway , which was planned to connect the then @-@ proposed Commodore Barry Bridge to Route 42 in Williamstown , was projected to cost $ 59 @.@ 6 million . This freeway was proposed to be incorporated into the Interstate Highway System in 1970 ; however , this was denied . By the end of the 1970s , the US 322 freeway was canceled due to the desire to use highway funds for mass transit . However , plans resurfaced for a freeway along the US 322 corridor in 1987 , when Congressman William J. Hughes made a proposal for a road running from the New Jersey Turnpike to the Atlantic City Expressway , with access to the Route 55 freeway . This proposal was never built though . In 1995 , the New Jersey Turnpike Authority planned to build a toll road between the Commodore Barry Bridge and the Atlantic City Expressway , connecting with I @-@ 295 , the New Jersey Turnpike , and Route 55 . This proposal resulted from increased traffic volume on US 322 after the completion of Interstate 476 in Pennsylvania . However , this proposal was soon canceled due to the possible destruction it would cause to residences , businesses , and the environment . The Cardiff Circle along US 40 / US 322 at CR 563 and CR 608 in Egg Harbor Township was eliminated in a $ 3 @.@ 7 million project completed in 2002 . In December 2008 , jurisdiction of US 322 from the Woolwich – Harrison township line to the Route 55 interchange and a 0 @.@ 35 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 56 km ) segment within Glassboro was transferred from the state highway agency , the New Jersey Department of Transportation , to Gloucester County . Construction of a bypass around Mullica Hill began in December 2010 in order to relieve severe traffic congestion through the town . The route originally went through the town 's historical district , where it briefly joined Route 45 . The new alignment removes the concurrency , so that the routes merely cross at an intersection . The road was estimated to cost $ 12 million , and is described by a freeholder as being the " largest infrastructure project that has ever been undertaken in Gloucester County . " In addition to the bypass , a portion of US 322 in the Mullica Hill area was widened . Construction of the bypass portion initially awaited approval from the New Jersey Historical Sites Council to determine if it would impact the Mullica Hill Historic District . The Mullica Hill Bypass opened to traffic on January 11 , 2012 . With the rerouting of US 322 onto the Mullica Hill Bypass , the former alignment of US 322 to Mullica Hill is now US 322 Bus . , which is unsigned . = = Major intersections = =
= 2 / 15th Battalion ( Australia ) = The 2 / 15th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army that served during World War II . Formed in May 1940 primarily from Queensland volunteers , the battalion saw action in North Africa in 1941 – 42 as part of the 20th Brigade , which was part of the 7th Division before being reassigned to the 9th Division . After completing training in Palestine , in early 1941 , the 2 / 15th took up positions along the front line in the Western Desert , before being pushed back to Tobruk . Between April and October 1941 , along with a garrison of British and other Australian personnel , the battalion helped to hold the strategically important port , which had been surrounded following the landing of German troops at Tripoli . It was withdrawn by sea in late October 1941 as the 9th Division was relieved by the British 70th Division . Following its withdrawal from Tobruk , the battalion re @-@ formed at Gaza before undertaking garrison duties in Syria . In mid @-@ 1942 , the 2 / 15th returned to North Africa to fight in the First and Second Battles of El Alamein . In early 1943 , the 2 / 15th returned to Australia and was re @-@ organised and re @-@ trained for jungle warfare . It took part in campaigns against the Japanese in New Guinea in 1943 – 44 and Borneo in 1945 , before being disbanded in 1946 . = = History = = = = = Formation = = = The 2 / 15th Battalion was raised at Victoria Barracks in Brisbane on 26 April 1940 from Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) volunteers . It was one of three infantry battalions assigned to the 20th Brigade that were initially part of the 7th Division , the other two being the 2 / 13th and 2 / 17th Battalions . The battalion had an authorised strength of around 900 personnel like other Australian infantry battalions of the time , and was organised into four rifle companies – designated ' A ' through to ' D ' – each consisting of three platoons ; these were supported by a battalion headquarters and a headquarters company with six specialist platoons : signals , pioneer , anti @-@ aircraft , transport , administrative and mortars . Upon formation , the 2 / 15th was placed under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Robert Marlan , an Australian Staff Corps officer of the Permanent Military Forces who arrived on promotion from major , having previously served in World War I with the 20th Battalion . The colours initially chosen for the battalion 's Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) were the same as those of the 15th Battalion , a unit that had served during World War I before being raised as a Militia formation in 1921 . These colours were initially purple and red in a diamond shape , but after representations from World War I veterans the colour patch was changed to brown over dark blue , in a rectangle shape . The patch was placed inside a grey diamond border added to distinguish the battalion from its Militia counterpart ; this would change following the unit 's involvement in the fighting at Tobruk , when it adopted a ' T ' -shaped UCP consisting of blue and green . Following the battalion 's establishment , Marlan set about choosing a cadre of senior commissioned and non @-@ commissioned personnel around which to build the battalion . These personnel included the battalion second @-@ in @-@ command , the quartermaster and adjutant , as well as senior enlisted soldiers to undertake administrative and instructional work . These were recruited from several of the existing Queensland @-@ based Militia battalions including the 25th , 42nd and 47th Battalions . One member recruited at the time had served with the 15th Battalion that had been raised as part of the First Australian Imperial Force , during World War I. After the first groups of personnel began arriving at Redbank , in south @-@ east Queensland , in the middle of May , the battalion 's headquarters moved to the camp and basic training commenced in June under instructors from the Australian Instructional Corps . In early July , the majority of the battalion was transported by train to Pinkenba , and from there to Darwin , in Australia 's north , aboard the troopship Zealandia . Tasked with defending the port and its surrounds , the battalion was based around Vestey 's meatworks near Mindil Beach , and in the months that followed was occupied with vital asset protection and area defence in between individual and collective training exercises . Personnel were joined by the majority of their vehicles , including 14 tracked Bren carriers in August , as well as a group of reinforcements . In October , elements of the battalion were used as stevedores during a wharf labourers ' strike . In the absence of the Darwin personnel , the battalion 's rear details shifted from Redbank to Grovely where route marches were carried out in the Samford Valley . In late October , the rear details personnel returned to Redbank at the end of the month where more equipment was received . The main body of the battalion remained in Darwin , forming part of the town 's defensive garrison . They were relieved by the 2 / 25th Battalion in late October 1940 , and embarked again on the Zealandia . Sailing via Bowen where shore leave was granted , the 2 / 15th reached Hamilton , in Brisbane , in early November to marry up with the rear details at Redbank . Further training was undertaken at Redbank at this time before the whole battalion entrained for Brisbane on Christmas Day , embarking aboard the Queen Mary bound for Sydney . There , the ship joined up with a larger convoy that was bound for the Middle East theatre . = = = Middle East = = = Sailing via Colombo , the battalion disembarked in Bombay , transferring to the Rohna for the remainder of the journey . Transitting the Suez Canal , it disembarked at El Kantara , in Egypt , in February 1941 . En route to the Middle East , the 20th Brigade was reassigned to the 9th Division , as part of a reorganisation of the Australian divisions in the Middle East prior to I Corps ' deployment to Greece . Upon arrival in Egypt , the battalion moved to a base in Gaza dubbed Kilo 89 , where it concentrated with the 2 / 13th and 2 / 17th Battalions , which had arrived earlier in Palestine as the 9th Division attempted to make good its equipment and training deficiencies . The battalion 's war equipment , including vehicles , arrived in mid @-@ February and throughout the month the troops were introduced to the Bren light machine gun , firing it for the first time at the Jaffa Range and practicing constructing defensive systems in preparation for desert warfare . Individual training undertaken at this time was aimed at identifying those who would be unfit for the coming battle , and many were subsequently transferred to the divisional guard battalion . In early March 1941 , the 2 / 15th entrained at Gaza and moved to Mersa Matruh , as the 9th Division began to relieve the 6th Division along the front line in the Western Desert so that the latter could be transferred to Greece , where a German invasion was expected . A few days later the battalion was moved to Tobruk . From there it moved by road in captured Italian vehicles to Derna and on to Tochra , then Benghazi , and eventually Barce . Throughout early April , the 2 / 15th became involved in the large @-@ scale withdrawal that followed the landing of German forces around Tripoli as part of Axis efforts to reinforce the Italians in North Africa following British gains in western Egypt and Cyrenaica during Operation Compass in 1940 – 41 . The battalion subsequently fell back east along the coast towards Tobruk . During the retreat about 180 men , including the battalion 's commanding officer , Marlan , were taken prisoner when their headquarters was surrounded by a force of 18 tanks and unsuccessfully attempted to fight their way out . These men spent several years in captivity , being held initially in camps in North Africa before moving to Italy and later Germany ; some managed to escape either in North Africa , or from Italy ; several eventually rejoined the battalion , while others linked up with Italian or Yugoslavian partisans with whom they fought against German forces later in the war . Lieutenant Colonel Robert Ogle took over command of the battalion following Marlan 's capture . It subsequently joined the defence of Tobruk , as part of the defensive garrison that held the strategically important port after it was placed under siege by the advancing German and Italian forces . The battalion remained there for over six months conducting patrols and raids , and holding positions around the perimeter until late October 1941 , when the bulk of the 9th Division , less the 2 / 13th Battalion and two companies from the 2 / 15th , were withdrawn by sea and replaced by British troops from the 70th Division . The 2 / 15th 's casualties during the withdrawal from Benghazi and the siege of Torbuk amounted to 45 killed in action or died of wounds , one accidentally killed , 103 wounded in action and 205 captured . The 2 / 15th was subsequently withdrawn to Gaza , where it stayed into the new year , before moving to Syria , where it formed part of the Allied occupation force established there at the end of the Syria – Lebanon campaign . In July 1942 , in the face of a heavy German onslaught that threatened to break through to Suez , the 9th Division was hurriedly moved back to North Africa . The 2 / 15th subsequently took part in the First and Second Battles of El Alamein during the remainder of the year . Throughout August , the 2 / 15th subsequently held a position in the north @-@ east sector of the line from Hill 33 to the coast . On 1 September , the 2 / 15th participated in the 9th Division 's diversionary attack south of Tel @-@ el @-@ Eisa , codenamed Operation Bulimba , which was planned as a response to German offensive actions further south during the lead @-@ up to the final assault in late October and early November 1942 . In heavy fighting near Point 23 , a low rocky outcrop , the battalion lost about half of its fighting strength , sustaining 183 casualties , amidst heavy hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting as the battalion came up against heavy resistance after penetrating a German minefield . Ogle 's carrier struck a mine during the operation , and he was seriously wounded . The battalion 's role in the September attack , including the efforts of Corporal Horton McLachlan , who received the Distinguished Conduct Medal , was later depicted in a painting by Ivor Hele . Among the casualties at El Alamein was the 2 / 15th 's recently appointed replacement commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Keith Magno , who was mortally wounded by artillery fire after the battalion was heavily shelled while forming up during an attack around Trig 29 – a valuable piece of high ground south @-@ west of Tel @-@ el @-@ Eisa – on 28 October . Casualties over both periods the battalion fought around Alamein totaled 81 killed , 23 died of wounds , 276 wounded and seven captured . = = = New Guinea and Borneo = = = By early 1943 the Australian Army 's focus had shifted to operations in the Pacific theatre against the Japanese , and the 9th Division received orders to return to Australia to join the other two 2nd AIF divisions , the 6th and 7th , which had departed earlier in 1942 . A divisional parade was held in Gaza , after which the 2 / 15th embarked upon the transport Acquitania and sailed with a large convoy established under Operation Pamphlet as part of the final stage in the withdrawal of the 2nd AIF divisions from the Middle East . After a journey of just over a month , the Acquitania berthed at Sydney in late February 1943 . During this time the battalion was under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Raymond Barham . After disembarking in Sydney , the troops received three weeks of leave during which time they were allowed to return to their homes . The 9th Division then carried out welcome home marches across Australia , with the 2 / 15th taking part in the march through Brisbane . After this , the division was transported to Kairi on the Atherton Tableland in north Queensland where it was converted to the jungle establishment and began training for operations against the Japanese . The reorganisation saw the battalion establishment drop to around 800 men , and the loss of many vehicles and heavy equipment . Lieutenant Colonel Colin Henry Grace was appointed to command the battalion in May 1943 and would do so for the rest of the war . Amphibious training was carried out at Trinity Beach , near Cairns , with the US 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment in July 1943 . Following training , the battalion was deployed to New Guinea , arriving in Milne Bay in early August 1943 . It saw action in the final stages of the Salamaua – Lae campaign in September 1943 . The 2 / 15 took part in the landing at Lae , the first amphibious operation undertaken by Australian forces since the failed Gallipoli campaign in 1915 . During the operation , the 2 / 15th was initially assigned the task of securing the beachhead following the 20th Brigade 's landing . After being relieved it joined the advance west towards the town , slowed by heavy rains that turned the many creeks in the area into raging torrents , which were invariably covered by heavy Japanese fire from the opposite bank . Later in September , after Lae had fallen to troops of the 7th Division advancing from Nadzab , the 20th Brigade undertook a follow @-@ up operation further east , an opposed amphibious landing at Scarlet Beach , as part of Allied efforts to secure the Huon Peninsula . During the landing , the 2 / 15th formed the 20th Brigade 's reserve force , coming ashore around Katika due to a navigational error ; here it fought to dislodge strongly entrenched Japanese forces as the Australians established a beachhead . This was followed by the capture of Finschhafen , during which the 2 / 15th advanced alongside the 2 / 17th Battalion . The battalion 's main effort was focused around securing a crossing over the Bumi River northwest of Finschhafen . After the town had been captured , it was tasked with expanding the Australian beachhead further west towards Kumawa as part of the drive on Sattelberg . For his actions during the battalion 's attack around Kumawa on 13 October 1944 , Corporal William Woods – who had destroyed two machine gun positions singlehandedly after most of his section had been wiped out – was recommended for the Victoria Cross , the only member of the battalion to be nominated for the award . It was subsequently downgraded to a Distinguished Conduct Medal . After a short period of rest while Sattelberg was captured by the 26th Brigade , in late November the 2 / 15th joined the advance to Wareo , capturing Nongora village , crossing the Song River , and then undertaking patrols through the Christmas Hills until relieved by elements of the 4th Brigade , which pushed the Australian advance along the coast , forcing the Japanese north towards Sio as the Australians sought to secure the Huon Peninsula . In late December , the 20th Brigade rotated back into the lead , and the 2 / 15th took over the from the 22nd Battalion around the Tunom River , where the battalion headquarters came under aerial attack . After a brief pause near the flood swollen Tunom , the advance continued throughout December and into January 1944 with minor skirmishes punctuating the battalion 's advance . Finally , on 21 January , at the edge of the Sazomu River , the order arrived for the 2 / 15th to be withdrawn to Finschhafen for rest prior to repatriation to Australia . The fighting in New Guinea cost the battalion 30 killed in action , six dead from wounds , four dead from accidents and 119 wounded . The 2 / 15th Battalion returned to Australia in mid @-@ March 1944 aboard the Klipfontein . After docking in Brisbane , a 42 @-@ day leave period followed before the battalion came together again at Ravenshoe to begin the process of rebuilding in preparation for the next phase of the war . Between June and August , training progressed from individual instruction up to brigade @-@ level exercises as the unit was re @-@ constituted for its next campaign . During training it experienced a high turnover of personnel and a large influx of reinforcements , including several officers , was received in the middle of 1944 from the disbanded 62nd Battalion , a Queensland @-@ based Militia battalion that had previously been assigned to Merauke Force . A long period of training followed the battalion 's return to Australia in early 1944 , as there was a degree of uncertainty about the Australian Army 's role in future operations in the Pacific after the US military assumed primary responsibility for combat operations in the theatre . Nevertheless , in the final months of the war the 2 / 15th took part in efforts to recapture North Borneo as part of Operation Oboe Six . After a battalion @-@ level exercise in early 1945 , the 2 / 15th sailed from Australia aboard the Charles Lummis in early May . Staging out of Morotai Island , a detachment of the battalion landed on Muara Island on 10 June 1945 , disembarking from US @-@ operated LVTs and securing the island without opposition , while later , other elements from the 2 / 15th were put ashore on the peninsula around Brunei Town , as part of Allied operations to secure northern Borneo . While the main Australian force advanced towards Kuching and the oil fields around Seria , two companies of the 2 / 15th served as a " floating reserve " for the 2 / 13th Battalion 's landing around Lutong , while the main body of the 2 / 15th subsequently moved inland towards Limbang , and began patrolling along the Limbang and Pandaruan Rivers that forked inland from the bay , using landing craft for mobility , and securing several small villages around the edge of the bay . Limbang was taken on 18 June , and two days later the two detached companies rejoined the battalion . Subsequently , several engagements were fought with the Japanese during patrols in June and July , but these were mainly small @-@ scale ; two members of the battalion were killed in an ambush around Brunei in late June , the heaviest fighting occurring in early July , when a patrol killed over 20 Japanese in a short but sharp encounter . By the end of July , a draft of 170 long @-@ service personnel were released to return to Australia in early August , just as the war came to an end . Casualties for the 20th Brigade were light ; the 2 / 15th suffered five battle casualties during its last campaign , two killed and three wounded . = = = Disbandment = = = After the war , the 2 / 15th remained on Brunei until November when it moved to Mempakul as personnel were returned to Australia in drafts based on priority of discharge . A small group of personnel volunteered at this time to undertake occupation duties in Japan and were subsequently transferred to the 66th or 67th Battalions . In early December , the battalion 's vehicles were returned and after the appropriate clearances were received , the remaining cadre was transported to Labuan . From there , they sailed back to Australia aboard the Pachaug Victory , arriving at Brett 's Wharf , in Brisbane on 19 December . The cadre moved into a camp at Chermside , where they completed unloading of stores and equipment before a short Christmas leave . Early in the new year , the final administrative tasks were completed and the last group of personnel were posted for demobilisation and discharge . Finally , the 2 / 15th was officially disbanded on 21 January 1946 . During its service a total of 2 @,@ 758 men served with the 2 / 15th Battalion , of whom 191 were killed or died of wounds , another 25 died on active service , 501 were wounded , and 212 were captured . Members of the 2 / 15th received three Distinguished Service Orders , 10 Military Crosses , seven Distinguished Conduct Medals , 18 Military Medals , one British Empire Medal , 47 Mentions in Despatches and nine Commander @-@ In @-@ Chief Commendation Cards . In addition , four were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire . = = Battle honours = = The 2 / 15th Battalion received the following battle honours : North Africa 1941 – 43 , El Adem Road , Alam el Halfa , West Point 23 , Finschhafen , Scarlet Beach , Bumi River , Defence of Scarlet Beach , Nongora , Borneo , Brunei , Miri , Defence of Tobruk , The Salient 1941 , El Alamein , South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 , Lae – Nadzab , Liberation of Australian New Guinea and Sio . These honours were subsequently entrusted to the 15th Battalion in 1961 , a Queensland @-@ based part @-@ time unit that was the successor to the unit of the same designation that had been raised during World War I. = = Commanding officers = = The following officers served as commanding officer of the 2 / 15th : Lieutenant Colonel Robert Francis Marlan ( 1940 – 41 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel Robert William George Ogle ( 1941 – 42 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel Charles Keith Massy Magno ( 1942 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel Raymond James Barham ( 1942 – 43 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel Colin Henry Grace ( 1943 – 45 ) .
= James Cagney = James Francis Cagney , Jr . ( July 17 , 1899 – March 30 , 1986 ) was an American actor and dancer , both on stage and in film , though he had his greatest impact in film . Known for his consistently energetic performances , distinctive vocal style , and deadpan comic timing , he won acclaim and major awards for a wide variety of performances . He is best remembered for playing multifaceted tough guys in movies such as The Public Enemy ( 1931 ) , Taxi ! ( 1932 ) , Angels with Dirty Faces ( 1938 ) , and White Heat ( 1949 ) and was even typecast or limited by this view earlier in his career . In 1999 , the American Film Institute ranked him eighth among its list of greatest male stars of Classic Hollywood Cinema . Orson Welles said of Cagney , " [ he was ] maybe the greatest actor who ever appeared in front of a camera " , and Stanley Kubrick considered him to be one of the best actors of all time . In his first professional acting performance , Cagney danced costumed as a woman in the chorus line of the 1919 revue Every Sailor . He spent several years in vaudeville as a dancer and comedian , until he got his first major acting part in 1925 . He secured several other roles , receiving good notices , before landing the lead in the 1929 play Penny Arcade . After rave reviews , Warner Bros. signed him for an initial $ 500 @-@ a @-@ week , three @-@ week contract to reprise his role ; this was quickly extended to a seven @-@ year contract . Cagney 's seventh film , The Public Enemy , became one of the most influential gangster movies of the period . Notable for a famous scene in which Cagney pushes a grapefruit against Mae Clark 's face , the film thrust him into the spotlight . He became one of Hollywood 's biggest stars and one of Warner Bros. ' biggest contracts . In 1938 , he received his first Academy Award for Best Actor nomination , for Angels with Dirty Faces for his subtle portrayal of the tough guy / man @-@ child Rocky Sullivan . In 1942 , Cagney won the Oscar for his energetic portrayal of George M. Cohan in Yankee Doodle Dandy . He was nominated a third time in 1955 for Love Me or Leave Me . Cagney retired from acting and dancing in 1961 to spend time on his farm with his family . He exited retirement , 20 years later , for a part in the 1981 movie Ragtime , mainly to aid his recovery from a stroke . Cagney walked out on Warner Bros. several times over the course of his career , each time returning on much improved personal and artistic terms . In 1935 , he sued Warners for breach of contract and won . This was one of the first times an actor prevailed over a studio on a contract issue . He worked for an independent film company for a year while the suit was being settled — and established his own production company , Cagney Productions , in 1942 , before returning to Warners four years later . In reference to Cagney 's refusal to be pushed around , Jack L. Warner called him " the Professional Againster " . Cagney also made numerous morale @-@ boosting troop tours before and during World War II , and was president of the Screen Actors Guild for two years . = = Early life = = Cagney was born on the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City . His biographers disagree as to the actual location : either on the corner of Avenue D and 8th Street or in a top @-@ floor apartment at 391 East Eighth . His father , James Francis Cagney , Sr. , was of Irish descent . By the time of his son 's birth , he was a bartender and amateur boxer , though on Cagney 's birth certificate , he is listed as a telegraphist . His mother was Carolyn ( née Nelson ) ; her father was a Norwegian ship captain while her mother was Irish . Cagney was the second of seven children , two of whom died within months of birth . He was sickly as a young child — so much so that his mother feared he would die before he could be baptized . He later attributed his sickness to the poverty his family had to endure . The family moved twice while he was still young , first to East 79th Street , and then to East 96th Street . He was confirmed at St. Francis de Sales Roman Catholic Church in Manhattan , where he would eventually have his funeral service . The red @-@ haired , blue @-@ eyed Cagney graduated from Stuyvesant High School in New York City , in 1918 , and attended Columbia College of Columbia University , where he intended to major in Art . He also took German and joined the Student Army Training Corps but dropped out after one semester , returning home upon the death of his father during the 1918 flu pandemic . Cagney held a variety of jobs early in his life , giving all his earnings to his family : junior architect , copy boy for The New York Sun , book custodian at the New York Public Library , bellhop , draughtsman , and night doorkeeper . While Cagney was working for the New York Public Library , he met Florence James , who helped him into an acting career . Cagney believed in hard work , later stating , " It was good for me . I feel sorry for the kid who has too cushy a time of it . Suddenly he has to come face @-@ to @-@ face with the realities of life without any mama or papa to do his thinking for him . " He started tap dancing as a boy ( a skill that eventually contributed to his Academy Award ) and was nicknamed " Cellar @-@ Door Cagney " after his habit of dancing on slanted cellar doors . He was a good street fighter , defending his older brother Harry , a medical student , when necessary . He engaged in amateur boxing , and was a runner @-@ up for the New York State lightweight title . His coaches encouraged him to turn professional , but his mother would not allow it . He also played semiprofessional baseball for a local team , and entertained dreams of playing in the Major Leagues . His introduction to films was unusual . When visiting an aunt who lived in Brooklyn opposite Vitagraph Studios , Cagney would climb over the fence to watch the filming of John Bunny movies . He became involved in amateur dramatics , starting as a scenery boy for a Chinese pantomime at Lenox Hill Neighborhood House , one of the first settlement houses in the nation , where his brother Harry performed and his soon @-@ to @-@ be friend , Florence James , directed . He was initially content working behind the scenes and had no interest in performing . One night , however , Harry became ill , and although Cagney was not an understudy , his photographic memory of rehearsals enabled him to stand in for his brother without making a single mistake . Therefore , Florence James has the unique distinction of being the first director to put him on a stage . Afterward , he joined a number of companies as a performer in a variety of roles . = = Career = = = = = 1919 – 30 : Early career = = = While working at Wanamaker 's Department Store in 1919 , Cagney learned , from a colleague who had seen him dance , of a role in the upcoming production Every Sailor . A wartime play in which the chorus was made up of servicemen dressed as women , it was originally titled Every Woman . Cagney auditioned for the role of a chorus girl , despite considering it a waste of time ; he only knew one dance step , the complicated Peabody , but he knew it perfectly . This was enough to convince the producers that he could dance , and he copied the other dancers ' moves while waiting to go on . He did not find it odd to play a woman , nor was he embarrassed . He later recalled how he was able to shed his own natural shy persona when he stepped onto the stage : " For there I am not myself . I am not that fellow , Jim Cagney , at all . I certainly lost all consciousness of him when I put on skirts , wig , paint , powder , feathers and spangles . " Had Cagney 's mother had her way , his stage career would have ended when he quit Every Sailor after two months ; proud as she was of his performance , she preferred that he get an education . Cagney appreciated the $ 35 a week he was paid , which he called " a mountain of money for me in those worrisome days . " In deference to his mother 's worries , he got employment as a brokerage house runner . This did not stop him looking for more stage work , however , and he went on to successfully audition for a chorus part in the William B. Friedlander musical Pitter Patter , for which he earned $ 55 a week — he sent $ 40 to his mother each week . So strong was his habit of holding down more than one job at a time , he also worked as a dresser for one of the leads , portered the casts ' luggage , and understudied for the lead . Among the chorus line performers was 16 @-@ year @-@ old Frances Willard " Billie " Vernon , whom he married in 1922 . The show began Cagney 's 10 @-@ year association with vaudeville and Broadway . Cagney and his wife were among the early resident of Free Acres , a social experiment established by Bolton Hall in Berkeley Heights , New Jersey . Pitter Patter was not hugely successful , but it did well enough to run for 32 weeks , enabling Cagney to join the vaudeville circuit . Vernon and he toured separately with a number of different troupes , reuniting as " Vernon and Nye " to do simple comedy routines and musical numbers . " Nye " was a rearrangement of the last syllable of Cagney 's surname . One of the troupes Cagney joined was Parker , Rand , and Leach , taking over the spot vacated when Archie Leach — who later changed his name to Cary Grant — left . After years of touring and struggling to make money , Cagney and Vernon moved to Hawthorne , California , in 1924 , partly for Cagney to meet his new mother @-@ in @-@ law , who had just moved there from Chicago , and partly to investigate breaking into the movies . Their train fares were paid for by a friend , the press officer of Pitter Patter , who was also desperate to act . They were not successful at first ; the dance studio Cagney set up had few clients and folded , and Vernon and he toured the studios , but garnered no interest . Eventually , they borrowed some money and headed back to New York via Chicago and Milwaukee , enduring failure along the way when they attempted to make money on the stage . Cagney secured his first significant nondancing role in 1925 . He played a young tough guy in the three @-@ act play Outside Looking In by Maxwell Anderson , earning $ 200 a week . As with Pitter Patter , Cagney went to the audition with little confidence he would get the part . He had no experience with drama at this point . Cagney felt that he only got the role because his hair was redder than that of Alan Bunce , the only other red @-@ headed performer in New York . Both the play and Cagney received good reviews ; Life magazine wrote , " Mr. Cagney , in a less spectacular role [ than his co @-@ star ] makes a few minutes silence during his mock @-@ trial scene something that many a more established actor might watch with profit . " Burns Mantle wrote that it " ... contained the most honest acting now to be seen in New York . " Following the show 's four @-@ month run , Cagney went back to vaudeville for the next few years . He achieved varied success , but after appearing in Outside Looking In , the Cagneys were more financially secure . During this period , he met George M. Cohan , whom he later portrayed in Yankee Doodle Dandy , though they never spoke . Cagney secured the lead role in the 1926 – 27 season West End production of Broadway by George Abbott . The show 's management insisted that he copy Broadway lead Lee Tracy 's performance , despite Cagney 's discomfort in doing so , but the day before the show sailed for England , they decided to replace him . This was a devastating turn of events for Cagney ; apart from the logistical difficulties this presented — the couple 's luggage was in the hold of the ship and they had given up their apartment . He almost quit show business . As Vernon recalled , " Jimmy said that it was all over . He made up his mind that he would get a job doing something else . " The Cagneys had run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ play contracts , which lasted as long as the play did . Vernon was in the chorus line of the show , and with help from the Actors ’ Equity Association , Cagney understudied Tracy on the Broadway show , providing them with a desperately needed steady income . Cagney also established a dance school for professionals , then landed a part in the play Women Go On Forever , directed by John Cromwell , which ran for four months . By the end of the run , Cagney was exhausted from acting and running the dance school . He had built a reputation as an innovative teacher , so when he was cast as the lead in Grand Street Follies of 1928 , he was also appointed the choreographer . The show received rave reviews and was followed by Grand Street Follies of 1929 . These roles led to a part in George Kelly 's Maggie the Magnificent , a play the critics disliked , though they liked Cagney 's performance . Cagney saw this role ( and Women Go on Forever ) as significant because of the talented directors he met . He learned " ... what a director was for and what a director could do . They were directors who could play all the parts in the play better than the actors cast for them . " = = = 1930 – 35 : Warner Bros. = = = Playing opposite Cagney in Maggie the Magnificent was Joan Blondell , who starred again with him a few months later in Marie Baumer 's new play Penny Arcade . While the critics panned Penny Arcade , they praised Cagney and Blondell . Al Jolson , sensing film potential , bought the rights for $ 20 @,@ 000 . He then sold the play to Warner Bros. , with the stipulation that they cast Cagney and Blondell in the film version . Retitled Sinners ' Holiday , the film was released in 1930 . Cagney was given a $ 500 @-@ a @-@ week , three @-@ week contract . In the film , he portrays Harry Delano , a tough guy who becomes a killer , but generates sympathy because of his unfortunate upbringing . This role of the sympathetic " bad " guy was a recurring character type for Cagney throughout his career . During filming of Sinners ' Holiday , he also demonstrated the stubbornness that characterized his work attitude . He later recalled an argument he had with director John Adolfi about a line : " There was a line in the show where I was supposed to be crying on my mother 's breast ... [ The line ] was ' I 'm your baby , ain 't I ? ' I refused to say it . Adolfi said ' I 'm going to tell Zanuck . ' I said ' I don 't give a shit what you tell him , I 'm not going to say that line . ' " They took the line out . Despite this outburst , the studio liked him , and before his three @-@ week contract was up — while the film was still shooting — they gave Cagney a three @-@ week extension , which was followed by a full seven @-@ year contract at $ 400 a week . The contract , however , allowed Warners to drop him at the end of any 40 @-@ week period , effectively only guaranteeing him 40 weeks income at a time . As when he was growing up , Cagney shared his income with his family . Cagney received good reviews , and immediately starred in another gangster role in The Doorway to Hell . The film was a financial hit , helping cement Cagney 's growing reputation . He made four more movies before his breakthrough role . Warner Brothers ′ succession of gangster movie hits , in particular Little Caesar with Edward G. Robinson , culminated with the 1931 film The Public Enemy . Due to the strong reviews in his short film career , Cagney was cast as nice @-@ guy Matt Doyle , opposite Edward Woods as Tom Powers . However , after the initial rushes , each was reassigned the other 's part . The film cost only $ 151 @,@ 000 to make , but it became one of the first low @-@ budget films to gross $ 1 million . Cagney received widespread praise for his role . The New York Herald Tribune described his performance as " ... the most ruthless , unsentimental appraisal of the meanness of a petty killer the cinema has yet devised . " He received top billing after the film , but while he acknowledged the importance of the role to his career , he always disputed that it changed the way heroes and leading men were portrayed ; he cited Clark Gable 's slapping of Barbara Stanwyck six months earlier ( in Night Nurse ) as more important . Night Nurse was actually released three months after The Public Enemy , and Gable punched Stanwyck in the film , knocking her character unconscious , then carried her across the hall , where she woke up later . Many critics view the scene in which Cagney pushes a grapefruit into Mae Clarke 's face as one of the most famous moments in movie history . The scene itself was a late addition , and who thought of the idea is a matter of debate . Producer Darryl Zanuck claimed he thought of it in a script conference , director William Wellman claimed that the idea came to him when he saw the grapefruit on the table during the shoot , and writers Glasmon and Bright claimed it was based on the real life of gangster Hymie Weiss , who threw an omelette into his girlfriend 's face . Cagney himself usually cited the writers ' version , but the fruit 's victim , Clarke , agreed that it was Wellman 's idea , saying , " I 'm sorry I ever agreed to do the grapefruit bit . I never dreamed it would be shown in the movie . Director Bill Wellman thought of the idea suddenly . It wasn 't even written into the script . " . However , according to Turner Classic Movies ( TCM ) , the grapefruit scene was a practical joke that Cagney and costar Mae Clarke decided to play on the crew while the cameras were rolling . Wellman liked it so much that he left it in . TCM also notes that the scene made Clarke 's ex @-@ husband , Lew Brice , very happy . " He saw the film repeatedly just to see that scene , and was often shushed by angry patrons when his delighted laughter got too loud . " Filmmakers have mimicked it many times , such as Lee Marvin 's character splashing scalding coffee in the face of Gloria Grahame in The Big Heat . Cagney himself was offered grapefruit in almost every restaurant he visited for years after , and Clarke claimed it virtually ruined her career because of typecasting . Cagney 's stubbornness became well known behind the scenes , not least after his refusal to join in a 100 % participation @-@ free charity drive pushed by Douglas Fairbanks , Jr . Cagney did not object to donating money to charity , but rather to being forced to . Already he had acquired the nickname " The Professional Againster " . Warner Bros. was quick to team its two rising gangster stars — Edward G. Robinson and Cagney — for the 1931 film Smart Money . So keen was the studio to follow up the success of Robinson 's Little Caesar that Cagney actually shot Smart Money ( for which he received second billing in a supporting role ) at the same time as The Public Enemy . As in The Public Enemy , Cagney was required to be physically violent to a woman on screen , a signal that Warner Bros. was keen to keep Cagney in the public eye . This time , he slapped co @-@ star Evalyn Knapp . With the introduction of the United States Motion Picture Production Code of 1930 , and particularly its edicts concerning on @-@ screen violence , Warners allowed Cagney a change of pace . They cast him in the comedy Blonde Crazy , again opposite Blondell . As he completed filming , The Public Enemy was filling cinemas with all @-@ night showings . Cagney began to compare his pay with his peers , thinking his contract allowed for salary adjustments based on the success of his films . Warner Bros. disagreed , however , and refused to give him a raise . The studio heads also insisted that Cagney continue promoting their films , even ones he was not in , which he opposed . Cagney moved back to New York , leaving his brother Bill to look after his apartment . While Cagney was in New York , his brother , who had effectively become his agent , angled for a substantial pay raise and more personal freedom for his brother . The success of The Public Enemy and Blonde Crazy forced Warner Bros. ' hand . They eventually offered Cagney a contract for $ 1000 a week . Cagney 's first film upon returning from New York was 1932 's Taxi ! . The film is notable for not only being the first time that Cagney danced on screen , but it was also the last time he allowed himself to be shot at with live ammunition ( a relatively common occurrence at the time , as blank cartridges and squibs were considered too expensive and hard to find to use in most motion picture filming ) . He had been shot at in The Public Enemy , but during filming for Taxi ! , he was almost hit . In his opening scene , Cagney spoke fluent Yiddish , a language he had picked up during his boyhood in New York City . Critics praised the film . Taxi ! was the source of one of Cagney 's most misquoted lines ; he never actually said , " MMMmmm , you dirty rat ! " , a line commonly used by impressionists . The closest he got to it in the film was , " Come out and take it , you dirty , yellow @-@ bellied rat , or I 'll give it to you through the door ! " The film was swiftly followed by The Crowd Roars and Winner Take All . Despite his success , Cagney remained dissatisfied with his contract . He wanted more money for his successful films , but he also offered to take a smaller salary should his star wane . Warner Bros. refused , so Cagney once again walked out . He held out for $ 4000 a week , the same salary as Edward G. Robinson , Douglas Fairbanks , Jr . , and Kay Francis . Warner Bros. refused to cave in this time , and suspended Cagney . Cagney announced that he would do his next three pictures for free if they canceled the five years remaining on his contract . He also threatened to quit Hollywood and go back to Columbia University to follow his brothers into medicine . After six months of suspension , Frank Capra brokered a deal that increased Cagney 's salary to around $ 3000 a week , and guaranteed top billing and no more than four films a year . Having learned about the block @-@ booking studio system that almost guaranteed the studios huge profits , Cagney was determined to spread the wealth . He regularly sent money and goods to old friends from his neighborhood , though he did not generally make this known . His insistence on no more than four films a year was based on his having witnessed actors — even teenagers — regularly being worked 100 hours a week to turn out more films . This experience was an integral reason for his involvement in forming the Screen Actors Guild in 1933 . Cagney returned to the studio and made Hard to Handle in 1933 . This was followed by a steady stream of films , including the highly regarded Footlight Parade , which gave Cagney the chance to return to his song @-@ and @-@ dance roots . The film includes show @-@ stopping scenes with Busby Berkeley @-@ choreographed routines . His next notable film was 1934 's Here Comes the Navy , which paired him with Pat O 'Brien for the first time . The two would have an enduring friendship . In 1935 , Cagney was listed as one of the Top Ten Moneymakers in Hollywood for the first time , and was cast more frequently in nongangster roles ; he played a lawyer who joins the FBI in G @-@ Men , and he also took on his first , and only , Shakespearean role , as top @-@ billed Nick Bottom in A Midsummer Night 's Dream alongside Joe E. Brown as Flute and Mickey Rooney as Puck Cagney 's last movie in 1935 was Ceiling Zero , his third film with Pat O 'Brien . O 'Brien received top billing , which was a clear breach of Cagney 's contract . This , combined with the fact that Cagney had made five movies in 1934 , again against his contract terms , caused him to bring legal proceedings against Warner Bros. for breach of contract . The dispute dragged on for several months . Cagney received calls from David Selznick and Sam Goldwyn , but neither felt in a position to offer him work while the dispute went on . Meanwhile , while being represented by his brother William in court , Cagney went back to New York to search for a country property where he could indulge his passion for farming . = = = 1936 – 37 : Independent years = = = Cagney spent most of the next year on his farm , and went back to work only when Edward L. Alperson from Grand National Films , a newly established , independent studio , approached him to make movies for $ 100 @,@ 000 a film and 10 % of the profits . Cagney made two films for Grand National : Great Guy and Something to Sing About . He received good reviews for both , but overall the production quality was not up to Warner Bros. standards , and the films did not do well . A third film , Dynamite , was planned , but Grand National ran out of money . Cagney also became involved in political causes , and in 1936 , agreed to sponsor the Hollywood Anti @-@ Nazi League . Unknown to Cagney , the League was in fact a front organization for the Communist International ( Comintern ) , which sought to enlist support for the Soviet Union and its foreign policies . The courts eventually decided the Warner Bros. lawsuit in Cagney 's favor . He had done what many thought unthinkable : taking on the studios and winning . Not only did he win , but Warner Bros. also knew that he was still their foremost box office draw and invited him back for a five @-@ year , $ 150 @,@ 000 @-@ a @-@ film deal , with no more than two pictures a year . Cagney also had full say over what films he did and did not make . Additionally , William Cagney was guaranteed the position of assistant producer for the movies in which his brother starred . Cagney had demonstrated the power of the walkout in keeping the studios to their word . He later explained his reasons , saying , " I walked out because I depended on the studio heads to keep their word on this , that or other promise , and when the promise was not kept , my only recourse was to deprive them of my services . " Cagney himself acknowledged the importance of the walkout for other actors in breaking the dominance of the studio system . Normally , when a star walked out , the time he or she was absent was added onto the end of an already long contract , as happened with Olivia de Havilland and Bette Davis . Cagney , however , walked out and came back to a better contract . Many in Hollywood watched the case closely for hints of how future contracts might be handled . Artistically , the Grand National experiment was a success for Cagney , who was able to move away from his traditional Warner Bros. tough guy roles to more sympathetic characters . How far he could have experimented and developed will never be known , but back in the Warner fold , he was once again playing tough guys . = = = 1938 – 42 : Return to Warner Bros. = = = Cagney 's two films of 1938 , Boy Meets Girl and Angels with Dirty Faces , both costarred Pat O 'Brien . The former had Cagney in a comedy role , and received mixed reviews . Warner Bros. had allowed Cagney his change of pace , but was keen to get him back to playing tough guys , which was more lucrative . Ironically , the script for Angels was one that Cagney had hoped to do while with Grand National , but the studio had been unable to secure funding . Cagney starred as Rocky Sullivan , a gangster fresh out of jail and looking for his former associate , played by Humphrey Bogart , who owes him money . While revisiting his old haunts , he runs into his old friend Jerry Connolly , played by O 'Brien , who is now a priest concerned about the Dead End Kids ' futures , particularly as they idolize Rocky . After a messy shootout , Sullivan is eventually captured by the police and sentenced to death in the electric chair . Connolly pleads with Rocky to " turn yellow " on his way to the chair so the Kids will lose their admiration for him , and hopefully avoid turning to crime . Sullivan refuses , but on his way to his execution , he breaks down and begs for his life . It is unclear whether this cowardice is real or just feigned for the Kids ' benefit . Cagney himself refused to say , insisting he liked the ambiguity . The film is regarded by many as one of Cagney 's finest , and garnered him an Academy Award for Best Actor nomination for 1938 . He lost to Spencer Tracy in Boys Town . Cagney had been considered for the role , but lost out on it due to his typecasting . ( He also lost the role of Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne in Knute Rockne , All American to his friend Pat O 'Brien for the same reason . ) Cagney did , however , win that year 's New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor . His earlier insistence on not filming with live ammunition proved to be a good decision . Having been told while filming Angels with Dirty Faces that he would be doing a scene with real machine gun bullets ( a common practice in the Hollywood of the time ) , Cagney refused and insisted the shots be added afterwards . As it turned out , a ricocheting bullet passed through exactly where his head would have been . During his first year back at Warner Bros. , Cagney became the studio 's highest earner , making $ 324 @,@ 000 . He completed his first decade of movie @-@ making in 1939 with The Roaring Twenties , his first film with Raoul Walsh and his last with Bogart . After The Roaring Twenties , it would be a decade before Cagney made another gangster film . Cagney again received good reviews ; Graham Greene stated , " Mr. Cagney , of the bull @-@ calf brow , is as always a superb and witty actor " . The Roaring Twenties was the last film in which Cagney 's character 's violence was explained by poor upbringing , or his environment , as was the case in The Public Enemy . From that point on , violence was attached to mania , as in White Heat . In 1939 , Cagney was second to only Gary Cooper in the national acting wage stakes , earning $ 368 @,@ 333 . His next notable role was as George M. Cohan in Yankee Doodle Dandy , a film Cagney " took great pride in " and considered his best . Producer Hal Wallis said that having seen Cohan in I 'd Rather Be Right , he never considered anyone other than Cagney for the part . Cagney , though , insisted that Fred Astaire had been the first choice , but turned it down . Filming began the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor , and the cast and crew worked in a " patriotic frenzy " as the United States ' involvement in World War II gave the cast and crew a feeling that " they might be sending the last message from the free world " , according to actress Rosemary DeCamp . Cohan was given a private showing of the film shortly before his death , and thanked Cagney " for a wonderful job " . A paid première , with seats ranging from $ 25 to $ 25 @,@ 000 , raised $ 5 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 for war bonds for the US treasury . Many critics of the time and since have declared it Cagney 's best film , drawing parallels between Cohan and Cagney ; they both began their careers in vaudeville , struggled for years before reaching the peak of their profession , were surrounded with family and married early , and both had a wife who was happy to sit back while he went on to stardom . The film was nominated for eight Academy Awards and won three , including Cagney 's for Best Actor . In his acceptance speech , Cagney said , " I 've always maintained that in this business , you 're only as good as the other fellow thinks you are . It 's nice to know that you people thought I did a good job . And don 't forget that it was a good part , too . " = = = 1942 – 48 : Independent again = = = Cagney announced in March 1942 that his brother William and he were setting up Cagney Productions to release films though United Artists . Free of Warner Bros. again , Cagney spent some time relaxing on his farm in Martha 's Vineyard before volunteering to join the USO . He spent several weeks touring the US , entertaining troops with vaudeville routines and scenes from Yankee Doodle Dandy . In September 1942 , he was elected president of the Screen Actors Guild . Almost a year after its creation , Cagney Productions produced its first film , Johnny Come Lately , in 1943 . While the major studios were producing patriotic war movies , Cagney was determined to continue dispelling his tough @-@ guy image , so he produced a movie that was a " complete and exhilarating exposition of the Cagney ' alter @-@ ego ' on film " . According to Cagney , the film " made money but it was no great winner " , and reviews varied from excellent ( Time ) to poor ( New York 's PM ) . Following the film 's completion , Cagney went back to the USO and toured US military bases in the UK . He refused to give interviews to the British press , preferring to concentrate on rehearsals and performances . He gave several performances a day for the Army Signal Corps of The American Cavalcade of Dance , which consisted of a history of American dance , from the earliest days to Fred Astaire , and culminated with dances from Yankee Doodle Dandy . The second movie Cagney 's company produced was Blood on the Sun . Insisting on doing his own stunts , Cagney required judo training from expert Ken Kuniyuki and Jack Halloran , a former policeman . The Cagneys had hoped that an action film would appeal more to audiences , but it fared worse at the box office than Johnny Come Lately . At this time , Cagney heard of young war hero Audie Murphy , who had appeared on the cover of Life magazine . Cagney thought that Murphy had the looks to be a movie star , and suggested that he come to Hollywood . Cagney felt , however , that Murphy could not act , and his contract was loaned out and then sold . While negotiating the rights for his third independent film , Cagney starred in 20th Century Fox 's 13 Rue Madeleine for $ 300 @,@ 000 for two months of work . The wartime spy film was a success , and Cagney was keen to begin production of his new project , an adaptation of William Saroyan 's Broadway play The Time of Your Life . Saroyan himself loved the film , but it was a commercial disaster , costing the company half a million dollars to make ; audiences again struggled to accept Cagney in a nontough @-@ guy role . Cagney Productions was in serious trouble ; poor returns from the produced films , and a legal dispute with Sam Goldwyn Studio over a rental agreement forced Cagney back to Warner Bros. He signed a distribution @-@ production deal with the studio for the film White Heat , effectively making Cagney Productions a unit of Warner Bros. = = = 1949 – 55 : Back to Warner Bros. = = = Cagney 's portrayal of Cody Jarrett in the 1949 film White Heat is one of his most memorable . Cinema had changed in the 10 years since Walsh last directed Cagney ( in The Strawberry Blonde ) , and the actor 's portrayal of gangsters had also changed . Unlike Tom Powers in The Public Enemy , Jarrett was portrayed as a raging lunatic with few if any sympathetic qualities . In the 18 intervening years , Cagney 's hair had begun to gray , and he developed a paunch for the first time . He was no longer a romantic commodity , and this was reflected in his performance . Cagney himself had the idea of playing Jarrett as psychotic ; he later stated , " it was essentially a cheapie one @-@ two @-@ three @-@ four kind of thing , so I suggested we make him nuts . It was agreed so we put in all those fits and headaches . " Cagney 's final lines in the film – " Made it , Ma ! Top of the world ! " – was voted the 18th @-@ greatest movie line by the American Film Institute . Likewise , Jarrett 's explosion of rage in prison on being told of his mother 's death is widely hailed as one of Cagney 's most memorable performances . Some of the extras on set actually became terrified of the actor because of his violent portrayal . Cagney attributed the performance to his father 's alcoholic rages , which he had witnessed as a child , as well as someone that he had seen on a visit to a mental hospital . The film was a critical success , though some critics wondered about the social impact of a character that they saw as sympathetic . Cagney was still struggling against his gangster typecasting . He said to a journalist , " It 's what the people want me to do . Some day , though , I 'd like to make another movie that kids could go and see . " However , Warner Bros. , perhaps searching for another Yankee Doodle Dandy , assigned Cagney a musical for his next picture , 1950 's The West Point Story with Doris Day , an actress he admired . His next film , Kiss Tomorrow Goodbye , was another gangster movie , which was the first by Cagney Productions since its acquisition . While compared unfavorably to White Heat by critics , it was fairly successful at the box office , with $ 500 @,@ 000 going straight to Cagney Productions ' bankers to pay off their losses . Cagney Productions was not a great success , however , and in 1953 , after William Cagney produced his last film , A Lion Is in the Streets , the company came to an end . Cagney 's next notable role was the 1955 film Love Me or Leave Me , his third with Day . Cagney played Martin " Moe the Gimp " Snyder , a lame Jewish @-@ American gangster from Chicago , a part Spencer Tracy had turned down . Cagney described the script as " that extremely rare thing , the perfect script " . When the film was released , Snyder reportedly asked how Cagney had so accurately copied his limp , but Cagney himself insisted he had not , having based it on personal observation of other people when they limped : " What I did was very simple . I just slapped my foot down as I turned it out while walking . That 's all " . His performance earned him another Best Actor Academy Award nomination , 17 years after his first . Reviews were strong , and the film is considered one of the best of his later career . In Day , he found a co @-@ star with whom he could build a rapport , such as he had had with Blondell at the start of his career . Day herself was full of praise for Cagney , stating that he was " the most professional actor I 've ever known . He was always ' real ' . I simply forgot we were making a picture . His eyes would actually fill up when we were working on a tender scene . And you never needed drops to make your eyes shine when Jimmy was on the set . " Cagney 's next film was Mister Roberts , directed by John Ford and slated to star Spencer Tracy . Tracy 's involvement ensured that Cagney accepted a supporting role , although in the end , Tracy did not take part . Cagney had worked with Ford before on What Price Glory ? , and they had gotten along fairly well . However , as soon as Ford met Cagney at the airport , the director warned him that they would " tangle asses " , which caught Cagney by surprise . He later said , " I would have kicked his brains out . He was so goddamned mean to everybody . He was truly a nasty old man . " The next day , Cagney was slightly late on set , incensing Ford . Cagney cut short his imminent tirade , saying " When I started this picture , you said that we would tangle asses before this was over . I 'm ready now – are you ? " Ford walked away , and they had no more problems , though Cagney never particularly liked Ford . Cagney 's skill at noticing tiny details in other actors ' performances became apparent during the shooting of Mister Roberts . While watching the Kraft Music Hall anthology television show some months before , Cagney had noticed Jack Lemmon performing left @-@ handed . The first thing that Cagney asked Lemmon when they met was if he was still using his left hand . Lemmon was shocked ; he had done it on a whim , and thought no one else had noticed . He said of his co @-@ star , " his powers of observation must be absolutely incredible , in addition to the fact that he remembered it . I was very flattered . " The film was a success , securing three Oscar nominations , including Best Picture , Best Sound Recording and Best Supporting Actor for Lemmon , who won . While Cagney was not nominated , he had thoroughly enjoyed the production . Filming on Midway Island and in a more minor role meant that he had time to relax and engage in his hobby of painting . He also drew caricatures of the cast and crew . = = = 1955 – 61 : Later career = = = In 1955 , Cagney replaced Spencer Tracy on the Western film Tribute to a Bad Man for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . He received praise for his performance , and the studio liked his work enough to offer him These Wilder Years with Barbara Stanwyck . The two stars got on well ; they had both previously worked in vaudeville , and they entertained the cast and crew off @-@ screen by singing and dancing . In 1956 , Cagney undertook one of his very rare television roles , starring in Robert Montgomery 's Soldiers From the War Returning . This was a favor to Montgomery , who needed a strong fall season opener to stop the network from dropping his series . Cagney 's appearance ensured that it was a success . The actor made it clear to reporters afterwards that television was not his medium : " I do enough work in movies . This is a high @-@ tension business . I have tremendous admiration for the people who go through this sort of thing every week , but it 's not for me . " The following year , Cagney appeared in Man of a Thousand Faces , in which he played Lon Chaney . He received excellent reviews , with the New York Journal American rating it one of his best performances , and the film , made for Universal , was a box office hit . Cagney 's skill at mimicry , combined with a physical similarity to Chaney , helped him generate empathy for his character . Later in 1957 , Cagney ventured behind the camera for the first and only time to direct Short Cut to Hell , a remake of the 1941 Alan Ladd film This Gun for Hire , which in turn was based on the Graham Greene novel A Gun for Sale . Cagney had long been told by friends that he would make an excellent director , so when he was approached by his friend , producer A. C. Lyles , he instinctively said yes . He refused all offers of payment , saying he was an actor , not a director . The film was low budget , and shot quickly . As Cagney recalled , " We shot it in twenty days , and that was long enough for me . I find directing a bore , I have no desire to tell other people their business " . In 1959 , Cagney played a labor leader in what proved to be his final musical , Never Steal Anything Small , which featured a comical song and dance duet with Cara Williams , who played his girlfriend . For Cagney 's next film , he traveled to Ireland for Shake Hands with the Devil , directed by Michael Anderson . Cagney had hoped to spend some time tracing his Irish ancestry , but time constraints and poor weather meant that he was unable to do so . The overriding message of violence inevitably leading to more violence attracted Cagney to the role of an Irish Republican Army commander , and resulted in what some critics would regard as the finest performance of his final years . Cagney 's career began winding down , and he made only one film in 1960 , the critically acclaimed The Gallant Hours , in which he played Admiral William F. " Bull " Halsey . The film , although set during the Guadalcanal Campaign in the Pacific Theater during World War II , was not a war film , but instead focused on the impact of command . Cagney Productions , which shared the production credit with Robert Montgomery 's company , made a brief return , though in name only . The film was a success , and The New York Times ' Bosley Crowther singled its star out for praise : " It is Mr. Cagney 's performance , controlled to the last detail , that gives life and strong , heroic stature to the principal figure in the film . There is no braggadocio in it , no straining for bold or sharp effects . It is one of the quietest , most reflective , subtlest jobs that Mr. Cagney has ever done . " Cagney 's penultimate film was a comedy . He was hand @-@ picked by Billy Wilder to play a hard @-@ driving Coca @-@ Cola executive in the film One , Two , Three . Cagney had concerns with the script , remembering back 23 years to Boy Meets Girl , in which scenes were reshot to try to make them funnier by speeding up the pacing , with the opposite effect . Cagney received assurances from Wilder that the script was balanced . Filming did not go well , though , with one scene requiring 50 takes , something to which Cagney was unaccustomed . In fact , it was one of the worst experiences of his long career . For the first time , Cagney considered walking out of a film . He felt he had worked too many years inside studios , and combined with a visit to Dachau concentration camp during filming , he decided that he had had enough , and retired afterward . One of the few positive aspects was his friendship with Pamela Tiffin , to whom he gave acting guidance , including the secret that he had learned over his career : " You walk in , plant yourself squarely on both feet , look the other fella in the eye , and tell the truth . " = = = 1961 – 86 : Later years and retirement = = = Cagney remained in retirement for 20 years , conjuring up images of Jack L. Warner every time he was tempted to return , which soon dispelled the notion . After he had turned down an offer to play Alfred Doolittle in My Fair Lady , he found it easier to rebuff others , including a part in The Godfather Part II . He made few public appearances , preferring to spend winters in Los Angeles , and summers either at his Martha 's Vineyard farm or at Verney Farms in New York . When in New York , Billie Vernon and he held numerous parties at the Silver Horn restaurant , where they got to know Marge Zimmermann , the proprietress . Cagney was diagnosed with glaucoma and began taking eye drops , but continued to have vision problems . On Zimmermann 's recommendation , he visited a different doctor , who determined that glaucoma had been a misdiagnosis , and that Cagney was actually diabetic . Zimmermann then took it upon herself to look after Cagney , preparing his meals to reduce his blood triglycerides , which had reached alarming levels . Such was her success that , by the time Cagney made a rare public appearance at his American Film Institute Lifetime Achievement award ceremony in 1974 , he had lost 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) and his vision had improved . Charlton Heston opened the ceremony , and Frank Sinatra introduced Cagney . So many Hollywood stars attended — said to be more than for any event in history — that one columnist wrote at the time that a bomb in the dining room would have ended the movie industry . In his acceptance speech , Cagney lightly chastised the impressionist Frank Gorshin , saying , " Oh , Frankie , just in passing , I never said ' MMMMmmmm , you dirty rat ! ' What I actually did say was ' Judy , Judy , Judy ! ' " — a joking reference to a similar misquotation attributed to Cary Grant . While at Coldwater Canyon in 1977 , Cagney had a minor stroke . After two weeks in the hospital , Zimmermann became his full @-@ time caregiver , traveling with Billie Vernon and him wherever they went . After the stroke , Cagney was no longer able to undertake many of his favorite pastimes , including horseback riding and dancing , and as he became more depressed , he even gave up painting . Encouraged by his wife and Zimmermann , Cagney accepted an offer from the director Miloš Forman to star in a small but pivotal role in the film Ragtime ( 1981 ) . This film was shot mainly at Shepperton Studios in Surrey , England , and on his arrival at Southampton aboard the Queen Elizabeth 2 , Cagney was mobbed by hundreds of fans . Cunard Line officials , who were responsible for the security at the dock , said they had never seen anything like it , although they had experienced past visits by Marlon Brando and Robert Redford . Despite the fact that Ragtime was his first film in 20 years , Cagney was immediately at ease : Flubbed lines and miscues were committed by his co @-@ stars , often simply through sheer awe . Howard Rollins , who received a Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination for his performance , said , " I was frightened to meet Mr. Cagney . I asked him how to die in front of the camera . He said ' Just die ! ' It worked . Who would know more about dying than him ? " Cagney also repeated the advice he had given to Pamela Tiffin , Joan Leslie , and Lemmon . As filming progressed , Cagney 's sciatica worsened , but he finished the nine @-@ week filming , and reportedly stayed on the set after completing his scenes to help the other actors with their dialogue . Cagney 's frequent co @-@ star , Pat O 'Brien , appeared with him on the British chat show Parkinson in the early 1980s and they both made a surprise appearance at the Queen Mother 's command birthday performance at the London Palladium in 1980 . His appearance on stage prompted the Queen Mother to rise to her feet , the only time she did so during the whole show , and she later broke protocol to go backstage to speak with Cagney directly . Cagney made a rare TV appearance in the lead role of the movie Terrible Joe Moran in 1984 . This was his last role . Cagney 's health was fragile and more strokes had confined him to a wheelchair , but the producers worked his real @-@ life mobility problem into the story . They also decided to dub his impaired speech , using the impersonator Rich Little . The film made use of fight clips from Cagney 's boxing movie Winner Take All ( 1932 ) , despite the fact that the TV movie is about an entirely different character . = = Personal life = = In 1920 , Cagney was a member of the chorus for the show Pitter Patter , where he met Frances Willard " Billie " Vernon . They married on September 28 , 1922 , and the marriage lasted until his death in 1986 . Frances Cagney died in 1994 . In 1941 , they adopted a son whom they named James Cagney , Jr . , and later a daughter , Cathleen " Casey " Cagney . Cagney was a very private man , and while he was very willing to give the press opportunities for photographs , he generally spent his time out of the public eye . Cagney 's son married Jill Lisbeth Inness in 1962 . The couple had two children , James III and Cindy . Cagney Jr. died from a heart attack on January 27 , 1984 in Washington , DC , two years before his father 's death . He had become estranged from his father and had not seen or talked to him since 1982 . Cagney 's daughter Cathleen married Jack W. Thomas in 1962 . She , too , was estranged from her father during the final years of his life . She died on August 11 , 2004 . As a young man , Cagney became interested in farming – sparked by a soil conservation lecture he had attended – to the extent that during his first walkout from Warner Bros. , he helped to found a 100 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) farm in Martha 's Vineyard . Cagney loved that no concrete roads surrounded the property , only dirt tracks . The house was rather run @-@ down and ramshackle , and Billie was initially reluctant to move in , but soon came to love the place , as well . After being inundated by movie fans , Cagney sent out a rumor that he had hired a gunman for security . The ruse proved so successful that when Spencer Tracy came to visit , his taxi driver refused to drive up to the house , saying , " I hear they shoot ! " Tracy had to go the rest of the way on foot . In 1955 , having shot three films , Cagney bought a 120 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 49 km2 ) farm in Stanfordville , Dutchess County , New York , for $ 100 @,@ 000 . Cagney named it Verney Farm , taking the first syllable from Billie 's maiden name and the second from his own surname . He turned it into a working farm , selling some of the dairy cattle and replacing them with beef cattle . He expanded it over the years to 750 acres ( 3 @.@ 0 km2 ) . Such was Cagney 's enthusiasm for agriculture and farming that his diligence and efforts were rewarded by an honorary degree from Florida 's Rollins College . Rather than just " turning up with Ava Gardner on my arm " to accept his honorary degree , Cagney turned the tables upon the college 's faculty by writing and submitting a paper on soil conservation . Cagney , born in 1899 ( prior to widespread use of automobiles ) loved horses from childhood . As a child , he often sat on the horses of local deliverymen , and rode in horse @-@ drawn streetcars with his mother . As an adult , well after horses were replaced by automobiles as the primary mode of transportation , Cagney raised horses on his farms , specializing in Morgans , a breed of which he was particularly fond . Cagney was a keen sailor and owned boats harbored on both US coasts , His joy in sailing , however , did not protect him from occasional seasickness — becoming ill , sometimes , on a calm day while weathering rougher , heavier seas at other times . Cagney greatly enjoyed painting , and claimed in his autobiography that he might have been happier , if somewhat poorer , as a painter than a movie star . The renowned painter Sergei Bongart taught Cagney in his later life and owned two of Cagney 's works . Cagney often gave away his work , but refused to sell his paintings , considering himself an amateur . He signed and sold only one painting , purchased by Johnny Carson to benefit a charity . = = = Political views = = = In his autobiography , Cagney said that as a young man , he had no political views , since he was more concerned with where the next meal was coming from . However , the emerging labor movement of the 1920s and 1930s soon forced him to take sides . The first version of the National Labor Relations Act was passed in 1935 and growing tensions between labor and management fueled the movement . Fanzines in the 1930s , however , described his politics as " radical " . This somewhat exaggerated view was enhanced by his public contractual wranglings with Warner Bros. at the time , his joining of the Screen Actors Guild in 1933 , and his involvement in the revolt against the so @-@ called " Merriam tax " . The " Merriam tax " was an underhanded method of funneling studio funds to politicians ; during the 1934 Californian gubernatorial campaign , the studio executives would ' tax ' their actors , automatically taking a day 's pay from their biggest @-@ earners , ultimately sending nearly half a million dollars to the gubernatorial campaign of Frank Merriam . Cagney ( as well as Jean Harlow ) publicly refused to pay and Cagney even threatened that , if the studios took a day 's pay for Merriam 's campaign , he would give a week 's pay to Upton Sinclair , Merriam 's opponent in the race . He supported political activist and labor leader Thomas Mooney 's defense fund , but was repelled by the behavior of some of Mooney 's supporters at a rally . Around the same time , he gave money for a Spanish Republican Army ambulance during the Spanish Civil War , which he put down to being " a soft touch " . This donation enhanced his liberal reputation . He also became involved in a " liberal group ... with a leftist slant , " along with Ronald Reagan . However , when Reagan and he saw the direction the group was heading , they resigned on the same night . Cagney was accused of being a communist sympathizer in 1934 , and again in 1940 . The accusation in 1934 stemmed from a letter police found from a local Communist official that alleged that Cagney would bring other Hollywood stars to meetings . Cagney denied this , and Lincoln Steffens , husband of the letter 's writer , backed up this denial , asserting that the accusation stemmed solely from Cagney 's donation to striking cotton workers in the San Joaquin Valley . William Cagney claimed this donation was the root of the charges in 1940 . Cagney was cleared by U.S. Representative Martin Dies , Jr . , on the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . Cagney became president of the Screen Actors Guild in 1942 for a two @-@ year term . He took a role in the Guild 's fight against the Mafia , which had begun to take an active interest in the movie industry . His wife , Billie Vernon , once received a phone call telling her that Cagney was dead . Cagney alleged that , having failed to scare off the Guild and him , they sent a hitman to kill him by dropping a heavy light onto his head . Upon hearing of the rumor of a hit , George Raft made a call , and the hit was supposedly canceled . During World War II , Cagney raised money for war bonds by taking part in racing exhibitions at the Roosevelt Raceway and selling seats for the premiere of Yankee Doodle Dandy . He also let the Army practice maneuvers at his Martha 's Vineyard farm . After the war , Cagney 's politics started to change . He had worked on Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt 's presidential campaigns , including the 1940 presidential election against Wendell Willkie . However , by the time of the 1948 election , he had become disillusioned with Harry S. Truman , and voted for Thomas E. Dewey , his first non @-@ Democratic vote . By 1980 , Cagney was contributing financially to the Republican Party , supporting his friend Ronald Reagan 's bid for the presidency in the 1980 election . As he got older , he became more and more conservative , referring to himself in his autobiography as " arch @-@ conservative . " He regarded his move away from liberal politics as " ... a totally natural reaction once I began to see undisciplined elements in our country stimulating a breakdown of our system ... Those functionless creatures , the hippies ... just didn 't appear out of a vacuum . " = = Death = = Cagney died at his Dutchess County farm in Stanfordville , New York , on Easter Sunday 1986 , of a heart attack . He was 86 years old . A funeral Mass was held at Manhattan 's St. Francis de Sales Roman Catholic Church . The eulogy at the funeral was given by his close friend , who was also the President of the United States at the time , Ronald Reagan . His pallbearers included the boxer Floyd Patterson , the dancer Mikhail Baryshnikov ( who had hoped to play Cagney on Broadway ) , actor Ralph Bellamy , and the director Miloš Forman . Governor Mario M. Cuomo and Mayor Edward I. Koch were also in attendance at the service . Cagney was interred in a crypt in the Garden Mausoleum at Cemetery of the Gate of Heaven in Hawthorne , New York . = = Honors and legacy = = In 1974 , Cagney received the American Film Institute 's Life Achievement Award . Charlton Heston , in announcing that Cagney was to be honored , called him " ... one of the most significant figures of a generation when American film was dominant , Cagney , that most American of actors , somehow communicated eloquently to audiences all over the world ... and to actors as well . " He received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1980 . In 1984 , Ronald Reagan awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom . In 1999 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a 33 @-@ cent stamp honoring Cagney . Cagney was among the most favored actors for the director Stanley Kubrick and the actor Marlon Brando , and was considered by Orson Welles to be " ... maybe the greatest actor to ever appear in front of a camera . " Warner Bros. arranged private screenings of Cagney films for Winston Churchill . On May 19 , 2015 , a brand @-@ new musical celebrating Cagney , and dramatizing his relationship with Warner Bros. , opened off @-@ Broadway in New York City at the York Theatre . = = Filmography = = Source : " James Cagney " . IMDb . Retrieved October 4 , 2013 . = = Television = = What 's My Line 1960 - Secret Guest The Ballad of Smokey the Bear ( 1966 ) – voice , narrator Terrible Joe Moran ( 1984 ) = = Radio appearances = =
= Increase Sumner = Increase Sumner ( November 27 , 1746 – June 7 , 1799 ) was an American lawyer , jurist , and politician from Massachusetts . He was the fifth governor of Massachusetts , serving from 1797 to 1799 . Trained as a lawyer , he served in the provisional government of Massachusetts during the American Revolutionary War , and was elected to the Confederation Congress in 1782 . Appointed to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court the same year , he served there as an associate justice until 1797 . He was three times elected governor of Massachusetts by wide margins , but died not long after the start of his third term . His descendants include his son William H. Sumner , for whom the Sumner Tunnel in Boston , Massachusetts is named , and 20th @-@ century diplomat Sumner Welles . = = Early life = = Increase Sumner was born on November 27 , 1746 in Roxbury , Province of Massachusetts Bay , one of eight children of Increase Sumner and Sarah Sharp . The elder Increase Sumner was a successful farmer descended from early settlers of Dorchester ; he held a number of public offices including coroner for Suffolk County , and selectman of Roxbury . In 1752 Sumner enrolled in the grammar school in Roxbury , now Roxbury Latin School , where the headmaster was William Cushing , future justice of the Supreme Court of the United States . Sumner excelled at school , and over the resistance of his father ( who envisioned his son 's future to be in agriculture ) was enrolled at Harvard College in 1763 . He graduated in 1767 . = = Legal career = = After graduating from Harvard , Sumner took charge of the Roxbury school , where he taught for two years while he apprenticed law under Samuel Quincy , the provincial solicitor general . He sought to study under John Adams , but the latter had enough students . Adams wrote that Sumner " was a promising genius , and a studious and virtuous youth . " Sumner was admitted to the bar in 1770 and opened a law office in Roxbury that year . Sumner was chosen a member of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress in 1776 where he represented the town of Roxbury . In 1777 he participated in a state convention to draft a new constitution , whose result was not adopted . He continued to serve in the provincial congress until the state constitution was adopted in 1780 , when he was elected state senator for Suffolk County . This post he held for two years . In June 1782 he was elected to the Confederation Congress by the state legislature , replacing Timothy Danielson , who resigned , but Sumner never actually took the seat . In August 1782 Governor John Hancock nominated him as an associate justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court to replace James Sullivan . He accepted this position instead of the senate seat , and served from 1782 to 1797 . Details on his judicial record are sparse , in part because few official court records survive from the time , and decisions were usually oral ( the court did not begin formal record keeping with written decisions until 1805 ) . Sumner did take detailed notes of many of the cases he heard ; these notes , preserved at the Massachusetts Historical Society , now form a valuable repository of early Massachusetts judicial history . The period when he served in the Supreme Judicial Court included a time of great turmoil in Massachusetts . Following the American Revolutionary War the value of the paper currency then in circulation fell significantly leaving many citizens in financial difficulties . The administration of James Bowdoin in 1786 raised taxes to pay the public debt which had run up during the war , and stepped up collection of back taxes . These economic pressures led to outbreaks of civil unrest which culminated in Shays ' Rebellion , an uprising in central and western Massachusetts lasting from 1786 to 1787 . Sumner sat on the criminal cases in which participants of the rebellion were tried . Many participants were pardoned , but eighteen were convicted and sentenced to death . Most of these sentences were commuted ; two men were hanged . Sumner sat on the court when it heard the appeals in the Quock Walker cases in 1783 , concerning a former slave who was seeking confirmation of his freedom . A ruling in one of these cases confirmed that the state constitution had effectively abolished slavery . In 1785 he was chosen by the legislature to sit on a committee which revised the laws of the state , to modernize them and remove references to British authority . In 1789 he was a member of the state convention that met to ratify the United States Constitution , in which he explained to the convention the meaning and importance of habeas corpus . He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1791 . = = Governor of Massachusetts = = In 1795 some factions of the Federalist Party sought to promote Sumner as a candidate for governor , but he was not formally nominated , and Governor Samuel Adams was reelected . The following year Sumner was actively promoted by the Federalists , but Adams was able to prevail by a comfortable margin . The campaign was not very divisive : Sumner was presented as comparatively youthful alternative to the aging Adams . Sumner wrote afterwards that Adams " has waded through a sea of political troubles and grown old in labors for the good of his country . " Adams ' popularity , however , was declining , and he decided not to run for reelection in 1797 . A number of popular figures were raised as nominees , and in that year 's election , Sumner won the vote with 15 @,@ 000 out of a total of 25 @,@ 000 votes cast against a divided opposition . On June 2 Sumner rode from his home in Roxbury accompanied by 300 citizens on horseback to the State House in Boston , where the Secretary of the Commonwealth proclaimed his governorship from the eastern balcony . Sumner was the last governor to preside in what is now called the Old State House as the seat of government was moved to the New State House the following year . Sumner was reelected in 1798 and 1799 against minimal opposition . His popularity as governor was seen by his garnering a larger share of the vote for his third term , where he won 17 @,@ 000 out of 21 @,@ 000 votes cast , receiving unanimous votes in 180 towns out of 393 in the state . During Sumner 's period in office the state was principally preoccupied with the threat of attack by France as a result of the ongoing naval Quasi @-@ War . Comparatively younger and more vigorous than his predecessors , Sumner actively built up the state militia and worked to ensure its preparedness in case of attack . Sumner never assumed the duties of office after winning the 1799 election as he was sick on his death bed at the time . In order to avoid constitutional issues surrounding the succession to the governor 's office , he managed to take the oath of office in early June . He died in office from angina pectoris , aged 52 on June 7 , 1799 . His funeral , with full military honors , took place on June 12 , and was attended by United States President John Adams . The funeral procession which included four regiments of militia ran from the governor 's Roxbury mansion to a service at the Old South Meeting House . He is interred at the northerly corner of Boston 's Granary Burying Ground . The brass epitaph indicates : " Here repose the remains of Increase Sumner . He was born at Roxbury , November 27 , 1746 , and died at the same place , June 7 , 1799 in the 53rd year of his age . He was for sometime a practitioner at the bar ; and for fifteen years an associate judge of the supreme judicial court ; was thrice elected governor of Massachusetts in which office he died . As a lawyer he was faithful and able . As a judge , patient , impartial and decisive . As a chief magistrate , accessible , frank and decisive . In private life , he was affectionate and mild . In public life was dignified and firm . Party feuds were allayed by the correctness of his conduct . Calumny was silenced by the weight of his virtues and rancour softened by the amenity of his manners in the vigour of intellectual attainments and in the midst of usefulness . He was called by Divine Providence to rest with his fathers and went down to the chambers of death in the full belief that the grave is the pathway to future existence . " The lieutenant governor , Moses Gill , became acting governor and ran the state until elections were held in 1800 . = = Family and legacy = = Sumner was married on September 30 , 1779 to Elizabeth Hyslop , daughter of William Hyslop . Upon his father @-@ in @-@ law 's death , Sumner inherited a sizable estate which allowed him to maintain a dignified lifestyle during his public service . The couple had three children ; his son William H. Sumner is well known for his efforts to develop what is now East Boston and for whom Boston 's Sumner Tunnel is named . His later descendants include Sumner Welles , a 20th @-@ century diplomat and advisor to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt . Sumner , Maine , incorporated while he was governor in 1798 , was named in his honor . Sumner was described by his son as a talented and practical farmer and an excellent horseman . He was fond of agriculture and personally grafted an entire orchard of fruit trees on his farm . He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and President of the Board of Trustees of the Roxbury Latin School .

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